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1869
THE LIBRARY

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WRIGHT'S

BOOK OF POULTRY

REVISED AND EDITED IN ACCORDANCE WITH
THE LATEST POULTRY CLUB STANDARDS

1

BY

S. H. LEWER

OF " THE FEATHERED WORLD "

ASSISTED BY LEADING SPECIALISTS

WITH THIRTY COLOURED PLATES AND
NUMEROUS OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS

CASSELL AND COMPANY, LIMITED

LONDON, NEW YORK, TORONTO AND MELBOURNE

lO - OcV. 2,0.

'3

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

FOREWORD

The task of an Editor called upon to undertake a new edition of such a work as Lewis
Wright's Book of Poultry is simplified by the fact that in its many successive editions its
author kept it so well abreast of the times that the reviser's task consists chiefly of additions
concerning new varieties introduced since the book was last published in 1904.

Certain statements in the text, it is true, had to be modified in the light of later experiences,
and especially was this the case in connection with the references to American poultry plants, for
many of those described in the last edition are now defunct, and the space devoted to them
has been made use of in other directions. Still, as far as possible, Lewis Wright's text has been
supplemented rather than altered. Specialists in each variety have rendered me, as Editor, the
same kindly help that they did the author in supplying notes on the different varieties where
alterations or additions were necessary, and my friend, Mr. F. J. Broomhead, has assisted me in
the book's general revision, and especially in connection with the incorporation in the work of
The Poultry Club's new and revised standards of perfection issued in 1910.

The addition of these latest standards of perfection, amplified and thoroughly revised as
they have been by Mr. W. W. Broomhead since Mr. Lewis Wright's death, mark an important
advance in the usefulness of THE BoOK OF POULTRY. It is right to state here that, except
as regards this work and the volume of the Poultry Club, the copyright in these standards is
reserved.

iv THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Several new Coloured Plates are added to this edition, either portraying new varieties or else
differences in type since the last edition was published. It is no small gratification to me that
in this side of my work I had the assistance of Mr. J. W. Ludlow, whose artistic connection with
The Book of Poultry since its first edition in 1S72 thus remains unbroken.

The inclusion of a chapter on Mendelism by so expert and practical a fancier as the Rev.
E. Lewis Jones, B.A., will, I trust, put before breeders new and useful theories. These, if
studied in conjunction with Wright's masterly chapter on pedigree or line breeding, will do
much to keep poultry-keepers on right lines in raising stock, either for fancy or utility pur-
poses.

A further addition is a short life of Lewis Wright by myself, and many who have profited
by my old friend's writings will welcome this and the portrait which accompanies it. Finally
I may, perhaps, be pardoned in saying that it is no small gratification to me, after thirty years
of close friendship with Lewis Wright, to be afforded by ^Messrs. Cassell the opportunity of
adding in the smallest degree to the continued usefulness of his lasting monument — The BoOK
OF Poultry.

S. H. LEWER.

t^,^Msi^sSBm^.

1 LUCK OF DUCKS

Photogiaihcd cii Messrs. II m. Cook a;d Sons Far,,,, Orpington, Kent.

INTENSIVE AND SEMI-INTENSIVE POULTRY-KEEPING

By The Editor

THE INTENSIVE SYSTEM

EXCEPT for a few bold pioneers, such as
Majors Wathen and Mansfield, and those
backyarders and fanciers who, owmg to
lack of space, had perforce for years practised
intensive poultry-keeping without
"The City styling it such, the present sys-

tem of intensive poultry culture
m the British Isles may practically be said
to date from the interest aroused by the
poultry plant installed by Mr. Randolph
Meech at the Festival of Empire held at the
Crystal Palace in the summer of igii.

Styled then " The City System " by Mr.
Meech, though later receiving the now better-
known prefix of " intensive," it was, we believe,
frankly based by its promoter on American
ideas, which were subsequently still further
developed by visits to leading establishments
in the United States, which were interestingly
described in The Feathered World of Sept. 29,
191 1, and onwards.

In the States, due largely no doubt to the
rigorous winter climatic influences prevail-
ing, intensive poultry culture is of older
origin. One of its leading exponents, Mr.
Philo, of Elmira, N.Y., has been practising
it for about thirteen years. Prior to that he
had kept poultry in the ordinary way for
twenty-five years ; but his conversion to the

system of closely confining birds in small
houses (the average size used being 6 ft. long,
3 ft. wide, and 3 ft. 6 in. high) came about
in a curious way, and was told by him to Mr.
Meech. It appears that, having occasion to
change his residence, he was only able to re-
tain a few of the best of his stock. These,
for lack of other accommodation, were confined
in piano cases and like receptacles pending the
preparation of their new quarters. To Mr.
Philo's surprise, these closely confined birds
gave far better results in eggs than any which
he had previously received from them, and
from this chance occurrence sprang the incep-
tion of the Philo system, which has now de-
veloped into an enormous industry, with some
5,000 laying hens and a big trade in appli-
ances, eggs and chicks.

Other American poultry-keepers favour
larger pens of birds, varying from 30 to as
many as 500 fowls in a single laying house
(the Corning establishments in New Jersey in-
deed running as many as 1,500 birds in each
of their buildings, which are 160 feet long),
and the same differences of opinion as to size
of flocks hold good here; but in all, the fact
is recognised that the restriction of liberty
necessitates a greater care in diet so as to make
up for the loss of natural food, combined with
good housing, extreme cleanliness and ample
provision for exercise for the birds.

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

To these few notes of explanatory intro-
duction, it IS necessary to add that the time
has not )-ct come to state definitely the position
which purely intensive poultry culture is likely
to take in this country, and much of what fol-
lows is the record of experiments rather than
matured conclusions ; but its development since
191 1 has been very remarkable, and that it has
a value to poultry-keepers, if wisely handled
and its limitations recognised, there would
seem to be little doubt. Especially is this
likely to be the case with the class of poultry-
keepers generally known as "backyarders," for
by its means, instead of a pen or two of birds,
each with their house and too often unsightly
and unsanitary run tainted by the droppings
of years, the new system admits of quite a
flock of layers being kept — and, moreover,
well kept — in comparatively little space.

One of the foremost and most scientific ex-
ponents of intensive poultry culture in small
flocks in this country is Major
^lu^™'"''""'^ P. H. Falkner, R.A.M.C, of

Methods. , , , t- 1 1 t

Loughton, Essex, who has spent
much time and thought in experiments con-
nected therewith, and especially as to economic
housing and feeding. A feature of this gen-
tleman's poultry plant, when we visited it, was
the material of his houses, which largely con-
sists of unbleached calico. The floor is of
wood, raised a few inches off the ground, sur-
mounted by a framework of wood nine inches
wide, on which is stretched wire netting ; three
sides of this frame are covered with calico,
but the front is left uncovered. The roof of
the house, which is adjustable, is a similar
combination of framework, netting and calico.
All the houses are made on the place, and the
woodwork and calico are treated with vege-
table tar mixed with tallow as a preservative.
The roof in addition to this for waterproofing
purposes receives a couple of coats of coal-tar,
and is then sanded before dry.

These houses, from their lightness, are
easily moved, and yet most durable, and have
the advantage of considerably reducing initial
expenditure on appliances ; a house 6 ft. by
3 ft., to hold six birds, costing but los. 6d.
finished. A larger size, 6 ft. by 6 ft., to hold
twenty White Leghorn pullets, worked out at
about 25s., and repairs in case of damage are
easily effected.

All the drinking water given to the birds
was, we noted, coloured with a solution of per-
manganate of potash as a precaution against
the introduction of disease. For the dry mash
used we noticed an ingenious device in the
substitution of a hanging calico trough for the

ordinary wooden feeding box. It is found
that the yielding character of this material to
the pecks of the birds entails practically none
of the waste usually present with wooden
troughs.

On the essentials of intensive poultry -keep-
ing ]\Iajor Falkner very kindly sent us the
following notes:

" Firstly, what is it ? As the writer under-
stands intensive hen culture, it consists in
Major Falkner maintaining, and to some ex-
on the Intensive tent raising, poultry upon limited
System. areas of ground in such a

manner that both the soil and the fowls
themselves are protected from certain atmo-
spheric influences.

" With former intensification methods this
vital principle was, generally speaking, but
partially complied with ; and in those cases
where such was otherwise, the operator had
not the requisite training in the science of
animal feeding, etc., to maintain his stock in
that perfect health that is so necessary for
' egg machines ' that were expected to lay at
great speed under highly artificial conditions.

" In the majority of cases, however, the
culture was attempted by placing numerous
fowls upon a small and limited area of un-
covered soil — more or less permanently. Now
soil is one of Nature's greatest disinfectors ; it
contains within it myriads of small organisms
for the purpose of breaking up organic matter,
such as poultry manure, the presence of which
would provide an unhealthy environment for
the animal and vegetable kingdoms. When
organic matter is present in moderate amount,
these scavengers are efficient workers, but
once contamination reaches excess tliey are
literally poisoned, and suspend or cease their
efforts for good and all. In poultry manure,
for instance, there is nothing harmful in the
way of toxins or poisons to which we refer.
They appear only when sufficient moisture and
heat are available for the development of
putrefactive organisms, the life cycle of which
is associated with poisonous gases and toxins
fatal to the health of the soil germs them-
selves, or those poultry that have the misfor-
tune to be continuously subjected to such
insanitary surroundings. Not only do the
poultry inhale the noxious fumes rising with
the cool ground air as it expands from the
heat evolved in the putrefactive process, or
that actually forthcoming from the fowls
themselves, but they unavoidably consume
much fetid matter adherent to grain or other
food that is served.

" W^ithin these few scientific facts lies the

INTENSIVE AND SEMI-INTENSIVE POULTRY-KEEPING.

great principle of modern intensive hen cul-
ture. We cover our intensive hennery with a
waterproof roof, and we remove its litter bed
(by means of a raised floor) from the influences
of ground air and its moisture. We aim to
retain all excrement from our fowls in a ' dry
as dust ' condition, because we know that by
this means its ammonia, etc., becomes 'fixed,'
and the organisms of putrefaction are unabk
to reproduce their kind through the absence of
moisture and heat — no putrefaction can pos-
sibly take place.

"We do more than this. An efficient in-
tensive house has a front that is perfectly open
at all times, so that the air within its walls is
maintained in a state of absolute purity year in
and }'ear out ; yet in such a manner that the
birds are never subjected to draught, excessive
exposure to sun rays, or the lack of light so
necessary for their welfare. The fowls' food
is exactly w^hat we choose to make it for any
given purpose ; for have we not absolute con-
trol of the ration, although we are often sadly
ignorant with regard to the formation or ap-
plication to the hen flock.

" Similarly, we can compel the fowl to take
as much or more exercise within a first-class
intensive house as ever she could obtain upon
a perfectly open range.

" We claim for our system that, by means
of it, the average hen can produce thirty per
cent, or more eggs during the winter months,
or, for the matter of that, during any given
season, than is possible otherwise. This may
appear an extravagant statement to those who
are unacquainted witli the method, and
especially to the many who have already
suffered loss through the supposed advantages
of poultry-keeping ; yet we simply make the
statement from some five years ardent, con-
tinuous, and practical work upon intensive
lines.

" Why it should be so is clear enough to
the writer. A laying hen exposed to the
vagaries of our climate can, and should, be
kept in ' the pink of condition ' upon a free
range. Good fare, health, and comfort may
one and all be hers ; yet her nutrient intake,
her food, must expend itself largely to over-
come needless exercise, effort that is at one
time more, and at another time less, than is
necessary for her health. Not only so in re-
spect to this class of work, but an equally
large measure of fruitless effort must be
directed elsewhere. We refer to the great work
of her vasomotor system ; the contractions of
her surface blood vessels in their effort to drive
the blood stream to deeper levels in order to

maintain the balance of the body heat.
This means a great deal of work, and as such,
much needless waste of food that is no longer
available for egg production. Even where
food is more than enough for every demand of
the fowls' bodily needs, the very fact of these
requirements undergoing sudden alterations —
great and small — will account for the difference
between free range and intensive 'results.'
The egg-producing organs of a domestic hen
are at their very best when the influences of her
environment change but little. For instance,
a given flock reaches a certain average daily
production. Suddenly the weather changes ;
it matters not whether from heat to cold, or the
reverse, the average return of eggs will fall
until the flock adjusts itself to the alteration,
whatever it may be.

'' The intensive house provides open air
without the disadvantages of open range,
and provided the operator has a good know-
ledge of his subject, practically all its
advantages in so far as egg production is
concerned."

Major Falkner, in the preceding remarks,
puts the case for the intensivist very lucidly
Mrs.Bayneson 3-"^ fairly, but in his concluding
Intensive Poul- paragraph might have added a
try-Keeping. reference to the great advantage
to the poultry-keeper of having the work close
at hand in compact form, and thus making it
particularly adaptable for ladies, of whom
numbers have taken up its pursuit. As well
known amongst these we may mention Mrs.
Baynes, of Boreham Wood, Herts, the author
of " Intensive Poultry Culture,"* a handy text-
book on the subject, and who has for some
time successfully practised intensive methods
for the production of table poultry and
eggs, as well as achieved exhibition honours.
Her plant, of which several photographs are
here reproduced {see pages viii. and ix.), is
especially interesting as showing what can
be done in the limited area of a suburban
garden, comprising as it does one house for 30
birds, one for 70 birds, and several holding
from 6 to 10 birds in each ; besides which
are smaller coops for rearing young stock,
giving a total capacity of 350 to 400 birds on
^'q of an acre of ground.

The house for 70 birds is divided into
three sections, as Mrs. Baynes is a strong
believer in small flocks, and considers 30
birds the maximum number to be kept in
one house or section of a house, both from
the standpoint of health and also egg-
production.

• The Feathered World. London, W.C.

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

House for 30 Birds on Mrs. Baynes's Intensive Plant showing Rain-shutter
Up. Note the Overhanging Drip-board at Top.

The prime factors to her success are, in
Mrs. Baynes' opinion, scrupulous attention to
good housing, hygiene and feeding. As re-
gards the first, a good idea of the buildings
in use can be obtained from our photographs,
the guiding principle being to provide a super-
ficial area of at least 3 square feet per bird,
and ensure good ventilation,
dryness of litter at all times,
combined with shelter suffi-
cient to give warmth in cold
weather and shade from heat
in summer. To this end, as in
all well planned poultry
houses, the houses are open-
fronted, and also higher at
the front than at the back, so
as to allow of the maximum
of light and air reaching the
birds ; windows at the sides
also help in this respect. To
keep out driving rain or snow,
a wide overhanging drip-
board at the top and adjust-
able Hessian shutters are used.
These latter are also of service
in very cold weather in main-
taining equable temperature,
whilst, from their porous
nature, admitting ample ven-
tilation and light.

The sizes of the houses
here illustrated are, for thirty
birds, 10 ft. 9 in. long by
g ft. 6 in. deep, and 6 ft.
0 in. high in front by 4 ft.
9 in. at back. For the smaller
breeding pens of ten birds,
the size of house is 7 ft. 6 m.
long by 4 ft. wide and 3 ft.
3 in. high.

The whole of the appli-
ances here are well and sub-
stantially built, and whilst
eotailing considerable outlay
at the start will, if properly
looked after, last a lifetime.

Mrs. Baynes, who has the
advantage of a wide experi-
ence in answering correspond-
ents weekly in The Feathered
World, sums up her advice
to intending intensive poultry-
keepers thus : " Do not over-
crowd ; the minimum ground
space should be 3 square feet
per bird, and the roof should
be well raised. Especially
this point be observed in tlie larger
here the roof is a fixed one and

must

houses

not opening and adjustable as in the smaller

types. The litter of the houses must be kept

absolutely dry and constantly spaded or raked

over once a day, and excrement removed. The

dropping boards should be scraped clean each

ame House with Rain-shutter Down, Birds Scratchi;.,, iii Liuu
the Net Bag for Green Food Suspended from Roof.

INTENSIVE AND SEMIINTENSIl'E POULTRY-KEEPING

morning, and remov'cd out-
side to sweeten ; the sprink-
ling of a little dry sand or
earth thereon before replacing
at night will assist cleanliness
m this respect.

" If on entering the house
any smell of ammonia is de-
tected, it is a sure sign that
the litter is damp, and if still
present after a thorough rak-
ing and cleansing, the littcr
must be removed and fresh
supplied. I consider this
absolutely necessary ; and in
order to assist dryness, and
also save cost of frequent re-
newal of litter, I strongl)-
recommend the use in all
houses of boarded floors
raised at least 6 in. off the
ground. In this w a y,
and by using suitable litter,
be constantly sifted, and so kept thoroughly
clean, and treated thus will keep sweet and

Range of Small Coops for Rearing Young Stock on Mrs. Baynes's Plant.
Also Useful for Moulting Hens.

the latter can

A Small Intensive Breeding Pen for Ten Birds. The Nesi Boxes are at

Back, the Adjustable Roof is Raised, and the Hessian Rain-shutter in Front

is Down.

good for six months at a time without needing

renewal. All houses must be open-fronted

with sliutters for bad weather protection, and

stufty houses avoided at all

costs, for they are prolific

causes of disease."

As to litter, Mrs. Baynes
first used a depth of 2 in. of
dry soil or sand upon the
board floor, covered by about
3 in. or 4 in. of wheat chafl^.
She found this an excellent
scratching material, but for
some time past has utilised
cedar wood shavings in place
of the chaff, as less subject to
damp in our moisture-laden
atmosphere. Other intensive
poultry-keepers use instead
whole straw bedded fairly
deep, the birds in their vigor-
ous scratching soon breaking
up the straw into short
lengths, and it is held for this
system that the droppings
falling through are more
easily removed than on mate-
rial of shorter length. We
have used oat c a v-
ings, pea haulms and dry
leaves, combined with dry
sand, all with equally good
results, the sine qua nan
being that the litter is dry,
the reasons for which are
well set forth in Major

THE BOOK OF POULTRY

Falkner's notes. Peat moss litter we have
seen condemned by some writers, but after
a year's exhaustive trial in our house we
found it quite satisfactory, and its deodoris-
ing properties were excellent. Here again,
as also with soil used alone and renewed
at intervals, we found that the whole secret
was dryness.

Another point in h\-giene to be remembered
is periodical cleansing and disinfecting of all
houses and appliances, and care in seeing
that birds are free from insects. If these
pests are detected, an occasional thorough
dusting with insect powder of the birds them-
selves, especially round the head, neck, vent
and under the wings, is advisable, and the
nest-boxes and crevices of the houses can be
treated in the same way. The addition of
new birds to the stock should be effected with
care m this respect also, and, to avoid any
risk of introducing disease, the new-comers
should always be given a few days' preliminary
quarantine. Fresh birds should always be put
into a house at night to avoid sparring, and
should one bird be attacked, a judicious ap-
plication of a solution of bitter aloes and
alcohol on the parts affected is generally
successful against further onslaughts. The
same remedy is also useful in cases of feather
plucking, which sometimes crops up at moult-
ing time and amongst young stock.

Upon feeding there are almost as many
theories as there are poultry-
F°eding* keepers, and the rations must

naturally vary with the time of
the _\ear and the condition of the stock ;
but, broadly speaking, ;\Irs. Baynes sa}-s that
the best feeding for intensive purposes is as
follows :

" It must be bulky, whatever it is. In
grain I prefer small, sound wheat or oats or
cracked maize (this latter very sparingly, for
it is too fattening) ;. I use plenty of bran,
and give more meat than is usual to birds
on free range. Also green food freely, such
as lawn clippings, cabbage and lettuce leaves
when obtainable, and clover-hay, turnips,
swedes, mangolds and sprouted oats in winter.
More food is certainly required than for birds
on open range, but it must be given in small
quantities so as to keep the birds employed.
The greater danger to avoid is that of the
fowls getting too fat, when they quickly get
lazy and liverish. I feel sure that' dry
mash will be the food of the future for
intensive work, as, if given regularly at stated
hours, the birds cannot become too fat and
yet get all that they want, and will go to

roost, as is good for them, with their crops
crammed. In this connection, where wet mash
is used, it should only be given as the last
feed of the day. Overheating foods must
be strictly avoided under usual feeding con-
ditions.

" In feeding fowls in close confinement, my
ideas are: (i) To make them work hard for
their food ; (2) to feed bulky foods ; (3) to
always keep laying hens just hungry enough
to be always keen on their food ; (4) to judi-
ciously use fat-forming foods ; (5) to give
variety in food. The daily routine, if
wet mash is used, is to start with a
feed of corn buried deep in the litter at
7 A.M. (the late riser can rake this in over-
night); II A.M., another light feed of
corn raked in; I P.M., green stuff — if loose
leaves, suspended in net bags ; if turnips or
mangolds, cut in half and hung up for the
birds to peck at; 3 P.M., a little more corn
in scratching material ; and the last feed, half
an hour before the birds go to roost, is a
mash given in troughs, as much as they will
clean up. The allowance of grain per bird
is about 2 oz. each day, divided over the
three feeds, which are varied necessarily in
time according to the season of the year. The
water supply must be changed frequently, and
so placed that it cannot be soiled by the birds'
scratchings.

" I have found, however, after considerable
experiment, that dry mash feeding gives de-
cidedly tlie best results in every way, particu-
larly as regards the ' hatchability ' of eggs. - I
have therefore entirely discarded the wet mash
feeding, except for table birds. My present
daily routine is as follows: First feed to con-
sist of green stuff, of which the birds should
be tempted to eat as much as possible. Second
feed, one heaped tablespoonful of grain per
bird well raked into the litter about 10 o'clock.
Third and last feed, the hoppers containing
the dry mash are put in the houses between
I and 2 o'clock and left in till roosting time,
when they are removed. I think the intensivist
will find this quite the simplest way of feeding
and a great saving of labour." {See also p. xx.)

As to the breeds most suited for such close
confinement, Mrs. Baynes says : " For choice.
White and Black Leghorns, and particularly
the former, which do admirably under the
system, and become very tame and docile.
I have also done well with Buff Orpingtons
and White Wyandottes, and I think there are
few breeds which, if judiciously managed,
would not give satisfactory results." To this
we may add that we have had excellent results

INTENSIVE AND SEMI-INTENSIVE POULTRY-KEEPING

from White Wyandottes, and very fair from
White Orpingtons, and, properly treated,
almost all the popular breeds should do
equally well.

On the moot point as to whether breeding
stock should be kept intensively, Mrs. Baynes
says : " It is too early to speak definitely about
results in England, having experienced both
good and bad results. If adopted, the male
bird should be rested frequently, and not left
in the pen continually. I am inclined to think
that correct feeding is one of the most im-
portant points, and would advise the use of

to constant pure food and water, less trouble
m attention to stock, and, provided dry mash
is used, much less labour. The stock are all
close at hand, and weather conditions are
practically neutralised, and more eggs can be
obtained when ' eggs arc eggs ' at 2s. and
2s. 6d. per dozen. The birds are kept much
cleaner, and, if exhibition birds, are also well
shaded and moult quicker. The outlay at
first IS undoubtedly larger than on open range,
but much less ground is required, which means
less rent, and thus enables you to have your
poultry farm within easy range of any town,

Mr. Herbert Jackson's Small Intensive Houses, Incubator House and Corn Store, showing the
Adaptability of the Intensive System to a Small Area.

cockerels rather than cocks, and light breeds
undoubtedly have yielded the best results
hitherto. Here, again, my best results have
been since using dry mash."

Summing up the intensive system, Mrs.
Baynes says: "Where properly carried out,
the' birds keep in excellent health, but like
every other system it has its advantages and
disadvantages. One of the latter is the oc-
currence of egg-eating, but careful fixing and
making of nest-boxes I have always found
an unfailing cure for this if taken in hand at
once; and, failing this, the ordinary remedies
prescribed in this work can be adopted to
cure the vice. Some of the advantages are
plenty of eggs with delicate flavour, owing

where, if much land was needed, rent would
be a heavy item, and the houses, if expensive
at first, are substantial and lasting."

Very similar are the experiences related to
Mr. Herbert "^ by Mr. Herbert Jackson,

Jackson's of Machynlleth, whose acquaint-

Intensive Farm, ance we were fortunate enough
to make whilst touring Wales in the spring
of 191 3 with the Egg and Poultry Demon-
stration Train. Writing to us at the end of
191 3 Mr. Jackson said:

" I send you photographs of my intensive
poultry farm, which is built in my garden,
and proves to the people that poultry and a
garden go well together. I have been very
successful, as I started in 1912 and now hold

THE BOOK OF POULTRY

a stock of 300 birds, of which all except a
few were reared on the ground. I have four
incubators, capacity 5CX) eggs, and hope next
season to have a stock of 1,000.

" I started in March, 1912, with a few White
Wyandottes and White Orpingtons, and as I
had no land I had to build my hopes on the
new system (the intensive) by building two
colony coops to hold six each. I found this
system so successful both for getting a good
supply of eggs and for keeping the birds
clean and healthy that I have extended it, so
that my plant now consists of fifteen houses
to hold 250 layers, besides incubator house

I feed my layers at a cost of ijd. per head
per week, and can fatten chickens at an
average cost of id. per head per week from
birth until four or five months old."

Mr. Jackson's system of feeding, it will
be noticed, is less elaborate than that of Mrs.
Baynes, if wet mash is used, and, with
the exception that we give the soft food
or mash at night instead of in the
morning, is what we have found work very
well for three years on an experiment con-
ducted by us on intensive lines in our own
garden. Our object was to test the effect on
the general health of birds kept under such

Kxperimental Intensive Plant in the Editor's Garden.

(500-egg capacity, four machines) and corn
store, and all in my garden.

" You will see by the photograph how they
are placed. There is no difficulty as to getting
eggs in winter, as I get more then than in
summer. My next move is to build on half
an acre some large intensive houses to hold
100 birds each, which I am going to rear this
next season, and so increase my stock tenfold.
I reared my young stock this season on a
quarter of an acre adjoining my house, and
when four months old the young birds all go
into intensive houses for stock or table birds.

"I use for scratching material dry leaves,
road dust and chaff, which cost next to
nothing. I feed on soft food in the morning,
green food at noon, and small grain at night.

close confinement, and though necessarily,
owing to our business duties, the bulk of the
attention to the birds fell to gardeners and
others hitherto altogether unskilled in poultry-
keeping, we must confess that we were agree-
ably surprised as to the results obtained in
this direction, and also as to the number of
eggs secured during the winter months from
birds thus penned up.

In order to show that it is not essential to
scrap existing houses to test the system, we
give a photograph above of our experimental
intensive plant, only one of the houses in which
is of true intensive type, viz. that in the fore-
ground. The older types of houses in the
background have yielded equally good results,
and are certainly easier to work and clean out.

INTENSIVE AND SEMI-INTENSIVE POULTRY-KEEPING

in our experience, than the more up-to-date
small type. They, however, occupy more
room, give less proportionate scratching space,
and are necessarily initially more expensive, and
thus are not those which we should advise a
beginner to build. On the whole, we think that
the two houses of the type used by Mrs. Baynes
[see photographs on p. viii.) are the easiest
to work, giving fair head room, and thus
avoiding the tiring bending over and lifting
out of dropping boards, etc., entailed in what
we are apt to style the " rabbit-hutch " type
of small house, necessary though these may
be for small breeding pens or young stock.
Economy of labour and ease in handling lies,
we are convinced, in moderate-sized flocks in
such houses, which in a sense are akin to
being compartments of the large intensive
houses to which we must now allude.

As the backyarder's covered-in scratching
shed and the fancier's roomy
Hou^ses^"*^"^'"^ exhibition pen may be said
to have been the forerunner of
the small intensive house, so the large winter
laying houses common in America, and not
unknown in this country also, were the an-
cestors of the modern double-decked intensive
house, ranging up to as high as 3,000 birds
under one roof. The principle of so winter-
ing live-stock is common to agriculturists, and
has been adapted to poultry with excellent
results. A capital example of this type of
house was one which we visited early in 191 2
on the poultry establishment of Mr. Martin
Burnham, at Cranbrook Common, Kent. It
is built to accommodate 500 hens in two
flocks, and at the time of our visit held about
300 healthy scratching occupants.

This house is best described as practically
open-fronted, being boarded up 2 ft. from
the ground with wire netting above that, over
which canvas shutters can be dropped if
necessary to keep out driving rain or snow,
and thus keep the floor dry, that essential
factor to success in all intensive poultry-
keeping. From a height of 7 ft. 6 in. in
the front, the roof slopes to 4 ft. G in. at the
back, the depth of the house being 18 ft., with
a total length of 100 ft. These dimensions
of height and depth Mr. Burnham has found
by experiments to be best suited for light and
air in houses of this kind. Along the whole
length of the back of this shed runs a wide
shelf, serving the purposes of a dropping-
board beneath the low perches, v,'hich is kept
scrupulously clean and dusted with lime daily.
Very noticeable in this big house was the total
absence of smell, due to the ample air-space

and splendid deodorising properties of the
dry peat moss litter with which the house was
deeply bedded, and into which all corn given
was well raked so as to give the hens ample
exercise. On this establishment bran is always
kept before the birds, and alfalfa is largely
used as an addition to the ordinary mash for
laying hens.

It is an easy transition from a house such
as this to the modern double-decker, the
largest of which, capable of holding 3,000
hens, is on the Hamworthy Intensive Poultry
Plant. This we have not seen, but have per-
sonally inspected the well-known establish-
ment of Mr. C. A. Potter, at Ferndown, near
Wimborne, whose two double-deckers, with a
capacity for 1,000 hens each, are shown in
the photograph on p. v., and are remark-
able structures. They were described by
us in The Feathered World of October 24,
191 3, and we venture to repeat the notes as
of interest, though it must be remembered that
these and other large houses have not yet been
running long enough for a definite conclusion
as to whether, for large plants, this particular
form of house will or will not supersede the
smaller separate houses with or without out-
side runs.

Ferndown is a scattered hamlet midway
between Wimborne and Ringwood, on the
borders of the New Forest, and within easy
reach of an excellent market for eggs and
chickens in Bournemouth, and this factor
means much to a utility poultry-keeper. The
farm was started in 191 2, and, we understood,
had so far justified its existence that the erec-
tion of a third house was under contemplation.
Mr. Potter resides with Mr. and Mrs. Potter,
sen., and his sister, all fortunately keenly
interested in the enterprise, for three years of
experiment with small pens of fowls on the
intensive system have taught us the absolute
necessity of scrupulous personal attention on
the part of whoever takes up this side of
poultry-keeping ; for, whilst it has great at-
tractions, since it makes the question of weather
to a personal extent a negligible quantity, it
has always great dangers lurking for the
careless or slipshod attendant.

We started on our tour in a small lean-to
conservatory, which was stacked up with boxes
of oats in different stages of sprouting; some
twenty boxes of these are used every day,
and the stage at which Air. Potter has found
it best to give them to the fowls is when the
green sprouts are i in. to 2 in. high. Other
green food, in the shape of kale, cab-
bage, etc., is given, for sprouted oats, excellent

THE BOOK OF POULTRY

lien Semi-Intensive Houses on the Molassine Co.'s Experimental Farm at Twyford.

as they are, do not suppi}- the mineral pro-
perties of crops grown in earth.

The double-deckers illustrated on p. v.
are erected facnig south, and a sheltering belt
of fir trees keeps off wind. The soil is a
silver sand on clay, and thus, whilst below
there is a good deal of moisture, the surface
drains well, and there is an abundant supply
of dry, clean sand available as floor covering
for the houses beneath the whole straw litter.

The two houses are each loo ft. long by
i6 ft. deep, and arranged in two floors, each
divided into ten compartments, 20 ft. wide by
16 ft. deep, to hold fifty birds each. The
front on each floor, as can be seen, is
partly boarded up below the wire-netting, to
which double canvas shutters are provided.
The ground floor is raised 18 in. from the soil,
so as to be thoroughly dry, and as a preventive
against vermin. The height of the lower com-
partments is 7 ft. throughout, and that of the
upper storey 7 ft. 6 in. in front, sloping to
4 ft. 6 in. at the back.

Food and water-vessels are raised well off
the ground, as arc also the nest-boxes, so as to
allow the whole extent of the floor for scratch-
ing purposes. The perches rua longitudinally
above the nest-boxes, which are 15 ins. off the
ground, with a dropping shelf beneath them,
from which the manure is collected daily.
Whilst eggs can be taken from the nest-boxes

from the front, the birds enter from the back,
so as to give greater seclusion, and also as a
partial preventive against egg-eating. An in-
genious device is gradually being fitted to all
the nest-boxes in the shape of a plaited concave
straw nest, with a centre aperture, through
which the egg, when laid, rolls away below on
to the well-littcred floor of the nest-box, out of
reach of a possible egg-eater.

Trap-nesting is not adopted here, but a
careful watch is kept on each flock and their
record. The stock is a mixed one as regards
breeds, and as eggs are the sole object, the
hens are sold at the end of their second season,
in time for the Jewish festivals.

In making contracts for the supply of eggs
a guarantee is given that no egg shall be dis-
patched more than twenty-four hours old, and
by watching the quality as well, as much as
3d. per dozen above the market rate of the
district had been secured, the price early in
October being is. 6d. per dozen. This is an
item of importance on the year's turnover.

The manure, too, we learnt, was a con-
siderable source of revenue, all procurable
from the dropping-boards being taken at a
good figure by a market gardener, as were
also the sweepings from the floors, which
are relittered half-yearly, the total amount
realised for manure being estimated at over
£100 per annum.

INTENSIVE AND SEMI-INTENSIVE POULTRY-KEEPING

The tour of the twenty compartments (ten
to each floor) of these formidable-lookmg
double-deckers naturally takes time ; but the
working had become so systematised that
Mr. Potter and his father then felt equal to
the attention of another i,ooo birds without
making the labour too arduous. Hardy young
stock reared on farms were then being used,
and we thought advisedly so as not to add
the dangers and troubles of intensive rearing to
the work. Every precaution is taken against
disease, and ailing birds are promptly elimi-
nated. This risk of wholesale infection seems
to us to be the danger-spot of these huge
colony houses, and their success in this respect
greatly depends upon being able to anticipate
disease before it gets hold of a bird.

SEMI-INTENSIVE HOUSES.

Another interesting plant of the large flock
description, which we also visited m 191 3,
IS that of the Molassine Company, near Twy-
ford, where, on a large experimental poultry
farm on the extensive system, this firm also in-
stalled three houses on the intensive system,
each to hold a flock of 500 birds.

These houses are situated a hundred yards
apart, with ample land around each, so that
they can also be used as semi-intensive houses

by allowing the birds their freedom in fine
weather, and this is the plan now adopted.
The houses are 100 ft. long, 16 ft. deep, and
the roof at the front is 7 ft. high, sloping
back to 4 ft. 6 m. at the rear. The eaves
overhang, and two tiers of canvas shutters
provide shelter against cold winds and driving
ram or snow. 1 he floor is of wood, and the
houses are raised on brick piers, varying in
height, owing to the slope of the ground,
from I ft. to 4 ft., thus allowing ample air-
space beneath to avoid moisture from the
ground, and also incidentally affording capital
dry storage cover for spare coops and ap-
pliances as well as litter.

The internal fittings are: (i) Nest-boxes at
the back of the house, with entrance from
behind, so as to ensure privacy and a certain
amount of darkness as a first preventive against
cgg-eatmg ; (2) two rows of perches, arranged
on a shelf above the nest-boxes, running longi
tudinally down the house, but ending short
of the side walls, so as to avoid crowding into
the corners ; (3) the floor bedded fairly deep
with long straw and the usual water and food
troughs.

Experience here, as in many such houses
recently visited, points to the subdivision of
these large intensive houses into several

Interior of one of the Molassine Co. s Semi-Intensive Houses at Twyford.

THE BOOK OF POULTRY

Some
Experiences.

compartments, and also a rearrangement of
perches, from one or two long ones lengthways
to a number of short ones crossways, so as to
avoid crowding at roosting-time.

The labour entailed in feeding and clean-
ing the houses will, of course, be more, but
the greater ease with which the approach of
disease can be detected and warded off (and
in that appears to lie the secret of success for
the intensive poultry-keeper in our treacherous
moisture-laden climate) will more than com-
pensate for the extra trouble of the smaller
flocks. Moreover, it is thought that a better
record can be kept of laying where trap-nesting
is not adopted, and also that vices like feather
plucking and egg-eating can be more readily
detected in these smaller colonies than in the
very large flocks, interesting though it may
be to see 500 fowls busy scratching in one
group on a well-littered floor.

Asked as to experience of the intensive
system, we were told that the
two worst evils which had been
encountered were a temporary
epidemic of roup in the previous winter and
a bout of egg-eating in one flock of hens.
The first evil had been successfully overcome
by assiduous attention to the birds and ap-
plications of the usual remedies ; and the
second, probably caused in the first instance
by a few soft or thin-shelled eggs becoming
broken, had been combated by frequent col-
lection of eggs laid, paring the beaks of
offenders, and the leaving about for the fowls
of eggs, for the usual contents of which bitter
aloes had been substituted. A change of
green food, also, from rape, of which the
birds soon tired, to cabbage or swedes, was
also found beneficial in this respect.

Such a plant as this is, of course, not
strictly speaking intensive, but semi-intensive,
and is interesting thus as illustrating a tran-
sition which has taken place on several large
utility poultry farms where the new strictly
confined methods after experiment have given
way to the older system of allowing the
inmates of these large houses free access to
outside runs, or, as in some instances, only
when the weather is fine.

Mr. T. W. Toovey, of King's Langley,
whose farm is further alluded to on pp.
154 and 155, is one of those whose experi-
ences have caused him to believe in the
benefits of reversion to older methods, and
when visiting him in the autumn of 1913 he
was very outspoken on this point. Whilst
granting full force to the arguments of his
intensivist critics that Mr. Toovey did not give

their system the best chance, owing to his use
of cement floors to his houses (always a source
of damp in our climate), and somewhat scanty
litter, the experience of so practical a poultry-
keeper as Mr. Toovey is interesting, and we
are glad to be able to illustrate his houses.

There are fifteen of these, open-fronted at
the top half, with wide overhanging drip-
board and canvas adjustable shutters above
the glass, and wood front below, and with
doorways and windows at the sides. In size
these measure 30 ft. long by 20 ft. deep
(intensivists usually restrict the depth to 16 ft.),
and in height they range from g ft. 6 in. to
5 ft. at the back (as against 7 ft. and
4 ft. 6 in. m the usual intensive houses).
From the additional height in front the in-
creased 4 ft. of depth does not appear a serious
fault of construction, for on inspection light
and air appeared to travel well to the back
of these sheds.

Each of these houses is built for 100 birds,
which are let out on alternate sides of their
house into large grass runs, in which every
precaution is taken against the ground be-
coming foul by taking a crop of hay annually
and by resting and also grazing. For dis-
infectant purposes the houses are periodically
dressed with a solution of i in 16 of crude
carbolic.

Mr. Tom Barron, of Cat forth, near Pres-
ton, is another thoroughly practical utility
poultry-keeper, who, from small beginnings,
has built up one of the best known farms in
this country, and made a speciality of laying
strains. His experiences, then, are not to be
lightly discarded, and visiting him in August,
1913, we were fortunate to secure these, which
are as follow:

" A great deal has been written during the
last two or three years about intensive poultry-
keeping. Some people swear by the intensive
system, whilst others state that it does not
pay, and that the semi-intensive plan is best.
As a practical poultry man, with an experience
of the semi-intensive system for a good many
years, I agree with the latter.

" In starting large housing, my idea was
to keep a greater number of birds together in
one flock. I thought it would be cheaper to
build for a large number than it would be
for a similar number in smaller houses. But
no one would imagine the trouble and loss 1
had to contend with in my first experience of
housing large numbers in one flock. I had
practically all my birds infected with roup
and other diseases, although roup was, I
found, the greatest enemy to contend with.

INTENSIVE AND SEMI-INTENSIVE POULTRY-KEEPING

■' Now, in my opinion a man must never
attempt housing in the very large house unless
he has had many years of practical poultry-
keeping, because the very first thing that would
happen would be that the birds would have
roup, and the great point then is knowing
the moment the birds are infected, and using
the right remedies to cure them. If this
dreadful poultry disease is not checked in its
first stages, it will probably practically beggar
him. I have tried both the little-run system
and the large intensive house, but to-day, if
I were going in purely for eggs, and not for
selling sittings for hatching purposes, I would
certainly build the large house ; but, mind
you, I say again a man must know his busi-
ness. This house would be the semi-intensive
and not the intensive system.

"Perhaps I might give a little of my own
experience. In igi2 I put 400 la\'crs into my
semi-intensive house, and, keeping it entirely
closed up, made it fully intensive, and thought
of doing great things, as I had read a lot of
correspondence in the papers, and imagined
the system quite feasible. The birds did very
well indeed for three or four months, then
I found they began to ail — something like
pining it was — and gradually lost colour and
condition ; their combs turning quite white.
However, I thought I

about nineteen years.
This was turning the
birds out when the
weather was fine — all
day if the day was
suitable— and closing
them up at night. On
a rainy day I would
keep them up until
the w^eather and runs
were suitable ; if
snowy closed in all
the time, and if frosty
kept up until the air seemed suitable ; then
out they would go, if only for an hour. The
birds were, of course, fed inside the house
all the time, in our usual way with the large
flocks. And, in my opinion, it is this semi-
intensive system that is best in Engand, and
in any other country if tried, and the other
plan I do not consider will stay.

"After I had let the birds out day by day
for about a fortnight, they had got into the
best of condition, and I had an abundance of
eggs from them. This proved to me con-
clusively which plan was right.

" This house, which has since again been
used as a semi-intensive house, is 72 ft. long,
18 ft. wide, and 18 ft. to eaves. It has a
span roof boarded underneath, and with corru-
gated iron covering this woodwork. In the
south wall it is fitted with shutter windows,
which, by means of ropes and pulleys and
counter balance weights, can each be lifted
or let down at will, according to the weather
and time of year ; the openings being covered
with wire netting. This makes the south wall
an open front the whole length. A storm
screen, 3 ft. wide, is fixed outside the building
just above these windows, keeping out the rain
during close but wet weather, and checking
the power of the sun's rays into the house.

persevere and
this intensive

would
master
plan, but at the end
of six months it was
necessary to turn the
birds out, or they
would have all died.
Some were lost as it
was, and I thought it
quite time to give up,
all the birds having
gone off laying.

" I then went back
to my old plan, which
had been used for
b

Front View of One of Mr. Toovey's Houses.

THE BOOK OF POULTRY

" The nest-boxes, thirty-eight in number,
are just below the windows, and the size of
each is 14 in. each way. The tops of the
nests slope sharply from the wall to the front,
which keeps the birds from using these as
perches.

" On the opposite side of the house is a
dropping-board, running the whole length of
the building, 5 ft. wide and 2h ft. from the
floor. The perches, i ft. above this board,
and themselves 3 in. deep, are arranged along
the entire length, but transversely, not length-
wise, being 18 in. from centre to centre. I
find very long perches incline the birds to
crowd together, and after getting overheated

these being 3 ft. by 2 ft., also in the gable
ends and close to the floor, under the dropping-
board in the north wall, by fourteen windows
20 in. square, so that the birds can easily see
to scratch out their food from the litter, in
which the grain is always thrown. The litter
is always 2 in. to 3 in. deep.

" The water is contained in two large piggins,
which are mounted on platforms to keep out
the scratching litter, and these are entirely
emptied, scrubbed out, and refilled daily. The
mash, given towards evening, is fed in the
troughs standing directly on the floor, but the
green feed of mangolds, turnips, and cabbage
for winter-time is put into specially made

^^'^^

■.'^'•4''t*f^*^t

Exterior of Mr. Tom Barron's Large Semi-intensive House with Fowls at Liberty.

they get chilled. Being split up, as they are,
into forty short perches, across the dropping-
board, distributes the birds more, and the
ample space between the perches keeps them
from fighting, and being all one level has the
same satisfactory result.

"Every 12 ft. this dropping-board, with its
perches above, is divided up by partitions
from the floor to the square of the house, and
the space above being lathed over and covered
with straw, stops side down draughts to the
birds on winter nights when perching.

"At each end of the building is a large
door, running on overhead pulleys, 8 ft. wide,
which allows of a horse and cart passing
through from end to end, for cleaning and
other purposes. The building and floor is well
lighted from the roof with twelve windows let
into the wood and corrugated iron above it.

troughs, trestle formed, with a standing board
on eitlier side of its length a few inches from
the floor. In addition to the dry and mash
feeds, the birds always have before them grit
and shell.

"The floor of this building is raised about
6 in. above the ground le\-el outside, and is
covered with asphalt. It would perhaps in-
terest readers to know how this floor was made.
About 20 tons of cinders were put down.
These were rolled and rammed until the whole
was hard and level. When in perfect condi-
tion, about 4 tons of asphalt w-ere laid over
to about the depth of i in., and hardened,
and a fine layer of cement gave a finish to the
surface. This is one of the best floors I have
had on the farm.

"The runs are on both sides of the build-
ing, and are reached by the birds through the

INTENSIVE AND SEMI-INTENSIVE POULTRY-KEEPING

glass windows near the floor, one at each end
of the north wall sliding back when required,
and two similarly in the south wall. The runs
are divided in a line with the house, and the
birds can thus be turned into either run as
desired. These grass runs are used alter-
nately, say when the birds have run a week or
so on one side of the house they are turned into
the other. This allows the runs to freshen.

better, as it keeps the birds at the feed. They
like change. This is well mixed, however,
before being given to the birds, and is then
thrown into the litter and raked amongst it.
The litter is cut straw, chaff, or peat moss.
There is also constantly before the birds a bran
hopper, in which is a mixture of one part
ground oats and three parts bran. At dinner-
time wc .!_;"i\e, iierhaps, a little more of the

till

nmuiii

i|^^^^.

m',. ii

.'1^ i

Interior of Mr. Tom Barron's Serai-intensive House.

" As 1 have previously stated elsewhere, I
do not think a great deal of land is needed to
a house like this, because the birds are for a
greater part of tlic time in the Jiouse itself. An
acre with this size of building does very well
indeed. The house and the system are the
great points, not the amount of land.

" The menu for the semi-intensive layers is
as follows : In the morning we feed a mixture
of oats, wheat, split Indian corn, a little coarse
wheat — say a decent sample of cockle — a few
split peas, and perhaps a little dari. The
more kinds of grain fed, in my opinion, the

morning mixture — not a feed, but just a little
to keep the birds working. By this means
they are prevented from standing about on
one leg and catching colds, as they would do
with a warm, wet mash in the morning.

"Towards night we feed, in the troughs, a
mash composed as follows : One-third part
bran, one-quarter part thirds or middlings,
one-quarter part biscuit meal, one-eighth part
meat meal, such as fish meal or granulated
meat, about one -eighth part clover meal or
alfalfa meal, changing the thirds sometimes
for ground oats. This we mix with water from

THE BOOK OF POULTRY

the large boiler, in which we have already
steamed a few bucketfuls of whole oats. The
whole IS well mixed in the mixing trough,
until a good mash, crumbly, but not sloppy,
is made, and this is taken to the birds in the
wheelbarrow.

" We give the birds as much as they will
possibly eat at night, and if there is a little
left overnight we do not mind. In my opinion
they should leave a little of the night's feed.
There is not so much danger of the stuff going
sour in large flocks of birds like these. They
are not easily overfed. But the great point is
to give them sufficient m proportion to the
smaller flocks.

" My idea is, that the profit from such a
house, with such treatment, should yield ;{,iOO
per year ; this is allowing for depreciation of
the house and birds and rent, but not including
the proportion to be debited to attention. This
IS my honest opinion, and I have tested it now
for some years. In conclusion, I do not want
readers to run away with the idea that the semi-
intensive system is something quite new ; it
has been given a twenty years' experience
by me and is English. Providing a man
will do all that I have set forth, and take
off his jacket to it, he will get on all right,
but it is no use the lazy man attempting
the business, for it requires attention every
day — .Sunday as well as week day."

A statement such as this from
Conclusions. =0 experienced a poultry-keeper
as Mr. Barron naturally at-
tracted considerable criticism, and a reply
by Mr. Meech, in his paper on Jan. 14,
19 14, took grave exception from the inten-
sivist point of view to these criticisms.
Briefly put, these objections were to the effect
that for intensive purposes Mr. Barron's
house was not suitable, being wrong in con-
struction, deficient in light and ventilation,
and for the number of birds (400) had, instead
of four square feet for each bird, but a frac-
tion over three feet. Mr. Meech condemned
the apex type of house and the size of the flock
of birds placed therein, maintaining that with
smaller flocks of 100 at most, and a better
arranged house, Mr. Barron's conclusions
would have been different.

Such points are, of course, quite fair to
advance, but we think from our visits to several
of these great utility poultry-farms, including
the well-known Worcestershire Poultry Farm,
and the experiences already cited, that for them
the semi-intensive method is the better. The
large and varied head of stock carried, the fact

that ample grass run -is usually available, and
that the big staff of helpers necessary does not
admit of that minute personal attention to de-
tail which seems such an essential feature of
the purely intensive system, all tend to the
conclusion, as they themselves appear to have
found, that for them the older method is the
better course.

Such a conclusion can be arrived at without
in the least disparaging the utility of the in-
tensive system for egg and table chicken pro-
duction, as indicated earlier in this chapter.
For breeding purposes it will always be well
to have stock available bred and raised on free
range systems until more exact information is
forthcoming as to the effect of close confine-
ment, and purely artificial feeding on several
generations of intensively bred fowls. It has
been stated, we know, that neither health nor
constitutional vigour suffers even to the tenth
generation of intensively bred poultry, but
until exact comparisons can be instituted and
results scientifically tested, it appears better
to go by human analogy, and just as most
statesmen deplore the growth of a town-bred
nation as opposed to one of the sturdy
yeoman type, so we may conclude that young
stock reared under healthy, open-air conditions
and free range will make better material, both
for intensivists and semi-intensivists, than
others bred and brought up in confined and
purely artificial surroundings.

Within these limitations, and with a wise
regard to the general principles of poultry-
keeping laid down in the other chapters of
this work, there seems little reason why the
intensive system, especially as applied to back-
yards and suburban gardens, should not add
thousands of successful recruits to the ranks of
poultry-keepers.

For the benefit of beginners we conclude
this chapter with notes from a well-known
writer on utility poultry of a dry mash suit-
able for fowls kept intensively for egg
production : —

" A useful mixture is one measure of pea
or bean meal, four measures of sharps, one
measure of maize meal, four measures of
ground oats, one measure of fish or meat meal.
The above is described as the 'stock mash,'
and to one measure of this stock mash should
be added two of bran and two of clover meal
when it is ready for feeding. The feed is
supplied in hoppers, which may be closed or
opened at will by the attendant, and the birds
should have the run of these hoppers about
two hours per day."

CONTENTS

Foreword .........

On Intensive, and Semi-Intensive Poultry-Keeping
Introduction ........

Mendelism and its Application to Poultry Breeding

7-

8.

9-

ID.

13-
14-
15-
i6.

17-

i8.
19.
20.
21.
22.

23-

24.

25
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31-
32.
■ 33-
34-
35-
36.
37-
38.
39-

Poultry Houses and Runs .

The Science of Feeding Poultry

Practical Management and Feeding of Fow

The Egg and Sitting Hen .

Artificial Incub.\tion .

Rearing and Care of Chickens

Poultry for the Table

Poultry Farming

National and Commercial .

Exhibition Poultry and Utility

Pedigree or Line Breeding

Practical Breeding and Rearing of Prize Poultry

Exhibiting .

Shows— Judging — Trimming — Technical Terms

Cochins

Brahmas

Langshans .

Orpingtons .

Plymouth Rocks

Wyandottes

Malays, Aseel, and Indian Game

The Old English Game Fowl

The Exhibition Game Fowl

Dorkings and Sussex Fowls

Spanish

Minorcas

Andalusians

Leghorns and Anconas

Hamburghs and Redcaps

Polish ....

French Breeds of Poultry

Other Continental Breeds

Unclassed Breeds of Poultry .

Bantam Breeding. Game Bantams

The " Variety " Bantams .

Turkeys, Guinea Fowl, Pea Fowl

Ducks and Ornamental Water Fowl

Geese and Swans.

Poultry Diseases and Vices. Vermin

15
31

42

55

67

89

106

145
161
172
181
190
211
221
240
257
279
293
304
315
331
347
361

375
393
399
407
411
429

451
461
476
486
507
519
539
557
585
601

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Air Cell ....

H

Egg-tester .......

82

Albions .....

298

,,

A Home-made . . . .

83

Ancona Cockerel ....

427

,,

Hearson's . . . . .

66

Pullet ....

428

Eggs.

resting ......

65

Anconas .....

423

Exhibition Game, De\-elopment of

362

Bantam, Old English Game .

51S

Feather, Dark Hackle ....

268

Bantams .....

Facing

520

,,

Hackle, of Dark Brahma Cock

270

Black Cochins ....

Facing

250

Saddle Hackle of Cock .

270

Rock Cockerel .

311

,,

Show Hackle . . . . .

268

Bone Cutter, Furness' .

40

Feathers, Dark Brahma Pullet, in 187 1.

271

Brahma Cock, Dark

276

from American Barred Rock Pullet,

,, " Favourite 2 "

265

1901 . . . . .

310

Brahmas, American Light

275

,,

from Dark Brahma Pullet, 1900

-'73

the first Dark, sent to England

264

,,

Hackle, of Silver Spangled Cock

451

Breda Cock, Head of .

481

,,

Hen, 1S7C

432

Breeding Chart, Mr. Felch's .

186

Hen, 190C

432

., Pens, portion of lo-acre field at

,,

of Barred Rock Hen, 1872

30S

Sowerby Grange divided into sixty

ijfj

,,

of Brown-red Cock

367

Brooder, Mrs. Cheshire's Coverlet .

100

of Cock-breeding Partridge Hen

249

Buildings, Plan for a central range of

26

of Dark Dorking Hen

of Medium Dark Dorking Hen

378
379

Campine Cockerel, Silver

47S

of Pencilled Pullets, 1900

442

Hen, Silver .

479

,,

of Silver Spangled Hamburghs 43

4. 435

Campines, Silver, as exhibited in ]

900

477

of Silver-grey Dorking Hen

382

Chamber, Hot Radiating

102

,,

of Silver-pencilled Pullet, 1870

443

Chick on fifth day

58

,,

of Silver-spangled Polish Cock

454

nearly ready to hatch.

59

Hen

455

on second or third day

5S

'/,

of Spangled Polish, Crest

453

,, on seventh day .

59

Partridge Hen's Hackle .

246

two days before exclusion

59

Cochin Pencilled

247

Circulatory System

lOI

Wyandotte . . . Facin^

' 324

Cochins, American Partridge

253

Fccdin

g-vessels .....

47

of 1853 .

241

Hinged cover

47

of 1865 .

242

Loose cover .

47

Comb Support

212

Flue and Radiator ....

102

Coop, Floor of a .

91

Fowl,

Points of a.

23S

" Gamekeeper's "

91

Fowl-house in Small Yard, Plan for

16

Shelter

90

,,

Plans for Semi-open .

18

Sussex

90

Portable ....

20

Crammer at work

116

Shelf in .

19

Cramming Machine, Old Sussex

116

Fowl-houses, Double Range of

27

Shed, Sussex

133

in Runs, Detached

25

Crevecoeurs ....

465

Frizzled Fowls .....

487

Curves, The Three

344

Funne

• 115

Dorkings, Wliite .

Facing

386

Game

Cock Trimmed and Heeled .

• 351

Wliite .

388

Geese,

African .....

• 592

Dorking Shape

386

Sebastopol and Gambian

• 595

Dropping Board .

20

Toulouse and Embden . Facin

? 588

Ducks, Aj'lesbury and Cayuga

Facing

55S

Goose,

The Canada ....

• 593

Buff Orpington

566

Guinea Fowl, The Common .

• 552

Carolina ,

579

Hamburghs and Redcaps

• 449

Flock of .

iv

_^

Black . . . Facin

§ 446

Mandarin ,

57S

Silver-spangled . . Facin

s 440

Duckwing Yokohama Cock "Mikado"

496

Hamp

in. Exhibition ....

. 219

Incubator, Boyle's ....

68

Egg, Diagram of an

56

1

Cosy Cooi) ....

• 75

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Incubator, Hearson's Tank .
,, Principle of Cyphers'

,. Room at Coaley (Miss Edwards')

,, Room of Mr. H. S. Karstendiek

Intensive Breeding Pen

„ Coops for Rearing Young Stock (Mrs,

Baynes's) ....
,, Houses, Mr. Potter's Two Double-
decked ....
,, ,, Mrs. Baynes's, Showing

Rain - shutter Up and
Down ....
,, ,, Mr. Herbert Jackson's

,, Plant, Experimental, in the Editor's
Garden . . . . .

Jungle Fowl and Some of its Descendants, The

Lacing of Indian Game Hen.

341

La Fleche

Facing

466

Lakenvelders ....

499

Lamp, Central ....

102

Lane's Yard, Mr.

26

Langshan, as advertised by Miss Croad, 1888

282

Cockerel, A Croad

292

Blue

289

Langshans .....

Facing

288

American, 1898

2S7

First of Original .

280

Leghorn Cockerel, American Brown

420

Marking Ring, Celluloid

203

Minorcas, Black ....

Facing

402

Nest-box .....

6.3

Oats, Stone-dressed for Grinding .

132

Orpington Cockerel, Spangled

301

White .

299

Hen, Jubilee

300

Orpingtons, Black

Facing

294

Ovary and Oviduct

55

of Laying Hen .

55

Partridge Hen, Feathers of Cock-breeding

249

Hen's Hackle Feathers .

246

Peacock

555

Pedigree Rings, White Metal

203

Pens in Sussex, Outdoor

136

Plumage, American Plymouth Rock

307

PoUsh Fowl, Skull of .

451

Silver-spangled .

457

Poultry Plant, Mr. C. H. Latham's

29

Redcaps, Derbyshire

439

Regulator, Boyle's

7i

„ " Forester " .

7 +

Regulator, Graves' ....

Halstead's ....
Regulators, Mercury ....
Rhode Island Red Cock
White Hen

Safety Nest ......

Scotch Greys .... Facin.

Scraper ......

Scratching-shed House, Portable .

Houses of Mr. A. F. Hunter
Semi-Intensive Houses, one of the 500 Hen
on the Molassine
Company's Experi-
mental Farm .
,, ,, Interior

Mr. Toovey's
,, Mr. Tom Barron's x'

Shelters at Sow-erby Grange, Shed and Wall

,, ,, Spinney

Sicilian Buttercup Cock and Hen
Silkie Hen and Cock

,, Feather from
Spanish ..... Facin,

Spurs, Old English Steel
,, Silver
Steel .
Sultans

Sumatras, Black .
Sussex Cockerel, Light .
,, Speckled

Pullet, Light

Thermostat, Cyphers'
Toe Punch, Chicken
Trap-nest, Plan and Section
,, Open and Closed

Trough, Shaping .
Troughs, Pressing.
Trussed for Boiling

,, Roasting

Turkeys, American Bronze

Ventilating Type of Brooder
Vulture Hock

Water Fountains .
Wing, Tying a
Wings, Threading the .
W^right, Mr. Lewis
Wyandottes, Cuckoo

,, Early American

,, White . . . Facing

Yard, Double

Yokohama Cockerel, Black-red

72

7^

73

488

506a

61

490

93

xvil
i, xix
156
157
506c
492
491
394
352
353
353
495
500

389
392
389

189
122

134
144

144
540

103
239

51
2ro

143
3
330
315
322

497

COLOURED PLATES

Speckled Sussex

Frontispiece

Buff Cochixs

Partridge Cochins

Dark Brahmas .

Light Brahmas .

Buff Orpingtons

Plymouth Rocks

Silver Laced Wyandottes

Golden Wyandottes .

Malays and Aseel

Indian Game

Old English Game : Black-red Coci-

Old English Game : Spangled

Exhibition Game

Brown-Red Game

Duckwing Gajie

Dark Dorkings .

Silver-Grey Dorkings

Andalusians

White Leghorns

Brown Leghorns

Gold Spangled Hamburghs

Gold Pencilled Hamburghs

Gold Spangled Polish

Houdans

Faverolles

Game Bantams

Bantams

Rouen Ducks

Pekin and Indian Runner Ducks

Clay

Hen

244
24S

2b2
26S
296
306

320

334
340
354
35S
362
366
36S
37(>
384
408
412
416
436
444
454
464
468
510
524
560

5^4

WRIGHT'S BOOK OF POULTRY

INTRODUCTION.

MR. LEWIS WRIGHT AND "THE BOOK OF POULTRY."
By S. H. Lewer.

M"«-

"R. LEWIS WRIGHT was the son of a
-known printer and publisher in
Bristol, and it was at the early age of
nine, towards the close of 1847, that, in conjunc-
tion with a brother, young Lewis first engaged
in poultry-keeping. The difficulties in the way
were considerable, for there was but a small
stone-paved back yard to their father's town
residence. Still, a start was made, and three
of the coarse Minorca hens then so common
in the West Country, together with a cick,
formed the stock of the young fanciers. The
birds were of the hardiest description, and
capital layers, though they did not breed too
true, for the progeny showed signs of other than
pure Minorca blood. These chicks, however,
were the delight of their young owner's heart — for
the brother soon tired of the hobby — and Lewis
Wright used to watch them by the hour, until,
as he told me, " I could almost have acted a
chicken myself" This close observation of their
ways and individual peculiarities, doubtless cul-
tivated a quickness of perception which stood
Mr. Wright in good stead in later days.

It was about this time that poultry shows

were beginning to be held, and Mr. Wright

often told me of the admiration

An Experi- ]^indled within him by the first really

ment in . , . ^ ,

Socialism representative gathermg 01 poultry
which he visited, and the sense of
dissatisfaction caused thereby at the scarcely
exhibition, although hardy, character of his own
stock. The ne.xt move was an attempt to

realise an ideal of some present-day reformers
— the holding of all things in common — and
occurred through Lewis being sent to a day
school. His schoolmaster was a kind-hearted
man, who approved of pets for his scholars,
and consequently had allowed the boys to
construct a hen roost in his coal-cellar. To-
wards the providing of inhabitants for this
curious fowl-house it was by mutual consent
arranged that each boy should contribute a
hen. This was duly done, but somehow or
other the big boys' hens did all the laying,
and Mr. Wright found that his first and only
experiment in Socialism did not favourably
impress him with the system ; for under it,
even the laying qualities of a well-tried strain
seemed to dwindle and decay ; since apparently
never an egg did his hen lay after her ad-
mittance to the co-operative hen-roost.

Upon leaving school the demands of the
printing business and some scientific studies
left but little time for attention to
Breeding poultry, and so for a while these
Brahmas were renounced, and it is perhaps
doubtful if the hobby would have
been taken up again had not Mr. Wrigh":
found on his marriage, at the age of twenty-
si.x, that his wife, accustomed to country life,
wanted a few hens, so as to ensure a sujjply
of really new-laid eggs. Again the old stone-
paved yard was called into requisition and
the abandoned interest renewed, and a yeai:
subsequently, on removal to Kingsdown, Mr.

INTRODUCTION

Wright was more conveniently situated for
poultry-keeping, and bought his first dark
Brahmas (claiming a pair of pullets, h.c. at
Birmingham, and getting a promising cockerel
from the Rev. Jas. Ellis, of Bracknell, Berks).
With these birds (chickens were then often
shown in pens of a cockerel and two pullets)
Mr. Wright took first at Bristol, then one of
the leading shows, beating Mr. Boyle, whose
Brahmas at that time were at the height of
a successful show career, and so under favour-
able auspices made his debut as an exhibitor.

In an interesting article contributed in 1893
to The Feathered ll'or/d Mr. Wright graphically
described the Brahma fowl of nearly thirty years
before, showing in what respect it differed from
the type of bird then in favour, giving also the
sources from which he built up a strain of dark
Brahmas of which he had cause to be proud.
To the end my old friend deplored the fact that
the later development of the Brahma was not
on Indian rather than Cochin lines, contending
that with lighter plumage and activity of form
the genuine utility properties of the breed would
have been preserved.

During this period it was that Mr. Wright,
on the pressing request of Mr. James Long,
took his first and last judging engagement.
The occasion was the Plymouth Show, and
history has it that the .sponsor of the judge
was amongst the keenest of his critics after
the awards were made. It was not this, how-
ever, which deterred Mr. Wright from accepting
the numerous judging engagements which were
subsequently pressed upon him ; but the feel-
ing that the exercise of judicial functions was
inconsistent with his hobby as a breeder and
an exhibitor, and, later on, his duties as a
reporter and editor. Whilst on the subject of
reporting, it is interesting to note that prob-
ably the first detailed report given of a
poultry show was from Mr. Wright's pen, and
appeared in The Journal 0/ Horticulture, from
which paper its author held a sort of retaining
brief conditional upon his sending its then
editor, Mr. Johnson, such notes as he might
consider of interest. Needless to say, the des-
criptive report caught on, though, with the
multitude of shows now held, it has added enor-
mously to the difficulties of the Fancy Press.

Towards the close of the 'sixties a series
of articles on poultry-keeping was appearing in
Cassell's Family Paper, the unprac-
Evolution of tical and unreliable nature of which
"The Book j ..u ■ r ^u • ^-

of Poultry" roused the ire ot our enthusiastic

fancier. The papers were principally
translations of a French work full of many since
exploded myths as to the gigantic systems of
poultry-farming then existent (?) in France, and
the huge profits to be reaped from an English
imitation of the same. Mr. Wright drew Messrs.
Cassell's attention to the danger of such articles,
and the outcome of the matter was his writing
for them "The Practical Poultry Keeper," a
handy, concise little work, of which nearly ninety
thousand copies have been sold. This book
was followed by " The Brahma Fowl," a masterly
treatise on that breed, with coloured plates,
which ran through several editions. The appre-
ciation of this latter work was such that many
requests were received from fanciers for similar
monographs on each of the then known varieties
of poultry, and from this seed afterwards sprang
its author's best known work, " The Book of
Poultry."

Meanwhile, despite literary and business dis-
tractions, the birds were not neglected, for Mrs.

Wright developed into a keen fancier,
Success as ^ntl SO proved a true helpmate to
a Breeder her husband in his hobby. Even at

Kingsdown space was very limited,
only 60 ft. by 30 ft. being available, and hence
assistance had often to be asked to run young
stock, which otherwise lacked that exhibition
bloom almost unattainable without a good grass
run. Indeed, it was not until, in 1872, Mr.
Wright removed to London, and at his Crouch
End residence rejoiced in a good garden and
a run of about an acre, that he was able to
fairly do justice to his dark Brahmas. That
year saw the cockerel, Favourite No. 3, win
first and cup at both Palace and Birmingham,
to be claimed at the latter show by Mr.
Manbyfor the substantial sum of ^30. Though
never a frequent exhibitor, confining his entries
generally to the Palace, Birmingham, Bristol,
and Bath and West of England Society's shows,
the rage for high-class Brahmas was then so
strong that for some seasons Mr. Wright found
his sittings of eggs booked for weeks ahead at

INTR OD UCTION

2s. 6d. per egg, and cockerels of his strain
fetched from £'^ to £6 each, and all this with-
out a line of advertisement on his part.

February, 1872, saw the publication of his
first shilling monthly part of " The
"The°Book ^°°'^ °'" Poultry," a work which at
of Poultry" once scored a tremendous success;
for, in addition to its clear and practi-
cal information, the _

masterly style in which
this was expressed
justly earned for its
author the foremost
position amongst poul-
try I i 1 1 (' ra t c It r s.
The fift)' coloured
platen, by Mr. Ludlow,
with which the book
was illustrated, were
also a distinct advance
in the delineation of
the fancy points of
poultr)-, and ma)- be
said to have initiated
the style of bird por-
traiture so familiar to
the readers of the
modern Fancy Press.
Some idea of the de-
mand for Mr. Wright's
great work may be
gathered from the fol-
lowing facts. In 1876
a re-issue of the work
was called for in fifty
monthly parts ; in 18S3 a cheap popular edition
was published without the coloured plates ; the
year 1887 saw a complete revision of the te.Kt
and plates, owing to the changes which had
taken place since the first issue ; and in Feb-
ruary, 1892, further revision was made in the
text of the popular edition, then again re-issued.
Such facts as these speak for themselves as to
the estimation in which " The Book of Poultry "
was held by English-speaking fanciers, and it
is gratifying to know that foreigners also have, by
translations, freely availed themselves of the store
of knowledge with which the work is replete.

It was but natural that pigeon fanciers shouldi
on seeing what had been done for poultry.

LEWIS WKIGIIT.

demand a similar work for their particular
hobby, and so in 1874 was commenced "The
Book of Pigeons," b)' Mr. R. Fulton, which owes
no small measure of its immense popularity
to the wise editorship and literary skill which
Mr. Wright brought to bear upon the written
notes, supplemented by many verbal confer-
ences, recording Mr. Fulton's long experi-
ence of pigeons. This
work, like its prede-
cessor, has long ranked
as the standard autho-
rity on the subject.
From the experience
gathered upon this
work doubtless re-
sulted "The Practical
Pigeon-Keeper," uni-
form with its author's
first book, which ran
through eleven editions.
The editing of Blak-
ston's " Canaries and
Cage-birds," the first
part of which appeared
in 1877, may be said to
have completed for a
time the tale of obliga-
tion under which
fanciers must always
remain to Mr. Wright,
and the list of books
produced speaks well
of his capacity for work,
especially when it is
remembered that during their production, from
1874 to 1879, Lewis Wright was editor of Tlie
Fanciers Gazette, started by Messrs. Cassell, and
subsequently developed by them into The Live
Stock Journal. His tenure of this office was not
always a bed of roses ; for whether it was that
the Fancy was then in the first flush of vigorous
youth, and, so to speak, pugnaciously inclined, or
from the fact that there were many abuses to
be reformed — and to these the editor showed
but scant mercy — the period was one when an
honest expression of editorial opinion was often
the signal for a fierce journalistic combat.

This literary activity, unfortunately, left but
little time for attending to his own Brahmas, and

INTRODUCTION

after several disappointing^ experiences of poul-
trymen the stock was gradually reduced, and
towards the end of the 'seventies the remainder
disposed of to Mr. C. E. Perry, Wollaston, Mass.,
U.S.A. It is needless to say, to any of those
who read " The Extinction of the Brahma," in
1893, that Mr. Wright thought the tendency
for breeding to extremes, in fancy points,
a dangerous one, and though always a staunch
upholder of the fancier against those opponents
who say that that individual has done nothing
for poultry generally, yet deplored the fact tiiat
of late years less and less attention had been
paid to the maintenance of the useful qualities
of many of the varieties originally pre-eminent
in this respect.

In October, 1900, was issued the first part of
"The New Book of Poultry,'" a work which
entailed the complete rewriting of
"The New tlie older book, so great had been
Poultry" the changes and developments

in fancy poultry since its first
publication. To this, Mr. Wright brought that
same wonderful command of detail and ability
to press home salient points which, together
with systematic and scientific arrangement, had
placed his former treatise ahead of any con-
temporary work on the subject. In April, 1902,
despite business discouragements that would
have broken the heart of many a man, Lewis
Wright was able to write "Jhiis " to a book that
will live long in the memory of fanciers, and
especially to the many who, like the writer, were
concerned in its production. During this period
Mr. Lewis Wright edited T//e Poultry Club
Standards, and contributed the article on
Poultry to " The Encyclopaedia Britannica."

As a recognition of his services to the Poultry
Fancy, at the International Show in December,
1 90 1, the unique compliment was
Presentation paid Mr. Wright of a presentation
Fanciers and dinner in his honour. No better

summing up of Mr. Wright's work
can be given than the following extract from
the illuminated address presented on this
occasion. It states : " You introduced a new
spirit into the poultry world, and lifted the
entire pursuit on to a higher plane than it had
occupied before. Others have continued the
work }'ou began, but yours were the hand and

brain which opened a new era in poultry journal-
ism. Your constant advocacy of true principles
in breeding, your earnest support of pure breeds
when first introduced, and your fearless exposure
of fraud, wherever found, have done much to
strengthen and purify the exhibition world and
to make the path of the wrong-doer more
difficult. For this we owe a debt which can
never be adequately acknowledged."

During 1900, whilst closing his connection
with Cassell and Co., prior to his return to Bristol
to take up editorial work with his
Other brother's firm, Messrs. John Wright

Activities and Co., Mr. Lewis Wright assisted
mj- wife in the editorial work of The
Feathered World. In Bristol, his work was
largely connected with the supervision of the
many medical books published by his brothers.
In 1904 was commenced a slight revision of
" The New Book of Poultry," which was com-
pleted shortly before Mr. Wright's death.

It was in 1877 that as a boy fresh from school,
entering the great publishing house of Cassell,
I first met Lewis Wright, and after that we
were constantly associated in our work. I have
dwelt necessarily in this note upon the side
of his life work that relates chiefly to the
subject of this boolc ; but in other circles
Lewis Wright was equally well known. He
was a' member of the London Physical Society,
knownamongst scientists as the authorof "Light"
and " Optical Projection," as well as for his mica
preparations illustrating polarised light, and also
as the inventor of the projection microscope now
in use at most of our scientific institutions. He
was also a contributor to theological literature, his
most important work. The Cross of Our Lord,
being left in MS. at the time of his death and
since published by Messrs. Nisbet.

Such is the bare outline of the busy, strenuous
life — suddenly cut short in December, iqo5, by
accident when crossing the line at Saltford
Station to catch a train — led by one who, whilst
passing generally as an extremely reserved man,
hid under that exterior a fund of dry humour and
kindliness, and, above all, a high fi.xity of moral
purpose, which helped to the accomplishment of
splendid work under conditions of health and
other anxieties that would have crushed a
weaker temperament.

MENDELISM AND ITS APPLICATION TO POULTRY BREEDING

By the Rev. E. Lewis Jones, M.A.

WITH the twentieth century a new science
has sprung up, under the title of Genetics,
which concerns itself with the study of
the physiological problems of variation and
heredity. It is proposed to show in this chapter
how Genetics bears upon the work
Genetics of the poultry fancier and breeder

generally. The attempt is of an
elementary nature, as only the rudiments of the
science will be treated. Those who desire to
pursue the subject farther are advised to con-
sult the list of books at the end of the chapter.

Poultry have been found useful to experiment
with, as a number can be raised from the same
parents in one year. These will breed within
the year, and so in a comparatively short time
the results will be observed on a number of
generations. Flowers, mice, canaries, etc., have
also been, for the same reason, found useful
subjects for experiment.

Variation and heredity are familiar problems
to the poultry fancier, for he is essentially a
breeder. His success depends upon the ability
with which he mates his stock to produce the
desired results. To him the questions of here-
dity are vital questions, as the success of his
labours depends largely upon his knowledge
— empirical or scientific — of the laws of here-
dity. In the course of his work, the breeder
meets with many experiences and various pro-
blems and riddles, which he would much like to
understand. His experience makes him familiar
with the many and varied facts of heredity, and
so far science has done but little to assist him
to an understanding of the numerous complex
problems he meets with.

Are these problems insoluble ? Will the
laws of heredity ever be sufficiently understood
to enable these riddles to be read ? And

further, will the laws of heredity be so well
known that the breeder can confidently set
about his work with the knowledge that he can
surely get certain desired results ? So far he is
rather sceptical as to there being any possible
solution of his difficulty. Be that as it may,
those who have observed the progress of Gene-
tics during the last few years assert that even if
it does not solve all difficulties, it will at any
rate solve a great number of them. Genetics
will enable us to go definitely to a certain
end, will save a number of useless experiments
and will prevent waste of material and time.
This will be especially noticeable in the manu-
facture of new breeds.

The observant breeder is aware of two facts
which are met with in the course of breeding :
(i) the transmission of a certain likeness; (2)
the difference in the individuals which are the
product of any given pair of parents. The
progeny superficially resemble the pair in all
respects, so much so that a casual observer would
say they were all alike and would classify
parents and progeny as belonging to a certain
breed or variety. This superficial resemblance
has led to the well-known statement " like pro-
duces like." The breeder knows only too well
the limitations of that statement. A close ex-
amination would reveal the fact that these
individuals ditfer in marked respects amongst
themselves, as well as from their parents. This
apparent similarity which exists together with
real differences, is probably intimately connected
with the solution of the problems of heredity.

The methods of breeders have so far been
only empirical, and were so, of necessity, owing
to the fact that science had not helped with
definite knowledge. To be helpful, science
must not only be explanatorj', but must enable

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

the breeder to predict the results of certain
matings, just as the chemist predicts the result of
placing two substances together. Genetics may
not for some time reduce the science of breeding
to the exactness of chemistry ; possibly with
living organisms the exactness of physical science
is unattainable ; still Genetics will throw a great
deal of light upon the work of breeding and will
point the way to a high degree of exactitude.

iVIendelism is the name applied to the
methods which Gregor Mendel used in his
e.xperiments on heredity and varia-
What is tion. These methods have been re-

Mendelism ? vived during the last ten years by the
pioneers of Genetics. Mendel's man-
ner of experimenting affords a practical means
of tackling the problems of heredity, for it
enables us to trace the history of any character or
characters through one or more generations. So
far Mendelian experiments have been concerned
with cross-breeding. At first we may be in-
clined to doubt how far the results so established
will help the breeder of pure stock. But cross-
breeding has been resorted to because it was
easier to perceive the course of heredity by
crossing specimens with characteristics markedly
different, such as tall or short peas, rose or
single comb in fowls, etc. Tlie knowledge of
heredity so gained will prove of value to the
breeder of pure stock in many ways, for it will
inlorm him of the methods used, and will put at
his disposal means of testing the breeding value
of his stock, and will also open up ways of
strengthening and perfecting his pure bred
animals and birds. A caution must, however,
be entered here as to the possibilities of Men-
delism for the fancier, at any rate for the
present. Professor Bateson says, " applied to
the business of breeding winners in established
breeds the principles of Mendelism cannot
materially help, for almost always the points
which tell are too fine to be dealt with in our
analysis. The principles aheady ascertained
will be found of practical assistance in the
formation of new breeds, and may save many
mistakes and waste of time. Indirectly, how-
ever, as Mendelian methods familiarise the pro-
cesses of heredity, so far they will assist the
breeder in his work."

There are certain lessons taught by the
facts already learned from Mendelism which are
of great use to the breeder and which he should
apply in his own work. First of all, the value
of breeding from known individuals has been
thoroughly established. To succeed on Men-
delian lines the breeding must be done with
individuals. It is not possible to establish any
facts by breeding indiscriminately from a pen

of birds. Trap nesting had undoubtedly in the
past brought this home to the average breeder,
but not with the same force as Genetics has.
The fact that trap nests have been in more or
less general use is evidence that the fancy as a
whole was learning from other sources this
lesson of breeding from individuals. This prac-
tice, established first, probably, for utilitarian
purposes, has been justified by Mendelian ex-
periments, which have shown that the trap nest
is as valuable to the fancier as to the utility man.
Many a fancier can point to individual birds as
the sire or dam of their noted winners. Men-
delism, then, teaches the breeder that he must
breed from individuals, and that he ought to
know the progeny of every one of his stock
birds. With this knowledge he will be able to
discard the wasters, and to mate up for next
year's breeding, with an accuracy approaching
almost to mathematical e.xactness.

The breeding value of a bird does not
depend so much upon outward appearances as
upon pedigree in the Mendelian
Breeding sense. The idea of pedigree gener-

Value ally accepted is that of stock, being

bred in one way for a number of
generations. Mendelism teaches us to look
upon pedigree in the light of the nature of the
factors contained in the germ-cells of the in-
dividual birds. If those factors are the ones
required, then the pedigree is satisfactory ; if
those factors consist of any not required, if there
are too few, or some which inhibit the action of
the rest, then the pedigree is not satisfactory.
Mendelism has shown that a satisfactory con-
dition is independent of the number of genera-
tions for which the strain has been bred ; it is
possible to attain it in the second. The points
upon which the excellence of a show bird depends
are often', as will be shown later on, probably
" fluctuations " {i.e. non-transmissible variations),
and for these reasons a very perfect exhibition
specimen may not be a first-class breeder. An
ordinary specimen of the same strain will prob-
ably do quite as well in the breeding pen, and
so the fancier would be well advised to buy the
ordinary bird at a moderate sum rather than the
prize-winner at a long price. Mendelism thus
enables a breeder to place a correct value on
pedigree.

In mating up pens the general advice given
is that no two birds which have the same faults
should be mated together, but that when one
has a prominent fault the mate should be strong
on that point. This general advice is un-
doubtedly good and sound, and Mendelism
explains how and why it works, and further it
shows us how to utilise birds in future breeding

H

a t

Z ;;

a ~

s I.

O ;3

Q 1

<: 1

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

operations when the parental faults appear in
them. It enables the breeder to appraise the
breeding value of a bird in a more intelligent
way than he ever did before. It furnishes
an intelligent explanation of many empirical
methods which have been followed and enables
breeders considerably to extend these methods.
In breeding rose-comb birds, specimens very often
appear that are first class in all respects except
the comb, which is single. So far breeders have
not hesitated to use such birds for breeding.
IVIendelism explains such an appearance and
also shows us how pure rose-comb birds can be
bred from such a one. This will appear later
on when rose and single combs have been dealt
with as Mendelian characters.

Mendelism suggests that cvciy breeder should
':est and analyse the birds from which he breeds.
The birds are, in fact, to the breeder what the
test-tubes are to the chemist. By applying the
principles of Mendelism to his stock
Test the breeder will have a knowledge of

his birds that he never dreamt of be-
fore. He will be able to know their strong points
and their weak points as breeders. Crossing
during the off season or in their first year will
quickly enable him to detect the weakness and
the strength of his birds. With this knowledge
he will know how to perfect their strong points
and how to guard against the weak.

Most breeders have found that a certain two
birds do not mate well together. Mendelism
suggests that both should be analysed and the
reasons for this failure di'^covered. Having
done this, the breeder will be able, from a
similar knowledge of his other birds, to know
the right birds to mate together. In this way
pedigree will be a real and valuable asset to
every breeder.

In the lowest organisms the race is propagated
by the organism growing and dividing into two
exactly similar parts, each part being
Life an exact reproduction of the parent ;

Cycle after division it is impossible to say

which is the parent and which is the
offspring. This mode of reproduction is confined
to organisms made up of one cell. As we ascend
in the scale of life, organisms are no longer
made up of one cell, but of many, and these
cells are differentiated in functions. Some are
set apart to form bone and organs of locomotion,
others form organs of digestion, and others
organs of reproduction, etc. In the unicellular
organism all these functions, locomotion,
digestion, reproduction, etc., are carried out in
the one cell. But no matter how complex the
animal may be in its initial stage, every organ-
ism springs from one cell, which is called the

zygote. This z\-gote has been formed by the
union of two germ cells (gametes) derived from
a male and a female parent. The male germ
cell (gamete) is called spermatozoon ; the female
germ cell (gamete) is called the ovum. To
repeat, the zygote is the single cell which will
by repeated divisions form the new individual,
and it itself has been formed by the fusion, or
blending, into one cell of the male and female
gametes. This individual in time reaches the
adult stage and itself forms gametes, and so is
equal to taking its part in the reproduction of
its own species, and thus the life cycle is com-
plete from gamete to gamete. In the case of
the fowl the union between the male and female
gametes takes place in the upper portion of
tlie oviduct. The zygote so formed is con-
tained in the fertile egg and by incubation gives
rise to the chick which grows into the adult
fowl.

Heredity has been defined as the tendency
which all living beings exhibit to assume the
structures and to perform the func-
What is tions characteristic of the species to

Heredity? which the individual belongs, and to
transmit the same to their offspring.
We have just briefly touched upon the process by
which this transmission is brought about, and
from a consideration of it, it is clear that what-
ever the new organism receives from each parent
must be received through the gametes. The
problem of heredity resolves itself into the eluci-
dation of the laws which govern the transmission
of the parental characteristics to the offspring,
through the medium of the gametes. At the
outset a natural question arises as to whether
this process occurs in a definite and regular
way or in an indefinite and irregular way. If
the transmission of characteristics occurs in an
irregular way it follows that we can never hope
to gain a full insight into the scheme as a whole,
but can only follow it in the particular cases
we may examine. The examination of such
particular cases will not help the breeder much
if the results vary with each individual mating,
if not with each individual impregnation. Un-
less there is a regularity about the process which
extends to all cases, unless it follows definite
lines, the study of heredity, interesting as it
may be in particular cases, will not be of much
use to the breeder generally, and he will still
have to continue on empirical lines (which have
certainly produced excellent results in the past)
and he will leave severely alone a study which
cannot practically assist him.

Mendelism points to the fact that the trans-
mission of parental qualities is effected in a
definite and regular way, and that being so it

MENDELISM AND ITS APPLICATION TO POULTRY BREEDING

is a matter for investigation witli a tolerable
certainty that the secret, so far well guarded,
may be learnt and the Gordian knot of heredity
may be unravelled. The first step to this solu-
tion is the fact that parental characters are
transmitted to the offspring as units, and this
transference by " units " gives an intelligent
explanation of the regularity that has been
observed in cases that have been studied. The
unit character may be for some reason latent
in one generation, but may be transferred to
the next without the influence which inhibited
its appearance in the parents ; then it will re-
appear. Thus the grandchild may show some
character of a paternal or a maternal grand-
parent which was not apparent in the inter-
mediate generation. Other characters require
to be received from both parents before the\-
appear and so are latent until this condition
is fulfilled. The students of Genetics must
grasp the fact that the separate characters are
transmitted (or not transmitted) as unit charac-
ters. If the characters were not transmitted
as units but as indefinite '"ractions, then it would
be impossible to predict any result, as the
character would var}' in intcnsit}- according to
the value of the fractional part transmitted.

.An individual bird should thus be regarded
as an aggregation of characters. These charac-
ters have been derived from two parents : the
dual nature of every individual must be com-
prehended before the principles of Mendelism
can be understood and applied in the process
of practical breeding. When the individual has
received a similar set of characters from each
parent, it is said to be pure bred ; when it has
received a set of characters from one parent
differing from the set derived from the other
parent, it is said to be impure or cross bred,
even though the differing characters may not
be apparent in the first generation, but remain
latent. For instance, cross a pure rose-comb with
a single-comb bird : all the offspring are rose-comb
but the rose is an impure rose and the bird
is a cross-bred in respect to comb. It is only
pure when it receives the elements of roseness
from each parent. The impurity will show
itself when these birds are inbred. We thus
get a definite meaning attached to pure bred
and cross-bred, a meaning which will bear the
test of breeding.

Fanciers have in reality always regarded a
bird as an aggregation of characters. In breed-
ing a winner, the fancier has kept his eye on the
bird from beak to tail and from comb to toes,
and in judging it the bird has been examined
and weighed according to its excellence in all
the characters visible to the eye. The standards

of excellence for the various breeds award
points for these outward characters. Mendelism
introduces the breeder to methods with which he
is familiar and which he has pursued in the
course of his labours. The principles of Men-
delism justify the methods he has employed,
and will enable him in future to place them on
a sound scientific basis.

It is clear, then, that the individual is what
he is from the contributions he has received
from both parents, and thus it is true that
all individuals (not poets alone) are " born, not
made." These contributions have been made
through each gamete or germ cell, the one sup-
plied by the male, the other by the female. The
question can be legitimately asked, how much of
this machinery of the gamete is understood, and
how far can it be explained 1 In the present
state of Genetics the answer is that very little is
known of the actual machinery for the transfer-
ence of characters, i.e., of the internal arrange-
ment of the gamete. Prof Bateson has stated,
in reference to the probable constitution of the
factors which make up the gamete, that " several
of them behave much as if they were ferments,
and others as if they constructed the substances
on which ferments act."

To understand the way in which the methods
of transference take place, it is necessary to
follow what happens in regard to
Segregation those characters which compose the
individual when it comes to repro-
duce its own species. The dual nature of the
individual must be borne in mind, viz., that its
characters have been derived from two sources.
It has been discovered that, in the formation of
the germ cells, the characters from each parent
are re-sorted and this re-sortment of the parental
characters, during the lormation of the gametes
in the individual, is the central fact in Mendelism
and it is termed " Segregation." We shall see
later on how this fact explains the phenomena
observed, and how owing to it the parental
characters are transferred (or not transferred) by
the offspring to the ne.xt generation in a definite
and regular manner. In this re-sortment (segre-
gation) each character behaves as a unit and is
present as a wliole in the gamete formed or
totally absent from it. If the characters are
opposite in nature, as rose and single comb, only
one of them can be present in the gamete. Such
characters are said to be allelomorpliic, i.e., one or
the other only can be present in anygamete. Thus
the gamete of an impure or cross-bred bird will be
pure for the character it contains, and the cross-
bred individual gives rise to two different kinds
of gametes, e.g., an impure rose-comb bird forms
gametes, some of which contain roseness only.

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

some the factor for single comb only. In no
gamete will the character for both rose and
single comb be found. This explains why two
birds both impure rose-combs will breed pure
rose-comb and pure single combs.

To the Mendelist a bird is composed of a
great number of allelomorphs, and so far the
action of a few only are known. The practical
use of Mendelism to the fancier is confined to
those allelomorphic characters which have been
completely investigated. Many experimenters
are at work, and as time goes on the in.vestigation
of more and more of these allelomorphic char-
acters will be completed.

Gregor Johann Mendel was born on July 22nd,
1822, at Heinzendorf bei Odrau, in
Mendel Austrian Silesia. He was given a good
education in his youth and entered the
monastery of Briinn in 1843. He was ordained
priest in 184". From 1851 to 1853 he studied
at Vienna, and in the latter year he returned to
Briinn and took up teaching in the Realschulc
there. He relinquished this work in 1868 on
his appointment as abbot. His classic experi-
ments on the edible pea {Pistaii sativum) were
carried out in the cloister garden, and the re-
sults were published in the Proceedings of the
Natural History Society of Briinn under the title
of " Experiments in Plant Hybridisation." He
died January 6th, 1884. It does not appear that
his work was known to na'turalists, though he
at one time explained it to the botanist Carl
Niigeli, and it was not until the rediscovery of
his paper in 1900 that the real value of his con-
tributions published in 1865 was understood.
The rewards of scientific workers are not always
commensurate with their labours ; some receive
immediate recognition, whilst others, like Mendel,
have to wait some decades before the true value
of their work is known. Let us hope that the
pursuit of knowledge is in itself a sufficient
reward to them for their efforts.

Mendel's experiments show him to have been
a remarkable genius. This is proved by the
discrimination he displayed in selecting the
right material to work with and the right char-
acters to observe ; by the absolute accuracy of
his results (as borne out by others who have
lately repeated his experiments) ; by the min-
ute and clear record he kept ; and, above all,
by his insight into the true meaning of the
facts he observed.

He crossed two peas which difl'ered in height,

one being about 6ft. and the other about ift.

The seeds produced by this cross-

His fertilisation were sown and ail grew

Experiments i„to tall plants. This tall generation

from the cross-bred seeds is called

F, (first filial generation). As all these plants
were tall, Mendel called the character which
prevailed the domuiaiit character, and the char-
acter which was unable to appear the recessive.

P"i generation was self-fertilised and its
seeds sown ; the plants this time grew up,
not all tall as F^, but tall and dwarf in the
proportion of 3 to I. This generation is called
Y .^ (second filial generation). On being self-
fertilised, the plants of F^, were seen to be of
three kinds : —

{a) Pure Dominants. Tall plants which gave
tails only for the next and succeeding genera-
tions.

{b) Impure Dominants. Tall plants which
gave tails and dwarfs in the same proportion
as F,.

(f) Pure Recessives. Dwarf plants which
gave dwarfs only in the next and succeeding
generations.

On testing the tails of F., generation it was
found that the proportion of the pure tails (a)
to impure tails {U) was i to 2. Thus pure
talis and pure recessives were equal in pro-
portion and together formed half the pro-
duce.

Expressed as under, the result can be clearly
understood : —

25'';o 50^.0 _ 25%

Pure Dominant Impure Dominant Recessive

Tallness and dwarfness are allelomorphs,
unit characters, transmitted as a whole from
parent to progeny. Thus regarding them, it
is easy to explain the above results. Fj gene-
ration was produced by the union of male and
female gametes, each one bearing either the
dominant or the recessive character, and so the
zygote formed by their union was impure
in that it contained both elements. When F,
came to form gametes, then segregation occurred.
The characters (united in the zygote) separated
or segregated and each gamete carried one,
only one, and one as a whole of the characters,
cither the dominant (tall) or the recessive
(dwarf). When fertilisation took place a
gamete carrying the dominant character could
unite with one also carrying the dominant
character and so form a pure dominant, DD,
or it could unite with one carrying a recessive
character and so form an impure dominant
(DR). Likewise a gamete carrying a recessive
character could unite with one carrying a domi-
nant character and so form an impure dominant
(DR), or with one carrying a recessive char-
acter and so form a pure recessive (RR).
This exhausts all possible combinations

MENDELISM AND ITS APPLICATION TO POULTRY BREEDING

(D + R)(D + R) = DD + 2DR+RR. A consi-
deration of this will lead to the same conclu-
sion that has already been arrived at practically,
viz., that the result would give 25^0 pure domi-
nants, 50% impure dominants, and 25% pure
recessives. These results are usually represented
diagrammatically thus — D standing for the
dominant and R for the recessive char-
acter : —

DD X RR

Parental Generation.

DR

1

Fi

Jn

1
DR DR

1
RR = Fo

Pure Dominant

B^ecT^Lrseo.
with another pure
dominant will give
dominants for all
time, because every
gamete lormed can
only carry D.

Impure Dominant

50,*'

Bred inter se will

bD + 2DR + RR.

Recessive

Bred inter se or
with another reces-
sive will give reces-
sives for all time,
as every gamete
formed can carry
only R.

If the impure dominants are bred with a
dominant, they give 50^0 pure dominants and
50% impure dominants (D -|- D){D -f R) =
2DD-I-2DR; bred with a recessive, they give
50°o pure recessives and 50°^ impure dominants
(R-|-R){D-|-R)=2RR-h2DR.

When the zygote formed by the union of
the male and female gametes has received the
same elements from each gamete, e.g. either
the dominant or the recessive character from
both, it is said to be homozj'gous, or a zygote
pure for that character ; when, on the other
hand, it receives one character from one gamete
and the other character from the other gamete,
it is termed heterozygous, or a zygote impure
for that character.

In Mendel's experiment given above, each
parent is pure, F, is heterozygous. In F^,, 50%
are homozygous (i.e., 25°o homozygous for tall-
ness and 2590 homozygous for dwarfness) and
50% are heterozygous, impure zygotes contain-
ing both characters.

This experiment of Mendel's which we have
just considered, illustrates clearly his method,
which is essentially simple. It is applicable to
all allelomorphic characters in every species of
animals and plants. Mendel himself investigated,
in peas alone, seven distinct allelomorphs (pairs
of characters^.

The pioneers in the re-establishment of the
methods of Mendel are De Vries, Corrcns,
Tschermak, and in England, Bate-
Mendelism son. The work has been carried
and Poultry on with plants and animals. As
breeders of poultry, we are here
only concerned with the work that has been
accomplished in our own domain. Results will

be given briefly, as a full discussion of each
case would carry us beyond the limits of this
chapter. What is given will be found suffi-
ciently suggestive for those who may v/ish to
repeat the experiments, or to devise others of
their own, in which they can follow the course
of heredity in one or more selected characters.
Fanciers are as a rule very keen on experi-
mental matings ; a great deal of work of this
kind has been done, and undoubtedly much
useful knowledge has been lost because the
results of these matings have not been put on
record. The field of investigation is a vast
one ; the scheme of coloration alone covers a
wide area, and it will probably be some time
before it is fully explored. Little has been
achieved as )-ct, but sufficient has been done
to show that Mendclism offers a method by
which the problems can be solved. Every
result established assists the breeder in his
labours, and he can proceed with certain know-
ledge as far as an investigated character is con-
cerned.

The simplest illustration of the application
of the principles of Mendclism to the breeding
of poultry is seen by crossing a rose-comb with
a single-comb bird. It is a matter of common
knowledge that the result of such a mating is
rose-comb progeny, and Mendclism enables us to
explain these facts. Rose is evidently dominant
over single, just as tallness was dominant over
dwarfness. If the experiment is continued
and the rose-comb F, generation is bred inter se,
we get 75% rose to 25% single, and of these
75''r. rose one-third or 25% of the whole are pure
rose. In fact we get exactly the same behaviour
as in the case of tall and dwarf peas, only rosc-
ness takes the place of tallness, and single the
place of dwarfness. The result can be expressed
diagrammaticall)', R = rose and S ^=- single.

Bred inter se
v/ith a pure r

future generalii

The type of rose-comb in Fj varies consider-
ably, some being almost as perfect as the
parental type, whilst others fall away consider-
ably from this standard of perfection. It is not
possible to distinguish the pure rose from the
impure by observation, the only real test is
breeding, and it does not follow that purity coin-
cides with perfection of comb. To test which

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

are the impure roses in F, each individual must
be mated to a single-comb bird : the pure rose
bird will give a progeny all rose-comb. The
reason is obvious when the pure dominant is
mated to the recessive, the resulting progeny all
resemble the dominant, in this case all are
rose-combed, thus : —

the impure mated to the recessive will give hah''
rose and half single, thus : —

From this we gather how to test for the purity
of any one character in a bird. Mate the doubt-
ful bird to a bird known to be pure recessive in
that character, the progeny will decide the ques-
tion, all being pure if both are pure, some
recessives appearing if the bird under analysis is
impure.

The two cases (pea and rose-comb) investi-
gated are examples of nearly perfect dominance
where the F, generation resembles the parent
which supplies the dominant factor. Domin-
ance has been stated to be an essential part
of Mendelism. This is an error, for the
dominance is often imperfect, but this imperfec-
tion does not interfere with the application of
Mendelism. The blue colour of the Andalusian
fowl is an example of imperfect dominance.
The blue colour is due to the mixture of black
and white (excellent blue plumage can be pro-
duced by putting white chickens in a brooder
with a smoking lamp, but they are not " stay-
blues"). When blues are bred with blues, the
progeny consists of black, blues, and splashed
white in Mendelian proportions : i black ; 2
blues ; i splashed white. On further breeding,
blacks mated to blacks give only blacks, whites
mated to whites give only whites, but blacks
mated to whites give blues. The blue is a
hybrid-character formed by the union of black
and white, and in Mendelian terms the blue bird
is said to be heterozygous.

Blue X Blue Black X Spla>hed White

In the above case the hybrid-character is
easily distinguishable from either the dominant

or recessive, whilst in the two preceding cases it
could only be distinguished by the test of
breeding.

What is meant by this term ? Dominance is

the name given to an observed fact that one

character, owing to the " presence " of

Dominance some factor, appears in the individual

to the exclusion of another character

(recessive) which is unable to appear.

The numerical proportions given throughout
this chapter hold good only when large num-
bers are bred. With small numbers
Numbers chances are against their being

found to be absolutely true, but
when sufficient numbers are taken the actual
results appro.ximate closely to the theoretical.
So far we have only considered one allelomor-
phic pair at a time, and we have found the
proportion to be 3D : iR. If two allelomorphic
pairs are considered, the result is more com-
plicated and the possible combinations are
considerably extended, as each pair is trans-
mitted independently of the other. The fol-
lowing experiment will illustrate what is meant.
A Campine cock was crossed with a Silkie hen
and from the many allelomorphic pairs in the
birds we will select for this illustration comb
and feathers, though any two could have been
selected without prejudice to the argument.
The Campine has single comb and feathers,
the Silkie a rose-comb and silk. The F, birds
were all rose-comb and feathered, single comb
and silk being recessive. Let R = rose-comb,
s=single, F= feathers and y=silk. Then the
Campine cockerel will be Fs and the Silkie hen
will be Ry : the zygotic combinations of Fj
birds will be RsFy. Taken independently, any
allelomorphic pair gives rise to four possible
zygotic combinations in F^. In F., the four
zygotic combinations of the first allelomorphic
pair, Rs, will be RR, Rs, Rs, ss ; likewise those
of the second pair, Fy, will be FF, Fy, Fy, yy.
It is clear since the pairs of allelomorphs are
separately transmitted that the first of the four
zygotic combinations of the first allelomorphic
pair RR can appear with every one of the four
zygotic combinations of tlie second pair, FF, Fy,
Fy, yy and will give rise to four combinations
RRFF, RRFy, RRFy, RRyy. Similarly the
remaining three combinations of the first pair
(Rs, Rs, and ss) can also each combine with
each of the combinations of the second pair.
There are thus sixteen possible combinations : —

(RR -f- Rs + Rs -I- ss) (FF -I- Fy -)- Fy -h yy)

These results are made evident by such
a diagram as the following, in which the
four zygotic combinations of the first pair are

MENDELISM AND ITS APPLICATION TO POULTRY BREEDING

13

written four times horizontally, and the four
combinations of the second pair are written four
times vertically.

KR
FF

Rs
FF

Rs
FF

ss
FF

RR
Fy

Rs
Fy

Rs

Fy

ss :

Fy

RR

Fy

Rs

Fy

Rs
Fy

ss
Fy

^

h

RR

yy

Rs

yy

Rs

yy

ss

yy

An examination of the above diagram shows
that in nine cases (Fig. a) the dominants rose
and feathers appear together ; in three cases
{Fig. c) rose and silk are found together, in
another three cases (Fig. d) feathers and single
are found, while one bird in 16 (Fig. b') has
single comb and silk. This last forms a new
variety, the gametes formed being pure for
single comb and for silk. Out of these 16
combinations there are 4 visible types arranged
in the following arithmetical proportions : —

9:3:3:1

A consideration of the above will show what
has already been emphasised, that outward ap-
pearances are no real criterion of the breeding
value of any bird. Only the first RR FF and
the last ss yy are zygotes pure in both pairs
of characters.

When three allelomorphic pairs are observed
together, a similar reasoning, or a mathematical
formula, will show that there are sixty-four
possible combinations, though in outward ap-
pearances there would be only eight types.

To return to the well-known mating of rose
and single comb, in F, there were only two t}'pes
rose and single, but four combinations (one pure
rose, two impure rose, and one single). When
two allelomorphic pairs are considered, the num-
ber of types, as we have seen, is 2^ and the
number of possible combinations is 42. When
three pairs are taken together, the number of t)pes

is 2'' and of combinations is 4''. With "n"
allelomorphic pairs the number of types visible
is 2" and of possible combinations 4". Complete
dominance is assumed here.

According to Prof. Bateson, a fowl may be
regarded as a " basal organisation " upon which,
through the agency of certain
Characteris- (actors, a number of characteristics
a fowl have been built up or superimposed.

What essentially is the " basal
organisation " we cannot tell. At present we
know very little of the action, or nature, of
the factors which induce the changes which
produce varieties. When we do, we shall
have a clearer knowledge of the origin of
species than we now possess. In the variations
observed among birds we can distinguish two
kinds : — (a) Fluctuations, or non-transmissible
varieties ; appearances which seem to be the
peculiar property of one individual. Probably
most of the scoring points of a show bird come
under this head, (b) Mutations or transmissible
variations ; changes which appear in response
to certain factors which form part of the in-
dividual and aie handed on to its progeny.

Comb. — We have seen that rose is dominant
over single, i.e., that it is a single -j- some factor
which causes it to appear as rose. Most forms
of comb are dominant to single. Many ex-
periments have been and are being made, but
as long as we cannot satisfactorily explain
the appearances of side sprigs, etc., Genetics
has not completely read the riddle of the
comb.

Size. — It is still a matter of doubt whether
size is an allelomorphic character.

Fiftli toe. — This appears to be dominant ;
dominance is somewhat irregular, as it may
appear on one foot only, and there are cases
known of four-toed recessives transmitting it
to their progeny.

Feathers on legs.- — This is dominant but its
transmission may be governed by two factors,
which would explain its appearance in the
progeny of two-cleaned birds of different strains
mated together.

Crest and Muff. — Incomplete dominants, the
characters always appear but vary in size.

Broodiness. — Dominant, the progeny always
show a tendency to sit, but are somewhat un-
certain and erratic and leave the chicks earlier.

Colour of egg. — Brown is an incomplete dom-
inant, shade varying.

Size 0/ egg.— An incomplete dominant.

Prolificaey.—\t is doubtful whether it is a
dominant in any proper sense, but cross-bred
birds between light and heavy breeds are always
better layers than the heavy breeds.

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Type. — This is not a unit quality, as it
depends upon {a) the shape of the body and (/>)
the nature and distribution of the feathers.

Colour. — Very little is known ; dominance
depends upon the breed rather than upon the
colour ; the white of the Leghorn is dominant,
whilst that of the Silkie is recessive. Blue is
heterozygous in Andalusians and probably so in
the newer breeds. In certain blue varieties of
game it is said to be homozygous.

Red ear-lobe. — Imperfect dominant.

Eye colour. — Black is dominant.

As the light thrown by Mendclism on the
problems of Heredity grows greater, fanciers will
be obliged to modify their views on certain
points (this we have already seen in the case
of purity and pedigree), and to express other
phenomena in Mendelian terms ; prepotency,
for e.xample, will have to be expressed in terms
of dominance. Mendclism does not so much
do away with the old ideas as give a working
hypothesis which explains them, and puts on
a scientific basis what before was more or less
" rule of thumb."

Pi-epotcncy. — It was thought that a bird bred
for many generations for certain qualities would
be able to transmit them in a greater degree
than other birds bred for a shorter time ; but
now it is known that dominance of the charac-
teristic, and not a long pedigree, determines the
" prepotency." Thus pedigree will be valued
only by the nature of the gametes formed.

Reversion. — It is a common occurrence for
breeders to find that one bird reproduces an
original ancestral form. This happens when,
through the addition or subtraction of a cer-
tain factor or factors, the elements are the same
as those in the constitution of the original bird.
This often happens when fresh blood is intro-
duced from a different strain by means of which
the complementary factors are brought together.

A variety may be line-bred for twenty years
and in the twenty-first (certain new forms, not
reversions to any ancestral forms)
Sports make their appearance ; such new

forms are termed " Sports." They
are probably due to the subtraction of a positive
factor or the omission of an inhibiting factor. In
the first case a certain characteristic is omitted ;
in the second a new one, hitherto prevented
from appearing, asserts itself

Certain characteristics always seem to be
associated together in the same bird, the one
never being found without the other.
Correlation or \^ the relationship real or accidental .'
of factors'" Without strong evidence in support
of the first alternative, it is difficult
to believe that the independent submission to

the laws of Heredity, which we found to be
characteristic of the different allelomorphic
pairs, does not hold good for all such pairs.
The eminent leader of the Mendelian School in
England is however of opinion that between
certain factors this relationship is real.

Reciprocal crosses do not give identical
results. This is most clearly seen by crossing
light and heavy breeds both ways.
Sex-limited The offspring resembles the maternal
inheritance side in size, broodiness, and egg-
colour. Prof. Bateson and Mr.
Punnett found a case of sex-limited descent,
in the inheritance of pigment, in the reciprocal
crosses between brown Leghorns and Silkies.
This accounts for some of the anomalies met
with in the course of breeding, eg., the diffi-
culty of obtaining good legged females in
Wyandottes. No doubt certain sayings current
in the fancy have a scientific foundation.

It looks as if certain characters are never
found in combination, e.g., prolificacy and ex-
cellence of table qualities ; yellow
bmty ^* ^' shanks and absolute soundness of
black plumage, etc. What the in-
compatibility is due to it is impossible at present
to state.

There are very many interesting phenomena
which we should like to be able to explain,
such as Dimorphism, hen-feathered male birds,
etc. If the idea that our domestic fowls are
all descended from the Callus Bankiva (single
comb, white egg) is correct, it would be inter-
esting to know at what time and by what means
the factors for other combs were introduced ;
how and why tinted egg-shells appeared, etc. A
full solution of all these problems may be too
much to expect, but Mendclism supplies the
methods by which the problems of Heredity and
Variation can be solved.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

(i) " Mendel's Principles of Heredity." By
W. Bateson. Camb., 1909. Price 12,-. This is
the most complete and authoritative work in the
English language.

(2) " Mendclism." By R. C. Punnett. Bowes
and Bowes, Camb. (2nd Edn.) 1909. 2/6. A
short and clearly written introduction to the
subject.

(3) Reports to the Evolution Committee of
the Royal Society. Four numbers.

(4) " Inheritance in Poultry." By C. B. Daven-
port Washington.

(5) "The Laws of Heredity." By G. Arch-
dall Reid. Methuen, 1910. Useful survey of
theories up to date.

m^

y Mm

CHAPTER I.

POULTRY HOUSES AND RUNS.

all matters connected
with poultry-keeping,
the fowl - house is
generally the first to
be considered ; and
healthiness in the
house and surroundings
is certainly one of the
most important of all
considerations connected
with the undertaking. It
may be well to point out at the outset
that this healthiness may be sought in
either of two somewhat different direc-
tions, if not absolutely upon two different prin-
ciples. The last way of putting it would indeed
be carrying the matter too far, since in every
case />/a-e air remains the first and essential
point. But this may still be sought in the way
of either free and hardy exposure, or combined
with warmth and shelter from the weather ;
and there are circumstances which may make
either of these general methods advisable.

It is but comparatively recently that the
possibilities and advantages of the open-air
method have been generally recognised, though
even in the first edition of this work impressive
examples were given of Dorkings and Spanish
becoming hardy and healthy under the Spartan
regimen of an entirely out-door life. The
results of this, when fully carried out, wc see

best in pheasants and other game birds, whose
health, vigour, and extraordinary gloss and
elasticity of feather far surpass
H^^^dmess that of house-kept birds. On the
Delicacy. other hand these races, in confine-
ment, are abnormally " delicate,"
and the mortality is great : they die off, just
as aborigines do when missionary convention
has put them into trousers and closed rooms.
We, on the other hand, trained by long here-
dity, find the clothes and the closed rooms a
necessity, and perish under "exposure."

We thus learn that there are two entirely
different kinds of "delicacy." One animal,- or
human being, may be supremely hardy towards
any merely inclement conditions of open-air
life, while delicate towards the least vitiation
of air or pasturage. Another race or family,
by its training, will be "delicate" to the
exposure, but hardy towards the consequences
of confinement and crowded life. These may
appear truisms to many ; but there are some
who never seem to have given a thought to
them, or to their real bearing upon questions
of practical management and rearing ; and so
we have presumed authorities maintaining that
the proper and only profitable way to rear
turkeys, even in this country, is to give them
unlimited range and free exposure, in the
neighbourhood of woods especially, and regard-
less of poachers, foxes, wanderings, and such

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

other drawbacks as encounter a proprietor in
places where such methods are even possible.
Those who have considered what we have
above briefly recalled, will see that almost
every such question of general management
has two sides, and that in a country already
civilised and crowded with inhabitants, there
will generally predominate a necessity for
adopting the conditions of civilisation.

The limitations, and the advantages, and
the methods of the e.xposure system of keep-
ing poultry, may be shortly stated.
^"^ It can only be carried out altogether :

System!^^ there must be the wide range, lead-
ing to active exercise and pure air,
or it is fatal. Where, however, these can be
had, breeds whose best "condition" is hard
flesh and tight and glossy plumage, will attain
that condition in a degree that can hardly be
equalled in any other way ; and there will be
little illness. At the commencement, a few of
the first stock ("reared on another system) may
probably perish, and the weakly ones of a given
hatch may be quickly weeded out ; but on the
whole this system, fully carried out, produces
health and condition of the highest kind, and
is even not inconsistent with great weight, as
was proved by the Dorkings of the late
Viscountess Holmesdale, so successful about
thirty years ago. The question of housing is
thus reduced to a minimum ; all that is neces-
sary will be as many as required of detached
sheds, perfectly open on one side, dotted about
at different suitable spots, which can be arranged
so as to give some little shelter from the worst
winds. These will form both shelters and
roosting-houses, though some birds will prob-
ably roost in the trees. Exhibition poultry
of the very highest class can be reared in
any park in this way, without any formal or
permanent outlay in the way of buildings and
fencing.

Parks and large farms are, however, within
the reach of few ; and even where they are,
health, hardihood, and condition are not the
only points to be considered by the majority
of people who keep poultry. The exhibitor
pure and simple may wish for no more ; but
most people have to consider cost of food and
value of produce. In these respects the free
exposure system does not come out so well.
This is well shown by the experience of a lady,
published in an American paper. She had
adopted for years the then usual American
plan of closing up houses as much as possible
in winter, and confining the birds in very bad
weather. At last she resolved, even in that more
severe climate, to try the open plan, and left

one-half of her stock to roost in an entirely
open cart-shed, even with the thermometer at
zero, only in December hanging some old horse-
blankets in front of them. Those in the houses
continued to trouble her with colds ; those out-
side had none, and were much the glossier birds,
and had the larger frames. On the other hand,
hovve\er, those outside ate a great deal the more ;
while those inside were a great deal the heavier,
and began to lay about a month before the
others. These results put the whole matter in
a nutshell, and obviously bring us back in most
cases to the habits of what we have termed
" civilisation " ; but in many cases the best re-
sults of both systems can be secured in all but
the more severe of English climates. We must
still, and at all costs, secure pure air ; but we
more generally want this in combination with
shelter from the weather and outside frost, and
freedom from direct draught or current of air, so
easy to set up in a small house, and which is
quite different in its effects from the free winds
of the open plan.

Open Run.

Fig. I.

In considering how poultry should be housed,
then, we will begin with the smallest scale, such

as half a dozen fowls (more or less)
Small House to be kept at the bottom of a garden
and Run. or back-yard. A long shed may

already exist, and if so, will do ex-
cellently if in repair ; otherwise comes the ques-
tion of building the whole affair, which ought to
be within the power of an average man. It will
generally be better (with all due respect to the
average British workman) if so built, and more
according to what he desires. The best general
arrangement will be as in Fig. i, the house being
in one corner, a roofed shed carried out at its
side, and as much open run in front as can be
afforded, or perhaps the whole yard. The house
will be closed in ; but the shed should be open
in front, though with a closed end wall unless it

BUILDING SMALL HOUSES.

17

runs all across, in which latter case it may perhaps
comprise all the run which can be afforded. The
shed should be boarded up a foot from the
ground and netted above, that the few birds may-
be confined in specially wet weather ; and the
roof over all should project a little in front and
have a gutter. A house four feet square would
really answer, but this would hardly give enough
shelter-depth to the shed, which will be far
better six feet to the back ; hence a small house
may part off four feet wide from such a shed.
Six feet is also best because most ordinary
planks and timbers are twelve feet long, which
will cut up without waste.

Building such a small affair is very easy. If
there is a back wall the matter is simplified.

Quartering (2x3 timber) should be
Building used for frame and uprights, and not

Small Houses, less than |-incb for the boards. The

back uprights should be clinched to
the wall by staynails or holdfasts, and a horizon-
tal piece of same section similarly fastened to the
wall to support the back of the roof The bottoms
of other uprights can be tarred and sunk in the
ground ; but it is better to lay horizontal sills
of quartering either on the ground or, still
better, upon a " footing " made by a row or two
rows of bricks laid side by side. Then halve or
mortise all the uprights into the sills. There
must be an upright at the corner of the house,
and for a door-post, and at the gate in the shed,
and its corner, and wherever else needed for
strength. A horizontal timber will run all along
the top of the front, and on to this and the back
piece on the wall the rafters will be spiked down.
The boards may be either tongued, or caulked
by driving string into the chinks, or laths tacked
over the latter. Tongued boards are best, and
look neatest. The door must fit well, or rather,
should be made so as to lap over the timbers all
round.

For the walls, single-tongued boards are
sufficient in ordinary climates. When more
warmth and shelter are necessary, roofing felt
may be tacked on outside and tarred, or what is
probably best of all, an inner skin of thinner
tongued boards may be nailed on to the inside
of the frame-work timbers, leaving an air-space
between. This is a very snug and warm and neat
plan. There is a similar variety in regard to
roofing. Loose tiles will give absolutely free
ventilation, but will be, in many places, too cold
for profit, though they will suffice for at least
southern England. Galvanised iron is quite as
cold, and does not ventilate, having, therefore,
no merit at all beyond durability. Either of
these, however, ceiled with thin match-boarding
nailed under the rafters, is a warm and good

roofing. Wood alone also makes a good roof.
Feather-edge boards may be overlapped hori-
zontally, and tarred periodically, or thicker
boards, tongued or plain, may be laid edge to
edge from the highest point to the eaves. This
should be coated with hot gas tar in which a
pound of pitch to the gallon is dissolved. Or
the wood may be tarred, then covered with thick
brown paper tacked down, and again tarred ; or
calico will be still better. Or the wood may be
covered with roofing felt, or roofing paper, tarred
annually. It cannot be too widely known, if
durability be desired, that wood alone is use-
less for the roofs of poultry-houses in this
country, since the best material will in time,
owing to the effects of rain and sun, commence
to warp, with the result that the wet, per-
colating the boards and dripping on to the
litter on the floor, will soon make it unfit as
bedding for fowls. Roofing-felt of some kind
is essential, and, moreover, is cheap.

We come next to the floor of house and
shed. Fowls will stand activity over wet runs,

on which they only walk at their
Flooring of choice ; but cannot be kept success-
Shsd. fully in confinement for long, if the

floor and walls of the house, and
floor of the shed on which they depend for
shelter, be not dry. However damp the ground,
this can almost always be effected by digging
and taking away till hard earth be reached, then
putting on a layer of broken bricks, or stones,
or clinkers, from one to two feet deep, in any
case enough to raise the level six inches above
the ground, and on this a layer of concrete
made of hot fresh-slaked brown lime, and
gravel or pounded clinkers. Sometimes it is
better to use a dry mi.xture of quicklime
pounded, gravel, and tar, the smell of which
repels rats and mice. If there is definite cause
to dread rats, however, it is worth while to lay
small-mesh wire netting over the beaten-down
surface of the drainage material, and below the
concrete, and to carry it a foot up all the walls.
A shed thus floored, and with the roof well pro-
jecting, and boarded up a foot or more, will be
nice and dry. On the hard floor can be placed
cither dry earth, peat moss, road-sweepings,
chaff-dust, oat husks or straw, to be periodic-
ally removed when contaminated.

On good, dry soil all this is not necessary.
Mere trodden earth will, in that case, do for the
house, and also for the floor of the shed ; but in
the shed some inches of earth should first be
removed, to be returned in a loose state, after
the subsoil has been levelled, and smoothed, and
rammed down to a hard, permanent floor. This
is the proper way to keep a shed — and especially

i8

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

a shed which constitutes the only run the fowls
have— clean. To dig it up a foot deep every
two or three weeks, as some do, answers for a
period ; but gradually the whole mass becomes
contaminated to that depth, and the fowls begin
to ail from the poisonous atmosphere. If all
can be removed and replaced with fresh earth
every three months or so, it will answer. But it
is much easier and more manageable to renew
merely a few inches of scratching material,
down to a hard bottom, as above indicated. The
removed earth or litter will be valuable for the
garden. In the winter months it is a good plan
to throw down a few bushels of chaff as well, or
some straw, spreading it over the loose earth — it
will keep the fowls scratching, and promote
warmth.

Let us next suppose that it is desired to carry

out the fresh-air system in high degree, in even

such a small house as here supposed.

Fresh-air Plans jhig caj-, be done in several ways.

SmaU House. ^ ""oof '^'^ ^°°s^ (^•^- uncemented)
tiles is one way ; the air will escape
quite freely, and it will only be needful to see
that the birds on the perch are not in any direct
draught from the entrance hole. This method
is, however, rather cold for latitudes much higher
than London. It is really warmer to have a
tight roof, but to form the house and shed as in
Fig. 2. The back A B, and ends, A C and B D,
are closed ; but the front, turned towards a
sheltered or warm aspect, is only closed from D

a house thus constructed, and ventilation is
entirely free and open, whilst the house will be
many degrees warmer than the outer air, if the
walls are good. Such a plan can be readily

Fig. 2. — Semi-open House.

to E, E C being wired in, with a hole for entrance.
The perch is at F G, in the most sheltered part,
but facing the open shed. Here we have pure
open air, and practically no draught, and the
wind can only reach the perch from about the
point C. Still more shelter can be secured by
some modification of the above plan, such as we
show in Fig. 3. Here the side of the house next
the open shed is partially closed, E H ; and the
perch, F G, put back into the part most sheltered ;
the vacant space is, however, entirely open from
top to bottom. No direct wind at all can reach

A B

H

E

Fig. 3. — Semi-open House.

adopted in any buildings, on any scale, and will
give shelter sufficient for almost any part of
England : in parts of Scotland it might not
suffice so far as the egg-basket is concerned

In regard to this question of warmth no rule
can be laid down. If the house can be built

against a wall at the back of which
Warmth. is a fireplace or stable, it will promote

eggs in winter, and a genial aspect
is also desirable, though by no means essential.
In very severe climates, like the United States or
northern England, some form of stove may be
beneficial ; but heat is generally overdone. The
evil is that the birds then take cold on going out
into the air. The lamp or stove should be so
adjusted as not to raise the heat above about
50°, which can easily be done with a little care
and thought. In such a house as Fig. 3 a plain
petroleum lantern with a wire fence round may
be used, with no ill result, owing to the free circu-
lation. Experience has proved that if a few
fowls are in a house and shed, and kept warm
and sheltered — that is, day and night — a hen
thus kept warm will lay better. It is heat alter-
nated tvith cold which does so much mischief,
especially if, besides the heat, the fowls also
breathe (in a close house) the fumes from a
stove.

In most cases it is probable that the house
will be closed in ; then we must see to express

ventilation, yet without any definite
Ventilation, draught from one point to another

coming upon the inmates. Usually
the entrance hole will be at the front end of the
side wall ; then obviously we place the perch at
the back side of the house, to be away from it,
and the ventilator should be so placed that the
draught from this entrance-hole to it does not
cross the fowls. That is really the main point.
The ventilator itself should be such that no
strong wind can blow directly down upon the

SHELVES AND DROPPING BOARDS.

19

birds. Some louvre boards (i.e. like a Venetian
blind) are good ; so is a sheet of coarsely
perforated zinc over a hole in the wall, or in
the ceiling under tiles. The various patent
ventilators have no objection beyond their
cost.

A closed house should have a window of
some kind. The fowls need to see what they
are about, and so does the proprietor. One
that can be opened will be all the better for
the hot weather.

Internal arrangements of a small house can-
not be too simple, the essentials being ready
access to everything, and easy cleanliness, the
latter of which has, of course, much to do with
the pure atmosphere we have been already
considering. Perches should be kept low, and in
a small house one is better than more. Active

breeds may fly down from a high tree
Perches. if they can have a long slant for the

flight ; but if not, they fall heavily,
and in confined space much injury to the feet
may be done by what seems quite a small height.
We formerly used, and even advised, very broad
perches, planed nearly flat, with only top corners
rounded. Longer experience has convinced us
that smaller ones are better, and that best of all
are branches, with slight variations in size, and
little irregularities and crooks (though taking off
all prominent knots). These irregularities go a
long way to prevent mischief, and the general
size may run from \\ to 2f inches diameter,
according to the fowls. Perches should be loose,
resting on a flat cut under each end, and should
be lifted now and then and dressed, also the
ledges on which they rest, with oil and paraffin,
to keep away the red mite. They are better not
more than twelve to eighteen inches high for
large fowls, and two to three feet for lighter ones.
Many, however, prefer to roost large Asiatics
upon straw or fern. This will do upon the
floor if it is perfectly dry, and the same straw
will answer for several days if regularly shaken
up with a stick and the droppings taken away
from underneath.

With perches also, cleanliness must be con-
stantly attended to. The floor should be freshly

sprinkled every morning with earth,

or sand, or ashes, or peat-moss litter,
chaff, or some other dry stuff,

after taking up the droppings with a
dust-pan and scraper. Or a board may be laid
under the perch and similarly treated. But, for
a small house especially, we know no better plan
than one whose principle we took from the
Canada Farmer more than thirty years ago ;
since then the publicity we have given to it has
carried it all over the world, and experience still

Cleanliness
and the Shelf
Method.

testifies to its utility. Its distinguishing feature
is the broad shelf (a. Fig. 4), resting loosely at
the ends on strips or ledges, at the back of the
house, with the perch placed six to eight inches
above it, a foot from the wall. The nests are
placed on the ground underneath the shelf, and
are quite protected.

Fig. 4. — Shelf in House.

. Rroad shelf, fifteen or twenty inches high.
Perch, six to eight inches above shelf.
N ests under perch, open in front and on tof

A shelf of this kind under the perch offers
many advantages. From its convenient height,
it is scraped clean and sprinkled every morning
with the greatest comfort, and preserves the floor
almost entirely from pollution. It keeps perch and
nests over the same portion of floor, thus making
quite a small house more roomy. Another very
great advantage is that it screens from all upward
draught, and also intercepts radiation from cold
or damp ground : it thus adds much warmth to
such an arrangement as Fig. 2 or Fig. 3. If
large Asiatics are roosted upon straw, it is also
the warmest arrangement, in that case substitut-
ing straw for the perch. It must not be forgotten
to lift the shelf now and then, and dress the ends
and the ledges on which it rests with paraffin oil.
In America the tendency has been more and
more of late years to arrange such a shelf in a
way to be more or less movable,
Dropping under the name of a "dropping
Boards. board " or, more shortly, " drop-

board." In one set of plans before us,
it takes the shape of a square table on four legs,
about two feet high, which can be moved about
when required, and above which the perches are
suspended by perpendiculars from the roof.
Fig. 5 shows an arrangement once in vogue
in houses on the Reliable Poultry Farm,
Ouincy, 111. Each board A A is about 5 feet
square, and is hinged at the back to the sloping

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

roof just above the low back wall. Above the
board are the perches EBB. At the foot is a
box or trough C C, loose on the ground. The
board having ashes or road-dust sprinkled over

Y'vz,. 5. — Dropping Board.

it, the droppings fall in the box C C, which is made
slightly wider than a shovel, so as to be cleared
by one sweep of that implement ; and in the
morning the board is drawn up by the rope and
pulley, and the box C C set back against the
wall out of the way. The object of these
arrangements is to leave all the floor space at
liberty for the fowls, which is desirable in winter
time, when they are confined. Another arrange-
ment, said to be largely used in the eastern
States, is a permanent flat shelf at the back of
the house, about three feet from the ground, to
the under side of which are fixed the partitions
and front ledges only of a row of nests. Under
these is hinged at the back another shelf, as a
bottom for these nests. This arrangement also
leaves the entire floor clear, and when the nests
want cleaning or renewal of material, the bottom
is let down, and everything falls to the floor,
after which all is replaced clean. Before adopt-
ing any of these arrangements, ingenious as
they are, it should be remembered that their
main object \s floor space, which is not so neces-
sary in a climate where the fowls can run out,
more or less, all the year. But their wide
adoption is at least a proof of the great use-
fulness and convenience of the shelf method.

Little is really needed for nesting in a small
house. Hens like some darkness and seclusion ,
but under such a shelf as in Fig. 4 a few bricks
to confine a little straw will be sufficient. Other-
wise a row of nests can be arranged by tacking
together a thin board all along the top, thin

partitions, and a strip three inches high in front
to keep in the straw ; this needs no back, but
can go against the wall. The less wood, and
cracks, and joins, the better. The old-fashioned
tiers of nests are never used now. Half of a
cheese-box on the ground makes a good nest.
Complication, fixity, and harbour for vermin are
the points to be avoided.

Sometimes no wall is available for even a
small lean-to fowl-house. In such case the
back uprights as well as the front ones must
be halved or mortised into back sills, if they are
to be tenants' fixtures ; otherwise they can, if
preferred, be sunk in the ground. But sill-work
is really the best in any case, and makes it
easier to raise the whole, and the floor, by a
" footing " of bricks. The whole may be on
the same plan, of a small house with shed at
the side ; or as Fig. 2 or Fig. 3 for ventilation.
Ready-made houses for fowls are now made
and sold very cheaply by quite a number of
manufacturers, in a great variety of
patterns. They can be had built
for a lean-to against a wall ; or en-
tirely detached, with span, or circular,
roofs. We have seen them adver-
tised as low as 25s. for four feet square, but this
is really too cheap for sound timber. They are
packed flat for carriage, and readily put together
by anyone at all used to even the simplest tools.
There is one point about many of the smaller
houses, common to all manufacturers ; viz. that
the floor of the roosting-house itself is raised a
couple of feet from the ground, so that of itself
it forms a shed or shelter for the ground under-
neath. A good pattern for rather a larger house

Portable
Houses.

or slantins

Fig. 6. — Portable House.

than usual is shown in Fig. 6, the house being
made rather narrow but long, so as to give
more shed room. These houses are cheap, and
often very useful, but two or three things about
them need to be borne in mind. The first is,
that the sizes given in most price lists are not

MANAGEMENT OF SMALL SPACE.

large enough for the numbers usually stated with
them : thus a house four feet square is often given
as " suitable for twelve fowls." It is nothing of
the sort : more than half that should not be
placed in it, unless small breeds on a wide
range. Except on such a large run, or with
some other shelter available, or in some sheltered
position, such as a shrubbery, the area of the
bottom shed is not altogether sufficient. With
such adjuncts it may be ; but care should be
taken to raise the ground some inches, and
special care to constantly renew clean dry dust-
ing material, unless other dusting places are
available. Another point to remember is that
in snow or rain the fowls, crowding under the
shelter, arc very likely, at night, to remain there,
rather than go out momentarily into tbi- wet
to go up to roost ; this should always be looked
after. Chinks may, not unlikely, open after a
while in the floor, and cause draught : such must
be stopped by some material if it is so. Even
the entrance, in its raised position, is far more
exposed than when on the ground ; and such a
house should therefore always be turned to a mild
quarter. It is often convenient, and certainly
better, as a rule, where ready-made buildings
are purchased, to get a shed entirely separate,
such as are also supplied by the makers of the
houses.

Somewhere in each shed, and in the driest
part of it if any damp comes in anywhere, there
must be a heap of fine dry earth.
Dust-bath. or road-dust, or finely sifted ashes,
in which the fowls may roll and
cleanse themselves from insect vermin — their
only means of doing so. To answer its purpose
this must be renewed every now and then,
and especially never allowed to remain long if
it gets damp. One plan is to part off a back
corner of the shed about a yard square, by two
boards about six inches high placed on edge,
and to keep this place filled to the top. The
only case where special provision is not necessary
is where the entire shed floor is some inches
deep in dry loose material, kept clean and re-
newed as above described. Then the fowls can
use that at pleasure.

Before leaving the smallest houses, it may
be well to answer a question, often put to us,
as to the smallest space in which it
Small Space, is possible to keep a few fowls, in
health and to some profit ; or the
query often takes the form of asking how many
can be kept in a " house " of given size, say five
feet square, and a certain height. The number
to be kept in these cases never depends upon
the size of the house (though it would do so
were the house in a park or large range), but

on that of the shed and run. Taking medium-
sized fowls, such as Minorcas, our experience
taught us that the minimum was about ten to
twelve square feet of run to each fowl ; thus,
half a dozen would need a shed, say six feet by
twelve. But this supposes a shed kept perfectly
dry, and an amount of cleanliness which many
people would never dream of, with most careful
dieting. Large fowls would need more, bantams
less. Such confinement supposes that offending
matter be taken out every day from the shed as
well as the house, and no refuse ever left therein.
With all precautions, such confinement is very
apt to produce the vice of feather-eating ; but
this may not occur, and we are only speaking
of health and profit.

Such small space must be ail of it covered
dry sited, yet with plenty of light and some sun,
and cleanliness is easiest preserved by flooring
it with some inches of fine dry earth, or sand,
which is to be raked clean every day. A
common rake will be useless ; but by driving
long and thin French nails a quarter-inch apart
into the edge of a strip of wood, and then
cutting off the heads with wire nippers to the
same length, a rake is formed that will remove
most of the offensive matter. The only other
way is to scrape up an inch deep of the material,
and sift it through a wire sieve. If once a run
begins to " smell," it means disaster ; and it is
to be remembered that there may be no smell
apparent to a human being, while a fowl, so
much nearer the ground, may suffer from the
poisonous exhalations. Disinfectants are of no
practical use in this case ; one bad smell does
not remove the evil of another.

Supposing more space can be given to the
fowls, it will be far better to consider, as the

first claim upon it, a fair amount of
Double House Open rini in front of a single house
and Yard. and shed. The latter need not then

cost nearly so much labour. On a
yet larger, but still limited scale, the plan in
Fig. 7 may be recommended from experience,
having served us well personally for some years.
It will be sufficient, if there is besides some other
bit of shelter, and a lawn or grass run, or even
another piece of yard, in which chickens can be
cooped and reared for the first few months of
their lives, to rear for exhibition a few fowls
of such breeds as do not require separate pens
to breed the two sexes. It consists of two
houses, sheds, and runs such as above described,
separated by a small open shed and run, which
we used for sitting hens, and which also comes
in handy for many other purposes. The plan as
shown covers a space of thirty-five by twenty-
five feet, on which scale the open yards must be

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

gravel, sand, or trodden earth : grass runs would
require far more, as presently mentioned. The
houses are drawn as they really were, with nests
at the back and the perches a little more for-
ward ; but to the same general plan can be
readily adapted any of the arrangements shown
in Figs. 2, 3, and 4.

Such a plan as this leads us at once to the
consideration of some further points, each of
practical importance. The first is that of the
preservation in healthy condition of
limited runs. Though so much labour
is not needed as when a small shed
is the

Caxe of

Small

Buns.

y

B

only space the
fowls have, care is
still required, else
the runs will get
into a foul con-
dition, and disease
follow. It is best
to let the surface
be trodden solid,
when once a week
or so the greater
part of the offend-
ing matter can be
scraped loose,
swept up, and
removed. This
should also be
done on a grav-
elled run. Once a
year half an inch
or so should be
pared off the top
with a spade, to
be crushed and
used as manure, a
correspon ding
quantity of fresh
earth beingthrown
in and spread over
the surface. If
every two or three ^ ^ f,^^

years the run be " "■ f^"'

•' . , , <^ c. Shed

dug up. With these d d. Cras

aids it may be
kept healthy for a long period,
are of little use, and dangerous.

Fig.

ting and Laying Houses.

;d-in Covered Runs.

and Run for Sitting Hens.

Disinfectants
Some people
prefer to let the loose earth alone, and dig the
run over every six months or so. This plan
will generally answer for four or five years, or
even more ; but as there is no crop to consume
the manure, the poison is apt to accumulate by
slow degrees in the mass of earth. Soils differ,
however, and in some cases a good loamy earth
seems able to deodorise all that is thus due

into it. To help this, it is well to confine the
fowls to the shed for a v/eek after the winter
digging.

We have next to consider grass runs. These
are the best of all for poultry, giving natural
green food at nearly all seasons in
Grass England (not in America), and also ex-
Runs, ercise and more or less insect food.
Where space can be given for grass, no
single condition will do so much for fowls and
owner ; but it is no use attempting grass unless
there is adequate space, and a great deal is re-
quired. Experience taught us very early that
in England one
gj hundred and
twenty fowls re-
quired an acre of
run if kept on it
permanently; and
the larger breeds
should not exceed
one hundred per
acre. But this is
not the best way
of using the land,
which will be kept
healthier in the
long run by over-
stocking it to the
extent of even
double, provided
each run can be
vacated for three
months every
year. This also
brings runs into
more compact
compass, and so
we arrive at a
grass run of about
twenty - five feet
by fifty feet for
a pen of six large
Asiatic fowls.

A run of this
reduced size, thus
tenanted, will last
for several years,
even when occupied without cessation, with no
apparent detriment, if constantly attended to ;
but it does gradually become " sickened,"
unless It can be vacated for freshening and
purification. Amongst a number of runs this
can be managed, either by three months an-
nually, or six months bi-annually. This time
need not be wasted wherever grass or hay can
be used, as a crop may be taken a week or
two before the tenants are returned to it. The

-0-

7. — Double Vard.

MANAGEMENT OF GRASS RUN.

23

runs will also need mowing tolerably often,
even while occupied ; since, although too over-
crowded for safe permanent occupation, this
does not mean that the grass is kept down.
Near the house it may be, but less so the
farther away ; and it must be mown whenever
it is long, else the fowls may get balls of long
tangled grass in their crops, and may eat blades
of it, part of which are contaminated. Such
fouled grass is simply poison. All this is
avoided, worms and insects made more accessible,
and the droppings more quickly washed into the
actual soil, to be absorbed, instead of adhering
to the grass, by proper mowing as required.
Keeping the grass constantly iiioiun short is the
one matter of greatest importance in the manage-
ment of limited grass runs. Grass cut during
full occupation should be burnt, and the ashes
mixed with the other manure.

Regular cutting is of equal importance to
runs meant to be constantly occupied, and
which are therefore of larger size. Much grass
will then grow to waste, yet the conclusion
must not be drawn that so much space is not
needed ; long experience has shown that it is,
if the tenancy is to continue longer than five
to six years, up to which time a crowding of
considerably more than the hundred per acre
may generally be carried on without apparent
harm. But somewhere about that time Nemesis
comes, and often with no apparent warning.

The reason of these results from over-crowd-
ing grass runs was demonstrated by Dr. Klein,
the well-known bacteriologist, who
Mortality in investigated the mortality upon a

Over-crowded ,, \. c >' ,. r\ ■ \- \

H^^s poultry-farm at Urpmgton, where

four hundred to five hundred birds
were habitually kept upon two acres of land, or
more than double the number above laid down.
The birds would be apparently well even thirty-
six hours before death ; then were attacked by
a thin yellow diarrhoea, became sluggish, and
in a day or so died. On post-mortem, the spleen
was found greatly enlarged and soft ; the liver
also enlarged and disorganised ; the coats of
the intestines considerably inflamed. The blood
was swarming with bacteria, which, being isolated
in pure cultures and cultivated in the usual way,
caused the disease in about five days when in-
oculated into healthy fowls. The bacteria also
swarmed in the evacuations, and it was found
that fowls given food polluted by these evacua-
tions were also attacked by the disease. All
becomes perfectly clear in the light of these
facts. Without discussing how the disease yfrj/
arises — and many bacteriologists are now of
opinion that germs ordinarily innocent may by
changes in the surrounding circumstances become

modified into deadly varieties, a process itself
more likely to take place under any unhealthy
conditions — it is onlj' necessary to suppose one
fowl acquiring or importing such disease, and
the more crowded the run, the more surely and
rapidly must one fowl after another pick up
the contamination in its food.* This is all the
more likely with rather long grass, which pre-
serves the evacuations from being washed into
the soil, while it is constantly eaten by the
occupants. Hence the inferiority in healthi-
ness of even a large run constantly occupied, to
a smaller one, even less than half the size, which
can be entirely vacated for some months, and
have a crop removed every year.

In America, smaller grass runs appear to be
found more satisfactory than we have stated ;

but the reasons are pretty plain. As
Climate and a rule they are necessarily vacated
Grass Run. during the winter, the fowls being

reduced in numbers and confined in
sheds, owing to the severe climate and the snow.
The ground vacated is commonly ploughed up.
and sown with winter rye-grass, which thoroughly
sweetens the soil and consumes the manure by
a regular crop yearly. The soils, again, are very
generally somewhat light and sandy, which
carries out these natural processes more rapidly.
Lastly, the climate as a whole is dry, both in
summer and winter. The enormous difference
this makes we may see by considering the case
of a guano island, where the sea-fowl have lived
for generations upon ground actually composed
of their own evacuations. These are dried up
in the sun and dry air, and cease to exhale
poison in that desiccated state. In England, all
is more or less moist, if not wet, which means
active pollution in every way, air as well as
ground. If these climatic differences are con-
sidered, it will be easily seen that methods
excellent in the States and Canada and worked
with success there are not always practicable in
Great Britain.

Though a very small plot of grass cannot
bear permanent tenancy ; it may, however, be of
considerable use. A few weeks on such a plot
will freshen up two or three exhibition fowls
considerably, or will keep a cockerel, with one
companion or not, in high condition for some
time. And at all times of the year it will be
useful to grozii grass, the best of all green food,
and especially to be cut into fine green chaff for
young chickens as described farther on. For
mere health, a grass run is not at all necessary,
provided proper care be bestowed on cleanliness

* As mentioned elsewhere, Dr. Klein fortunately discovered
that an anti-toxin could be prepared from the germs, which pre'
vented birds inoculated with it from being attacked.

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

and diet ; and it is far better to add the space to
earthen or gravelled yards, than to attempt grass
under conditions in which it cannot be used with
real benefit.

Shade in open grass runs is very desirable,
and of course it is just as well to get something
out of it at the same time. Fortunate are those
who have an orchard at command. Standards
of bush fruit do well in runs for young chickens,
and make the best of shade and scratching-
places ; but larger birds would, of course, eat the
fruit Filbert coppice is good, and often profit-
able. But as a rule, where permanent occupation
is likely, dwarf fruit trees pay best.

Fencing has next to be considered, and what
is best, or necessary, will depend a great deal upon
circumstances. In fencing any yard
Fencing. where runs adjoin, it is very desirable

that the fowls should not be allowed
to see each other ; it keeps cocks from fighting,
and young cockerels from fretting and excite-
ment. With very wide and scattered runs this
is not necessary. Height, again, has to be con-
sidered ; three feet will confine Cochins or
Brahmas, and four feet may suffice for Lang-
shans or Dorkings ; but even six may not
retain Game or Hamburghs.

The cheapest general material is plain wire
netting. We remember when two-inch mesh
netting cost 6d. per yard: it can now be ob-
tained at 6s. 4d. for a roll of fifty yards 3 ft.
wide.* This will be of light gauge wire. No. ig,
which, however, may suffice for many purposes
where a fixture ; but if durability is desired,
and especially if fencing is to be removed (for
periodical crops of hay or grass), stout wire is
cheaper in the end, and will run up to about 13s.
per roll for No. 16, other prices being inter-
mediate. For extensive fencing the cheapest
plan is to drive stakes into the ground, 1)2 to
2 inches square, the stoutest size every twelve
feet apart, and smaller ones half way. To these
the netting is fastened by small galvanised
staples if a fixture; but if removable, placing
them on or lifting them off small, headless
French nails, driven in at a downward slant, so
that the wire rests in the angle. There must be
no rail at the top, only the selvage of the net-
ting; but if desired, a long fence may be
strengthened by stretching a barbed wire alL
along the top from stronger iron posts at the
corners of the run. Something in regard to
lateral rigidity and strength of the stakes will
depend upon the wdnds to which the locality is
subject. Thin boards can be fastened to the
same stakes by large tack-nails : three nine-inch

• These and the other prices quoted on this p.ige were the
prices ruling in 1910.

boards will run up twenty-seven inches, and any
required width of netting may go above that.
Large runs should be so planned that fifty-j-ard
rolls will cut up evenly, especially if intermediate
fences are removed during vacation.

Having driven many wooden stakes for fenc-
ing in our time, a few words may be useful in
regard to the best method. They should be
pointed with long points, and tarred some days
before driving. An iron tool should be provided,
which we will call a " perforator," somewhat
smaller than the end of the stake, and a some-
what similar taper at the end : a piece of iron
tube, with a solid head and point welded in, is
lightest to handle. When boards are used for
the lower part, one of the boards is used as a
measure, the " perforator " being driven in by a
heavy hammer at such a point that the end of
the board will come over half the stake when
driven. The "perforator," being driven deep
enough, is loosened by side taps and withdrawn,
when the stake itself is driven into the hole thus
made, this time using a mallet. We tried several
ways, but found this much the best, and the
special tool well worth its cost. Iron stakes
with prongs may also be used, and the wire
tied to them. Such stakes blacked will cost
about 13s. 6d. per dozen six feet high, or about
20s. /d. galvanised ; four feet high may run
about 6s. and 8s. respectively.

The same fencing will be cheapest for small
runs if home labour be employed in putting up ;
but where this is impossible, various patterns of
poultry-fence and hurdles sometimes come
cheaper in the end, owing to the saving of
labour, though much more costh- in themselves.
A fence made in liurdles six feet long and si.x
feet high, with match-boards near the ground
and two-inch wire above, will cost about 3s.
per yard, with bolts and nuts ; gates or doors
from 3s. each. These fences only need fixing
in the ground by their pronged feet, which most
people can manage.

On a farm or other wide range, hedges and
other fences will be used as far as possible. A
very imperfect hedge may often be made into
a thoroughly efficient fence by simply running
twelve inches of wire netting along the bottom
on one side, which is easily kept in place by
stout galvanised wire stakes threaded through
it and thrust into the ground. This will only
cost three or four shillings for fifty yards. The
netting should not be placed on the inside of
the hedges all round a field ; the use of one
hedge at least being left to each flock for
shelters and dusting-places. A periodical ex-
amination of such fences for weak places is
desirable.

LARGER POULTRY-YARDS.

25

For extensive establishments, such as will
be required if breeding for regular exhibition

be carried on, or a regular demand
Larger lor eggs or stock is to be supplied.

Poultry-yards, a great variet)^ in arrangements is

possible. Where unlimited range
is at command, it has already been hinted that
there is perhaps no better plan for securing
success in these objects than to scatter about
in sufficiently distant and distinct localities a
number of detached houses. On some estates
no fencing at all may be required, the laying out
of the estate keeping the flocks sufficiently
separated ; but if fencing be necessary, a small
expense in wire netting will do all that is
requisite. There will usually be ample shelter
and dusting-places in shrubberies or plantations
or under hedges, wherever such methods are
possible ; hence such houses as are shown in
Figs. 2, 3, 4 will answer all purposes ; or even
a large hogshead with the head knocked out,
turned on its side upon four bricks, with a floor
fitted in near the bottom side, and a perch near
the back end, may be enough for a breeding-pen
of fowls if placed in the shelter of a copse or
shrubbery. Such a plan has the advantage of
gratifying a pleasant hobby without sinking
large sums in permanent buildings ; and it is a
pity that the cases are so few in which it
can be followed. The only drawbacks are,
that while the bloom and health of the
fowls will be magnificent, the egg yield will
probably not be very great, and much time
will be occupied in going round and attending
to the stock.

A more compact arrangement of runs must
be the usual plan in this country, even where
grass is at command. In this case, also, many
poultry-keepers of great experience prefer,
having divided the ground into runs of the re-
quired size, to place a small detached wooden
house in each, somewhat as shown in Fig. 8,
though the actual plan and arrangements may
vary widely. Portable houses, such as Fig. 6,
are often used in this way. The objection to
this plan is that, unless the houses are a great
deal larger than necessary, the shedding under-
neath is too small, at least so far as concerns
exposed runs : shrubs or trees might supply the
lack. Otherwise it is better to incur the cost of
separate sheds, C, as well, for the other ends of
the runs. This plan — we mean of having the
house at one end and the shed at the other — also
has the advantage of inducing the fowls to use
more equally a range of long and narrow runs,
which is often the most convenient way of
plotting out a piece of land, or of visiting all
the houses in order. Of course no such exact-

ness of arrangement is necessary. Aspect has
to be considered, both as regards the houses and
the sheds ; and in many cases, by arranging the
shed so that one corner meets one corner of
the house, a judicious choice of position and
angle will give a maximum amount of shade
and shelter to the birds, a matter which should
always receive thought when a number of runs
are in question. As a rule, such contiguous
houses and sheds are more suitable for runs
approaching a square in shape.

IH

I'^I

M

|a|

B

B

B

B

I c 1

1 "^ 1

1 ^ 1

! = i

Fig. 8. — Detached Houses in Runs
A A. Roosting-houses. B B. Runs. c c. Open sheds.

Ranges of houses and shedding are, however,
more usual, and generally more convenient,

saving much in time, and labour, and
Ranges of exposure of the attendant in bad
Buildings. weather. The chief practical difficulty

in planning such buildings is that,
unless the cost be incurred of more house and
shed room than is necessary, it makes a grass
run so narrow in proportion ; fowls do not use a
very long and narrow strip of grass to the greatest
advantage. Bare earth yards will be shorter, and
to them the objection does not so much apply.
Thus, a house five by six feet, and a shed ten by
six feet, will occupy the end of a run fifteen feet
wide, and a bare earth or gravel yard twenty or
thirty feet in front would be in good proportion.
But a grass plot must be seventy or eighty feet
long for a pen of say six fowls ; and though it
may do, this is not a desirable proportion.

This difficulty may be met, and probably a
set of buildings erected with the minimum of
material for the same amount of accommodation,
by planning a range of buildings for the centre
of a piece of ground, as in Fig. 9. Each of the
eight pens here provided has a roosting-house .\,
six feet square, and a shed E, twelve by six, so as
to use twelve feet boards throughout. Such a

26

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

group of buildings, in the centre of say half an
acre of land, will give well-proportioned runs C C,
and offer great capabilities of practical work,

Fig- 9- — rian foi^ ^ Central Range of Buildings.
A A. Roosting-houses. B B. Sheds. c C. Grass runs.

with great economy of material ; the houses
being in the centre will have the greatest amount
of warmth at night and coolness by day, or may
be left half open, on the plan of Fig. 2, still
giving ample shelter. An attendant can also
see to the whole series under the shelter of the
outer sheds. On the other hand, this plan does
not admit of extension beyond eight houses and
yards, while buildings in a plain row, though
subject to the difficulty above mentioned, may
be developed to any extent desired.

In regard to such ranges, or rows of houses,
what is known as the " corridor " plan gives
the maximum of comfort and con-
venience, at a little more cost of
space and material. The very first
example of this plan, so far as we
have been able to learn, was a house erected
for his Spanish fowls by the late Mr. Henry
Lane, of Bristol, which was figured in the
Practical Poultry Keeper of 1867, and has thence
been widely imitated and further developed,
owing to its obvious advantages. The outer
walls v/ere of brick. A covered passage, A (Fig. 10),
ran along the back of all, and, by a door in each,
had access to any of the roosting-houses B B.
Mr. Lane had the passage warmed by hot-
water pipes, «a, wh'ch were however only used in

The

Corridor

Plan.

frosty weather. Spanish combs are particularly
apt to get nipped at such times, and for them the
pipes were no doubt useful, employed with judg-
ment. They are also commonly used in America ;
but only in northern latitudes and for certain
breeds can they be necessary in Great Britain.
The passage was sky-lighted, and had free venti-
lation at the highest point of the roof; the doors
at the ends of the passage were not meant to be
left open, on account of draught, unless in the
very hottest weather. Each house, B, was seven
and a half by four feet, and the sides facing the
passage were only boarded up about two feet,
the remainder being wire-netting. Thus the
birds had a free supply of pure air, while quite
protected from the weather, and could be in-
spected on their roosts at night without disturb-
ance. The nests were reached from the passage
by a flap, thus the house was never entered
except to clean it or to handle a bird. A small
trap-door as usual communicated between the
houses, B B, and outer open sheds, C C, enclosed,
however, by netting in front. These sheds
measured seven and a half by nine feet each,
and were floored with about two inches deep of
powdery lime-rubbish from the kilns. This was
of course air-slaked, and suited Spanish very
well, keeping perfectly dry and lasting a good
while when properly looked after ; but it would
ruin the colour of any yellow-legged breed. In
front of all were two grass runs, into which any
pen could be turned at pleasure. Each pen was

Fig. 10. — Mr. Lane's Yard.
a <z. Hot Pipes. A A. Corridor. B B. Roosting-houses. c c. Shedding.

itself thus only seven and a half feet wide, which
would be sufficient for Spanish, but not for many
other breeds. Arranging the shed thus, in front
instead of at the side of the roosting-houses.

THE CORRIDOR PLAN.

gives the very narrowest form of the system ;
and the grass runs were kept wider by allowing
one run to two or three pens, which had its use
in rotation.

The systematic poultry-breeder, however,
requires a great deal of accommodation besides
the sheds and runs for his actual breeding-pens
or flocks of chickens, and by bringing the space
for this into his range of buildings, he can
easily adapt the corridor plan to fairly propor-
tioned runs of grass. After a quarter-century of
further experience and examination of numerous
establishments, we still find it impossible to
do better than repeat here, as an example of
thorough comfort, facility in work, and general
usefulness in a range of buildings, the range of
houses and runs we designed for our own use in
1872, and which, since we published it, has also
been extensively used all over the world.
Indeed, either the single- or double-range
" corridor " plan, with modifications according
to circumstances, is probably the most used
of any, where a regular range of buildings is
decided upon.

In this plan (Fig. 11) a single passage P P
runs up the centre, between ranges of house
and shedding on each side, this passage being
three feet wide. The entire building covered
seventy-five feet by fifteen feet.* The double-
pitch roof was covered by loose tiles, the corridor
being simply lighted by inserting glass tiles at
intervals. There was sufficient frontage each
side for three grass runs, or six in all, each twenty-
five feet by fifty-five feet, which comfortably
accommodated five or six Brahmas, or a selected
lot of cockerels or pullets ; but only five were
occupied, in order to give every such run two
months' rest in the year. The shedding on each
side, six feet deep from front to back, was used
as follows : The roosting-houses A A were five
feet wide, entirely enclosed by match-boarding
on the side towards the run, and at the sides ;
but the side fronting the corridor was only
boarded up three feet high, the rest being netted.
The sheds B B occupied twelve feet more ; these
were open (except netting) in front, but boarded
up like the houses for three feet high ne.xt the
corridor, and netted above, so that from the
corridor everything could be seen. The remain-
ing eight feet of shed fronting each run was
occupied by two small houses D D with small
pens E E, each four feet wide, of which there

* We had the timbers put up and the tiles put on by con-
tract, in order to be sure of a roof to work under in wet weather.
The whole of the remaining work was done personally, during
a three weeks' summer holiday ; every door and gate being
made and hung, every stake driven, every board fixed, every
hinge and latch put on, by our own hands. Hence the money
cost beyond material was but small.

were, therefore, twelve in all. Of these every
breeder knows the need ; we used them for
sitting hens, single cockerels which needed pen-
ning off, one of them for a hospital, etc.

As to internal arrangements, the perches c c

\J"'

CW-4S5

B

V

E

D

\

1 E

D

-> ^

D

<

Fig. II. — Double Range of Fowl-houses.

A A. Roosting-houses. b b. Sheds.

bb. Nests. D D. Small Houses.

c c. Perches. e e. Small runs to i

d d. Training-pens. pp. Corridor.

28

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

were near the closed back of the houses, the
nests b b next the corridor, where they could be
reached through a flap-door. The training-pens
dd, for specimens to be exhibited, were nearly
three feet square, and we provided for them by
running back a floor from the top of the yard-
high boarding in the corridor ; thus the floor of
these pens was three feet above the ground, at
the backs of some of the sheds B B. Each row
of pens was well boarded up behind, with wire
fronts ; thus they faced us on each side of the
corridor, at a height of three feet, and occupied
no extra room at all. Everything except mixing
of the food, and the very young chickens, which
had a separate yard, was thus collected under
one tiled roof; as these also might be if desired
Ventilation was free and perfect, and we never
remember a case of roup or catarrh in the place.
In a very cold locality, however, it would be
necessary to have a ceiled or close roof, with
definite ventilators, to stop radiation of heat.
Any corridor house can also be easily heated
if required ; and heating will be less injurious
in a house of this kind than in any other.

Of the many large establishments for
poultry culture which exist in America, it
will be of most interest and value
to notice certain features of con-
struction which are, in one form or
another, typical and general, be-
cause of their relation to climatic differences,
and especially to the necessity for keeping the
fowls shut up under cover for months together
during the winter, and to the intense cold.
Fifty years ago the few who kept any number
usually confined them in very large houses, or
barns, which gave the requisite space. This
was found too cold to promote winter laying.

Scratching-
sheds in
America.

however, and by degrees there spread the system
of a separate shed by the side or in front of the
roosting house, as is so common in England.
But while with us the shed was chiefly necessary

■■■i^^

ma^S:^^^

I^HBH

1 ■

,^ ■

>wyR

SnHD

■

■'^ ■HRHnffiRjl

SJHHHE^

m

"

1

1 p'^i^'^lsH

iJHH^H

Fig. 12. — Portable Scratching-shed House.

for merely temporary shelter, in America it had
to give exercise during entire confinement for
protection from the weather. Hence it is
termed a " scratching-shed," and under that
name is becoming almost universal in good
poultry plants. In order to use as much as
possible of the short and precious winter sun,
American scratching-shed houses, or ranges of
houses, almost invariably face the south, and
are highest in front, sloping to the back, so that
the sun may shine in. Besides the wire front
which confines the birds, it is usual to pro-
vide movable fronts of thin canvas, oiled or
not, which are kept over the fronts during wet
or snow, and drawn up during dry weather ;
these admit ample light, but keep the shed dry.
In localities where the climate is very severe some
have the front closed by wood and glass, which
can be raised in summer so as to be quite open.

Fig. 13. — Scratching-shed Houses of Mr. A. F. Hunter.

AMERICAN PO UL TR Y-HO USES.

Fig. 12 shows a portable detached scratch-
ing-shed house, as used on many large Ameri-
can poultry establishments. The house and
shed are separate, each being ten feet wide and
mounted on runners, so as to be hauled about
when required, and the doors are shown thrown
wide open as in summer. Ranges of houses
upon the same plan were used on the same farm,
with yards 20 x 100 feet in front of each. Such
ranges are very commonly erected upon a plan
figured and recommended by Mr. A. F. Hunter,
formerly editor of Farm Poultry, and put up
by him on his own farm at South Natick. In
Fig. 13 is given sufficient of such a range of
houses, from a photograph, to show how they
are built in pairs. The size in this case is

Scratching-
Sheds with
Corridor.

intolerable. Some of them prefer the detached
houses of Fig. 12 ; others have tried halving the
doors by placing the shed in front of the house
as in Fig. 10; this, however, nar-
rows the yard far too much, as
already hinted. The majorit\- who
keep large numbers prefer the " cor-
ridor " plan, and endeavour to combine it with
the scratching-shed. In itself this presents no
difficulty, and Fig. 14 gives an elevation and
ground plan of half a building put up by Mr.
C. H. Latham, who reared Plymouth Rocks
at Lancaster, Mass., showing one of the two
wings, each 180 feet long, stretching out from
the central food and cooking-house. ]\Ir.
Latham had been in the business a long time,

=-=,^.

FRONT LLtVATION.

Fig. 14.— Mr. C. H. Latham's Poultry Plant.

8x10 feet for the closed house, which has a very
large window, and lOxiO feet for the shed at
the side, the yards extending 125 feet in front of
each. A feature of this range of buildings is
that all partitions, between houses and sheds,
and the contiguous pairs of each, have double
swing-doors at the front end, and fly iiack by
a spring to the proper position. Thus the
attendant can walk along the front of all, by
pushing open the doors and letting them swing
back behind him, with as little disturbance as
possible to the hens which may be in the nests
or roost at the back. This construction of a
long range with high front, low back, and swing-
doors all along the front, is generally known as
the " Hunter scratching-shed plan." The fowls
roost at the low back of the closed houses, and
in very cold weather it is customary to draw
down curtains in front of the roost to confine
the space and check radiation.

Many of the most practical poultry-farmers
of America, however, and especially some of
those running the largest establishments, find
the numerous swinging-doors of this system

and previously built two poultry plants ; for
this, his third, he moved to another location a
little way off to begin de novo, with the ex-
pressed determination this time "to build right,"
according to his light and the experience he
had acquired. The timber houses are raised a
foot above ground upon a stone and mortar
foundation, as is usual in the best American
establishments. Each pen has a closed house
8x10 feet and a shed 10 x 10 feet, facing south ;
and at the back, or north wall, is a corridor four
feet wide. This is not wired at all, but solid board
all along and over, so that when closed at
night it forms a dead-air space to keep warm.
From it a door opens into every house and
shed, and there is also an outer door about
every sixty feet into the corridor from the outer
waggon-drive. Feeding and watering are all
done from the corridor, the mash being placed
in a trough which rocks back towards the
corridor for filling, and then falls back by its
weight into the shed, at the same time closing
the aperture ; the water-pan is also put through
a door on to its shelf. The corridor wall also

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

has shuttered lattices which can be opened in
hot weather. The roof is a pitched or gable
one, as shown. One length of fence between
the outer yards, ne.xt the buildings, is made to
lift out, so that a team can be turned in to
plough up the runs when required. To the
south of the enclosed yards are three acres of
grass run, and at the north five acres more ; and
it was stated that the owner was able to run the
whole establishment himself without difficulty ;
a statement which certainly gives one an
impressive idea of the activity and energy of
American poultry-farmers.

This plant — a good example of the corridor
system as carried out in America, where the
double-range is impracticable owing to the real
need for southern aspect — was however alleged
to have serious disadvantages, as pointed out
in various poultry journals, which upon the
whole criticised it favourably. The greater
height at the back increases the cost, as does
the solid wall of the corridor. The greater
height of the roost was also said to be less
warm. But chiefly, in a really severe climate,
the high centre roof is said to retain a bank of
unsunned, cold, unsweetened air.

These details have been selected, not with
any delusive idea of presenting a complete
picture of American practice, but as showing
the careful and systematic study given to
problems connected with climate, saving of
labour, or the well-being of the fowls. From
this point of view they may prove useful and
suggestive, and perhaps stimulate invention or
contrivance in other circumstances widely dif-
ferent. We need only add that in America the
double-board system of building, with a dead-
air space between the two skins, is very widely
practised for the sake of warmth, which has an
importance far greater than in England. Some
prefer to make the inner skin of lath and
plaster, as better for lime-washing, giving less
harbour for insects, and warmer than plain
boards. Linings of building-paper under or
over the boards are also commonly used.

Local buildings or accommodation are, of
course, often at hand, and may be largely

utilised. The extensive yard of the late Lady
Gwydyr, figured in the earlier editions of

this work, was founded upon some
Utilising modification of the extensive build-
Buildinls '"5^ ^"'-' shedding of the home farm,

ail of which were devoted to the
purpose. The most remarkable example we
ever came across, however, was in the case of
the late Mr. Henry Beldon, once invincible as
an exhibitor of Hamburghs. Many of his birds
were reared on farms around ; a good system,
followed still by many breeders in the country,
and even by a few in towns, but altogether
depending upon integrity on both sides to
carry out satisfactorily. But he had also in
addition a deserted cotton-mill, containing four
floors, each one hundred and twenty feet by
thirty feet. One floor was of wood, the others
concreted ; and they were divided into pens,
the smallest about ten feet square, and well
lighted by windows. When well matured, ;\Ir.
Beldon found no difficulty in keeping birds
even for months on these floors of the old mill,
till wanted for disposal ; with the help, of
course, of proper litter underfoot and care.

We only need add a few miscellaneous hints
as to planning and putting up a range of build-
ings. We have already advised regard to the
standard length of twelve feet for timbers ; but
it is worth remembering that it will add scarcely
anything to the cost of material if all the six-
feet boards are ordered cut to that length,
ready for nailing on, while it saves a great deal
of labour. At some timber-yards the price " per
square" (lOO feet) would hardly be affected at
all. There should also be plenty of doors and
gates, as it saves time to be able to get about
from one house or run to another in all con-
venient ways. Again, let these be wide enough
to take a basket or basket-coop through easily,
occasions for which may often occur. Where
the corridor plan is not adopted, it is best to
arrange all the doors in line through a range of
buildings, on Mr. Hunter's plan, so that they
swing back both ways into place and stay
there ; this saves a great deal of time and
trouble.

31

CHAPTER II.

THE SCIENCE OF FEEDING POULTRY.

''rVHE scientific basis of a proper diet is

I better understood now than formerly, and

■*- its real principles may be explained in a

way not only easy to understand, but to twr/c

upon, which is the object in view. All who

read at all now understand that life,
Purposes of from the physical standpoint, consists
I"*""!- of processes which involve constant

change of substance and consump-
tion of material. That consumption must, of
course, be replaced ; and thus a certain amount of
food is necessary merely to keep or maintain the
body in its normal condition. Still more food
must be required if groivtii or increase of the
body has to be secured as well ; and yet further
food, if a.ny products of the organism are to be
maintained — such as milk, or eggs ; which, how-
ever, are a kind of growth. Yet further, it is
well known by experience that any special
activity, or work, involves more or less wear
and tear of the tissues, and so requires propor-
tionately more food ; and also that more is
required to maintain the ivarinth of the body
under unfavourable conditions. Greater supplies
of food than are necessary for these, so far as
they can be assimilated, are stored up in greater
bulk of muscle, and in fat ; which superabundant
tissues are the first to waste, or be consumed,
in an animal " starved " either by privation or
disease.

Food, being thus required partly to make up
waste of tissue, partly to supply energy for
work, and partly to supply fuel for heat, must
contain in due proportion the elements of those
tissues, and those necessary for combustion. It
must also contain these in a form that can be
digested, since mere chemical composition is
not enough. An ox, for instance, can live on
grass, or the stalks of grain, and man cannot ;
but when the same elements have been elaborated
into the seeds of the grain (corn), these when
cooked form one of man's principal foods ; or
yet again, he can eat the ox itself. We know
broadly, however, what foods can be digested,
and are here concerned mainly with their com-
position, and that of the animal body whose
needs they are to supply.

Taking such an animal body, by far the
larger portion of it consists of carbon, hydro-
gen, oxygen, and nitrogen ; in less
Composition quantity it contains sulphur, phos-
of the Body, phorus, and calcium (or lime: it is
well known that much of the bones
consists of lime phosphate) ; and still smaller
quantities of iron (chiefly in the blood) and of
salts containing chlorine, iodine, potassium, and
magnesium, with traces of other elements prob-
ably not essential. Of all these elements,
nitrogen is of the first importance, and is the
most distinguishing feature of animal or con-
scious life and activity. Itself a very inert
chemical element, it appears to group round
itself the various other elements, controlling
and organising their constant changes and
recombinations. In these offices it is consumed,
the more rapidly in proportion to the activity of
the animal. The carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
are obviously chiefly employed in maintaining
energy and supporting combustion.

Considering food and its disposal in the
body, we must not suppose that the nitrogen
is consumed entirely oi' chiefly in replenishing
direct waste of tissue. That is a popular error,
but a great error. Some of it does go to repair
actual waste of tissue ; but the larger part
appears to be consumed in carrying out those
constant changes which we call vital processes,
undergoing many and various chemical trans-
formations, but passing through the body in a
very short time in the performance of this func-
tion. Finally, the used nitrogen, both that wasted
from the tissues and that used up in the vital
processes, is e.xcreted mainly in the form of urea.
The far larger quantities of carbon and hydrogen
are used up — burnt up in a sense — in doing
work and producing warmth, using up oxygen
in the process. The used carbon is partly
excreted in the evacuations, but most of it in
breathing and perspiration. The hydrogen nearly
all passes off as water ; and since water is not
only taken in, but also formed in the body by
hydrogen combining with oxygen derived from
the food, more liquid is often excreted than is
drunk. Most of the salts and sulphur taken in

3^

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

of Food and
of the Body.

food, after doing their work in the complex vital
processes, are excreted in the evacuations.

These facts bring us to the point we are
directly and practically concerned with ; viz.

the forms in which the above
Constituents elements exist, in the body to be

fed and in the foods to be given it.

Fortunately for us, both animals and
foods, upon analysis, are found to consist of
compounds which can be grouped into a small
number of classes, wWch fulfil the different
purposes above mentioned, and are found to-
gether in various degrees or proportions. These
are classed as follow : —

1. The class containing nitrogen. These
were once termed proteids, but are now usually
called albuminoids ox albuminates, since albumen
(the white of an egg is nearly pure albumen
mixed with much water) is the chief type of
the class. There are certain vegetable principles
which also contain nitrogen, in the form of
ammonia (hence called amides), which some
writers consider less nutritive, and class by
themselves ; but there is no general agreement
upon this point, and we shall therefore follow
most authorities in classing all nitrogenous com-
pounds with the albuminoids. Fibrin in animals,
gluten in grain, casein in milk, legumin in peas,
belong to this group, almost any of which may
more or less replace another,* and serve, if
sufficient in proportion, as nitrogenous food.
That is the great principle to bear in mind.

2. The next class consists of fats and oils,
often called hydro-carbons, and specially rich
in carbon. A certain portion of fat is necessary
to the healthy body itself ; so necessary, that
unless sufficient be supplied, a certain portion
even of the albuminoids will be decomposed in
order to form fat. Hence, fat in due proportion
is necessary to save or prevent such a wasteful
use of albuminoids. Besides this, we readily see
that this class finds its chief work in supplying
fuel for heat and energy.

3. The next class, called carbo-hydrates,
consists of carbon in less proportion than in
fat, with hydrogen and oxygen in the propor-
tions of water. Starch, sugar, and gum are
leading compounds of this class in the vegetable
world. This group has plainly more or less in
common with the fats, and also supplies fuel for
heat and energy ; but it differs in not being
directly represented, as the fat group is, in the
animal body itself. Carbo-hydrates are, how-
ever, capable of being decomposed, and so
forming fat in the body. Thus they also save
waste of albuminoid foods ; in other words, a

* It is not always fully the case, as is explained later on.

due proportion of the carbon groups, as well
as of the albuminous compounds, is necessary
even for the increase of muscle or lean meat.

4. One component of vegetable foods espe-
cially requires separate mention. Cellulose,
the material of which tough cell-walls and
woody fibre are composed, is of nearly the
same chemical composition as starch. Paper
and cotton-wool are examples of cellulose. But
this and kindred material exists in a form much
more indigestible by most animals, and entirely
so by some ; hence, for our purposes, we take
the harder of such constituents out of the carbo-
hydrates, into a separate class distinguished as
/lusk or fibre. A certain portion may be of
value, as a mechanical stimulus to the intestines;
but except for ruminant animals and birds,
which digest part of them, they are of little
value as food.

5. The last class is that of salts and minerals.
Phosphorus and lime are needed for the bones;
sulphur for the feathers, besides a little for the
muscles ; salt for the whole range of digestive
processes ; alkaline salts to alkalinate the
blood, etc.

Besides the above, there is in all foods a
very variable amount of hydrogen and o.xygen
in the proportions which form ivater, and may
be classed as such, though the water — as in the
case of apparently quite dry wheat or flour —
assumes in some way a solid form, and may not
be water at all.

It is on the basis of these classes of com-
pounds that foods are analysed ; and the great
problem to be solved in feeding, or
Analysis and jn a dietary, is of the very simplest

Nutritive 1 • j r i.i t.. •

Ratio. kmd, SO far as theory goes. It is,

to get a proper proportion betiveen
the albuminoids and the heat-producing groups
of fats and carbo-hydrates. A dietary so
arranged is called a properly " balanced "
dietary ; and if we give such a dietary, in
proper quantity and in digestible forms, the
animal will be properly fed. The actual pro-
portion in any food, or any dietary, is called
its " nutritive ratio." Thus a mixture of meals
whose nutritive ratio is 1:6, means that the
albuminoids in it are as one part by weight to
si.x parts of fats and carbo-hydrates. But in
calculating this ratio, one important modification
always has to be made. Fats are much more
fattening than starch or other carbo-hydrates, and
are more efficient generally, because (as already
noted) they are more rich in carbon. In adding
up the two groups, therefore, we must multiply
the figure for fats and oils by some figure ; then
we may add the product to the carbo-hydrates,
and reckon the total as one, for the nutritive ratio.

COMPOSITION OF FOODS.

Zl>

The precise figure has caused some discussion.
At one time it was customary to multiply the
fats by 244, which is the greater proportion of
oxygen required for their combustion. Bauer
showed that this was too great, and believed that
in the animal body itself about 175 was the true
value. The best authorities now consider that
the correct figure is probably the equivalent of
heat produced by the two groups. According to
this, we must multiply by 225, or 2\, and we
may then add them to the carbo-hydrates, and
shall get the true " nutritive ratio."

Some authorities — -chiefly chemists — intro-
duced another complication into the calculation,

under the title of digestibility.
Digestibility. To quote a well-known writer*: —

" The chemist first determines by
analysis the percentage of each of the nutrients
contained in the food. Weighed quantities of
the feed are then given to some animal, and the
solid excrement voided during the trial is saved,
weighed, and samples of it analysed. Knowing
how much of each nutrient was fed and how
much of it reappears in the solid excrement,
tlie difference is held to be the portion digested,
since it must have been retained in the body."
Many American poultry dietaries have been
calculated upon this principle; the real analysis
being revised by laborious calculation, and the
figures reduced by what is termed a " digestive
coefficient " obtained in this manner. But the
whole is a mistake, based on ignorance of
physiology. Its only basis is the fact that in
the case of animals whose food largely consists
of fibre and hard cellulose, by some of them
scarcely any of this is digested, and it appears in
the excrement in visible form, of which horse
manure is a familiar example. Ruminants,
which subject the fibre to long softening before
rumination, digest a considerable portion even
of such materials, and so do birds, which soften
it in the crop and grind it in the gizzard. But
in such a case as that of man, who rejects such
material from his food before eating, the amount
of solid excreta has absolutely no relation 'what-
ever to indigestibility. Any medical man knows
of cases in which no evacuation may have taken
place for a fortnight or more, though there has
been fair activity, and a quite ordinary amount
of food has been consumed ; whilst in an ordin-
ary case many pounds weight would have been
excreted in the same time. The last case, and
not the first, will be that of the best digestion ;
and the solid excreta, equally with the liquid,
are in their nature not qiaterial which could not
be digested, but secretions through which the

* W. A. Henry, " Feeds and Feeding."

body excludes its used-up products : the pro-
ducts of its vital processes, and of food which
has been effectually digested, and done work in
the manifold changes through which it has
passed while within the system. We shall keep
nearest to the truth so far as known at present,
as well as simplify our work, by classing the
crude fibre or husk by itself as more or less
indigestible, and basing our dietary upon the
rest, letting any nutrient there may be in the
husk go in addition. It is also to be remembered
that this component of poultry food is almost
always more or less laxative in tendency.

On this basis, then, we deal with foods. The
following table gives the principal materials
available for poultry-feeding, roughly classified,
and showing their composition as above de-
scribed ; and the amount of fats and oils is
further shown as multiplied by 2J, in order that
this product may be used for calculating the
nutritive ratio.

COMPOSITION

OF FOODS.

o.-

_^-

- = 2

1

-^ u5

.a

•1^

C

■V, ^"^

*a

iZ

u

Articles of Food.

= ^2

s

>.

- c

s

«

J3 U

b

^"i

1

m2

^

^

<E

u

u

X

Grains and Meals.

Linseed Cake

329

7-9 = 17-8

35'4

5-7

8-9

9-a

Beans and Peas

240

1-5 = 3-4

48-0

2-5

10-0

14-0

Malt Sprouts

23-2

17= 3-8

48-5

5-7

10-7

10-2

Oatmeal

i8-o

6-0 = 13-5

63-5

2-0

I'S

9-0

Middlings or Fine

Sharps

160

4-0 = Q-O

57-0

4^5

4-5

I4'0

Sunflower Seed

160

21-5 = 48-4

21-4

2-6

29-0

9-5

Bran

15-5

4-0 = Q'O

44 '0

6-0

16-5

14-0

Oats and Ground Oats

150

5-5 = 12-4

48-0

2-5

19-0

lo-o

Wheat

120

1-8 = 4-0

70-1

1-8

2-3

12-0

Barley (and Meal) ...

120

1-4 = 3-2

56-0

3-6

14-0

13-0

Millet Seed

II-3

4-0 = g-o

60 -0

3-0

9-4

12-3

Maize

105

8-0 = i8-o

66-5

I '5

2'5

ii-o

Rye

10-5

1-8 = 4-0

72-5

i-g

17

II -5

Buckwheat

100

2-2 = 5-0

62-2

2-0

I I-o

12-6

Hempsecd

100

21-0 = 47-2

45-0

2-0

14-0

80

Dari

95

4-5 = lo-i

687

1-5

3-3

12-5

White Bread

8-8

1-8 = 4-0

56-4

0-5

0-0

32-5

Rice

6-6

0-4 = 0-9

8o-o

0-0

0-0

13-0

Brewer's Grains

54

1-6 = 3-6

12-5

i-o

3-8

75-7

Vegetables.

Potatoes

6-5

0-0 = 0-0

41-0

2-0

0-0

50'S

Red Clover

5-0

0-8 = 1-8

i3'3

2-4

6-5

72-0

Meadow Grass

3-5

I-O = 2-2

13-5

2-0

47

75-3

Hay

8-4

2-6 = 5-8

41-0

6-2

27-2

14-6

Cabbage

2-4

0-4 = 0-9

3-8

1-4

1-5

90-5

Onions

1-5

0-2 = 0-5

4-8

0-5

2-0

91-0

Turnips

0-5

O-I = 0-2

4-0

i-o

1-4

93-0

Animal Foods.

Dry Meat Meal

712

137 = 30-8

0-3

4-1

0-0

10-7

Flesh of Fowls

210

3-8= 8-5

o-o

1-2

0-0

74-0

Horse-flesh

217

2-6= 5-8

0-0

1-4

0-0

74-3

Lean of Beef

205

3"5 = 7'9

o-o

1-6

0-0

74-4

Fresh-cut Bone

20-2

26-1 = 587

0-0

24-0

0-0

29-7

Dried Fish ...

484

ii-b = 26-1

o-o

2g-2

0-0

10-8

Milk

4-0

3-5 = 7-9

4'8

0-7

0-0

87-0

Skim milk (separator)
Eggs (yolk only)
„ (white only) ...

3-1
160

0-3 = 07
30-0 = 67-5

5-3
o-o

0-7
I-o

0-0
0-0

90-6
53-0

120

2-0 = 4-5

0-0

!•»

0-0

84-8

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Nutritive
Batio.

For convenience, in this table the grains and
meals are placed in order of their nutritive
values, or richness in albuminoids. The analyses
are from various sources, many of them checked
by more recent determinations. But no analyses
can be taken rigidly, since a sample of white
oats, 38 lbs. to the bushel, would differ appreciably
from one weighing 42 lbs. Middlings or fine
sharps are especially variable. The figures will,
however, quite suffice as a fair average guide.

In using such a table to plan a dietary, we
must first decide what proportions ought to
exist between the various columns ;
Proper and, above all, the proper " nutritive

ratio " between the albuminoids,
and the fats and carbo-hydrates
added. We need not trouble ourselves much
about the husk or the water, except so far as,
being almost valueless, they affect the real cost
of the food ; and although we must see that
there are salts enough, especially for young
and growing stock, we can easily add them if
required ; so we mainly consider the nutritive
ratio. On this point experiment has been chieHy
confined to the human race and to cattle, the
results very closely agreeing ; and it is generally
held that to maintain healthy anim.al life the
proportion of albuminoids should not be less
than I : 5. Some authorities, more specifically,
consider there should be about albuminoids
18, fats and oils 7, carbo-hydrates 75, which
works out the same ratio almost exactly, experts
differing a little in detail. A similar ratio has
been adopted for poultry, but before doing so,
there are two points to consider.

The first is that of exercise. Cattle lead a
very indolent life, as do the majority of men in
less degree ; and it is universally agreed that an
active life requires rather more of albuminoids.
Fowls are decidedly active animals. Still we
shall certainly be safe in reckoning about i : 4i
as sufficient in genial weather, and keeping up
the same total of albuminoids in winter, but
increasing the carbo-hydrates, or still better
the fats, to about 1:5, in order to meet the
colder weather. Such summer and winter ratios
should be amply sufficient, as regards the fowls
alone.

But there is further to consider any dailj?
product of the stock, such as milk or eggs. For
any such, we must supply the material. This
has been abundantly proved in the case of
milking cows. Milk contains so much fat and
sugar that its own ratio is 1:3 or i :3i, hence
additional food of the ordinary i : 5 ratio, with
sufiicicnt succulent material to supply fluid,
may suffice fairly. Recent experiments have
shown that the average dietary for milking

cows in the United States varies from I : 7 in
some States to as low as i : 10 in others, whereas
it ought to be fully 1:5; and it has been proved
by systematic tests, that when the ratio was
raised even to that figure, the results were so
improved that the butter cost three cents less
per pound. In England a greater supply of
albuminoids is given with yet further benefit,
in the shape of linseed cake, etc. But eggs,
we see above, contain about as much albu-
minoids as fat ; and to produce an ounce daily
(excluding water) of such rich material is no
light task. Hence the need of special food for
laying hens. Such a bird craves for albuminous
food, and every breeder knows that while laying
freely she will often devour with eagerness
those giant earth-worms which, when not laying,
she generally refuses. She 7mist get albumen.
Reserving this point for special consideration,
however, and taking the above-named ratios as
sufficient for ordinary purposes, including rear-
ing, let us now put our table to use ; and first
of all examine a few of the principal ingre-
dients commonly given as food to fowls.

Beans and Peas strike us at once by the
very large proportion of albuminoids compared

with the other groups ; their ratio
Ingredients jg as high as I : 2^. We see why the
Poultry Food, old cockers gave their birds peas

while training, and why beans are
given to horses when in severe work. The
proportion is so large that it may be used to
"balance" the dietary against other foods de-
ficient in this group ; but the deficiency in fats
and carbo-hydrates is so great, that fowls fed
largely on pulse would be hard, dry, and stringy.
Pulse, even in moderate quantity, does not seem
to suit some fowls, while others thrive on a
portion of such diet ; hence a dietary thus
balanced should be watched with care. Alalt
culms, malt sprouts, or malt-dust, as variously
called, are very similar in composition, but
decidedly richer in fat, and moreover have
most valuable digestive properties. This arises
from their peculiar nitrogenous ferment, called
diastase, which has the property of converting
starch, and even a portion of cellulose, into the
soluble substances dextrin and sugar, precisely
the same changes that have to be produced in
ordinary digestion by the saliva and pancreatic
fluid. It is for the same reasons that finely
ground malt is mixed with various kinds of
" infants' food." When any form of such malted
food is mixed with boiling milk or water, to the
consistence of very thick arrowroot, after a few
minutes the thick mixture becomes thin ; the
starch is converted by the malt principle into
a soluble form, and dissolved. This simple ex-

QUALITIES OF VARIOUS FOODS.

35

periment illustrates the effect of malt, or malt
culms, in aiding digestion, and it has always
surprised us that the Sussex fatteners have not
taken advantage of it. Where obtainable, malt
sprouts should always be purchased, and are far
preferable in most cases to pea-meal, especially
for young stock ; but unfortunately they are a
local brewing product, and only obtainable in
some places.

Oatmeal stands out from the list as, by itself
alone, an almost perfect food. Its own ratio is
about I :4^, and it has sufficient salts. We can
see at once why the Scottish people fed upon
it possess such tall and muscular frames, and
why it rears such splendid cockerels. The same
analysis applies to the hulled grain, " grits," or
groats, given to chickens. Of all the foods,
these two are the most valuable, taken by
themselves alone. Oats mainly differ in the
larger quantity of husk which they contain ; but
by fowls much of this is ground in the gizzard
and digested, and when the whole grain is ground
fine, as in Sussex, where husk and all is ground
to a fine flour, this added cellulose makes
" ground oats " also a nearly perfect food, as
the results of it show. There is often difficulty
in obtaining oats thus properly ground, as the
stones have to be specially dressed, but it is to
be hoped that increased demand by poultry-
keepers will gradually spread the manufacture
over the country.

Wheat is used in several forms. In the
whole grain albuminoids are too low, below
I In 6 ; but the greatest deficiency is in fat,
whence the philosophy of bread and butter.
Flour and white bread are worse, the albumin-
oids being less than i in 8 ; hence, a sand-
wich is plainly a scientific combination. Bran,
as we should therefore expect, is much richer
in albuminoids, and also in fats; here again,
therefore, we have a corrective which may be
very useful, only we must bear in mind that
it is not all digested, and that the husky matter
sometimes sets up intestinal irritation if long con-
tinued. Still, it is often a very useful albuminoid.
There remains middlings ox fine sharps, of which
the better quality equals oatmeal as an albumin-
oid, and is cheap and valuable food ; but the
quality and nomenclature differ very greatly.
Some middlings are little better than fine bran ;
the best consists of fine sharps with some
amount of the coarser parts of flour. This is
in some places called " pollard " ; but in other
places the same word " pollard " denotes mere
bran even coarser than usual. It is much to
be wished that these bye-products of wheat
were more uniformly and e.xactly defined.

Of the other commerce grains, buckwheat is

inferior to wheat, its ratio being about i : 6\,
but being more rich in fat ; hence we see why
it fattens fowls so well in France. The analysis,
however, only refers to the new, " full," grey
coloured grain, which mostly comes from France,
and is alone worth purchase. Much that is
offered is light in weight and brown in colour ;
such is kiln-dried, and of little food value. The
difference accounts for the refusal to eat this
grain which some correspondents report. Barley
has more husk, and is most deficient in fat of
all the grains ; and unfortunately it is just the
poorest and most husky samples that are ground
into meal. Rye has less husk and more starch,
but is otherwise of similarly " dry " character,
and a poor food ; its ratio is only about i : 7j.
Maize appears above as the most oily (e.xcluding
" seeds") of all common grains ; but this has been
disputed, Bauer giving an analysis by which
the fat in maize is reduced to 5, and that in
oats raised above 6, making oats the most oily
of the cereals. That oats are rich in fat is
shown above, and by the rancid smell and taste
of stale oatmeal. It appears that in certain
localities this fat is increased ; while, on the
other hand, the fat in various American maize
analyses has varied from 4-8 to as high as 8-3.
On the whole evidence we could collect, there-
fore (in which the notorious and special tendency
of maize to deposit yellow fat must be included),
we have taken the figures above as at least the
safest, for the samples which generally reach
this country. The ratio comes out i : S, albumin-
oids being also too low, and starch too high.
Dari is a little better, with less fat ; and at
the bottom of the list comes rice, little better
than dry starch, and practically destitute of fat
altogether. Allowing for the large quantity of
water, potatoes stand in somewhat the same
position, but with a much better, though still
low ratio of i : 6\.

Some other ingredients claim attention for
various reasons. The extraordinary quantity of
oil in hempseed w\\\ be practically familiar to all
already, while its ratio is only i : 9. What our
table does is to bring out the far superior value,
as food for poultry, of sjtnfloiver-seed. This is
shown to be equally rich in fat, but far superior
in albuminoids, and with less starch, so that it
comes out on the whole as i : \\. Experience fully
bears this out, stamping it as a most valuable
food, and which, growing freely in many localities,
and the plants giving shelter meanwhile, is well
worth the attention of many poultry-breeders.
The real food value of grass and hay will not
fail to be noticed ; and above all the very high
value of clover. This, too, has long been dis-
covered and acted upon by the egg-farmers of

36

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

America, who " feed " clover regularly ; though
we fear it is not fully appreciated in Great
Britain. At all events, the albuminoid ratio
comes out as high as 1:3, with salts also in
high proportion.

Among the animal products, the close re-
semblance in the composition of all lean meat
will be noticed, indicating that any animal
food may be used as economy dictates, unless
the subject of disease. Especially will be seen
the high food value of fresh bone, which is
greedily eaten when cut small. Raw bones as
obtainable from the butcher's are here under-
stood, but bones from joints only roasted or
boiled, and not stewed for soup, are almost as
good. Cut bone is nearly as rich in nitrogen as
flesh, and far richer in fats and earthy salts. Its
use, along with clover, is chiefly relied upon in
America for securing profuse egg-production,
even with such a grain diet as maize. The high
value of dried fish as an albuminoid corrective
and source of mineral salts will also be seen,
and accounts for the popularity of many foods
containing a large proportion of fish-meal.

A glance over the table has thus shown us
generally the dangers attending hempseed, or
even maize, and the great deficiency in nutriment
of any diet in which bread, or rice, or potatoes
play a disproportionate part. Before drawing
such conclusions we must however remember
that, provided fowls have free range, such de-
ficiencies may be made up by insects and other
animal food. In such circumstances, no doubt
it very often is so, including even the nitrogenous
supply for egg-production ; and hence it is that
maize is so largely used in America without
injury. Nature herself, guided by natural ap-
petite or craving, will largely "balance" such
a dietary, and any of the ordinary cereals
may probably supply adequate food when thus
supplemented. It is in more or less confinement,
where the fowls are really dependent upon what
we give them, that such facts become important.
We have therefore, finally, to learn how our
table enables us to construct a dietary which
shall be properly " balanced " or proportioned.
It is evident that we can do so from very
various materials ; and that therefore in selecting
these we may study the market, as
regards cost of the total; and we can
also give variety, which is in itself
desirable for health and appetite.
Generally speaking, again, only one kind of grain
will be given at a time, and mostly at the even-
ing meal ; as a rule, therefore, we choose some
one grain for that meal, and " balance " this by
our soft food for the morning. The total food-
value of a week's diet, or ration for one day if

Balancing

a
Dietary.

preferred, is found in the simplest way, by adding
together the figures for each ingredient as above,
divided or multiplied so as to give their relative
proportion as mi.xed in the dietary. Thus, if we
mix 2 lbs. or 2 stones of one ingredient to

1 lb. or I stone of others, we must multiply
by two the figures for that ingredient, to get
the true proportion. In adding the fats and
oils, it must not be forgotten to take, not the
figure of the analysis, but that figure multiplied
by 2\, as given in the right hand of the column.

We will take first a diet in which the evening
feed consists of maize, reckoning (as in other
cases) that an equal weight of meals (weighed
dry, before scalding) is given in the morning. We
know that we must " balance" the maize by food
containing more albuminoids. Let us try a
mash composed of half malt sprouts and half
middlings. To avoid fractions we will here take

2 lbs. maize and i lb. each of the middlings
and malt dust. It works out thus : —

(1)

Albuminoids.

Fat X 2i.

Carbo-
hydrates.

Salts.

2 lbs. Maize ( x 2) ...

I lb. Middlings

I lb. Malt Sprouts ...

21-0
160
232

360

9-0
3S

1330

57 -o
485

3-0
4-5
57

60 -2

48-8

238-5
+48-8

13-2

287-3

This is not a bad dietary, except that most
of the albuminoids are confined to the mash.
The fat proportion is good, and the nutritive
ratio works out as 6o"2 : 287'3, or a little under
I : 4i. We can bring it up to that by a little
more malt dust, or pea-meal, the ratio of which
is nearly the same, and we thus see that maize
may be used in moderation when so " balanced."
We say " in moderation," because there is no
doubt that, beyond its analysis, there is some-
thing in the composition of maize which tends
specially to fat, and above all to internal fat,
which is worst of all. Again, let us suppose that
ground oats and horseflesh are available ; one
part minced flesh to two parts ground oats will
make things nearly right. Here we must take
three parts of maize to equalise the mixture,
and it works out thus : —

(2)

Albuminoids.

Fat X 2i.

Carbo-
hydrates.

Salts.

3 lbs. Maize (x 3) ...

1 lb. Horse-flesh

2 lbs. Ground Oats ( X 2)

315
217
300

54-0

5-8

24-8

199-5
0-0
96-0

4-5
i-o
5-0

832

84-6

295-5

-t-S4-6

lo-s

380-1

BALANCING A DIETARY.

37

Here the nutritive ratio is 83'2 : 380' i, or slightly
under l : 4A, which a little more flesh will bring
as high as desired. Both these mashes are,
however, excessively nitrogenous, and it would
be better to use maize in the form of meal,
" balanced " as in Table I. above, for the break-
fast ; when good heavy white oats given as grain
at night would well keep up the total ratio.

Potatoes and bread are dangerous foods as
commonly used, but are often very cheap, and

can be dealt with upon the same
Potatoes in principle. Let us see what we can
Dietary. do with potatoes, taking oats for the

evening feed in order to lessen the
difficulty of the balance : —

common mash is composed of sharps and barley-
meal ; we will test this : —

(3)

Albuminoids.

Fat X i\.

Carbo-
hydrates.

Salts.

2 lbs. Potatoes

1 lb. Malt Sprouts ...

2 lbs. Oats ... ._ ...

130
17-4
300

00

2-8

24-8

820
36-4
96-0

4-0
43

5-0

60-4

27-6

214-4

+ 27-6

133

242 'O

Here, the potatoes being watery, the 2f lbs. of
mash are not more than sufficient against 2 lbs.
of dry oats. We find we have brought the
ratio (60 : 242) up to 1 : 4, so that less malt dust
would suffice, or the little more would quite
balance a less rich grain than oats, such as buck-
wheat or wheat. Pea-meal would have the same
effect ; but with potatoes, above almost any food,
the digestive qualities of malt dust make it
much the best corrective where possible. The
above is still rather deficient in fat, which can be
easily supplied by a little animal fat, or a little
ground oil-cake, or oily seeds.

Or let us examine by itself the very common
mash of potatoes and bran, taking equal parts : —

(4)

Albuminoids.

Fat X 2}.

Carbo-
hydrates.

Salts.

I lb. Potatoes

I lb. Bran

6-5
15-5

0-0
90

41-0
44-0

20
60

220

90

850
+ 9'o

8-0

940

Theratio here is high, i : <\\, and will answer with
any grain not very inferior at night. The de-
ficiency is in fat, and we must also keep watch against
any signs of chronic intestinal irritation. If we
can add a little fat the one fault will be remedied ;
and if we can add even a little malt sprouts, the
digestibility of the bran will be much improved,
and a really good mash produced. Another

(5)

Albuminoids.

Fat X 2}.

Carbo-
hydrates.

Salu.

I Ih. Sli.-irps

I lb. B.irley-meal

160
120

9-0

3-2

57 -o

56-0

4-5
3-6

28-0 12-2

1:30
+ 12-2

81

1252

The ratio here is i : 4i, which is good, and the
chief deficiency is in fat, which is easily supplied.
Yet again, in America a mash of two parts
of bran to one of maize-meal is in practice
very common for chicks in brooder-houses.

(6)

Albuminoids.

Fat X 2l.

Carbo.
hydrates.

Salts.

1 lb. Maize

2 lbs. Bran._

IO-5
310

i8-o
180

66s

880

12-0

41S

36-0

154-5
+ 360

13s

1905

This gives a ratio of nearly i : 4^, quite vindi-
cating practice by science. The mash is usually
supplemented by a little animal food.

In the case of fowls kept on good grass runs,

it is often a great saving of labour to give a diet

of grain alone, and they will do well

upon it when thus circumstanced, if

the grain is properly chosen. Good

white oats should form one of the

components, for the sake of the albuminoids and

fat. Let us take :

Grain alone
as Diet.

(7)

Albuminoids.

Fat X 2}.

Carbo
hydrates.

Salts.

I lb. Heavy Oats ...
I lb. Buckwheat

15-0

100

12-4
50

48-0
62 -2

2-5

20

230

17-4

IIO-2

+ 17 4

4-5

1 27 6

This ratio (25 : 127) is pretty good, very nearly
1 : 5, and contains a fair amount of fat. The next
best grains are barley and wheat, both of which
are poor in fats and oils. Here, perhaps, the
best of all dry correctives, if obtainable, would
be sunflower-seed, v/hose food-value comes out
especially in such a case as this ; it is so rich in
fats, and at the same time in albuminoids, that,
where it is obtainable, a small quantity will fully
correct even such dry grains as wheat and barley.
If one entire feed could be given of it, it would

38

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

nearly balance even such inferior grain as rye ;
but it is too expensive for a whole feed, or to be
used very largely in this form.

We need not give further tables for our
purpose, which is not to give a number of
definite dietaries, but rather to show how a
proper dietary is constructed. We have used as
albuminoid correctives pea-meal or malt culms,
horse-flesh, bran, and rich seed ; and have
dealt in turn with such starchy foods as maize,
potatoes, and rye ; such examples will amply
answer all purposes of illustration.

Green food has not been taken into account
in the above. Grass or hay have themselves a
ratio of about i : 6 and 1:5^; and
Greea Food : eaten as supplementary to solid food.
Clover. this need not trouble us. Cabbage

has a high ratio, but is seldom given
in proportion enough for its really solid com-
ponents to disturb matters appreciably. Clover
may be mentioned as exceptional. With an
actual albuminoid component nearly equal to
dry rice, its own ratio is so high as 1:3. Hence
it is of actual value as an albuminoid corrective,
and in America is given largely as such to the
laying stock ; even in winter clover hay being
cut and steeped in hot water over night, to mix
with the mash breakfast of the laying stock in
the morning. Dried clover is also ground into
meal, to be mixed in the same way.

This brings us finally to two questions, the
first of which is whether the ratio of albuminoids
we have been considering, is really
Special sufficient for all purposes. To main-

Dietaries, tain the health and condition of the
fowl, as a fowl, we may be sure that
it is. But there are three exceptional conditions
also to be considered, and the question arises,
what special allowance these may require, and
how such are to be dealt with.

{a) Let us consider the young and growing
bird. Here we have, besides maintenance and
work in exercise, to make tissue at a great rate.
It would certainly seem that, for the best
results so far as mere growth is concerned,
more albuminoids must be required, as the
ratio of milk itself, and the composition of the
egg itself, plainly teach us. All experience
proves that this is so. We give this in the
shape of skim milk, or meat, or cut bone, or
malt dust, or pea-meal if the birds will eat it ;
but pea-meal seems to suit them less than
the others. In this way we easily enrich our
other food to the needs of a gmving dietary.
{b) Or we have to fatten and prepare birds
for the table. Here also practical experience
vindicates theory, as any true theory always
will be vindicated. The Sussex fatter takes as

his basis the ground oats, which, as we have
seen, themselves give rather a high ratio, but
adds thereto skim milk, and suet or some other
form of fat. The skim milk gives him albumen
in the higher ratio of 1:2, in the most easily
digested form of all ; and the fat similarly
assists in what he desires. This dietary also,
then, differs from the normal ratio, exactly as
we should e.xpect.

(f) Thirdly, we have to consider laying hens.
A little consideration must show us that for
birds in active laying, a i : 5 ratio
Diet for cannot be sufficient. In a fair-sized

Laying Hens, ggg^ we have two ounces daily to be
produced, in addition to the hen's
own needs for life and health. Of this more
than half is water ; but, there being waste in
vital processes, we ought to reckon that an
ounce in solids is the daily requirement, and
this is nearly all composed of mineral salts,
albuminoids, and fat. This supply, in some
cases, the fowl may be able to pick up herself,
and we have already commented upon the
craving for immense worms, otherwise refused ;
thus Nature herself teaches us that animal food
is the best means of supplying the need. Where
there is not wide range we must supply this ;
and since meat is itself three-fourths water, it
follows that a layer only given bare living ration,
" balanced " as above, should have nearly two
ounces daily of cut bone or fairly fat meat, to
maintain a constant egg-supply. Cut bone is
in many respects best, as supplying much more
of both fat and earthy salts for the shell, in
proportion.

Such a proportion will seem large, and the
conclusion startling ; but it is supported by facts.
There are, however, heavy qualifications to be
made. Every fowl is given much more than a
mere subsistence ration of ordinary "balanced"
diet ; then the albumen and fat of the surplus
will go to eggs, and even part of the carbo-
hydrates will be decomposed to form fatty egg-
material ; and so a fair Q<g^ supply may be
maintained. The necessary extra supply of
albuminoids for a more constant production will
thus be reduced by a great deal, perhaps by half,
less or more. But the extra supply, be it what
it may, must be supplied if we are to have the
extra result. Americans have for years been far
beyond us in this matter of egg-productioa
Many of them, while we have been talking about
it, have actually attained egg-averages ranging
from 170 to as high as 190 per annum from
considerable flocks, and still more from small
numbers. These farmers have proved by ex-
perience that such an egg-yield as this, while
it has to be " bred " for in the first nlace, must

NARROW OR WIDE RATIONS.

39

also be "fed " for if it is to be realised ; and in
their practice they do feed for it, by the copious
supply of fresh cut bone, and clover or clover-
hay, especially in winter when insect food fails.
Doubtless, such production and feeding is not
exactly normal health, but over-stimulation of
a decided character ; the hen is regarded purely
as an egg manufactory. If however this is so
and she is to produce the eggs, such are the
conditions.

On the other hand, a fowl not " bred " to
produce the eggs could not utilise such forcing
diet to advantage ; or if any other circum-
stances prevented response, such a diet might
do harm rather than good. This might easily
occur in several ways. All the organs might
be more or less over-stimulated and hyper-
trophicd ; or the bird might lay on flesh and
fat ; or she might suffer from enlarged liver and
become torpid, laying even fewer eggs than be-
fore the forcing diet was given. We
Forcing Diet have an impressive example of this
idvantageoua. '" two bulletins from the Massa-
chusetts Agricultural College, at
Amherst in that State, reporting two years'
experiments in feeding two similar lots of hens
upon a comparatively narrow nutritive ration
(I : 4'2o), and a wider one (i : 6'3o), obtained
mainly by substituting large quantities of maize
for the wheat, oats, etc., used in the other. The
first experiments were noted separately in
winter and summer periods, reckoned from
December I2th to April 30th, and May ist to
October 4th. In the next experiments, two lots,
one of barred Rocks and the other of white
Wyandottes, were fed on each ration, the periods
being October 25th to April 27th, and May ist to
September 27th. Each lot consisted of twenty
hens, confined in similar quarters, comprising a
house 10x12 feet, scratching-shed 10x8 feet,
and open yard 24x50 feet, without grass, to
which they had access in good weather. The
following are the results of the second year's
winter experiments : —

Winter Experiment — 183 days.

The same test gave in summer similar results
relatively, though of course the total numbers of
eggs laid were considerably greater : —

Summer Experiment — 140 days.

WVAN

OOXXES.

Plymouth Rocks.

Narrow

Wide

Narrow Wide

R.ition.

kalion. Radon.

Number of hen days, not

including males

3,560

... 3,560

3,424 ... 3>554

Cost of luod

$9-26

... $7-30

$9-25 ... $7-68

Cost per es;g (cents)

1-50

... -90

2-4« •■• I'02

Eggs per hen day*

•17

... -24

•II ... '21

Weight per egg (oz.) ...

i-gi

... 1-82

176 ... 209

Total weight ot eggs (lbs.)

72-90

... 95'90

48-24 ... 98-62

Dry food per egg (lb.) ...

■99

... 75

1-57 ... -88

Wyan

DOTTES.

Plvmout

H Rocks.

Narrow

Wide

Narrow

Wide

Ration.

Ration.

Ration.

Number of hen days, not

including males

2.945

- 2,913

2,400 .

. 2.555

Cost of food

$7-50 .

.. $5-86

$6-14 .

. $4-91

Cost per egg (cents)

1-03

.. -64

100 .

. -60

Eggs per hen day

•25

.. 'SI

•26 .

. '32

Weight per egg (oz.)

I -88

.. 1-90

1-82 .

. 177

Total weight ot eggs (lbs.)

85-89

..108-70

70-40 .

. 89-94

Dry food per egg (lb.) ...

■70

.. -58

•67 .

. -55

le day of one hen. Thus 0-24 of an egg per hen
t quarter of an egg was laid per day, or that there
e than four days, while o*ii means that nearly ten
: egg on an average.

From these experiments and results the
following conclusions were drawn : (i) That the
wide maize ration appears much superior to the
other as regards number of eggs laid ; in the
Wyandottes, by 41 per cent, in winter and 24 per
cent, in summer; in the Rocks, by 91 per cent,
m winter and 23 per cent, in summer. (2) That
the cost of food was much less, and the cost per
egg. (3) And that the maize-fed fowls gained
also more in weight. These results and con-
clusions were by many American poultry-
keepers considered to prove that after all urged
to the contrary, maize is superior to wheat as
food for laying hens ; and the same conclusions,
curiously enough, were accepted without criti-
cism by numerous poultry-rearers in our own
country.

Such a conclusion is illusory, and the whole
is an example of the loose and ill-considered
character of what often passes for " experi-
mental investigation." In this case, to begin
with, any practical poultry-keeper would call
the rations given, poor rations. The narrow
one was partly made up of a certain residue
called " gluten feed," which, we have been per-
sonally informed, hens will only eat when it is
disguised in other food ; and the green food
was quite insufficient to promote vital activity,
or " metabolism," consisting in summer only of
lawn clippings three times a week. So limited
a supply of one of the most important con-
stituents of poultry diet could not possibly
maintain the vital functions in healthy action ;
or enable them to utilise the rest of the dietary
to advantage. In the second place, the figure
work of the first year's experiments appears
carelessly done. The eggs per hen in 297
days are stated as 105 for the narrow and
1 28 for the wide ration ; while we can only
make it (on the details given) 90 and 114;
and where the calculation is given as 0'36
egg per hen day, we only make it 0"29. On
this account we have taken above the second

40

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

year's experiment, where the figures do appear
to tally with the facts and details stated, and
are accordingly lower. Thirdly, the results
from both rations are wretchedly poor. Whether
it is the fault of bad management, or unsuitable
food (including want of green food), or of the
fowls being bad layers, the egg-results are
almost beneath contempt. The highest summer
return (0-32) is less than 120 per annum if all
the year were summer; the lowest (O'li) is
only 40 per annum if all were winter. The
alleged enormous superiority of 91 per cent,
in maize for Plymouth Rocks for winter, means
a difference between about 20 and 38 eggs per
hen in six months I As a test of results in
promoting egg-laying between maize and wheat,
or narrow and wide nutritive ratios, such
figures are farcical. Either these eighty hens
could not lay well anyhow, in which case the
real conclusion is, as above stated, that a forcing
diet is not only useless, but injurious to such as
cannot respond to it ; or else all alike were
prevented laying by some bad management,
quite apart from maize and wheat. Such
ridiculously low figures as these in no way
upset the theory and practice of numerous
skilled American egg-farmers, who do get from
150 to nearly 200 eggs per annum from a high
nutritive ratio, compounded with adequate pro-
portions of cut clover (properly prepared), and
cut bone or meat-meal. The recorded cost per
egg (in food alone) points the same moral in
another way.

We described the rations given in this " e.x-
periment " as poor, and this leads to a further
question, above hinted at — whether
Substitution jj really jg indifferent hozv a given
Albuminoids, nutritive ratio is attained, so long as
it is made up. Are the albuminoids
in pulse, for instance, really able to take the
place of animal food in all respects .' Broadly
and roughly, e.xperience shows that they are ;
if it were not so, our dietaries are worth
nothing; but is it so altogether? On this
point some interesting and valuable experiments
were made at the New York Experimental
Station at Geneva, during the same periods.*
Two lots of chicks were fed from half -week
to twenty-five weeks old, and two others for
fourteen weeks after si.x weeks old, upon foods
compounded so as to have a similar nutritive
ratio, but one feed all grain, while in the other
the albuminoids were largely supplied from
animal sources, such as meat-meal, dried blood,
and cut bone. Both feeds, however, contained
some skim-milk. Much more food was eaten

* See r.ulletins Nos. 149 and 171, by F. H. Hall and
W. P. Wheeler.

per day by the lot receiving animal food ; but
the gain in weight was so much more rapid, and
maturity was reached so much earlier, that less
food was required per pound, and each pound
gained only cost 4I cents as against 5I cents.
Those with animal food reached 2 lbs. five
weeks before the others, and 3 lbs. eight weeks
sooner. With the chicks started at six weeks,
the differences were similar, but less marked.
Lots of cockerels were also similarly fed from
three months old, and for eight weeks there
were similar differences ; after that the birds did
not make paying progress on either food. The
most startling difference was, however, in duck-
lings. The "animal-food" lot developed rapidly
and were healthy ; the grain-fed ones were
stunted, pitifully thin, and after fifteen weeks
only twenty out of thirty-three were alive.
These were then given the other ration for four
weeks, and made rapid gain, but never overtook
the others. Similar advantages were obtained
in the case of laying hens.

Here would appear conclusive proof that the
albuminoids in grain alone can not altogether
replace animal food. But those who conducted
this experiment found that they had not yet
considered all the factors concerned.* The in-
gredients in the foods which went into the
" ratio " had been made equal ; the birds were
alike, and placed under the same conditions.
But study of the analyses showed that the two
diets did differ in one other respect not reckoned
in the ratio. Owing largely to the fact that
one of them consisted largely of maize, whose
deficiency in albuminoids was corrected by
gluten feed, while the other contained a con-
siderable proportion of dried meat-meal, the
animal - food mixture contained considerable
more of ash, or mineral salts. A second series
of experiments was therefore commenced, in
which two mixtures were used as before, of
similar ratio, but one containing animal food.
But to the grain-only mixture was now added
the ash from bones, burnt so as to get rid of all
organic matter, in proportion sufficient to make
the mineral ash fully equal. The results were
remarkable. Upon the grain ration thus supple-
mented by mineral ash, the chicks now did as
well as upon animal food. Laying hens also
did as well for most of the time they were
tested (thirty weeks), but towards the end showed

* It is from want of cotniJering all the factors that the other
experiment above quoted (only here quoted in the hope of
counteracting in some degree the mischief which we know it to
have done) lias been interpreted as leading to such results as
were staled. Of course, facts are always useful if correctly
recorded. But the truth of any conclusions drawn depends
upon the question, whether all the facts have been duly taken
account oi.

QUANTITY OF FOOD.

41

a slight gain from the animal food ; and as
their laying was not remarkable in either case,
It seems to us probable that with prolific
layers this difference would have remained
more prominent. With ducklings, the addition
of the bone-ash made the results " much better,"
but the animal-food ration was still much the best.
In these experiments 1,000 chickens and 170
ducklings were fed to marketable size, and 90
laying hens and 40 cockerels were fed for
lengthy periods, " so that the evidence has the
weight of time and numbers." The results are
of great interest and importance. They show
that if all ingredients are supplied, we may in
the main depend upon " substitutions " in our
dietaries ; though in regard to eggs, and still
more in regard to ducklings, there is something
in animal food which nothing else can quite
supply. And they demonstrate incidentally
the reason for the marked effect of bone-meal
in rearing chickens. But their chief lesson is
the proof they afford of the necessary place of
an adequate supply of salts, or mineral matter,
in a complete dietary. That such was necessary
to constitution has long been known, and for
complaints like "rickets" the administration
of phosphates has long been recognised. But
an impression has undoubtedly existed that
such ingredients had to do mainly with the
strength of the bony skeleton of the animal ;
whereas these experiments show that even for
growth generally, or for egg-production, an
adequate supply of mineral salts is essential to
a good dietary, and must be artificially made up
where deficient, and especially where grain food
only is used.

It will need no direct proof, that any fixed
quantity of food must be a mistake. If we give

at all times, to all fowls, the food
Quantity needed by an incessant layer, we

Food. are forcing the system in a way

that must cause ill results ; even the
layer will be probably " worn out " earlier, and
should be killed in good time. On the other
hand, if we only give "living" diet to laying
hens, they cannot lay many eggs. If a hen has
no more than this, she has nothing for eggs, and
can only produce a few, at the cost of becoming
a skeleton. Of course no fowls are ever fed so

scantily as this ; all receive considerably more
than a mere subsistence dietary, and hence are
able to supply us with some eggs, it may be a
very fair supply in comparison with what Nature
has intended. But if we want her to lay
copiously and for long periods, we must give her
still more ; in proportion, however, to what she is
inherently capable of turning into eggs. Hence
we need to sort out fowls into ages and laying
qualities, and even feed the same birds differ-
ently when in full lay, from what we do when
resting. It is all the simplest common-sense
reduced to figures, and quite easy to under-
stand, but it requires constant watchfulness and
care.

On the whole, therefore, it appears that the
best general method will be to plan a main
standard dietary in various judicious ways (for
prices must be studied, and mere change of
itself is greatly in favour of health and appetite)
according to a normally balanced ratio of 1:4!
or I : 5, and adding to it in confinement a little
animal food for all fowls, but especially provid-
ing, by that means or other nitrogenous food,
and fat, the special requirements of growing, or
fattening, or laying stock. As the requirements
of rapidly growing and of laying stock are very
similar, any difficulty in accomplishing this is
much diminished. But a constant watch must
be kept upon the e^g supply, the demeanour ol
the fowls when feeding, and their apparent con-
dition. Out of a flock forced for laying, there
is always liable to be a portion which, perhaps
only temporarily, divert the high diet into
injurious channels, and should be withdrawn
from it till able to respond iu the required
direction. The more forcing and nitrogenous
the diet, the more carefully must quantity be
watched, and as a rule somewhat decreased ;
the more plentiful and constant must be the
green food ; and the more constant the vigilance
exercised over the whole. And during moult,
or any other period of prolonged rest, a forcing
laying diet should obviously be somewhat
modified. It is always to be remembered that
when such diet is not being actually converted
into the eggs or the flesh desired, it must have
some other effect, which will probably be
injurious.

CHAPTER III.

PRACTICAL MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF FOWLS.

SUCCESS in poultry-keeping, on the smallest
scale or the largest alike, requires sufficient
interested attention from someone quali-
fied to give it. We have found uniformly during
many years, that with the rare exceptions where
they themselves can be brought to take, or natur-
ally take, a strong interest in the matter — such
exceptions being worth their weight in gold —
servants or labourers cannot be relied upon for
long together to mix food properly, to give it
carefully, to keep things clean, to work steadily,
or to see to many other matters essential to
economy or well-being. If there are children in
a family old enough to undertake a small stock,
they will be alike benefited and pleased by
looking after the fowls, and soon grasp the
proper ways of doing it. If not, or on a larger
scale, the owner must either see to things
personally, or take such oversight as shall
persistently secure proper economy of labour,
and care of his birds and of their feeding. If
this cannot be done, it will be best not to
attempt keeping fowls ; even a few, without
such care, would probably become a nuisance
and prove a loss.

Whatever be the scale of operations, again,
some general system of management should
be pursued ; and it is obvious that
A System such a system must differ, as will
Uanagement. somewhat the kinds or breeds of
fowls selected, according to the ex-
tent of the accommodation, and the objects
desired. Let us take again the very smallest
scale ; supposing that some supply of eggs
for household use is the end in view, and that a
small house and run as described in Chapter I.
are all that can be given up to the fowls. In such
circumstances exhibition is quite out of reach,
and even chicken-rearing is practically im-
possible, unless it can be carried on in some
run and place of shelter quite independent of
the other ; and yet a few fowls can be kept so
as to be a source of continual interest, and yield
a good return upon their cost.

The proper plan in such a case will be to
purchase in the spring a number of hens pro-
portioned to the size of the run, and none ex-

ceeding a year old. A cock is useless, as hens
lay very nearly, if not quite, as well without one.
These birds, if in good health and condition,
will either be already laying, or will commence
almost immediately ; and if properly managed
will ensure a constant supply of eggs until the
autumnal moulting season.* Whenever a hen
shows any desire to sit, the propensity must be
checked as hereafter described. But it is much
better to avoid all this by keeping only a non-
sitting breed, such as one of the jSIinorca, Leg-
horn, Hamburgh, or French varieties. Ham-
burghs are not suitable for a confined shed
alone.

To buy only young and healthy birds is very
important. An experienced hand can tell an
old fowl at a glance, but it is rather difficult to
impart this knowledge to a beginner, for no one
sign is infallible. In general, however, it may
be said that the legs of the young hen look
delicate and smooth, her comb and wattles soft
and fresh, and her general outline, even in good
condition (unless fattened for the table), rather
light and graceful ; whilst an old one will have
rather hard horny-looking shanks, her comb and
wattles look somewhat harder, drier, and more
"scurfy," and her figure is well filled out. At-
tempt should also be made to secure birds of a
really good laying family or strain, for each
breed differs much in individuals. Good laying

is now bred for practically as much
Good Layers, as fancy points, and such birds, or

eggs from them, are widely adver-
tised in the principal poultry papers. Perhaps
their price may be an objection for a small
family stock, however ; and to a large extent
good layers can be selected even by " eye," from
fine common country fowls. They should have
good sized combs, but not too large, very fresh
and red-looking faces, and a neat, alert, intelli-
gent expression. A faded, dispirited look in a

* It is really as well, and often better, to start about Octobei
with .April pullets. Our reason for not recommending this so
much to the absolute beginner, is that he may get into the habit
of attending to the fowls before the winter comes on, when it
might be felt more of a tax if then confronted for the first time.
Also eggs will come sooner, and a little " hen-fruit" '.s a greal
encouragement.

SELECTION OF STOCK.

43

young bird is a sure sign of a poor layer. Be-
yond this it is not possible to go, and pictures
pretending to represent " good layers" and " bad
layers," by dealers who make pretence of know-
ing more than anybody else, only produce in
the experienced breeder a smile of derision.

Directly these hens stop laying in the autumn,
and before they have lost condition by moulting,
they should, unless they have proved unusually
satisfactory, be either killed or sold off, and
replaced by pullets hatched in March or April,
which will have feathered early. These again,
still supposing proper food and good housing,
will begin producing eggs by November at
farthest, and continue, more or less, till the
February or March following. They will not
stop laying long, and the young birds should
be retained till the autumn, when all but very
excellent layers must be got rid of ; such are
worth keeping for another year. But if a few
fowls only be kept for eggs, it is essential to
success that every autumn the stock be thus
replenished with pullets hatched early in the
spring. By no other means can eggs at this
season be relied upon.

When chickens can be reared there is a wider
choice of breeds, including such as lay the
coveted brown egg. Of these may be mentioned
Plymouth Rocks, Brahmas, Langshans, Orping-
tons, Wyandottes, and others ; but the qualities
of various breeds are more fully dealt with in
later chapters. We prefer pure breeds, or first
crosses ; but the cost of such may stand in the
way with some, and has to be taken into con-
sideration. Pure stock has now become so
widely distributed that the common fowls of
the country are often nearly pure or cross-bred,
and almost always enormously improved com-
pared with what we remember in our youth ;
and so far as profitable domestic results go,
success may be attained with good ordinary or
" barn-door " fowls. Care must be taken in the
selection. They should be young, sprightly-
looking birds, and for laying, with nice tiglit-
Icoking plumage. They ought to be chosen
from a country yard where their parents have
been well fed. If such be obtained, they will
repay the purchaser, and are better than weedy
and debilitated birds of the "fancy" class. Of
course this last remark does not apply to mere
faults of colour. Fowls are often to be met with at
a moderate price, which from some irregularity
are quite disqualified as show birds, but which
possess all the economic merits of the breed to
which they belong. And those merits are very
real, in spite of all the railing against exhibition
poultry on the part of some who ought to know
better. After all is said, it is still the " fancier"

who gets eggs, when other people get none !
But the little we wish to say on that subject
belongs to a subsequent chapter; we are only
here pointing out that for eggs or table fowls
only, good cross-bred fowls are to be found
which will answer every purpose, and that such
a supply is mainly due to the work during long
years of the much-abused " fancier."

In regard to chickens reared at home, the
same care must be given to the time of hatching,

if the best results are to be obtained.
Date of Birth It has been often said that a pullet
and Laying, must begin to lay at a given age ;

but this we have found, by system-
atic experiments, is by no means the case,
a difference of months being caused by the
time of hatching. If the age of five months
finds a pullet belonging to one of the specifically
" laying " breeds in the midst of warm weather
— say August — eggs may be expected about
that time ; indeed, great care is needed if it is
desired to prevent laying at such an age. But
birds hatched in May will complete their sixth
month in October ; and in some cases eggs will
not then be procured before Christmas, if even
then, unless the feeding be most carefully ad-
justed. Still later hatched — let us suppose June
— it will be next spring before many of the
pullets are producing eggs, and ere this occurs
some of them will be at least nine months old.
Ordinary fowls become broody oftener in May
and June than any other months, and the bright
warm days tempt the proprietor to choose that
time for hatching the chickens. The latter do
well ; they enjoy themselves, and thrive, and
grow ; but they do not pay : whereas chickens
hatched from the middle to the end of March,
or in April, will require more attention certainly,
and call for self-denial occasionally, in the shape
of braving bad weather to see they are duly
cared for ; but will often, if in reach of a town
market, repay the whole of their cost before
New Year. Pullets hatched early will moult
early also, not only getting better and more
quickly through the process, and having warmer
weather for it, but getting ready to commence
laying in good time again.

Too early hatching, on the other hand,
should be avoided ; that is, for ordinary domestic
purposes. The last half of March and first half
of April is about the best general time, though
up to the end of April, or with some breeds
early May, is not too late. So very early as
many exhibitors hatch — in January and February
— leads to quite different results ; as such birds
often lay in the late summer and early autumn,
and then moult like adult fowls, stopping after-
wards for several months. This extra-early

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

season for first laying is of use where large
numbers of laying hens are kept to supply the
market, as they keep up the succession of eggs,
which are scarcest of all in the autumn. But
for a small number, our rule will be the sound
one. One third the stock in late summer should
consist of pullets hatched the March or April
previous ; another third of hens a year older ;
another third of hens to be killed or sold as soon
as they stop at moult. The old hens are thus
regularly replaced by pullets six months old,
which begin to lay almost at once, and are
followed in laying by the hens as they finish
moulting. Even if only half a dozen fowls are
kept for laying, this is the plan to be followed ;
each autumn the three oldest should be killed
or sold, and three pullets bought. With fairly
good layers there will then be a nearly constant
supply of eggs.*

We have next to consider the practical
feeding of our fowls, on the principles ex-
plained in the preceding chapter.
Quantity j,^ regard to quantity little need be

Food. added. It has already been shown

why any fixed quantity must be
more or less injurious ; we do not even know
very definitely what is the bare necessary " sub-
sistence " quantity for a fowl. German experi-
ments place it, for cattle, at about one-fiftieth
part of the animal's weight, and some writers
have taken that proportion ; but other experi-
ments show that the smaller the body, the
larger fraction of its weight is needed for food,
and the greater activity of the fowl must also
be considered. As a lule, we are satisfied that
most farmers' fowls get too little food, and other
people's, except those of e.xperienced breeders,
too much. The only safe general rule on this
head is to give food as long as the fowls eat
eagerly, and no more. That is not nearly what
they would eat, or even eat with readiness : it
means that as soon as they seem to be thinking
about anything else than eating what is nearest
them as fast as possible, or to choose amongst
the food before them, the supply should be
stopped. Many people, at first, will not think
this enough, when they see the birds run or fly
as if starving when feeding time comes round ;
but that is the sort of appetite that means
health and vigour, in full-grown birds. To eat
to repletion is always bad.

* These remarks apply chiefly to the average climate of the
British Islauas, and would be modified in other countries. In
North America the best month for hatching, for general purposes,
is May, up to the end. The weather before that is often severe,
and the warm dry season enables the birds to make more rapid
progress ; so that an American fowl hatched in May is often as
forward as a British specimen a month older, by the end of
the year.

While this is a general rule, however, there
may be exceptions, due to ill-health or other
circumstances : for instance, a good and gallant
cock would never get enough on this system.
The condition of the birds should therefore be
always kept watch upon, by occasionally feeling
them at night. The fair " condition " weight for
birds of their size should be estimated, and if
they are found too heavy, or poor and light, the
necessary modification should be made. In
practice, the average quantity per meal for the
whole pen or each pen of birds, will be known
very soon by any intelligent person.

The nature and time of each meal also needs
consideration. Beginners who are not instructed

often believe still, that grain is the
Soft and Only proper food for fowls, as it is

HardFood. the most "natural." Even people

who ought to know better, harp
upon this idea of " natural " food. It is true
enough that Nature makes no mistakes in her
own domain, but this is not her domain exactly.
If we are to follow Nature, we must follow her
altogether, and we must be content with her
results. In this case Nature intends her fowl to
be at perfect liberty, to get grass and herbs and
insects and worms ad libitum, as well as seeds,
and to lay either one, or at most two nests-
of eggs in the year, in the warm season. She
also makes her subject find its food grain by
grain, with abundant exercise, and never dis-
tending the crop. The result is splendid health,
and hard condition, but no profit. We keep our
birds in more or less confinement, even fair
grass-runs yielding few insects ; and we want
either tender flesh, or many times the natural
number of eggs. Such a copious product de-
mands quicker digestion, and a greater amount
of food. This we provide for by grinding up a
considerable portion of the grain into meal, and
mi.xing this with water into a paste, usually
called soft food or mash. It is best, as a rule, to-
give this soft food in the morning. The birds
have passed a whole night since they were last
fed ; and it is important, especially in cold
weather, that a fresh supply should as soon as
possible be got into the system, and not merely
into the crop. Now, if grain be given, it has to
be ground in the gizzard before it is digested ; and
on a cold winter's morning the delay is anything
but beneficial. But, for the very same reason, at
the evening meal grain forms the best food
which can be supplied ; it is digested more
slowly, and during the long, cold nights affords
support and warmth to the fowls. Let the
sceptical reader make one simple experiment
Give the fowls a feed of meal, say at five o'clock
in the evenincr : at twelve visit the roosts and feel

MORNING OR EVENING MASH.

45

the crops of the birds. All will be empty ; the
gizzard has nothing to act upon, and the food
speedily disappears^ leaving with an empty
stomach, to cope with the long cold hours
before dawn, the most hungry and incessant
feeder of all God's creatures. But if the last
feed has been grain, the crop will still be found
partially full, and the birds will awake in the
morning hearty, strengthened, and refreshed,
though healthily hungry.

While we are fully satisfied, however, after
attentive observation and trial of other systems,
that this is the best for the usual
Morning or conditions of poultry-keeping in
Evening tt i j ^i u ?

Mash. t-ngland, there may be exceptions,

and especially where climatic con-
ditions are widely different. As indicated in
the first chapter, in North America the severity
and snows of the winter necessitate in most
cases entire vacation of the open runs for
months together, during which the birds are
confined in covered sheds, colloquially termed
" scratching-sheds," open to the front when
possible, but sometimes needing protection even
there. Let any English breeder ask himself
how he would like the prospect of keeping say
fifteen fowls, shut in entirely for months together
within a space of only ten feet square, beside
their house; not only, be it observed, to keep
them in health, but to force them by high
feeding into prolific laying. He will then
.'ippreciate the difficulty of the task : how, in
particular, would such a one dread an outbreak
of feather-eating ! The task can be, and is,
only accomplished by providing the most active
occupation and exercise. This is mainly
effected by keeping the floor deep in straw or
other scratching litter, in which a little grain is
always kept scattered and buried ; for, as one
American breeder said to us, " If the hens find
nothing by scratching, they get discouraged and
won't scratch at all." On the other hand, they
must not find grain very easily or too quickly,
or they get too much. Some of these American
poultry-farmers state, as their experience, that if
the birds have a good meal of soft food for
breakfast, they stand about satisfied, and will
not scratch for more, and upon this idleness the
usual mischiefs follow, besides the egg-yield
falling off. Hence many of them prefer to give
nothing in the morning but sufficient grain,
which is well worked into the scratching-littcr,
and which keeps the hens busily active all day ;
in the middle of the day green food and cut
bone ; and last of all there is a good feed of
mash or soft food before going to roost.

These considerations are of great weight,
and some of the best averages of ege-oroduction

before us have been attained under this system
of feeding, whilst the preceding one is freely
pronounced "antiquated" by some prominent
American writers. It may be freely granted
that any system is fairly vindicated by good
results, and even that in such circumstances, o(
long-continued close confinement, it may be
well to adopt it. But the argument, or even
the experience, does not present the whole truth.
Even in America there are not a few who still
adhere to the other system, and attain just as
good results by it. Some of these reply to the
advocates of evening mash, that their failures
with the other plan were their own fault, for
carelessly giving the birds so much as to make
them torpid and idle. They do not feed so
carelessly, but give a somewhat " short " break-
fast of mash, after which their fowls, they say,
are just as much disposed to hunt and scratch as
the others'. There are plenty of farmers who
state that they have tried the evening mash, and
still prefer the morning one, when thus properly
managed. This appears to us to be the truth.
In very close confinement, if fattening and
sterility and feather-eating are to be avoided,
the morning meal of soft food must be carefully
and rigidly limited, so that the birds are kept
active afterwards, even in their small space.
This requires time, and care, and intelligence ;
and if sufficient of these cannot be bestowed
upon the feeding, it will be safest to give the
mash at the evening feed. Where there is
adequate open run, however, as is frequently
the case, and which in Great Britain is available
all the year, this danger does not occur, and a
morning mash not too plentifully apportioned
unquestionably gives the best results, and will
be the best general rule.

Where only a few fowls are kept, to supply
eggs for a moderate family, the soft food may

be provided almost for nothing by
Various Kinds boiling daily the potato peelings till
Mash. sof*^' ^""^ mashing them up with

enough bran, slightly scalded, to
make a tolerably stiff and dry paste. The
peelings must be boiled soft and mealy, and
chopped up rather small. There will be sufficient
of this if the fowls kept do not exceed one for
each member of the household ; and as the
pLclings cost nothing, and the bran very little,
one-half the food is provided at a merely nominal
expense. A very little salt should be added, and
in winter a slight seasoning of pepper will tend
to keep the hens in good health and laying. This
food may be mixed boiling hot over night, and
covered with a cloth, or be put in the oven : in
either case it will remain warm till morning —
the condition in which it should always be given

46

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

in cold weather. Potato peelings may be, if
necessary, eked out by scraps from the dinner
table, and part of these are very valuable, especi-
ally the lean meat ; but caution is necessary.
Often such scraps consist chiefly of bread-crusts
and fat. In neither is there any appreciable
egg-material, and if too much of them be given,
prejudicial fattening with muscular weakness is
sure to occur. They can be used to a certain
extent, but if they abound, only so far that they
shall not exceed between one-third to one-half
the bulk of the food, the rest being made up of
sharps, or sharps with bran. To give more will
be no economy, owing to the evil effects. The
green vegetables will be beneficial, if any are
left. To have much bread-scraps denotes of
course great waste in a household. In any case,
all the scraps used should go into the break-
fast, and not be given in addition, as many do.
Table scraps always need care and judgment in
use, and we have traced many failures in domestic
poultry-keeping to the practice of giving a fair
breakfast of meal food, and then household
scraps at mid-day beside. No fowls could long
withstand such a regimen as that ; first eggs
must fail, and finally liver congestion will carry
off the victims.

In the case of larger numbers of fowls, some
definite " mash " will have to be decided upon
for each day, or week, or more ; a certain variety
should be studied for the sake of health and
appetite, and the market will also have to be
consulted. Either ground oats, or a really good
sample of middlings will be quite suitable alone :
oatmeal (or hulled oats coarsely ground) is dear
food by weight for mere egg-production, in
spite of its admirable qualities ; but it is all
food, and goes far. If only for variety, the mash
will usually have to be compounded. In this
there is room for endless combination, but on
that head sufficient has been said in the preced-
ing chapter. Merely as further examples, we
will quote here three different mashes from
different sources in America, where the subject
has been very systematically studied, (i) Equal
weights of maize meal, ground oats, bran, and
fine middlings. Here it will be seen that the
oats and middlings are fairly high in ratio, and
that the maize is balanced by the bran ; but it
is a common practice to mix further in this
mash I lb. of cut bone, or scrap meat, or meat-
meal, to each twenty-five hens. (2) Middlings
100 lbs., maize-meal (coarsely ground) 75 lbs.,
gluten-meal (an American product) 25 lbs.,
clover-meal 80 lbs., meat-meal 35 lbs. These
are weighed dry, mixed with boiling water at
night, and kept covered and warm to cook until
morning ; the mixture is from a successful egg-

farm, and represents a high forcing diet. (3)
Pea-meal 20 lbs., bran 30 lbs., oatmeal 15 lbs.,
barley-meal 10 lbs., meat-meal 20 lbs., wheat-
meal 10 lbs., linseed-meal 15 lbs., clover-meal
40 lbs. We have selected this as an absolutely
foolish extreme, the ratio being the tremend-
ously high one of I : 2. One would also have
thought such a complicated mixture unwise.
But a bulletin issued from the Agricultural
Department, U.S.A., affirms as the result of
experiment that " in forcing fowls for egg-pro-
duction it is found best to make up a ration
of many kinds of grain. This invariably gives
better results than one or two kinds, although
the nutritive ratio of the ration may be about
the same. It has been found by experiment
that the fowls not only relish their ration more
when composed of many kinds of grain, but
that a somewhat larger percentage of the whole
ration is digested than when it is composed of
fewer ingredients."

The clover-meal here used is clover hay
coarsely ground ; and some use clover hay
cut into fine chaff. In either case the clover
has boiling water poured on it at night, and
is left covered over with a cloth to "steep"
and soften till morning, or the entire mixed
mash may be left to cook in the same way.
The birds then eat it eagerly, but if given raw
or unsteeped, clover hay repels them.

We give one more mash as fed to his White
Leghorns by Mr. Wyckoff, who obtained an
average of 196 eggs from a flock of no less than
600 in all. It comprised 100 lbs. maize, ground
fine, 200 lbs. oats, ground fine, 150 lbs. bran,
about 8 lbs. dried beef scraps, all moistened with
skim milk, which added to the albuminoids. At
noon, green food was given — mangolds or
cabbage in winter, clover or kale in summer,
with sometimes a sprinkle of grain in the litter.
At night they had mixed gi'ain — in winter
equal quantities of wheat, oats, good buckwheat,
and maize; in summer the maize was reduced
one-half. The use of bran, as rich in albuminoids,
and laxative, is very general in America.

Some of the prepared foods are exceedingly
good, and palatable, and convenient, but of
course more expensive ; for domestic use, how-
ever, this is balanced by household contribu-
tions. Spratt's and similar biscuit-meals are
useful in this way, and Liverine may be men-
tioned as an albuminoid corrective ; a mash
of barley-meal, sharps, and Liverine would be
very good, or one of biscuit-meal, bran, and
potato peelings. We would only repeat, that
while very useful as food, bran may occasionally
cause intestinal irritation. This effect is not very
frequent, but a watch should be kept where

MIXING AND FEEDING.

47

much bran is used, and on any symptoms of
chronic diarrhoea the food should be changed for
a while. It is quite possible that only special
samples may be in fault. We have already
said that some addition of malt-culms adds a
great deal to the digestibility of such materials.

How the soft meat is given will depend on
circumstances. Supposing a yard to be toler-
ably dry and clean, and that the
Feeding proprietor or his servant can spend

Vessela. ^ fg^ minutes over the fowls, it will

be best to scatter it freely over the
ground. Properly mixed, little dust or dirt will
adhere to it, and every bird will get its share.
But if the weather be wet this will hardly do,
neither will it if the birds are confined in the
shed, floored as this is with loose dust or sand.
In such cases any common dish will do to put
the food in, the quantity which the fowls need
having been found by previous observation. A
large garden saucer will answer, but if a dish
can be procured with straight sides (as in Fig. 15)

Loose covers are best, supported on vertical
bars or wires, as in Fig. 17. These can be

Fig. 17. — Loose Cover.

obtained of appliance manufacturers in great
variety, to fit loosely over various forms of
troughs. For a rather smaller number, troughs
with a cover hinged so as to fall back (Fig. 18)
are more convenient. Something of this sort is
better than an open trough whenever more than
five or six fowls are fed together, for the reason
that if they are properly hungry, they are too
busy getting their own heads through the wires
to pay much attention to driving others away.

Fig 16

it will be better, as the .*bwls cannot then turn
it over when they step on the edges, as they are
apt to do with a dish wider at the top than the
bottom : also they cannot rake the food out so
leadily with their beaks. A useful vessel for
feeding a few poultry is one (Fig. 16) designed
by the late Mr. E. Jones, a celebrated Spanish
breeder of Bristol, which would be readily made
in quantities of a dozen at any pottery. This
dish is circular in shape, and of the section
represented, thus presenting a saucer at both top
and bottom, the size being about eight inches
across, and five inches deep. If the wide face
be placed on the ground, the saucer with up-
right sides contains the soft food (which cannot
be scratched or raked out), stands perfectly firm
and steady even if perched upon, and is suffi-
ciently raised to prevent dirt being scattered into
the food. When turned the other way it forms
a water vessel, also raised from the ground, and
which, from the slanting sides, does not touch
the combs of Minorcas or other large-combed
breeds, for which the ordinary poultry-fountain
is not suitable on account of the size of that
appendage.

Troughs or vessels for larger numbers of
fowls — such as twenty-five birds kept in one lot
for laying purposes — often need to be protected,
to keep the birds from walking over the food.

Fig. iS. — Hinged Cover.

Such a trough, whether covered or not, must be
large enough for all the fowls to get to it at
once. A plain open dish, however, does per-
fectly well for a few fowls.

The proper mixing of the soft food is impor-
tant. By far the larger number of servants tvill
mix it too wet and sloppy, to save
Mixing a few seconds additional time ; and

Soft Food. give 't: as a sticky, porridgy mass
which clings round the beaks of the
fowls. Such feeding often causes diarrhcea, and
in any case will rarely produce a proper egg-
return. It is a universal rule that soft food
should be so mixed that while none of the meal
be left in powder or dry, the whole be so firm
and "short" that a mass of it will break into
fragments if thrown upon the ground ; not on any
account sticking with a " smack" as when a boy
throws his lump of clay against a wall. All
meal can be mixed this way if properly done,
which is by stirring the water first well in with
a spoon or stick, all remaining apparently too
dry to mix thoroughly, and then kneading
and squeezing it together in the hands. Food
so mixed does twice the good, for the simple
reasons that it is both more wholesome in itself,
and more enjoyed. Meal combined with turnips
or potatoes need not be mixed quite so dry ; but

4»

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

all mash, rightly prepared, will be hard enough
to be rolled out with a roller into a sheet, if
required. Some good feeders prepare it thus,
rolling it out and cutting the sheet into small
finger pieces, which are thrown to the fowls ; but
when mixed "short" as above described, it will
break up easily without this trouble. We should
advise all mash being mixed with boiling water,
so as to " scald " the ingredients, but it should
only be given moderately warm. The warmth
greatly promotes health and laying, especially
in cold weather ; and the food being a little
swelled, and in fact really half-cooked before it
is eaten, it goes farther, leaving less husk in the
excrement. Where hay or clover chaff is used
it must be scalded over night, for the reasons
already given. The most celebrated and success-
ful poultry superintendents we know always
mix with boiling water ; and where the contrary
plan had been followed, and by their advice
changed for this method, a marked improve-
ment in the condition of the birds has invariably
followed. We are not now considering prize
poultry, it is true ; but these men have spent
their lives in studying the management of fowls,
and what they find best for birds worth a score
of pounds each will also be best for commoner
fowls, such as can be bought for a few shillings.

Grown fowls never require more than three
meals per day, and are often better with two,
but which really is the best depends
Number of upon what care and attention can be
per Day. given. With even a fair open run

to tempt them to walk about, and
still more with a grass run, the birds will not get
lazy with a fair breakfast : if the proprietor sees
them standing about afterwards he may be sure
they had too much. Such a breakfast, however,
with the green food and etceteras they will
either pick up or have given to them, will carry
them on comfortably till the evening, when
they should have a good feed of grain. Un-
doubtedly, however, it would be better to give a
more scanty breakfast, such as would leave a
tolerable appetite behind, and to give a very
slight sprinkle of grain at mid-day ; the mis-
chief is, that the majority of those who give
such an extra feed give it in addition to what
is really an ample breakfast, and so the birds
get overfed.

To keep fowls entirely confined in a shed in
good health and laying, however, demands very
careful attention to the considerations already
referred to, drawn from American experience,
where keeping them in a shed is necessarily
practised wholesale. Here a scanty breakfast
of mash is indicated, to be supplemented by a
scanty feed of grain, well hidden under litter, so

that it may occupy hours to find and eat all
of it. The litter, for which straw, shells of grain,
etc., are used in America, is, however, a difficulty
in England, where there is no space to dispose
of it when soiled, and material is not so avail-
able. The best plan seems to tti to adhere to
the scanty breakfast, and add a scanty noon-
day feed, but to work a little grain well into
the loose material on the floor, well burying it,
so that the birds may be kept scratching mean-
while : other expedients are mentioned presently
in considering the question of green food. Let
us repeat once more, that while a slight mid-day
feed is better in itself, it must always be
deducted frotn the breakfast, and the effect of the
total always checked by now and then exam-
ining the birds at night, as already remarked.

Grain is better not mixed. The fowls get
more change if fed only one kind of grain at a
time ; and if two or three kinds are needed to
balance the dietary, the same effect
Choice ^^m ]-,g produced, in practice, by

Grain. gi'^'iig one at a time on two or

three successive days, or a different
grain for the noon-day feed. It has been already
indicated, that on a really wide range fowls will
thrive and lay well on grain alone.

The quality of all grain should be carefully
looked after. Barley should be fair malting
quality, not the narrow husky kind. Of oats,
mixed horse-meat is useless ; only heavy white
oats, 40-42 lbs. per bushel, are good for fowls.
Much buckwheat offered is either old dried-up
grain, or kiln-dried ; it is the fresh dark grain
that is wanted. Of maize, the small round sort
is best. " Poultry mixture " should be reli-
giously avoided. It generally consists of the
poorest samples, and prevents the birds getting
any change. " Sweepings " sometimes contain
poisonous substances, and should never be seen
in a poultry-yard. Fresh brewers' grains are
sometimes beneficial as a stimulant, are cheap
and liked by the fowls, and have a food value,
but of course are only obtainable in the neigh-
bourhood of breweries. The respective food
values of the different kinds of grain, on an
average of good samples, will be found in the
preceding chapter. Fowls rarely refuse any
kind if kept in proper condition ; when they
do, they have probably been overfed.

What is termed " cockle-seed," which is not,
as might be supposed, the seed of the plant of
that name, but the refuse screenings of wheat,
has been much recommended by a certain
County Council lecturer, who is also noteworthy
for the statement that 700 fowls may be kept foi
profit and in health in one house, upon two acres
of land, for years in succession. At Liverpool

SUPPLY OF ANIMAL FOOD.

49

and similar centres, where wheat is screened for
milling in immense quantities, such food may-
deserve attention ; but it varies much in quality.
The chief components are the seeds of mustard,
rape, clover, and grass, with sometimes a
very little shrivelled wheat, linseed, etc., and the
name is given because the screener is called a
cockle machine. It is very cheap, and of fair
food value on an average, but can only be had
in certain localities, and has the objection that
the fowls do not like it. Mr. Webster states
that he did better with it when ground into
meal ; but then the fowls did not like it unless
mixed with other meal : then they ate it readily.
Such cheap food deserves a place in the dietary
where accessible ; but that will be in few cases,
and fowls will pay well enough fed upon good
grain. As might be expected, any general
analysis of cockle-seed cannot be given, as it
differs widely in character : American is said to
be usually the best, and Russian or Danubian
the worst in quality.

The bulk of the food is now provided for,
and we have seen that merely to keep the birds
in health, animal food is not re-
inimal quired. But if a good supply of

Food. eggs be expected it certainly is.

The American experiments which
have been detailed in the preceding chapter
have shown that vegetable albuminoids, even
though the ratio be made as high as with meat,
have not altogether the same effect, and that
some animal food is needed if a high standard of
laying is to be kept up. For a small household
establishment, the lean portion of the table
scraps may furnish sufficient ; if not the bones,
cut or broken up very sjnall, will do so, and will
be eagerly devoured. Nearly an ounce per
day for each bird in full lay will not probably
be too much, if they really are prolific layers;
but many only moderate layers could not use
so much rich food in that way, and such hens
would therefore be over-stimulated. On a
larger scale, bones may be purchased from the
butcher and cut in a mill. In America there
are many makes of such mills, and in this country
wc have many excellent bone-cutting machines,
such as Radcliffe's, Goddard's, and that shown in
Fig. 19 : all these mills cut the bones up, not crush-
ing or breaking them. One caution is, however,
necessary concerning bone : it must really be
fresh. Tainted bones should never be used, and
have been known to work mischief. Where
bones Cannot be procured, the various forms
of granulated dried meat or meat-meal are use-
ful ; or bullock's liver, or horseflesh, or sheep's
pluck, or any really sound offal may be boiled
and minced up, using the broth also in mi.xing

the mash. On a wide range, of course the
natural supply of worms and insects will more
or less reduce the quantity, or may make special
provision needless.

On the whole, the best results are obtained
by dividing albuminoids between the animal
and vegetable classes. Through a wide extent
of American practice, it seems usual to give
roughly about half of the extra albuminoids in
the shape of cut clover, and half in cut bone ;
and this combination appears to answer exceed-
ingly well. We need not further refer to malt-
dust, pea-meal, and similar articles : but special
mention ought perhaps to be made of the high
albuminoid value oi cabbage, which is so readily
grown on small plots of ground, and which in

Fig. 19. — Furness' Bone Culter.

many places in England is more easily obtain-
able than clover can be. It is by some American
poultry-farmers specially grown for the fowls, and
fed to them, being minced or shredded up fine.
It is thus given not merely as green food, but
as egg food, of known value, and as paying for
itself specially in the egg return ; not only sup-
plying albumen itself, but enabling the cooled
system to assimilate better the animal food
given beside. This seems the special function
of clover or cabbage ; it cools the system, and
allows of a higher egg-ration than would other-
wise be possible without evil.

This brings us to the question of green or
fresh vegetable food in itself, and as such. A

regular supply of this is absolutely
Green necessary to keep fowls in health.

Food. all the more so in proportion to the

confinement of their daily run ; and
the want of it, or of sufficient quantity of it, or
regularity in giving it, is one of the most
frequent causes of failure or disaster. An
adequate grass run is of such great value, above
all, as supplying this constantly without further

so

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

trouble or care beyond mowing it occasionally
whenever it gets long. Another very good plan,
where possible, is to pay children a few pence
weekly to bring fresh grass daily, pulled from
the roadside. This must not be thrown in as
it is, but cut into quarter-inch green chaff, by
a pair of shears or a small machine ; so cut
it may either be thrown into the trough by
itself, or it is perhaps better mixed in the mash,
when all must get their share. The more given
the better, so long as it is given regularly, and
this plentiful and regular supply is the great
preventive of diarrhoea ; but great fluctuations
should be avoided, and are, of course, liable to
upset the digestive system. Lettuces or cab-
bages are excellent, and of distinct food value
besides, as referred to above, but are better
minced up. The outer cabbage-leaves are not
so good ; still, fresh ones will do very well for a
small pen, as will other refuse vegetables, pro-
vided only sound portions are minced up, and
so eaten ; but cabbage stumps left lying about,
or large leaves trodden under foot, become
offensive, and may almost be called poisonous.
Minced vegetables or fresh green weeds of any
kind are usually eaten without leaving any, as
are turnips, or beets, or mangolds, mincecl up
small, which are sometimes the only available
source of supply in winter. Such roots as
the last may also be boiled, and mashed up
with the soft food, but should not be reckoned
in the weight of the latter. Something of the
sort must be given to fowls in confinement
every day, else their bowels sooner or later
become disordered, and various ailments and
vices occur among them. A very usual and
good plan is to give a liberal allowance of
green food for the mid-day meal.

While whole leaves and stumps must not be
left about, however, it is often the best plan

for fowls in close confinement, to
Occupation, hang up two or three whole lettuces,

or the entire half of a split cabbage,
or half of a large root, by a string from above,
so as to hang loose some inches above ground.
This is not as a matter of feeding, however, but
in order that pecking at the swinging dainty
may give occupation, and so prevent feather-
eating or other vices of idleness. To find
exercise and occupation in some way is of
the last importance to fowls penned in a shed.
It is for this purpose that American breeders
keep the floor inches deep in straw, leaves, or
other litter, under which the grain is buried
to be scratched for all day. In many small
town establishments so much bulky litter could
not be either stored, or in due time got rid of, as
is so easy upon an American farm ; but for-

tunately, in most cases, there is more or less open
run, from which fowls in this country are scarcely
ever excluded. When they are penned up in a
shed, however, the lesson thus given us should be
studied. A little grain well raked into the loose
material on the floor, and green food given
in this special way, or a large bone from the
kitchen hung up in similar fashion, will do much
to keep the hens busy, and prevent mischief. It
also affects laying ; for experiments have shown
that a very poor supply of eggs from a pen of
birds allowed to become idle and torpid, was
soon increased threefold when they were thus
induced to work for their living : they also
moulted earlier and more quickly than they
had done before.

In addition to their regular food it will be
needful that the fowls have a supply of lime,

in some shape or other, to form the
Lime and shells of their eggs. Old mortat
Grit. pounded is excellent, so are oyster

shells well burnt in the fire and
pulverised ; of the latter they are very fond, and
it is an excellent plan to keep a large pan full
of it in their yard. If this matter has been
neglected, and soft shell-less eggs have resulted,
the quickest way of getting matters right again
is to add a little lime to the drinking water, or
pound up some oyster shells raw. Lime in the
drinking water always, however, as some have
recommended, is not at all advisable, and has
led in several cases within our knowledge to
disease of the kidneys. Where cut bone ia
regularly fed, it will of itself provide ample shell
material. Pounded oyster or other marine shells
appear, however, to be specially relished, for
which there must be a reason. It probably lies
in the supply they afford of unncral salts gener-
ally. Lime alone does not supply all the needs
of a fowl in confinement, and experiments cited
in the preceding chapter show how much effect
upon growth, as well as upon laying, was pro-
duced by adding the salts contained in bone-ash
to a grain and meal dietary. The breeder who
cannot provide animal food regularly, or who
prefers to keep such food within very strict
moderation, will not overlook the lesson, and
will seek to supply at least adequate mineral
matter, in other ways.

One thing more must on no account be
forgotten. This is, some supply of sharp grit or
gravel, or other hard substances. Such small
stones constitute hens teeth, and without them
the gizzard cannot perform its office of grinding
up the food. We have seen fowls ailing from
apparently this simple neglect alone. Flint
grit is easiest to obtain, but some of that sold
is too large and too sharp, and has been proved

FOUNTAINS AND WATER SUPPLY.

SI

sometimes to lacerate the viscera. The best
way is to make some flints red-hot, and throw
them into cold water ; they will then pound
up more easily, and in better condition. Pounded
crockery has been advised, but is unsafe, as
it often contains lead-glaze ; and pounded glass
has several times been known to cause death
from internal haemorrhage caused by severe
wounds. Grit for young chickens should be
very small, only the size of very coarse sand.
Some people carry the matter of grit too far,
and mix it in the mash every time. If it
is always in reach of the birds, adults will take
what they need of it, and on a good mis-
cellaneous range they will need no special
supply, but pick up all that they require.

The water supply is, in its way, as important
as the food. The water vessel must be filled

fresh every day at least, and so
Water arranged that the birds cannot

Supply. scratch dirt into it or make it foul.

The ordinary poultry-fountain is
too well known to need description, but better
constructions, made in two parts, are shown

Fig. 20, — Water Fountain^

in Fig. 20. The centre figure is generally made ;
both of the two others are patterns made by
Spratts, and have some advantages in rather
better protection of the surface of the water. The
advantages of the double construction are that
the interior can be examined, and the vessel
well sluiced out to remove the green slime
which always collects by degrees. For large-
combed breeds it is necessary to use shallow
pans ; and Fig. 16 reversed, with the wide part
uppermost, is a capital pattern. When the
water has to be placed in a shed filled with
loose earth, to which the fowls are confined,
it should be a little raised, and a piece of board
or other protection be so placed as to protect
it from dirt being scratched into it. Grown up
fowls must never be left without water. During
a frost, therefore, the fountain should be emptied

every night, or there will be trouble next
morning. Care must always be taken, also,
that snow is not allowed to fall into the drinking
vessel. The reason has puzzled wiser heads
than ours, but any real quantity of snow-water
reduces both fowls and birds greatly in con-
dition. Stale and sun-heated water is also
very injurious, often leading to obscure diseases
of an intestinal character ; the fountain should
therefore be kept in the shade. In very frosty
weather it is best to discard fountains for
shallow pans, which should be slightly greased;
the ice will then not adhere to the sides, and
there will be no trouble beyond filling the pans.
In this case warm water is also advisable, and
will often postpone freezing for hours, but the
temperature should not exceed about 120° when
poured into the pans.

Some fowls undoubtedly do themselves
harm by over-drinking. This may possibly be
set up by some temporary feverish condition ;
but it is so common in confinement, that we
suspect it is often a mere bad habit. It may be
checked to a considerable extent by a bit of
camphor in the water, or a few quassia chips, or
a little iron. The camphor can do no possible
harm, and is some preservative against gapes
and catarrh; the very slight tonic effect of the
quassia will be rather beneficial than otherwise ;
and in cold or wet weather the effect of iron in
warding off catarrhal roup is well known. In
such weather we would in fact always add iron
to the water, in the shape of a small lump of
sulphate (green vitriol) the size of a nut to half a
gallon, or a teaspoonful of the ordinary chemist's
tincture of iron. The sulphate will make the
water rusty, but this can be prevented by
adding a few drops of sulphuric acid. In hot
weather, if it is thought that the fowls are
drinking too freely, it will be better to use the
quassia. Drugs of any kind should be used as
little as possible while birds appear in good
health and condition.

There is one special time of crisis in every
season, however, when all fowls should be
carefully watched, and need special
Moulting. care and treatment. The process
of moulting, though a natural one,
and usually a healthy one, is in any case a
severe drain upon the system. Before moult
freely comes on, the general condition should be
ascertained. Those fowls get through moult
the best which are just a little spare in body
at the commencement, so that they may bear a
little extra diet, and slight gradual increase
in weight during the process. This should not,
however, be begun till new feathers have actually
started : whilst casting feathers only, a fowl

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

usually has little appetite and should not be
forced at all. And too poor condition is bad
for them, though over-fat is still worse. Very
special care should be taken in mixing their
food, and the system kept cool by plenty of
green food, which will enable the rather extra
food to be better assimilated. A little malt-
dust is also exceedingly beneficial in this way,
and it is a comparatively recent discovery that
a good pinch of powdered sulphur to each bird
thrice a week, or every day if the growth of
new feathers seems very rapid, has a good
effect in helping the new plumage, when it has
begun to grow ; rape-seed, which contains sulphur,
is said to have the same effect. Whether or
not animal food has been used before, unless the
birds have ample range a little should be given
now, and some sunflower-seed will be exceed-
ingly beneficial. The birds should be constantly
examined, and endeavour made to graduate the
feeding so that, if in the proper condition at first,
they slightly and slowly increase in weight.
Iron tonic should be given as above, right
through the process. This is all that is neces-
sary for a successful moult ; some special points
regarding exhibition stock must be dealt with in
the proper place, and it need only be added
here that it is very desirable only to keep
fowls which moult fairly early. Late moult
brings the process into cold and bad weather,
when the birds suffer more in any case ; late
moults are also apt to be prolonged, and then
it is very late before laying is resumed. Late-
hatched birds, which moult late, are therefore
never profitable, and should be displaced as
soon as possible by others which are more
likely to be so.

Cleanliness in both house and run must be
the object of constant, unremitting care, which

is perhaps most likely to be neg-
Cleanliness. lected in affairs of the smallest

size. It is just where only a few
birds are kept, that it is likely to be thought of
little consequence, whereas to such a few, if
penned up, and especially if entirely within a
covered run, it is most of all important, even
vital. Large establishments will be, of course,
attended to systematically, and the easiest way
of keeping the loose material in a number of
sheds properly clean from the droppings of the
fowls is to rake them daily with such a small-
toothed rake as already described, made with
about one-eighth inch wires set three-eighths
inch apart; and once a week to cast all the
material through a mason's riddle. One small
shed should be treated similarly, but using a
circular wire sieve instead of the riddle. The
earth, or ashes, or road-dust should, if possible.

be sifted in the first place : if so, and it is kept
dry, the covered run can be then kept in good
order, and no other dust-bath will be required,
though a bare place should be fenced off for the
fountain and for feeding. Our own plan used to
be to keep away the loose stuff from a feeding
place about four by three feet, by laying on the
hard ground two pieces of timber, three by
four inches, over which the fowls could step
easily, but which fenced back the loose earth
on the other side. Concerning the roosting
house nothing need be added to what was
said in Chapter I.

The chief thing is that, even on a small scale,
all this be methodised. It is not easy always to

do so, but it must be done, including
Poultry the disposal of the manure. When

Manure. there is even a small garden there

will be no difficulty, as fresh earth
can be got as often as required to replace that
discarded, and the manure from a few fowls can
readily be used. The collected manure should
be stored in an old cask or some vessel where it
will be kept dry, and some time before using
it should be mixed with dry earth, and any soot,
or fine dry ashes, or burnt weeds that may
be available. It is excellent for nearly all
things if not used too strong, as it generally is.
Another way to use it at home is to put some in
a watering-pot, fill up with water overnight and
stir, and use the liquid. In spite of its real
value it is not a saleable article as a rule ; but
twice, in different localities, we found a nursery-
man who allowed us 4s. per hundredweight
for ours, against such small things as we needed
from him.* If some such arrangement can be
made it will help matters, but of course the
manure from only half a dozen birds is not
worth anyone's while to take away, and should
be used on the garden plot, or smuggled into
the dust-bin. Owing to the need for clean
material and for disposal of manure, some plot
of garden ground seems almost necessary in
connection with a pen of fowls. If there is none
such at all, the best plan is to keep the main
part of the covered run hard and smooth,
cleansing this with a scraper, and supply a dust-
bath in one corner from the household ashes
sifted fine, which can be discarded in the dust-
bin periodically. The difficulty in such a case
is likely to come from want of scratching
material and exercise. It is in precisely such
circumstances as these that feather-eating is
most likely to follow the least neglect, and
should be guarded against by keeping even
fewer birds than usual, by the most sedulous

* Respecting the real value of poultry manure, see Chapter
VIII.

IMPORTANCE OF THE EGG RETURN.

attention to proper diet, including a due propor-
tion of green and animal food, and by constant
precaution against insect vermin, which is,
beyond doubt, the proximate cause of this
vice in many cases.

The first essential in this warfare is, of
course, constant attention to the dust-bath, both

to keep it supplied with clean
Insect material, and to keep it dry. The

Vermin. dust-bath itself will harbour vermin

if not properly renewed, and if it is
damp the fowls cannot use it, and have no
resource. Where this is attended to and the
roosting-house kept clean, there will usually be
little trouble. All the walls should be gone
over twice a year if possible with hot lime-wash,
to which is added one ounce of carbolic acid in
crystals to every gallon. Where there is the
least suspicion, this should be not only laid on,
but well "worked into" all chinks and crevices
with a hand-brush. The ends of perches and
shelves, and anything else that makes a chink
or crevice, should be lifted every now and then
to see if the " red mite" is making any lodg-
ment, and the places painted with kerosene oil.
Dilute carbolic acid may also be " sprayed " all
over the walls, which is easily done by filling
a glass bottle, stoppering it with a cork in
which a small groove or notch is cut up one
side, and swinging the bottle round, when the
dilute acid will spray out through the small
groove in the cork.

Any fresh purchase should always be most
carefully examined for vermin ; to do this often
saves much trouble. If found infested with
any, a bird should be isolated for a day or two,
and meantime well treated with some insecticide,
well rubbed into her plumage all over down to
the roots, and especially the under-parts of the
body, and fluff round the vent. The powder of
Pyretlirum (of which one brand is well known
as Persian Powder) does well for this. A
second application may be necessary. Another
cheap and good insecticide powder is made by
rubbing up powdered sulphur with as much
dissolved carbolic acid as can be taken up with-
out making it a paste or moist ; this may be
well dusted and rubbed into the plumage in
a similar way. Other expedients, and the
American method of fumigation and treatment
of the houses with volatile compounds, will be
found in the final chapter of this work. The
nests also need attention, changing the straw, or
fern, at proper intervals ; fusty straw always
means vermin. A couple of lumps of camphor
at opposite corners of a nest will do much to
repel lice. At moulting time feathers should
also be cleared up and, if possible, burnt every

day or two ; leaving them about is a fruitful
source of vermin.

Eggs should be looked for regularly, and if
possible twice a day. It is a curious thing that
many country servants, otherwise
Eggs. fairly honest, seem to have no con-

science at all concerning eggs, and
a lock on the door often produces surprising
results. If hens look healthy and red, and
" prate," and are known to go to the nest, and
still there are no eggs, it is time to look into
matters. Again and again we have personally
found the suggestion of locks upon the doors
received with indignation ; but nevertheless its
adoption speedily resulted in hen-fruit Of
course, there might also be egg-eating by the
hens ; but if such be the case it is quite as need-
ful to discover that. Want of eggs, when due
allowance has been made for age, time of year,
and all other known circumstances, should
never be accepted as a normal state of
things, but every attempt made to trace its
real cause.

For this and other reasons, wherever any
chickens are reared pains should be taken to
recognise, if possible, the egg laid by each
particular hen. In the case of a few only kept
for household supply, any regular attendant can
very soon manage so much, without any doubt
or difficulty. Out of any half-dozen hens got
together to start with in the ordinary way, it is
probable that about two will lay very well and
pay a large profit, three more a fair mediocre
number, paying a small profit, and perhaps
one very few indeed. Such poor layers should
be weeded out anyway ; and when chicks are
reared, only eggs from the best layers should be
saved for hatching. In this way enormous im-
provement can be effected ; but this subject
will be further discussed in a subsequent
chapter. Meantime, and merely to show its
vital importance, we may record that at the
experimental station in Maine, U.S., Professor
Gowell once placed 260 April- and May-hatched
pullets in breeding pens, and by trap nests the
laying of every bird was recorded for twelve
months, commencing on the 1st November, but
those not laying then, being reckoned from
when they did begin. Five died, and 19 were
stolen: of the balance of 236 birds, 39 laid 160
or more, and 22 birds less than loo. Three
only laid 36, 37, and 38 in the year, while the
five best laid 200, 201, 204, 206, and 208. The
last bird had laid a fortnight before she was
counted, and in the ensuing first six months of
a second year laid II 2 more. Some birds laid
well one month and very badly the next, while
others laid well continuously. No "egg-type"

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

could be observed to account for these differ-
ences : the poorest layers looked as promising
as the others, and all of each breed were of the
same breeding. The best layer, mentioned
above, was a White Wyandotte, whose record
closed at the end of April of the second year.

All eggs should be marked with at least the
date laid, and it is best to do this on the small
end, and keep them for household use in a board
pierced with holes, small end upwards. If more
than the date be required, for breeding purposes,
it is still best to mark them on or around the
small end, for the simple reason that the chick
breaks the shell round the large end, and any
mark made there may be destroyed.

The profit of what may be called domestic
poultry-keeping, or from any moderate number
of fowls, when properly managed,
ProSt in should be very large, but will de-

Poultry, pend more than anything else upon

the average number of eggs obtained
from each of the birds. How very greatly
this may differ, we have seen above. The food
certainly should not exceed one penny per week
each, where eked out to any extent by household
items ; and a bird discarded as too old is worth
nearly her cost on the family table, and will be
relished there. On a larger scale, where all has
to be purchased, the cost may rise to three-
halfpence per week. Thus even one hundred
eggs in a year will pay a fair profit. American
breeders and poultrj'-farmers are not now satis-
fied, hov/ever, with less than one hundred and
sixty-five per annum, and some of them get
considerably more; and fowls can be obtained
even in England which have been, to a large
extent, bred for laying, and will lay one hundred
and si.xty eggs or more when properly fed.
Such laying should, in these progressive days,
be looked for and fed for ; and if chickens are
reared, they should be systematically bred for,
as hereafter described. The profits from such
egg-results can readily be estimated.

Wherever more than three or four birds are

kept, food will of course be always purchased
with reference to the market, and in economical
quantities. Metal bins or receptacles are far the
best, as they protect grain and meal from rats
and mice, and in so doing, do much to prevent
those vermin from infesting the establishment.
Capital bins for a small concern may often be
found in the large circular iron drums or casks
in which paint, oil, printing-ink, and similar
goods are sold. If they are turned on one
side, and lighted paper or sticks thrown in, the
remains of their former contents will catch fire,
and they may be rolled about till " burnt out "
clean. For a very few birds a large canister or
covered pail may be sufficient.

But the whole affair, on even the smallest
scale, should be conducted as a matter of
business. An account should be kept, of
course. In a small way, a cash account and an
account of eggs and produce will be sufficient ;
the amount of figuring some fussy people will
get out of three old hens is amusing, but is
quite needless, and apt to prove tiresome. As
the scale of proceedings enlarges, more may be
necessary ; every incubator will need its own
register, and every breeding hen the same, and
both payments and receipts will have to be
sorted under different headings. As a general
rule simplicity should be studied, so far as con-
sonant with efficiency, however : too elaborate
accounts get neglected, and defeat their object.
It is enough for most people if the profit or loss
of each branch — as egg production, or sale of
newly hatched chicks, or rearing, or fattening
— can be distinguished from the rest ; then any
losing department may be either overhauled, or
perhaps discarded to the profit of the exchequer.
All these things will often give invaluable
change of thought and occupation to wearied
men of business, to whom a " hobby " of some
kind may mean physical salvation. No such
man of business, who gives a little of his own
attention to it, will long remain unconvinced of
the profit there is in keeping poultry.

55

CHAPTER IV.

THE EGG AND SITTING HEN.

EVERY animal, of whatsoever kind, is
developed from the egg-form, or as
physiologists express it, " omne animal
ex ovo." But the mode of that development
differs, in one detail especially. In mammalia
the egg is retained throughout within the body
of the mother, which is its sufficient protection,
and the development is uninterrupted. In
oviparous animals, such as birds, the egg is
enclosed in a hard protecting shell, and at a
certain stage of development extruded from
the body of the mother; in this case develop-
ment is arrested at that point, and may, or
may not, be resumed and completed.

Fif». 21. — Ovary of Laying Hen,

The ovary of a hen during or near her laying

season presents an appearance much like that

of a cluster of fruit, and is accurately shown by

the illustration (Fig. 2i.) There

Formation are, strictly, two such organs in

every bird ; but one remains merely

rudimentary and undeveloped, the

fertile one being almost always that on the left cf

of
the Egg.

the spine, to which it is attached by means of the
peritoneal membrane. By the ovary the essential
part of the egg, which consists of the germ, and
also the yolk, is formed, each yolk being con-
tained within a thin and transparent ovisac,
connected by a narrow stem or pedicle with the
ovary. These rudimentary eggs are of different
sizes, according to the different degree of de-
velopment, and during the period of laying
they are constantly coming to maturity in due
succession.

As the yolk be-
comes fully matured,
the enclosing mem-
brane or ovisac
becomes gradually
thinner, especially
round its greatest
diameter or equator,
which then exhibits a
pale zone or belt called
the stigma. Finally,
whether or not fecund-
ation takes place, the
sac ruptures at the
stigma, and the
liberated yolk and
germ, surrounded by a
very thin and delicate
membrane, is received
by the funnel-shaped
opening of the oviduct
or egg-passage, whose
office it is to convey
it to the outer world,
and on its way to
clothe it with the

other structures needful for its development
and preservation. This organ, with its various
convolutions a little modified for convenience
of representation, is shown in Fig. 22, and
in an ordinary hen is nearly two feet in
length. It will easily be seen how tivo yolks
may become detached and enter the oviduct at
nearly the same time ; in which case they are
likely to be enveloped in the same white and

Fig. 22. — Ovary and Oviduct.

56

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

shell, causing the " double-yolked egg " so well
known to every poultry-keeper.

Thus received into the oviduct, the yolk
becomes enveloped in a glairy fluid called the
white, or by chemists albumen. This is secreted
by the mucous membrane of the oviduct, and
added layer by layer as the egg passes on. The
uses of the white or albumen are manifold. It
is eminently nutritious, forming indeed the
chief nourishment of the chick during its growth
in the shell ; as it becomes absorbed by the
little animal, and forming as it does by far the
greater part of the egg when laid, it gives the fast-
growing little body the needed increase of room ;
it is a very bad conductor of heat, and hence
guards the hatching egg against the fatal chills
which would otherwise occur when the hen left
the nest ; and finally, it preserves the delicate
yolk and vital germ from concussion or other
violent injury.

At a still farther point of the oviduct the
egg becomes invested with the skin or parch-
ment-like covering which is found inside the
shell. In reality this skin consists of two layers,
which can easily be separated ; and at the large
end of the egg they do separate entirely, form-
ing the air-chamber. At first this chamber is
small, but as the &gg gets stale it becomes larger
and larger, so that even in eggs stored it fills
at length a large portion of the space within the
shell, the egg itself drying up in proportion. In
eggs on the point of hatching it usually occupies
about one-fifth of the space. It has been proved
by experiments that the perforation of this air-
chamber, even by a needle-point, is an effectual
prevention of successful hatching.

In the last portion of the oviduct the egg
becomes coated with that calcareous deposit
which forms the shell, after which it passes into
the cloaca and is ready for expulsion. In some
breeds colouring matter is added over the solid
ingredient, producing the deep-coloured eggs
of the Cochin, and in other birds the splashed
and spotted patterns so well known. In fowls
which lay coloured eggs similar splashes often
occur, and we have had Brahma hens which laid
eggs with a white ground, covered thickly over
by chocolate-coloured spots. We have had
others, again, lay eggs covered apparently with
a coat of whitewash, which on being rubbed off
with a rough cloth, revealed the usual buff-brown
tint beneath. All these things obviously depend
on some peculiar condition of the secreting
organs, as does the shape of the egg of each
bird when finally laid.

Occasional departures from the ordinary
type of egg will now be understood. If the
latter portion of the oviduct be in an un-

healthy condition, or if yolks be matured by
the ovary faster than shells can be formed by
that organ, "soft" or unshelled eggs will be
produced. If, on the contrary, the oviduct and
its glands be active, while the supply of yolks
is temporarily exhausted, the diminutive eggs,
which consist of only white and shell, and which
not infrequently terminate the laying of a long
batch, may be expected to occur. Disease ex-
tending to the middle portion of the passage
may result in eggs without even the membranous
skin ; and if the entire canal be in an unhealthy
condition, yolks alone may probably be dropped
without any addition whatever, even of white.
This last occurrence therefore denotes a serious
state of affairs, and should be met at once by
depletic medicines, or it will probably be fol-
lowed by the loss of the bird.

Fig. 23. — Diagram of an Egg.

B L, blastoderm. w v, white yolk. VY. yellow yolk. v, vitelline
membrane. F, layer of very fluid albumen round the vitelline membrane.
D, dense albumen enclosing the yolk with preceding envelopes. In this
envelope D are incorporated the ends of c h, the chalazse. w, body of
the albumen, c, somewhat denser layer of albumen, surrounded by a
fluid layer. M M^ outer and inner shell membrane, separated at A, air-
chamb-r. s, shell.

Let us now consider the egg itself which is
a much more complicated organism than many
people are aware of There is much even in

the shell S (Fig. 23) to excite our
Structure interest. It is composed chiefly of
theEffe prismatic particles, so arranged as

to leave pores or interspaces between
them. As laid, the shell is of enormous strength,
so that it will resist great pressure between the
palms of the hands applied to the opposite ends ;
though it is not correct that, as we have seen
stated, " the strongest man cannot break it " in
this way. Still, for its thickness and te.xture,
its strength is phenomenal. As hatching pro-
ceeds, however, the carbonic acid and dioxide
formed by the breathing of the chick, dissolved
in fluid, gradually dissolve a portion of the

STRUCTURE OF THE EGG.

material, and thus the prismatic bodies are slowly
softened and disintegrated. The shell thus be-
comes far softer and more brittle as hatching
approaches ; and so great is the difference, that
if the edge of a fracture made across a fresh
egg-shell, and another of one hatched or hatch-
ing, be examined under a microscope, it will
be instantly seen that the two are in a quite
different molecular condition. Were it not for
this beautiful provision of Nature, the chick
could never break the shell.

The outer and inner shell-membranes M and
m', separating at the air-chamber A, need no
further explanation. Proceeding inwards, we
come ne.xt to the white or albumen W. This is
composed of a denser, and a more fluid kind,
arranged in layers, which can be peeled off in a
hard-boiled egg, like the layers of an onion. A
layer of the more fluid kind is always next the
shell, and another thin one, F, next the yolk, but
enveloped by another layer, D, of the dense kind.
If an egg be broken into a basin, there will
further be observed attached to two opposite
sides of the yolk, two slightly opaque and rather
twisted thick cords, C H, of still denser albumen,
termed the clialazce. They are not attached to
the shell, but to opposite sides of the dense layer
of albumen, D, which envelops the inner fluid
layer and the yolk. They are so attached at
opposite sides, rather below the centre ; thus
they act as balancing weights, keeping the side
of the yolk which carries the germ always
uppermost, and very nearly in floating equili-
brium. If the egg be turned round, therefore,
the yolk itself does not turn with it, but retains
its position with the germ on the upper side.

It will be seen how elaborately and beauti-
fully the yolk, bearing upon its upper surface
the tender germ, is protected within the egg.
Itself rather lighter at the upper part, it is
further balanced by the chalazcz, so as to float
germ uppermost in the albumen. It is usually
very slightly lighter than the albumen, but
scarcely perceptibly so; thus it floats near the
upper side of the shell, but always separated
from it by a layer of albumen of more or less
thickness, and oscillating gently away from the
shell on the least motion. In a few cases it
probably floats more strongly up against the
shell, and these are generally the cases in which
adherence takes place, or the yolk is ruptured
during hatching ; but an exquisitely delicate
floating balance is the rule. Nevertheless, it
will be readily understood why it is inadvisable
to leave an egg, and above all a hatching egg,
lying on the same side for any length of time.
The shell being porous, and permitting of
evaporation, such a course keeps the germ close

to the portion of albumen which is slowly drying
up, and may cause a tendency to adhesion.

Turning now to the yolk, this is contained
within a very delicate vitelline membrane, V.
It is composed of both white and yellow cells,
and if an egg be boiled hard and cut across, it
can be seen that there is a flask-shaped nucleus
or centre of white yolk, W Y, round which are
several concentric layers of yellow yolk, Y Y.
Under the microscope additional thin layers of
white yolk cells can be distinguished amongst
the yellow layers. On the top of the white
yolk rests the blastoderm (germ-skin), a small
disk about one-eighth of an inch across, shown
at B L. The difference between a fertilised and
an unfertilised egg is solely to be found in this
small disk, and much of its detail can only be
distinguished under the microscope ; but with
a pocket lens it can be discerned that whilst
in an unfertilised egg the little disk is whitish,
all over, e.xcept for small clear spots very irre-
gularly distributed over its surface, in the
fertilised egg an outer ring or margin is whitish
while in the centre is a smaller clear circle, in
which are very small white spots. This central
clear space is the germ from which the chick
will be developed.

It should be clearly understood that, at the
stage when thus examined, after the egg has
been laid, development or "hatching" has already
been carried on to a certain extent, due to
the eighteen or twenty hours it has been sub-
jected to the heat of the hen's body whilst
traversing the oviduct. As it entered the ovi-
duct, the germinal disk consisted of only a single
cell. During its passage this cell

Early becomes traversed by successive

Development ^ i- • • i- • ,• ,

of the Egg. lurrows or divisions, dividing and

sub-dividing it into many cells —

the first stage in developing a real organism

out of the single cell. This process goes on not

only on the surface, but beneath, so that by the

time the &^^ is laid, the blastoderm consists of

two sheets or layers of cells. At about this

stage the egg should be laid, and with the

cessation of warmth the process ceases, or nearly

so, but not exactly at the same point in every

case. Perhaps the most wonderful thing about

an egg is the power it has of keeping the

development, already commenced, suspended

for a time when warmth is withdrawn ; to be

resumed and carried on whenever the necessary

warmth is restored.

Several points which puzzle many people

will now be understood. It may happen that

an egg is retained for a day or two beyond the

natural time ; in that case the development of

hatching will be continued, and the new-laid

5S

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

eg'^ may contain a visible embryo. Again, since
even the new-laid egg is already an organism,
which has attained a certain stage of growth, it
is subject to disease, or weakness, or accident,
like other organisms. Thus an egg may be
fertile, and the germ may begin to develop,
but may perish at any stage from sheer lack of

Fig. 24. — Chick on Second or Thin! Day.

strength, precisely as a weakly baby may die
at any age. Quite apart from accidents or in-
juries whilst hatching, there is no doubt that in
many eggs the embryo is not strong enough in
itself ever to come to maturity. Such deaths
at various stages, within the shell, are in no
essential respect different from deaths of weakly
chickens at various early stages after leaving the
shell; the necessary vigour may fail the infant
creature at any particular time. So also the
embryo can be injured within the shell in various
ways ; and while it might be fanciful to say it
can be " frightened," there is much evidence to
show that it may suffer from some kind of
nervous shock, as in a severe thunderstorm.

Whenever the Qg'g is again subjected to a
heat analogous to that of the hen's body, the
process of development is resumed, if the
interval has not been too long. There can
obviously be no definite limits to such an
interval. We have sent eggs to America which
hatched 60 per cent, after that voyage, and an
entire interval of thirty days ; and many sit-
tings have similarly hatched, after crossing the
Atlantic. On the other hand, in the earliest days
of artificial incubation it became notorious that
eggs laid more than four or five days, hatched
then rarely and with difficulty, proving that
after a very few days there was a change for the
worse in the vigour of the embryo. Yet again,
a hen allowed to steal her nest almost
always hatches well ; and it seems probable that
her periodical visits, with their short intervals of
warmth (for a hen at liberty rarely remains on
the nest more than an hour when laying), refresh

Development

during
Incubation.

and re-invigorate the germ, and probably may
even carry on farther to some minute degree,
the process of development.

It is needless to describe in detail the
development of the chick when steady incuba-
tion has been commenced. A few hours enlarge
the central pellucid spot, which
becomes oval, with a furrow down
the centre, and blood-vessels appear
round it ; then begins to develop
a double membrane called the amnion, whicla
at a later period entirely encloses the embryo
along with what is called the amniotic fluid.
By the second or third day the tiny embryo
enclosed in the amnion can be clearly seen as in
Fig. 24, surrounded by a patch upon the surface
of the yolk which is covered by fine blood-vessels.
The eyes can also be seen with a magnifying-
glass, as dark spots, and even the pulsation of
the heart. At or soon after the third day
another growth called the allantois begins to
push out from the digestive canal of the embryo,
between the two coats of the amnion, and at a
later period also encloses the embryo. By the
fifth or si.xth day the allantois may be observed
as a bag or sac protruding from the navel,
independent of the }'olk-sac (Fig. 25). By this
time rudiments of the wings and legs can be
clearly seen as buds or small clubs standing out
from the surface of the body, which has grown a
great deal. The network of blood-vessels has
also extended, and the yolk-sac is larger and
more defined. This and the developing allantois,
at about the seventh day, are more clearly shown
in Fig. 26,

Fig. 25. — Fiflh Day: al, allantois.

The allantois is, however, flattened and spread
out in reality between the outer and inner layers
of the amnion, where it gradually extends till it
entirely surrounds the growing chicken, close to
the outer shell and membrane of the (fgg. It is
furnished with a beautiful network of blood-
vessels, extended under the porous envelope

DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHICK.

59

of the egg, while at the umbilicus they are in
connection with the young chick. The allantois,
with its capillary blood-vessels, thus serves as a
temporary lung by which the blood is oxygen-
ated from the outer air, the chick not being able
to use its true lungs till the very eve of hatching.
The allantois is thus a structure of cardinal
importance to the life of the growing chick.

At the tenth or eleventh day (we speak of
a hen's egg) signs of the feathers can be dis-
tinguished, and motion of the young animal is
often perceptible when the egg is opened.
Generally about the nineteenth day the beak
ruptures the membrane which divides off the air-
chamber, and the chick for the first time breathes
air through the lungs, after which the chick's
blood gradually ceases to flow into the veins of

replaced by fresh material from the albumen,
drawn through the delicate membrane. The
albumen comprising much of the bulk of the egg,
it is manifest must furnish much of that of the

Fig. 26. — Seventh Day : allantois, al, more developed. Volk-
sac shown in connection with the navel.

the allantois, which has completed its work and
is no more needed. Finally the chick breaks
the shell by the aid of a sharp-pointed hard
scale, specially provided for the purpose at the
tip of the upper beak. It should be noted that
the constant tapping sound often heard for the
last two days, is not due to this process, but was
shown by the late Dr. Horner to be due solely
to respiratory action : the breaking of the shell
is due to more violent spasmodic movements
only made at intervals of five to ten minutes.
The arrangement of the chick the day before
hatching is shown in Fig. 27.

During this process of development the
embryo has at first been lying as a small object
on the upper surface of the yolk ; later on, as
it increases in size and definiteness
''"TthT*"' °'' ^°''"^' '^ '^ clearly apparent that
Young Chick. '^'''^ neck of the yolk-sac is in con-
nection with the umbilicus or navel
(Fig. 26). The material needed for growth is
therefore derived primaril}' through the yolk;
but as the original yolk-matter is absorbed, it is

Fig. 27. — Nearly ready to hatch.

chicken ; but it passes through the yolk-sac in
this process. Shortly before hatching the entire
remaining nutritive material of the egg is
gathered within the considerably shrunken
yolk-sac, communicating with the umbilicus of
the young bird, as in Fig. 28 ; and during the
last few hours it is rapidly drawn into the
abdomen, where it furnishes food for the newly
born chicken during the first day of its indepen-
dent e.xistence. In chickens this process is often
not complete, a portion of the yolk being still
visible outside the abdomen ; and American re-
searches have traced this as being generally the
result of too great variation in tanperatnre dur-
ing incubation, or of too great heat. Such chicks

Chick two days before exclusion.

may in spite of this grow up quite strong, the
process being completed outside the egg, but
as a rule they perish from weakness. The
yolk can still be clearly distinguished in most
newly hatched chickens, and remains of it can

6o

THE BOOK OF POULTRY

be found, on killing and dissection, for a
period of five to ten days. This matter is fully
explained in older that the entire independence
of the chicken upon any food for at least
twenty-four hours, or even more, should be
quite evident. It also accounts for the small
amount eaten during the first week of a chicken's
life.

We may now pass to practical points, and
first amongst these is the securing and keeping
of eggs for sitting in good condition. They
should be collected at least once
Storing every day, lest they be partially

llggs. incubated by the laying hens, and

twice a day is better ; indeed, in
very cold weather, unless the house is sheltered,
it is desirable to get them in out of the frost
even oftener than that, since a few hours of
frost may kill the germ. The nests must be
kept clean, with fresh, well-broken straw re-
newed as required, and it is important that
every nest should have a nest-egg from the first,
to teach the hens to lay there. Nest-eggs of
unglazed white pottery are very serviceable.

Eggs are best stored in a cool but not very
cold place — about 50° to 60° is best — and with
the large end down. We gave this advice as far
back as 1872, after considerable testing of it to
that time : all our subsequent experience has
corroborated its soundness. There is a distinct
percentage of better result every way when eggs
are stored in this position, if the other circum-
stances are equal. The air-chamber is less ex-
panded when so stored, and even for eating,
after some weeks there is perceptible difference
in the " freshness " of eggs thus kept. Eggs may
be stored in this position either in bran or in a
board pierced with holes ; and if the board, or
the bran-case, be covered over by a piece of
blanket or sacking made to fit, and a cool
and quiet place is available, the very best will
be done for the eggs. The covering over is not
to keep them warm, but to prevent draught,
which increases evaporation of the fluid con-
tents, and enlarges the air-chamber : this pro-
cess we want to retard as much as possible. If
eggs are kept on their sides they should be
turned every day or two ; and we remember
seeing the announcement of an appliance maker
that if eggs were turned daily, they would
hatch after six or even twelve months, a state-
ment not, however, borne out by experiments.

It is often desired to preserve summer eggs
for winter use, and there are several methods of
doing so. Some housekeepers smear them all
over with butter; others bed them in dry salt,
or even in bran, which answers fairly for three
months. .Strong brine will keep them longer.

but hardens the whites and imparts to them a
saltish taste ; and a much better liquid medium
is prepared with two gallons of water to a
pound and a half of quicklime, ten ounces
of salt, and two ounces of cream of tartar.
Bedded in this liquid, eggs will
Preserving ].;eep fairly good for nearly a year.
A more recent method, adopted by
several large firms, consists of exhausting the
air space within the &^% and then hermetically
sealing the pores of the shell with hot paraffin
wax ; this, however, entails special plant.

By far the best method, however, for the
average poultry-keeper is to place the eggs, as
soon as laid, in a solution of water-glass (sili-
cate of soda), which is now largely sold by
chemists for the purpose. It is a greyish-white
liquid about as thick as treacle. One pound of
it should be mixed with about a gallon of water
boiled to expel air (measured after the boil-
ing) ; if the eggs float in this a little more water
should be added. This liquid should be kept
in glazed earthenware jars, not metal, stored in
a cool place, and, provided that genuine fresh
eggs are put in, the jars carefully fastened
to prevent evaporation, and that the eggs are
covered by the water-glass, they will eat like
new-laid for several months after, and keep
exceedingly well for eighteen months. After
six months they crack when boiled, but if the
shell be pricked before cooking, even this can
be obviated. So perfect is the preservation that
hatching of eggs six months old, after dissolv-
ing the silicate entirely off the shells, has been
reported in the British Medical J oiirnal.

Whatever process be used, it is important to
store or treat the eggs the same day as laid, if
they are fertile eggs. But there is no doubt
at all, and it has been proved by many experi-
ments, that sterile eggs, laid by hens without
a mate, keep considerably better than fertile
ones. Whether hens lay as well without a mate
as with one is a point that has occasioned much
discussion. The one point that does emerge
from it is that there can be very little difference,
since both propositions have much testimony.
In a small pen we think hens are more contented
with a mate, and we have many times had, as
we think, proof that mating up affected some-
what the date of laying. But in larger runs,
with flocks of laying hens, these points would
not be very noticeable, and there is no doubt
whatever as to the superior keeping qualities of
sterile eggs.

Hens not infrequently acquire the pernicious
habit of eating their eggs, sometimes perhaps
from accidental breakages. Often such a habit
may be cured by filling carefully emptied egg-

THE VICE OF EGG-EATING.

shells vvitti iiauseous compounds, of a yellowish
colour, like strong mustard, or carbolated
vaseline. We have seen a hen eat the whole
of a single mustard-filled egg without ruffling a
feather ; but generally if the plan is persevered

with, and such prepared eggs regu-
Egg-eating larly left in the nest and about the
Hens. yard, the habit will be conquered.

There is, however, a more certain
plan, which we owe to the experience of
American farmers, who often suffer far more
largely in this way, owing to long close confine-
ment during the winter. There is a very large
agreement amongst these experienced breeders
that the best, most certain, and in fact almost
invariable cure for egg-eating, is to give a fire
supply of either eggs or egg-shells for a few
days ! Some of them regularly save up their
egg-shells for such contingencies, showing how
common the trouble is under the conditions ;
others get them from the restaurants. At first
the hens just go for them ! And they are given
the shells freely, for breakfast, dinner, supper.
But soon the appetite palls ; by the end of the
second day they care little, and on the third,
fresh eggs may be rolled about among them
with impunity. The editor of one of the
American poultry journals states : " We have
tried this plan for some years, and have never
known it to fail. We save up our egg-shells,
and have a stock on hand for any pen of fowls
that shows a tendency towards the egg-eating
habit. This remedy has never failed us."
Then a farmer writer : " Go to the bakery and
get a basket of fresh egg-shells ; give them to
the hens as fresh as you can, and throw them in
whole ; don't dry them, or break them up, but
give as fresh and whole as you can get them.
Give them all they will eat, and throw in some
more, and keep them before them all the time
for a l&^M days, and your hens will stop eating
their eggs." Others report that they have given
the entire eggs, using unfertile ones tested out
of the incubators. " At first the hens would
trample all over each other to get at the broken
eggs, but before they got through, they wouldn't
touch an egg." There is a whole pile of testi-
mony to the success of this cure.

Another way of meeting the vice is to em-
ploy nests so constructed that the egg rolls
away out of the hen's reach as soon as laid.
The first nest we ever knew so made was
figured in a journal of forty years ago, as in
Fig. 29. The board A is inclined so that the
egg rolls down it as at B, on to some straw.
We found ourselves that hens refused to lay in a
nest made exactly like this ; but by making A of
carpet, which sagged a little in the middle, and

cementing a nest-egg half-way through as at
C (or cementing half the egg on the carpet),
they would do so. The portion B should also be
of carpet or some soft material. A box merely
furnished with a false bottom of carpet or
canvas, in which two cross-slits are cut rather
towards the back, will often suffice for an
emergency. In America it is found that making
the nests dark, as by placing them away from
the wall and making the hens enter them by
this dark passage from behind, the front towards
the house being closed up, greatly prevents, and
often checks egg-eating. But when it once
occurs, the weight of American testimony
inclines us to the egg or egg-shell cure.

Fig. 29.— Safety Nest.

It is a tradition of ages, dating back at least
to Horace (Lib. ii., Sat. 4) and Columella, that
long, slender eggs will produce cocks, and
rounder ones hens. These old fables
Siz^^* ^^^ ^'^^^ '^^^" refuted again and again ;
the fact is that nearly all of any
hen's eggs are almost exactly alike, and can
be known as hers. Strange coincidences
have occurred from time to time ; when we
experimented, we had some too; but sooner or
later these are upset by as flagrant contradic-
tions. The little foundation there may appear
for this superstition probably lies in the facts
which we had ascertained and stated many
years ago, that a pullet's early eggs are gener-
ally rather slimmer and more pointed, and on
an average also produce rather more cocks,
and that in less degree the same applies to hens'
eggs as laid early in the season. Generally
speaking, there are more cockerels in a brood
the more vigorous the pen ; hence cockerels
usually preponderate in early broods, which are
mostly from cockerels mated with adult hens.

We would certainly prefer, for sitting, to
select eggs of the fair ordinary size and shape
generally laid by any given hen, but this should
not be pressed too far. Some Spanish and
Minorcas lay all sorts of shapes, even as round
as a tennis-ball, and we have known strong
chicks from these and other rather exceptional
eggs. Still, good average eggs with firm and

62

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

smooth shells should certainly have the prefer-
ence, rejecting unusually large ones quite as much
as unusually small. Eggs from any hen
being laid rather smaller, is generally a sign of
insufficient feeding, and especially of insufficient
nitrogenous food. If this be not at once
remedied as soon as diminution in size is first
observed, a stoppage of laying may probably
come very soon, and it is not to be expected
that such eggs, from insufficiently nourished
birds, will prove vigorous in hatching, or the
produce show much constitution afterwards.

Eggs are often purchased or sold for sitting
purposes, and such sittings require a few words.

All such eggs will, of course, be
Packing Eggs j^^gj ^^j fg^ reasons already given,
for Sitting. , . , , , , , 1 II

this date should be upon the small

end; moreover, this is the end which will
be apparent when they are properly stored
with the large end down. Careful packing is
of course required, bedding loosely in bran
being quite insufficient. Where it is obtainable,
dry moss is amongst the best packing material,
and if every egg be wrapped loosely in a wisp of
paper, and then bedded carefully with a little
moss between each, and an inch of the moss
beneath and on top and all round, they will
travel well. Either a box or basket may be
employed, tying down the lid of the basket by
aid of a packing needle, or cording or screwing
down a bo.x cover ; for hammering nails should
be avoided. People who sell many eggs usually
have hampers made to a regular size and
pattern for them. Soft hay or wood wool are
nearly as good as dry moss, and used the same
way, taking care to wrap the eggs loosely in
their papers first, so as to leave corners and
creases projecting; these are as important as the
hay in preventing concussion. A hamper for a
single layer of eggs should be about six inches
deep, and the hay or moss should not be rammed
in tightly, but loosely enough to leave plenty of
spring in it. Fragile Bantam eggs are better
wrapped in thin or even tissue paper, but still
loosely, and bedded in wadding or cotton wool.
We consider packing of this kind, either in box
or basket, better than the small boxes with
compartments for each t^'g, so far as regards
eggs for sitting.

Eggs carefully packed will hatch with per-
fect success, if they are properly treated, but

this is not always the case. Wide
Besting Eggs, and long experience has proved

beyond any reasonable doubt that
they do best if allowed to "rest" on their
sides in a quiet and cool place for fifteen to
twenty-four hours ; the germ, already partly
developed as we have seen, appears to be

" fatigued " by the shaking of the journey, to
require rest after it, and to benefit from such
adequate repose before the new task of in-
cubation. But on the other hand, if there be
much delay beyond this, the interruption in its
career appears somewhat prejudicial, even
beyond the mere lapse of time, which we have
seen is in itself detrimental to a perceptible
extent. Anything of this kind is not fair to
the vendor of the eggs, or favourable to the
hopes of the purchaser.

We are thus brought to the sitting-hen, on
the supposition of the present chapter that the
eggs are to be hatched in a natural
Sitting-hens. way. She will either belong to the
home stock, or be purchased or
hired. Amongst the hens or pullets kept,
much may be done to secure sitters in good
time. Silkies and their crosses, especially
with small or dwarf Cochins, are proverbial
for their propensity to sit after laying a few
eggs. But as the time approaches when a
sitting-hen will be required, one or two of the
layers known or presumed to be good sitters
should be specially looked after, giving less
nitrogenous and more carbonaceous food. A
marked change of diet of this kind, in the case
of birds that have been highly fed for eggs, has
often great effect in this way. Again, each hen
will probably resort to the same nest day after
day ; and while her own eggs are of course taken
away, each day she lays one, another nest-egg
should be left in the nest instead of it. This
simple and natural procedure will in very many
cases cause her to become " broody " when the
nest gets pretty full. The signs of a hen being
broody are well known generally, and consist in
remaining longer on the nest, till she stays there
altogether, and when she comes off walking
about with feathers loose and ruffled, and
"clucking" in the characteristic manner. As
soon as she appears settled, she should be
removed, if possible, to the perfectly clean nest
prepared for her maternal duties. She will
make no difficulty in settling there also, if a few
nest-eggs be given her till the others are ready,
or she be fit to be entrusted with them.

Such a hen should be above suspicion as
regards vermin ; if not, a home-kept hen also will
have to be treated. But a borrowed or bought
sitter should always be examined carefully,
with, of course, turned-up sleeves. This may
save very much trouble and otherwise inevitable
loss, for strange hens are often literally swarming,
and such a hen cannot rear chickens ; they will
gradually droop and be no good, even if they do
not die. She may be too bad to risk at any
price ; but in most cases thorough dredging and

TREATMENT OF BROODY HENS.

03

working into her plumage of insect powder on
two or three occasions, or using perhaps for the
first the powdered sulphur treated with carboh'c
acid, as mentioned in a previous chapter, will
make her free ; or she may be fumigated as
described in the final chapter of this work.
Such a bird should not be placed on her
own permanent nest, however, till she will pass
muster, but in some other, to be afterwards
purified.

Mr. J. L. Campbell, a well-known Ameri-
can incubator expert, found in the course
of his earlier experiments, quite to
^th* °^ ^'^ surprise, that the heat of the

Sitting-hen. body of broody hens varied con-
siderably. On introducing a clinical
thermometer under the breast when on the
nest, four hens gave readings of 98°, 102°, 103°,
and 105°. After a fortnight, these figures had
gone up several degrees. The results were
equally noteworthy. The hens with the
medium temperatures both made good hatches ;
but neither of the others hatched a chick,
though all the eggs had chicks in them. Those
under the 98° hen were not fully developed,
though some were alive ; those under the 105°
hen were fully formed, but all dead. He tried
the same two hens again and again ; they had
the same peculiarities in the main, and he never
got one live chick from either. These facts
suggest causes of failure other than bad nests,
or bad sitting, or thunderstorms, and may make
the use of a thermometer worth while in
establishments where more than one or two
hens are set in a season.

Moderate-sized cross-bred hens are usually
good sitters. Old English Game are in the very
first class, and so are Dorkings if not too heavy.
Cochins, Brahmas, and other breeds with
Asiatic blood, such as Plymouth Rocks and
Wyandottes, make close sitters and good
mothers for a few weeks, but as a rule leave
their chickens earlier than the above. The
very large heavy birds are apt to crush
eggs and tread on chickens ; for this reason
Rocks and Wyandottes are preferable to
Cochins and Brahmas. But we always did very
well with the latter unless unusually large ; two
large hens we had, we invariably had bad luck
with. Some people have a prejudice against
trusting pullets in their first period of broodiness,
but we never had the slightest cause to regret
doing so, as we have done frequently, and early
pullets are generally amongst the earliest sitters
available.

Of course, many hens become broody when
it is impossible or undesirable to let them sit
on eggs. In many cases, as before moult, it

is advisable to let them have the rest of sitting
upon nest-eggs for a while; but often it is desired
to break them of the desire and obtain eggs
again as soon as possible. In past days of

ignorance hens have been dipped in
SitUng^hens. ^old water, with an idea of cooling

the fever of the blood ; such treat-
ment, besides the risk of the chill, is really
of little use. The proper plan is either to con-
fine the bird under a common basket-coop or
open wire pen, on the hard ground in the open
yard, with water by her, and where all the others
come round her, in full daylight but shaded
from the sun, and feeding the corn for the whole
about her coop ; or, what is perhaps better still,
placing her in a pen something like a fattening-
pen, with a bottom of slats only. This may be
either raised as usual, or only a few inches from
the ground on four bricks ; in either case she is
obliged to roost on a slat, as it were, and is
kept cool, while, as before, she should be in
plenty of light (but not sun) and where she
sees all that is going on. A few days of this
cool confinement will suffice in nearly every
case.

30 — Nest box

A nest for hatching should be made up, if
possible, on the ground, in a quiet and cool

place, and if a little damp, all the
The^Hatching ^g^^er when spring has fairly set

in. After trying many kinds, we
preferred to all other nest-boxes the simple
form shown in Fig. 30, tacked together of
thin boards, entirely open at the bottom, and
also in the front, except a strip about three
inches high to confine the nest material. For
our large Brahma hens the size on ground was
about 16 by 12 inches, and the open front may
or may not be provided with the hinged wire or
other open front of some kind. Scrape a slight
hollow in the ground within the box, or over
which to place it, and further bank up the
corners with a trowclful of loose earth or ashes.
Over this place a suitable quantity of clean

64

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

strav/ beaten and crushed till quite soft, forming
a nice moderate hollow, and again well filling up
the corners, so that eggs cannot roll away. In
each corner put amongst the straw a small lump
of camphor, which will do much to keep away
insects. As a rule nothing more will be needed ;
but if the weather be persistently and unusually
dry, or in a hot season, it is well during the last
ten days of incubation to take some warm water

in a kettle, and pour a few spoon-
Moisture fuls on, or rather into each of the

corners of the nest. The object is
not directly to wet the eggs, but that the
moisture may descend underneath the straw,
and create a moist atmosphere. We have
formerly advised and practised taking the hen
off at night and sprinkling the eggs with warm
water in hot weather, but we long since satisfied
ourselves that this was usually overdone, and
often did mischief. Another good plan is
to pour a teacupful of warm water on the
ground close round the nest, in hot or dry
weather. Any moistening at all should be
restricted to this ; in wet or cold weather
none should be attempted. At such seasons,
or for early broods, nests should be made
with special care and with more straw ; and
if the ground be damp, it is better in winter
to put in the nest first half a spadeful of clean
dry ashes, which will do much to prevent chill.

If a hen cannot be set on the ground, it is
well to place, as the foundation of the nest, a
good thick turf cut to fit the box, and well
curled up at the corners by some earth put
underneath, so as to form a basin for the straw.
We thus have a foundation to which we can
apply some moisture if required. In default of
this, we think eggs thus hatched above ground
are usually the better for a slight daily sprinkle
in hot dry weather, during the latter half of the
period. There can be no doubt, however, that
at one period damping or sprinkling the eggs
was much exaggerated, to actual harm and loss.
Nature has provided sufficient moisture in normal
circumstances, and we only have at the utmost
to provide for any deficiency our nests may
present, as against the situations which they
would occupy were Nature free to take its course.
The nearest approach we can make to this, is to
damp the substratnm of the nest when required.
It is best to set a hen at night, when she
will rest quietly on the ground whilst the
eggs are arranged, if shaded from the light of
the lantern. Most hens, if then placed in
front of the nest where they can see the eggs,
will quietly walk right on and settle themselves.
A strange hen should, if possible, be brought
to her new quarters also at night, in a basket.

with an egg or two under her. If sent by
rail she should be left in a quiet place till
dark, then removed to a nest ; but not to the
one she is to hatch in until her personal con-
dition has been ascertained, as hinted above
We rarely remember failure with strange hens
when treated in this way.

The number of eggs set should be graduated
to the hen, and the season ; for very early

broods, seven or eight of her own
Number of sized eggs are enough. If more

are attempted, the outer ones may
get chilled ; but, still more, we have to con-
sider how many chickens the hen can
properly brood when they have somewhat
grown ; if she has too many, in cold weather
the weaker ones will not get warmed, and are
either stunted or may perish. At a time (long
ago) when we sold eggs at a high price for sitting,
we very soon came to a rule of not letting any
person have more than ten at a time, and we
found that the average results reported to us
were better than with more, up to the middle of
April. With warmer weather, of course, more
can be allowed, but we think eleven enough, if
they are known to hatch well. They should be
arranged so as to lie in a moderate but not
excessive hollow, just enough to keep them well
together ; but in cold weather the straw should
be well raised around them. If not otherwise
marked, every egg should be marked round with
ink or pencil, as a hen may lay one or two after
sitting, which should be removed.

The management of the sitting - hen will
depend much on circumstances. There may be

but one or two broods in the year,
Management ^^-^^ ^\^^ ^-j^y [^^^^^ (.q i^g ggj ;,^ jj^g

Sitting-hen. ordinary fowl-house. She should
then have her usual nest, of course
re-made for her, but should be secured from mo-
lestation by others, by having a square of wire
netting or light lattice propped against the
front when slie is on the nest. She should be
lifted off the nest at the same hour every morn-
ing, and fed in some way by herself, otherwise
she will not get enough, and time will be lost.
She must also have access to a dust-bath. Whole
barley is the best food for a sitting-hen. She
will rarely remain away more than half an hour,
more often not that, if what she needs is at
hand ; and when the proper time is up may
be gently driven or coa.xed back to the neigh-
bourhood of her nest ; to catch her and replace
by hand is to court disaster. A longer absence
is not necessarily fatal, and it only does harm
to be over-fidgety. We have repeatedly had
hens absent over an hour and still bring oflf
good broods, but much depends upon the

TESTING EGGS

65

weather, and period of incubation. A well-
known writer has stated that " at the earlier
periods of sitting the hen may be absent for a
prolonged time without injury, whereas a much
shorter neglect of her duties would be fatal
nearer the clay of hatching." Unless this state-
ment be confined to the first ten or twelve hours,
the exact contrary to it is the case, as testified
by the uniform experience of thousands. It is
during the first few days, up to the tenth day,
that the eggs are most easily addled by chill ;
after that the chicken keeps up more and
more heat by its own vitality, and is more
independent accordingly. During the last
week we have personally had a hen off nearly
five hours, and still obtained a half brood ;
and in one case reported to us, five chickens
survived even nine hours' neglect. However
we feared the worst, therefore, we would never
abandon valuable eggs until the full term and
somewhat more was completed.

Another plan that may be recommended,
where a number of broody hens are sitting to-
gether in the open, is to adopt the method that
is widely in vogue among pheasant rearers in
many parts of the country. We refer to " tether-
ing." A stake is driven into the ground imme-
diately in front of each coop or sitting box ; to
this stake a string, having a slip-knot at its
unattached end, is tied. Commencing at the
first coop in the row, the attendant takes out the
hen, slips one of its legs through the loop at
the end of the string, and leaves the bird to
feed and water itself. By this method, it will
be seen, that when the hen has to be replaced in
its box the operation can be accomplished with-
out loss of time and with the minimum of
trouble.

Many yards have a sitting-house, where
several hens are set at once. In this case it is
also safest to take them off, and see them return
one at a time (always taking them in the same
order), as two sitters often fight. They should
always be seen safely back again when thus
managed. But there is still another plan, which
we followed with much comfort when using the
building shown in Fig. it. We used then to
sit a single hen in one of the small pens marked
D D. Hens may generally be left entirely to
themselves in such single houses and runs,
seeing only to the dust-bath, and food and
water, and removing the daily evacuation. But
some hens would never come off if so left, and
we always preferred to remove them ; in such
small runs they never outstay the time, how-
ever, and may be left to themselves as to return.

It is well to look every two or three days
to see whether any eggs are broken. .Shotdd

such an accident occur, the first night after-
wards a bucket of water heated to 102° should

be taken to the spot, and the hen
Broken Eggs, being lifted off, every ft^^ well

cleansed in the pail, using a piece
of flannel. All dirty straw must also be re-
moved and the nest rc-made, quite clean and
comfortable. Should the hen's breast be soiled
by the broken egg, that also must be cleansed
thoroughly, or it may adhere to one of the eggs
and so repeat the accident. If this treatment
be neglected, hatching will probably fail alto-
gether. Sometimes valuable eggs may get
cracked within a few days of incubation ; in
many such cases the egg or chick has been
saved by pasting over the crack a small strip
of gummed paper, or, in the case of Bantam
eggs, of goldbeater's skin. Cases of perforated
metal large enough to contain an t^^ are some-
times used in such instances, and may be useful.
We have seen another form, in some respects
better, the metal being thinner and enamelled
white, and furnished with small perforations
all over. These egg-cases, or protectors, may also
be used to contain insecticides or disinfectants.
At the expiration of from six to eight days
the eggs should be examined by candlelight,

as the unfertile ones can then be
Testing Eggs, easily detected, and if the greater

part be sterile time is saved, as
the same hen may be at once set attain. A

-laid

as is well known, appears clear

and translucent when held between the eye and

Figs. 31 and 32. — Testing Egg5.
Barren Ejg. Ferlile Egg.

a candle. Barren eggs appear so still (as shown
in Fig. 31), even after being sat upon a week ;
but the eggs which contain embryo chickens
then have a dark shadow in the centre, shading
off to more transparency at the edges. The
amount of shadow will vary with the time of
incubation and size of the eggs, and perfect
opacity will not be found till nine or ten days
have elapsed, even with good-sized eggs ; but
after a few experiments, enclosing the egg

66

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

oeUveen the thumb and forefinger, and turning
the rest of the hand so as to shade the hght as
much as possible, no mistake will ever be made,
and even with the hand alone, the quality will
be determined with certainty. By using a plate
of tin or zinc to shade the light, and holding
the egg to an aperture in it, cut to the shape,
the light may be brought closer. The egg-
tester, shown' in Fig. 33, is a very favourite

Fig. 33. — Hearson's Egg-tester.

form ; in this the outer plate A is furnished
with several movable diaphragms as at B, C,
for different sizes of eggs, or such can be pre-
pared to fit the eggs. With such an apparatus,
besides the shadow in the centre some of the
radiating blood-vessels can generally be dis-
tinguished, and after experience many breeders
are able to pronounce upon the eggs by the fifth
day, especially if a lamp be used which has a
lens to condense the light, such as a really good
bicycle lamp, which answers excellently. A
hole may be cut in a book-cover or other sheet
of thick card, and used in the same way. The
sterile eggs up to eight or nine days are quite
good enough for puddings, and if fresh when
set, will be better than many " shop" eggs even
for boiling ; or they may be used as food for the
chickens. A simple tester of this kind is as
much as can be useful to persons who only hatch
occasionally; a more powerful instrument for
use on a large scale will be described in the
next chapter.

Early in the season, when unfertile eggs are
most likely to occur, it is a good plan to set,
if possible, two hens simultaneously. Then the
fertile ones, if many have to be rejected, can
all be given to one hen, and the other set again.
In any case, if the majority are unfertile, the
waste of the sitting-hen may be avoided by
ascertaining the fact thus early.

It is usually taken for granted that eggs of
ordinary poultry hatch " after twenty-one days,"
but this is not strictly true, and the actual time
varies considerably. With fresh eggs of medium

sized to large fowls, our own experience was
that they usually hatched early in the twenty-
first day, those not so fresh during the rest
of it. Cold weather and east winds delay
the time ; warm weather rather
Period of hastens it. Small, light breeds like

Incubation. Hamburghs often hatch during the
twentieth day, and Bantams some-
times during the nineteenth. Other varieties
of poultry hatch as follows : ducks, twenty-
eight days ; geese, twenty-eight to thirty days ;
turkeys, twenty-six to twenty-nine days; guinea
fowl, twenty-five to twenty-six days ; pheasants
and partridges, twenty-four to twenty-five days;
pea-fowl, twenty-eight to thirty days. In incu-
bators the time is still more variable.

A day before hatching is expected, many

people like to immerse the eggs in a pail of

water heated to about 105°. In a few minutes —

they often wait a little first — -the

„ , . "live" ones will begin to bob about

Hatching. . . r ^i

in a curious manner, from the

motions of the chick within. If
none at all respond, or if many of eggs previously
" tested " fail to respond, it is better to restore
them all, as hatching may perhaps be rather
late. We believe such a soaking is of some
help to the hatching; but unless the hen is quiet
and tame she should not be fretted by such
proceedings, nor is it very advisable for absolute
novices to meddle with them.

The hen should not be fussed with very
much whilst hatching. It should be seen that
she has a good feed the last time she is expected
off, then she is better left, except for visits at
considerable intervals. If she was set at night,
some v/ill probably have hatched by the after-
noon, if so let these egg-shells be cleared away.
Then, the last thing we would examine again,
removing any further shells, and if the hen was
tame give her some food as she was. Then she
can be shut in, dark, till next morning. If there
are known to be live chicks, however, and no
progress seems made when they are more than
due, or if eggs are " starred " and things seem no
more forward after some hours, the chicks may
be glued to the shell by dried albumen, or too
weakly to get farther. In that case they can often
be assisted out, immersing the egg (all but the
head of the chick) in warm water about 105°,
gently enlarging the crack, and possibly peeling
tenderly away the wet membrane. All must,
of course, be performed as if dealing with raw
flesh. Chicks thus assisted out of the shell are
generally best kept in flannel by the fire till
night, when they should be put amongst the
others under the hen. Many such chickens
have survived to make perfectly healthy fowls.

CHAPTER V.

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION.

SINCE the first edition of this workj a revo-
lution has taken place in the practice of
artificial incubation, so great that not one
machine then described now receives more than
historical mention in these pages. It is difficult
to understand the slow progress in the art made
during many years, or all the precise causes to
which the years of failure or uncertainty were
due, all the more when we remember that for at
least two thousand years artificial incubation
has been practised in both Egypt and China,
with the simplest appliances, but with unvary-
ing success. From a report by the American
Consul at Cairo, published in 1895, there
appears to have been a revival in Egypt of this
pursuit, which at one time had fallen to a
comparatively low ebb. He estimated at that
date the probable number of egg
Eee^ Ovens ovens as about 1 50, each of them
turning out on an average about
300,CX)0 chickens per season, hatched during
the months of February, March, and April :
some having less capacity, and others running
up to double the average number. They
are situated in villages which form centres
of agricultural districts, from which the eggs
are brought in, to be taken away again as
chickens at two days old. In some cases a
fee is paid for hatching, but as a rule the eggs
are bought outright for about sixteen shillings
per thousand, and sold independently as
newly hatched chicks for about si.x shillings
per hundred.

The crude simplicity of these great incuba-
tors is striking. One of them will occupy
a ground plan of say 100 by 60 feet, and is
constructed massively of sun-dried brick and
clay. The end will be occupied by two or three
small halls or vestibule rooms, which guard
the temperature from the effects of opened
doors. From a second one of these, a small
door leads to a passage-way up the centre of
the building. From this central passage, small
entrances on each side lead to double-storeyed
circular rooms or vaults. These arc about six-
teen feet in diameter, the lower storey four
feet high, the upper one nearly double. Round

the floor of each, ten inches or so from the wall,
runs a low wall or ridge about six inches high ;
in the trough between this and the wall portions
of fuel (composed of straw and dried dung) are
placed, and fires lighted, more or less in num-
ber as the heat requires increasing or lowering.
The operator stands in the centre, reaching the
upper storey through a hole in the centre of
its floor, and changes the position of the eggs,
which are laid on matting covered over with
bran, twice a day, from near the man-hole to the
circumference, or vice versd. Small apertures
at the top of each chamber let out the smoke
and superfluous heat. The eggs are tested much
as we do, at about the sixth and the tenth
day, and the newly hatched chicks are placed
till sold in a portion of the central passage,
which is rather cooler than the ovens, and serves
as a drying box. The apertures or entrances
to the ovens themselves, are closed and caulked
every time when the attendant withdraws.

Thus simple is the Egyptian oven-incubator,
and so entirely is its management left to the
attendants. No copper tanks have they ; no
water-trays to temper the " hot dry air " ; no
thermometer do they know anything about ; but
they hatch chickens, and that without dreaming
of failure. On the other hand it is to be
remembered that the profession is hereditary,
handed down with its cherished secrets under
solemn oaths and initiatory rites from father
to son. We need not set much store by the
oaths ; but there is no doubt that experience
and heredity have developed an extraordinary
sense of touch, by which alone the operators
regulate the temperature, under constant per-
sonal observation, and after the first fortnight
know instantly whether an egg be alive. It
cannot fail to be noticed how their methods,
now that these are better known, run flatly
contrary to more than one principle which has
for years been assumed to be vital in artificial
incubation.

Our historical notes must be very brief, and
confined to important points. All the earlier
attempts at artificial incubation were made in
France, whose monarch, Francis I., became

68

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

interested in the subject as far back as 1540.
In 1777, Dr. Bonnemain constructed his " Ec-
calobion," which actually supplied chickens to
the Paris markets, as well as to the Court, until

all came to an end with the events
Early of 1814. Reaumur obtained fair

Europe"'' "" ''csults from the heat of fermenting

dung, heaped up round small casks,
and renewed as required. In 1845, M. Vallee,
poultry superintendent of the far - famed
Jardin des Plantes at Paris, constructed an in-
cubator which marks an epoch, containing as it
did a self-acting valve which opened to reduce
the temperature when too high. Its action
was crude and imperfect, but he thus introduced
a cardinal feature which is part of every in-
cubator at the present day. In or about 1846,
Cantelo introduced the supply of heat from
above. His apparatus hatched many chickens,
and was often exhibited, but was too costly
to come into general use ; and the same may
be said of the large and elaborate incubator
of Minasi, which was publicly exhibited in
England, and used by one or two purchasers,
so late as the publication in 1872 of the first
edition of this work. With these the older
group of machines may be said to come to a
close.

There followed another school of experi-
menters, whose aim was to produce machines

more generally useful, and acces-

Pioneer sible, and portable. Carbonnier's

Incubators. . ' ^ . , _

mcubator consisted merely 01 a

rectangular tank of water heated, without flues,

by a lamp placed in a chamber at one end.

Under this was a drawer in which the eggs

were placed, covered over by a canvas

resting upon them, on which was borne half

an inch of sawdust. In the tank was one

thermometer, and in the drawer another, and

the whole was regulated simply by incessant

watchfulness. He laid down specifically that

once a day the eggs were to be withdrawn, to

be cooled for twenty minutes, then turned over,

and the sawdust replaced upon them and

sprinkled with tepid water. Many made this

simple machine, and some hatched well

with it, but the time and care needed were far

too great. We have often wondered that a

heating medium gently resting upon the eggs,

like his layer of slightly damped sawdust spread

upon a canvas, has not been more frequently

attempted.

Brindley's incubator, introduced in 1866,

consisted of flues from a boiler circulating

between an upper and lower pane of glass,

which formed a radiating hot chamber, thus

introducing another system much used since.

Under this radiating chamber was a drawer
of felt, in which the eggs were placed. There
was a regulating valve, which let hot air out
from the chamber when required, but it did not
act very well, depending as it did upon the
expansion of mercury. This machine was
at one time used by several British fanciers
to do the final hatching-out of eggs pre-
viously incubated by hens. In 1865 Mr. F.
Schroder introduced for the first time a tank
of cold water under the eggs, whose evapo-
ration provided moisture, while the heat came
from a hot-water tank above. In 1866, Col.
Stuart Wortley introduced the principle of
warming a hot-air chamber by introducing a
greater or less length of water pipes always
kept boiling hot, and passed through stuffing-
boxes ; but this principle has never come into
use. It is rather remarkable that, although
Schroder's incubator was surrounded by cur-
tains, none of these machines were otherwise
provided with a case of non-conducting material,
so important for economy of fuel and uniformity
of temperature.

Two other English incubators of the ex-
perimental period demand record for the
originality of their arrangements. In that of
Mr. Penman, of Newcastle, the bottom of the
hot-water tank was formed of vulcanised rub-
ber fabric, which rested loosely upon the eggs.
After a while this material " bagged " too much,
when the weight of the water was found to
crush the eggs and chickens, and the method
was consequently given up. We knew this
incubator to hatch well on several occasions,
however, and the defect stated could so easily
be remedied, that we have often wondered no
further attempt was made to carry out this
top contact system, along with more perfect
modern appliances.

In the incubator of Mr. Boyle, top heat
was also used, but not quite in contact. The

Fig. 34. — Boyle's Incubator.

hot-water tank P, supplied by the pipe Q, was
shaped at the bottom into a series of arches,

THE HYDRO-INCUBATOR.

69

as shown at the left hand of the figure (the
top ring R being a drying box for the chickens).
The eggs were placed in rows in the apertures
of a perforated plate, N, so that when pushed
into place the rows of eggs were almost
touching, and enveloped by, these arches. At
O were small receptacles for holding wetted
cotton wool. The bottom of the plate and
eggs in it were exposed to the air. With
this system of top heat, and the bottom sides
of the eggs cool, it was found that the re-
quisite temperature was about 106°, whereas
in a drawer warm all through it is about
103°. This distinction is important, as will
presently be seen. The arrangement was,
however, awkward in practice, breaking eggs
wholesale in sliding the egg-plate in and out;
and though Boyle's machine hatched well on
many occasions, it never came into general
use.

American incubators, during the same
transition period, had more general similarity
in design. Patents were taken out by dozens,
but we can find little of value. In 1S70 Jacob
Graves and Co., of Boston, introduced an in-
cubator whose type lasted many years, and
did much work. It embodied Schroder's cold-
water tank under the eggs, with a hot-water
tank over them, and a chicken nursery or
drying box on top of all ; and its regulator
acted by the expansion of alcohol in two
large tubes extending through the egg-chamber
(see Fig. 36). Mr. Halsted introduced an
arrangement of flues through the tank which
tended to make the water rather hotter round
the edges than at the centre, thus counter-
acting the too great heat in centre of the egg-
drawer, which was and is still found a general
defect. He also introduced the regulator whose
type is mercury expanding by heat, and so over-
balancing a lever and working a valve (Fig. 37).
This being faulty, he abandoned it for a com-
pound thermostatic bar, and with this and some
other modifications, his machine had a sale
during many years as the Centennial. The
most original idea we have come across in older
American machines was that of Mr. E. S. Ren-
wick, whose system radically differed from others
in not attempting to keep the temperature uni-
form, but aiming rather, after maintaining it at
a miuiinum for some hours, then to raise it to a
maxivmm of about three degrees higher. This
was done by a clockwork arrangement. There
is no doubt that this remarkable machine
hatched well, but it was too complicated and
costly for popularity. So far as we are per-
sonally aware, the same inventor seems the
first to have formed the bottom of the egg-

drawer of rollers, by whose revolution the
entire drawerful of eggs could be "turned" at
one time. Those here mentioned were all tank
machines, which prevailed for many years as in
England; only by degrees being manifested that
preference for the hot-air system which dis-
tinguishes the best American machines of the
present day.

Such was the state ol affairs at the com-
mencement of the last quarter of the nineteenth
century. The prominent importance of uniform
temperature (for even Mr. Renwick's systematic-
ally varied temperature was to be within defined
uniform limits) had been recognised ; but that
object had not been really attained by the
regulators then in use. Some of these, es-
pecially in America, had been carried to the
extreme of elaboration and apparent efficacy ;
still they failed to do their work. That moist-
ure and ventilation also played an important
part was known, but not well understood, not
especially the relation between them ; and there
is no doubt that some of these older incubators
would give good hatches now, handled with the
knowledge since acquired respecting these latter
points. What artificial hatching was done was
chiefly in America ; where the popularity of
Leghorns and broiler chickens made it more
necessary, where the number of incubators pro-
duced skilled operators, and where regulators on
an average surpassed English models, though
still leaving a great deal to be desired in their
operations.

Strange to say, artificial incubation became
a practical reality in England owing to the in-
troduction by Mr. T. Christy, in
S'cubltor"" 1 877, of a machine of the rudest con-
struction, known as the Hydro-In-
cubator, made upon a model already successfully
used in France. The heater was a large rect-
angular tank of water, from the upper portion 01
which was withdrawn every twelve hours a cer-
tain number of gallons (variable according to
the thermometer indications), to be replaced by
boiling water, thus keeping up the temperature.
Under this tank was the egg-drawer, provided
with arrangements for damping and apertures
for ventilation, the whole being surrounded by
non-conducting material. There was a ther-
mometer in the tank and another in the egg-
drawer ; literally nothing else.

When so many had vainly devoted money,
pains, and complicated apparatus to main-
taining a uniform supply of heat, that a simple
machine should succeed which depended alto-
gether upon a re-supply of boiling water every
twelve hours, appeared to all simply ridiculous,
and it was some time before it was understood

70

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

why it was that such success had attended so
rude a contrivance. Mr. Christy himself thought
the reason to be that there were no lamp-fumes
near the eggs, an idea long since exploded by
machines which admit such fumes directly into
the egg-chamber. The secret really lay in
two points. In the first place, the hot-water
tank was very large compared with apparatus
previously made, holding for a lOO-egg machine
about twenty or twenty-four gallons. The enor-
mous " specific heat " of water makes a large
body of it very " steady " in temperature. But
the construction of the tank was also peculiar.
If we take a flask of water containing a few
particles of bran, and apply a lamp to the
bottom, we shall see how the
heated water rises and circu-
lates, and the whole becomes
quite hot in a very short time.
But if we apply a hot plate
to the surface of the water in
an open glass vessel, there is
scarcely any movement, and it
is a long time ere the heat
reaches the lower portion of
the fluid. This time may be
increased still further by hori-
zontal partitions, which compel
the hot water to take a round-
about course. The tank in
the hydro-incubator was not
only large, but furnished with
such partitions ; and the boiling
water was always supplied at
the top. Thus the heat per-
colated very slowly downwards ;
and while the water drawn off
(from three to six gallons)
was generally about 146*^, and
replaced by water at 212'^, the temperature of
the bottom layer, which acts upon the eggs,
only varied in a small degree, and that in a
regular manner within certain limits, which
might be actually beneficial to the eggs, ac-
cording to Renwick's theory above mentioned.
Hydro-incubators were sold by scores, and
artificial hatching in England became at once
a practical success. With this, valuable ex-
perience was rapidly accumulated, followed by
improvements in details of management. Its
work being done, however, the hydro-incubator
itself only remained in use for a few years.
Simple as the system was, the provision of
gallons of boiling water every twelve hours was
found such a tax, that there was a demand on
all sides for supplementary apparatus. The
further step was soon taken of carrying circulat-
ing pipes from a small boiler into the tank of

the machine ; and instead of replacing from
three to six gallons by boiling water, every twelve
hours, at the same periods, the lamp under the
boiler was lit for a short time. Finally, however,
manufacturers have returned to the old system
of employing the constant heat of a lamp.

The incubators now in use are constructed
upon two systems, known as the " tank," and
"hot-air " or"atmospheric"systems.
In England the tank system has
generally prevailed, owing partly to
the sudden success of the hydro
system above described, but more
recently to the excellent results of the incubator
and regulator patented by Mr. Hearson in

Hearson's
Incubator and
Capsule
Regulator.

November, 18S1. The earlier tank machines
were made with large tanks, often with hori-
zontal partitions on the hydro-incubator plan,
which "steadied" the temperature, and gave
fair results with very mediocre regulators ; the
regulator in Tomlinson's machine, for instance,
acted by the expansion of heated air. With
better regulators, smaller tanks sufficed ; and
in fact Mr. Hearson somewhat reduced the
depth of his tanks as experience was gained.
The present form of this machine is shown in
F'to- 35- The tank A a, which is not intended
to be kept quite full, is traversed by the flue
LL from the lamp T. This flue is shown for
clearness leaving the machine at W, at the end
opposite the lamp, but really returns to the
same end before emerging. The top of the
lamp-flue or chimney V is covered by the valve
or damper F, so that when this is closed the

BRITISH TANK INCUBATORS.

heat enters from the lower end L of the chimney,
and the whole traverses the flue L L to the exit
\v ; but when the damper F is raised, more or
less heat escapes, and if fully raised nearly all
the heat escapes at F, none going to heat the
tank. This arrangement is worked by the
thermostatic capsule S, the main subject of
Mr. Hearson's patent, which depends for its
action iipon the boiling-point of a volatile liquid.
As water boils at 212" F., so sulphuric ether
boils at 94°, and by dilution with alcohol can be
made to boil at 98°, or any other temperature.
The capsule regulator consists of two plates of
brass fastened and soldered all round their
edges. Between them a little of the modified
liquid, which may conveniently be termed com-
pensated ether, is introduced, and the capsule
sealed. Then directly the supposed heat of 98°
is exceeded, at atmospheric pressure, the flattish
capsule expands or bulges under the pressure of
the vapour which is formed ; but the boiling
temperature is easily increased and graduated
by pressure upon the top plate of the capsule ;
hence we have an easily adjustable regulator.
The capsule lies on a little shelf rigidly braced
in a position over the eggs and below the tank,
and a rod O pressing upon its top plate transmits
the expansive motion to P, near the pivot end
of the lever G, where there is an adjusting screw
P ; there is also on the lever a sliding weight H.
By this screw and weight the temperature which
lifts the valve F is adjusted. In practice the
valve should " play " a little above the top of the
chimney. The body of the incubator is packed
around with non-conducting material M. The
movable egg-tray K K has a bottom of per-
forated zinc, and is concave, so as to bring the
outer eggs, which are in a cooler part of the
chamber, nearer the top tank. The strips B B
supporting the tray, are also movable, and
being wider one way than the other, by chang-
ing their position the tray can be somewhat
raised or lowered in the chamber. The air
enters through the aperture D, passing through
a coarse fabric kept wet by dipping into the
water-tray C C, and passes out through the upper
ventilating holes E E.

The incubator here figured is still a deserved
favourite, and may well be allowed to stand
as the type of the many excellent British tank
machines, such as those of Messrs. Tamlin,
Phipps, and other well-known makers. An
interesting variation is that of Mr. William
Lea, in whose " Triumph " incubator the heat
is supplied by circulating pipes from a small
outside boiler, the inside tank being dispensed
with. The principle in all is much the
same ; some makers employ larger hot-air

flues, in which one of them introduces baffles or
partial stops, in order to check the rate of
draught and economise oil. Some employ
deeper tanks to steady the tempera-
Other ture, and make the bottom of the
Tank tank concave towards the egg-tray.
Machines. in order to diminish the inequality
between the temperature at the centre
and the outer margins. To equalise the heat over
all the eggs is one chief difficulty in all machines,
heat being lost by radiation from the margins of
the chamber, however carefully packed. The
amount thus radiated, and consequent inequality,
will vary with the arrangements, and the ventila-
tion of the machine, and the temperature outside ;
and provision against it can only be averaged.
One inventor carries his hot-air flue round the
edges of the tank ; another brings the hot-water
down a few inches below the main body of the
tank, all round the egg-chamber. It will be seen
that alteration in one detail may alter other con-
ditions not intended, and that some good point
may be gained at the cost of others. This is
illustrated by such a simple matter as the cubic
contents of the tank. The effect of increasing it
has already been mentioned, in greater steadiness
of temperature, thus masking or diminishing the
effect of inefficient regulators. On the other
hand the Hearson machine uses smaller tanki
than at first, the effect of which is that the
regulator responds more quickly to sudden
changes in outside temperature, which a large
tank cannot readily do. Hence, while a small
tank may be regulated by shutting out or other-
wise diminishing the supply of heat, a large-tank
machine may require, in addition, to let out hot
air from the egg-chamber through a valve.
Attempt has been made to improve the capsule
regulator itself in various ways, chiefly in regard
to the small amount of the original motion,
which has to be multiplied by the long lever.
Various ingenious but misguided theorists have
supposed that by introducing additional levers,
or eccentric cams, into the mechanical part of
the apparatus, they improve this state of things.
Any person acquainted with mechanics will see
that any such complications are the reverse of
improvements, introducing needless friction at
all the additional parts, with absolutely no gain,
and that one simple lever working on a knife-
edge is the best possible arrangement that can
be adopted.

There can be no doubt that the success of
Hearson's machine and others on similar lines
was greatly due to the simple and
Ee'^atora. effective action of the capsule regu-
lator, and it may be well to describe
here, before going farther, some of the prin-

72

THE BOOK OF FOULTRY.

cipal types of thermostats which have been
employed in incubator work. One of the first
to work efTficiently was that of Jacob Graves.

Fig. 36. — Graves' Regulator.

Here a large bulb or tube A L (Fig. 36) extend-
ing all along over the eggs in the chamber, was
connected by a neck-cork C with the tube M.
The tube A L was filled with alcohol, which
expands greatly when heated ; M was partially
filled with mercury, carrying the float or piston
F, which worked the lamp and valve, as it was
pushed by the expanding alcohol up the tube.
This regulator has been revived quite recently ;
a practically similar one being used in the
American " Reliable " tank incubator of the
present day.

Mr. Halsted introduced the "balancing"
mercury regulator (Fig. 37). In this the bulb M
on the end of a sealed tube T was large enough
to hold about half a pound of mercury, of which
sufficient was introduced to extend to about the
shaded portion at 100°, the whole then balancing
on the axis A A. On the heat increasing the
mercury extended up the tube, when T descended,
the turning axis A A working the valve. The
whole was regulated and balanced by the weight
W, sliding on an arm L fixed to the axis. This
form was found awkward and cumbrous, and
regulation poor, while breakage of the bulb was
frequent ; but the balance principle has been
modified and used in many ways. In the best
examples, the balancing weight of the mercury

^ig- 37- — Halsted's Regulator.

is used in combination with the expansion of
much more sensitive liquids. One of the most
beautiful, sensitive, and really efficient balance-
regulators ever designed, Mr. Boyle's, is shown
in Fig. 38. The long limb A of a siphon-tube

was in connection by the pipe B with the hot
water in the tank, which in his machine was the
medium regulated, the water extending nearly
to the bottom of the siphon : in modern
machines A would be connected with a long
bulb-tube in the drawer, precisely as in Fig. 36.
and might be filled with either water or alcohol.
C is filled with mercury, and connected by the
rubber-tube D with the small horizontal tube E
ending in a cup F, all which also contain
mercury. It will be seen that the expansion in
and behind A forces more mercury into the cup
F, and as the tube E is ten or twelve inches long,
and turns on D as a pivot, the increased weight
is added solely at the point where its leverage
is most powerful. The motion can be utilised
in any way by a thread or wire at M, and the
cup is connected with a lever H K, pivoted on I,
by which the action is balanced and regulated
through the sliding weight L. This regulator
works with a variation of one-tenth of a degree :

Fig. 38. — Boyle's Regulator.

it is in fact so sensitive, that it is advisable to
steady it somewhat by connection with a balanc-
ing spring G. On its own machine it was quite
thrown away ; but we know as the result of
experiments in other branches of biological
study, that it is one of the most perfect regulators
in action of any that have been devised, and
have often wondered that it has not been applied
to modern incubators, for some of which it is
well adapted.

The expansion of mercury has also been
used to complete a battery circuit in what are
called "electric" regulators. We would warn
the reader to avoid all such, though the idea
seems to have fascinated a large number of
inventors. They are very sensitive in a way
— almost hyper-sensitive in fact, to a certain

THERMOSTATS FOR INCUBATORS.

73

extent — but their radical defect is, that when
the circuit is completed it is completed : there
is no gradation about it. We have seen many
such devices, but this defect affects them all.

After Mr. Hearson's patent was published,
mercury was much used in combination with a
portion of compensated ether, to be vaporised
as in his capsule ; and though all these are
practically now abandoned by manufacturers, they
are so easily made up by amateurs, or may be
so useful in an unforeseen emergency to anyone
who can work a little in glass, that it may be
well to describe the three principal types. In
the J-tube form (Fig. 39) a small bubble of air
B and a portion of ether E were introduced into
the shorter and sealed arm of a J-tube, the rest

Fig. 39-

Fig. 40.

Fig. 41.

being filled with mercury to the point F, where
a float carried the rod K. At the proper tem-
perature the vapour depressed the mercury to
about the point A, raising the rod R. There were
also several on the balance principle, of which
Fig. 40 is a type, the tube here being bent into
three-fourths of a circle and balanced on the disc
D, to which the rod R is connected. The ether
E is at the sealed end as before, and as the
mercury is pushed round the tube it causes the
disc D to revolve. In another form (Fig. 41),
the sealed tube itself is made the float, being
inverted in an outer tube or vessel also con-
taining mercury. The bubble B and ether E are
as before ; the e.xpanding vapour depresses the
mercury M, and raises the inner tube, which bears
the rod R. As already hinted, all these have
generally disappeared, and there is no question
that, of all thermostats depending upon the
vaporisation of compensated ether, Mr. Hear-
son's capsule is far the best. Its simplicity,
permanence, and the definiteness cf its zero-
point under the same conditions, all make it
superior to mercury forms ; and since the
expiry of the patent it has been adopted by
most English makers, and is made and sold,

like thermometers, for supply to manufacturers
generally.

Nevertheless, this regulator (with all which
depend upon vaporisation of a liquid) has one
serious defect, which makes it quite unsafe to
depend upon its automatic action alone. The
point at which vapour is formed differs with
the atmospheric pressure, to the extent in
our compensated ether of about two degrees
Fahrenheit for every inch of the barometer, or
one thousand feet of altitude. As in England
the barometer often varies to the extent of an
inch and a half, less frequently to within two
inches, and on rare occasions even more, it
follows that the capsule may vary the regulation,
from this cause alone and independent of the
teinperature in the drawer, by as much as three
or four degrees.

Metallic thermostatic bars, when really effi-
cient, act well and are free from this defect; but
many have not been efficient. If two bars of
different metals are fastened together side by
side, and one metal expands more than the
other, the double bar must, when heated, be
forced into a curve, with the more expansible
metal outwards ; then if one end be rigidly fi.xed,
the other will move, and may be used to work
the regulator. This has been the most general
construction; some wind the double bar into a
spiral, which winds and unwinds as the tem-
perature varies: Christy's incubator has a spiral
thermostat of this kind. Ebonite has also
been used as one of the components, and
acts strongly, but is to be avoided because it
gradually " perishes." Metallic thermostatic
bars have been almost neglected in England,
chiefly on the ground of the metals rusting. This
objection is of course more serious in machines
where copious moisture is used, and has been
less felt where it is abandoned or used sparingly;
but even in a moist chamber the difficulty is
easily overcome. The Prairie State Incubator
Co. surmounted this real trouble entirely in the
case of their thermostats, which are composed
of iron and hard brass (perhaps the most sus-
ceptible to rust of all metals), by tinning both
metals separately before they are put together,
and dipping the bars again into a bath of
melted tin after they are riveted together.
American patents are numerous ; but we have
not found very much of note, and will content
ourselves with showing, in Fig. 42, that used
in the now well-known " Cyphers " incubator.
Each thermostatic bar F, of which there are two,
is about twenty-four inches long (or the whole
width of the chamber) and composed of a strip
of steel with its two edges bent downwards at
right angles : this is to make the steel rigid, and

74

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

enable it to resist all bending strains. To the
ends of the steel are firmly riveted, on both the
upper and under sides, strips of aluminium, which
expands more than the steel when heated. The
aluminium is kept flat down to the steel for a

Fig. 42. — Cyphers Thermostat.

certain distance from the ends by sliding ties or
rivets, which allow it to slide along, but not to
rise ; thus the expansion is all thrown towards
the centre, where the aluminium is not tied, and
rises into a bow. The action, therefore, consists
of four of these bows expanding with the heat,
and the superiority of this thermostat consists in
the strength and definiteness of the motion, and
rigidity of the whole, just as in the capsule
regulator. For the rest, the point of resistance
is the nut B at the end of the rod J, the upper-
most aluminium bow G lifts the tube C, sliding on
the rod j and through the casting A. The
motion is thus conveyed to knife-edges lifting
the lever H with its valve E, the lever also
working on knife-edges at I, and furnished at
the other end with an adjusting weight D.

There is yet another point in regard to heat-
regulation. In some machines the egg-chamber

is kept nearly uniform in tempera-
Double . ,, T1 • 1 1 . .

Thermostats. ^^^^ ^'^ over. But m others, which
have a colder bottom, with the
heat radiated from the top, the temperature
differs greatly at various distances from the
radiator, and hence must be higher above the
fggs, in proportion as it is colder below them or
in the outer air, to keep the egg itself at the
same temperature. By many experiments, Mr.
Hearson found that with his machine, the heat
shown by the thermometer needed to be increased
one degree for about every ten degrees fall of
outer temperature; and this he directs to be regu-
lated for by the sliding weight. Every machine
of the top-heat type would have its own scale.

It is possible to provide for this automati-
cally, though we only know at present of two

actual attempts in this direction. The " Prairie
State " incubator is now made with a Z3-shaped
thermostatic bar, one limb of the :3 placed
above and the other under the eggs, and so
combined in their operation as to give a higher
temperature above the eggs
when it is colder below. The
result, we believe, is very satis-
factory. The other example is
English, in the regulator of
the " Forester " machine. This
is an ether-vapour regulator ;
but instead of a flat capsule, it is constructed like
a small funnel (Fig. 43), closed at both the
wide and small ends. The wide end is outside
the machine, in the open air ; and it will be
seen that, if the regulator were set for cold
weather, a considerable rise in outer tempera-
ture would appreciably diminish the heat
within the chamber which was required to
vaporise the fluid.

We must now pass to a consideration of the
" hot-air " incubator, and here, as with the
" tank " machine, for purposes of
brevity we may well let one
standard type suffice. It is
American, and has achieved deserved popu-
larity, and claims, with undoubted success, to
entirely dispense zvitli moisture in hatching, in
any situation or climate. It is due to long
scientific investigation of all the phenomena of
hatching by Mr. Charles A. Cyphers, and the
master-patent under which it is made (December

Hot-air
Incubators.

Fig. 43. — "Forester" Regulator.

4, 1894) is shown in Fig. 44. Here A A are the
walls of an egg-chamber B, and these walls are
all composed of a good thickness of porous
material. Mr. Cyphers has successfully used
wool or cotton compressed between sheets of
wire gauze, and slabs of plaster of Paris, but
prefers a manufactured material known in the
United States as " fibre stock," composed of
vegetablefibre, ground, pressed and dried, which
makes up readily into suitable walls. In the
diagram the whole surrounding walls are shown

HOT-AIR MACHINES.

75

of such material, while <? ^ is a tray for the
eggs, and the whole is warmed by pipes d d
from a boiler C.

Whatever it may have been in the ex-
perimental stage, however, the " Cyphers" incu-
bator is not now thus constructed. The porous
material now forms only the entire upper and
under walls of the egg-chamber. There is no
boiler, but the lamp-heat passes up the inside
and down the outside of a hot-air chamber.
From this the pure, warm air passes into a
heating chamber above the upper porous dia-
phragm, where it is uniformly diffused before
passing through the porous material into the
chamber beneath. It passes downwards through
the eggs, and then through the lower (double)
porous diaphragm, into another chamber at the
bottom, from whence it is sucked by the draught
of the heater. The ventilation is thus sufficient
and steady, but quite free from draught, and
very slow — what Mr. Cyphers calls a purely
" molecular " ventilation — and the difference
between upper and lower temperature is very
small. The regulator is the excellent thermostat
shown in Fig. 42, which keeps the temperature
within a variation of half a degree. That the
machine does hatch high averages, in large
numbers, in all situations, without moisture, is
proved by a mass of testimony beyond question.

In America there are other excellent hot-air
machines, particulars of which, as Mr. Lewis
Wright explained in a previous edition, it is
not easy to obtain, manufacturers possibly
amongst so mechanical a people having a well-
founded dread of publishing working details.

of combustion actually pass into the latter,
besides more or less of pure heated air. It
has been stated that passing heat direct
from the lamp into an incubator is now

Fig. 44.^ — Principle of Cyphers' Incubator.

Of British "hot-air" machines, at the
present time possibly the best-known is " The
Gloucester," made by The Incubator Compo-
nents Co., Gloucester, a good example of a
self-ventilating and regulating non-moisture
machine. There are also several inexpensive
sub-types, the simplest of all being that in
which a lamp is placed underneath, or in,
the egg-chamber, as in the " Cosy Coop "
(Fig. 45), and more or less of the products

Fig. 45. — Cosy Coop Incubator.

quite discarded, because " the carbonic acid
from the lamp is as injurious to the developing
chick as it weuld be to human beings." Such
a statement betrays ignorance ; for it is well
known to physiologists that although oxygen
is necessary for animal life, the lower the form
of life (such as that of the embryo in the
egg) the less oxygen is required. Nevertheless,
we shared a strong prejudice against this type
of machine until we were convinced by ample
evidence that in many hands it hatched most
satisfactorily. Of course, it is necessary for
sufficient fresh air to enter as well as the lamp
lumes. But under such conditions machines do
hatch successfully ; they are also ver}' useful
for early experiments, and may introduce some
people at small expense into a fascinating
branch of poultry culture, which may perhaps
be extended thereafter.

We may here pass to a comparison of the
tank machine and the hot-air or atmospheric

type of incubator. And the follow-
Comptrison. ^"g excerpt from that practical

handbook, Incubation, Natural
and Artificial," by J. H. Sutcliffe, pub-
lished by The Feathered World, London, is
given as being among the most lucid exposi-
tions of the subject. Mr. Sutcliffe says : " There
are two distinct types of incubators, namely,
hot-air and hot-water. In the former the air is
heated in a heater outside before it passes into
the incubator, or the air is heated by radiation

76

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

from hot flues or a reservoir in the upper part
of the egg--chamber. In the other case a tank
of water is heated by means of flues passing
through it, or part of the tank itself extends
outside the incubator case to a boiler round the
lamp flame by means of which a circulation is
set up of heated water from, and cooler water
to, the boiler. Radiation downwards from the
tank heats the air in the egg-chamber. Both
methods are therefore in effect the same, and
both are really hot-air incubators.

" There are, however, important differences
in the method of ventilation and in maintain-
ing humidity in the egg-chamber. In incuba-
tors with hot-water tanks filling the upper part
of the case the cold air enters and rises from
below, and is heated by radiation as it rises.
As the temperature of the egg-chamber is kept
stationary at 104° by the rise or fall of the tem-
perature of the tank, the volume of air passing
through the fixed inlets and outlets varies with
the temperature and density of the outer air ;
the colder the latter is the more air passes
through the incubator, and the warmer the less
air. For instance, if the outer temperature were
to rise so high as 104°, there would be no
change or passage of air through the incubator
at all, as the air inside would be of the same
density (being of the same temperature) as the
air outside. On the contrary, at freezing point,
say, the very wide difference between the inside
temperature of 104° and the outside tempera-
ture of 32° and the consequent density of the
latter induce a very rapid change of air which
dries the eggs, too rapidly in the latter case and
too little in the former case.

" In hot-air machines the fresh air goes in at
the top at one uniform high temperature regard-
less of the outer temperature ; the cooler this is
the more heat is absorbed in the heater to raise
the ingoing air to the required temperature.
The heated air gradually descends to the lower
and also unvarying temperature about the eggs,
below which it diffuses outwards at a rate, like
the case of the tank machine, in proportion to
the difference in temperature (and density), the
area of outlet remaining the same, between the
inner and outer air, the colder and denser the
latter the more rapid the diffusion. But in these
machines the area of outlet can be increased by
removing the bottom felt or felts, or opening
the incubator bottom, thus making up by in-
creasing the diffusive outlet area what is lost by
the reduced sfeed of diffusion as the outer and
inner air get nearer the same density. With the
fixed outlet ventilating holes above the eggs in
tank incubators the outlet cannot be increased
for hot weather. The number of holes should,

therefore, be sufficient for warm weather and
some of them corked up for cold weather. This
could be effected by having slides working on
the ' hit and miss ' principle to control the holes
or area of outlets, which, in this case, could be
much larger to provide for warm weather.
There is little, if any, difference between the
two types as regards even distribution of heat.
The mobility of the volume of cooling air,
gradually descending, is such as to render the
temperature uniform at any given level. The
water in a tank-machine has an even tempera-
ture at the bottom of the tank, unless this even-
ness has been interfered with by deposits of
sediment, but in the imparting of this heat by
radiation through the intervening two to four
inches down to the eggs there is as great a likeli-
hood of inequalities arising, especially as the
ventilation is from below, as with descending
air.

" Air heats and cools much more quickly
than water, therefore should the supply of arti-
ficial heat fail, either wholly or partially, a hot-
air incubator would much sooner fall to the
temperature of the outside atmosphere than
would a tank-machine, as the latent heat in the
water would keep the temperature in the egg-
chamber from falling injuriously for many
hours. For the same reason heating by hot
water tends to prevent fluctuations and to check
sudden accidental rises of temperature.

" In the tank incubators the moisture is in
the bottom. The ingoing air becomes partially
charged at a low temperature, but as it rises and
becomes hotter its capacity for absorption of
moisture increases, and thus there may still be
a tendency to dry the eggs too much, especiall)'
if coupled with a rapid passage of air, as in
cold weather. In hot-air incubators the heated
air goes in at the top at an unvarying high tem-
perature. As it descends and cools its capacity
for absorption is reduced (which is one of the
reasons why no applied moisture is necessary)
and therefore passes the eggs with less danger
of drying them.

" Carbon dioxide and other gases exhaled
from the eggs during incubation are heavier
than pure air and more readily fall with de-
scending ventilation than rise with the ascend-
ing air in tank machines.

" Hot-water tanks are liable to give trouble
from leaking after being in use for a time, and
when that happens they are troublesome to re-
pair. There are also more interval flues in a
tank machine, which increases the risk of
trouble from getting choked up with soot, which
is often a cause of failure to get the heat up
sufficiently quickly."

HOT-AIR AND TANK MACHINES CO AI PA RED.

77

Mr. Sutclifte's comparison just quoted ex-
plains the matter very clearly, and we may
here remark that in America the hot-air system
is far the most in use. One reason for Ameri-
can preference of the hot-air type appears to
be greater economy of oil, which on a large
scale becomes of importance. The latest and
best makes of these machines are able entirely
to dispense with moisture, and thus register
real advance. Almost universally they em-
ploy efficient metallic thermostats, which do
not vary with the barometric pressure, as do
Aose which, depending on vaporisation, are
liable to several degrees of fluctuation indepen-
dent of outside temperature.

From the British Isles we have so far re-
ceived the best averages of reports from tank
machines, whose popularity we have seen to be
connected with the simplicity and uniform
action (within certain limits) of Hearson's cap-
sule regulator. It has been shown how a
tank of water steadies the temperature, acting
as a fly-wheel ; so much so that even if a
lamp should go out, the heat might probably
remain sufficient for hours to prevent fatal
results. These machines thus possess more im-
munity from catastrophes caused by accidents.
On the other hand, they respond much less
quickly to sudden changes of temperature,
while specially sensitive to changes in the baro-
meter, and are thus more liable to failure from
weather conditions. If it be remembered that
at the best there must be some variation in tem-
perature at different parts of an egg-chamber,
a possible variation of 3° or 4°* from baro-
metrical changes alone may become a very
serious thing, especially in the early stages of
hatching. Many such variations which occur
are never suspected. We have in our own early
experiments often supposed that the heat in
the comparatively rude apparatus we were then
using was within 2° of variation, because we
found it so at periodical morning and evening
inspections ; but when we put in a certified
registering thermometer, we found that the
variation under the same arrangements had
really amounted to as much as 6°. Now some-
times this effect of the barometer upon the
capsule may be actually beneficial. Suppose
pleasant cool weather with a high barometer, to
be followed by a rapid fall, with sultry heat and
a storm. Then the lower vaporising temperature
will the more easily and rapidly adjust matters
in the egg-drawer. But imagine cold and raw
but rainy weather, with a low barometer, in
spring, to be followed by bright, hot weather.

* Mr. Willan's register for thirty-two days, published in Messrs.
Hearson's pamphlet, shows a variation from 102" to I06;<°, or 4'X'-'.

As a result, the heat would run dangerously
high, and the chicks, if at an early stage, be
probably killed. Thus it will appear that a
capsule thermostat must not be left to work
unchecked, but that a barometer or aneroid, and
a thermometer for the room itself, should
always be used with a machine of this class.
The matter is of the more importance, as it will
be seen in Chapter VIII. that variation in tem-
perature is directly connected with incomplete
absorption of the yolk by the hatching chicken.

The hot-air machine responds much more
quickly and sensitively to changes of tempera-
ture, and with good thermostatic regulators is in-
dependent of the barometer, and really automatic
in action ; with, however, the proviso that in
cool-bottom machines there be a double-acting
regulator, as explained above. On the other hand,
in the case of hot-air machines a neglected lamp
or flue must spell disaster, and it obviously
requires a more accurate and sensitive thermostat
or constant attention. Neglected lamps are
not to be dreaded in large systematic establish-
ments : the smaller breeder must judge for
himself whether he can trust his own careful-
ness, or whether he prefers the safety-valve
(in this respect) of a tank machine.

Coming now to the practical working of an
incubator, any reader of intelligence will have
already gathered that in different
Management niachines details of management
Incubator. may differ considerably, according
to the construction, even in really
important points. No better advice can there-
fore be given than that, before starting, the
instructions sent with the particular incubator
in use should be carefully studied and fol-
lowed. The manufacturer is supposed to
understand the proper conditions for working
his own machine ; and though we regret to say
that in the case of some productions this is not
the case, as regards those which have held a
market it generally is so. In regard to choosing,
it will be well to confine the choice to some
make which has held its -position for three years.
We may say that so far, of every English
machine that fulfils this condition, we have had
ample evidence of good results when carefully
managed. In America such a rule would be
too stringent, excluding, perhaps, some good
machines ; but there the immense scale of oper-
ations, carried on by men whose names are
household words, gives an amount of testing in
a short time which is equally effective. It is
simply the amount of experimental proof, in
either case, which the purchaser has to consider.

Where the incubator or incubators are to be
placed should receive consideration. Constant

78

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

noise may cause no injury ; but sudden occa-
sional loud noises, or concussions, are known
to cause deaths and deformities. Even a hen
instinctively chooses a quiet and retired place.
It also helps to have as uniform a temperature
as possible, especially if the regulator is not of
the very best. Airy, dry cellars answer exceed-
ingly well, and in America some of the large
poultry-farmers find it pays, by increased pro-
duction, to build their special incubator-rooms
ashalf cellar or basement and half aboveground,
or to bank up soil round the greater part of the

cubators, shows on what a scale incubation is
conducted in the States, and we have had notes
of even larger installations. Fig. 46, illus-
trating as it does part of the establishment of
a well-known British lady poultry-farmer, is
not less interesting, for it shows a clever adap-
tation of existing farm buildings. It is a room
43 feet long by 12 feet wide, and about 16 feet
in height, and was the cider cellar of the old
farmhouse, which, by removing the flooring of
the room above it, has been converted into a fine
lofty chamber, with plenty of light and air.

Fig. 46.

Edwards's Incubator Room at Cualey, Gloucestershire.

walls. Recent improvements in thermostats
remove a great deal of the necessity for this ;
still, extremes of temperature are better avoided
as far as possible. Another point of some im-
portance is that the incubator should not be in a
direct draught, else the eggs maybe dangerously
chilled when withdrawn for turning or airing.

In Figs. 46 and 47 are illustrated two good
examples of incubator rooms. That of Mr.
Karstendiek, of New Orleans, containing as it
did when photographed fifty-five 300-egg in-

Built with thick stone walls, and the floor sunk
some 2 feet below the ground, with windows
high up near the ceiling, this cellar makes a
splendid incubator room. Fresh air is ad-
mitted by well inlets low down in the wall at
intervals beneath the incubators, and the
vitiated atmosphere rises and passes out by the
windows some 12 feet up near the ceiling. The
room faces south, but is protected from too
much sun by a sheltering yew tree, and against
the north side are stables and out-buildings.

TEMPERATURE OF THE INCUBATOR.

79

The incubator should be carefully levelled.
This is essential to the lamp-flues working
properly, whether through a tank or a hot-air
chamber ; and a difference of level will in many
machines make one corner of a drawer hotter
or cooler than the others. Where it can be
done, it is worth while to equalise the tempera-
ture by placing a test-thermometer- in each of
the four corners of a drawer. Prospectuses may
state that the heat in their machines is so
" uniform " that the eggs do not need any change
of position. We have not found it so. Far
more usually the back corner next the lamp is
hottest, next the other back corner, then the
front corners in same order. Each machine
seems to have its own peculiarities, and by
propping up one corner or end a little, where
the construction admits of this, a drawer may
often be more nearly equalised, though no
machine has ever yet been made in which the
heat is uniform all over the drawer. It is un-
fortunate that all incubators are not made
with glass doors, or even separate doors to be
closed when the egg-trays are withdrawn for
cooling. In America nearly all of repute are
thus furnished, and this detail not only facilitates
the adjustment here described and examination
of thermometers, but saves much loss of heat at
the periods when the eggs are attended to. We
should, in fact, advise that any incubator not
already furnished with a separate outside door,
to be closed when the drawer is taken out, should
have a caulking shield or lid provided to fit into
and stop up the opening, and so confine the heat.

In regard to temperature, it will follow from
what has been said, that no positive figure can
be given, even for one kind of eggs —
Temperature, we here suppose hen's eggs. Both
the figure, and the best place to pu
the thermometer, will differ with the machine ;
and the place of the thermometer will affect the
figure. In some top-heat machines which are
freely cool at the bottom, a quarter of an inch
lower for the thermometer bulb will make it
read one degree lower for the same heat of the
drawer. Thus it is that Mr. Hearson, with his
thermometer higher than the top of the eggs,
gives as the proper heat 104° for an outside
temperature of 60°, while 1° has to be allowed
for about 10° outside temperature in order
to keep the bulk of the egg itself at the same
heat, according to the warmer or cooler bottom.
It must never be forgotten in machines of this
class not to leave all to the regulator, but
to adjust the latter according to outer cond; •
lions ; and this is a very good instance of the
need for following special directions, which
may not apply at all to some other machine.

A usual practice is to lay a thermometer on
the eggs, taking care after the tenth day or so
that it lies upon live eggs. In this case 102°
will be about the right heat for the first week or
so, corresponding in average machines to about
99° at bottom of the tray. But where this
system is followed, it is most important to bear
in mind that about the ninth day the life of the
chick begins to quicken, and after the eleventh
day to add a great deal of its own animal heat
to what is supplied. Hence, after the tenth or
eleventh day a thermometer upon a live egg
may run up to 105°, without the heat in the
drawer being really more than about 103°,
whereas if 105° were shown upon a dead egg,
the heat would be too great. For this reason
the more recent and better practice is for the
thermometer not to rest on eggs at all, but to
be in one fixed place, with the centre of the
bulb level with the top of the eggs. The
temperature for hen-eggs will then be about
103° for machines with decidedly cool bottom,
or 102° for machines where the heat is more
evenly diffused in the egg-chamber. In either
case the thermometer may probably register
about one degree higher after ten or eleven
days, owing to the greater heat and proximity
of the quickening eggs ; but this is about as it
should be in hatching, and is no fault of the
regulator. As it has been well expressed, while
for the first ten days the temperature of the
egg-chamber controls that of the eggs, after
that, to some extent, the temperature of the
eggs controls that of the chamber.

The differences in temperature given by
various operators will now be understood, as
depending upon differences of level
Thermometers, or in machines. Statements that
only machines with " top heat " will
hatch successfully are mis-statements. The
egg-ovens of Egypt, as well as certain in-
cubator experiments, show their absurdity.
Top heat, or all-round heat, or bottom heat will
all hatch, if the heat be right. But the very
best thermometers commercially obtainable also
differ somewhat. In the early days we noted
many which differed four degrees, to which alone
many disasters were due. Even now many
differ half a degree or one degree, and this should
be allowed for as verified by comparison with
one tested and old thermometer kept for a per-
manent standard ; for it does not seem generally
known that even a' well-made thermometer,
accurate when new, will often show a rise of
from half a degree to a whole degree, or even
more, when it has been in use twelve months,
the first six months being most apt to show such
changes. For this reason, in America it is now

8o

THE BOOK OF FOULTRY.

customary to keep the best thermometers for six
montlis in a heated chamber before supplying
to the incubator manufacturers, and it is desir-
able that this system should be followed. Any
thermometer can be easily used, by ascertaining
its " correction " from the standard one, which is
best done by immersing both in a pail of water
heated to about 105°, and kept stirred : without
stirring, the water may heat the two quite differ-
ently. The test described by some of putting
the thermometer into the mouth is not to be
depended upon within two degrees.

For these thermometric reasons, first adjust-
ments of temperature may fail in practice ; but
there is a simple common-sense rule by which
in that case the error may be corrected. If fresh

of 106^ would either kill chicks outright, or so
weaken them that they would probably die in
the shell ; whereas later on an accidental baking
will, if in a dry chamber, often be borne with
impunity — even 112° for four hours has then
been recorded, with still a fair hatch. It
has been found that if such a state of affairs
occurs, the best procedure is quickly to damp
a towel with warm water and spread it on
the eggs, replacing the tray, but leaving the
door open for a while. This cannot be done
unless there is a door independent of the
drawer or tray ; otherwise, leave the drawer
partially open for a while. Such a door, in-
cluding a glass door, is very desirable for all
sorts of reasons, and especially for reading the

hen's eggs which hatch pip between the evenings
of the twentieth and twenty-first days the heat
has been about right ; at all events the average
heat, apart from faults in regulation.* If the
eggs pip a day earlier the heat has been too
great, and a shade lower had better be tried.
If on the contrary fresh eggs are decidedly late,
then the regulator should be set a little higher,
whatever the thermometer may appear to read.
It is especially to be remembered, that too high
a temperature is particularly fatal during the
-first ten days. During that period a few hours

• Bantams' eggs, and other small ones, average a clay or more
earlier, and should reckon accordingly.

thermometer. Where there is none, the stem
must either be pulled out or the drawer opened.
In the latter case the reading must be taken
instantly, as there will be a rapid fall. In some
of the large establishments of America a small
electric light is fitted up close to each thermo-
meter, which is switched on and the reading taken
as the attendant passes each machine in turn.

The temperature should have been held
steady for at least a day before any eggs are

introduced. Of course, it is foolish
Eg&s°^ °^ *° "^"^ valuable eggs in a first

essay ; fresh and strongly fertile
common eggs should comprise the first attempt

TURNING AND AIRING THE EGGS.

8i

by inexperienced hands. Some care should
always be exercised in selecting eggs for an in-
cubator. A few years ago they commonly died
if set when more than three or four days old,
showing that vitality must in some degree fall
off ; and most makers' prospectuses still state
that eggs over a week old are of little use.
Nevertheless, with improvements in machines,
eggs a fortnight and even three weeks old are
now often used, with results equal to those
obtained by the natural method in similar cir-
cumstances. No one questions, however, that
the freshest eggs are the best, though up to a
fortnight the chief difference is found to be in
somewhat later hatching. It is of more im-
portance to reject small or large eggs, and
especially those with rough or porous shells, or
any obvious fault at all in soundness of shell.
Some such eggs which might hatch under a hen
fail in an incubator, because of too rapid
evaporation.

Proceeding from these fundamental details
of artificial hatching to the daily routine, it may
be well to explain that good results have been
hindered by several fashions or ideas, which in
succession have dominated those working in this
field, and which all of us more or less shared in
our time, the fact being that no one then knew
any better. Some of them are still believed in
by many, and several points in management, if
adopted, involve others. There has been a
cooling or " airing" era ; then a " carbonic-acid "
theory and consequent " ventilation " era ; and
(consequent really upon this last) finally came a
" moisture " era. It is curious now to reflect, that
all these might have been checked and moderated,
merely by adequate consideration of the egg-
ovens of Egypt. Let us proceed, however, to
consider practically the routine in detail.

Unfailing regularity in trimming and filling
the lamp need hardly be insisted upon ; merely
the use of an oil inferior to that for which any
lamp is constructed, may give much trouble,
even if it does not cause failure, by creating
smoke and choking the flues. Flues and
chimneys should always be looked after at proper
intervals. A flat wick is best trimmed very
slightly convex on the top, or with the corners
very slightly taken off", when a rather tapered
flame much less liable to smoke is obtained.
When the flame is not too high, smoke usually
occurs from a high corner of the wick. Wicks
chemically prepared so as to need little trim-
ming during the whole of a hatch are now
largely used and supplied by the best incubator
manufacturers, and have greatly lessened one
of the most troublesome and tiresome portions
of incubator work.

The first thing to see to in regard to the
eggs, is to turn them over regularly twice a day,
except at the very beginning and again at the
end. At the beginning, it is better
Turning and ^^ leavethem undisturbed, to heat up.
Moving the ^^^ ^1^^ twenty-four hours. A mark
should be made on the middle of the
side of each egg, that it may be seen how much
the egg is turned over. Some lay stress upon
turning the egg exactly half over each time ;
but as that brings the germ exactly to the same
spot in the shell every twenty-four hours, and
to the same portion of slightly evaporated
albumen, it cannot be beneficial. Most egg-
trays are lower in the centre ; the best way then
is to take out an egg from the lowest part, and
let the row above it roll very gently down the
hill, the whole row turning as it goes, placing
the egg taken out in the vacancy at the top.
The eggs will probably roll over rather more
than a third, but no exact aliquot part. The
same plan can be followed even in flat trays,
and it also saves time. But its greatest advan-
tage is that the eggs also change places, an egg
being taken from probably the hottest part of
the tray to the outside, and the others moved as
well as turned. It has been fully demonstrated
by systematic experiments that this is of great
importance. As already stated, no incubator yet
made is the same heat all over the tray, and those
which claim to be so are not even the best in
this respect. Changing places "evens" these
differences, and, as already mentioned, is regu-
larly carried out in the egg-ovens of Egypt,
and is even done by the hen herself. We have
marked many a hen-hatch to ascertain this, but
quote the following from an old correspondent :
"At 10.30 a.m. marked four eggs in the centre
of the nest. At 1.30 p.m. three marked eggs
were at the outside, one still at centre. Marked
three more in the middle. At 2.45 p.m. the
three last marked were moved to the outside,
and four marked first were also at the outside ;
marked four more left in the middle. At 4 p.m.
the four marked last were at the outside, and
some of those marked first were back in the
middle of the nest." Thus does even the hen
move her eggs from centre to outside of her
nest, and the average difference, as the result
of American experiments, is estimated at $ to
6 per cent, in favour of those so treated.

This is one objection to the system of
" automatic " turning introduced in some in-
cubators; another being the tend-
Co^Ung"^ ency to return to identical positionj
already alluded to. But further,
the short cooling during the removal of the
tray to the outer air for this purpose, is actually

82

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

beneficial to the eggs. This also has been
experimentally proved, if only in a percentage,
although very good hatches have been obtained
without any such withdrawal. The turning
should be done deliberately and gently ; and
when so done, the eggs of a large machine are
generally best returned at once. But they may
be left outside for ten minutes or more in warm
weather, or five minutes even in winter, unless
the room be nearly freezing. Many have
advocated, and still advocate, leaving them
much longer ; but it is now known that such
" airing " has been much overdone, and that
where it has appeared beneficial, this was be-
cause it remedied in some degree the effects
of too much heat, or too much moisture. It is
manifest that in large hatching-chambers or
ovens the eggs get no cooling at all. ExceptK)n
may be made in hot weather, when "quickened"
chickens may add so much heat to the chamber,
that any valve may hardly be able to keep the
temperature down. We have known the thermo-
meter at 92" in the room, even in England; it
will easily be understood that in such a room,
and with lively " quickened " eggs, the smallest
flame possible may run the egg-chamber
up too high, and long, even repeated airings
will often at such times help the hatch. Mr.
J. L. Campbell records one extraordinary expe-
rience during a "heat-wave" in America, when
for five days and nights he had to take out his
egg-trays and keep them on a table, and the
eggs never got below 105°. But these are ex-
ceptions. The chamber should generally be
closed while the eggs are withdrawn, in order
that they may go back into nearly the proper
temperature.

Not later than the sixth or seventh day
the eggs should be tested for fertility, and sterile

ones taken out. This is more im-
Fertiufy.'"" portant than in natural hatching,

owing to the difference already
mentioned between the heat of a live and of a
dead egg. This difference, when a large number
are collected, as in an incubator, becomes much
exaggerated. If the chamber is, upon the whole,
at the right temperature for live eggs, any live
eggs surrounded by dead ones will be insufficiently
heated. Moreover, a thermometer laid upon
eggs may appear to play all sorts of pranks.
For small occassional hatches, nothing need be
added concerning "testing" to what was said in
the preceding chapter; but the large or systematic
operator will find it worth while to use more
powerful appliances, and will very soon become
more expert, so as to be able to detect sterile
eggs on the third or fourth day. Brown-shelled
eggs are less transparent, and duck eggs more

so than white hen eggs, so that many of the
duck-raisers can tell if an egg is fertile after
about thirty-six hours. In the first edition of
this work we figured an egg-tester with a
concave reflector behind the flame of a lamp,
and a lens in front, to condense the light upon
the egg; but at a later period, being asked by
a friend for optical advice * as to the most
powerful instrument that could be devised, we
designed one as in Fig. 48, whose effect in
bringing out the early stages is very marked ;
but whose efficiency depends upon the details
being optically correct. Here L is an oil-lamp
with an inch-wide wick, and R is a silvered
reflector, whose curve should be struck from
the centre of the lamp-flame. In front is a
lens C of 3i inches diameter and short focus,

Fig. 4N. — Egg-Tester.

such as is used in a magic-lantern condenser,
arranged at a little more than its focal distance
from the flame, so that it transmits the rays in
a slightly convergent beam, thus concentrating
them upon the egg E. Beyond the lens is a flat
mirror M, placed at an angle of 45 degrees, so as
to reflect the rays perpendicularly upward upon
the egg E, laid upon a proper orifice in a hori-
zontal screen. The efficacy of the instrument
depends partly upon all the rays taken up by a
rather large lens and reflector, being concentrated
into a space the size of an egg, and partly upon
the egg being laid horizontally to receive those
rays, so that the germ, lying close to the top side
of the egg, shall be more clearly seen. The egg is
also removed to a more comfortable distance from
the flame. Such an instrument would be put to-
gether to order by any respectable optician. In
using it, care should be taken to lay the egg
down in the same position in which it was
taken from the tray, in order that the germ
may be steady near the top side, nearest the
eye.

When thus powerfully illuminated by a good

* The author of this work will be known to some readers as
also the author of several upon " Light," and various branches
of practical and experimental optics.

VENTILATION AND MOISTURE.

83

tester, the fertile germ is much more charac-
teristic, a small opaque spot being surrounded
by small red blood-vessels, clearly seen, branch-
ing from it. With practice these latter will be
seen earlier and earlier, even before any very
dark spot appears. Sterile eggs remain per-
fectly clear. Fertile germs which have died, or
addled eggs, present all sorts of appearances,
which need not be described, constant practice
being the best teacher ; but, generally speaking,
a red circle without branching veins, or a red
line near the side of the egg, denotes a dead
germ or broken yolk, and, later on, a sort of
floating dark mass surrounded by transparency,
spells " addled " to the tester. Let the learner,
however, mark all doubtful eggs, and then

Fig. 49. — A Home-Made Egg-Tester.

Ka^ily iiuvie t.'ith a bicycle lainf' and sheet 0/ zinc, or caidboard,
painted black, ami an aperture cut to size 0/ egg.

observe how they turn out ; and in a short time
he will be surprised at the certainty with which
his tester will reveal to him the state of affairs.
It should be remarked, that whereas really sterile
eggs do no particular harm beyond perhaps
robbing live ones of heat which they require,
dead germs, being on the road to putrefaction,
are poison in the egg-drawer. Eggs with dis-
coloured shells, or v/ith exudation appearing, or
which smell offensively, should be removed
instantly, and it will be found that every one
will have been marked as at least doubtful,
beforehand, alter a very little experience. The
eggs should be tested again about the four-
teenth day.

It does not answer well to fill up vacancies.

made by testing, with fresh eggs. It can be
done, and if these are warmed up first, cooling
of the chamber by them can be avoided. But
as hatching proceeds, rather different conditions
of temperature and moisture prevail, and are
according to Nature's plan ; hence such mixtures
always impair the result. The eggs remain-
ing in a chamber should be either collected
or spread out equally ; else those close together
will be hotter than detached ones in another
part of the tray.

Ventilation and moisture are essentially

connected together, and there is now no doubt

that both have been to a very

Ventilation large extent overdone, each of them

and ■ 1 . 1-1

Moisture. ownig to that connection. h.arly

incubators were made with close
chambers, and practically no ventilation at all ;
naturally the want of fresh air caused failure,
and great improvement immediately followed
the introduction of free openings tor exit,
and inlets for the air, the latter being usually
at the bottom of the machine. This arrange-
ment causes the most rapid circulation of
all ; and as evaporation is in direct propor-
tion to the movement of drier air over the
evaporating surfaces, the eggs were rapidly
dried up, and many chicks glued to the shells.
For this the remedy was " moisture," which was
given freely in various ways : by cold tanks
at the bottom, damping earth or sand in a tray
under the eggs, or water-trays at the top of the
chamber. Great success was now very often
attained, and it was natural for it to be thought
that free ventilation and moisture " was the
great secret "of successful hatching. To such
an extent was this belief at the time held that
some incubator users considered that if the
moisture in the egg-drawer were increased, the
greater would be the number of eggs hatched.
On the direct contrary, from queries and dead
eggs which have been sent to us during many-
years, there can be little doubt that more dead
chicks have resulted from too much moisture
than from any other cause, and incubator users
will do well to note this.

The djie proportion between ventilation and
moisture is no doubt, next to proper heat, the
cardinal point ; but the whole matter has had
to be cleared up by fresh investigation, and has
now been completely elucidated by the far
larger experience of operators and manufacturers
in the United States. While temperature re-
mained variable to the extent of several degrees
from atmospheric conditions, occasional (and
often unknown) overheating was again and again
in a measure rectified by cooling and airing ;
but this is now better guarded against either by

84

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

better thermostats, or by adjusting these accord-
ing to the outside barometer and thermometer.
So also, ventilation through free apertures
generally so dried up the eggs that ample
moisture was necessary ; and the cold bottom
supply in so many tank machines very generally
strikes a rough balance, and gives success. But
there are also many failures ; for no such plan
gives the same moisture always, and it is not
correct to state, as in a treatise before us, that
Dalton's tables of water-vapour tension imply
any such consequence as that the moisture of a
chamber over cold water will always be the
same. The temperature is not always the same
over the water-trays in the machine described ;
and the rate of movement (and consequent titne
allowed any given portion of air to take up
vapour) is all-important, and differs immensely
in various states of the atmosphere. When the
men v/ho ran fifty large incubators at a time,
and the experts who manufactured machines for
them, began to study thequestion systematically,
they soon remembered that there was no draught
and no moisture at all in the old egg-ovens ; and
that the plumage of the hen, over the concavity
of her nest, prevented any but very slow inter-
change of air there, while she also was able to
hatch eggs upon a dry shelf, as well as upon
damp ground. They concluded that Nature
had supplied enough moisture within the &^^
itself to hatch it successfully ; and they were
right in the main, though some of them have
perhaps carried that principle a little to excess.
They therefore began to slow tlie ventilation ;
not to stop it, but to check actual current of air
as much as possible, remembering also that
twice a day the drawers would be opened, and
the air renewed that way. Ventilation from top
to bottom, which is slower in movement than
from bottom to top, became the rule ; and that
was further hindered in actual flow by circuitous
flues, or perforated or porous distributors, till
the climax v,-as perhaps reached in porous walls
forming the sole medium for exchange. At
once moisture became unnecessary, and many
incubator users rushed to the conclusion that
none was ever needed, even in well-known
machines of a somewhat older school. Fre-
quently that, too, proved to be the case, and
many people began to get better hatches by
quite abandoning moisture, even with hot-air
machines, often stated in England to require
" more moisture " than the tank machines. And
wheri that was not quite the case, results were
obtained which were in some cases startling.
Nevertheless, many people would no doubt do
much towards more successful hatches by filling
the apertures for ventilation with loose cotton

wool, so as to allow interchange of air while
stopping current, both at top and bottom
of machine ; and then using no moisture for
sixteen or seventeen days, and only a little at
the close, using more in dry v/eather.

Such, however, is rather a blind guess ; and
in the United States they have now reduced
the whole matter to a science. It is
all determined by the size of tli-e air-
cell in the developing egg. This was
first ascertained with hen-hatched
eggs, and diligently compared with incubator
eggs more or less successful ; with the result that
while different eggs would vary a little in the
same hatch, on an average the air-cell should
show enlargement at the fifth, tenth, fifteenth,
and eighteenth daj's, about as in the diagram,
Fig. 50. After the nineteenth day, the beak of

The Air-cell
as a Test.

Fig. 50. — Air-cell.

the chicken may at any time pierce the mem-
brane, and the head burst into the cavity, when
comparison is impossible.

It should be clearly understood that sufS-
cient evaporation to thus enlarge the air-cell is
necessary to successful hatching, and that too
much moisture acts by preventing this. The
tissues of the chick are then too soft and moist,
and the egg is packed too full at the last for the
chick to turn round and break its shell. On the
other hand, too large a cell means too small a
chick, and too tough and leathery a membrane,
and perhaps actual glueing of the chick to the
shell. If the air-cell is allowed to dry out too
much, the chick can be swelled afterwards by
giving more moisture ; but this does not really
repair the mischief; it will never be so strong a
chick as if all had gone right. In the majorit\-
of American incubators, best average results art-
said to be obtained by giving no moisture foi
about seventeen days ; then a little or not.
according to the size of the air-cell. In our
moister climate the same might hold even with
more ventilation, but for the strong up-draught
of many machines. The breeder who examines
the air-cells by his tester, however, and notes the

HATCHING-OUT THE CHICKENS.

85;

results and state of the cell in different kinds
of weather, will be armed at all points. In
America, at all events, with the slow ventilation
there usual, it is found that the greater pro-
portion of failures occur from insufficient drying-
out of the air-cell. There is another important
point in favour of slow ventilation (which must
nevertheless be sufficiently free ventilation — a
quite different thing) and a dry egg-chamber.
It has been proved conclusively that over-heat-
ing, should it occur, is four or five times as fatal
when the air is charged with vapour.

On the whole, it has become the general
practice amongst American hatchers who will
not "fuss" about the size of air-cell, to give no
moisture for about seventeen days, as above, and
then supply a little during the last two or three
days of hatching. This would hardly be safe
without the air-cell test, with the different types
of machine used in England. We believe that
even in America, to use no moisture at all, under
all circumstances, is a practical mistake. Such
hatches are not quite all successes; and though
we have already indicated the former general
mistake of overdoing moisture with the old sit-
ting-hen, the fact remains that there are cases in
which, even with hens, some vapour does greatly
help a hatch. It must be the same with an
incubator; though we believe that with many
American machines all that is necessary would
be best done by placing, in brisk, dry weather,
large shallow pans of water about in the incu-
bator room, or to water the floor of the room, so
as to moisten the air outside rather than inside
the machine.

It is found that eggs themselves may differ
greatly in behaviour, and this is no doubt one
reason why selection is so important for in-
cubator hatching. IVIr. Rankin ascertained by
repeated experiment, that when hatching without
moisturfe in his "Monarch" incubator, the sound
good shells hatched all right, but that some eggs
dried up too much. These were found on ex-
amination to have porous places in the shell,
and to have dried up much more than the others.
He made the remarkable experiment of coating
two-thirds of an egg, from the small end, with
shellac, and hatching without moisture. They
hatched well several times, but when he much
reduced the clean space at the large end, they
failed. Here the hen has an advantage, in
slightly greasing her eggs by contact with the
skin ; and we have often thought that turning
the eggs with very slightly greasy gloves might
have good results. The air-cell may not be too
much dried out, and yet the membranes may
be rather too '.ough and leathery at the last
for easy hatching ; hence the American practice,

above alluded to, of giving some moisture the
last three days, which is tantamount to the hot-
water final soaking-test described when dealing
with hatching under hens.

With a view to the final hatch-out, if the tray
admits of it, the eggs should always be kept

with the large end slightly higher
Hatching- ^j^^j^ ^j^g ^^j^gj. jj^jg ^g^jg jQ

prevent the chick's head being at
the small end. The eggs should not be turned
during the last three days, in order that the chick
may have a better chance to " get its head up."
When eggs are pipped, the fracture should be
turned upwards, if not already so, which will
probably be the case when turning has been
discontinued ; and it is better to move such eggs
near the door, where they can be seen — another
reason for glass doors. They should not be
meddled with oftener than about every six hours ;
but a lot of damp struggling chicks, breathing
freely, do not help the others, and the egg-
chamber is, moreover, too hot for them. Every
six hours or so, therefore, they shc-uld be re-
moved to the drying-box (which is usually in
England on the top of the machine, or else sup-
plied as a separate apparatus), although in some
the admirable American method is adopted
of automatic delivery of the chicks to a nursery
below the egg-trays. They should be entirely
out of the shell in from eight to eighteen hours
after pipping ; after the longer period it is pretty
plain that they need assistance. If only the
shell is broken, break the membrane through
also to give air, and if it appears too leathery,
a little warm water may be introduced, avoiding
the beak and nostrils. This may be sufficient.
If still no progress, the shell may be gently
cracked round, when a fairly strong chick will
generally be able to burst it asunder, especially
if moistened with a camel-hair pencil round the
crack. Sometimes, by immersing in warm
water, a tough membrane may be gently peeled
off, but so far as our experiments went, more
than the above rarely proved worth while. ■

It will be seen, that when we are asked "why
chickens are found dead in the shell," or addled

at an earlier stage, there may be
ChickGns many replies. The eggs themsehes

Dead in x, x^ ^.iir

Shell. may have been too weakly, from

the parents being too old, or too
young, or too fat, or too in-bred, or the male-
being over or under-mated, or the stock being
badly fed. The eggs may have been chilled, or
may have been over-heated. They may have had
too much moisture, or they may have had too
little for the ventilation. The air may have
been too damp to dry cut the air-cell sufficiently,
or so very brisk and dry as to toughen the

86

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

membrane, even though things were right in the
main. Many of these things often happen in a
nest of eggs under a hen, and are simply brought
into higher rehef with an incubator, owing to
the number involved, and the fact that they are
then ahvays supposed to be the fault of the
machine or of the management, which is, how-
ever, by no means always the case. Some of the
causes are only partially within human control
in a practical sense.

Duck eggs require a little different treatment
to get the best results ; they can be hatched
with others, but the average is not
Duc^Eggs. so good as when separate. It is
generally agreed that a little lower
temperature is better; but the difference depends
upon the machine. Mr. Hearson advises two
degrees less, and somewhat the same may be
necessary whenever the capsule is higher than
the eggs, and there is a cold moist bottom tem-
perature. With American hot-air machines,
\ialf a degree to one degree less is more usual.
Where free ventilation and free moisture are
used, a little more moisture during the last few
days, not before, is also generally better for
duck eggs ; but the size of the air-cell, as
already described, must be studied in reference
to this. Many large operators also think more
airing or cooling advisable, but taking care to
close the drawers whilst the trays are out, in
order that they may heat up again as quickly
as possible. The following remarks on in-
cubating duck eggs have been furnished us
for publication by Mr. Henry E. Moss, at one
time manager of Mr. Morgan's great duck
ranch, which was situated at Riverton, Virginia.
We had observed from our study of American
poultry papers, that while 50 per cent, of live
ducklings to eggs seemed about the general
American average,* Mr. Moss's were consider-
ably higher, and by common notoriety were
above those obtained by other raisers of duck-
lings on the large scale practised in the States.
His incubators were all on the hot-air principle,
and it will be seen that he writes rather differ-
ently from other breeders concerning both
moisture and cooling.

" The artificial incubation of duck eggs differs
very materially from that of the eggs of other
fowl. It does not follow that eggs from what-
ever source will respond to the same treatment,
and yet many large duck farmers in this country

* This average may seem low ; but it is to be remembered
that a large quantity of the eggs are winter-laid, and most of
them from ducks kept in large families, some in large flocks, for
economy in management. Under these circumstances the
fertility of the eggs themselves is heavily discounted. Our own
" early breeders " know best how p luch such an average, on
thousands hatched, really means.

have for years persisted in doing this very thing.
The writer has for some years been making a
practical and thorough study of this question.
Operating from thirty to forty incubators each
season on duck eggs, studying cause and effect,
and reasoning deductively rather than induc-
tively, he has achieved a greater measure of
success than has previously been recorded, and
while not fully prepared yet to describe every
detail, will briefly make clear some of the
important points.

" The first and most important requirement
is proper heat. It is necessary in order to obtain
the best results to maintain a uniform and un-
varying degree of heat at the upper surface of
the egg. This uniform degree of heat should
rest on every egg alike. This is a condition
which never has and perhaps never will be found
perfectly attained, in any commercial incubator.
Incubators do their best work when run in an
underground room, or cellar, or cave, where a
uniform temperature of about 65'' can be main-
tained ; otherwise, uniformity will depend upon
the efficiency of the thermostat. After the
machine has been slowly and thoroughly heated,
and then held steady for twenty-four hours at
100° with the thermometer lying on the tray,
the bulb free, you are ready for the eggs.
During the first forty-eight hours do not disturb
them, but as soon as they are in the machine
turn on rather more flame, and get the heat up
quickly to the proper degree, which is 102'^, the
thermometer resting upon the eggs, the top of
the bulb on a level with the top of the eggs. As
soon as the heat is up to 102", see that the
damper-valve is slightly raised, and then turn
down the flame low enough to just hold the
damper up a trifle. If the room is subject to a
sudden fall in temperature, however, adjust the
flame a little higher than ordinary, so as to be
prepared for the emergency, and trust to the
heat-regulator.

" During the first few days, and before the
animal heat develops in the egg, adjust the trays
by raising or lowering, if necessary, so as to
secure the same reading on all the thermometers.
When this is done do not change their elevation
again, no matter what difference may seem to
exist, but change position of the trays daily, in
order to average variations in temperature.

" The first test can be made about the sixth
day, the second on the sixteenth, when if the
development has advanced ,, as it should, the
allantois will have nearly or quite encircled the
embryo, rendering the egg nearly opaque. After
forty-eight hours begin the regular turning twice
a day. Do not jar the eggs, but handle very
carefully. After testing replace the trays so as to

HATCHING DUCK EGGS.

87

keep the •vacant rozvs in front, in which place the
thermometers, which hold at qq*-'. After the
twelfth day you will notice the temperature
rising, with the adjustment as you have held it:
it will now require less flame, and the adjustment
of the damper-valve will need to be altered a
little. The fact is the animal heat is now rising,
and if the machine is full of live germs it will
need close watching. Examine it the last thing
at night, or you may find the heat up to 105" or
more on the eggs in the morning, especially
the third week ; and if this occurs many will
suffer or die in consequence, not immediately,
but lingering along until almost the end of the
hatch, when they finally expire. After the third
week this danger is not so great, as the
animal heat remains about stationary, or declines
a little until exclusion begins, when it increases.
A temperature of 105° or 106'^ is desirable at
this time, and do not let it fall below 103° until
all are excluded. When the last one is dry,
open one of the doors about two inches and
securely fix it in this position, and let it remain
for twenty-four hours, so as to accustom them
to a slightly lower temperature before removing
them to the brooder.

" The only cooling of the eggs that should be
done besides what they get during the daily
turnings, is during the third week, when they
should be cooled down daily till a thermometer
on the eggs in the drawer stands at about 90".
Under no circumstances cool any during the last
week. It may be argued that cooling from the
start is the natural process, which I admit ; but
we must refrain from practising it at any other
time than specified, because we cannot as quickly
restore the incubating temperature as the parent
bird. It often takes us several hours to accom-
plish what she succeeds in doing in fifteen
minutes after resuming her nest.

" Ventilation is the next important question.
The most common and usual practice is to
ventilate to excess for chicken eggs, and add
still more to the duck tgg, because it is larger.
This is a serious mistake. In either case there
should be only sufficient ventilation to keep the
air in the egg-chamber respirably pure, and this
must be admitted in such a manner as to
produce no perceptible currents. A moving
body of air will absorb and carry away all the
available moisture it can gather, and its capacity
for moisture is increased in proportion to its
rise in temperature, and its velocity; hence fresh
air taken into the ventilating flues at a tempera-
ture of 65*^, even if laden to a high degree with
moisture, will on being heated to 103° have a
capacity for more, and will abstract it from its
surroundings until the tension is equalised. In

this way the egg may be robbed of its moisture,
and the embryonic structure suffer in conse-
quence. The Creator has in His wisdom pro-
vided the amount of water necessary for the
proper growth and development of the embryo,
and also for any loss that may arise from
natural evaporation during that period. The
moment we attempt to take any from it by
any means whatever, we rob it of that which it
needs, and it suffers in consequence. Some
writers would have us believe that successful
hatching depends upon our ability to evaporate
the egg to a certain degree in a given time, and
even furnish us diagrams to guide us. A strong
healthy germ will utilise the entire contents of
the egg in its structural development, and the
waste products resulting will be cast off as
Nature provides. This is what should enlarge
the air-bulb ; any other means used to attain
this end are unnatural. Supply only the necessary
oxygen to sustain life, with the proper degree of
heat, and the fundamental conditions are secured,
and the moisture will take care of itself

"A good incubator is very essential to success;
cheap machines, like cheap watches, are unre-
liable, and in the end the most expensive."

Valuable as the above practical hints are,
some experience and judgment are needed be-
fore applying every one of them unreservedly to
circumstances in England. Reference has al-
ready been made (see pp. 79, 80) to the differing
thermometric readings in various machines,
which must be ascertained and allowed for ; and
it is manifest that keeping the temperature at
99° near the glass front, in vacant rows, while it
may be a good and sufficient rule for large
machines built on one general plan, and which
upon an average will have to " test out " a con-
siderable number of eggs, must be very uncertain,
and might be quite wrong, in other cases. It is
of course understood that 99° in such a vacant
position, in the coolest position near the glass
front, is equivalent to a proper heat over the
eggs farther back : but in a small SO-egg ma-
chine, with a spring batch of eggs all or nearly
all of which were strongly fertile, a thermometer
so placed might be nearly up to the egg-tem-
perature, and therefore too low. Intelligent
operators will, however, consider such points as
these, and notwithstanding find hints of value
from such a skilled exponent of American
practice.

It should also be remarked that duck eggs
are, as a rule, longer hatching-out than hen egg.s.
The latter often come out six hours after pipping,
generally before twelve, and seldom later than
eighteen. Duck eggs are, in England, hardly
ever less than twelve, and often twenty-four, and

88

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

even more, hours in getting out. They can, how-
ever, be " assisted " with more average success
than with chicks. It is remarkable that Ameri-
can experience also differs in this respect, strong
duck eggs coming out as a rule more quickly
than with us, so that here again we have to
" level up " to trans-Atlantic practice.

Turkey and goose eggs are also generally
thought to hatch better with a little lower tem-
perature than hen eggs ; but experience in
hatching either has hardly been sufficient to
settle the point with certainty. Experimentally,
both have hatched with entire success ; but it is
not so easy to rear poults artificially as with a
mother, and goose-breeding also appears to
"work" best in the natural way. It is curious
that ostrich eggs are hatched in incubators far
more largely than either. Hydro-incubators
were very early used for this purpose it the
Cape, but have since been superseded by
modern British machines built specially for the
purpose. The Phcenix Ostrich Farm in Ari-
zona, and the Florida Ostrich Farm at Jackson-
ville, in the latter State, use an American
machine ; and, with the aid of incubators,
ostrich culture seems extending.

It does not answer to hatch together eggs
too different in size. One reason is that the
smaller egg not only holds less heat in itself,
but has more evaporating surface in propor-
tion, and therefore dries out the air-cell at a
different rate. In many machines, especially of
the Hearson cool-bottom construction, the tem-
perature of the top side of the large eggs would
be one or two degrees higher than of the small
ones, and this also would impair results.

When a hatch is complete, it is well to open,
air, and if necessary, disinfect the machine.
Thij may need it, owing to dead germs having
been left in too long, and occasioning a musty
smell. Where moisture trays have been used,
they should be scalded with boiling water, and
any earth or sand used in the egg drawers well
baked, to kill any bacteria which may have been
introduced. The trouble of doing this comes
but seldom, and is very little ; it often percep-
tilby affects the next hatch. When a machine
is discarded for the season, if it has a tank,
this should be quite emptied, and the whole ot
the interior carefully wiped and cleansed out.
Hot-air flues and radiating chambers should
likewise be cleared from soot, which is more or
less acid, and if left in cold machines will eat
away the metal.

It may be said, in conclusion, that while
incubators are not for the slovenly, idle, or
capricious, where they are taken seriously and

managed in regular business-like fashion, they
bring out upon an average a better per-centage
of fertile eggs than hens. In America that has
been settled beyond dispute, by averages calcu-
lated from thousands annually. So much is
this the case, that in that country it has worked
a profound revolution in the poultry industry.
Where eggs were formerly sold by the sitting,
the great majority are now sold for hatching at
so much per hundred, while some hatchers con-
tract by the thousand. The effect upon the
spread and popularity of non-sitting breeds has
been enormous upon both shores of the Atlantic.
Upon both sides of that international pond has
also been developed a considerable trade in
newly-hatched chickens, sold per dozen, or score,
or hundred, and sent off to the purchaser before
feeding, at from eighteen to twenty-four hours
old. Such are practical proofs of the undoubted
success now attained in artificial incubation.

At this date it is not necessary to do more
than mention briefly the artificial system of

hatching continuously under hen
Hen Turkeys turkeys which is still carried on
Incubators. t° some extent in France, though

less than formerly, but has not now,
we think, been employed in England for many
years. Mr. Geyelin reported in 1865 that some
of the coitveurs, or professional hatchers in
France, had as many as sixty turkeys sitting
at once, the birds being fetched in from the
yards at any time when desired, placed upon
nest-eggs, and shut down under a lattice cover.
For about forty-eight hours they struggled more
or less to escape, but then settled down, and
afterwards would be kept sitting for three
months or more, the chicks being taken away
and fresh eggs substituted. The birds were
taken off once a day to feed and to clean the
nests ; they ate but little, and became very fat,
and after a time had to be given sufficient food
by cramming. When a bird had been sitting
for some time she could be made into a foster-
mother if desired, being given a glass of wine
at dark, and an hour or two after chickens
placed under her, which she would take to in
the morning.

This system was at one time employed also
by English breeders to a small extent, but it
never appeared so successful as in France,
owing perhaps in part to differences in breed
and climate, but probably more to want of
experience and aptitude, which in France had
been hereditary for generations. Advances in
artificial hatching and rearing have made such
methods — in England and America at least —
now matters of only historical interest

8q

CHAPTER VI.
REARING AND CARE OF CHICKENS.

VVe have seen that Nature has provided the
newly hatched chick, beforehand, with ample
nutriment for at least twenty-four hours. It
suffers little deprivation from thirty-six hours'
abstinence, and for it to partake of food within
less than twelve to eighteen hours after a healthy
hatch, is rather prejudicial than of any benefit.
Considering first a brood hatched at the natural
season under a hen, supposing her to have been
set at night, and that the eggs were fresh and
strong, some of them will have been hatched by
night, and at the final examination the shells
from such will have been cleared away, and the
hen shut in, feeding her, perhaps, if she will take
food. By morning the rest will probably have
hatched, and the whole will be strong and lively.
Unless any unhatched eggs arc valued, and
probably stale, it is generally best to be content
with what are then out ; for the hen will be
getting restless after having had nestlings under
her all night, and any hatched later will be
weaker than the rest. Of course, if the sitting
is variable in age, such a rule might lose half
the brood ; then the best plan is to take away
what are hatched, and keep them in flannel by
the fire while the other eggs are tried out ; or
this is just the time when a small incubator may
be very useful to many who never hatch artifici-
ally upon' system, as it may be heated up in
readiness, and late eggs put in to finish, while
the rest of the brood is not injured. As a
general rule, to keep a hen fussing over a few
unhatched eggs is apt to be prejudicial to
chickens which have hatched in good time,
and may result in " throwing good ones after
bad."

The first thing to do when hatching is over
is to give food and drink to the hen, as much
as she will take. Part of her meal may be barley

or wheat, and part good mash ; or
H^" °^ *^* wheat may be mixed in hot soft

food, and given when cool and a
little swelled. She will be quieter and more
easily managed if thoroughly satisfied at the out-
set after her long fast. Next comes putting her
and the brood out, which is generally the best
plan at ordinary seasons and in fine weather ;

sometimes in co'd or wet weather it is better to
feed the chicks also on the nest, and keep them
there till the warmest part of the day, or even
a whole day if the hen is quiet and will stay
there. The food in such case can be placed on
the front part of the straw, beaten down rather
solid for the purpose ; but care should be taken
that no birds can fall outside on the ground, as
they cannot get back again and may perish.

The best food for the first day we still think
to be hard-boiled egg finely minced, mixed with
equal quantity of stale bread-crumbs,
and slightly moistened with milk.
It has been common to feed for several days
upon this egg-food, but bad results have so often
followed this kind of feeding that it is now dis-
carded after the first, or at most second day, by
experienced breeders. Such continuance usually
causes constipation ; and then from reaction and
want of digestive activity the opposite evil
follows, and the chicks may die. This is the
true history of a great deal of trouble with very
young chickens, though aided in many cases by
constant pampering with tit-bits and dainties.
Egg is indeed very strengthening and useful for
young and weakly chickens, but is better beaten
up raw and used for moistening the food ; or it
maybe beaten up with milk and fed as a slightly
baked custard. In this latter form egg will
often bring on wonderfully the backward ones
of a brood, but should never be given to such
an extent as to make them dainty over plain
diet. The late Mr. John Douglas used to give
custard to his Game and Dorking chickens for
the first meal in the morning till several weeks
old, and attributed their rapid growth to theii
getting this rich diet the first thing in the
morning. He beat up three eggs in half a pint
of milk, and stirred in a saucepan over the fire
till it became a thick curd. The whey was then
squeezed out through a cloth, and the squeezed
custard given at first by itself, and after a few
days mixed with coarse oatmeal. This is the
best way of giving egg-food, and in this form
once a day it has no bad effects.

There are still ignorant people who think it
necessary to remove the pointed scale (provided

TJIE BOOK OF POULTRY.

by Nature as a weapon to break the shell, and
which falls off by itself after a few hours), at the
tip of a chicken's mandible, or put a peppercorn
and a few grits down its throat, or dip the beak
in water to " teach it to drink." Anything of
the sort can do no good, while it often causes
pain, and may do real harm. Play no such tricks
with the young and tender beaks, but simply
offer the chicks food. Some of them will not
care for it, while others may eat a little ; but if
they are fairly upon their legs and look happy,
not the slightest anxiety need be felt about any
which neither eat nor drink the first day.
Nature herself has prepared and provided for
such a state of things.

How the brood is cooped out will depend
upon circumstances. Under a shed with a dry
floor of earth or gravely or the floor of which is
covered with an inch of earth or ashes, the
old crinoline-pattern round basket-coop will
_ answer very well, the shed giving

Coops. 1,117, r I

the shelter. We have often used
several such coops side by side under a shed,
which should open or have a door at the front
to an open run, best of all if a grass run. Where
there is no sucli auxiliary shed, which forms an
important part of most establishments of any size,
the coop itself must be so constructed as to give
sufficient shelter, and such can be made or
purchased in endless variety. The most primi-
tive is that shown in Fig. 51, which we only
illustrate because it is still much used throughout
the poultry-raising districts of Hampshire,
Surrey, and Sussex, and has been extensively

copied from thence in other districts, with mis-
chievous results. It is cheap, easily cut up and
nailed together, and when one is reversed upon
another, two pack in little space. But the
shelter afforded is not nearly sufficient for
ordinary circumstances. It is a form essentially
adapted for roadsides and hedgerows, or under

trees, which give the shelter the coop itself lacks
and where it can be moved daily on to clean
and dry soil. Chickens reared under it in such
circumstances, and at perfect liberty, grow up
healthy and hardy ; but, lacking these advan-
tages, the brood gets wet and the ground damp
and foul, and the results are disastrous. But

-bheUer Coo^_).

even in the districts named this form of coop
is not now used so much as formerly ; and where
shelter and dry soil and unlimited fresh ground
are lacking, we must adopt other means.

The best coop is a weather-tight one, with a
separate raised and internal wooden floor, the
latter, of course, to be covered with soft material
kept clean daily. Nearly forty years ago, in
the early days of our poultry-keepings we
devised for our own use the coop and floor
shown in Figs. 52 and 54. At that time nothing
of the sort could be obtained ; but the merits of
this coop were so self-evident, that it was not only
much copied by other breeders immediately upon
publication of our sketch, but the general design
has been widely adopted, with occasional slight
variations, by all manufacturers of poultry
appliances. Any of these such coops can now be
purchased at a cheap rate ; though these are in
most cases somewhat smaller than we advised.
We preferred, for hen and chickens alike, a
rather large coop, and made all our own two
feet square. The two principal features of this
coop were the internal wooden floor, and the
additional shelter-board in front. The dimen-
sions given will cut up all the wood without
waste and with the least amount of labour ; so
that with the materials at hand, we cut up the
timber and finished three of these coops, per-
sonally, in one Saturday afternoon, with the sole
exception of an external coat of tar, which they
received on the next possible opportunity.

COOPS FOR HEN AND CHICKENS.

91

The materials required are boards half an
inch or more thick, and the usual size of twelve
feet by nine inches ; a few feet of 2 x 3 " quarter-
ing " ; and a few feet of stuff about an inch square
for the corners. Most of the boards are cut each
into six two-feet lengths ; one for each coop
must be cut mto five lengths, for the roof, which
is not only on a slant but is meant to project
a trifle all round over the sides. Each side
requires two whole boards (two feet long) and
a half-board cut diagonally ; the back two
boards ; these are nailed to corner-posts cut off
the inch-square stuff, two pieces of the same
being also nailed across the front at top and
bottom. The roof-pieces are nailed on, slats
cut from one of the same longer boards being
tacked over the joins to prevent leakage. The
fifth longer board makes the loose shelter-board
for the front. This might be hinged ; but we
preferred to make it detachable, driving two
small wire staples into the under side of the
front edge of the roof, into which could be
hooked, or released, two small hooks driven in
the edge of the board. A small wire staj' kept
the bo.ird in position. The front of the coop
can be made of thin slats, one of which is
movable, though we used thin galvanised wire
as shown, because we happened to have a lot
of it on hand, left over from some operations
in a curiously different line of work.

The chief modifications made in this coop
since, relate to the shelter-board, which by many
makers is hinged at the top, and made wide
enough to come down entirely over the front,
and shut all completely in for the night. The
extra width is good, but whenever shutting in
is necessary, , on account of field vermin, it is a
necessary evil, and ample ventilation holes must
be provided. The most complete shelter we

Fig. 53. — "Gamekeeper's" Coop^

have yet met with is provided in one of the
designs supplied by Spratt's Patent under the
name of the "Gamekeeper's" Coop, at a cost
of about 9s. and shown in Fig. 53. In this
coop two side shutters entirely close in the
front when shut and fastened, the slope at their
tops giving a space for ventilation when closed.
The shelter-board is made very wide, and is not
4iinged, but draws out through a loose slide,

falling loosely down so as to rest upon the
opened shutters. There is thus great protection
both against the heavens above and the stro.igest
side-winds below, and such a coop affords
sufficient shelter for the most exposed situations.
There is really more than is necessary for any
that is not exposed.

Fig. 54. — Floor of a Coop.

The other distinguishing point of our coop
was the floor. There can be no doubt at all
that where the soil is dry, and a coop can be
shifted its own width daily on to fresh ground,

no better plan can be adopted.
Dry Floor Especially is such the best way o(
Coops. rearing not only pheasants, but one

or two of the wilder breeds of
poultry, such as Anconas, which seem to pre-
serve somewhat of the same wild constitution.
But cases are rare amongst ordinary people
where this can be done ; and generally other
means must be adopted to ensure a clean and
dry floor underneath the brood when nestling
under the hen. The best method is a raised
inside wooden floor, which we provided for very
simply in the coop figured above, as shown in
Fig. 54. Here three half-inch boards a a are
nailed to pieces of 2 x 3 quartering ^ (^ in the
manner shown, so as not to reach the edges.
If they are cut the proper lengths, it will be
readily seen that the coop fits or sits down
outside this floor, on the space left of the two
timbers. If any of this foundation projects still
farther beyond the walls of the coop at all, it
should be sloped away, so as not to retain any
wet to run under the walls. Such a floor
stands up several inches clear of the ground, and
must remain dry in any weather. The pieces
of quartering are left projecting in front on
purpose, in order that a loose piece of board
may be placed on them in front of the coop,
to serve as a feeding-board for the chickens.

A floor of this kind can be made to fit any
coop of whatever construction, and will save
much trouble. It must be covered with loose,
dry material, which may be earth, or chaff-dust.

9*

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

or peat-rnoss litter. This should be either re-
newed or thoroughly cleansed at least twice a
week. The best way to do this is to rake out all
the litter in the morning, and give each coop a
very slight sprinkle merely to keep the wooden
floor clean. Then in the evening a bed should
be given at least a quarter of an inch deep, or
half an inch would be better. At night the hen
and her charges will settle down, and not,
as during the day, at once proceed to scratch
the newly-made bed outside of the coop. An-
other good plan, perhaps best of all in cold
weather, is to bed on straw-chaff as the top
litter, as this material, besides being warm, can
be easily removed when it becomes fouled.

Cooping the hen with her chickens has been
condemned by some who have written on the
subject without much practical knowledge, and
who have alleged that the " natural " plan of
allowing her to wander at will with them is to
be preferred. We have tried both ways, and
assert without hesitation that this notion is
altogether a fallacy, and that a brood placed
with a hen properly cooped, with a moderate
and fresh grass-run, well sheltered if possible
by a few shrubs, and regularly supplied with
suitable food, will thrive better and grow faster
than if left at liberty. Game and Aseel, in
which size is no consideration, but hardness of
flesh of great importance, may be exceptions,
and do well with free range: but nearly all
hens over-tire their chickens if left to their own
discretion, and from this most chickens suffer
severely, besides being often surprised by
showers where there is no adequate shelter.

After the first meal or two of egg-food, the
chicks will have to be more regularly fed : and in-
deed there is not the slightest need of egg-food at
all. We have reared many which had no food at
first except whole groats (the grain of the oat with
the husk removed, often called " hulled oats "
in America) cut with a knife, and bread-crumb
moistened with milk. Some of the " patent
groats " are as coarse as chopped groats. What-
ever be used, newly hatched broods learn to peck
best and quickest at something ivhite, whatever
it is, according to our experience. They should
be fed partly upon meal food, and partly upon
dry seeds or grain ; and the result of many
/ears' chicken-rearing convinced us that it was
best, for stock birds, if the two
alternated. For fattening and killing
it is different ; but unless there is
plenty of grain food, the chicken's gizzard is
not brought sufficiently into action for really
vigorous health. Indeed many find that they
are more successful in rearing upon dry food
alone for the first four weeks, as mentioned

Diet and
Meals.

on p. 104. In regard to frequency of meals,
at first one should be given every two hours.
This may continue for two or three weeks ;
but by a month at farthest the time should
come down to every three hours or so ; and
at ten or twelve weeks to four times a day.
Chickens will live and grow up very healthy
with less than this ; but we are here discussing
their rearing to become large birds, yet with
health and vigour. More than this interferes
with the latter condition, and it has been proved
does not increase real size.

Food will, of course, change with growth ;
small, tender beaks cannot manage at first what
might be splendid food for grown birds. For
the first start off, perhaps the best soft diet is
a mixture of stale bread-crumb with coarse oat-
meal, which may be moistened with skim milk,
or for the breakfast with the custard before
described. In cool weather even whole milk
may be used, but the skim is better. Sour
milk does not answer for chickens as with
fatting fowls. Where there is no grass run,
upon which chickens soon learn to help them-
selves, green food should be cut up very small
and mixed with this, before the water or milk
is added. Take a good wisp of fresh clean grass
in the left hand, and with strong scissors cut it
off into small green chaff less than a quarter
of an inch long. A teacupful of this, one of stale
crumbs, and one of coarse oatmeal may all be
mi.xed together dry, and will last a large brood
for a day, moistening a little as required.
Rather thick porridge is also greedily eaten ; or
cooked porridge may be mixed with sharps or
a further portion of dry coarse oatmeal. After
a day or two chicken food, prepared in the
form of good biscuit meal,* may be mixed with
the bread-crumb, and next day quite supersede
it ; and as the beaks gain in power, ground oats
may supersede oatmeal, or be given alone, but
is kept more friable with a little biscuit meal.
Later on, sharps and barley meal may come
into use, and any other good change of meals
will find a place, such as sharps and biscuit
meal, or a mixture of bran, oatmeal, and maize
meal. It is during early days that whiter and
softer materials are advisable ; but oatmeal and
ground oats stand out in feeding value to the
end. We would give a special caution against
barley meal for very young chickens ; they
cannot digest the husk, which passes out and
causes irritation at the best, but sometimes

* We here use biscuit me.-il as a general lerni for any of the
prepared foods which 'are baked into rough biscuits and then
granulated. In America, breeders very largely mix their raw-
meals and bake it themselves into what they call Johnny-cake,
which is then crushed, and forms very similar diet.

FEEDING YOUNG CHICKENS.

collects into an impacted mass and causes
death. The same is the case with ground oats
if not properly ground.

Green food must be kept up all through
chicken-rearing. Finely cut grass has been
, already mentioned; if this cannot be
had, cabbage or lettuce may be
minced small and used in the same way. Or
mustard and cress can be kept growing in a
couple of boxes of earth, or a little rape.
Dandelions make excellent green food. We
have occasionally known them refused at first,
but once used to dandelion leaves most fowls
prefer them to all other green food, and they
are so wholesome as to be well worth growing
from seed where many chickens are reared.
Seed may be sown in the autumn, thinning the
plants out, when they come up, to about a foot
apart. Also sow again about March. These
two sowings will last all spring and summer,
and will last two years, when they should be
superseded, in order to keep the leaves tender
and succulent. Care should be taken, where
dandelions are grown, to cut off the flowers
regularly, or the seed will become a nuisance
and pest to all the neighbours. Chopped onions
and leeks are very wholesome, and nettles are
also good, but require to be boiled. Best of all
is a grass run, if clean and sweet. The chickens
will then help themselves when a few days old,
but should have the cut grass or vegetables as
above for nearly a week, until their beaks are
strong. The constant and free use of grass or
other green food is the great safeguard against
bowel complaints in chickens. A free supply
after deprivation will, of course, often cause
diarrhoea ; but a constant and ample supply is
the great and natural regulator of the system,
maintainer of healthy appetite, and prophylactic
against liver disease.

Where space does not allow of a really open
grass-run for chicken-rearing, but is not exces-
sively confined, and the soil is suitable, we have
seen great benefit from an ingenious plan
adopted and described by a correspondent of
Poultry. Two or more frames are prepared — ■
less than three are scarcely worth while — of 2 by 3
inch quartering, two feet wide and three or four
feet long, and covered one side with inch-mesh
wire netting. The ground being first prepared,
is sown with suitable grass and clover seed,
and covered with these frames, the netting
uppermost, and thus raised two inches above
the ground. All is fenced away from the
chickens till the grass and clover under one
frame is sufficiently grown, when they are
allowed access to one, and pick at the green
food through the netting, but cannot trample

Feeding
on a
Boaxd.

it down or scratch it up, and foul it much less
than if allowed to walk over it. When they
have fed down one frame, it is fenced off and
another left open ; then the third, and the rest
if more in number. By this time the first frame
will have made fresh growth, and in this way
much real help may be obtained. We have
also known six-inch strips of ground fenced off
by perpendicular wires i ^2 inches apart, which
allowed the chickens to pluck the grass, but not
to walk upon or contaminate it. Such strips
should be manured (with poultry manure) dur-
ing the winter months.

After trying various methods of feeding, we
still think best of all for the young chickens,
while with the hen, a smooth board in front
of the coop. We always laid this on.
the projecting ends of the timbers in
Fig. 54. Vendors of appliances say
that such boards cannot be kept
clean, or get " sour " ; that was not our experi-
ence during many years. For people who prefer
them, there are all sorts of troughs and other
things. We think it best to rather scatter the
soft food on the bare board, to which it will not
adhere if mixed in a properly friable condition.
After the food has been placed on it, a moderate
time should be allowed for the chicks to eat all
they really care about. Then whatever remains
should be at once removed with the scraper
shown in Fig. 55. This scraper is also the best
implement for cleaning the coops, and should
be freely used. By it all remains of the meal

Fig. 55. — Scraper.

are scraped off the wood into a dust-pan, a little
coarse sand being strewn upon the board after,
a portion of which is meant to adhere to and be
eaten with, the next meal of soft food given.
Many experienced breeders think this sanding

of a board not sufficient, and advise
Chickens ^ ^'"'"^ carefully sifted grit (for which

some of the smaller flint-grit should
be sifted through a wire sieve which will just
allow millet seed to pass easily) to be given
once a day, with one of the soft meals. Much
will depend upon the chicken run. Where this
is ample and grit abounds, to mix it in food can
hardly be necessary. Otherwise it is safe, and
can do no harm, and in a small space is really
needful for the chickens. In all cases, a supply
of small grit should be kept well scattered around
the coop. Our experience has been that a
saucer of it is not sufficient.

94

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

At a later stage, where there is ample range
it is better to avoid all boards and vessels what-
ever, scattering the grain broadcast as it is, so
that none may be bullied out of their share, and
kneading the mash or meal into lumps the size
of cricket balls or a little smaller. These also
are cast about, and break when they reach the
ground ; a ball of meal food that holds well
together, and thus breaks up without sticking to
the ground, is mixed right, and ishow meal food
should be prepared. It is to get this consistency
that we like to add a little sharps, or even maize
meal, to ground oats or oatmeal, which are the
most difficult to mix in a friable state. Such
balls are thrown here and there so long as they
are eaten up promptly, and no longer. But this
method of feeding requires both space and time.
Pans may be used in default of space ; but time.,
to see that they get enough and not too much,
is really necessary to rearing fine chickens. At
the same time, they can be looked over and note
made of any that need attention. Where time
is wanting, it is better to give rather too little
food than too much.

The seed or grain portion of the diet will also
have to be adjusted during the early and tender
days, after which it can be more varied. Whole
groats, chopped smaller wdth a knife
Chickens'^ '•'^^ '^''^'^ '^"'° days, then given whole,
may be varied by such small seeds
as canary and millet with advantage, and such
seeds might indeed be continued rtrt'//i!>2V///;/, were
they not too costly. When millet is fairly cheap
it is worth its price. But after a few days we
can introduce for a change cracked wheat or
barley, or even cracked maize, for young chickens
are so active and grow so fast that, in moderation,
little need be dreaded from maize at this age.
Then they will come on to whole wheat, buck-
wheat, and now and then a feed of dari ; but
there is too little substance in the latter to re-
commend it often. Care should be taken that
chicks do not gorge themselves with wheat, as
it swells in the crop, and may so cause mischief
A little sunflower-seed is much relished at
times, chopped or cut if too large, and is much
safer than hemp-seed, as well as more nourish-
ing. For the reasons already given as regards
fowls, it should be arranged that the last feed at
night consist of dry seeds or grain.

To rear fine birds there is one simple rule.
The meals must be far enough apart for real
appetite to return, but not so far as to check
nourishment ; and enough must be given to
fully satisfy the appetite at that moment, and
no more. The chickens must not really be left
to hunger ; neither must any food be left by
them, after they have eaten what they want. It

is well to gratify the appetite by judicious
changes. Such changes make food to be more
eagerly relished and better digested ; but the
golden secret lies in the above, and in all the
food being nicely prepared.

Early chickens, for either exhibition or
market — let us say if hatched much before the
middle of April — require extra feeding and

attention, to cope with the cold and
at Night ^^^^ shorter days. The meal may

be mixed with milk, or skim milk,
so long as cold weather lasts, or a drink of warm
milk may be given in the morning. Care should
be taken to feed them as soon as ever it is light
enough ; and they should have an extra special
feed by lamp-light, at nine or ten o'clock.
Early chickens especially need this extra feed,
and it makes an immense difference to them.
The first time or two, the hen may have to be
lifted or stirred up ; but they rapidly get to
understand the business, and run eagerly out
from under her as soon as they see the light of
the lantern. Groats or wheat are the best for
these last feeds, and a little may be left for
them to peck at first thing in the morning.

Animal food should not be forgotten, unless
a wide range gives them plenty of insects, when
it is not really necessary, though even then a

portion helps growth, and early lay-

Foo?^ '"S '^ ^§&^ ^""^ '" vis^^'- For the first

week, lean cooked meat finely minced
or shredded is the proper thing, and for a single
brood a small slice from the house, or a piece
about the size of a walnut, cut up very small,
will sufiice. In dry weather this should be
scattered on the ground in front of the coop and
board, that the hen may not get it, and the
chickens may all get their share, and run about
in getting it. Later, any cheap sound stuff
bought for the fowls will do, or one of the many
kinds of granulated dried meat sold as "crissell,''
" meat meal," or by other names. These should
be soaked a little in warm water before being
given, and if any sample should be accidentally
fourd offensive, as may happen to any brand
now and then, it should be discarded. Not till
they are at least a month old should they have
green cut bone, if that is used for the older
fowls ; before that age the latter is apt to cause
bowel disorders, and even then chickens seem
more prone to this result from cut bone than
laying hens appear to be.

In regard to water, where this is given the
best plan is generally to place a small fountain
on one end of the feeding-board, where the hen
can reach it as well as the chickens. Care must
be taken that it is always fresh and clean, and
the fountain shaded, as sun-warmed water is ant

WATER FOR CHICKENS.

95

to cause purging. But an important question
has been raised as to what should be allowed
chickens in the way of drink. The usual plan

till lately has been to let them have
CWck^enr water by them ad libituui, the fresher

and cooler the better ; and we have
shared this general practice with others. There
have, however, always been exceptions to this rule
amongst country rearers, especially some who
have inherited traditions of Game-fowl rearing;
and during the past few years there have been
on several occasions lengthy discussions as to
whether it is not better, for about the first five
weeks, to withhold water altogether, where the
chickens are fed chiefly on soft food, except so
far as fluid may be contained in the latter. A
careful and exhaustive analysis of all that we
have been able to meet with on both sides of
this question, has led us to the conclusion that
the preponderance of experience is upon the
side of withholding water. It is to be remarked
that by far the greater part of what has been
said on this side, consists of actual evidence as
to extremely good results from this mode of
treatment, and in many cases of very great
improvement in rearing after its adoption. On
the other side, a very large proportion of what
has been said against it consisted of mere de-
clamation against the supposed " cruelty." It
need not be pointed out that there can be no
real " cruelty " in any course of treatment which
rears more chickens, if the fact be so. And
when appeal is made to " Nature," and we
begin to think about it, Nature herself is, if
anything, rather on the side of the dry method.
The young of all small birds, at least, are reared
without water. The fowl itself is believed to be
an Indian bird of the jungles ; and in such
localities it is certain that even the old birds can
onlydrink at long intervals, while days must often
elapse before young and tender broods can thus
indulge. How much less can water be really
required where a large portion of the food itself
is mi.xed with fluid, as in our artificial rearing?

At all events, there is a considerable body of
evidence to the effect that a large amount of the
diarrhoea and other bowel complaints of young
chickens is due to unlimited supplies of fluid in
addition to soft food ; and that many have left
off giving fluid with marked advantage. Some
have deprived the chickens of drink entirely for
the first month ; others have allowed one fair
drink in the morning after breakfast (preventing
any excess), and then taken it away, giving the
hen drink separately. The chickens in most
seasons get some drink from the dew upon the
grass, and in these small quantities it is prob-
ably less injurious to them. They can be seen

drinking in this manner; and the fact suggests
that some little should depend upon the season.
Where they are hatched late, and the weather
is hot and dry, such a regimen should not be
insisted upon, especially if fed chiefly upon
grain, though even then we are convinced that
" water by measure" will be the best plan. But
in spring, or where soft food is given largely, we
are disposed to think that no water in addition,
or only one drink after breakfast, and possibly
a few sips, and no more, at night, will be found
the best regimen.

The only actual evidence we have seen of any
evil from this course, was when the objector had
adopted it with chickens a few days or more
old. That is natural : such changes should not
be made with young things of any kind. Those
once accustomed to drink, must suffer by de-
privation : and if any change is made, it should be
very gradually, and not carried to the extreme.
The very worst effects of all are produced by
allowing young birds to drink to repletion after
prolonged thirst. But it has been noticed that
chickens reared on the dry system are much
less prone to this in after life.

We may now pass from feeding to the princi-
pal difficulties in chicken-rearing. Some people
find one of the greatest from cats, which often
make dreadful inroads upon the broods. While
very young, a brood can oe easily
protected by making a few hurdles
of inch-mesh wire netting tacked on light wooden
frames, two feet wide and six feet long being a
handy size. These are easily lashed together
with string to form an enclosed run, covered
entirely in by similar hurdles, and the coop
fronts into this run. They will be quite safe so
far, and can be thus confined for about a fort-
night, provided the whole be moved to a fresh
piece of short grass every day, or at most two
days, or an earth run cleansed conscientiously.
After that they suffer. A single grass-run forty
or fifty feet square, if well mown, attended to,
and managed, will rear in succession a great
many chickens during their tenderest age, and
both in Bristol and London (for we have had
painful experience of the feline tribe) we found
practical protection by enclosing this in a wire
fence six feet high ; only wherever there was
a piece of wall or shed as one of the boundaries,
it was necessary to carry a yard of netting
above that, next the yard, so that the cats had
to do their walking outside of it. They never
seemed to understand, lookmg down as they
did, that they could get over by climbing up
this strip. Out of many former offenders, only
one cat in Bristol and one in London climbed our
netting, and both these met an untimely end —

96

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Insect
Vermin.

not unreasonably, after the pains and expense
we had incurred, and considering that we had
" stood it " to the tune of over a dozen Brahma
chickens. Cats are easily caught in a trap
made just lik-e a box mouse-trap. In two cases,
before our fencing was put up, we found that
energetic treatment from the hose of a garden
engine made more extreme measures un-
necessary. But others braved even that rather
than forego the deHcacy of live chicken.

The more common difficulties in rearing
chickens are insect vermin, bowel complaints, and
curtain affections of the feet and legs generally
knov/n as cramp, the last specially attacking
tiiose hatched at unnaturally early seasons. If
it is understood from the first that all three are
very common dangers, very much will be done
already towards warding them off.

Insect vermin ought not to trouble any
poultry-keeper who only rears a brood or two
in the year. Supposing cleanliness and disin-
fection properly attended to in the
stock and house, he need not be
afraid for any of his hens ; and if a
borrowed or hired one has been set, she should
have been examined and treated beforehand, as
already recommended. Still he should be care-
ful ; and it is as well to give the hen a thorough
dusting with pyrethrum insect powder before
putting her out with the brood. That should
be enough. But as stock is multiplied, it be-
comes more and more difficult to fight the
insect fiend ; and whenever chickens appear
not to thrive and grow while with the hen, yet
no definite ailment can be found, in most cases
the cause lies here, and both hen and chickens
sliould be rigorously examined. They may
probably be found infested with insects of
various kinds, not all amenable to the same
treatment.

Fleas, if found at all, are very unusual,
harbouring more in houses than upon the birds.
Lice are most common, and will be found chiefly
under the wings, on thighs, round the vent, and
round the throat. A thorough dusting in of
insect powder, all over every bird once or twice,
will usually be sufficient, or powdered sulphur,
carbolised,* letting the hen also have access to
sulphured dust-baths frequently. Besides this
the chicks may have just a touch on the places
named, and on the top of the head, with oil or
vaseline containing a few drops of paraffin oil.
This will keep them reasonably free, and lice
are only injurious when in numbers, from the
irritation they cause. Far worse are ticks, which
attack chickens more often than is supposed,

* Powdered sulphur rubbed up with a little carbolic acid,
without losing its apparently dry and powdery condition.

and are believed to reach them not only from
an infested hen, but from other animals. The
tick is a large insect in comparison, which
half buries its head in the victim's skin, and
sucks its blood, both the pain and loss of vital
fluid causing the chick to pine away. Ticks
will not be found, like lice, on the under parts
of the body, but solely on the head, throat, and
top of the neck. Neither do they swarm like lice,
but must be looked for singly and with great care,
every point of head and throat being gone over.
If all can be picked off, it will probably be
sufficient for a single brood, but will take much
time and care ; and it is better to apply a
dressing of one ounce mercurial ointment, two
ounces lanoline, and half an ounce paraffin oil.
This is applied scantily but thoroughly to the
skin over the head, with a touch under the
throat. Some prefer a wash made by boiling
three parts of water, and then stirring in one of
paraffin oil, applying thoroughly with a rag but
not drenching the plumage. When there has
been former trouble with ticks, it is best to
apply the above ointment within the first day
or two, which will prevent trouble. It is to be
remembered that mercury is poison, and though
careful application diluted as above will do no
injury, any excess in quantity might do so.

The red mite, so dreaded in fowl-houses, can
only attack chickens by gross neglect, or if they
are confined at night in the house, as it lives
generally in nooks and crannies, and only visits
the birds to feed. A little oil mixed with one-
fifth part paraffin oil, applied at the neck, under
wings, on thighs, and near the vent, will be
some protection ; but these creatures must be
fought chiefly in the house itself, where they
live and breed. A coop should be quite free,
and easily kept so.

Bowel complaints very often cause loss and

trouble, the more so where many are reared.

The unwise use of hard-boiled egg has already

been alluded to as apt to cause mischief; and

the want of ample and regular green

^™!,io;„t» food is another frequent cause, as is
Complaints. , , ^ , ^ . „ '

also a lack ot sharp grit. Green cut

bone does not necessarily occasion such com-
plaints ; but there are so many cases where it
appears to have done so, that we included it
amongst our cautions. Avoiding these known
occasions of such mischief, bowel complaints
should seldom occur ; but wet or chill, or
occasional sour food, or over-crowding, or un-
known causes, or accidental circumstances, may
notwithstanding set up a diarrhoea, which is
disastrous if not checked at once. In any case
it should be treated immediately. Very young
chickens often get quite plastered up around

CRAMP IN CHICKENS.

97

the vent, causing much distress, and death
unless relieved. Such should either be washed
or the dry matter picked off, bringing the down
with it, after which the part should be well
greased with vaseline to prevent adhesion. For
mild cases it is often enough to give a feed or
two of rice boiled in milk, rather dry but not
hard. When known to be caused by wet or
chill, a drop of camphor essence at every feed
is often of the greatest service. More serious
cases are best treated by chlorodyne, giving
two drops for a three days chick, up to five
drops for ten days or a fortnight, every two
hours for a few doses, then every three hours
till distinctly convalescent. Meantime the diet
and surroundings will be carefully examined,
and anything that seems wrong effectually
remedied.

Cramp, as it is called, is specially found in

the case of early chickens, but includes several

complaints more or less distinct. The symptom

common to all, is failure of power in

Cramp in ^j^^ ^ ^^.jjl^ ^^ without swelling.

Chickens. ° . . , , ^,

or contraction of the claws. The
limbs seem to get stiff and weak, and the chick
rocks or rolls in its gait. Then the claws may
so flex, that walking takes place on the knuckles
if at all ; finally death ensues. Whole broods
are lost in this way. The connection with cold
or wet in early seasons is plain enough as a
general rule ; and when these are the sole causes
it is simply a case of rheumatism, to be treated
by warmth, gentle friction of the limbs and
claws, and hot bathing of the limbs, with any
of the stimulating liniments advertised in the
newspapers, and a grain or two, twice a day
for each chick, of salicylate of soda. But this
simple case rarely occurs, and if it docs is such
a symptom of debilitated constitution, that cure
for the time is scarcely desirable ; birds so
delicate are better dead before they can pro-
pagate their weakness.

There are other cases in which the chickens
have run upon a wooden, or brick, or stone
floor. Here the connection with the season is
indirect : the chicks were confined for protection
upon these hard and even floors. This strains
the muscles, and the result is a sort of cramp,
in the true sense of that word. The only remedy
in such cases is ample loose material, at least an
inch deep, over the entire hard floor, an open
run outside, and keeping them short enough of
food to make them run constantly. The soft
floor, open runs, and the actual running are the
main points, and, if taken in fair time, will
generally cure. In these cases there is not neces-
sarily constitutional weakness to be dreaded.
Mere dry cold is not at all a drawback to rearing

chickens : it is wet or wind that does mischief.
In Scotland and America, where the cold is far
greater than in England, greater average size is
attained, though more food is consumed ; and
excessive heat in summer will do more harm
than cold in spring.

But the greater number of cases are distinct
from either of these, and are due largely to over-
feeding, especially if much meat be given. Thi?
cause may be no doubt aided by too much
coddling, or a hard floor. The latter may tend
towards the real cramp noticed above, while
overfeeding accumulates poison in the system,
and the birds are lazy, and take no exercise to
work it off. It is more like gout than anything,
in reality ; and every doctor knows that rheu-
matism and gout are close allies, both being con-
nected with accumulation of uric acid in the
tissues. Here, too, the connection with cold
and wet is indirect. The chicks get more and
richer food to withstand it, and are lazy and
chilly, and nestle more under the hen than they
would in warm weather. Hence the mischief
The salicylate will be the best medicine, com-
bined with two or three grains of Epsom salts,
or potass bicarbonate ; and rubbing with lini-
nient, best of all one containing turpentine,
with flexing and working the claws, will help.
But the only real remedy, and the practical
preventive, is plenty of running about ; and
the food must be scanty enough to make them
run, and come out to search for it. This kind
of cramp has often carried off chicks kept
altogether in a warm box. It constantly
attacks those packed into a greenhouse. If such
chicks 2Sf taken in time, and put out in the air,
in an open run, but with dry ashes or peat moss
under foot, and kept just enough starved to
make them hungrily active, the cramp disappears;
it is gout from overfeeding and laziness. Very
young chickens, up to five weeks old, should
have the best of food, and be sedulously at-
tended to, but always kept hungrily active.
Such birds are not attacked by cramp, unless
the victims of hereditary weakness or disease.

A brood or two, with proper care, may thus
be steered through the dangers of early chicken-
hood ; but where many are to be reared, a word
of caution is required as to the
Grownd urgent necessity for f/^rt« _^r(7z/;/</. If

broods are brought up in succession
upon the same spot, the later ones do not thrive
like the earlier ones, and may show a kind oi
falling away that seems unaccountable. The
reason is that the ground is tainted. Much can
be done by arrangement and care; placing coops,
not too close, upon a broad strip of hard gravel
or earth, whose surface is rigorously scraped

CjS

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

clean. The hard ground will take much of the
wear and the droppings, and greatly preserve
the grass beyond it. It is better still to have,
at the other side of the grass run, another such
piece of hard earth or gravel, and to use this
alternately with the other, which can be disin-
fected and covered over in the meantime. A
run entirely of hard earth, with plenty of arti-
ficial green food, gives less anxiety in this
particular way, because it can be regularly swept
with hard bristles, scraped, or pared, and dug up
now and then. For six years we hatched fifty
lirahmas annually, and reared them through
chickenhood until the wasters could be picked
out, under a shed six feet wide and twenty-two
feet long, with an earthen run twenty-two feet
square. They were as healthy the last year
as the first. But we had the danger ever before
our eyes, and averted it by the most sedulous
care.

At a period from four to ten weeks after

hatching, the hen will seek to be rid of her

charges, and what is best to be done will

. depend upon age and circumstances.

If they are well fledged, and of light
roosting breeds, she may have a perch two or
three feet high, and they may fly up to her ; for
a night or two she will partially brood them on
the perch, and they will know what to do when
she is taken away. The heavy breeds are
generally best left to sleep in their old coop,
where they will nestle together, and will be
\i'arm enough at ordinary seasons. Or any
large bo.x turned on its side and well bedded
with dry earth or peat moss, cleaned regularly,
will answer for a sleeping coop under a shed.
Small houses and coops are also sold ready
made for the use of chickens at this age. In
cold weather the sleeping-place should be en-
closed all round, and well bedded with clean,
straw chaff. If straight breast-bones are
desired, chickens of large breeds should not be
allowed to roost until well matured ; but this
question will be further discussed when treating
of stock designed for exhibition.

As they grow up, the chicl^ens wifl either be
nb.sorbed into the other stock of a small
establishment, or in larger have to be moved

away to make room for other
■'^^'^'"S-out younger ones, and sorted out. In
Chickens. the former case they may still be

given extra food by the use of an
open wire feeding-coop, in which the special food
is placed, the chickens alone being able to get
through the wires. In the latter case they will
be transferred to runs, and it is best, if con-
venient, to separate at the same time the cockerels
from the pullets. Unless this is done, the heavy

breeds never grow so large ; and, moreover, a lol
of cockerels thus put together early will agree
perfectly and give no troubie. An old cock, by
the way, may be put with a batch of cockerels
whenever breeding is over. He will keep order,
and be far happier and more contented than
if penned up alone. If, on the otlier hand,
early eggs are an object, the pullets may
have a cockerel allowed to remain with them.

Supposing sufficient accommodation, each
flock should be made up of birds not very
different in age ; otherwise, the smaller get no
fair chance, and the food itself may not suit
all alike ; certainly feeding times will not. Care
must be taken not to slight any of the older
ones for the sake of the younger, but to see that
there is no check in their progress. If specially
good results are desired, now is the time really
to study the question of diet for them ; for
instance, pushing cut bone or meat if early size
in cockerels or early laying in pullets is desired,
or perhaps checking it if combs have to be kept
small or moderated. The food should be most
carefully prepared, and judiciously varied. But
the old rule of preserving appetite must still be
followed, or disappointment may follow the
most liberal diet.

In some circumstances considerable aid may

be obtained in chicken-rearing of the larger

breeds from the use of bone-dust, or dry bone

„ , . meal, such as is used sometimes in
Bone-dust. .' , „, . . ,

pottmg plants. I his is not to be

confounded with green cut bone, and its effects
are totally diff'erent. The fresh bone, as animal
food, hastens laying and maturity. Dry bone
meal rather postpones both, if anything, and is
chiefly valuable as supplying in an assimilable
form bone-making material to fast-growing
youngsters, thus assisting sturdiness and pre-
venting leg-weakness. It is also found a very
perceptible preventive of diarrhoea ; and the
careful experiment recorded in Chapter II. has
shown its value in supplying mineral salts in
cases where much animal food may be undesir-
able. About an ounce of bone meal may
be mixed with each half-pint of dry cereal
meals before mi.xing, the fineness being that
of medium oatmeal. Our old friend Mr. John
Stuart, of Helensburgh, first taught us the value
of bone meal used in this way, and since that time
many have proved it. We do not mean that it
is in any way necessary to small or moderate
sized fowls, or to any ranging over wide fields ;
but to the great races, reared in confinement, and
so peculiarly subject to leg-weakness when so
reared, we do know that bone meal is of the great-
est use. Burnt bone ground up has not the same
effect in all respects. It retains the phosphates,

CHICKENS IN SUMMER.

99

but cither in this form they are not so well
assimilated, or for some other reason the same
good effects do not follow.

Season also requires study in successful
chicken management. Valuable as milk is, so

long as it can be taken with appetite,
Shade in in hot weather it seems to sicken
Summer. many chickens, and should be left

off in their food, though perfectly
sweet skim milk may still be given in food, or
for drink in the early morning, but taking
special care that any drinking vessels so used
are kept absolutely clean. Above all, special
care should be taken to provide shade, hot sun
being most prejudicial to vigour and growth. Of
course, living shade is far the best. Where there
are no trees or shrubs, creepers on the fence will
add to the utility as well as beauty of the
chicken run, and are in foliage just when they are
wanted ; sunflowers also grow rapidly, and give
a great deal of shade and root-scratching, as
well as excellent food rather later on. While
little, chickens do a vast deal of good and no
harm amongst bush-fruit. Much can be done
in these ways ; lacking them, artificial shelter
must be provided, or the growing chickens will
suffer, in growth as well as plumage. The house
and shed may have such an aspect as to suffice,
in which case the birds will gladly resort there
dunng the heat of the day. l'"ailing that, coarse
linen or sacking may be stretched on sticks like
a tent ; or four sticks can be driven into the
ground to stand out about a foot, and on these
the corners of a hurdle may be laid, to be
covered by fern, or branches, or straw ; the
chickens will get under this when the weather
is hot, and upon it when cool, and enjoy it
generally. In a confined run, such a shelter
platform practically increases the area available.
In yards where numbers of chickens are
reared, about or soon after the middle of the
summer they often appear to flag, or almost
to cease visible growth. One such
Ciiickens stage almost always occurs, when
Fia-ging.''^^ the first plumage is about com-
pleted ; but this is merely Nature's
pause after the effort of feathering — life and
vigour are not aff'ected by it, and growth is soon
resumed. What we here refer to is at a larger
and later stage, and is not universal. The
exceptions are such as grow up upon a farm,
or other free range ; these do not suffer in that
way, but march on making frame, and grow up
quite as large, though not while young so heavy
in flesh, as those fed in limited runs, which are
the subjects of the flagging here referred to.
One cause of it is sheer Dionotony, which animals
feel as much as we do, and is the reason why

fowls will not walk and run about in a confined
place as much as on a farm. They know every
inch of ground ; there is no change ; and they
get listless, walk over it less and less, become
torpid and perhaps too fleshy ; all which is ver/
good for table, but not for health and vigour in
stock birds. Besides that, the run has gradually
been getting tainted ; not perhaps oflensively
so, or even to a degree actually poisonous ; still
it affects the air close to the ground, where the
fowls live, more than higher up where we breathe
it ; and though not perhaps poison, the difference
is as great as between fresh country air and that
of the crowded part of a great city. Disinfect-
ants cannot help us much, except that in very hot
and dry weather copious watering with sodium
or potash permanganate occasionally, really will
supply actual oxygen to both ground and air,
which is what we want. The real remedy is
change to fresh air, just as it is with ourselves.

Such a crisis generally comes in average
moderate yards just about the time when it is
imperative, if not done weeks before, to separate
cockerels and pullets. It is partly on this
account that the experienced breeder makes
every possible effort to provide by that time
izvo fresh and sweet runs lor these — runs which
have been vacant long enough to be sweet and
pure. If these can be grass runs, with a few
trees or shrubs, he knows how the birds, when
once removed there, will appear to spurt ahead.
It is not only the freshness; but the place is
j/ezu to them, and they tramp all about it with
renew^ed zest, which will last them till they have
passed the most susceptible age. But even fresh
and sweet bare runs will give an apparent fresh
start, if attended to, numbers rigorously weeded
down, and the birds not over-fed. It is still a
cliange ; it is fresher than where they came from ;
and the droppings of a few selected larger birds
are easier swept up and removed than those from
many small chickens. The breeder who knows
things, makes the best in this way of his limited
space, if it is limited, and takes care not to
grapple with more stock than he can manage in
some such manner.

We need not follow the rearingof ordinary stock
any farther, and the special care of birds destined
for exhibition will be more fully and appropri-
ately dealt with in a later chapter. Chickens
reared for other purposes will be either gradually
drafted into the older stock, or in larger numbers
be placed in lai-ger or smaller flocks, with a house
to sleep in at night, larger than a coop, but
which need not be so large as an ordinary fowl-
house. So long as growth is proceeding they
should be still fed oftener and more liberally
than adult poultry, but otherwise they will give

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

no trouble, and need no further consideration
in this chapter. If it is intended to fatten them
for market, it is of considerable importance to
rear them to a considerable extent upon the
Sussex form of ground oats, which they will
then receive ; if they are not so reared, it is
found that when the time for fattening arrives
they do not improve to the same extent.

Chickens may have to be artificially reared
even if hatched under a hen : but for the
immense number now hatched in incubators,
so greatly increased owing to the popularity
of non-sitting breeds, artificial brood-
s'^'din^ ing is obviously indispensable. The
growth of artificial rearing during
recent years has been remarkable, and is
shown by the number of appliances now ex-
hibited at every large poultry show. The
choice of method will be greatly governed by
circumstances. The rearer of sitting breeds
will need to keep his best hens sitting, and
with chickens to some extent, or their vigour
may suffer; and, on the whole, the natural
method will generally best suit operations in
a small way, if sitters are at command. With
non-sitters it is different ; and, moreover, the
large breeder will prefer methods which
enable him to carry out his plans at fixed
times, independent of the caprice of his hens.
He will also appreciate the fact that incubator-
hatched and artificially-reared chicks have a
great advantage over others, in starting free
from vermin.

For sudden emergencies, at ordinary seasons,
such as April and May, a quite cool or un-
healed brooder will often suffice, and can be
quickly extemporised in several ways. We
reared a brood of eight, whose mother had died,
on one occasion, by tacking a piece of sheep-
skin mat, about 14x10 inches, all round the
edges alone, to a piece of board, supported on
a strip of board at the back and two pegs at
the front corners. When placed in position
the wool mat sagged down in the middle,
and the chicks nestled against it, the pegs keep-
ing the front higher than the back. One of
the chickens, however, hanged itself in the wool,
and it would be better to cut the skin into pieces
an inch square, and sew them on a canvas at
inch intervals, which would allow free passage.
If such a coverlid were tacked to a skeleton
frame instead of a board, a rubber hot-water
cushion, well wrapped in flannel, could be
laid on it at night when required ; or the cold
brooder, on a shallow tray of peat-moss, could
be brought into the house in severe weather.
At one time and another we have known many

chicks reared with such simple appliances as
these, but they are, of course, only sufficient
for fairly late broods. There is far less need
for them now, when a post-office order will
bring a proper apparatus at any time by
return of post, than in the days when we
e.xperimented with such matters.

The first efficient heated brooder sold in
England was brought out in 1S73 by Mrs.
Frank Cheshire, a successful exhibitor of light
Brahmas, who reared all her own stock in this

way and by preference, though with
Brooders ^° many sitters at her command.

Its construction will be sufficiently
explained by Fig. 56. The top was a zinc tank

Fig. 56. — Mrs. Cheshire's Coverlet Brooder.

A B, about an inch deep, closed except for
a filling and vent aperture, and supported on
a light frame, so as to be on a slant. The
lower edge of the tank descended round a flue
E, encased by the water, and heated at one
end by a small lamp, and in the upper portion
one or two partitions ©r baffles were soldered
in such a way as to keep up a circulation in
the heated water. Under this heated tank
was slid a separate light frame of wood made
to fit, roofed with canvas, to which were sewn
the top ends of strips of flannel K, about 2%
inches long and three-quarters of an inch wide.
These, warmed from the top, formed the brooder,
set as usual upon dry earth. The chicks were
kept for the first day or two in a small nursery,
consisting of an open-topped box floored with
earth or ashes, at one end of which was placed
a much smaller hover or brooder made of
flannel strips in the same way, and warmed
by a rubber cushion-bottle of hot water. Here
they learned to run in and out, before being
transferred to the larger brooder.

Several breeders used this apparatus, and
we reared all our own chickens by it one season,
with quite good results. But the second year,
when most of the work had to be left to others,
many died and the rest did not thrive ; and
others had very similar experience. Much of
the failure was traced to want of sufficient and
constant care in deodorising the apparatus:
it required to be daily turned upside down,
clean, dry earth well shaken into the flannel

TYPES OF BROODERS.

strips, and so left for some honrs exposed to
the air before the earth was shaken out again.
We found also that the heat was too great ;
not, perhaps, as now reckoned and practised,
but in the circumstances. With the aid of
our many friends and correspondents we were
able to make an exhaustive investigation ; and
it soon appeared that the best results were
always accompanied by the lowest recorded
temperatures, even though, in some cases, the
chicks showed evident signs of being somewhat
chilled ; in spite of that they did the best, and
lived when others died. We know now that the
real reason was want of circulation and venti-
lation of the air ; it was entangled amongst the
flannel strips, and the foul, re-breathed, con-
fined air simply sweated and murdered them,
at a temperature which might not have been too
great with purer atmosphere. We mention
facts now only historical for the important
lessons they convey.

For these reasons chiefly, brooders of the
" coverlet " kind have now almost everywhere
gone out of use. They were, however, and
can be, made efficient. The later and more
successful ones were constructed so that the
nestling cover was lowest in the centre, rising
all round, on all sides, like the conve.K body of
the hen, and with tufts of sheepskin, or loosely
spun thread lamp-wick, instead of flannel strips.
A very efficient one, which was rather widely
used for a time, consisted of such a nestling
cover szviing by cords from a hook above, which
moved and swayed a little with the motions of
the chicks, thus increasing the circulation of
air. A coverlet thus made and slung, with
a hot-water rubber bottle wrapped in plenty of
flannel laid on top, as we can state from
personal knowledge, makes a very efficient
apparatus, from material always at hand except
the rubber bottle, which can generally be got
at any chemist's shop ; such expedients may
therefore save a valuable brood on occasion.
Heat might be kept up longer and more
uniformly by adopting the principle of the
hydro-incubator before described, filling the
rubber bottle only very slack with hot water,
and bedding on top of this warm bottle fresh
stone bottles — say a couple of common ginger-
beer bottles — filled with boiling water, renewed
at intervals, covering the whole with thick
blankets. The heat from the hot bottles will
gradually percolate downwards through the
other.

All such brooders should, as scrupulously
as others, be placed upon half an inch of dry
earth or sifted ashes, renewed daily, or upon
peat-moss litter. They can only be used out

of doors when placed beneath a shed or other
shelter ; unless enclosed, like those presently
described, in a much larger hutch or shelter,
to screen them from the wind, and to provide
a shelter for the chicks when they need this,
but do not actually crave the heat of the
apparatus itself. The coverlet portion must be
regularly deodorised and disinfected in the
way already described, and an occasional fumi-
gation with sulphur or chlorine is very advis-
able, as the coverlet material, whatever it is,
is specially likely to retain various microscopic
disease-germs.

At the present day, and where artificial rear-
ing is seriously intended, it is found much the
best to rear the chicks in a chamber sufficiently

heated, but with nothing touching
Modtra^ their backs. Practice chiefly differs
Brooders. ^s regards the degree to which heat

is specially radiated from the top, or
more evenly diffiised ; in whether it is at all con-
fined or not under a " hover," as distinguished
from an actual coverlet ; and in the method of
heating. The varieties made can readily be
classified into certain types, of which it will be
most useful to give in mere diagram the general
type-forms.

•;:z;i;:;;;:i!::;:;;;:::

' 1

cffir-^

(

H P

tHTn

C H

n

SPACE

UNDER

CHAMBER

I'"ig. 57. — Circulatory Systeir.

That indicated in Fig. 57 is more common in
America than England. As here shown, the
heat from the lamp L passes through a loop of
hot pipes II P back- to a flue at F, radiating heat
to the chick-chamber C II from above, but from
such a height that the chicks cannot touch.
Sometimes this kind of brooder has been fur-
nished with a thermostat and heat regulator, but
this is not usual. In England, brooders of this
class are more usually constructed with a water-
tank at the roof of the chick-chamber, through
which the flues pass and heat the tank : this has
the appreciable advantage that if the lamp goes
out, or blows out, the brooder will retain warmth
for some hours. This makes a tank safer for
some mexperienced poultry-keepers, but
amongst experienced rearers such an occurrence
ought not, of course, to happen. Or the flues
may pass through a hot-air radiating chamber.
The general type may be defined as that in
which the heat of the lamp circtdates through

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

heated flues, and only radiates heat from above
the chicks.

The type shown in Fig. 58 may be regarded
as in some degree a simplified form of the fore-
going, and in various modifications is rather

Fig. 5S. — Hot Radiating Chamber.

common. Here the heat from the lamp L
ascends direct through a sheet-iron drum or
large flue D, into a flat, extended hot-air chamber
above, from which it escapes through an upper
flue not in line with the lower one, so that the
heat may be more effectual before escape. The
chick-chamber is thus heated partly from the
drum D as a centre, but chiefly from the top ; and
round the drum D is usually fixed at a little
distance a wire-gauze guard G, to keep the chicks
from touching the hot sheet-iron.

Still further simplification is effected in what
may be called the " radiator " type, which is
perhaps most common of all. Here the heat
passes up a flue D as before, usually smaller,
but protected as before by a wire guard G,
and straight up through the e.xit flue. But in

X\

^a

'.'■l'W.i.u.V..VTOSW..Wf.w

Fig 59- — Flue and Radiator.

metallic connection with the central flue is the
radiator R, a circular disk of sheet-iron, extending
over the top of the chick-chamber C H, and
which is also continued through the flue itself as
a perforated sheet at E, thus " choking " the flue
there, and absorbing heat from the lamp. Thus

the radiator becomes heated, and radiates
warmth downwards as before (Fig. 59).

Finally, in some brooders, the central drum
or flue D in the above is entirely done away with,
and we have merely a lamp in the centre, pro-
tected by a wire guard G, as in Fig. 60. We
give this diagram in a form that represents
a well-known type of brooder, where the
wire guard G is somewhat narrowed in at the
top to direct the lamp fumes into the flue above,
and on the top of it rests a sheet-iron disk or
radiator R, perforated in the centre to allow the

Fig. 60. — Central Lamp.

hot air to pass upwards, as in the preceding
figure. Here the sides of the chick-chamber
C H are circular and of porous material, which is
the special feature of this brooder, but the other
parts of this arrangement are very common.
There is a difference of opinion about the advis-
ability of the light from the lamp thus reaching
the chick-chamber at all times. It is said, on
the one hand, that the chicks can thus " see to
feed." We do not think it desirable, but very
much the other way, that chicks should be accus-
tomed to feed at all within the zvanned portion
of the brooder ; we rather want to get them out
on every possible occasion, which is defeated if
we at all accustom them to expect food there.
Of more importance, probably, is the fact that
Nature has very evidently arranged darkness for
the period of sleep ; and we therefore believe
that light at an unnatural time must levy some
tax upon the nervous energy of those subjected
to it. On that account we think this type
inferior to the preceding, to which it can be
readily converted by any who possess it and
who share our views : it is only needful to intro-
duce a dark drum, such as a tin canister with
the ends removed, inside the wire guard.

Another occasional modification of both
these types requires a few words. in America,
more often than in England, a short curtain ot
cloth, cut at the bottom into strips, is often
attached to the circumference of the circular
radiating plate, as shown later in Fig. 61. This

CENERAL PLAN OF A BROODER.

103

prevents the heat from escaping so rapidly
to the top of the chamber and outer air, and
makes a warmer brooding place for the chicks.

Such a curtain, reaching to within
Curtains -^p, ;,^(-]^ q(- ^-^^ lloor, has another
Hovers. "^se, in that chickens instinctively

seek to " go under " something ; and
It also locates the brooding place for them.
These are good points. On the other hand,
such a curtain confines the air, and causes
some of it to be re-breathed, than which no-
thing can be worse. The result of American
experiences, according to which health was
improved by ventilating the " hovers " of
brooding houses, and recent developments in
doing away with hovers and curtains altogether,
appear conclusive to the effect that it is better
either to dispense with curtains, or if retained
for the sake of their instinctive help to the
chicks, that they should be copiously ventilated
by ])lenty of free apertures all round the top.

Only one other type requires notice, shown
in Fig. 61. Here the heat impinges upon
the metal roof C of a large lamp-chamber,
which we have here shown with a .rmall central
flue F, the best form in our opinion, though
by no means universal. This is at some little
distance from a sheet-metal lining under the
bottom of the chick-chamber, which has a
large aperture in the centre from which rises
a short drum, or flue, surrounded by a

I- ig. 61. — Vemilatinf; I'ype.

uire guard G, as in the former diagram.s.
The outer air enters through the spaces S S
between the two sheets of metal, is thus
warmed, and passes up the drum against a
metal radiator, as shown by the arrows. The
radiator is here shown with a curtain, as de-
scribed above. In brooders of this construction
the wooden floor above the metal lining becomes
gently warmed for the feet of the chicks, and
jiure, warm air is poured gently down over their
backs, while the lamp fumes pass out altogether.
With various minor modifications, this general

construction appears rather a favourite one in
America for single out-door brooders, and is
also used in England.

Whatever the type, the general arrangement
is pretty common to all, and experience has
shown it to be desirable. The brooding or
warming portion itself is in all our
General Plan diagrams supposed to be seen end-
Brooders, ways, and should, in reality, occupy
one end only of a chamber about
double the length. Thus, besides the more
heated part, there is the other end farther from
the heat, where the chickens can have a warm,
but still cooler temperature. This part should
have a window. They can then to a great
extent suit themselves, and in brooders of
modern construction usually do so. This much
is sufficient for what are called in-door brooders,
or more properly, such as are meant to be
used under a shed, or other adequate shelter.
Where this is not the case, another and outer
apartment becomes necessary, roofed over at
least, and all the better if the roof is glazed,
but with one side, or front, open-netted. In this
the chicks have a slielter from biting winds and
rain, and need only run into the brooder when
they really require warmth. In such an outer
shed they should always be fed, when not fed
in the open air itself; it constitutes, in fact,
their scratching shed and shelter when they
have no other, and should have all the constant
care and cleanliness of such a shed, but in higher
degree. There may be, besides, an outer run
only wired over, but this will depend upon cir-
cumstances, such as cats or vermin. A brooder
thus further furnished becomes what in England
is called an " out-door rearer " complete, and
many forms of such can be seen at the principal
poultry exhibitions. The reader will be able
readily to refer any of them to some one of
the t)'pes above.

In arranging a brooder for work, people
differ. The floors of most are necessarily
raised, owing to the requirements of the lamp,
and this also keeps them. dry. Some prefer
to have an inclined chick-ladder or gangway
sloping from the entrance to the ground ; others
prefer to excavate a hollow, and place the
brooder in it so that things are on the ground
level. This has some advantage in shielding
the lamp from winds ; but on the whole the
other is best, especially for changing ground
every now and then, and it is easy to arrange
a sheltering board if required. A complete
" rearer " goes all together on the ground, of
course, and in it the lamp is perfectly shielded,
and storm-proof from all e.xcept flooding.

Ill regard to choice of a brooder or of a rearer,

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

we will only give one special piece of advice,
and that is to choose one which has a thoroughly
reliable lamp, and adequate ventilation. A
poor lamp means endless trouble and disaster.
The Stemp wicks are now generally used in all
brooders, and entirely obviate the need for
trimming throughout the brooder-life of a lot
of chicks. This little practical advance in
lamps has saved at one stroke, as in incu-
bators, a great deal of trouble and vexation.

As regards feeding and general management,
brooder chicks will not require any marked
difference in treatment, at least as a rule, or while

all goes well. The first thing to
Temperature attend to is the heat, and it has to
Brooder. tie borne in mind that while a hen

cannot be either too warm or too
cold for her charges, the brooder may easily be
either. The greatest care should especially be
taken that there is no cliill to the chicks in
removing them from the incubator or nursery to
the brooder, which must be heated up all ready
for them. We have seen repeatedly, that even a
slight chill just then may give no end of trouble
in all sorts of ways, but is especially apt to cause
diarrhoea, which when thus started early, weakens
them terribly and may never be recovered from.
More heat is desirable in any of the modern con-
structions with free air-space, than was possible
under nestling material. The novice should at
first use a spare thermometer, and by this the
heat at first, in winter or spring, when the
chickens are in, should be about 90"^. But after
about two days this should be reduced to 85°,
and by a week later to about 80°. For later
broods, if at all warm, less will do, but in cool
weather they like warmth. After the first start
their behaviour should be watched, and if they
crowd up to the heat, all together, a little more
will be advisable ; if, on the other hand, they
prefer to be at the entrance, or far off the heat,
reduce it a little. The thing is, not to run up
the heat to a sweating pitch when only a little
more seems required, as is very easily done.
When experience has been gained, the thermo-
meter will not be needed, and the feeling by
hand, and observation, will be sufficient guide.
The chicks ought, in early broods, to be glad
to go in at proper intervals, but soon come out
again ; and to lie about comfortably, without
either panting, or over-much crowding together.
Two or three very weakly chicks will sometimes
start a habit of crowding, which then works much
mischief : for this reason it is better to kill at
once any weakly chick that shovv's any such dis-
position, for the sake of the others. The first
day, the young chicks should be confined almost
to the brooder proper, a little wire screen, or

pieces of board, being arranged so as to give them
a run of a few inches only from the entrance.
Once or twice they may even need guiding a
little through it. The second day a little more
scope may be allowed. Generally, after that they
will know their way, but brooders diff'er in the
facility with which the entrances are found and
entered at first.

The chief chicken complaints will be the
same as already mentioned, with the exception
of insect vermin, from which the chicks ought to
be quite free. The others are very apt to become
emphasised when chicks are reared by this
method, under any error in respect of tempera-
ture. A chill will almost always set up

diarrhoea ; and, on the other hand.
Feeding ^qq much heat will do the same,

Management, while it also increases the tendency

to " cramp," the general causes and
prevention of which have already been treated.
It may also, and often does, cause pneumonia
from subsequent e.xposure. Particular care
should be taken that brooder-chicks are fed,
during the warm stage of their career, some-
what on the side of a spare diet. They will
be none the worse in the end, and we can state
positively that this simple course will often save
an infinite amount of trouble. A small pan of
granulated charcoal is also a valuable preventive
of bowel complaints ; and with brooder-chicks,
a little chicken-grit mi.xed in one feed a day is
decidedly advisable.

There is not only less tendency to diarrhoea,
but a great many breeders find that they succeed
better altogether with their chickens if the latter

are brought up entirely upon dry
Feeding /('('<-/ for the first three or four weeks,

and even longer. Many poultry-
farmers in America rear their chickens altogether
in this way, and prefer it, but such a thorough
system is no doubt better adapted for the lighter-
built laying breeds than for the heavier class of
fowls. The " dry feed " mi.xtures which are
being more and more advertised and sold every
day answer very well ; but on a large scale
it is cheaper to prepare the feed at home. The
first day or two the chicks do very well on coarse
oatmeal or cracked groats and millet, with a
little granulated biscuit-meal ; then a mi.xture of
whole groats or hulled oats with millet and
canary-seed and cracked dari may be used.
Very soon cracked wheat and maize and dari
can be given, and the more expensive seeds
withdrawn ; but a little sunflower is always
valuable. American breeders often keep one
hopper always full of cracked maize and
wheat, and another of " beef scrap " or granu-
lated dried meat of some kind, and they

CAUTIONS ABOUT BROODERS.

105

find the chickens grow well when fed in this
way, with a minimum of trouble. It is found
that they do not take more of the meat than
they require.

The food should be given outside the hover
on every occasion ; and although at first, in
severe weather, or for a day or two, feeding in
the outer chamber or end of the chamber may
be allowed, as soon as possible it should be
always in the open air. To get them out is a
main object to keep in view, and chicks that
will not come out freely at feeding-time are in
a bad way. However little food it may seem,
if they do not appear hungry at lecdmg-time,
feed less and less till they do. It is quite
astonishing how little they need in the very
early days, and it is in the first weeks that
most mischief is done. Brooder chickens also
especially require green food regularly and
freely, unless there is plenty of clean grass run
for them, and even then they should have the
small-cut grass for a week, to get tliem into
a habit of eating it.

The chickens as they grow should be system-
atically hardened off from the heat, till they
can do without any, but the age for this will
of course depend upon the season ; in April
they will often do very well in a coop without
heat at four to five weeks, while early in the
year it may take two months. The heat will
be gradually brought down to 70" ; then the
lamp will only be lit at night ; then later at
night ; then only once or twice a very small
flame allowed for cold nights ; and then they
are independent, and the an.xiety is over. In
large establishments it is more convenient to
liave separate and larger " cool " brooders, but
still warmed, to which the partly grown chicks
can be transferred at the proper time. Such
brooders are furnished with smaller lamps in
proportion, by which the lower temperature is
more easily controlled.

Our advice is very decisive to all ordinary
breeders, not to place more than fifty chickens
together in one brooder, but to rather multiply
brooders than increase their size.
Number ^g regards many people, twenty-
Ono Brooder, ^^e or thirty would be a sounder
course. If anything goes wrong,
it is very apt to affect the whole batch, and then
obviously the loss is heavier. Again, the larger
the lot the greater the likelihood, upon any
provocation from one or two weakly chicks, of

that habit of crowding already referred to,
which, whenever it happens, is a great drawback
to the brood. In choosing a brooder for a given
number, again, spare space should be provided,
so that there shall be enough when, say, three
weeks old. It is, of course, possible to operate
on a much larger scale, and descriptions of
these big plants are familiar in connection
with American poultry-farming. But even in
America, where such operations are common,
the ordinary breeders of stock, by a large
majority, find the limit of about fifty suit their
purposes best in the end.

One more caution may be needed. The
young chicks especially should never be allowed
upon any smooth hard floor, in brooder, or
chamber, or run. We have seen a plate of
zinc, with only such a sprinkle of earth or
peat-moss upon it that the claws went through
to the metal, The result is that the birds slip
on such surfaces, and the efforts to recover, or
to prevent slipping, at best strain the tender
joints, and sometimes the two feet will even
slide apart, and severe sprains may occur.
Many cases of deformity, or lameness, or
crooked toes are caused in this way. The
peat or other litter should be deep enough,
upon any hard surface, to make firm walking.

When a brood is through, the litter should
be emptied out, all swept clean, and the whole
opened and exposed to the sun and air, lest
any hidden germs of tuberculosis
afur°Use. ^'^'^y ^^^^'^ found lodgment. When-
ever there is any real cause for
suspicion, it is best to give a thorough double
fumigation, which is easily managed, if a large
lidless box is provided that will cover the whole
brooder, when inverted over it, with space to
spare. When this has been arranged, burn out
a " sulphur candle," leaving things to stew a
good while in the fumes. Air well after this,
and then give a doing with chlorine in the
same way, placing chloride of lime in a saucer,
pouring on sulphuric acid, and letting down
the box to confine the fumes. We are here
only supposing that there is definite reason to
believe tuberculosis has prevailed in previous
broods, in which case no pains are too great
to prevent recurrence ; but do not, of course,
mean that any such measures are commonly
necessary for chicken brooders. As a rule,
reasonable cleaning and airing are all that can
be required.

io6

CHAPTER VII.

POULTRY FOR THE TABLE.

EVERY breeder of poultry, even for exhi-
bition, will have a considerable number of
birds whose best destination is the table.
The somewhat severe "weeding" upon which
we lay stress in a subsequent chapter gives him
plenty of such, and there is also a considerable
surplus of cockerels. This last occurs also when
pullets are bred merely for laying ; so that, even
though supply of eggs for market be the main
object, the cockerels produced at the same time
involve the marketing of a considerable quantity
of table poultry, which must be embraced in the
plan of operations. In the latter case, the num-
ber will probably be too large to be consumed
at home, and must be made the best of for
market. Lastly, there is the case where supply
of table poultry of the best quality is the main
object in view, and where both breeding, the
feeding, and fattening are brought to bear upon
that object with all the skill and knowledge
available.

It may be well to consider first the case of the
breeder of prize poultry, who merely wants to
dispose of such surplus stock as is not up to the
mark. If he is in a small way, the home table
may very likely take all he has to spare at
merely killing prices, and these may be of all
ages. For reasons e.xplained later on, such a
breeder may hatch double or treble what he has
space to rear, and kill a good portion very
young indeed, at only a few weeks old, as soon
as ever their worthlessness becomes apparent ;
or even the cockerels of a laying stock may be
better cleared out, if possible (all but a few of
the best), at a similarly tender age. Even such
very young birds can be utilised in chicken
puddings, made as follows : Take as many as
necessary and let them miss their
Chicken last feed, and fast the night ; de-

Puddings, capitate them in the morning,
pick clean, and hang in a cool
larder for twenty-four to thirty-six hours.
Having taken out the crop and viscera, put the
necks, and cleaned gizzards, and livers, and hearts
in a little water to stew foi gravy ; then cut up
the birds, taking the point of a knife from the
.point of the breastbone to the wing on each

side, removing thus the half breast with each
wing and leaving the carcase bare. Cut the
breast-pieces apart from the wings, also take the
thighs and drumsticks (separated) and the side-
bones, if there is any appreciable meat on them ;
chop up the rest of the carcases and stew them
also for gravy. Make a nice suet crust and line
a basin, and in this pack carefully the pieces
of chicken, with the addition of three or four
slices of salt pork or ham, also cut in pieces, to
which may be added at discretion, or not, a
sheep's kidney or two cut up, or a few mush-
rooms and oysters. Pour in the gravy, close
and tie up the pudding, and boil long and gently.
People who once try this will often be asking
themselves, whether their very young wasters
are big enough yet for a chicken pudding.

When the number is more considerable, as
with cockerels from a stock bred for layers
only, if there be any market, such young birds
can be treated and sold as the petits poiissins
described a little farther on, especially as layers
like Leghorns often do better at this very tender
age than larger and finer breeds. But the pud-
ding is always available, and we can heartily
recommend it to all whom it may concern.

The next available age is from eight to twelve
weeks, at which it is not usual to kill in England,
though more are killed in America
Broilers. at this stage than any othe>-. Such

are, in fact, the well-known American
" broilers," simply split down the centre of the
carcase and the halves broiled on a gridiron :
in a frying-pan they are not so good. The
" broiler " will be found a novel and most appe-
tising dish for the home table, whether or not it
may ever attain popularity in the British mar-
ket, and will clear out quite a number of birds
at a nice early age, leaving the ground free.
Moreover, it may be well to remember that such
home use of the young birds, through the tasting
thereof by friends and visitors, may do some-
thing to gradually create a inarket for a class of
chickens which in some respects is — as proved
in America — most profitable of all, given only
the demand for it.

By three or four months old, chickens of the

HOME STOCK FOR THE TABLE.

107

larger breeds begin to be fit for roasting and
boiling, and such breeds, if room allows, are most
profitable that way. Fed as a fancier feeds
his birds, they will be amply plump
Natura!ly-fed enough for the table, and need no
Chickens. special penning or fattening, nothing,
in fact, beyond eighteen hours' fast-
ing. We have killed many Brahma cockerels at
four months old which weighed six pounds, and
been told repeatedly that both in quality and
quantity of flesh they excelled any that could be
purchased in the ordinary way. Many English
palates prefer chickens which, by high feeding
from the shell, are thus well furnished with firm
flesh, to fatted fowls ; and from three to si.x
months old the mistress of any establishment
will gladly welcome as many birds for the table
as the ordinary breeder of prize poultry is at all
likely to supply. If any of them do appear
somewhat poor, ten days or a fortnight in a
sparred coop, in a place neither hot nor cold,
and which can be darkened, during which time
they are fed in troughs until "half-fat" in the
way presently described, will suffice. Care
should be taken to place two or three together
in the coop, to see they are quite free from
vermin, and to fast them for some hours before
giving any food at all, in order to ensure good
appetite from the start. All other details
necessary will be found a few pages farther on,
but we emphasise these as apt to be forgotten
by the unprofessional amateurs whom we have
here in view.

There is one more thing to consider before we
leave the case of people with amall numbers of
fowls. It is that of old fowls — too old to sell
for any real price, or to cook in the ordinary

way. Such birds may be cooked in
Aged various ways so as to be tender,

Fowls. though almost beyond mastication if

treated in the ordinary way. Sup-
posing the bird is to be boiled, the simple rule
is to boil sloivly for about as many hours as the
bird is in years of age. If it is to be roasted
there are two expedients. One is to gently
simmer it for nearly as many hours as above,
and only after that, roast as usual till browned,
well basting : it will be quite tender. Or the
fowl may be wrapped in large clean dry leaves
such as vine leaves (cabbage leaves will not do)
and buried in sweet clean earth for nearly
twenty-four hours, when it will generally be
found tender. Hanging in a wet cellar might
probably make it as tender, but it might not
keep : the sweet earth keeps away any harm.
Or the fowl may be simmered a few hours, and
then cut up and baked in a pie. Or finally, if
the cook knows how to do it, it can be boned,

and then stewed into deliciously tender dishes
in all sorts of ways. Thus every bird, of any
age, is worth fair value for the domestic table.

It is different when we come to consider the
supply of the public market, or the production
and sale of table poultry as a business. Here
fatted chickens alone command the
Fatted best prices, and by fatted fowls we

Poultry. mean crammed fowls. Pliny men-

tions the inhabitants of Delos as the
first to prepare fowls artificially for the table, by
which no doubt cramming is intended, and in
his time there is no doubt that the luxurious
Romans patronised crammed poultry exten-
sively. The market supply of the best table
poultry depends, therefore, upon two main
factors, viz. the adoption of the best methods in
feeding and fattening, and secondly, the breeding
of the most suitable fowls, whether pure breeds
or crosses, both in form, and aptitude for laying
on flesh.

As to methods of feeding, these are several,
and differ in different countries. The chief
English poultry-feeders have gradually made
eclectic selection of the best elements from all
quarters, and the fowls shown at recent Smith-
field Club exhibitions of table poultry, have
been pronounced by good foreign and English
judges equal to any in the world. For the
following practical article, descriptive and ex-
planatory of this branch of the subject, we are
nidebted to Mr. Edward Brown, F.L.S.,
honorary secretary of the National Poultry
Organisation Society: —

" The system known as fattening is almost
universal wherever poultry have been brought
to a considerable state of perfection as food for
man, although there yet remains considerable
prejudice against it, probably due to the term
rather than to the system itself, though possibly
the methods adopted account for
Fattening some of the antagonism with which
Practice^"' it is regarded. Nor is the practice
a modem one. In ancient times it
was followed by the Egyptians in connection
with geese, as evidenced by tablets found in the
Pyramid of Sakkara, which was erected about
4,000 years ago. References are also made by
ancient Roman writers, notably Columella,
showing that feeding off domestic poultry before
slaughter was extensively adopted in Italy
nearly two thousand years ago. So far as our
own country is concerned, it is impossible to
say how long the fattening of poultry has been
carried out, but we are justified in saying, from
evidence which it would take too long to quote
here, that it was understood to some extent at

io8

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

least as far back as the sixteenth century.
Within what may be termed the modern period,
however, it has been practised largely. In
Arthur Young's ' General View of the Agri-
culture of the County of Sussex,' published in
1808, an account is given of the system then in
vogue, from which it would appear that hand
cramming only was employed, as there is no
mention whatever of machines. A most inter-
esting point is the fact that at the time named
the fattening of fowls was not confined to
Sussex, for in Mr. Mavor's ' General View of
the Agriculture of Berkshire,' we find that
Wokingham, as it is now called, was ' princi-
pally famous for fatted fowl, by which many
persons of the town and neighbourhood gain a
living. They are sold to the London dealers ;
and the sum of ^^150 has been returned in one
market day by this traffic. Twenty dozen of
these fowls were purchased for one gala at
Windsor, at the rate of half-a-guinea a couple.
At some seasons of the year 15s. is paid for a
couple. They constitute the principal com-
merce of the place.' For reasons which have
not yet been fully explained, the trade has
died around Wokingham, but I have had the
opportunity of conversing with people whose
forefathers were largely concerned in it.

"Till quite recently the fattening industry
since that period has been confined chiefly to
the counties of Sussex and Surrey, extending
about thirty years ago into West Kent. It now
embraces an area extending from Ashford in
the east almost to Guildford in the west. For

these reasons the best qualities of
^^as^a""^ poultry go under the name of
Local industry.Surrey or Sussex fowls, and there

can be no question that the finest
specimens have hitherto emanated from the
South-Eastern counties of England, where the
industry is a very important as well as a
profitable one. It is difficult to estimate the
actual value of this branch of agriculture, but a
few years ago I obtained figures from the
Railway Companies as to the extent of the
trafific from the two chief centres, and these
figures were afterwards confirmed by the ob-
servations of Mr. R. H. Rew, who presented a
report to the Royal Commission on Agriculture,
in 1895, on the ' Poultry Rearing and Fattening
Industry of the Heathfield District of Sussex.'
From these figures it was shown that in twelve
months there were despatched from Heathfield
and Uckfield about 1,850 tons of dead chickens,
of an estimated value of about ;^20o,ooo. It is
impossible to afford anything like a correct
computation of the total returns in all the three
counties named, but there is evidence to show

tliat it has considerably increased of late years.
As an instance, Mr. C. E. Brooke, Past- Master
of the Poulters' Company of London, despatched
in 1S98 upwards of 30,000 birds from his estab-
lishments at Baynards, and other places could
be mentioned where the growth has been con-
siderable. For a long period of time it was
asserted that there must be special conditions
favourable to this industry in the South-Eastern
counties, but it is needless to consider this point,
as it has been proved abundantly that fowls can
be fatted elsewhere with equal success. Within
the last fifteen years the work of fattening has
been extended into several other counties, and
we may expect to see this continue to a greater
extent in the future.

" When we look at other countries, we find
that amongst those where attention has been
given to what may be termed advanced poultry
culture, the fattening system is extensively
followed. One of the best examples is France,
which has hitherto had the character of pro-
ducing some of the finest fowls in the world,
though it is a satisfaction to know that English
fowls now rival many, if not all, of the specimens
met with abroad. Of course, there also we
meet with special industries, such as the pro-
duction of the famous La Bresse fowls in the
Ain and Saone-et-Loire districts, and the La
Fleche, Le Mans, and other grades in Normandy,
where the work is carried out to a remarkable
degree of perfection, and where prices can be
obtained that are practically unknown in this
country. But throughout France the system is
followed very e.xtensively, and the highly fatted
and wonderfully finished specimens to be met
with upon the Paris and other markets, place
these grades of French poultry in the very front
rank. In Belgium the fattening industry is
carried out to a considerable extent in the
district around the city of Malines, at Merch-
tem, Londerzeel, and adjoining villages in the
province of Flanders. These birds, up to the
present, are not so well finished as either the
French or English high-class poultry, but the
principle is recognised. In Western Austria,
in the Styrian district, there is a good deal of
fattening carried out, and in some of the best
Central European places of resort very fine birds
are sold under the name of Styrian foiilardes.
Of late, fattening has been taken up to some
extent in Russia, whence vast quantities of
chickens — usually of a poor quality — are re-
ceived into Western Europe. This will account
for the undoubted improvement in some of the
grades of Russian poultry during the last few
years. During a similar period something has
been done in the direction of fattening in

ADVANTAGES OF FATTENING.

log

Canada, due to the efforts of Professor Robert-
son, late Dairy Commissioner for the Dominion,
who paid several visits to this country, obtain-
ing information which he disseminated very
freely on his return. The quality of the birds
at present is not equal to our English standard,
but they have been vastly improved as a
consequence of the adoption of the fatten-
ing system, and as that system comes to
be better understood, Canadian fowls will
be much finer than is the case at present.
Until recently poultry fattening was practi-
cally unknown in the United States, but it
has been greatly extended within the last few
years.

"In order to appreciate the object of fatten-
ing, it is well to consider larger stock, where
practically the same system is carried out,
though, of course, different methods are em-
ployed. We accept without demur that for
animals, such as cattle, sheep, or
Advantages pigs, to be fed off is an absolute

Fattening.

necessity, if the flesh is to have

the quality and quantity desirable.
Farmers buy store stock, as they are called,
feeding them off or fattening them before
they are sent to the butcher. To kill a lean
animal would be very wasteful ; the proportion
of flesh to that of bone and offal would be small,
whilst the quality of flesh would be distinctly
inferior to that of a fed animal. The reason why
fatted flesh is better than unfatted.is that globules
of fat are distributed throughout the muscles,
displacing to a considerable extent the moisture
found therein. Not only, therefore, is the bulk
increased, but also when the flesh is cooked the
fat does not evaporate to the same extent as
the water, but, melting, softens the tissue,
making it more digestible and finer in flavour.
It may be contended that Nature has no system
of fattening, and yet that wild birds and animals
killed for food are found to be in good condition
for eating ; but this statement is only correct up
to a certain point. At seasons of the year when
food is abundant, birds and animals are much
fatter and plumper, and it is generally at these
seasons that they are killed for food. A 'close'
time for — say — pheasants, is not only enacted
in order to prevent the birds being killed off
during the breeding season, but also because at
such periods of the year they do not carry the
same amount of flesh.

" A further point to bear in mind is that,
economically, the fattening system adds to the
profit of the producer. Some time ago Mr. C. E.
Brooke carried out a series of experiments
showing the gain in weight, and the results of
these were published in my book on Poultry

Fattening.* Twenty-four birds in all were put up
for fattening, nine cockerels and fifteen pullets.
TJaey were subjected to the system for twenty-
eight days, which is longer than is usually con-
sidered to be necessary, but the prolongation
was for a special purpose. The total increase
of weight during the process was 55 lbs. 3^ ozs.,
or a gain of about 2 lbs. 6 ozs. each, the great-
est amount of gain in any individual case
being 2 lbs. 15^ ozs. I have known cases where
upwards of 3 lbs. has been added to the weight
of a fowl in a little over three weeks, but prob-
ably under ordinary conditions the average
gain would be from l^ lbs. to 2 lbs. Of course,
a certain amount of this would be surplus fat,
laid upon the intestines and around various
organs of the body ; as in the case of larger
animals, this must always be so. Still at the
same time the edible portions of the birds were
enormously increased. The estimaited cost
of fattening for three weeks is accepted as
about 5d. per bird, whilst in establishments
where men have to be employed another
3d. would be added for labour. Thus, apart
altogether from the question of improvement
of quality, the increase in weight much more
than repays the expenditure. There is, however,
a danger of excessive fattening, and birds carry-
ing a large amount of surplus fat can only be
in very limited demand. We should not like
what is called Christmas beef all the year round,
nor should we care to have specimens such as
some exhibited at the Smithfield Table Poultry
Show daily upon our tables. Both large and
small animals are often fatted for such a season
to the utmost, with a view of showing what
can be done in this direction, and also of prize-
winning.

"Another result of fattening is to improve
the appearance of the bird. The flesh is not
only softer and more abundant, but it is greatly
improved in colour. The use of milk and of
ground oats, as afterwards explained, has the
effect of whitening the flesh ; and even with those
birds which have yellow skin, it is remarkable
how great a difference is found between fatted
and unfatted specimens.

" With regard to the prices obtained for
fattened poultry, these vary considerably. There
can be no question that at certain seasons of the
year birds can be sold in the London markets
wholesale at 123. to 14s. per couple; but these
are the exception and not the rule, the picked
specimens, not the general run, and the demand
for them must, of course, be limited. But during
the spring months good birds will always bring

• " Poultry Fattening," by Edward Brown, F. L.S. London 1
Edward Arnold.

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

4s. 6d. to 5s. 6d. each, except there happens to
be some unfavourable set of conditions or a glut
in the market. Prices depend upon so many

things that it is impossible to name
Prices ^^y which may be taken as reliable

Fatted Fowls, in anticipation. The following prices

can, however, be taken as averages
in the Leadenhall or Smithfield Markets, Lon-
don, for single birds : —

January

3s. od.

to 5s. od.

Febraary

3s. od.

„ 5s. od.

March

4s. od.

„ 5s. 6d.

April

5s. od.

,, 6s. od.

May

5s. od.

„ 6s. 6d.

June

4s. od.

„ 6s. od.

July

4s. od.

„ 5s. 6d.

August

2S. 6d.

„ 4s. od

September

3s. od.

„ 3S. 9d.

October

3s. od.

„ 3s. 6d.

November

3s. od.

„ 3s. 6d.

December

3s. od.

„ 4s. gd.

These prices, however good they are, are far
inferior to those obtained in France. At Paris
20s. to 30s. is frequently paid for picked speci-
mens in the Hallos Centrales, whilst even in the
districts where birds are actually produced,
prices range high. I have been asked by a
woman standing in the market place at Bourg
20 francs for a La Bresse fowl which would not
weigh more than 5i lbs., and at Le Mans in
Normandy some of the fatters can obtain at
certain seasons as much as 25 francs for first-
class specimens. Such prices are not obtain-
iible in this country. The explanation is that
French systems of cookery are so essentially
different from our own, that while a fowl in
England would perhaps serve half-a-dozen
people, in France, by the accessories provided
with it and also the fact that the number of
courses in an ordinary French dinner is much
greater than in an English dinner, the same bird
would probably serve a score of people. Hence
the cost of the fowl eaten for each person would
relatively be no greater in one country than in
the other. Personally I have no hopes that we
shall ever be able to secure such prices, and it
does not seem at all necessary that we should
do so to ensure satisfactory returns. We have,
however, in this country a larger population
dependent upon others for their food supplies,
and we must look rather to the increased num-
ber of birds sold to these, than to an enhanced
price for each. At the same time, however,
there is much to be done in educating the con-
sumer, and within the last few years a distinct
advance has been made in this direction. In
many of the great centres of population, at one
time, fowls priced more than 2s. 6d. each could
hardly be sold ; but purchasers are beginning to
realise that a well-fatted specimen, for which

they have to paj' 4s. 6d. or 5s., may be cheaper
than one at half the price. It is not the size
of the fowl only, but also the relative pro-
portion of flesh and of carcase which ought to
give it the value. There are certain of our
large towns where a fatted fowl was probably
unknown until a few years ago, and now we
see them regularly in the poulterers' shops.

" We have now to consider the methods
adopted in the production of fatted poultry
both at home and abroad. In England and
Belgium, fattening is carried out almost entirely
at special establishments, to which the birds are
brought in a lean condition to be fed off. In

France this is the case to a more
Fattening Hmited e.xtent, the majority of the
Industry. fatted fowls there being finished

by those who rear them, the farmers'
wives and daughters in that country being mar-
vellously skilful in this work. There are, of
course, many central establishments, and in not
a few cases I have found that the owners only
perform a part of the operation, bu)'ing the
birds from the rearers in what may be termed
half-fatted condition. Where the system is
carried out as in England and Belgium, the
fatters very seldom attempt anything in the
way of hatching and rearing, leaving this work
entirely to farmers and cottagers in the district,
from whom they buy lean birds. Whilst it is
desirable that more of our farmers should en-
deavour themselves to improve the quality of
their poultry, it must be conceded that up to
the present there have been manifest advantages
from this system. The fatteners are very skil-
ful, and in some cases families have been famous
for their work in this direction for several gen-
erations. A fatter is able to handle a very large
number of birds, and his ability and experience
enable him frequently to get better results than
would be probable by those who only have a
few birds to sell. The cost also of labour in this
way is considerably reduced. There are also
benefits from larger operations in marketing, as
buyers receive specimens in greater quantities,
and the fatteners can meet market demands in a
way that would be impossible to smaller pro-
ducers. At the same time, it is a fact that
some of the small fatters obtain the best prices,
because they give attention to individual birds
in a way that is impossible when large numbers
are in hand.

" Those also who raise the birds have not
suffered in any way from this system — in fact,
it has been all in the other direction. Com-
plaints are made by fatters, both in England and
in Belgium, that so short is the supply during
certain months, and so great the competition

COLLECTING BIRDS FOR FATTENING.

for suitable birds, that they have to pay prices
which leave a very small margin of profit.
Some time ago, a farmer living in West Kent
gave me figures with regard to what he had
done during twelve months in the sale of
chickens to higglers who collect for the fatten-
ing establishments. Commencing the year with
a stock of fifty breeding hens, he sold in twelve
months, as the produce from these birds, £%"]
worth of chickens — that is, each hen gave him a
return through her chickens equal to about 35s.
Of course, he had to provide the food for these,
but those famiiiar with the cost of stock-raising
will know that the margin of profit in such a
case is very much greater than is usual. Hitherto
a large part of the deficiency in supply has been
made up by Irish lean birds, but the indications
are that these may fall off now that fattening
has been commenced in that country ; and it is
certainly true that of late there has been a de-
cided advance in the price of Irish lean poultry.
The chief difficulty experienced by those who
have commenced fattening in other parts of
the country than the South-Eastern district of
England, has been in securing a supply of
suitable specimens, but- the deficiency will in
time be overcome, as farmers and cottagers
find it is profitable to rear such birds.

" Most of the fattening establishments in
Sussex send out or have connections with col-
lectors, who go by the name of ' higglers.' These
men scour the country round, buying up chickens
as soon as they are ready, and it is not too much
to say that the success of many of
Collection {]-,g fattening establishments depends
ChickenB. largely upon this part of the work.
One old fattencr, who has made a
very comfortable competency out of the business,
told me that he always did the buying himself,
as he felt that it was too important to leave to
anyone else. Many of these higglers know ex-
actly what birds arc likely to be ready, and those
who raise the chickens have no difficulty what-
ever in selling their birds ; in fact, frequently
there are as many higglers call as there are
birds to sell. The higglers generally have
regular rounds on certain days of the week, and
the custom is for them to pack the birds in large
crates, carrying them away as soon as possible
to the fattening establishments. Sometimes they
will travel as far as twenty miles away from
their centre, if there is any shortage of supplies.

" In Belgium and France a somewhat dif-
ferent system is adopted, and one which might
with advantage be followed here. On one side
of the city of Malines, in Belgium, there is a
great district where large numbers of fowls are
ieared and it is on the other side that the

fattening section of the country is met with.
Markets have been established at various
centres, where producers and buyers meet upon
fixed days. The former take their fowls as
they are ready, and there dispose of them to
the best advantage. In many of the great dis-
tricts of France such markets are found, and it
would be a manifest advantage if the system
could be followed in this country, especially in
places more remote from the fattening centres.

" The prices obtained in England for lean
birds vary considerably according to the time of
year, and, of course, with the quality of the
fowls ; but of late years there has been a dis-
tinct tendency towards increase in prices. The
time of year when prices are highest is in
April, May, and June. The prices range from
IS. 8d. to 3s. 6d., according to the season
and the supply. Both of these extremes would
be exceptional, however ; only very poor speci-
mens would be sold at the former price, and the
season would be a very bad one, with great
scarcity of supply, when the latter price was
generally obtained. It may, however, be ac-
cepted that the majority of chickens suitable
for making the best class of fowls, and which
range from eight to ten or twelve weeks old,
would realise from 2s. 6d. to 3s. each, and at
such rates it is evident that the raisers have a
considerable margin of profit. In fact, many per-
sons add greatly to their incomes by this work.
Reference has already been made to Irish sup-
plies. At one time birds could be obtained
from Ireland costing about 2s. to 2s. 6d. each,
but now 3d. and 4d. per bird more than that is
the usual expense, inclusive of carriage. At the
same time, however, it must be acknowledged
that there has been of late perceptible im-
provement in the quality of the fowls brought
from the Green Isle.

" Birds which are put up for fattening in
lean condition give the best results, and the
fatteners prefer specimens which are thin. It is
undoubtedly the case that such specimens as are
already partially fatted, do not give the same
returns as those just described. Of course, it is
with poultry as with every other kind of stock ;
all the birJs do not fatten alike, and there is a
considerable difference in this respect. Some,
for reasons which cannot be clearly understood,
fail to put on flesh to the same extent as do
others. This sometimes is a question of tem-
perament, but there are frequently causes for
which no satisfactory reason can be afforded.
The skilful fatter, however, very quickly deter-
mines which birds are thriving least satisfactorily,
and frequently by giving a greater amount of
attention to these, he is able to overcome their

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

backward condition. When we see in the
markets specimens, all equal in quality and very
nearly alike in size, this is generally due to the
fact that they have been selected from a large
number. We must not expect in connection
with poultry any different results from what
we find in all other branches of stock.

"A large number of birds are killed in what
is called half-fat condition. These have simply
been put up for feeding, either in open air or
enclosed cages, without being crammed at all,

and the result is to considerably
Half-fatted improve the quality of the flesh,
Fowls. and to some extent add to its

quantity, though, of course, they
are not equal to the fully-fatted birds. Some
breeders who have never gone in for what is
known as the system of cramming, have ob-
tained a measure of results by putting the birds
into small runs and feeding them upon foods
likely to produce flesh. We cannot, however,
expect that if the birds are permitted to run
about they will ever increase in weight to the
same extent as when they are kept in strict
confinement. The reason for this is that the
latter birds are at rest and, consequently, do not
eliminate from the body by exercise those mate-
rials which would otherwise be utilised in this
way. In many parts of the country half-fatted
birds would be more profitable to produce at
first, by reason of the fact tiiat consumers have
not been educated to pay sufficient prices for
the fully-fed specimens. They might be tempted
to pay a little more for the half-fatted speci-
mens, and thus gradually be led on to the more
expensive birds.

" In the South-Eastern districts of England,
when the birds are brought to the fattening
establishments, at any rate during the milder
months of the year, they are usually first placed
in cages out of doors ; and in the highways and
byeways of Susse.x, Surrey, and

Sussex West Kent large numbers of these

Fattening , ^ , . ,

Establishments, cages can be seen as we drive along

the roads, or even from the railway
carriage windows. As a rule such cages are
placed in sheltered positions where they are pro-
tected from wind and, as far as possible, from
rain, though this latter cannot always be accom-
plished. These cages are about 7 feel 6 inches
in length and 20 to 24 inches from front to back,
the front, ends, back, and bottom consisting of
bars of wood, wide enough apart to allow the
birds to get their heads through in front, but
nothing more. The tops are usually covered
with thin match-boarding, but in some places, in
place of this, corrugated iron is employed, with
furze bushes laid along the top. Tlie cages are

raised about 3 feet from the ground, and the
droppings fall through the bottom bars. Many
of the poultry fatteners make their own cages
during the slack season, and various forms are em-
ployed, but the cage described above is generally
admitted to be the best. How far this system
of using outdoor cages is suitable, is open to
question, because during the cold months
of the year the birds must take longer to
fatten by reason of the exposure, whilst in the
hot months of the year it is found in practical
experience that the birds do not fatten so well
either in-doors or out of doors, owing to the
excessive heat. During the warmer months
a cool orchard or copse is most suitable
for birds fattening, as it is cooler than where
more open, or in sheds exposed to the sun.
Of course, where outdoor cages can be
employed, a much greater number of birds
can be handled upon a given capital than
if they are accommodated entirely in sheds.
There are some parts of tlie country, especially
those districts which are more exposed, where
the out-door system would not answer at all ;
and wherever employed the birds should be welt
sheltered. Some of the best fatteners place
these out-door cages in the orchards which
abound in South-Eastern England, and such
conditions, except in very wet weather, are
specially favourable. Many parts of the country
could not provide protection of this kind.

" The customary plan is to keep the birds in
these out-door cages for a week or ten days, and
during this time they are fed twice a day from
troughs. These troughs hang in front, usually
upon cords, so that they can be easily removed.
They are cut out of a solid piece of wood, and a
7 feet 6 inches cage, such as we have described,
with the trough, can be purchased for 6s. 6d.
Those birds which are to be killed as half-fatted
specimens are finished off entirely in these cages.
Where, how'ever, it is intended to fatten them
fully they are then removed to the sheds, in
which are placed similar cages ; and by reason
of the fact that the birds are kept much warmer
and absolutely protected from bad weather, they
fatten remarkably well under these conditions.

" It is needless to describe at very great
length the various forms of sheds, as all kinds of
places are used for this purpose. Wherever
permanent buildings are available, provided that
they are well ventilated, their use saves a con-
siderable expenditure of capital. Mr. C. E..
Brooke, of Baynards, had a large barn which
was turned into a fattening shed, and as this
is thatched it is wonderfully cool in summer
and equally warm in winter. There are other fat-
teners who utilise similar buildings. The large-

FATTENING PENS OK CAGES.

'13

majority of fatteners, however, have special
erections for this purpose, some good, some
by no means satisfactory. I have been in sheds
which were made of corrugated iron, in which
the birds were half roasted during the hot
summer weather, and equally cold in winter.
Conditions like these must militate greatly
against the success of the process. In France
such fattening establishments as I have had the
opportunity of visiting have been accommodated
in permanent buildings, and the same is equally
true in Belgium. In these permanent buildings,
which if properly ventilated are usually cooler
than wooden erections, as a rule the cages
are only placed one tier high, for the reason
that this greatly reduces the labour of keep-
ing the place clean. In one or two
French fattening sheds I have visited, the
cages were two or three tiers high ; but
this is certainly not a usual plan. As to
this, something is said in the next paragraph. I
have also seen in France, especially upon farms,
the fattening cages placed in rooms adjoining
the dwelling-house, but this is a method which,
of course, we do not advocate in this country.
The main idea is that the birds shall be kept
warm, and to some extent in the dark, for, as
Professor Warrington says in his ' Chemistry of
the Farm,' ' Economy of food is promoted by
diminishing the demand for heat and work. An
animal at rest in a stall will increase in weight
far more than an animal taking active exercise
on the same diet. In the same way the increase
from a given weight of food will be less in winter
than in spring or autumn, a far larger propor-
tion of the food being consumed for the produc-
tion of heat when the animal is living in a cold
atmosphere. Hence the economy of feeding
animals under cover during winter. If, how-
ever, the temperature becomes so high as to
considerably increase the perspiration, waste of
food again takes place, heat being consumed
in the evaporation of water. The temperature
most favourable for animal increase is apparently
about 60° Fahr. Quietness, and freedom from
excitement, are essential to rapid fattening ; the
absence of strong light is therefore desirable.'
It will be seen from the above observations that
there is no restriction upon the form of shed so
long as it is suitable for the purpose.

" The form of the cages employed during
this stage differs considerably. Those generally
used in this country have been already referred
to. They are usually 7 ft. 6 in. in length, by 20
in. high and wide, and are divided into three
compartments, each of which has a sliding door.
The cage is intended to accommodate fifteen
or eighteen birds, one-third in each compart-

ment. They are built entirely of wooden rods,
excepting the framework into which these fit.
The rods are about \\ in. apart, except in
the front, where they are a little
Fattening wider, so that the birds can get their
Cages. heads between for feeding. The

bottom bars, upon which the birds
stand, are usually of specially cut wood, an
inch wide at the top and an inch in depth,
narrowing to half an inch below, so that
the droppings fall through without catching
on the sides of the wood, as would be the
case if they were perfectly square. The bottom
bars run from end to end of the cage, or
from side to side of the compartment, not from
front to back. In France this form of cage is
sometimes employed, but very seldom. Those
generally used there are much more substantial,
in some cases having solid sides, back and top,
and in the front, except that a long narrow slit,
wide enough to permit of the bird's head passing
through, is cut in the wood. As a rule, in
France, each bird is provided with a separate
compartment ; but, for a reason given in the
next paragraph, such an arrangement is un-
desirable. This form was employed at first
by Mr. C. E. Brooke, at Baynards, but in his
further extensions he has adopted the more
general and less expensive form of cage.
Where single cages are used, fitted below is
a sliding drawer or tray to catch the drop-
pings. The one advantage of single cages is
that they can be used two or three tiers high,
though whether this is desirable deserves further
consideration. In Belgium the cages are more
nearly like those used in England than in France,
though such as we have seen have generally been
a little more substantial than the Sussex cages.
In work of this kind there can be no question
that simplicity is desirable, and for that reason
it may be fairly claimed that the English form
is to be preferred, saving both initial cost and
labour in keeping clean. The difference be-
tween the more substantial cages used in France
and those in England would be as a question of
capital considerable, but under certain sets of
conditions, such as extreme cold, the birds would
be kept warmer and more sheltered where the
solid-sided cages are employed.

" It may be well here to consider whether
the system of keeping one bird in each com-
partment, or having several together, is to be
recommended. My own opinion is that the
truth lies about midway. Where birds are kept
in single compartments they can be observed
more closely as individual specimens, but at the
same time there is greater danger of their pining
than when several are together. This has been

114

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

the experience of many amateurs, who thought
it was only necessar}' to obtain a fattening cage,
put some birds in, and have Surrey fowls ; but
frequently they find that instead of weight
having been gained, it has really been lost.
The skilful fatter understands his work so
completely that he is able to overcome this
difficulty, and by cramming compels the bird
to digest as much food as he thinks necessary.
Where several birds are together there is un-
doubtedly a strong competition in eating, and
this fact must be taken into account. We find
the same influence with larger stock. Given a
proper supply of suitable food, two or three
animals together will feed off better than if
each were isolated. But when, say, half-a-dozen
fowls are confined in one cage, there is greater
danger of fighting and of feather picking, the
latter one of the chief troubles fatters have
to contend against. This would be minimised
if only two or three birds were kept in each
compartment.

"As already stated, in England and Belgium
the inside cages are only placed one tier high,
which permits of a good circulation of air, and
at the same time greatly minimises the work of
cleaning. In some cases the ground below the
cage is covered with either loose earth or sand,
and the droppings are taken away daily. In
other cases there is a drop-board about two feet
wide, sloping down to the front, below the cages,
covered with a thin sprinkling of lime or earth,
and thus easily cleaned. The accumulation of
manure, especially such as is produced under
these artificial conditions, would very speedily
cause disease amongst the birds, and all good
fatteners realise the importance of absolute
cleanliness. In fact, in many of the best-con-
ducted poultry fattening establishments it is a
surprise to see how beautifully everything is
kept. The sheds themselves are regularly
lime-washed, and the cages treated in the same
way as soon as one lot of birds is removed,
before another is placed therein. The work
of thus lime-washing the cages is greatly
facilitated if a long trough, about a foot in
depth, and wide enough to permit of the cage
being dipped in, is kept full of lime-wash.

" Before dealing with the actual methods fol-
lowed in the cramming of poultry, it may be well
to inquire whether the system is a cruel one,
because many charges have been made against
it on this ground. With ordinary care there
is not the slightest cruelty involved. A careless
or inexpert operator, especially one who seems
to think that the work must be done in a hurry,
might hurt or injure the birds, and if this results,
in consequence of the highly artificial state of

the body, inflammation takes place and the bird
speedily dies. This fact, in itself, is the greatest
preventive of cruelty that can be desired, be-
cause the loss would be a very serious one. It
must be borne in mind that the gullet of all
animals, and especially of birds, is very flexible,
and that in the case of birds mastication does
not take place in the mouth, but whatever is
swallowed passes down the tliroat the same in
size as when entering the mouth. The chief
danger in cramming, when either funnel or tube
is employed, is that as the neck naturally is
bent, unless it be straightened out, the pressure
of the end of the funnel or tube would injure it
if forced down. Another danger is lest injury
to the tongue should take place when passing
the funnel or tube into the throat. But a
little care prevents any difficulty, and it may be
taken, that so far as pain is concerned, there is
no cruelty whatever in the cramming system.
Whether the compelling of any animal to eat
more than it might otherwise be disposed to
take comes under the term cruelty, we need not
discuss.

" The systems of cramming usually followed
vary considerably, and may be divided into four
sections. We do not call trough-feeding cram-
ming, because there is no force or
Systems of compulsion whatever when that
Cramming. method is employed. It is generally
conceded that trough-feeding alone
does not give the same results in weight gained,
as when the birds are finished by actual cram-
ming; but in some cases I have met with it
was claimed that equally good results could be
obtained without any cramming at all. In
Belgium, for instance, very few birds are
crammed ; they are fed from the troughs
during the whole period of three weeks;
fatters, however, find it desirable to finish
individual birds by a little hand cramming.
It must be acknowledged, also, that Belgium
table poultry have not the same finish as
our best English or the finest French speci-
mens, and this may be put down to the
fact that they are not crammed. Recently I
was informed by a gentleman, to whom I had
given advice as to the preparation of fowls for
the table of a well-known noble family, that
they had never crammed the birds, and yet in
some cases the weight had increased by as
much as 2\ lbs., entirely as the result of trough-
feeding.

" There are two methods of hand cramming.
In one of these the food is made into a stiff
paste,and then formed into pellets or finger pieces,
varying in size with the birds for which they are
intended. As a rule, these pellets are a little

METHODS OF CRAMMING.

IIS

more than an inch in length and about three-
eighths of an inch in thickness. The operator has
a supply of these pellets before him, with a bowl
of milk ; he sits upon a stool, and,
Hand taking a bird from the cage, holds

Cramming. the tips of a wing and a leg in each
hand, and then places the body be-
tween the knees. If this is properly done the fowl
cannot struggle in the least, as wings and legs
are firmly held. He next grasps the head of the
bird with the left hand, places a finger between
the upper and lower mandibles, holding the
tongue down, then taking one of the pellets he
dips it into the milk, puts it into the mouth,
pressing it down the throat as far as he can
with the fore-finger ; next, closing the fingers of
his left hand outside the throat, he places a finger
and thumb of the right hand above the pellet,
which can be easily felt in the gullet, and running
these down the throat carries it into the crop.
To do this effectively the neck must be straight-
ened to its full length, and when that is the case
the pellet passes down quite easily. In order to
fill the crop, frequently ten or twelve of these
pellets must be given, and hence it is a some-
what slow process, as, of course, the most skilful
fatter cannot handle more than forty to fifty
birds in an hour, even if he has someone to
lift them from and to the cages. Some of
the finest specimens that are placed both upon
the London and Paris markets are thus hand
crammed, and it is acknowledged that each
individual bird can be dealt with to a greater
nicety than is possible by quicker methods.
The system involves, however, a considerable
amount of labour, and it is questionable whether
it would pay any fatter to engage enough
men to fatten a very large number of birds in
this way. It is, however, being adopted in
Russia, but in that country labour is very cheap.

" Another system of hand cramming is that
followed in several districts of France, notably
the La Bresse country. Here the birds are
kept in very dark cages. The fatter first sits
down in the way described already. Instead of
forming the paste into boluses or pellets, he has
a mass of the food before him. Opening the
mouth of the bird with the left hand, he takes a
piece off the mass of paste, dips it into milk,
and places it into the mouth of the bird, and
then allows the bird to swallow it. This system
is even slower than where pellets are employed,
and I have found it is adopted chiefly by those
who have only a limited number of birds to
fatten, generally women.

" In Normandy the system of fattening by
means of a funnel is very much in vogue. For
this purpose the funnels employed are specially

made. The bowl of the funnel is about 5 in. in
diameter, narrowing to about \ in. The spout
is 6 in. in length and \ in. in diameter. The
spout, as seen by the illustration (Fig. 62), is cut
at the end so as to leave a slanting outlet. The

spout must be well finished and
Funnelling. carefully soldered so that no sharp

edges remain, and must be perfectly
smooth to prevent cutting of the gullet, all
sharp edges being soldered over. There can be
no question that the funnel system of fattening
is the most difficult to learn, but when learnt it
is quite easy. Some time ago I suggested to
one of the makers of these funnels that the
spout of the funnel should be much shorter, and

Fig. 62. — Funnel.

that a piece of indiarubber tubing should be
fitted thereon, as this is softer and less liable
to injure the throat. This was found to be an
improvement in the hands of those who are not
very expert. To introduce the funnel the bird
should be held in the same way as described
for hand cramming, and the neck elongated to
its fullest length ; then the spout is inserted
through the mouth, and passes down the gullet
into the crop. For funnel fattening the food
must be in liquid form, like moderately thin
cream, so that it will run freely, and it must
be mixed perfectly smooth. In operation, after
the funnel is inserted into tlTe throat of the bird,
by means of a large spoon or ladle the prepared
food is poured into it until the crop is quite full.
An experienced operator can cram eighty to a
hundred birds in an hour by this system, and
therefore it i.s, as a question of labour, more
economical than hand fattening.

" The third system is by means of a machine,
the tv/o chief makes now employed in England
being Hearson's and Neve's. These machines
differ in a few details, but the principle is practi-

ii6

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

cally the same. A hundred years ago, so far as
we can learn, machine cramming was practically
unknown in the South-Eastern counties of Eng-
land. Arthur Young, in his 'General
Cramming View of the Agriculture of Sussex,'
Machines. published in 1808, mentions only

cramming by hand. Later on, as
explained in the early editions of ' The Book
of Poultry,' an apparatus was introduced for the
expediting of this work. So far as I can learn,
such a machine was introduced in the 'sixties.
This old type of Sussex crammer (Fig. 63) was

Fig. 63. — Old Sussex Cramming Machine.

a very cumbersome affair, resembling a large
sausage machine, and was heavy to work. The
food was placed in a reservoir, and forced out
through a tube at one end. It required one
man to turn the crank handle, whilst another
actually crammed the bird. With both the
Hearson and the Neve one man only is re-
quired. The Hearson crammer consists of a
food reservoir, into which a supply sufficient
for 100 to 150 birds can be placed. Below is
a pump cylinder in which operates a piston
rod, worked by a foot lever. When this lever
is depressed the food already in the cylinder is
forced through the nozzle at one side, and as
the machine is fitted with a powerful spring,
when the pressure is withdrawn the piston
rod is drawn upwards again, allowing enough
food to pass into the cylinder from the reser-
voir for the next manipulation. Upon the
nozzle is fitted indiarubber tubing, which is
made in various sizes to suit different grades
of birds. Some of the fatters in Sussex use
tubes made of bed ticking, because they are
cheaper, and if carefully made they answer
the purpose, although the seam down one side
is rather liable to become hard and to graze
the throat of the bird. In the Neve crammer
the force pump is horizontal.

" To operate with these machines the bird
is held first by the legs and wings as already
described for hand cramming, then placed under
the left or right arm, as the case may be, and
held firmly between the arm and the body so
that the bird cannot struggle. The operator

has thus both hands at liberty. Taking the
head in the hand connected with the arm
holding the bird, the comb lying in the palm,
the mouth is opened by one finger, passing
between the upper and lower mandibles, and
the tongue held down. The other hand is now
free to insert the tube into the mouth. As
soon as it has passed into the throat, the head
is changed from one hand to the other, and the
neck being elongated, the head is drawn on to
the tube, really pulling the body after it, and
in this way the end passes down into the crop
speedily and easily. The slightest pressure of
the foot pedal forces food into the crop.
The relieved hand, before this is done, is passed
to the crop until the end of the tube is felt,
and thus the operator can tell how much food
is being forced therein, stopping the moment
that enough has been given. So soon as this
takes place the foot is slipped off the pedal,
which stops the supply, the bird being then

Fig. 64. — Crammer at Work.

drawn from the tube. The operation can be
carried out very rapidly indeed, and a skilful
fatter can cram by either of the machines
named 200 to 300 birds in an hour. For this
system the food is prepared about the con-
sistency of thick cream, so that it will just flow
and no more. The great points in cramming

FOOD FOR FATTENING.

by machine are to see that the tongue is held
down, otherwise it might be torn by the in-
sertion of the tube ; that the neck is straight,
or the pressure of the tube against one of the
rings of the vertebral column would break it ;
and that too much food is not given. Under
such a system it is, of course, impossible to
treat each bird with the same nicety as is the
case with hand cramming.

" In France machine cramming has not been
carried out to the same extent as in this country,
but there is much more done of it than was
formerly the case. Some of the French machines,
however, differ distinctly from those
French described above, in that liquid food

Machines. is chiefly employed. One of these,
made by Monsieur J. Phillippe of
Houdan, has a long tube attached to it, at the
end of which is a spring tap with a long brass
spout. The food is about the consistency of
very thin cream, and flows quite easily. The
fowls are not removed from the cages, but in
turn the operator takes hold of each bird, inserts
the tube into the throat pretty much in the same
way as already mentioned, and by pressing the
spring allows the food to flow into the crop.
Strange though it may seem, this system is no
more speedy than by the Hearson or Neve
crammers. Another form is that made by
Monsieur Voitellier. He has a rod running
the entire length of and above the cages, and
upon this rod is hung a vessel containing several
quarts of liquid food. The vessel is hung upon
the rod by means of a wheel, so that it moves
about freely. In the bottom of the food re-
servoir is a nozzle and indiarubber tube, at the
end of which latter there is fitted a spring nozzle
or tap similar to that just named. By means of
this the operator can move about freely from one
cage to another. Other forms of machines have
been adopted in France, but these are the latest,
and are chiefly employed. Some years ago a
huge revolving cage was introduced by one of
the French makers, and was exhibited at one of
the early Dairy Shows, where it awakened con-
siderable interest. Two of these are still, I
believe, in use at the Jardin d'Acclimatation,
Paris. But although accommodating 2 lo birds,
the cost (upwards of ^loo) precludes their
general use, even if they offered any advantage,
which is questionable.

" The food employed is very important in
connection with the fattening of poultry, and it
will be seen in all cases that what is commonly
called soft food is used : that is, meal prepared
by mixing with some liquid into the consistency
necessary, according to the system adopted.
The reason for the use of meal is that when

so prepared it is much more easily digested
than whole grain. This is so in any case

but grain is given to fowls that have
The Food. the opportunity of exercise, because

it lasts longer and is more sustain-
ing than the soft food. But to ensure successful
fattening it is essential that the birds shall be
kept in strict confinement, otherwise they would
not increase in weight nearly so rapidly, and
thus the organs of the body are not in the con-
dition to enable rapid assimilation of hard grain.
There is a great amount of difference in the
meals employed. In England the food chiefly
used for the purpose of fattening is what we call
ground oats; in Belgium they use generally
buckwheat-meal ; and in France buckwheat-
meal and barley-meal, with a small proportion
of Indian-meal in some districts. There is no
question that Indian-meal adds greatly to the
bulk of a bird put up for fattening, but it
forms yellow oily fat, which is very wasteful in
cooking; and a bird fatted in this way is never
so nice in appearance as when the other foods
named are employed.

" All the meals mentioned above are good
for the purpose, but we think that ground oats
stand first. These contain nearly 6 per cent, of
fat and a considerable amount of phosphates,
(see Analyses, p. 19), which have an influence in

making the flesh white, or bleaching
Ground Oats, it, and at the same time giving it

a good flavour. These ground oats
are prepared specially for the purpose, and
several millers in the district around Tonbridge
lay themselves out specially for the preparation
of the meal. Up to the present time few makers
in any other part of the country seem to have
been able to prepare ground oats equal to those
produced in Kent and Sussex. I remember many
years ago trying to grind oats as good as those
produced in the south of England. We used
the very finest Scotch oats that could be obtained,
and yet it seemed impossible to secure meal of
the desired fineness. Moreover, we could not
grind the husks, and therefore they were useless
for the purpose. The explanation is partly
found in the fact that the Kentish millers use
high grade stones, which are cut very sharp and
run very low ; hence the danger of fire is always
greater, and the speed at which they can be run
is less than is necessary for the grinding of other
grains. But the chief point is in the class of
oats employed. English and Scotch oats,
though probably better than any kind met with
in the world for the making of oatmeal, contain
a considerable proportion of moisture, and thus
they clog the stones. Therefore the small,
hard, plump, fine-skinned Russian oats are used,

ii8

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

and it is upon them that the millers have to
depend. Ground oats are rather expensive,
and absolutely pure cannot be bought, even in
large quantities, much under £() los. to £\0 per
ton. The cheaper meals sold as ground oats
contain an admixture, generally of fine thirds.
One maker supplies a meal w^hich I have proved
to be very excellent for the purpose, and this
contains one part ground oats, one part fine
barley meal, and one part fine Indian meal ;
and as it can be sold at about £6 los. to
£6 15s. per ton, it is extensively employed.

" Buckwheat meal is not quite so good as
ground oats, being rather low both in albumin-
oids and in fat, and therefore we do not expect
quite the same quality of flesh as the result
of fattening by it. In Belgium, where it is
generally employed, it is ground up very fine,
husks as well as the floury parts of the grain,
and I can quite conceive that for trough feeding
alone it is excellent, being rather sweet, thus
tempting the birds to eat more than they would
otherwise do. As already mentioned, both buck-
wheat meal and very finely sifted barley meal are
employed in France. The latter is not so good
as either ground oats or buckwheat meal, being
rather stimulating. When used it is always
very carefully sifted. I have found in one or
two parts of France where barley-meal is largely
employed for fattening, that with it was mixed
about a fourth of fine Indian-meal. In Russia
fatters use ground oats or oatmeal, buckwheat-
meal, and a meal made from millet seed ; but
many of the fatters in that country are com-
pelled to regard that which is cheapest, because
the price obtained for their birds is very low.

" Whilst much of the success in fattening is
due to the meal employed, the colour of the
flesh is largely determined by whether milk is
used or not, and the large amount of phosphates

in the solids of milk secures that
Milk. whiteness of flesh which is preferred

in European table poultry. In
England skim milk is generally used for this
purpose, and as a rule the milk is allowed to
sour before it is mixed with the meal. Why
this is done is somewhat difficult to explain,
and whether the system originated from actual
observation, or that it was more convenient
because the milk could be kept for use as
required, I cannot say. The theory is that the
acid generated in the milk in a sour state stimu-
lates the appetite, prevents sickness, and gives
a flavour to the flesh. Some doubt has been
thrown upon this of late, and the disadvantage
of that scouring which undoubtedly arises from
the use of sour milk has been pointed out. But
whether the same results can be obtained with

sweet milk as with sour has not been practically
tested, and is one of the problems that must be
left for future solution. In France skim milk is
employed, and generally sour ; and in one dis-
trict I have visited they use the whey from the
curds. In Belgium buttermilk is preferred when
it can be obtained. Although one may have an
open mind as to whether sweet or sour milk is
best, at the same time it is suggestive that in all
three countries named the same idea appears to
have been in the minds of fatters. The great
advantage in using either sour skim milk,
buttermilk, or whey from the curds, is that
what is to some extent a waste product can
be put to good purpose.

" During the last week to ten days of the
fattening process, that is, during the time that
the birds are in the sheds, it is customary to add
a proportion of fat to the food with a view of

increasing the weight of the birds.
Fat. If whole milk were employed fat

would not be needed, but when
skim milk is used because the butter fat in the
milk would be too valuable for this work, then
other fat should be added. In some places
butchers' suet or scrap fat is bought, clarified,
and then kept in barrels for the purpose. The
fat which comes over from America, and which
could formerly be purchased at a comparatively
cheap rate, has risen in price considerably. The
quantity usually added varies greatly. It is
customary during the first day or two after fat
is added to give only a small quantity, say a
quarter of a pound per diem for every twenty
birds. But this is gradually increased until each
bird is getting half an ounce of fat per day.
The fat should be melted and mixed with the
soft food. This must be properly done, other-
wise it will come out in lumps.

" The method adopted in preparing food for
fattening does not vary to any great extent As
a rule, it is found desirable to mix the food with
milk a few hours before it is intended to be used,
allowing it to stand ; during this time a slight

fermentation takes place, which it
methods jg claimed assists the process of

Feediug fattening to a considerable extent.

In Sussex it is usual to mix the food
for the next meal as soon as the morning or
evening meal respectively has been given. In
this country the birds are only fed twice a day,
as early as possible in the morning, and, in the
evening, about an hour before dark. Of course,
the exact hours are determined by the season of
the year. Whatever times, however, are chosen
should be adhered to. If seven o'clock in the
morning and six in the evening are adopted —
and these would be very suitable during the

FASTING AND KILLING.

119

spring and autumn — such birds as have com-
menced to fatten at these hours should be
finished without variation. In one or two places
on the Continent I have found that the fowls
are fed three times a day, but this is exceptional,
and there appears to be no advantge whatever
in doing so. When the food is given either
from the funnel or by the crammer, the
operator feels the crop of the bird before
feeding, and if food remains therein from the
previous meal it is usual not to give any at all
that time. This would be a sufficient sign to
an expert crammer that the bird was unable to
assimilate the quantity which he had previously
given. As a rule, fatters can gauge to a nicety
the amount of food which birds can assimilate,
and much of the success of the work will depend
upon judgment in this direction. Of course,
with trough feeding it is not at all important,
because the birds themselves will not eat unless
they are hungry.

" It is frequently found during tne process
that fowls appear a little sickly, and go off their
food. When this is so, it is useless continuing
the process. If they are fairly well fatted, the
wisest thing is to fast them at once and kill ;
but during the earlier stages the usual plan is
to remove such birds from the pens, put them
into an outside run for a day or two, giving
them very little food and that hard corn, and
when they have recovered they may then be
returned to the pens for fattening. In the
warmer months of the year a difficulty frequently
arises, due to the blood of the birds becoming
heated, as a result, of course, of the artificial
conditions under which they are living. To
prevent this many fatters add a little flowers
of sulphur to the food, nothing more than a
mere sprinkling or dusting ; but the best thing
for this purpose is to boil nettles, chop them
fine, and mix them, with the liquid in which
they have been boiled, in the food. Some fat-
ters do this regularly as a matter of course,
finding it very beneficial indeed in keeping the
birds in a healthy state.

" When it is determined that the birds shall
be killed, they should have no food whatever for
at least twenty-four hours before an end is put
to their existence. In all districts where the

production of table poultry is carried
Fasting Qy); systematically, such a plan is

KiUine adopted, but in districts where the

work is not so thoroughly under-
stood, there is great neglect as to this precaution.
With larger stock it is always carried out by the
best feeders. Many people imagine that it must
be a cruel thing to keep any bird or animal with-
out food for such a length of time, but there is

no cruelty whatever involved. The fact is that
a well-fatted specimen could live for a week
upon its food reserves without any positive
cruelty. The reasons for fasting previous to kill-
ing are obvious, and need only be mentioned.
In the first place, starving ensures that the crop
and intestines shall be emptied of food. In
some districts where this precaution is not
carried out we see birds exhibited for sale with
crops full of food, and decomposition takes
place very speedily, reducing the value of the
birds considerably. Therefore, upon this ground
alone the recommendation is one which ought
always to be insisted upon. It is a recognised
fact that birds starved in this manner will keep
much longer than if the food remains in the
crop and intestines. Secondly, the flesh of
fowls so fasted eats much better. It is less liable
to hardness, and we suppose that the arrestation
of the process of digestion and assimilation has
some influence upon the flesh throughout the
body. What that influence is, however, has
never been satisfactorily determined. A further
point in this connection is that a fowl so starved
is much more easily drawn, and certainly is not
nearly so offensive during the operation. If
people take the trouble to draw two birds, one
which has been fasted and the other not, they
will be surprised at the difference between the
two. In the latter case the intestines are moist,
and do not come away cleanly, whilst in the
former they are dry and compact. We cannot
too strongly impress upon those who are pre-
paring fowls for sale, that this question of pre-
vious fasting is of very great importance.

" In all countries where birds are fatted they
are never sent alive to market, but killed where
they are fatted. At one time, in many districts,
there was considerable opposition on the part of
poulterers to this system. They preferred to
buy the birds alive, and kill them as lequired,
which can be understood where the demand for
poultry is small. Such a plan, however, causes a
large amount of the gain from fattening to be
lost. To send away fatted birds alive in crates,
exposing them to cold and draughts, and stop-
ping the regular supply of food, causes a re-
action, and it has been found, as a matter of
practical experience, that a bird will lose in
twenty-four hours as much flesh as can be
added in a week. Poulterers in various parts
of the country who sell fine specimens now
generally understand this, and the difficulty re-
ferred to has been felt less of late years than
formerly. All the fatted birds produced in
Surrey, Sussex, and west Kent, and in the
best districts of France and Belgium, are killed
upon the spot and marketed dead.

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

" The methods of killing vary considerably,
and some of them are very objectionable. The
plan usually followed in this country is disloca-
tion of the neck. When swiftly and properly
carried out, there can be no more humane

method. The operator holds the
Killing. bird by the two legs and gathers

the ends of the wings in the same
hand ; thus the bird is unable to struggle. When
so held the back should be upwards. He now
takes the head between the first and second
fingers of the right hand, the comb lying in
the palm and the fingers closing upon the neck
immediately behind the head. The neck is
drawn by the right hand to its full length, the
head thrown slightly back, and by a sharp but
not too vigorous pull the vertebral column is
broken, the neck thrown fully out immediately
behind the head, the veins and nerves torn right
across. Such a system ensures but momentary
pain in killing, because, as the brain is the centre
of all feeling, separation from the rest of the
body means immediate cessation of feeling.
When properly done it will be found that there
is a break in the column of the neck of about an
inch to an inch and a half, the head being con-
nected with the neck only by the outer skin,
which should not, of course, be torn in any way.
In some parts of this country it is customary
to cut the throat, and this is a very effective
method, but, for reasons afterwards explained,
there are objections to this system, which, how-
ever, is adopted almost entirely in Belgium.
Certainly the appearance of birds in Belgian
shops and markets compares very unfavourably
with specimens in our own country, as they lie
upon the slabs with an open gash in, and the blood
marks conspicuous upon the throat. In France
there are two methods chiefly in vogue. One is
known as the system of paletting. In this case
a special knife is used for the purpose, with a
long narrow blade sharpened on both sides.
The bird is tied by the legs and wings, laid
down upon a table or block, back downwards,
the mouth is opened, and the point of the knife
is inserted into the slit which is found in the
roof of a bird's mouth ; it is then forced right
through the brain to the back of the skull.
When properly and firmly carried out this system
is a very excellent one, as the piercing of the
brain causes paralysis, and practically destroys
the sense of feeling. I fear, however, that a
good deal of cruelty arises from this method.
In many cases, instead of forcing the knife right
through the brain, it simply penetrates the
frontal part of the skull, and does not effect the
purpose ; in fact, the bird simply bleeds to
death. In the La Bresse country I saw a system

carried out which appeared to me to be very cruel
indeed. The birds were hung up by the legs to
wires stretched across the killing room, and the
operator — who, by the way, was a woman —
opened the mouth, inserted a pair of scissors,
and simply cut the veins of the roof of the
mouth in a transverse direction. The birds
flapped their wings, and it was certainly a con-
siderable time before they were dead. When I
objected to the method, it was stated as a reason
for its adoption that the flesh came so much
whiter w-hen the blood was drained in this
manner from the body, and that the flapping of
wings had the effect of causing the blood to flow
more freely. There can be no question whatever
that a bled bird looks better than one in which
the blood remains in the veins, but where a
large number of birds are to be killed and
plucked, the flying about of the blood is not
only objectionable so far as appearance is con-
cerned, but at the same time, if plucking takes
place immediately it has the effect of spoiling
the feathers, and this is an important point, as in
Sussex it is generally considered that the feathers
obtained from a fowl should pay the cost of
killing and plucking. Up to the present time I
have not yet met with any plan which would
get rid of the blood speedily from the body
without running a danger of loss in this way ;
and the system of dislocating the neck appears,
taking it all round, to be the least objectionable,
and to drain the body of blood to a very large
extent. If in plucking the operator holds the
bird in a proper manner, the head is hanging
downwards, and thus the blood is draining into
the space between the head and the neck. It
is important that fowls which are to be kept
in cold storage should always be bled. One
of the most objectionable methods of killing
which I have ever seen is by hanging, by reason
of the fact that this causes suffusion of blood
all over the body, and when the bird is
plucked the flesh is perfectly red. I should be
very sorry indeed to eat a bird killed in this
manner.

" Plucking the fowls is more easily carried
cut if the operation takes place immediately the
bird is dead, and whilst the body is still warm.
It is frequently objected, by reason of the mus-
cular action which is observed in a bird imme-
diately after death, that it must be
Plucking. suffering pain ; but upon this point
the best veterinary authorities in the
country, including the late Sir George Brown,
of the Board of Agriculture, have assured me
that it is impossible for the bird to have any
sense of feeling after the brain is severed from
the rest of the body. Hence we need have no

PLUCKING AND STUBBING.

qualms of conscience upon that score. If, how-
ever, it is impossible to pluck the birds as soon
as they are dead, then they should be allowed
to become quite cold before the work is carried
out, for it is found that the flesh of a bird is
much more liable to tear when it is half ^old
than when either warm or entirely cold. The
best method of plucking is to have a seat about
20 inches in height, the operator sitting there-
on, holding the bird by the legs and the wings,
as already described for the process of killing,
the head hanging downwards in front of or
between the legs. By so doing it will at once
be seen that the blood, during the time the bird
is cooling, is draining away to the neck, whereas
it would not be so if the bird were head upwards.
The operator plucks the feathers the reverse
way to that in which they lie upon the body,
and the position named enables him to do so
with ease. He should start upon the back,
taking hold of several feathers between the
thumb and forefinger of, say, the right hand,
and, giving a sharp pull downwards, they come
out quite easily. Of course, the knack of pull-
ing the feathers only comes by experience ;
there is a way of drawing them as described,
sufficiently sharp to take them out clean without
tearing the skin. When the back has been
denuded the bird is turned round and the breast
treated in the same fashion. By this time all
convulsive movements will have quieted, and
thus it is not necessary to hold both legs and
wings, in fact it may be held by one leg. When
the breast and under parts have been completely
plucked, and the neck up to within two inches
of the head, each leg should be taken in turn,
held straight upwards by the shank, and if the
operator will close his finger and thumb around
the shank and run them sharply down the thigh
a large number of the feathers will come out,
the others being plucked in the usual way.
The wings may now be taken, the small feathers
drawn in the ordinary way, but the flight feathers
must be plucked either two or three at the same
time, gathering them between the fingers. These
require a sharp pull, given with a backward
tendency. Of course, the tail feathers must be
completely drawn also. The plucking of a fowl
takes a shorter time to accomplish than to
describe, and the regular rate in Sussex is about
twelve in the hour ; but I have known a turkey
completely and beautifully plucked in less than
four minutes, though, of course, this speed could
not be maintained for a long period. The chief
points in plucking are : First, that it shall be
done immediately the bird is killed ; second,
that the operator shall draw the feathers the
reverse way to that in which they lie, with a

sharp pull, yet not sufficient to tear the skin ;
third, that the process shall be carried out as
expeditiously as possible. The reason why
feathers are left on near the head is simply to
cover up the broken part of the neck, and also
that the bird presents a rather better appear-
ance than if plucked completely up to the
throat.

" In some districts it is customary to dip the
bird in boiling water before plucking, and there
is no doubt that this makes the feathers come
out much more easily, but it is objectionable for
other reasons, if the specimens are to be exposed
for sale. Scalding does no harm if
Scalding. it is intended to cook the birds at

once ; but if this is not the case it
gives them a soft, flabby appearance, which
reduces considerably their value upon the market.
Moreover, there is no need for scalding, provided
that the birds are plucked whilst they are warm.

"During certain periods of the year it is found
that there are a large number of what are called
stub feathers remaining on the body after the
fowls have been plucked, and these must be
removed. To do so, however, is a
Stubbing somewhat tedious process, because

Singeing. '^ cannot be done by the fingers

alone. In the poultry districts, as a
rule, women are specially employed for the work
of stubbing, and they are pretty well paid,
frequently receiving a penny per bird. The
best method is to have a short knife, pass it
under each feather, grip the feather upon the
knife with the thumb, and draw it out sharply ;
but fatters as far as possible try to avoid kill-
ing birds in this stage, although, of course, it is
impossible to do so entirely. All fowls, even
when in the best condition, are found to be
covered with a large number of fine hairs, and
the removal of these makes a very great differ-
ence to the appearance, in fact, frequently
explaining why some specimens look so much
cleaner and nicer than do others. To get rid of
these the bird should be singed. This is a
simple operation, yet one which requires a little
care. Some people use paper, but it is apt to
make too much smoke, and the best thing for
the purpose is straw. A small heap of straw
should be made and lighted. At first it will
burn with a thick smoke, but as soon as fairly
alight there will be a clear flame. The operator
then takes the bird by the head in one hand and
the feet in the other, and passes it through the
flame, turning it over in so doing, by which
means it is entirely denuded of the fine hairs
named. Unless care is taken, however, the pro-
cess would have the effect of blackening or
burning the skin, causing it to shrivel ; but that

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

of
Feathers

can be avoided by rapid movements, as proved
by the Surrey fowls which come upon our great
markets.

"Before leaving this part of the question
a few words may be said with regard to the
feathers. I have made inquiries of several
feather merchants and find that they do not
in any way depend upon our English supplies,
in fact they prefer to purchase foreign
Disposal feathers, because they can obtain

them more regularly and prepared
in a proper manner. It is true, of
course, that fatters sell the feathers, but where
they go to is a little difficult to say, and in fact
we do not appear to have any firms in this
country who treat feathers in the same way as
is the case in Russia and Germany. The com-
plaints which are made by merchants with
regard to our home feathers are that the pro-
ducers do not separate the different sizes. If
they would do this, grading them according to
size and texture, it would be to their advantage.
What is meant is that the fine feathers on the
under parts of the body should be kept distinct
from the coarser feathers on the back, and
certainly from the wing feathers. I suppose that
what is really wanted is someone to commence
a feather factory in the districts where the largest
quantities are produced, and to show that more
care would mean better returns. Even when
properly separated, there is a considerable
difference in the value. The best qualities of
feathers can be sold at 3 id. to 4d. per lb., but
the preference is given to white. The wing and
tail feathers are difficult to dispose of, and the
price obtainable for them is very low. If
stripped and the quills entirely removed, they
may be mixed with those from the body in
small quantities. All classes of feathers should
be kept free from dust and dirt, be packed in
clean sacks, and sent to the merchants whilst
fresh.

" The next step after plucking is the shaping
of the fowls, and here there are various systems
in vogue. That adopted in this country is
simple and very effective. For this purpose
a shaping board or trough is made, in size
according to the requirements of
Shaping. the fatter. The shape of this

trough varies considerably, but they
all appear to have the same effect. Some of the
fatters prefer shaping-boards in which the
troughs are made V-shaped, as shown in the
illustration, whilst in others the back board is
perfectly vertical and the front board is at an
angle of about forty-five degrees. So far as I
have been able to see, neither form has any
distinct advantage over the other, both serving

the purpose equally well. These troughs are
made from 2 feet to 3 feet in length, and often
arranged in two or three tiers. Usually the
back board is narrower than the front, 5 inches
for the former and 6 inches for the latter being
a regular size. They are very cheaply made
and serve a life-time. When the birds have
been plucked and singed they are first loosely
tied at the hocks, so as to allow sufficient play
at the posterior end of the sternum for the
legs to lie at either side of the breast, the legs
and feet are now bent downwards at each side
of the breast, and the wings folded so as to
lie flat against the breast in front. The bird
is now held in the two hands, and it is custom-
ary to press the stern against a flat board
or wall, to force in
the breast by press-
ing it hard against
the operator's thigh,
and if it is a round-
backed bird, to press
in the backbone by
the two thumbs, then
to lay the bird in the
shaping board, breast
downwards, the head
hanging over the
front. The stern will
rest against the back
board, and the keel
lie on the front
board, so that any
pressure from above
will be upon the

keel and not upon the legs or feet, as these
are really out of the way. Each trough should
be filled tightly with birds, and it is better
if they are as near as possible of the same
size. As the trough is filled, a board, about
4 inches in width, is laid along the backs,
fitting easily between the upright ends. This
is heavily weighted, sometimes two 56 lbs.
weights being used to about a dozen fowls. The
birds are allowed to remain in the shaping board
for six or eight hours as the case may be, and if
placed therein whilst warm, it is remarkable
what a difference the pressure makes to their
appearance when taken out, as they then show
that square shape which is characteristic of fowls
prepared in the Sussex fashion. Of course, a
fat fowl will always come out better than a lean
one, and in fact the system is not of much use
except the birds have been properly fatted.
But when so dealt with it is found that the flesh
is forced upwards on to the breast, that the body
is contracted, and any air or gas inside expelled,
whilst in appearance there is a very distinct

Fig. 65. — Shaping Trough.

SHAPING AND MARKETING.

gain, and, of course, the look of an article goes a
long way in our markets. An important point
is that the shaping board should, during warm
weather, be in a cool place, otherwise the body
heat will to some extent be retained. If that
is so, when packed the birds ' sweat/ and early
decomposition is induced.

" The systems of shaping abroad vary con-
siderably, but it is not necessary to deal with
them here at any length, for the reason that they
are scarcely likely to be adopted in this country,
and we do not see that there would be any gain
in so doing. In Normandy flat single boards
are used, about the length and breadth of the
fowl to be placed thereon, and these boards are
fitted with a row of three or four pegs or nails
at either side. With, them are employed pieces
of fine linen cloth, fitted with tapes correspond-
ing to the pegs referred to. When the bird is
plucked it is laid breast downwards upon this
board, pads of straw or paper being placed under
the crop and below the tail respectively, to keep
it level, then the cloth is tied tightly down over
the back by fastening the tapes to the pegs.
When this is done it is usually soused with
cold water, and the cloth is kept damp
with milk. The system practically gives the
same results as the Sussex method, but the latter
is much simpler, though the milk and cloth
undoubtedly whiten the flesh and smooth the
skin of French fowls. In the La Bresse district
a very diflerent method is adopted, and one
which is peculiar to that centre. For this pur-
pose two cloths are employed. The bird is
wrapped in fine linen which is dipped in skim
milk, and then is further enveloped in a strong
piece of canvas, which is either stitched, or laced
up by means of eyelet holes in the canvas. The
shape of the cloth is broad at the stern and
narrowing gradually to the neck. The feet,
legs, and wings are forced into the flesh, and
when the bird is taken out of the cloths, if the
head were removed it would have the appear-
ance of a small sugar loaf rather than a fowl.
Here again the effect of the cloth dipped in milk
is to whiten and smooth the flesh, whilst the
texture of the linen gives a grain to the skin
which is very pleasing. In Belgium the shaping.
is certainly unique, but it is not to be recom-|
mended for that reason. The birds are simply
squeezed flat ; and in many cases, were it not
for the head and neck, they would not look like
fowls at all.

" This leads us to the consideration of the
practice of breaking the breastbone, a system
which unfortunately is carried out to a consider-
able extent by poulterers in this country. The
work is often very carelessly done, and there

is no need whatever for this breaking of the
breastbone, nor does it deceive anyone. Fre-
quently, as a result, the meat upon the breast is
cracked right across, and in carving falls into
two pieces. A fowl which is not sufficiently
improved by the system of shaping already
described can never be a good fowl, and every-
one, both producers and consumers, ought to set
their faces rigidly against the system of breaking
the breastbone. What appears to be most
required in connection with the finer preparation
of fowls, is that the system of shaping shall
be introduced throughout the country ; and,
further, if fatters would take the trouble to
wrap their birds in cloths dipped in milk when
placing them in the shaping board, it would
have a wonderful effect upon the appearance of
the specimens.

" The method of packing varies considerably,
and there is no special advantage in one mode
over another, provided that certain points be
carefully observed. In Sussex the fatters use
what are called ' pads ' ; these are made of light

laths fitted into a frame, and the
Packing. inside lined with thin strips of wood.

These certainly carry the birds
firmly, but many fatters prefer baskets or ham-
pers, and so long as the packing is well carried
out either one or the other is equally satisfactory.
The baskets should be lined out with straw or
wood wool, and the birds firmly packed therein,
so that they will not move about. The package
must be completely filled up, otherwise there is
great danger of barking or breaking the skin.
In many cases producers lose money because
they do not carry out this part of the work
satisfactorily.

" In the south-east of England the market-
ing of the fowls is organised most completely.
At Heathfield, Uckficld, and elsewhere are
carriers who regularly visit the fatters, receive
the packages, convey them to the station, con-
sign them to the salesmen, and in many cases

receive the money and pay it over
Marketing. to the respective senders. At one

time, before the railway period,
ivaggons used to leave every night for London,
but now the packages are sent by rail, and
usually the cost of cartage and of railway
carriage does not exceed one penny per bird.
The importance of this industry is recognised
by the railway companies, who provide special
accommodation for it. Some time ago the rates
were raised, but a threat was made that the old
carrier system would be again introduced, and
as a result prices dropped to their old point.

" The method of disposal usually followed
is to consign these fowls to London salesmen,

124

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

and on the whole this works satisfactorily. Of
course complaints are frequently made, but it
must be recognised that salesmen can frequently
obtain better prices from poulterers than could
the fatters themselves, by reason of the fact that
they grade the birds in accordance with the
requirements of buyers, which would scarcely
be possible as a general rule amongst the fatters.
This is a point, however, which it is beyond my
province to discuss.

" Both at home and abroad large numbers
of fowls are sold under the name of capons, and
these command the highest prices. In France
we see quoted capons and poulardes,but the latter
term is not met with in our own country. It is

necessary, before saying anything as
Capons. to the system, to consider what these

terms really mean. The system of
caponising, that is, destroying the reproductive
faculty, has been carried out for several centuries,
and, so far as evidence is obtainable, was prac-
tised to a considerable extent two or three cen-
turies ago, but it must be recognised that the
word has now largely lost its old meaning.
What are called Surrey capons have not, as a
rule, undergone the operation, but are simply
large and more fully grown birds, distinct from
what are called chickens. Although some doubt
has been thrown upon the statement, there is no
question that large numbers of cockerels are
caponised in France, but probably not to the
same extent as was formerly the case. In
America it would appear that of late years the
practice has increased, but I am inclined to think
that everywhere only a small proportion of the
dead fowls which go under this name, either at
home or abroad, can legitimately be designated
as capons. The term poularde has no real
meaning. At one time it would appear that in
France it was customary Xn a limited extent to
destroy the ovaries of pullets, with the same
object in view, but I have been unable to find
that this is now practised at all. Speaking
generally, we may therefore assume that all
large, well-grown fowls of either sex, when
given the designation mentioned, are chiefly
matured specimens, and that these names are
used in the same way as is mutton in contra-
distinction to lamb, to indicate the age of the
animal from which it is obtained. The value
of caponising, however, we cannot ignore. All
the evidence to be obtained goes to show that
the effect of the operation is a beneficial one
so far as the quality of meat is concerned, and
fowls treated in this manner retain the tender-
ness of chickens for a much longer period than
would be the case under natural conditions.
But there is a further advantage, especially in

the case of cockerels. Everyone who has had
any experience with the rearing of fowls in
large numbers knows the difficulties arising
in keeping cockerels, and upon that ground
alone there would be sufficient justification for
the adoption of this system. Where oper-
ations are upon a smaller scale, and especially
in establishments where enclosed runs are em-
ployed, it is not at all difficult to keep the
cockerels altogether apart from the hens and
pullets. This, however, is not so upon farms,
where the birds have liberty, and many com-
plaints have been made as to the trouble arising
in this way. The principle is one that is re-
cognised in the case of larger stock. It would
be an impossible thing to keep a considerable
number of young bulls upon a farm, and hence
they are castrated at an early age. Whether
the process is a paying one must depend upon
many things, chiefly whether demand can be
obtained for large birds in the autumn months
of the year, at prices giving an adequate return
for the food and labour expended in keeping
them right through the summer.

" Caponising is of no use whatever for
chickens, and should be only employed when it
is intended to keep the birds until they are
eight or ten months old before killing. A
chicken would be in fit condition for fattening
about the time when the operation should take
place. The effect of this operation is to retard
the growth, but at the same time to prolong it ;
and although some experiments have been made
in America at the Rhode Island Experiment
Station which did not warrant the statement
that capons ultimately make larger birds during
the first year, there is ample evidence on the
other side. In France there is a very large sale
for birds immediately before the beginning of
Lent, as Shrove Tuesday takes the place of
our Christmas feast to some extent. For that
festival fowls are in considerable demand, and,
as these must be nearly twelve months old, it
is found that the capons make much the finer
birds, larger in size and better in meat qualities.
Many people imagine that young birds may be
caponised and marketed within a few weeks.
This is an absolute mistake, and it will be found
that such capons would be less profitable than if
fed and sold off as cockerels. There can be no
question that the operation is one which requires
skill and care, but the amount of pain is very
small, and, as a rule, birds suffer a comparatively
small amount of inconvenience. In the La
Bresse district of France, at certain seasons of
the year people — chiefly women — go round to
the various farms and undertake the work of
caponising at so much a bird, usually, I believe,

CAPONS AND CAPONISING.

about 20 centimes. When skilfully carried out
the loss by death is very small, and I have
known those who did not lose more than 2 per
cent, in this way. Taking all things into con-
sideration, it must be acknowledged, however,
that the chief value of caponising is found in the
ability to retain male birds for killing in the
autumn without keeping them in confinement.
The gain in weight probably does not make any
great difference so far as actual profit is con-
cerned.

" The period at which the birds shall be
operated upon will depend upon the breed, as
some mature much earlier than do others.
A few breeds, such as the non-sitting varieties,

which are rapid in growth, should
Caponising. be operated upon when about ten

weeks old, but others of the slower
developing breeds will not be ready until six
weeks later. The best guide is when the comb
just begins to spring, showing that the organs
are coming into activity. It is usually the case
that cockerels commence to crow at this period,
and this also may be taken as an indication of
the right time for caponising having arrived.
When selected, the bird should be kept without
food for about thirty-six hours, in order that the
intestines may be entirely emptied. A proper
set of instruments should always be used,
which can be purchased from such firms as
Spratt's Patent at los. 6d. the case. These
instruments include a knife, a pair of spreaders
for the purpose of holding open the cut, and a
pair of grippers by which the organs are seized
and wrested from their connections. For this
work it is desirable to have a good firm table,
or if a barrel is placed end upwards and a
square board laid on top, it answers the pur-
pose excellently. The table or barrel should be
placed where there is a good light, otherwise,
when the cut is made, we cannot see the position
of the organs very easily. An American writer
recommends placing a small mirror on the fore-
head, and states that by this means he can
operate even upon a dull day, but I am inclined
to think that this is an exaggeration. Two
pieces of soft cord about 3 ft. in length, and
also a couple of half-bricks as weights, a sponge,
and a bowl of cold water are required. A
running loop should be made at either end of
the cords, and to each cord is attached by means
of one loop the weight named. The loop of one
of these cords is slipped around both legs of the
bird by the middle joint, and the vacant loop
upon the other cord is placed around both wings
close up to the body. The bird is then laid
upon its side with the back towards the operator,
and so soon as the weights are passed over the

end of the table or board, hanging down at
either side, the bird will be held firmly and
cannot struggle or move ; thus the operator can
handle it with the greatest of ease. As a rule,
I have found that birds treated in this manner
do not attempt to move. The operator now
plucks some of the feathers from the side, im-
mediately in front of the thigh, from the ribs
down to the breast. The sponge dipped in
water is used for wetting the feathers around
the bare place made, thus keeping them out
of the way, and it also has the effect of
numbing the flesh of the bird. The fingers of
the left hand must find the first and second
ribs, and a cut is made with the knife between
them, from the back downwards to the end of
the ribs. If this is properly done, immediately
there is a spreading of the skin and thin layer
of flesh, greatly assisting the operator. The
spreader is now placed between the ribs, and
the bent ends of the steel of which it is made
grip the ribs, drawing them also apart and
leaving an orifice of quite an inch. The first
thing seen inside is a very thin skin or mem-
brane, which has to be split by the point of
the knife. When this is done the testicle will
be seen immediately below, but close up to the
backbone. It is of the shape of a bean, varying,
of course, in size with the age of the bird. The
reason why it would not be wise to operate too
early is, that this would be so small that it would
be scarcely noticeable, growing with increased
age. The usual course is to insert the grippers,
pass them around the organ, taking hold of the
ligature by which it is attached to the other
parts of the body. When this is done a sharp
twist detaches it. If larger, I have found that
frequently it can be removed more easily by
the finger and thumb. It is necessary to take
care that it is not lost, otherwise serious com-
plications would arise. So soon as all has been
done on one side, the bird is turned over and
the process repeated on the other. There are
some who prefer to operate upon both organs
from the same side, but I have never found this
so easy or expeditious as making another
cut. After the operation, as no stitching is
required, the bird is released, and should be
placed in a large shed or house, well littered
with straw, but with no perches ; and it is a
very wise plan to give it a good feed of soft
food immediately, as of course it will be very
hungry, having been starved previously. It
should remain in this place for about a week,
but as a rule, in three days it will be found that
the cuts have closed up and healed. Such,
briefly described, is the method of caponising ;
but all those who intend to practise it should

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

receive at least one practical lesson, and then
experiment at first upon dead fowls, in order
to learn the exact position of the various organs.

" In some of the countries of Western Europe
during the spring months of the year a limited
amount of trade is done in what are termed
petits poussins or poideis an lait, or ' milk
chickens.' These birds range from a month to
eight weeks old, and vary in weight from 8 oz.
to 12 oz. They are dressed in the same way
as a pheasant, and each guest is
Milk Chickens, served with the whole bird. For
such small birds during the London
season the demand is fair, but there does
not appear any tendency to increase, which
may to some extent be due to the lack of
supplies. Still there is a limited market for
really good specimens at excellent prices,
but it is not a branch of the poultry industry
which is capable of great development. In
France the sale of these birds is much
greater, and large quantities are produced in
the department of Seine-et-Oise. But in all
questions of this kind we must consider the
different habits of the people, and French dishes
are prepared with less meat and more accessories
than is the case in this country. The price
varies in accordance with the quality, but i y'z to
2 francs is paid for ordinary specimens, better
birds reaching 3 and 4 francs. In London such
birds sell at from is. 2d. to 2s. od. each. A
large number of these. poitlets an lait are sold in
Belgium, and it is a special industry undertaken
by a few persons, who are very skilful in bring-
ing them forward. Many of the Belgian birds
are killed a little larger than is the case in
England and France, but some are very small
and dainty. In England the sale of these birds
is between Easter and the beginning of July,
and it is a purely metropolitan trade, but in
both France and Belgium the season is some-
what longer.

" For producing the best quality of milk
chickens it is necessary to have a quick-growing,
light-boned fowl, and at the same time one
which by habits and temperament is suitable for
the restriction necessary. It has been found
that crosses between the Indian Game and the
Dorking, or the Houdan, make plump, fleshy
birds at four to six weeks old, and the Buff
Orpington is also very useful for this purpose.
In France the petits poussins are chiefly Fave-
rolles. At one time the Houdan was chiefly
depended upon, but the greater vigour of the
Faverolle, and the fact that they have to a
very large extent taken the place of Houdans,
explains why it is that birds of this class are
so strongly in evicScnce. It is to the Belg^ians,

however, that we owe the most advanced know-
ledge upon this part of poultry culture. Instead
of depending chiefly upon what are known as
the table class of poultry for the production of
poulets ail lait, the breeders of that country find
that the non-sitters give better specimens at an
early age. For one thing they are lighter in
bone, but the chief reason is that they are much
more rapid in growth, maturing at a very early
age. It is well known to breeders that the
combs of the non-sitting varieties spring much
sooner than is the case with any other class of
fowl, that the chickens are very precocious, and
that development is quick. Such has been our
experience with Leghorns and breeds of the
same class. At the Poultry Conference held at
Reading in 18S9 M. Vander Snickt, of Brussels,
explained the economic value of the cock crow-
ing contests which are common in Belgium,
namely, that this was a sign of rapid develop-
ment and of early maturity. And it is a striking
fact that at the Smithfield Table Poultry Show
of the same year, in the class offered for petits
poussins or poulets au lait, the exhibits from
Belgium were not, as might have been expected,
Coucou de Malines, the great table fowl of that
country, but Braeckel, Braeckel cross, and Cam-
pines, and the quality of these birds was acknow-
ledged by the most prominent poulterers.

" So far as the hatching of the small chickens
is concerned, this must be done in order to meet
the market demands. As already indicated, the
sale in this country is from April to the begin-
ning of July, and consequently this fact must be
kept in view, as it is no use marketing them
either too early or too late. Where cockerels
of non-sitting breeds are used, the regular
hatching season fits the demand. In some
cases when the sexes have declared themselves,
provided the variety were one to show sex so
early, breeders might keep any of the pullets
required for other purposes. As a rule, how-
ever, it will be found better not to regard this
question at all.

" Those who go in for the production of
petits poussins will require to make provision for
the birds, and to start at the very outset to feed
them upon food that is calculated to develop
flesh rather than bone. It has been claimed that
the best method of securing good birds is by
keeping them absolutely under cover during the
whole period, but such a system has dangers
which only the most skilful can avoid. During
a cold wet spring there can be no question that
a good, roomy, well lighted, and well ventilated
chicken house is of great service. By this means
the birds are sheltered against adverse influences
which would check their growth, and provided

PETITS POUSSINS OR MILK CHICKENS.

'27

that they have plenty of air and are not too
strictly confined, will be quite happy and con-
tented under these circumstances. Above all,
there must not be that check to growth which
is the result of conditions such as have been
already mentioned. Further, we must bear in
mind that as the birds are to be forced to some
extent they will not be able to stand severe
weather as would those raised under more natural
conditions.

" So far as food is concerned, this varies
considerably. For the first fortnight they are
fed in the usual way upon good nutritious food,
and in this respect there is nothing more valu-
able than oatmeal, which contains the elements
required for the building up of a framework
upon which the flesh will afterwards be laid.
At the end of two weeks they should be fed
upon ground oats mixed with milk, and if
this milk is heated, but not boiled, before it is
added to the ground oats, that will materially
assist the digestion. A small quantity of fat is
added to the food daily. In all branches of
poultry raising the wisest plan is to give as
much food as the birds will eat readily and not
allow it to stand before them, for by so doing
there is also a tendency towards sickness.
Very fine grit or coarse sand is of service
in assisting the process of assimilation, and if
the birds are supplied with anything to drink,
this should be in the form of sweet milk. In
France barley-meal mixed with milk is chiefly
employed, and in Belgium also. The following
quotation is taken from one of the Belgian
papers {Journal des Cainpagnes), which gives a
recipe for breeding milk chickens, and according
to the results indicated this is a very remu-
nerative industry. ' Milk forms in this process
the basis of the food given to the chickens.
The diet is exclusively composed of barley-meal,
cooked in skim milk, and in such a way as to
form a sufficiently smooth paste. One thus
obtains specimens with very fine and delicate
flesh before being sold for consumption at about
the age of two months. According to M. Roul-
lier, the well known specialist breeder, the milk
chicken will advantageously replace the partridge.
There is one condition which is absolutely
necessary in order to obtain the best results :
it is necessary that the chickens shall be con-
stantly and exclusively fed with this milk diet.
At the end of six weeks they are plump and
heavy ; they should then weigh about 14 ozs.,
and at two months about lA lbs. These chickens
can be sold at high prices, and their production
would be advantageous where the breeder
possesses a market for them.' It \n\\ be seen
from this statement that, as already mentioned,

the size of birds in Belgium is rather greater
than preferred in Paris and London, but they
can be killed when sufficiently large.

" Whatever the time selected for killing, the
birds should be starved for a few hours, carefully
plucked, tied up with a piece of fine string
or tape, so as to throw up the breasts, and
packed by the dozen in boxes. When sent to
market they are not drawn, this work being left
to the poulterer. It is most important that all
the birds put into one box shall be about the
same size, and as near alike in appearance as
possible. This considerably enhances the returns,
because customers purchasing prefer to have the
birds as near alike as they possibly can. The
boxes employed should be shallow, so as just to
hold one tier, and the French system of having
these boxes lined with lace paper adds greatly
to their appearance.

" In Belgium a large trade is done in birds
which go by the name of poulets de grains.
These are the birds referred to previously as
about two months old and weighing about
li lbs. each. I have found a difference of
opinion as to whether the non-
Poulets sitters or the table varieties are

de Grains. better for this purpose, but the
evidence appears to be in favour
of the table breeds. At a recent Smithfield
Table Poultry Show the first and second prize
birds in the class of poulets de grains were Cou-
cou de Malines, whilst the third were Braeckel;
and some of the Belgian breeders say that for
the more advanced specimens the Coucou de
Malines is decidedly superior. This seems to
be in accordance with what might be expected,
because the flesh of the slower growing
varieties at eight weeks would be superior to
that found upon the lighter bodied chickens,
the latter having developed more in bone. In
America what is known as the ' broiler' trade is
a very extensive one, and in the State of New
Jersey great quantities are produced every year;
but in England there is only a certain amount
of demand for this class of bird used for broiling,
or what is frequently known as ' spatch-cock ' —
that is the bird, after being drawn, is split down
the back and laid open, without being actually
divided. It is cooked upon a grill, and certainly
there is no more delicious form of preparing
birds for eating. At the present time, however,
this trade is a comparatively small one."

In the above article Mr. Brown has dealt
with the chief practical details of producing
and marketing poultry for the table, and we
have only to add notes upon certain points
from personal investigation, and some remarks

128

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

upon aspects of the subject which he has not
treated of. During late years, poultry fattening
in Sussex has been developing somewhat new
phases, besides considerably extending ; and in

the September and October of 1900
Developments we went (by the aid of our trusty
in Sussex. tricycle) over a large part of the

district, with the object of obtaining
information about these, and especially about
that production of ground oats upon which the
Sussex industry so largely depends. Our intro-
ductions were sufficient to obtain what we desired
in nearly all cases ; but we were sorry to be
confronted almost on the threshold of our in-
quiries by evidence of the real harm that had
been done by certain writers upon this subject,
who have sought to strengthen their attacks
upon what they are pleased to term " poultry-
farming," by exaggerated descriptions of the
profits to be made by poultry fattening as apart
from it. The result has been to induce persons
who knew nothing of the business, to embark in
it after perhaps two or three months' " tuition,"
or sometimes without even that, only to give it
up after eighteen months or so, with much loss
even to themselves, but having done evil which
has not stopped there. These novices entered
into competition as regards both buying chickens
and selling them, with others who did make a
living by it, and by their unwisdom and ignorance
have raised the price of the lean and lowered
that of the fat ones ; not perhaps to any large
extent, but enough to make a perceptible differ-
ence to those seriously engaged in the industry.
Various examples were mentioned to us ; and in
the very rare instances where information was
refused in response to our own inquiries, such
reasons were avowed for the refusal.

This business is one of all others not to be
rashly entered, least of all by the very class who
seem most anxious to do so. It cannot be learnt

in a few months, as they seem to
Fattenmg think.* Much of it can, of course.
a Critical ht n 1 1 -111

Business. "l""- rsrown has described the pens,

and the food, and other matters ; and
for years we have had all such details at our
own finger-ends ; yet we would view the pros-
pect of having to embark in such a business with
absolute dismay. For such knowledge alone
will not enable anyone to make it pay ; what is
above all needed is that instinct, or rather
intuitive knowledge, born only of first-hand ex-
perience, which enables the practical fatter to
know what is each day required for each bird :

* Mr. Rew mentions a case where a small farmer in the
district itself, determined to add the fattening business to the
rearing he was already carrying on. He sent his son, a bright
lad, away for two years to learn about this in the fattening sheds,
and only then started in it at home.

if one has rather too much food, or another too
little, or another has had what fatting it can
stand, or another is slightly ailing. Then the
fatter must also know what amount of work
ought to be done by his assistants, and how to
get that much out of them without ill-will ; what
a chicken he buys is really worth ; at what stage
his fatted bird will pay best to sell, and so on.
To know about these things theoretically, is not
really to know them practically ; but in many
Sussex families they drink it all in with their
mother's milk. Finally, it cannot be said too
emphatically, that fattening is neither an easy
business, nor a very " nice " business for the class
who seem so specially anxious to embark in it.
When we come to the sour milk, and rendering
the fat, and killing, and plucking, and other
things, it is well to consider what the business is
like, before going into it ; for it cannot all be seen
to by deputy. And it means work early and late ;
for idle hands cannot be afforded, and the profits
are not what many suppose. The very best, pay
the best, and a first-class fowl at 7s. 6d. pays
very well ; but the demand for such is only
limited, and the top of the ladder is not gained
in a hurry. The margin is very narrow indeed
now, for a large quantity of really good birds ;
such as form the greater portion of the birds sent
up from Sussex, and always must do so. To
take a concrete case : one fatter who usually
sends up five dozen three times weekly, and at
that season* was sending only four, or twelve
dozen per week, had to pay is. gd. each for
his chickens ; the carriage and commission
would be 3d. more, and he expected to get 3s.
That would give him is. on each bird for food,
labour, rent, and his living or profit. It will
be seen how little would turn the scale.

This narrowness of margin is one of the
recent phases of the industry. Years ago the
same fatter just mentioned, for similar chickens,

which were bought in the neigh-
Fattemng bourhood and not Irish, would have
Increase. S^*^ ^^- more increase of cost, and

had, say, is. 6d. to " play with." The
fall has been partly due to the cause above
alluded to (which we have emphasised because
requested to do so by some of those affected by
it) and partly by increased supplies, the demand
for which is, after all, not unlimited. On the
other hand, ground oats is now cheaper, and
cramming machines save much in labour ; but
for these two economies, many stated that
they could not now make it pay. In reference
to this, several complained of the high cost of

* September is not a very good time of year, and many
titters, at the time of our visit, did not care to send up more
supplies than were advisable to "keep their market."

REARING COMBINED WITH FATTENING.

cramming machines, and were glad to hear
from us that Mr. Tamlin was putting on the
market a simpler pattern at the considerably
lower price of £2 17s. 6d. In spite of all,
however, the industry still increases even in
Sussex, to say nothing of growth in other parts
of England. In Mr. R. H. Rew's report of
1S95,* it is stated that the total of dead poultry
sent from both Heathfield and Uckfield Stations
in 1893 was about 1,840 tons. In 1899 there
went up from Heathfield alone to London only,
the station-master informed us, nearly 2,500
tons ; but besides this there had developed
recently a quite considerable local trade.
Formerly nearly all the poulterers (not quite
all) at seaside places ordered their " fed "
poultry from London; but in the year iSgq
no less than 475 tons had gone from Heathfield
to Brighton, Eastbourne, and other resorts.

Partly to meet this increased demand, and
partly to get a little more margin of profit, the
number of Irish chickens imported into Sussex
has greatly increased. Some of the larger
fatters profess to scorn the idea of ever using
Irish chickens, and use some fictitious initial
for their crates instead of their real names ; but
at Three Bridges we traced many crates on
their way down to various well-known names.

Mr. Taylor, alluded to on p. 135, has per-
haps now (1910) one of the largest establish-
ments ; he collects most of his lean chickens
locally, has accommodation for 4,000 fatten-
ing birds, and markets in the season more than
1,200 weekly. Besides using the milk from
twenty cows on his own farm, Mr. Taylor
spends about £^ a week on skimmed milk, and
uses three tons of Sussex ground oats weekly.

The local rearing of chickens for table pur-
poses has increased greatly owing to a compara-
tively recent development of the industry. It
has often been stated that those who
EeariBg rear do not fatten, and that those

''"^th ^^ who fatten do not rear, with the ex-
Fattening, ception of such cottagers as rear and
fatten a small number each. That
state of things has been gradually changing,
and there is now a large and increasing number
of farmers in Sussex who not only fatten, but
also rear a considerable number. This is partly
owing to the reduction of profits causing a
desire to get the double profit upon each bird ;
partly to the necessity felt by farmers of finding
something that "paid better" than their farming
(this motive was stated to Mr. Rew so far back
as 1894) ; and partly to the knowledge the Sussex

* Report by Mr. Henry Rew (Assistant Commissioner) on
the Poultry Rearing and Fattening Industry of the Heathfield
District of Sussex. Price 3d. London : Eyre and Spottis-
woode, 1895.

farmers have now acquired as to the real value
of poultry manure.

One of the pioneers in this movement was
Mr. Nelson Kenward, of Waldron, who was
reported by Mr. Rew to be rearing in 1894
about 8,000 chickens upon his 200 acres of land.
In 1900 we found him still raising about the
same, which he regards as about his practicable
limit, keeping in view due rotation of other
products for sweetening the land ; but he was
doing as much as ever, and occasionally realised
7s. 6d. for some of his best fowls. Mr. Rew
also reported 600 chickens as reared upon 27
acres, the same number upon 19 acres, and
found 500 at one time (equal to from 2,000 to
2,500 during a whole year) upon 56 acres.
These were recent developments then ; we
found rearing as well as fattening now carried
on by many more. On a farm of 80 acres near
Uckfield there were (at end of September)
about 1,000 chickens of all ages ; some nearly
ready for the cages, while the youngest were
only just hatched, and destined for the January
and February market ; this would equal four or
five times as many in the whole year. On a
small farm — 22 acres — near Horeham Road
about 2,000 eggs were set every year, and as
many reared from them as possible, the balance
required being purchased. Another fatter in a
fairly large way at Warbleton reared for himself
about 5,000 on a separate holding of 40 acres,
away from his fattening place ; and we learnt
from him the simple explanation of what has
been so often foolishly laid down as a mysterious
law of Nature, to the effect that rearing and
fattening " cannot " be carried on upon the same
holding. At the present day it often is so
carried on ; but, as Mr. Haffenden pointed out,
most of the fatters' holdings are small, and held
for the express purpose of using up the manure
made by many hundreds of birds fed in pens.
Hence that land has already what manure of
this kind it can possibly stand, and is " sickened "
for running chickens upon besides ; if they are
to be also reared, therefore, there must either
be another holding or a much larger one.
Incompatibility from any other point of view
there is none whatever, and the system of com-
bining both profits is greatly extending.

The marked appreciation of the value of
poultry manure, was another interesting point
About 1885, we found no case of any being

actually sold in the district for cash,
Increased and the larger fatters occupied land
FowTManure. almost for the sole purpose of doing

something with it. Its marked effects
upon most crops, but especially upon the growth
of good grass on poor and scrubby soil, has

130

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

however had effect, and a great deal is now
sold ; but the curious thing is, that the nearer
the customer, the less is realised. The fact is
that those who can use it, prefer to do so on
their own ground, while those who sell to neigh-
bours, are small men who have no land and
must get rid of it, but have not enough to be
worth sending away, while their immediate
neighbours, of course, are already supplied with
as much as they can well use. We found various
fatters of this smaller class who sold it at from
3s. to 7s. 6d. per cart-load, the latter the highest
price we met with of this kind. A large fatter
had told us before this, however, that he had
himself been offered 20s. per ton, and had
refused it ; and we found one fatter who had
sent his away at 1 5s. per cart-load, though he now
preferred to use it himself But we ascertained
more which somewhat surprised us. Near
Worthing and Angmering we heard of poultry
manure in railway trucks ; and at once came to
the conclusion (as yet only supposition) that
this was connected with the large and special
cultivation of tomatoes and grapes under glass,
which distinguishes that neighbourhood. Re-
serving that point for the present, we traced
those truck-loads of manure back to Heathfield ;
and through the railway authorities there learnt
that they came from a very large fattening
establishment at Warblcton, which has been
often described by past writers on this subject.
We did not learn what price was paid for these
consignments, but the very next day visited
another fatter in a smaller but still considerable
way of business, who told us that a year or two
before he had sent his own manure away by
rail at the price of £2 los. per ton ; until his
customer supplied himself elsewhere, and so he
had lost that market. And upon this same
fatter's farm, now, we found seven glass-houses
recently put up, under which he was himself
now growing tomatoes. We need not point
the practical conclusion ; and will only add that
we regarded the upshot of this particular in-
vestigation as one of the most suggestive in
several ways.

Increase in rearing, naturally leads to the
question of the local stock. We regretted to
find that the fowl once known as the "Surrey"

breed, a kind of Dorkingised barn-
sulsex' '^°°''> which made the finest market

Fowls. fowls in former days, had practically

died out. This breed, as we knew
it, had delicate white legs with, as a rule, only
four claws, was very broad and square, and of
varying colour, but chiefly brown or bay, more
or less speckled with white and black. Un-
fortunately, exhibition breeders (so often decried)

had never taken up this fowl seriously, and thus
it has almost vanished. Mr. C. E. IBrooke told
us that of all the thousands of birds he purchased
for his pens at Baynards, not five per cent, were
of this race. Other fatters told us the same ;
some said there were none at all to be had, and
in all the sheds we saw, there were scarcely any.
The very few we could find alive, were on the
holdings of those who reared as well as fattened,
but they did not seem now to be very specially
valued. On one farm already mentioned, where
2,000 eggs were set — that of Mr. R. Roger, High-
lands, Horeham Road— we found about ten
really fine hens and pullets, and learnt that a
few years back they were kept up, but lately he
had taken a fancy to breed lighter colours and
whites, and rather let them go. We did our
best to impress upon him (and one or two
others) the value that was being now set in
many quarters upon this old breed, and that
perhaps even selling sittings of eggs might be
remunerative ; and made so much impression
that in this case at least, an effort was promised
to breed the stock again, in view of supplying it
if required. But there could not be a better
illustration of the need there is for the work and
enthusiasm of the genuine breeder.

In place of this old breed, a new local race
was manifest everywhere, truly indigenous
throughout wide districts. The hens are very
light buff or wheat-colour, approaching some-
times almost to white, the cockerels much
darker, of red and black colour. The colour,
and the full fluff behind, and the character of
feather, show unmistakable Cochin foundation,
which in most of them also appears in scanty
leg-feather ; but the breasts are deep and long,
and the legs have become white, partly owing to
selection by the farmers, who choose white legs,
and partly to soil and food, which have unmis-
takable eftect that way. All the fatters told
us that they preferred these birds to any others
now procurable, as they were " good doers," and
shaped well ; and the fact is a curious proof
that although the Cochin cross worked havoc
in table poultry when first introduced all over
England, a foundation of it has since gone to
form, when better tempered together, some of
the best table birds. The lightest of these birds,
with crosses of whites, have been developed by
Mr. Godfrey Shaw and others into the Albions
(now White Orpingtons), which is therefore
originally a Susse.x fowl. Of all the sheds
visited, we should say that roughly about one-
third of the pens were occupied by these light
Sussex fowls, which are generally ascribed to
Kentish origin, one-third by crosses with Ply-
mouth Rocks, and one-third by crosses of the

GRINDING OATS IN SUSSEX.

131

Light Brahma, which was much Hked. In the
Irish chickens the Rock cross predominates ; in
the local, the Light Brahmas (next to the Sussex
stock just described). All have gone to white
legs on the Sussex ground. The Buiif Orpington
is also being introduced, and is much liked : here
also we have a measure of Cochin blood in a
first-class table fowl. Several had tried the
cross between Indian Game and Dorking, and
with singular unanimity they did not seem to
care for it. They admitted that the produce
made the finest fowls, if reared to the proper age
and properly fatted ; but the birds did not, they
said, suit the average Sussex system, or " pay "
so well under it, a point which will be more
fully discussed a little farther on. A few were
kept for special fowls at the top price.

We may pass now to the food given to the
birds, and first of all under that heading to the
ground oats so universally used in Sussex, in
which the entire grain is ground up
Sussex jfijQ fjj^g meal without taking any

Oats. of the husk out, yet with no husk at

all visibly apparent. Writers have
discussed whether the Sussex poultry fattening
arose from the peculiarly suitable Surrey fowl
once common, or whether (as Mr. Rew thinks)
the industry created the fowl ; the real fact is
that this peculiar meal is the basis of both, and
that the poultry industry now dominates the
milling of the county, the mills running much
more on oats and kindred grains than upon
flour.* The more extended production and use
of this admirable meal, we are satisfied, is
intimately connected with the profitable exten-
sion of poultry-feeding into other districts of
England ; but many attempts to produce it in
other localities have failed, so far as we are
aware, and various statements have been made
as to the nature of what has been written of
as a mysterious secret. Some have said that
partially worn stones — neither freshly dressed
nor worn down- — are employed ; others that the
stones must be very closely run, at great risk of
fire ; others that special grain must be used,
such as the Russian oats mentioned above.

The great and general importance of this
part of the subject deserved special investiga-
tion, and by the aid of introductions kindly
furnished us by Mr. C. E. Brooke and several
others, and great courtesies shown in response
by several Sussex millers, we were enabled to
learn everything about this matter in the actual
mills, where all was explained to us, and we saw
stones dressed, and were able to sketch on the

* Even in France, it will be seen later on that increase of
poultry production has been accompanied by an increase in the
area under oats.

spot the illustration on the next page. None of
such explanations as mentioned above are
correct, the stones being used quite newly
dressed until re-dressing is required, and
American oats being ground as often as
Russian, both being taken chiefly for cheapness,
and English oats being also used, though the
black oats common in the county are not
suitable for this purpose, giving the flesh a bad
colour. We also found distinct difi"erences in
the meal produced, and in milling practice, to (
be curiously distinctive of different localities ;
and, finally, we found that even in Sussex
certain smaller mills turned out samples with
considerable husk in it, and that, where this
occurred to any extent in the meal used, rearers
complained of deaths amongst their very young
chickens in consequence.

Before discussing stones and methods, an-
other point requires mention. What is usually
sold as "pure" ground oats is not absolutely pure,
but contains a certain per-centage of barley. It
is not done for economy, for the barley costs as
much if not more ; but this grain is so much
drier in character, that it assists grinding a great
deal. The usual mixture is one sack of barley
to eight sacks of oats for what is conventionally
called "pure" oats.* This is so little that it
would hardly be noticed in a handful of grain
casually taken up, and besides the help in
grinding, such a mixture is positively preferred
and found better as food by most of those who
use it. Much beyond this proportion, however,
is found to " heat the blood " of the chickens, as
it is termed, the birds beginning to peck them-
selves and each other, which is most injurious
to fattening ; such greater mixtures (not made
for economy in grain, but because still easier to
grind) are not considered fair if sold as " pure "
ground oats. Oats are, however, also ground
really pure, but at a rather higher price, because
requiring more care as to speed and precise
distance of the stones. It will be seen from
these facts that a consumer will do well to be
definite as to what he is purchasing.

The really fundamental matter is the dressing
of the stones, and Fig. 66 represents a mill-stone
as dressed for oat -grinding by the Sussex
millers. The stones always used are Peak stones
from Derbyshire, and as a rule about four feet
in diameter. We found in various mills stones
with as few as eight " quarters " or sections, and
as many as twelve ; but the ten quarters here

• In Messrs. Thorpe & Son's latest plant at Rye, by means
of a fan attached to the elevator that conveys the meal from
the stones, and an "e-xhaust," much of what is termed the
" sweat " is carried off, with the result thai it is found that only
iV. part of barley need be incorporated.

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

shown were the most general, the stone being
sketched in the steam mills of Mr. Hampton at
Heathfield. What is called the "draft" (or
inclination) of the " leading " furrows is laid
out from a central circle of about four and a half
inches diameter for a four-feet stone, and the
width of the furrows in proportion to that of
the "lands" or raised flat portions is about as
two to three. So far there is nothing peculiar ;
but instead of these " lands " being " cracivcd,"
or dressed into parallel fine grooves as for flour
milling, they arc "stitched" or covered all over
with little pits by hand strokes of a very sharp-
pointed hard steel pick, as shown in the figure.
The surface or space round the eye of the
stone is somewhat lowered or hollowed as usual,
that the grain may enter freely and get cracked

Fig. 66. — Stone Dressed for Grinding Oats.

before being ground between the closer surfaces
as it travels outwards.

This is the essential characteristic of the'
oat-grinding Sussex stones, but there are minor
differences, as above hinted. Around Uckfiekl
they seem to like a very fine and smooth meal.
More immediately round Heathfield most of the
fatters rather disliked this, preferring a some-
what coarser grain which can be felt between the
finger and thumb, but still with no visible husk,
in it ; they considered that this kept the bowels!
in better order. In the Buxted mill the stones
were accordingly dressed with a lighter pick,
run low or close together, and left smoother
round the margin ; thus the grain is cracked by
the inner zone, ground by the middle zones, and
the meal " smoothed " just before delivery. The
result was a meal nearly as fine as flour, but not
in the least what is termed "killed," and the

stones were run at about 130 revolutions per
minute. At Edenbridge in Kent they also use
the light fine dress, and grind pure oats into the
finer meal. The Heathfield stones were dressed
coarser, with a heavier pick ; but there was a
further difference in the milling, due to the same
desire for a rather coarser-grained meal. The
running stone was adjusted rather higher, or at
a greater distance, so that the meal came out
with a certain small portion of unground husk
in it. This was automatically sifted out and
returned between the stones along with the
unground grain, which it assists, and is the
second time entirely ground, so that none is
taken out in the end. This method is supposed
to yield certain advantages, and the stones in
this mill were stated to be run at 170 revolu-
tions. In the mill at Rye, by means of belt-
driven machinery, 200 revolutions are now
attained.

It will be understood that under these cir-
cumstances products and prices are not quite
uniform. In the district itself meal is chiefly
sold by the " quarter " of two sacks. Taking
for illustration the two mills just mentioned, in
the Buxted mill, turning out very fine meal,
ground pure, they were grinding oats weigh-
ing 39 lbs. per bushel, while the meal weighed
32 lbs. per bushel (or was at least weighed out as
32 lbs. for a bushel) and was sold (September,
1900) at 1 8s. per quarter of eight bushels, or
256 lbs. At the Heathfield mill, producing meal
rather coarser in grain as preferred in that dis-
trict, with the slight mixture of barley, they were
grinding 40 lbs. American oats, and selling the
meal at 30 lbs. per bushel, for i6s. to 17s. per
quarter of 240 lbs. Prices would of course vary
at both mills according to the market.

Of the mixture described by Mr. Brown
above, of oats with barley and maize, a great
deal is also ground and used in Sussex, and we
were at much pains to ascertain the
Choice of comparative results. Our opinion
Meal and Fat. was decided, at the end, that as
compared with ground oats, the
mixed meal does not pay, in spite of its lower
price. We found this the opinion of almost all
the moderately small fatters, who combined in-
telligence with personal knowledge of the details
of their own business: they "could do better"
with the pure oats, or what passes for pure (fcr
all agreed that the very small portion of barley
mentioned above was quite as good if not better).
But we also made personal comparisons. These
were necessarily based upon " carrying in the
eye " a certain size or class of chicken, since we
could not ask busy men to weigh birds for us.
But doing this as well as we could, we came

EFFECTS OF SOUR MILK.

133

to the conclusion that m. whiteness of aspect
and more even laying on of flesh, as distinct
from deposits of fat, the birds fed on " pure '' oats
were worth about 3d. more than similar birds
fed on " fattening meal," and this was also the
opinion of the class of men described. Now
the cheaper meal certainly does not save 3d.
)n the three weeks of pen-feeding ; hence there
seems a loss rather than a saving from its use.

The same applies to the fat used, about
which the best fatters are particular. Some
buy and render down whatever they can get
cheapest from the butchers or elsewhere. But

cloyed the birds, and put them off their feeding.
This might have been expected.

The question of sour milk or sweet is no
open one in Sussex, and it is strange to
observe how some who presume to teach on
this subject, decry or sneer at a
Question of factor which lies at the very founda-
Sour Milk. t;ion of the industry, next in im-
portance to ground oats alone. The
fact that sour milk is used wherever there is an
industry which uses milk at all, may weigh
nothing with people of this oracular stamp ;
but it determines the question. There is, how-

(Mr. Curd's Farm, Buxled.)

such as pride themselves on the higli class of
their birds, buy " mutton cauls " and other
parts which render into clear mutton suet, or
if that fails, purchase Australian tallow, which
was first introduced into Sussex practice by
Mr. Kenward, and is also of course mutton fat.
This fat is whiter, and makes whiter flesh and
skin. It is best melted and thrown into cold
water, which reduces it to a " pin-head " con-
dition in which it is easily mixed with the meal.
We were told by some that we should find
sugar now used in feeding. We only came
across a very few feeders who had tried it for
a short time ; but all had given it up again,
for the simple reason that the sweet taste

ever, of course real dietetic reason for such a fact,
and it is simply this : the sour milk keeps the
digestive organs in proper activity, without
the use of fresh vegetables, which would other-
wise be necessary. Tell a Sussex fatter to use
" boiled milk," and the green food which would
then be required, and see what he would say !
It is true that the odour can be detected in the
manure ; but it is not correct to speak of a
" stench " as thus caused, and thcdroppings should
be, and generally are, perfectly firm and healthy.
The same good results cannot be obtained with-
out an adequate supply of sour skim milk ; and
in several sheds we visited where there was little
odour, and we remarked that they did not

134

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

seem to be using much milk there, the reply
was at once made, that unfortunately milk had
indeed been very short that year owing to want
of keep for the cows, and that their business had
suffered perceptibly in consequence. No attempt
is made to check the sourness, but rather the
contrary. At one of Mr. C. E. Brooke's farms
at Baynards, we found a very large iron tank
covered with loose boards, into which all the
skim milk was poured as received, and dipped
out as required, being kept " going " in this
way for weeks together without emptying.
We found the same plan on a smaller scale
elsewhere. The contents go into a sort of
curds and whey, which is well stirred up
together before being dipped out for use ; after
which the covering is replaced to keep out dirt,
rain, or sun.

The dietetic effect is illustrated by some
experiments in feeding reported by the Hon.
A. H. Cathcart, who is himself rather prejudiced
against sour milk. He fed a certain number of
birds on Neve's fattening meal as used in
Sussex, and others on a mixture of sharps, oat-
meal, barley-meal, and chopped hay made from
tender grass alone, steamed for twelve hours.
He found the chickens fed on this made more
growth than those fed on the Neve's meal, at a
much less cost. He used the skim milk fresh,
and found that sour milk "scoured '' them. It
naturally would do so, being here given in
addition to laxative vegetable food ; but the
Sussex fatters use it instead, and unless a bird
goes wrong occasionally, so used it does not
scour. The experiment is certainly interesting
and suggestive, but it is doubtful if food mixed
with chopped hay could be fed by a machine.
We found, however, in many sheds, that the
consistency of the food was rather thicker than
described in the article above, more resembling
what we should describe as rather thin porridge.

The two illustrations, reproduced from actual
photographs, of a cramming-shed and out-door
feeding cages, taken from different farms, will
illustrate what has been said by Mr. Brown
above, in regard to the rough and cheap
character of the cages, and also give a good idea
of many establishments themselves. Remark
was also made in the article upon two pat-
terns of pressing troughs which may be seen,
as shown in A and B, Fig. 67. A is by far the
more generally used in Sussex, while
Pressing B is often seen at demonstrations in

Troughs. London, and has been undoubtedly

copied from presses supplied by
the Baynards establishment, and with the idea
that it was supported by his authority. We
asked Mr. Brooke about this matter, and' he told

us that the first being made with the vertical
back was purely accidental, but it had somehow
got copied on his place, and thence by others ;
but that he considered, if the question was put
to him, that A was undoubtedly the correct form.
He, however, thought the modern improve-
ment of an interval between the two boards, as
shown in the figure, of some real importance,
such a trough being better cleaned. Over the
backs a very thin board is used, which when
loaded with bricks on the top, bends somewhat
to accommodate slight differences in size. One
mistake we often found was the use of a board
too narrow, when the edge of the board makes
quite a dent or nick in the back, which if pro-
nounced will make a difference of 3d. in the
selling price of the bird. As we pointed out to

Fig. 67 — Pressing Troughs.

several, this is quite avoided by using a rather
broader board.

We found considerably more difference than
we expected in the return realised for feathers.
Some small fatters dig all in or mi.x it with the

manure, and very many use the
Feathers. quills and larger feathers in this

manner, but those who have enough
sell the body feathers, which must be kept
separate for sale. The lowest price quoted to
us was 2jd. per lb., but, as was pointed out
to us, this was in September, when they are
more brittle and sell worst of all. Several
in a fairly large way made 3d. per lb. for their
body feathers, and the highest return we found
was from a " gentleman " farmer, who got 4d.
per lb. for his body feathers, and 2d. even fot
his quills ; but these last he explained to be
bought from him for one special purpose whose
demands were fully satisfied, and further market
for them could not be expected. What was of
interest in these last details, was the fact that a
man to whom small economies were probably
less important than to many, got a better
market for this by-product by superior energy
and intelligence. These prices are for average
coloured feathers. Very dark or black ones are
worth much less, and assorted light ones rather
more, while white ones kept apart fetch double,
or more. This appears one reason why some
Sussex breeders, as already intimated, have
shown a little preference for white fowls, besides
the fact that a white-feathered one plucks to a
much nicer-looking skin, and shows pin-feather

UTILISATION AND CURING OF FEATHERS.

135

much less. The receipts from feathers did not,
however, come to as much as we expected.
Mr. Rew gives a whole year's detailed account
of a 200 acre farm which sent over 10,000 birds
to market and spent ;£^25o on labour ; and the
feathers only amount to .£'14 in the receipts.
They were sold at 2^d., and except that 3d. per
lb. would rather increase the amount, it seemed
fairly representative of what was generally
realised in proportion.

We interviewed a very large firm of feather
merchants and dressers, who repeated almost
exactly what Mr. Brown has said above, but
added a few points which are of interest. The
minimum quantity they ever purchased was
I cwt., and this rule they said was general. The
chief thing wanted in England was more
cleanliness, and more thorough drying-out of the
grease in the shafts before selling. Actually
raw feathers they now refused themselves, and
such as took them paid a lower price. Proper
drying and care would make on any lot a
difference of 20 per cent, in what they would
fetch. In their factory the feathers as received
are placed in a large tank of chemical solution
and thoroughly washed, thence when drained
from the water in a receptacle of perforated
metal, which is whirled round at a high velocity
and thus dries them, the drying being finished
in revolving steam-heated drums. When thus
perfectly dried, they are whirled round again
somewhat as at first, to drive out the dust and
re-curl them, after which they are sorted out
and mixed for sale, an air blast from the last
machine doing the first stage of sorting auto-
matically, as it carries different feathers to
different distances.

Feathers may be home-cured in a smaller
way with considerable success, and it may be
useful to many to describe the best method.

They should be kept for a certain
Home-cured time to dry ; then the quills and
Feathers. coarse feathers must be all picked

out, and the feathers steeped in a
large tub of lime-water decanted clear from a
mi.xture of about i lb. of quicklime per gallon of
water. They should be well stirred about several
times in this, and left to steep for two or three
days. Take off all impurities first from tlie
surface of the liquid, and then take out the
feathers and drain them upon large sieves or on
a dean wire frame like a mason's riddle ; then
pass them through several waters, the first of
which should be hot, in the same way. Finally
dry them, first partially upon the wire, and
afterwards strewn out more thinly upon twine
netting stretched flat at a fair height in a warm
room ; tap this netting every now and then with

Flesh
versus
Fat.

a stick, and the dried ones will flutter through
to the floor. This sort of separation of the
individual feathers as they dry, and thorough
drying, after the first chemical treatment, are
the important details.

We found a good many fatters, even in
Sussex, who seemed insufficiently acquainted
with what may be called the practical science of
feeding. Most knew better, but
some seemed to endeavour to get
as much food as possible through
the birds, so long as the latter could
stand it or did not go wrong. The result of this
is, that when a bird so fed is trussed a great
deal of internal fat is found, as well as deposits
of mere fat under the skin. The mixed meal is
far worse than the " pure " oats in this way, but
even with ground oats, only a certain amount
can be converted into flesh, which is the great
object — flesh evenly infiltrated with fat — and
any surplus can only form fat. This makes the
bird heavy in hand, but in the end the sender
gradually loses reputation for " quality," and his
price suffers. This matter of even flesh and
feeding is connected with that of the open-
air pens, which so many writers have deemed
questionable. Some of the Sussex fatters
have made experiments on the subject ; for
as a class they are wonderfully keen and
intelligent men, by no means slow to take
in ideas or to test them. It was a real treat
to us discussing points with some of them,
and to find what a high type of industrious
and often Christian families, both as regards
parents and children, this industry had created
and maintained. They have tried in-doors for
the early stage, many of them, and the uniform
verdict is that in spite of the greater exposure,
the out-door pens answer better, unless a shed
overhead is open nearly all round. Some of
these out-door pens are really picturesque, as
in the illustration on ne.xt page of those belong-
ing to Mr. D. Taylor, Cro.xted Farm, Framfield.
The fact appears to be that during the earlier
stages especially, it is above all things needful to
have vigorous appetite and digestion ; and the
fresher air, wider outlook, and consequent greater
activity, tend to this, especially in spring and
summer, and the birds lay on more flesh and less
fat in proportion. The shelter is, however,
pretty effectual, as can be seen, against wind or
driving rain, and in really bad weather is sup-
plemented over the pens.

In regard to cleansing the troughs used in
front of these pens, one well-known fatter
had a curious plan, which may be usefully sug-
gestive. Extra troughs being provided, those
not in use were thrown into one or other of the

136

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

ponds on the farni, there to lie in soak for
several da)-s. The same ponds contained gold
and silver fish ; and owing probably to the
amount of food thus insensibly added, the fish
had swarmed to a great extent, but it was
singular that many of the young fish had lost
most of their colour. This seems to us another
curious example, in a quite different direction,
of the effect of ground oats in whitening the
skin.

Another side of the feeding problem is raised
by considering the gains in weight during
successive weeks of fattening ; coupled with the

referred to by JNIr. E. Brown on p. 109. The
average weight of all when put up to fatten was
4 lbs. iS'/2 ozs., and the weight gained during
successive weeks was as follows :—

Entire
24 Birds.

Average
Each.

During first week

During second week

During third week

During fourth week

lbs. ozs.
II 4
32 II
8 14
2 6i

lbs. ozs.

0 9}

1 5f
0 5A
0 14

Total gain

57 3i

2 6

fact that birds may be brought to the utmost
pitch of perfection at -a. pecuniary loss. There is
not the slightest doubt that many of the birds

which take prizes at shows of dead
Pr^ofitorLoss poultry, such as Smithfield, have
Fattening. been prepared at a loss as regards

any possible market price, though
they may pay for purposes of competition. Such
a fact, as we must show, has a very important
bearing upon advice as to the best breeds and
crosses. Both points may find illustration in
turther figures regarding the same twenty-four
fowls fatted b\- Mr. C. E. Brooke (which were
his exhibits at the Dairy Show of 1894) already

After the second week, it can be observed
that the increase rapidly falls off, and that the
fourth week added scarcely anything — only

1 Hy, ozs. per bird. If fowls could be sold merely
by weight, therefore, they would pay better if
killed after the fortnight ; but the further feed-
ing, though it adds less, rounds out and finishes
off the whole bird, and thus makes a share of
the price by giving higher " quality." These
particular fowls, however, cost 2s. each to feed
for the four weeks, in food only, besides the
labour ; and it is clear that at this cost the

2 lbs. 6 ozs. of flesh and fat added in four
weeks could not possibly pay, except at the

FACTORS AFFECTING PROFIT.

extra price of prize birds at a London show.
This is also shown by some experiments re-
corded by the Hon. A. H. Cathcart. Out of
thirty-two birds he put up to fatten, two failed,
and were discarded ; of the remainder, six
made in three weeks a gain in weight of 15.7
per cent., eleven of 31.6 per cent., and the rest,
thirteen, of 50 per cent. It is manifest that
these last must pay much the best. He also,
as others have done, notices the fact that the
first two weeks give the best results in weight,
but considers that the last week adds a penny
or more per lb. to the value of the fowl in
" quality."

It is by these market considerations that the
real value of breeds and crosses is to be deter-
mined, where regular profit is the object in
view, and not by winners prepared, often
utterl}' regardless of expense, for a competitive
class. Mr. C. E. Brooke, whose long study of
this subject is well known, kindly prepared for
us, from the books of his firm, the following
table showing the cost in different months for
lean chickens of various grades, and the aver-
age prices realised in London, also for various
grades, in 1899. The figures show some of
those temporary fluctuations in price for which
no very definite reason can afterwards be
given ; but on the whole afford, in spite of
these, a good general view of the average trade
that is done. A feature interesting to many
will be the prices obtainable for old hens alive ;
another is the rather low market for what the
great commission dealers term " small stuff."

The very narrow margin in the Lincolnshire
birds known as " Bostons " is owing to the fact
that these are simply well-reared chickens
merely fed in a pen for a week or so, but not

crammed or shaped like the Sussex birds.
Essex birds mostly come as they are, and we
have seen many which would have added six-
pence to their value merely by one week's good
feeding in a cage.

The table further gives an idea of the close
margin which feeders now have in regard to a
large portion of their business, and also of the
seasonal changes in the market.
Choice of These are important. In spring.
Breeds for , • , 1 i. i_ 1 r

Table Poultry chickens need not be very large to
' realise a good price, provided they
are well and evenly fed, and nicely prepared ;
but people who will pay highly for this class, at
this season, are limited in number. As the year
advances, birds must be larger to realise the
same figures, but at this lower price per pound
of meat there is a larger market ; another class
of purchasers will now afford good poultry, and
their requirement of quantity for their money
has to be studied. It is from such practical
£ s. d. points of view that we have to consider
what are suitable breeds and crosses, concerning
which the advice of a certain class of writers
has caused so much loss to some engaging in
the industry, that it is necessary in a practical
work like this to make the matter clear. The
most prominent representative of this theoretical
school is, perhaps, Mr. Tegetmeier, who prac-
tically recommends only the old Surrey fowl
(which is indeed admirable for all times of year,
if it can only be had !) and crosses of Dorking
with Game or Indian Game. He specifically
■' cautions farmers " against Brahmas or Lang-
shans, and of such crosses says(/(7?//'«(7/R.A.S.) :
" It is quite true that size can be gained in this
manner, but as the cross-bred birds are deficient
in the amount of flesh on the breast, and carry

Approximate C

est of L

an Chic!-

eiis for Fattening, 1909.

Jan.

Feb.

March.

April.

May.

June.

July. Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov. Dec.

Best Sussex sorts 1
Good ,, locally reared/

s. L.
2/- 2/9

S. L.

2/- 2/9

S. L.
2/- 3/-

2/- 3/-

2/3 3/-

2/3 2/9

2/- 2/6 1/9 2/6

2/- 2/6

2/- 2/6

2/- 2/6

2/5 2/9

Boston and Cambridge

2/- 3/-

2/- 3/-

2/- 3/-

2/- 2/9

2/- 3/-

2/- 3/-

2/- 2/9 2/- 2/6

1/9 2/6

1/9 2/6

2/- 2/6

2/3 3/-

Irish

1/6 2/6

1/6 2/5

1/6 2/6

i/S 2/6

1/8 2/9

1/8 2/6

1/6 2/- 1/3 2/-

1/3 2/-

1/4 2/-

1/6 2/-

2/- 2/g

Welsh

1/6 2/6

1/6 2/6

T/6 2/9

1/9 2/9

1/9 3/-

2/- 3/-

1/6 2/6 T/6 2/6

1/6 2/6

1/6 2/6

1/6 2/6

1/9 3/-

Prices c

/ Poultry in Central and Leaden/tall Markets, 1909.

S. L.

S. L.

S. L.

S. L.

S. L.

S. L.

S. L.

S. L.

S. L.

S. L.

S. L.

Best Sussex, Fatted ...

3/- 4/6

3/- 4/6

3/- 4/6

3/3 4/6

3/- 4/6

3/- 4/6

3/- 4/-

2/6 3/6

2/9 3/6

3/- 4/-

2/9 3/9

3/3 4/5

,, very large.or Capons

5/- 7/-

5/- 6/6

5/- 6/6

4/9 5/9

4/9 5/6

4/9 6/-

4/3 4/9

3/9 4/6

4/- 5/-

4/6 5/6

4/t 5/-

4/9 6/-

Boston and Cambridge

2/6 3/6

2/6 3/6

2/6 4/-

2/6 4/-

2/6 4/-

2/6 3/9

2/9 3/6

2/- 3/e

1/9 3/3

V9 3/3

2/3 3/3

2/9 4/-

Essex ...

2/- 3/9

2/- 3/6

2/5 3/5

2/3 3/9

2/3 3/9

2/- 3/6

2/- 3/0

1/9 3/-

2/- 3/3

2/- 3/-

2/- 3/-

2/6 4/6

Irish

1/6 3/-

2/- 3/6

2/- 3/6

2/- 3/6

2/3 3/6

2/- 3/3

1/9 3/-

1/6 2/6

1/6 2/g

1/6 2/9

1/5 2/5

2/6 4/-

Last year Hens, alive...

1/6 2/3

1/9 2/6

2/- 3/-

2/- 2/9

1/9 2/6

1/6 2/6

1/6 2/3

1/6 2/-

1/6 2/3

1/6 2/3

1/6 2/-

1/9 2/3

Russian Fowls

1/3 2/-

1/3 2/-

1/6 2/3

1/9 2/6

1/9 2/6

1/9 2/5

—

—

—

—

—

—

Canadian

From

lod.

to I/-

per

lb.

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

West Australian

do.

do.

do.

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

English Geese

—

—

—

—

—

5/6 6/6

5/- 7/-

5/- 6/-

—

—

Ducks

2/6 3/6

2/6 3/6

2/6 3/9

2/6 4/6

3/- 5/-

2/3 3/6

2/S 3/6

2/- 3/-

2/3 3/-

2/3 3/-

2/3 3/6

2/6 4/6

Turkeys

lod. to

I/- lb.

— —

—

—

—

lOd,

to l/-

lb.

iod.-i/<i lb.

S. Small. L. targe.

138

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

a great deal of offal in the shape of heavy, coarse
bones and useless feathers, the proceeding is not
desirable. Crosses of this kind have found no
favour in the eyes of our practical neighbours,
the French, nor are the birds appreciated by the
feeders who buy for the purpose of fattening
fowls for the market." Of Plymouth Rocks, it is
similarly stated that they are " not adapted for
market fowl in England," and of Wyandottes,
that " they are, as might have been expected,
destitute of any merit as market fowls." When
we proceed to test such statements, practically,
by either the experience of the " feeders," or
by the practice of " the French," or finally
by the results at good shows of dead poultry, it
will be found rather difficult to compress a
greater number of errors within so i&\\ lines.

Taking first the feeders, the extremely small
proportion of the old Surrey breed has already
been referred to, though that is not from choice,
but from necessity : also the curious fact that
the cross of Indian Game and Dorking has been
tried by them, and not approved for the bulk of
their business. It is admitted to make the very
finest specimens at a certain cost, if a certain
price can be reached ; but it does not meet the
greater part of the figures above, or pay at the
size the feeder chiefly wants : it needs age and
size to show profitably, and does best late in the
year. Their own present local breed, as already
stated, has a strong Cochin infusion, shown by
fluff and feathered shanks ; and the rest are
chiefly Brahma or Plymouth Rock crosses. The
first is specially liked by a large number, who
say it "pays" in their particular connection
better than any other. Mr. Kenward, who
raised and fattened 8,ooo of his own birds,
preferred the Dorking and Brahma cross to any
other, as making most money, and told us
personally that some of his birds realised
/s. 6d. each, about the top price of the London
market. These birds are not at all deficient in
breast, but on the contrary specially good in that
respect, as good Brahma crosses generally are.

French practice is to the same effect. The
bird most in favour with French feeders of the
present day, the Faverolles, is a combination of
the Houdan with the Dorking and the Brahma
— two English components to one French !
This cross-bred bird has now nearly displaced
the Houdan in the Houdan district itself ; and
we thus see that in actual fact a cross of this
kind, so far from finding no favour as alleged,
is amongst " our practical neighbours " their
last and favourite production. And at some
Smithfield exhibitions the Faverolles displayed
were considered by all the poulterers, without
exception, about the best birds at the show.

The same conclusion is enforced by the prices
realised at the Smithfield shows of dead table
poultry : observe, we say by the prices, rather
than the prizes, prices being the real
Results in criterion of the professional fatter.
Competition. Passing a few of the earliest years
as possibly questionable on the
ground of " ignorance " (which has, indeed, been
alleged against their results), we take as the first
the year 1894, in which it was known the Duke
of York would enter birds, and there was accord-
ingly heavy competition. The Royal entries
should be omitted, as realising obviously
"royal" prices; of the remainder, the highest
price for a pair of fowls was realised by Lady
Rothschild's Brahma-Dorking cockerels, weigh-
ing 16 lbs. 14 ozs., entered at 15s. the couple, and
fetching at auction 30s., while the cup pair of
Indian Game and Dorking cockerels weighed
12 lbs. 10 ozs., and realised 27s. This was the
more remarkable because the 1894 show was
dominated by the theorists here in view, to
the extent that there was only one class in each
sex for all cross-breds beside those Game and
Dorkings and " Surreys " favoured by them, and
only one each for all other pure breeds, the
winning pullets in the latter being Wyandottes,
entered at 12s. and realising iSs. On the other
hand, what is said above about the very highest
quality and occasional special prices, was borne
out by the Earl of Yarborough's six-group of
the Indian Game and Dorking cross, which was
bought by Mr. W. Bellamy for the Constitutional
Ciub for six guineas ; this group weighed
55 lbs. 14 ozs., averaging 9 lbs. 5 ozs. each, at an
average price of 2s. 3d. per lb. We notice these
particularly because the prices approximated to
French prices, and the fowls accordingly fully
equalled French fowls. For years past French
feeders have had nothing to teach English, so
far as anything like such prices can be obtained ;
but it is not reasonable to expect a bird sold for
5 s. to equal a French one sold for 20s.

In 1S95 the highest of the Dorking cockerels
realised 15s., pullets 13s.; the English Game
cockerels i8s. ; Indian Game lis.; and pullets
los. 6d. Again there was one class only in
each sex for all other pure breeds, Langshans
winning in each, and realising 13s. and 13s. 6d.
Of crosses, top prices were in Game Dorkings,
14s. and 15s. ; Indian Game ditto, i8s. 6d. (very
large) and 14s., while in the one class each for
all other crosses, two pairs of Dorking and
Brahma cockerels realised i6s. and 15s., and
the best pullets 14s. We have no notes of 1896,
but by 1897 the merits of other breeds had
made themselves felt, and competition in all
was stronger, with high prices as the result all

CHOICE OF BREEDS AND CROSSES.

139

round. In Dorkings, pairs of coclcerels fetched
21S., pullets 23s. and i6s. ; English Game
cockerels 14s., pullets 24s. and i6s. ; Lang-
shans (one class) i8s. and 15s., both pullets ;
Orpingtons (one class) 40s. and i6s. (cockerels) ;
Rocks (one class) 19s. (these were pullets from
a Sussex feeder, Mr. Kenward of Waldron).
In the crosses. Game Dorkings fetched 21s. (two
pairs); Indian and Dorking, i8s. (two pairs) for
cockerels, and 27s. pullets ; the class for all
others, 23s. in cockerels for Indian and Lang-
shan, 15s. in pullets for same cross, and another
iSs. for Indian and Sussex.

In 1898 there was again strong competition,
and we append the results in fuller tabular form,
which show some interesting variations, though
the main conclusions remain as before. Pure
Dorkings beat all other pure breeds both in
highest price and average ; next come Lang-
shans in highest price and Plymouth Rocks in
average. Again the competition value of the
Indian Game cross is manifest in higher prices,
but it also gives nearly the lowest price ; and
the winners and most of the others in Surrey
and Sussex fowls had feathered less.

■6

*- k.

.

t2.c .

"rt s

°-

5

(Co-§

^1 i

t't-A

•oSS

S^D

t) 4)0

We

Firs

except

lis

si J
i. ^

Dorking cock erels

16 lbs.

12 OZS.

22/-

7/-

io/7i

pullets

15 lbs.

6 OZS.

22/-

7/6

10/6

0. E. Came, either sex ...

10 lbs.

14 OZS.

lo/-

6/-

8/1 1

Indian Game, either sex . . .

17 lbs.

13/-

7/6

9/6

Langshans, either sex

:9 lbs.

2 OZS.

13/6

5/6

9/-4

(second prize)

21 lbs.

8 OZS.

13-

Orpingtons ...

14 lbs.

8 OZS.

10/-

7/-

S/7

(No. 103, V. h. c.)

13/-

Plymouth Rock

14 lbs.

12 OZS.

.2/-

S/-

10/6

(third)

17 lbs.

4 OZS.

13/-

Wyandotte

14 lbs.

2 OZS.

II/6

8/-

9/2i

(third)

16 lbs.

1 1/6

Any other Breed:

Lincolnshire Buff

15 lbs.

6 OZS.

13/-

FaveroUes

13 lbs.

2 OZS.

9/-

Cross Breeds :

0. E. Game-Dorking ...

IS lbs.

J3-6

8,6

9/8

Indian Game-Dorking

cockerels

20 lbs.

1 2 OZS.

21/-

6/6

9/-

pullets...

13 lbs.

14 OZS.

16/-

6/6

9/10

Any other Cross cockerels

16 lbs.

14 OZS.

15/-

7/-

9/3

pullets...

1 5 lbs.

8 OZS.

15/-

7/-

S/ii

Surrey or Sussex cockerels

20 lbs.

4 OZS.

16/-

7/-

9/2

pullets ...

14 lbs.

6 OZS.

11/-

6/-

7/10

In 1899 the prize birds were not sold by
auction but left to be claimed, only the residue
being sold at the close. The results were not
different, quality being high all round. Dorking
cockerels realised i6s. per couple and pullets
I2S. ; English Game, 12s. (cockerels); Indian
Game 15s. (two pairs, both cockerels); Lang-

shans, 1 6s. (three pairs) and 15s. (two pairs);
Black Orpingtons, i6s. and 15s. (cockerels);
Buffs, 15s. (two pairs); Plymouth Rocks, 15s.
(two pairs) ; Wyandottes, 15s. ; any other breed,
14s. and I2S. 6d. for FaveroUes, which would un-
doubtedly have fetched more. In the crosses,
Game and Dorkings made iSs. and 15s.; Indian
and Dorking, 24s. for cockerels, and 1 8s. pullets;
any other cross, 24s. in cockerels for Sussex-
Dorking ; i6s. in pullets for Indian-Langshans ;
Surrey or Sussex 20s. and i8s. for cockerels, i8s.
and 15s. pullets, nearly all these being more or
less feather-legged, according to what we have
said before.

Later figures than these are unnecessary for
the intelligent rearer and fatter, and he will
learn from such facts and the table on p. 137
to select his birds according to the
SeLection ^^^'^' P^'ice, and market he is work-
ing for, and his own circumstances
and experience. Such shows as have been cited
have done, perhaps, as much good in promoting
greater freedom in this respect, as in teaching
the public what good poultry is, and the cash
value of it ; and it should be more generally
known than it appears to be that the Worship-
ful Company of Poulterers offer their gold and
silver medals to any County exhibition of dead
poultry which comprises not less than fifty ex-
hibits, from which one month's notice and
application has been sent to the Clerk of the
Company. We have been informed by several
poulterers and salesmen in the wholesale
London markets that the former prejudice
against both black legs, and yellow legs and
skin, has largely disappeared, though not en-
tirely, but that white legs and skin still have
real value. It is remarkable that in America
the yellow skin and leg are actually preferred ;
and most people who have made direct compari-
son at the same meal have admitted that there is
a certain kind of moist juiciness in the meat of
many yellow birds, which does not as a rule exist
in the white breeds. The flesh of the latter is
typified in perfection by that of the pheasant,
or in fowls of the Dorking, both of which many
people think rather short and dry, though very
superior in other respects. This is the probable
explanation of a theory held by nearly all
Belgian feeders, that the best results in table
poultry are obtained by crossing a yellow race
upon a whitc-fleshed race, which is singularly
borne out by the Indian Game or Brahma cross
upon the Dorking ; by the Buff Orpington or
Lincolnshire Buff, which has taken the Buff
Cochin into indigenous white-skinned stock ;
and by the FaveroUes, which is admitted by
the French to surpass the original Houdan.

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Neither can any given breed or cross be
relied upon, merely as such, to produce good
table fowls. Individual birds or strains of the
same breed differ greatly in their table quality,
and need to be carefully chosen in reference to
this. The flesh of the modern type of Lang-
shans may be excellent, but the immense length
of limb makes the trussed bird look repulsive.
Many Dorkings are short in the breast-bone and
coarse in skin, while others are long in body
and fine. Many modern Brahmas, since these
have been bred to the Cochin model, are unfit
for crossing, while others may be found which
produce admirable table fowls, having splendid
breasts and thin pinky skins. The modern
breeds of Wyandottes, Rocks, and Orpingtons
differ amazingly in their conformation and table
qualities ; and so do Indian Game as regards
their length and size of limb, and their effect in
producing white or yellow birds, a question
which still has a money value. One Indian
Game cock will throw chiefly white skin with
Dorking bens, and another yellow ; and one
strain of Dorkings will do the first, and another
the second, with the same Indian mate.

The practical breeder will study these things
more than the precise cross, but chiefly of all
keep in view skin, breast, and bone. A thick
coarse skin, or which looks coarse from pin-
feather, means an appreciable amount off the
value of a bird equal in all other respects.
Objection to "bone "has been carried by some
to a ridiculous extent ; yet too massive shanks
also depreciate a fowl. But the chief thing of
all is breast. This must be broad, that from a
large fowl slices may be cut : this point is
judged from the front of the live bird, and is
most generally wanting in Langshans, and some
other Asiatics. The breast should also be deep,
so that the slices may be large ones. This is
judged from the side, which should resemble
roughly a parallelogram with the corners
rounded, as in a good Dorking, or a fir-cone
tapering from shoulders to the rear, as in good
Game ; and this point is most apt to fail in
Brahmas, Langshans, Rocks, and Wyandottes.
And the breast should be long, that the whole
carcase may be so, and carry much meat ; this
is best judged by feeling the actual keel of the
bone. Many turkeys fail here lamentably, and
so do many Dorkings, Brahmas, and even some
Indian Game ; but any student of the Smithfield
shows, or of fowls and their prices at a first-class
West-end poulterer's, will soon see that, supposing
good colour and finish, this point of length of
carcase is perhaps of all others most important
in determining the apparent size and value of a
fowl. Of all the races used, birds can be found

good in all these respects, quite independently
of their feather points, which are of no table
value ; from such the intelligent rearer will
make his selections.

Almost equal differences will be found
between strains and individuals of all breeds
and crosses as regards early maturity, and
aptitude to lay on flesh in response to food.
Nothing is more vital to the question of profit
than this, as exemplified in Mr. Cathcart's
results cited on page 137 ; and it has been
found that chickens reared upon ground oats
do much better upon this food when fattening,
than those reared upon grain. The rearer who
breeds his own stock will proceed upon his own
knowledge and experience in regard to these
points ; in regard to purchases he must rely
upon either observation or inquiry : if he knows
the real age of a bird, he will be able to judge
pretty well about its rate of growth and condi-
tion. Just as in breeding for egg-laying, the
intelligent development of such practical qualities
is vital to success, in face of the growing com-
petition from abroad and the extension of
poultrj'-rearing at home, and the effects of both
upon a market which has its limits, and may be
affected by greater production like any other.

That the market has been affected to some
extent already has been shown above, and is
sufficiently evident. The greatest opening for

successful effort lies in that editca-
Opening-up fig^i gf ^/^^ public to appreciate and
New Markets. P^3' ^^^ better poultry, which Mr.

Brown has referred to on page 1 10.
It is doubtful if the London market can take
much greater supplies at present prices, and we
have seen that a perceptible portion of the
Susse.x product is already going into local
markets. Here there is room for expansion.
There are large districts, and even towns, where
only low-priced common poultry are as yet
practically known. The Hon. A. H. Cathcart*
reported in 1899 that is. 6d. was the lowest and
2s. 6d. the highest price for a fowl in any
market in East Yorkshire, while at York itself
3s. was thought high, and any more simply
exorbitant. Yet by experience people in York
had been taught to pay him 5s. each for larger
fatted birds, and educated to understand that
they were thus actually paying less per poimd
for actual flesh, and that of much better quality.
This arises from the fact that the bone and offal
grow comparatively little in the few weeks of
fattening, and that the weight added is nearly
all to the tdiblc portion of the bird. '* This has
already been illustrated by figures from two
English feeders ; it may be further so, perhaps

* Journal of the Royal AgrUuUural Sorietv.

JUDGING TABLE POULTRY.

more clearly, by some experiments made in
Canada by Prof. Robertson. He bought ordin-
ary chickens in the Ottawa market, of which
three fair representatives were killed as they were,
and weighed as plucked ; as trussed for cooking ;
after cooking ; and finally the weight taken of
the bones and carcase left, the rest reckoning as
edible meat. The same was done with three
similar chickens fed up for 36 days, and the
following were the results ; the weights being
that of the whole lot of three each : —

Weight

Weight

befure

after

Fattening.

Fattening.

lbs. 02s.

lbs. OJS.

With feathers off

8 8

16 4

Ready for cooking

5 2

II 6

After being cooked two days

3 8

9 2

Bones

I 2

I II

Edible portion

2 6

7 6

It will be seen that while the plucked weight
of the fatted ones was barely twice, the weight
of edible meat was fully tlure times that of the
ordinary birds. Good shows of dead poultry at
agricultural and poultry shows, will assist in
spreading this sort of knowledge, and may thus
open markets in other districts.

It may be possible also to develop fresh
tastes in poultry. As stated in the article above,
there has been very little increase, if any, in the
demand for petits poussins or " milk chickens,"
which appear too tender and melting in te.xture
for average English palates, trained mainly on
joints instead of the tender stews and entrees so
universal on the Continent. We have known
many experiments in offering such a delicacy
to result in the verdict that it was not worth
eating, especially at the price : national palate
has much to do with matters such as these.
But when we consider the immense, apparently
unlimited, demand in America for " broilers " of
li lbs. to 2i lbs. in weight, the outlook for such
a product as this in England may perhaps be
different ; and every breeder who, on any
possible opportunity, treats a friend or an
accidental guest to a broiled chicken, may
perhaps be doing something to create a taste
and demand for birds of this type. So far we
have only come across broiled chicken to any
extent upon the upper reaches of the Thames,
where it is well known under the name of
" sudden death," * and very popular ; and where

* So called because it is usual to go and catch your chicken
and chop its head off, letting it bleed while you boil up a pot
of water. You dip it in the boiling water, which enables you
to pull off the skin with feathers and all ; then draw, split,
and broil it, with pepper and salt to taste, basting with butter,
and putting more butter on the hot bird when served.

known elsewhere, it has generally become so
through acquaintance with boating men. An
active demand for this class of birds would be ol
great advantage to rearers, as they are marketed
earlier, without the risks and critical stages of
fattening ; and what boating men have already
done should encourage rearers to set a similar
example, and show what this appetising dish
is, on every possible occasion. More or less of
the methods employed in their production in
America will, no doubt, be adopted should the
" broiler " class of chickens ever come into ex-
tensive demand ; at present the small market
in London is chiefly supplied by the smaller
class of Irish birds.

Very little need be said about exhibiting
table poultry. It is generally stated that the
birds are to be shown " trussed but not drawn,"
but this is misleading, as they are
Exhibiting not really trussed at all. They
Judging. should be shaped in the press, or by

cloths, so that the legs and wings lie
neatly, close up to the body, in the proper posi-
tion; and most carefully plucked and stubbed,
so that the holes of the feathers may not look
coarse ; leaving feathers only on the head, and an
inch or two down the neck. The shanks should
have been washed or wiped if necessary, before
pressing ; and after setting, the head may
be wiped if required. Nothing more is allowed
or should be done, beyond tying the hocks to-
gether, and the birds are shown on their backs
upon a flat or slightly sloping board, with their
necks and heads hanging down over the front
edge, towards the spectator. Breaking the
breast-bone, or any other such expedient as is
presently described, is not allowed.

Judging should depend upon fair and pro-
portionate consideration of many points. Size
and good matching ought to count for a good
deal, and it is nonsense to rail as some do at
the alleged fact — never true in a real sense — that
they have been "judged by weight." It is
simply that size has a value ; and the aim of
a show should be to teach the feeder to pro-
duce, and to encourage the production of, birds
of the most value to him, and the purchaser, and
the public. It is not the business of poultry
theorists to artificially encourage, or compel
exhibition of, what they are pleased to pro-
nounce superior " quality," but which the public
will not pay the same price for. Straightness
of breast-bone also counts a great deal in the
appearance. That and length of body, well filled
up with meat to the top of the keel, have as
much as anything to do with the making of a
fine table fowl. Breadth, and fullness of the

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

wing, likewise count. Fine and delicate-looking
skin must also be considered, and also white-
ness of skin and body, though in less degree, for
splendid birds have been shown quite yellow in
skin. Another quite cardinal point is evenness
of flesh, free from deposits of yellow fat clearly
visible under the skin : the latter at once
stamps the bird as badly fed and coarse. Really
good and even feeding shows specially upon
the back, which should be well covered with
lean meat ; so reliable is this sign of good
feeding, that in France fowls are often ex-
posed for sale with the back uppermost. If
that is well covered with meat the breast is
nearly sure to be so ; but the converse by no
means holds good, so that many English house-
keepers do not believe in there being much
meat on the back at all. Smallness of bone
should have some weight given to it, though
not nearly what some insist upon. Finally,
there is the quality of the flesh, which can be
judged by gentle, delicate touches with the
tips of the first two fingers of the right hand.
Since the previous edition was published
the Utility Poultry Club have decided upon
the following standard for judging table poul-
try : —

1. Size and quality 25 points.

2. Youth, quantity, and quality of breast meat ... 30 points.

3. Straightness of keel, fineness of bone, absence

of offal and surplus fat 25 points.

4. General marketable appearance, colour of

skin, &c 20 points.

The feeder or breeder as such has nothing
to do with trussing fowls or preparing them for
the table. He cannot have, because the least
wound would be a centre of de-
Trussing composition, and the birds he sends
Fowls. must " keep " as long as possible.
That is why he fasts them, that they
may go to market with both crop and intestines
empty. Trussing is the poulterer's business,
and is put off till the birds are sold for actual
consumption. Of course, now and then a
poulterer who is close to his own source of
supply may order fowls to be delivered trussed,
but this is seldom the case. More often a rearer
and feeder in a small way, in a district where a
demand for better poultry is growing, may have
private customers, and be glad to secure the
double profit.

There are various ways of trussing a fowl ;
the old-fashioned plan with skewers, the liver
being tucked into one wing while the gizzard
graces the other, being described in most cookery
books. A much superior method has, however,
been more and more adopted by the best

London tradesmen during recent years, and is
likely to supersede all others wherever it
becomes known. The following description of
this method, which has not hitherto been cor-
rectly explained, is written from notes of the
lectures and demonstrations given during
several years in succession at the Dairy and
Smithfield London shows of table poultry, by
Mr. W. Bellamy, of Jermyn Street, one of the
best and probably the largest* of West End
poulterers, and by his chief manager (Mr.
R. Batchelor).

The first thing is to draw the sinews from
the drumsticks. This can be done in two ways.
Making a longitudinal incision in either side of
the shank with the point of the knife, about an
inch above the foot, the end of a skewer is
inserted under the sinew, the skewer twisted
round it for a purchase, and taking the skewer
in the right hand, the sinew is drawn out. The
other way is to treat it like a turkey's leg,
cutting across the shank in front, just above
the foot, down to the bone, and bending the foot
further over till the shank-bone breaks ; then
hooking the bent-down foot into a V-shaped
hook (an ordinary meat-hook does not answer :
the angle of the V is required to "jam" and
hold the foot firmly), and pulling the limb down,
the foot and sinew are left behind. Either now
or previously the two points are cut off from each
wing, and either all the toes half an inch from the
ball of the foot, or some cut off the entire foot,
which we think is preferable, even when not done
in drawing the sinew. When a fowl is thus pre-
pared at home, all these trimmings should go
into the stock-pot along with the liver, gizzard,
neck, etc. The sinew above the hock-joint, in
front, is also cut across, in order that the shank
may " lay out " nicely, instead of doubling up as
in the natural position.

Next we take off the head and neck. With
the fowl's breast downwards, pinch up the skin
at the back of the neck close to the shoulders,
insert the point of the knife longitudinally at
the side, and cut upwards so as to leave a small
flap about an inch long. Draw this flap back,
and pressing the very top of the breast firmly
down to the table, cut through the neck-joint
close to the root, or level with the shoulders,
leaving no neck-bone projecting. This is to be
done, however, without cutting through the skin
on the lower or breast side, which is simply
scraped fairly clean of flesh and the congealed
blood which may have collected. We thus have

• We are informed that 340,000 fowls alone were bought
and sold by Mr. Bellamy during a single year. Indepen-
dently of the public demonstrations above mentioned, the
influence of methods thus widely exemplified is necessarily
great.

THUSSING FOR THE TABLE.

'43

a small flap an inch beyond the stump of the
neck at the back, and a broad flap from the
breast or front, which is cut off about three
inches long. In trussing up, the back flap is
first folded over the stump ; then the broad flap,
when secured over this, keeps in the juice and
the gravy.

The crop can now be easily " peeled " away
from the surrounding flesh, always commencing
from the left side and going round, and is cut oft",
with the remnant of windpipe, pretty far in. The
forefinger of the right hand is then introduced
into the cavity, and worked thoroughly round, as
deeply as possible, between the viscera and car-
case of the bird, loosening everything all round,
as far as the finger can reach ; upon this depends
easy " drawing.'' The fowl is then held tail
upwards on the table, and a cut about half an
inch deep made across just under the tail-joint
or " parson's nose," and above the vent. The
hooked forefinger can now be passed round
the lower end of the bowel, and a small loop
pulled out ; inserting the knife under this, cut
upwards, and the vent is cut out without dividing
the bowel. The first two fingers of the right
hand are then inserted so as to embrace the
gizzard, when, if the loosening in front has been
properly done, the entire viscera, including intes-
tines, lungs, liver, gizzard, and gall-bladder, are
pulled out quite easily in one mass, leaving the
interior perfectly clean, and needing neither wash-
ing, wiping, nor any further operation whatever.

The merrythought should next be removed,
though this is of course optional : if in a family
the bird has to be made " go round " as far as
possible, and the merrythought is desired for a
separate " portion," such a step will of necessity
be omitted. Pulling back the skin, the flesh is
scraped a little down the front of the two bones,
after which the point of the knife will lift each
out of its seat without any meat adhering. This
gives a much better breast, and in the case of a
large fowl, enables good slices to be cut as
from a turkey. It is really better to do nothing
further to the breast, especially for home con-
sumption ; and a well-fed Surrey fowl needs
nothing even in the way of appearance, the
forcing up of the back and subsequent pressing
bringing the meat up well. But many people
are so accustomed to the look of fowls whose
breast-bones have been smashed down by a
rolling-pin, that if an ordinary bird were sent
them in its natural state, they would indignantly
complain that it had " nothing on it." This can
be remedied without smashing the keel itself
(which ruins the carving) ; and however futile
it may be, until the public are better educated
there is no doubt that a difference of threepence

to sixpence in the selling value of the fowl will
often be made by treatment. Mr. Bellamy's
method is as follows : Either the poultry-knife
is inserted through the vent, in the transverse cr
flat position, and the point driven by a smart
tap through the flat of the breast-bone just
under the front of the keel, which is held down
on the table ; or a steel skewer may be inserted
from the front at the same point, and given a
slight wrench right and left, breaking the thin
flat bone in the same \vay. In either case, a very
slight tapping with the flat of the knife after-
wards will then drive in the entire breast-bone,
without any fracturing of the keel itself, and the
look of the breast is much improved. We look
forward to the time, however, when even this
method shall be discarded.

All is now ready for trussing, for which we
require a straight trussing needle eight or ten
inches long, threaded with twine. We will first
take a fowl for roasting. The bird is laid on
its back, with the neck towards the operator,
with the first or thigh joint of the legs
held down to the table, and the needle with
twine is passed straight through both thighs and
the body, just above and touching the thigh-
bones, and rather nearer the joint than the
middle of the bone. The back is then turned

Fig. 68. — Threading of the Wings.

uppermost, the pinions turned or twisted inwards
so as to point towards each other over the back,
and the same twine taken through the wing-
bone {i.e. the double-bone) near the centre and
between the two bones, then through the pinion,
thence over the end of the doubled-down breast-
flap of skin (now doubled close over the stump
of neck and its little flap, on to the back), thence
the reverse way through pinion and wing-joint of
the other wing (Fig. 68). The twine is then drawn
up sufficiently tight and tied ; it should not be
too tight, or the fowl will not lie firm on the dish,
but so that the two wings stand about parallel
and square. Threading the needle again, it is
next passed just under the bone of the back at
the loins or haunches, where there is a small

144

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

hole on each side apparently designed by Nature
for the express purpose, which can readily be
seen in any denuded carcase of a fowl. Thence
the twine is taken over the end of the drum-
stick, through the body again, just over or
embracing the flat part of the back end of the
breast-bone, and over the other drumstick to be
tied. The fowl is then finished, as in Fig. 69.

Fig. 69. — Trussed for Roasting.

For boiling the fowl is treated differently.
It is beheaded, drawn, and merrythought and
sinews removed, as before. The fingers are
then introduced through the vent, and the
skin loosened or separated from the flesh at
the side of the breast, and all round the thighs
and drumsticks, down to the hocks. A cross-
cut is now made down to the bone, at the
back of each drumstick an inch above the
hock, and another across the front of the shank
an inch and a half below, dividing the sinews.
Each foot in turn is then taken, with the bird
on its back, and the doubled shank wrenched
or twisted inside the drumstick, so as to lie
rather under the latter instead of above, in
which process the joint is heard to crack.
The shanks are then doubled in, when it will
be found that, by the aid of the cut made above
the hock, that joint can be pushed in and the
loose skin stretched and coaxed and drawn over
the whole, hiding the entire leg from view,
the projecting part of the shanks being finally
cut off. Female cooks generally prefer to cut
the feet off first, pushing in the doubled limb
afterwards. It is customary with some also to
crack the shoulder-blades, by a smart blow with
the back of the knife between the neck and

shoulder of the wing on each side, which gives
a more rounded shape when the bird is tied
together ; but this is not necessary. In trussing,
the wing- and thigh-joints are secured and tied
the same as already described (Fig. 68). The
other tie securing the legs may also be made
in the same way, being in no way affected by
the fact that this joint is now hidden under the
skin, but there are several other methods. One
is to make a single tie round the entire stern of
the fowl : another to pass the needle through the
drumsticks and round the back end of the
breast through the body, and tie over the back.
For that shown in our illustration, the needle
with twine is taken through body and drum-
sticks as just mentioned, the twine then taken
and crossed round the knuckles, and pulled well
in, and the crossed twine tied over the back,
which is a very neat tie. Finally the tail-joint
is tucked down into the vent, and the bird is

Fig. 70. — Trussed for Boiling.

finished as in Fig. 70. While, however, a fowl
thus trussed looks nicest on the table when
covered with white sauce, some lady house-
keepers prefer for carving to dispense with push-
ing the leg under a skin apron, simply removing
the shank at the hock joint, and otherwise truss-
ing exactly as the roasting bird in Fig. 69.

Poulterers who draw and truss many birds
usually sell the livers, which are used for
"game" pastes and savouries, at is. to 2s.
per lb. The necks and other giblets realise but
little over id. per lb. The intestines are prac-
tically valueless, and have sometimes to be
paid for to be taken away ; occasionally a small
fraction is realised for some local purpose.

M5

CHAPTER VIII

POULTRY FARMING.

THE subject of this chapter is a wide one,
which appears to act in a pecuUar manner
upon some temperaments. The number
of people, utterly ignorant of poultry, who believe
firmly that a living is to be made by keeping
a lot of fowls, and that it is an easy outdoor
business anyone can go into and prosper in,
and which will exactly suit their health and
pocket and disposition, is amazing. At the
other extreme are certain writers to whom any
mention of poultry-farming, or any advice to
faru'icrG to keep poultry more largely and make
money by them, seems to act like a red rag
before a bull. It is curious also how people of
this type always want to insist that poultry-
farming, to be called such, must be " pure and
simple," as if other farming was anything of the
kind. Farming of any sort is of necessity a
somewhat complex pursuit, and no one that has
ever advised the production of poultry or eggs
upon any extended scale — however ignorant or
ill-advised he may be — has failed to point out
the necessity for some other product in con-
nection therewith, if only to utilise the manure.
Certainly, the poultry-fattening described in the
pievious chapter, when carried on alone, by pur-
chasing birds only to be fed in cages, cannot
claim such a name, for where there is no land
there can be no " farm." But as soon as we find
rearing chickens upon land, in connection with
even that, and the manure used, and cereals and
milk given to tlie fowls, and sold through their
flesh or eggs rather than direct, there we have
more or less of poultry-farming. We shall
dismiss all such quibbles by understanding here
as " poultry-farming," land worked more or less
in conjunction with poultry, or poultry kept
otherwise than in a small pen; not for health, or
occupation, or as a hobby, or to provide a {(^v^
eggs for only family use, but with the declared
object of making 7noney by the proceedings, and
with no other end in view.

The most obvious phase of this matter is a
.crreat extension of the usual amount of poultry
upon a farm, and systematic looking after it ;
but we are told by some that even this is not
practicable beyond a very small scale. To

quote one well-known writer, " Neither poultry,
pheasants, nor turkeys can be reared year alter
year successfully upon the same ground," and,
therefore, " as many fowls can be kept near the
homestead of a small 30-acre farm as can be
kept on one of 300 or 3,000 acres," as if health
in rearing was not entirely a matter of adequate
ground to keep healthy, or as if anyone of
common sense would keep the poultry stock
of a large farm " round the homestead " at all,
or otherwise than spread out over his fields.
This is the mere dogmatism of ignorance ; and
not a single case has yet been reported of any
farmer who has gone largely into poultry m the
manner presently described, having had to cease
from tainted ground. The real difficulty is
quite different and very simple. Previous pages
will have shown that in gross return per bird
in proportion to keep, a fowl far surpasses any

other live stock. But it has the
The Real tremendous drawback that it is a
Difficulty. small unit : the products have to be

realised in numerous small detached
items from small animals, which yet require
more care than sheep. Hence the constant
liability to small losses and wastes, and the
difificulty of organising such oversight as shall
prevent these, and the e.xpense of such separa-
tion as shall keep things in hand Tlie great
difficulty is that of labour, and next to that, the
cost of accommodation and fencing. Land or
rent is no difficulty at all ; even if devoted to
laying hens at the rate of an acre per hundred,
it is not rent that will cause failure : it is a
question of egg-product in proportion to the
cost of food, labour, and interest on capital.

But while grass land will maintain well and
in health 100 fowls per acre in perpetuity, run
upon half of it for half the time, and then upon
the other half, a dozen fowls per acre can be
run upon a farm without in any way interfering
with other stock or other purposes ; not " round
the homestead," of course, but provided they
can be distributed over the farm. We stated
this fact twenty-six years ago, to be repeatedly
derided for the statement ; but that same fact
!S now the commonplace of County Council

146

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

lecturers all over the kingdom, and scores of
larmers are proving it true, to their profit.
Horses especially, and cattle only less so,
actually prefer to graze where such a stock of
fowls have most congregated, round their house.
This is nov/ an acknowledged and positive truth,
and the manure these fowls make on the farm
is of the greatest value to the holding, which
farmers — slow as they were for years to believe
it — are now at last learning for themselves. We
are thus brought first of all, therefore, to con-
sider the true agricultural value of this poultry
manure.

We were the first to place this beyond doubt,
by obtaining an analysis from the late Dr.
Augustus Voelcker, Chemist to the Royal
Agricultural Society, of two different samples
representing different conditions. We found by
repeated trials that poultry manure,
Real Value of after storing for a few weeks in casks
under cover, was reduced by drying
to about half its weight. Our birds
at that time being kept in pens, the late Mr.
O. E. Cresswell sent for us to Dr. Voelcker
samples from his Dorkings, kept on grass ;
both fresh as dropped the night before, and
that partially dried by storage. They analysed
as follows : —

Poultry
Uaniire.

Fresh Partially Dried

Moisture

Organic Matter and Ammonia Salts..
Tribasic Phosphate of Lime ...
M.ignesia, Alkaline Salts, etc.
Insoluble Siliceous Matter (Sand) ..

Containing Nitrogen
Equal to Ammonia

6163

20-19

297

2-63
I2-5S

41-06

38-19
5-13

3'i3

12-49

[oo-oo

1 00 -GO

171

2'09

37S
4-59

There is a fully recognised method of valuing
such manures according to the ammonia which
they contain, and by this standard Dr. Voelcker
valued the fresh moist manure at £2 per ton,
and the drier stored sample at £a^ 4s. per ton.
l-'or years these were sneered at as fancy values;
but there is no mistake about them, and how-
ever slow the conversion has been, they are at
last becoming recognised. The manure from
fatting-sheds, owing to the nitrogenous food, is
of perceptibly higher value. Dr. Voelcker ex-
pressly reported upon ordinary droppings as
" a much more concentrated fertiliser than the
best description of ordinary farm-yard manure."

We have next to consider its quantity, its
application, and its results. We found that
our Brahmas dropped from 3 ozs. to 4 ozs. per
night ; while Mr. Cresswell found his Silver
Grey Dorkings (on nine days' average) produced
slightly over 2 ozs. each per night. This is

46 lbs. per annum, while the Brahmas gave
68 lbs. of moist fresh dung. We thus find that
the night manure alone of the largest birds is
worth one shilling per annum, while that of
smaller breeds may perhaps be taken as half
There is that dropped during the day to be
added to this ; and we thus found and calcu-
lated, so far back as 1881, that every bird on
the farm was worth one shilling per a^inuni in
viaimre alone. This calculation also is now
endorsed by all competent authorities, and by
actual experience on scores of farms.

The full value of such manure may, however,
be partially lost, and often is, by injudicious
treatment. Repeatedly in Sussex we found
Inne used under the pens, as an antiseptic.
Nothing could be worse ; for lime liberates and
thus loses ammonia, and Dr. Voelcker expressly
cautions against its use. We were not sur-
prised that when so managed, the farmers found
it best to " get it on the land as soon as
possible," which really meant, before more
ammonia was lost. Dr. Voelcker recommends

various methods, which may be
^f th*"^ ^^* selected according to circumstances.
Manure. ^^ may be simply mixed with about

twice its own weight of such dry
earthy matters as dry earth, burnt clay, or weed
ashes, into a compost, occasionally turned over,
which may be used for garden produce or green
crops. For roots he would prefer it mixed
with an equal quantity of super-phosphate of
lime, and the mixture, in a dry and powdery
state, drilled in with the seed at the rate of
5 cwt. per acre. For sale, he advises that as
little earthy matter should be used as will assist
in drying it, soot or weed ashes going far and
being valuable in this way. But on the whole
he advises to keep a mixture of two parts burnt
gypsum to one part of mineral super-phosphate,
mi.xing three parts of fresh poultry manure
with one part of this mixture, and turning over
occasionally under cover. It is thus rapidly
reduced to a dry and friable condition, whicli
makes a good manure for most crop.'-, when used
at the rate of 8 cwt. to 10 cwt. per acre. In
Sussex most of it is used directly upon the land,
simply scattered broadcast, with admirable
results upon most crops, and specially upon
poor pastures or scrubby land. Its value for
tomatoes has been already alluded to. This
fruit does not require a highly nitrogenous
manure such as guano, and therefore actually
thrives better with poultry manure, which may
be either applied in water, or the above mi.xture
with a little super-phosphate further diluted by
dry earth, and applied as a mulching to the
plants. Grapes may be treated in the same

POULTRY UPON FARMS.

147

way. As a general rule poultry manure is
applied too copiously or freely.

During the last few years very many farmers
have been going more and more into poultry-
keeping in the way here indicated, distributing
the fowls over the farm, and not exceeding the
proportion stated, when no rent at
Examples of ^^ becomes chargeable. Every
Farms^ °^ County Council lecturer to whom
we have spoken on the subject has
been able to give us successful instances, and
we here select a few kindly supplied to us
by Mr. George A. Palmer, lecturer to the
Councils of several counties in the Midlands of
England.

Mr. J. Haynes, Rock Farm, Inkberrow,
Worcester, has six pens of fowl, containing in
all 210 birds, averaging thirty-five to a pen.
They have the run of lOO acres, and he has
kept the same number or thereabouts for twelve
years. The movable houses are taken into the
corn-fields after harvest, where the birds get
their own living entirely for two months. He
thinks that with the universal use of the self-
binding reaper, which often means three bushels
shed to the acre, it will pay farmers more than
formerly to stock the stubbles with fowls. He
gets 20,000 to 25,000 eggs per annum, and
they are marketed at Birmingham by the local
carrier (working on commission). He rears 1 50
to 200 chickens. The cockerels are sent to
market as fast as they get ready, and the old
hens are cleared off in September. He con-
siders that the manure covers all labour. He
stores it in a shed for the year, and uses it in
spring to grow mangolds, with such effect that
in 1899 (by no means a good year) he grew
about forty tons to the acre. He uses dry
ashes in the fowl pens, and keeps them lime-
washed, and for twelve years has been free
from any disease. In 1899 he had a splendid
lot of pullets, Leghorn crossed with Wyandotte
(whites both), which commenced laying in
November, and on February 1st following were
still at it, not one being broody. The gross
return is £()0 to £\00 per annum, and the total
cost of feed £\0 for the ten months they have
to be fed. He feeds in winter barley -meal,
sharps, and bone-meal, given hot, early in
morning ; at afternoon maize, peas, beans, and
wheat. He states that the fowls never do any
damage, but " improve every foot of land they
run on."

Mr. Ferryman, Copston, Hinckley, keeps
250 adult stock scattered about the fields in
small lots of ten to thirty, and has done so on
the same land for seven years, marketing his
eggs and late cockerels locallv, and rearing

about 200 chickens per annum. Uses chiefly
maize and wheat. He keeps the non-sitters at
field houses, and the sitters at farm buildings.
Finds they are most productive where run
thinly — not more than five or si.x to the acre —
and prefers White Leghorns, Silver Wyan-
dottes. Black Orpingtons, and Buff Rocks. He
says that the manure more than pays for the
labour, and that he is satisfied with his profits
and shall increase his stock.

Mr. Goodacre, Stockton, Rugby, keeps
about 300 fowls in lots of thirty scattered about
208 acres of grass land. He gets 26,000 eggs per
year, selling some at 2s. 6d. per nest for setting,
and marketing the rest locally after destroying
the germ. He considers laying hens the best
paying branch of poultry-keeping, but goes in
for a certain quantity of table fowl in addition,
rearing 400 to 500 chickens annually. He feeds
the field birds chiefly on maize, but only once
daily in summer, and avoids overfeeding. He
keeps Orpingtons, Leghorns, and JMinorcas
for eggs ; Dorkings, Plymouth Rocks, and
Orpingtons crossed with Indian Game for
table birds. He does not give figures, but says
his poultry " pays better than any branch of
the farm."

Mr. Passmore, Wootton Wawen, Birming-
ham, who occupies about 200 acres of mixed
land, keeps fowls in small houses about the
farm in lots of ten to twenty-five, preferably of
seventeen to twenty, which are kept in houses
5x5 and 6 feet high, made of J^-inch tongued
boards, with roofs of corrugated iron lined
beneath with carbolised straw, renewed and
replaced once a year ; the houses have mov-
able perches and two glass slides (to cover
ventilators if required), and there is for cold
weather a shutter 2 feet square, which when
removed leaves an open netted space for free
ventilation in summer. He prefers to keep
one lot of birds in the same house for life,
without removing them. In l8g8 he thus kept
280 laying hens, which in 1899 were increased
to 380. He has kept fowls on the same ground
for six years, and his predecessor had kept a
considerable number on one field of four acres
for years previously ; and his largest egg-pro-
duction per hen lately had been from a pen of
Silver Wyandottes in that very field. In 1899
his birds had the use of about ninety acres, and
he was preparing to stock another ten acres
with poultry, only increasing his stock as it
pays its way, and buying fresh houses, etc., out
of current profits. In 189S he marketed no
eggs per hen, and in 1899 120 per hen, besides
what were used in the house and for setting.
In 1899 he reared 575 birds, out of which he

148

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

replaced the old ones and increased stock by
100, selling the balance. Early in the year
cockerels are sold alive ; later on the birds are
dressed and sold to private customers ; a few
are sold at 4s. to lOs. for stock birds to neigh-
bours. He feeds once a day only, unless snow
is on the ground, when a second feed is given ;
averaging about 3 ozs. of grain per bird per day,
less in summer and more in winter ; using in
winter one-third each of wheat, peas, and maize
(ratio about i :4J2). and in summer two-thirds
of wheat and one of peas (ratio i :4>-^). An
iron corn-bin is kept near and for the use of
five houses, and replenished fortnightly, and he
feeds when walking round the farm in the
morning. It takes him one and a half to two
hours daily, and his children collect the eggs.
Extra labour for the chickens is charged, but
he considers the manure more than pays for
the labour, an opinion which we have seen is
very general. He reckons that the fowls pay
a profit of 5s. to 5s. 6d. per bird, besides eggs
and poultry for the house, which is a consider-
able item. The houses are gas-tarred every
year, which he states keeps away the foxes,
and he puts in each house about 9 inches deep
of sawdust on the bare earth floor. This is
turned and sprinkled with carbolic powder
weekly, and renewed every six months, each
house being also tarred inside whenever vacated
for a few weeks by the inmates being dis-
carded.

Mr. James Fuller, of Framlingham, Suffolk,
has been engaged in poultry-farming for over
twenty years, and for several years his accounts
were published in the local papers. The prin-
cipal figures during 1897-8-9 were as follow : In
1897 he sold 538 birds for £\-j 8s. sd. (about
IS. gd. each), 48,055 eggs for £\},Z os. 4d. at
market prices, and £l^, lOs. 3d. for extra
prices; total receipts ^194 19s. Food and ex-
penses were ;^74 3s. lOj^d., gross cash profit
;£'i20 15s. \Qyi6.., nothing being charged for
rent or labour. In 1 898 he sold 5 1 ,279 eggs for
^^171 8s.,, 439 birds for ;^53 is. 7d., and had
114 more fowls in stock value (2s. 6d.), say
£\i^ 5s. ; total, ^£'238 14s. 7d. The food was
;^89 i6s. 8d., and other expenses ;^ 1 3 igs. 4d.,
leaving gross cash balance of ;£'i34 i8s. 7d. In
1899 he sold 51,453 eggs for £7.00 i6s. 2d. (get-
ting rather better prices) and 625 birds for
£"10 2s. ; total cash, ;£'270 iSs. 2d. ; while food
cost £^107 i6s. id., and other expenses
£19 4s. 8d. ; cash balance, ;£'i43 17s. 5d. This
left him with 675 birds to begin operations in
1900, almost exactly the same as the year before.
The birds are kept on about twelve acres of
pasture, and are taken off a part of this for six

weeks or so, to grow hay ; the fine stack of this,
and the feed at other times for horses and sheep,
more than pays any fair rent. As regards
labour, Mr. Fuller himself has a coal business,
and the fowls take all his own spare time a
great part of the year ; the rest a sharp lad
does the work ; of course, this ought to be
charged, but on the other hand nothing is
credited for the large quantity of valuable
manure. All the birds are hatched and reared
naturally, and eggs for market made the leading
consideration, the cockerels being sold young,
and the hens at two years, unless unusually
good birds. The laying stock is fed about
9 a.m. and 2 p.m. on grain only, the eggs being
all gathered at 3 p.m. after the last feed. He
prefers Houdan-Minorcas, Houdan-Leghorns,
and Houdan-Orpingtons, as making splendid
layers and fair table fowls, the last cross being
specially good as winter layers, as shown by
the fact that 3,600 of his eggs were laid during
the last three months of the year. He con-
siders that these crosses can with care be
brought up to nearly 200 eggs per annum each ;
and his own rough-and-ready test for the poor
layers to be discarded is, those "the last down
from roost in the morning."

The farms previously mentioned, with some
others, appeared in our last edition, and we
learn from Mr. Palmer that the particulars
given still hold good. Those which now
follow are the result of further investigations
by Mr. Palmer, and convey the same useful
teaching.

Mr. George Waldron, Cladswell Farm,
Alcester, Warwickshire, keeps about 400 laying
hens. His birds are a few White Leghorns, and
a fair number of White Plymouth Rocks to do
the sitting, and the bulk of the working stock
Houdan-Leghorn first cross. He keeps the
fowls at field houses, and some at the farm
buildings ; but owing to trouble by foxes he has
wired in with six feet netting a field of about
four acres. As this gets stale he will move the
netting to another field. His birds cost ijid.
per head per week the year round. He feeds
four mornings a v;eek with soft food — pigmeal
(a mixture from one of the large firms) one part,
sharps one part, and a dash of malt-culms.
For grain the birds get oats, wheat and maize,
sometimes mixed and sometimes separately.
Less maize is used in summer than in winter.
The fowls have all they will pick up. He says
that they pay better than any other branch of
his farm, and that he can clear the rent of lOO
acres out of the laying hens. He markets the
cockerels as soon as fit, and rarely works a hen-
more than two seasons.

POULTRY UPON FARMS.

149

Mr. Forman, Brockey Farm, Stapleton,
Hinckley, has kept fowls for six years. He has
500 to 600. His birds are White and Silver
Wyandottes, White and Black Leghorns, White
Orpingtons and Black Mmorcas ; while in first
crosses he has JMinorca-Wyandotte, Leghorn-
Orpington, Houdan-Orpington and Campine-
Wyandotte. Of the crosses he prefers the
Minorca- Wyandotte. He says that either pure
bred fowls or first crosses lay better than mon-
grels. He runs as many as sixty to the acre,
and so far has not tainted his land. The food
given is chiefly wheat and maize. He has no
difficulty in procuring winter eggs. He rears
artificially and with hens, but prefers the
rearers. He does not consider that the manure
is a sufficient off-set to the labour involved. He
allows 6 per cent, depreciation per annum on
home-made houses. The farm is 130 acres, and
is farmed in the usual way and stocked with
shorthorn cattle and Shropshire sheep. He
says that they pay all right, but, like many
others, does not mention exact profits. At any
rate, he intends to keep on as he is going. He
finds that laying hens pay better than table
poultry, and markets his eggs locally at from
fourteen for a shilling in summer and seven for
the same price in winter. He believes in March
hatching for winter layers.

Mr. Ward, Oak Farm, Burbage, Hinckley,
is a poultry farmer pure and simple, and keeps
about 600 laying hens and rears enough chickens
to keep up his stock on ten acres of grass. He
has been at it on the same land for nine years.
All his land is divided into pens, and he does
most of the work himself. His breeds are
Leghorns and the Houdan crosses from them,
some Buff Orpingtons and Houdan-Buff
Orpingtons. He has also done well with some
Brahma-Leghorns. He says that healthy fowls
lay so well the third season as to make it worth
while to keep them on and reduce the rearmg.
Another very large poultry farmer has recently
expressed the same opinion. There is no doubt
that with better management the hens are much
healthier in the third year than formerly, arid
that the practice of keeping them longer will
become more general. Mr. Ward gets lOs.
worth of eggs from each hen per annum, and
his food costs more than half of that sum. His
average profit is about four shillings per hen.
He has not been seriously troubled with any
disease, and his fowls look healthy ajid well,
although, taking the rearing into consideration,
there must have been eighty fowls to the acre
for some years. He admits that farmers with
unlimited range, stubbling and arable land for
a chancre can set more eggs than he can. He

finds that fowls do not lay so well in large
flocks as in lots of from six to ten, but thinks
that the extra houses, netting and attendance
would about equalise things. Mr. Ward prefers
incubators and rearers to hens. He is a keen
business man and buys very closely. He has
recently filled his granary with maize at 25s.
per 480 lbs., good white oats at i8s. 6d. per
352 lbs., and wheat at 2gs. 6d. per 504 lbs. He
considers 20s. per week a fair wage for attend-
ing 500 hens, but not enough to rear also the
chickens to Keep up the supply.

The reasons why poultry are still thought
nothing of upon many farms are not far to
seek ; but the curious thing is that they pay

the worst just on that system of " a
Conditions fg^y round the homestead " so re-
Success. commended by certain writers. In

days when other branches of farm-
ing paid well, a few fowls were kept just to
supply the house, and left to the women : thus
the farmer never knew anything about them, and
never regarded them as having money in them.
Any outlay was never thought of, or return for
it believed in ; the fowls were kept on till very
old, left to breed together indiscriminately, the
stock was mostly of bad layers, and half the
eggs were stolen by the farm hands. All this
must, of course, be changed if profit is to be
realised. A paying stock must be selected, and
thereafter bred for laying or for table ; neces-
sary food and expenses must not be grudged ;
and eggs especially must be systematically
collected and marketed promptly, special care
being taken that none of doubtful age are ever
included in consignments.

As to the stock, it is doubtful if a hen or
pullet that lays less than lOO eggs in a year
pays at all, while it has been proved over and
over again that beyond 150 is perfectly attain-
able ; while many farm hens lay under 60, and
do not account for all of these. All old stock
must first be got rid of, and then selection must
follow. There are strains now bred and adver-
tised for laying properties, as distinct from
mere "fancy" points, from which a good start
can be made in breeding stock : but if any
farmer has a prejudice against "pure breeds,"
there is another course. Let him watch any
neighbouring market, and get birds or eggs
from any neighbour who brings in a good lot
of eggs in winter. After that he must select for
himself, hatching chickens only from his best
layers, and crossing his pullets or hens with
cockerels also from his best layers, and so on.
It is simple as A B C, and in this way the
average — that is, the "thing his hens lay on " —
will be infallibly raised. If he or his people

ISO

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

cannot watch the birds sufficiently to know the
best layers, he can still do much by the three
simple tests of which lay early in winter or
spring ; which are down earliest from the perch ;
and which lay earliest in the day. Broadly,
these tests will at least pick out the better
layers, and enable him to discard the really
bad ones.

Food and expenses raise an important and
interesting question in regard to fa}-m poultry.
The example of Mr. Passmore above cited is in
one respect rather peculiar : that of the one
daily feed only, of hard grain. The
Question of egie-averaCTe resulting is, perhaps,

Comparative ^''.^ , ^ .^ ■ j r

Expenses. fair, and as it was raised from iio
to 120, it might probably be further
raised by the selection described above ; but it
is certainly not high. It is, however, argued
with much sh6w of reason, that such an average,
■witli stick econojny in food and labour, pays as
well or better than an average of i6o might do
with more expense in these items. It is re-
markable that the same question has struck
some American egg-farmers in the same way.
One in Massachusetts writes to an agricultural
paper in New York: "There is just as much
profit in producing eggs at a cost of lo cents
per dozen and selling them for 20 cents, as there
is in producing more at a cost of 20 cents and
selling them for 30 cents." The same argument
may or may not tell in any given case against
the cost of producing winter eggs by high feed ;
it is a question of figures, and therefore depends
for its answer upon prices and markets, and
cannot be positively answered for all cases.
Mr. Passmore evidently knows what he is about:
but on the whole we think he would find it
profitable to give in winter a good allowance of
cut bone.

The same applies to another point. In
Mr. Palmer's own lectures, we notice that he
strongly advises the plan of broadcasting the
grain upon different strips or portions of ground
on successive days, a point we have not seen
suggested before. Where this plan can be
carried out it must undoubtedly be beneficial in
two ways : the food falling upon sweet ground,
and the manure dropped during the day being
also more evenly distributed. On the other
hand, it is obvious that there must be many
cases in which such a plan, carried out thoroughly,
would involve more walking and expense in
time than can be afibrded. To some extent,
however, it will always be possible, and the
point should decidedly be kept in view, and
feeding on the same spot carefully avoided.

In regard to the marketing of birds killed,
there is nothing to add to the preceding chapter;

Honesty.

but an emphatic caution is necessary about the
marketing of eggs. Twenty years ago there was
no wholesale market in London for " new-laid "
eggs, and even now private custom pays the
best, where sufficient ; such private
custom is generally well treated,
because the consequence of any other course is
felt directly. Where there is no private market,
however, there is now, as shown in our next
chapter, a London wholesale market ranging
from 9s. to 20s. per 120 according to the
season, and with a tendency to increase both
in demand and price. But this altogether
depends upon the farmers — upon their sending
up really new-laid eggs twice or thrice a week,
with rigid honesty. We regretted to find from
a large salesman that the greatest difficulty
was with the farmers themselves ; some of them
were in such a state of besotted ignorance, that
in their short-sighted greed the}' would retain
their eggs till they had a large lot, or for a
better price, and then send them up as " new-
laid." That sort of thing at first nearly killed
the new and promising market, and was only
checked by relentless refusal to receive any
more from proved offenders. It still checks
the market and the price more than anything ;
and only the absolutely honest consigner, who
sends up exactly what he undertakes, can ex-
pect to reap the benefit of extra " English "
prices. The establishment of egg depots and
wider dissemination of knowledge should do
much towards sounder practices in this respect.

Poultry-farming may also be carried on, if

not " pure and simple," at least in a much

larger and more exclusive sense

n™t*,™. than that above considered. As
Operations. ...

mentioned later in this work, there
are several establishments where ducklings are
reared and marketed by thousands even in
England, known to be remunerative ; but ducks
are in some respects easier to manage. Much
of the business described in the preceding
chapter, again, can only be properly described
as poultry-farming. It is ridiculous to refuse
such a title, as some would do, to cases where
600 birds are reared on nineteen acres, and the
milk from the few cows is separated and all
given to the chickens ; or to Mr. Kenward's
200 acres, where 8,000 are reared, and the
main cereal crop is oats, all fed to the birds,
with all the skim milk also ; or to many others
where the oats and the cows are complementary
to the chickens. The poultry are in all these
cases the centre and mainspring of all the
operations, which alone have made the hold-
ings pay, and without which the whole would

FAILURES IN POULTRY-FARMING.

i5i

collapse ; not at all the mere " bye-product "
so constantly asserted. With education of a
wider purchasing public, and the opening up
thereby of fresh urban markets, it may be
hoped that there is room for the extension
of the Sussex system in other districts near
the larger provincial towns.

Whether still more exclusive devotion of
land to poultry products will be profitable, is
a question of more difficulty and uncertainty,
and depending far more upon personal quali-
ties. Absolutely " exclusive " poultry-farming,
we have already seen, is impossible, since it
is absolutely necessary that something should
consume the manure, to keep the land sweet
and to pay the rent while it is sweetening; but
it may be broadly admitted that in " poultry-
farming " more technically so-called, there
would not be much more of other products
than assisted in this, or to keep cows whose
milk was wanted for the chickens. So much,
however, would be essential, and must there-
fore be taken into the scheme. It would also
generally be the case, that such farming would
partake more of the character of egg-production
than of chicken -rearing, the m.arket being
steadier and better for new-laid eggs, in pro-
portion to the vast mass of inferior imported
eggs, than it is for chickens. Can such a
farm be made to pay }

We are constantly told that it cannot. A
writer in 1899 stated that "it is utterly im-
possible for a poultry-farm to compete with
the cottager, who has neither land, rent of
buildings, labour, nor cost of conveyance to
market to pay for," because a farm must -jay
for all these things. The argument itself
shows the folly and ignorance of such dogma-
tism ; for Heathfield is cited in the article as the
type of the cottager system, and we have just
seen already how in that district the " farms,"
which have to pay rent and all the rest, do
"compete," and that more and more eery
year, with the cottagers who are said to pay
none. Thus real knowledge, and practice, and
figures, are rather conspicuously at variance on
the very threshold, with this particular a priori
theory, and we have found it much the same
in regard to other theories which have been
put forward in the same confident manner. It
is further to be remembered that in America the
question of poultry-farming has long ago been
solved in the affirmative ; but not even there
without many failures, and where success has
been achieved it has been by hard work and
marked ability ; and though this does not prove
that it would be so in England, it does prove
that the matter is one of figures and circum-

stances, which in regard to cost of land, and
food-stuffs, and incubation, have changed mate-
rially in favour of poultry during recent years.

Failures have been numerous, however, and
especially amongst such as have rashly "em-
barked " all at once in considerable
Failures. o.perations, without preparation, or

knowledge, or apprenticeship. In
their case it is hard to see what else could be
expected. No other business would ever be
attempted in that way. Some of the alleged
failures have, however, taught much to those
able to learn their lessons. In 1879 we met
personally, on one of the Clyde steamers, a
gentleman who was introduced to us as having
taken up egg-farming in Scotland, failed, and
given it up. He told us that if he could have
averaged twenty eggs more per annum from
each bird it would have paid him, and he
should have kept on ; anything over that would
have paid very well. He got about no each.
It is absolutely certain now that 150 to 170
can be secured, and such an average would
have put an entirely different face upon that
particular attempt.

Another case, much paraded as a failure at
the time, was that of Mr. Carrington, reported
by Mr. Druce to the Royal Commission on
Agriculture in 1882. He gave up a large farm
owing to the depression, and tried a large stock
of poultry on 100 acres, at Kimbolton ; his
stock in October 18S1 being 1,800, soon to be
reduced to 1,500. A man and boy v\ere engaged
and charged, with iJ'38 for rent, £\% los. depre-
ciation, £\<^ interest on ^^300 sunk in capital,
and the food. The receipts summarised were,
£/^6\ IIS. for birds and eggs, £1 for feathers,
and £2^ for manure ; and the profit was onl)-
£2^, which was rightly pronounced " not very
satisfactory." On the other side it is to be
said, that in the first place, and even with the
mistakes to be mentioned, the fowls did pay
this beside the interest and the rent, and in point
of fact paid better than any other branch of the
farming: that surely is a startling fact. But
the practical mistakes were serious. The num-
ber of eighteen per acre is not nearly enough
to work land to advantage in poultry-farming,
while too much for such poultry merely increased
on a farm, as we were just now discussing.
The fowls, again, were all light Brahmas, and
were fed three times a day ; a most wasteful
system in evcrv way, and a bad selection of
stock, such as uould most of all suffer from
such feed. And the bulk of the birds were kept
in flocks of 150 each, a number far too large.
Any practical breeder, or even farmer, will see
that mere common-sense applied to these details

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

alone, would soon have worked a tremendous
difference in the receipts.

A third case of failure we select, because
it has been specially mentioned by Mr. Teget-
meier, and points a moral which it is very
necessary to enforce. It was a poultry-farm
started on 114 acres belonging to Sir Robert
Buxton, at Rushford, in 1882. A brick incu-
bator house was built and stocked with eight
200-egg machines ; the ground was fenced by
wire : the land, it is said, well adapted for
poultry. To quote the further description
e.xactly : "Ample provision was made for the
artificial supply of heat for the rearing of the
chickens, which were not to be overcrowded
on the land, and were not to exceed from
60 to 100 per acre. The breeding birds were
to be located in runs separated by wire-work,
and not more than from a dozen to twenty
kept together. The manure was to be care-
fully collected and utilised. There was to be
an intelligent poultry-keeper ; two labourers,
their wives, and a boy under him. Although
the poultry was chiefly to be bred for the
market, a careful selection was to be made
of the best stock. . . . It is difficult to imagine
a poultry farm conducted ufider more advan-
tageous co7iditio?is."

Such an assertion as the last, from any
man pretending to a knowledge of poultry, is
simply astounding ; for nothing could possibly
be worse, more absolutely certain to end in a
dismal failure. Just observe the conditions.
Here was a sudden rushing into large opera-
tions, in practical ignorance of the whole busi-
ness ; a stock collected of no special excellence ;
an " intelligent poultry-keeper " and two men
and two wives and a boy to pay for, and on
whose management and work all depended ; and
as the foundation of all, to be run by one or
other of the above, or all combined, eight
200-egg incubators and corresponding heated
brooders, with only the knowledge and experience
in incubators of that day I What does almost
pass belief, is the folly that could launch out in
such a way. Beyond doubt, there is no shadow
of a hope for any such adventures in poultry-
farming as here described.

Wherever success is to be attained, it must
be reached by methods widely different from
this. It must be recognised that the business
is not an easy but a difficult one,
Conditions demanding apprenticeship and per-
Success. sonal knowledge of it, and commer-

cial aptitude as well. It demands
steady and progressive preparation and founda-
tion beforehand, which will itself absorb time
and capital, if only for subsistence in the mean-

time, because one cardinal condition of success
in an egg- farm is a stud of birds bred for laying,
which cannot be purchased right off at any
commercial figure, though good breeding stock,
which shall be its foundation, may and should
be. And, moreover, the intending poultry-
farmer has to make or find his market. We are
constantly asked where produce " can be sold "
at good prices, and people seem to think there
is an absolutely unlimited market always wait-
ing at top prices, to absorb any fresh supply at a
day's notice. There is no such market : a new
supply has to " work in " by degrees, and make
its own reputation, so that mercliants and dealers
may know by experience what they can rely
upon. All this work is gradual, and as it pro-
ceeds, so should expansion keep pace with it
Of course, all this may go on together. Begin-
ning in quite a small way to breed a stock of
good layers from a pen of good layers, may give
practical apprenticeship, and send difew birds and
eggs to market ; the first few paying as they go,
though not enough to make a living. Then, as
things open out, may stock and plant and
operations be extended ; or perhaps on the other
hand the operator may find that he is not suc-
ceeding, and not likely to succeed, in which case
he had better find that out before sinking much
money in the attempt. All the time he must
be breeding up his layers, and as soon as things
get beyond his own hands, training each one of
his staff, and so on. It will all work together,
and eventual success will mainly depend upon
how this preliminary work is done ; and those
who are deterred by the prospect of such slow
proceedings, are simply those who ought to be
deterred, and who would only incur ruin by pro-
ceeding in a rash way. A large paying business
is only to be built up out of a smaller business
which already pays, and which will teach ex-
pedients and methods as one goes along.

The scale to which such poultry-farming

might be capable of extension, would difier

widely in various cases. Labour remains the

great difficulty, for there is an

?i''ffi.':,H^"' amount of hard work which few
Difficulty. . r T c

have any idea of. In bussex, many

of the people engaged in the industry work

hard from dawn to dark ; and organising power

is required, as well as practical knowledge, to

manage subsidiary labour. We have been

repeatedly struck by statements from successful

poultry-farmers in America, to the effect that

they did well up to a certain point, where they

could manage all by themselves, or with a

labourer immediately under their own eye, but

that when they got beyond that, efficiency fell

off, and profits with it Our own experience

DIFFICULTIES OF POULTRY-FARMING.

153

was that in our absence all day it was peculiarly
hard to get even such a simple thing as cleanli-
ness maintained by a man — and we had three
in succession — in the sense we understood it ;
these American farmers say exactly the same ;
and efficient and faithful labour remains the
chief practical difficulty. One man might suc-
ceed here — i.e. in controlling labour — where
another would utterly fail. But a very import-
ant point to consider, before entering into any
enterprise of this kind, is the peculiarly exacting
character of the labour required. There can be
no holiday ; the birds can never be left. It is
work that never ceases, for long hours, day
after day, with no relaxation : absence of the
labourers would mean disaster, and of the
superintendent, peril and neglect. This is an
aspect of the business which we very rarely see
pointed out by writers on poultry matters, and
which never seems to strike some who desire to
embark in it.

Management of the ground is better under-
stood at this date than formerly, and, in connec-
tion with this point, fencing is the chief difficulty.

It is perfectly well known now that
Management j^j^j double-stocked for half the
Buns.^ year, or if need be every alternate

whole year, to the extent of fifty
birds in a quarter of an acre, keeps perfectly
sweet, and will raise a good crop from the
manure meantime. So far back as 1880 we
suggested, with some hesitation, the cutting and
selling of hay in combination with poultry, but
the suggestion had never then been carried out
that we are aware of. In several cases known
to us since this method is practised. We were
once staying for a day or two with a gentle-
man who owns 123 acres, of which some is
wood and coppice for shooting, and who for
several years sold nothing off the land but
poultry products and hay. He could not be
called a poultry-farmer strictly ; for he had not
his living to make by it, and was fond of ex-
perimental changes in his operations. One year
he reared little but chickens and some turkeys ;
the next fewer chickens and a large number of
ducklings ; and he was then thinking of largely
breeding pigs. But he was confident that he
made more by this simple system out of his
holding than he could have made in any
other way, the only drawback being the diffi-
culty of extra labour in the hay harvest.
The land was scrubby and worn out when
bought, but about ninety tons of hay had
been cut the preceding season, worth say
£}, 5s. per ton, and this hay had been made
by the birds. One year 8,700 chickens were
marketed from the farm, which was not fenced

in runs except for the breeders, but was
managed in natural fields.

With flocks in defined runs, management
will be more difficult. Fowls fall off in egg-
production when in too large flocks, and cost
too much in labour when in too small. The
best compromise is generally reckoned to be
about fifty birds together. Double-stocked, such
a flock needs a quarter of an acre for six to
twelve months, thence to be removed to another
sweet run. If scythe-work can be managed,
double runs are easy enough, but there must be
removable lengths of fence to allow of a cart
passing for loading the hay. Cows and goats
and sheep have also been grazed in such vacant
poultry runs. Moving the entire stock to
anotherhalf of the whole farm would bebest of all,
but the fences of the runs hinder operations of
that kind. It is to be remembered that the mere
value of the manure, or of the extra crop, is not
the only point involved in this question of alter-
natingacropwith the poultry; it is that themanure
is thus consumed, and the land kept permanently
sweet, which can be done in no other way except
by an excess of land beyond what is needed.

From time to time the proposal is revived to
economise plant and labour on an egg-farm by
ignoring fences and separation of flocks, and
keeping a large number together.
We are not here referring to the
well-known "colony" system in
America, in which separate houses wide apart are
provided for moderate flocks, absence of fences
being compensated by distance, separation, and
sense of locality. Such a system is really costly
in labour, but not necessarily unhealthy, and is
pursued with some success ; though it appears
to be declining in the localities where it has been
chiefly carried on. But it has been taught in
some quarters that hundreds of birds should
be kept for economy in one large house for
roosting, and with as many as two or three
hundred head per acre. Doubtless if the fowls
could be permanently kept in this way, the
manure they made at night being only cleaned
out at long intervals, the economy in labour
would be very great ; and as we have already
pointed out that overcrowding may often go
on for quite an unexpected period with ap-
parent success, as it had done on the very
place at Orpington which ultimately supplied
Dr. Klein with material for the study of con-
tagious fowl enteritis, the danger of such a
course does not always appear until some
time has elapsed. But, as already said in an
early chapter, sooner or later Nemesis comes :
and cases have frequently been reported in
which the following of methods of this kind

Crowding
Impracticable.

154

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

has been ultimately followed by disaster. Even
official reports of a sanguine character have been
published and circulated broadcast concerning
operations carried on for an entire year on such
lines; but the promise in those reports of a
similar one for the second year, was never ful-
filled, and upon inquiry we were officially in-
formed that it could not be issued, "as the
experiment was not brought to a satisfactory
conclusion." It is simply impossible, in any
moist climate at least, to succeed permanently
in poultry-farming without adequate run.

In every case of failure in egg-farming known
to us — and we have investigated every one we
could hear of — the failure has plainly resulted
from neglect of one or the other of the essentials
here stated, and generally of more than one of
them. The thing has been rushed into; or there
has been inadequate run to keep sweet ; or
nothing has been done to secure a high laying
average ; or a good market has not been
secured, or a location whence the product could
be got to market with facility ; or things have
been carried on in a lie-a-bed, take-it-easy
fashion, which never pays in managing fowls.
But in spite of what is so often alleged by
people who really know nothing about it, cases
of more or less success are not
Examples. wanting, even in this country, if
people really look for them. A
small scale is, of course, most common. Years
ago, we published one of a tenant near Chester-
field, who had an acre and two roods of land,
and the run besides of two acres of wood. The
two roods were used for fruit and vegetables,
kept going by the manure, and fruit trees were
also planted in the acre divided into runs, a pig
being also kept. The wife looked after things,
and from this holding, as nearly as possible
50,000 eggs per annum were sent to London,
mostly to direct customers, with whom a con-
nection had gradually been built up. Other
somewhat similar instances, both on a somewhat
less and also somewhat larger scale, have been
reported from time to time.

Another case that might be cited is that
of Mr. Simon Hunter, mentioned presently
in connection with a poultry-farm of quite
another kind. Previously to that, he had occu-
pied another farm in Wensleydale for fourteen
years. On this, he informs us, he bred and
kept flocks of hens especially to lay eggs for
market, and found them pay reasonably well,
though less profitable than the line into which
he was gradually led. From the first he bred
his birds from selected layers, and got his
average up gradually to 160 or 170 each, and
after allowing for labour, he reckoned the profit

at about 5s. per bird : it was, in fact, the repu-
tation of these birds which gradually led him
into the other line presently described, and it is
manifest that a stock which is known to give
such results, will as such have a value, and fetch
enhanced prices for stock, quite apart from show
points. He had a stock on this farm of 70 to
80 birds per acre, and at the end thought the
land was getting rather foul, which could, how-
ever, be easily prevented by the systematic rest
and crop on which we have been insisting. We
have no definite figures of the results, but we
have the significant statement that the farm
presently described, at Northallerton, was " pur-
chased out of the profits of the other farm,"
which is tangible enough in regard to the
question of success or failure.

There are some examples, even in England,
on quite a large scale, though from the nature
of the case few and little known, for the simple
reason that the owners very much object to be
either pestered with useless correspondence, or
to have their methods and markets and arrange-
ments discussed by press-writers, who have
often done much mischief. However, an
interesting example is the poultry-farm of Mr.
T. W. Toovey, at King's Langley, in Herts.
Since this establishment was described in the
last edition of this w^ork many changes, sug-
gested by experience, have taken place. The
whole farm has been re-modelled, perhaps twice
or thrice. And Mr. Toovey declares that if he
were commencing now he would build only two
types of houses — the apex and the new type
of small lean-to for hens, and long sheds for
ducks. The farm at King's Langley is a
poultry farm pure and simple ; and when it is
intended to keep poultry solely on the land,
Mr. Toovey considers that the plan in vogue
there is the only possible one. Large runs, each
a quarter of an acre and containing twenty-five
birds, or small runs of about 550 square yards
containing a dozen to thirteen fowls is the
system adopted. The apex houses are now
built of one type only, i.e. g feet long, 'j\ feet
at base with 7-foot sides.

At King's Langley nearly 2,500 birds, in-
cluding about 250 stock ducks, are kept, while
there is ample accommodation for the rearing
of 1,500 chickens. But a much greater number
is hatched and partly reared, since these are
despatched direct from the coops to Mr.
Toovey 's other farm, where, on the fields and
pastures, some 3,000 chickens are run. The
chickens are roosted mainly in the new houses,
of which there are some 312 altogether. The
special feature of these houses is that they are
so constructed that the birds cannot crowcl into

LARGE POULTRY FARMS.

155

them, but have to allot themselves out from
house to house, however closely they may be
together. Without such houses it would be
difficult to see how operations could be carried
on on the scale they are. What are known as
the Well Farm Poultry Runs are certainly
unique. Here 3,250 laying hens and male birds
are kept on ten acres for one year on the arable
land. Three men look after these, and, besides,
up to as many as 3,500 chickens of all ages,
but at times the assistance of a pupil is also
required.

The whole plant has been evolved from
much careful thought, and the practical ex-
perience of years is embodied in it. There are
sixteen large runs, each containing about 135
birds (125 hens and 10 cocks), and forty-three
apex houses. The following diagram clearly
shows the plan upon which the ground is laid
out : — •

The small outside runs contain the forty-
three apex houses, fifteen being down each side,
and thirteen in front, and consist of 300 square
yards. In the large runs are ten small houses,
ten detached large nesting boxes, and three
dusting-sheds, and they have an area of 3,000
square yards. As regards the floors of these
houses, those of the apex type have first a layer
of earth placed in them and then a layer of

peat moss, which keeps well for twelve months.
The small houses are placed on the bare earth
and are moved weekly. Each apex house
accommodates 25 birds, thus allowing the
poultry to be kept at the rate of 400 fowls to
the acre. As, however, the birds spend much of
their time in the large houses, the ground keeps
perfectly well for one year. In the igio season
one man re-erected the pens in nine days, and
it is thought that in future only eight days will
be required for this work, which is done in the
autumn. The ordinary staff moved the houses
and took down the wire-netting in the same
time. This meant that all the houses and birds
were moved some 400 to 500 yards, that being
the distance from the new pens to the old ones.
Just about seventy rolls of wire-netting are
required for the pens.

]Mr. Toovey's poultry-farm was commenced
in 1899 in a very small way, and has grown
year iDy year. It is, however, not intended to
develop it further, since to do so would mean
interference with other agricultural arrange-
ments on the farm. Mr. Toovey is of opinion
that poultry-farming is very little understood
at present by the majority of poultry keepers,
and more especially self-styled " experts."
Those engaged in poultry keeping operations
at King's Langley find that they learn some-
thing new about the subject every year.

Stocking a farm largely devoted to egg-
production calls for some judgment. Table
quality is here not the first con-
sideration by any means ; but yet
it is of some importance, for cock-
erels and hens will have to be marketed, unless
disposable as breeding stock. Size of eggs
must also be taken into consideration, and even
the colour, since brown eggs fetch a better
price in this country. Leghorns and Anconas,
hardy as they are, rather discount a market in
these points, and among crosses to be recom-
mended, the Houdan with Minorca, Leghorn,
or Buff Orpington, deserve attention as either
giving table quality or colour to the eggs. The
layers must either be found by observation,
or in a farm of this kind it may be worth while
to employ trap-nests.

Whatever differences there may be in many
points of management, care should be taken
to make up a flock of hens or pullets of the
same age, and about the same time of hatching.
This is essential towards being able to manage
the entire flock as a unit ; otherwise every single
bird has to be watched, which greatly increases
care and anxiety. When, on the other hand,
all are of similar age and breed, if one or two
show signs of ceasing to lav, or of moult

The

Stock.

156

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

coming on, it will be known that the others are
likely to follow, with other flocks according to
age ; and arrangements can then be made in
good time for slaughter or sale if necessary.

But anyone who can run a poultry-farm of
any kind ought certainly to aim at getting
products of some kind which shall find pur-
chasers at more than market rates, and in addi-
tion to these. Eggs or stock from really proved
layers always find more or less demand, and
can be sold with advertising and management ;
and if the birds are true to points, they will be
worth still more, even though no attempt be
made at exhibition standard. During recent
years quite a demand has grown
up for newly hatched chickens, sent
off within twenty-four or thirt_\--six
hours of being hatched in incubators, at which
age they travel better as a rule than later, when

Special
Products.

" There is no doubt that the business of
selling newly hatched chickens is greatly on
the increase in this country, and it is likely to
develop farther each year. The selling of set-
tings of eggs is so often unsatisfactory both to
the vendor and the purchaser. If a brood of
healthy chickens arrives safely at its destina-
tion, the purchaser sees at a glance that he has
what he ordered.

" The chickens should be despatched as soon
as dry and strong enough to stand. Any not
strong on the leg are likely to be crushed by
the others, so it is necessary to pack in the
order in which they are hatched, as a few hours
makes a great difference in the strength of the
chick and its ability to stand and walk. The
number which will travel best together is
twelve ; fewer are not enough to keep each other
warm, and if more are packed together, some

Fig. 71.

-Shed and Wall SheUers at Sowerby Grange, Northallerton. Since this photograph was taken all pens have been
boarded round and the wall shelters dispensed with. {See Fig. 73, p. 159.)

they have become dependent upon feeding.
The prices of such birds range from gs. to 42s.
per dozen, according to quality and date when
hatched, and as they are turned into money
with no further risk, when the stock is strong
and fertile they pay well. Experience shows
that a very large number of people are anxious
to purchase stock of this kind, partly as stock,
and partly, to all appearance, for the pleasure
of rearing them. The following remarks on
the despatch and management of such infant
chicks are supplied by Miss N. Edwards, of
Coaley Farm, near Dursley, who has worked
up a connection of this kind amounting to many
hundreds of chicks weekly in the spring, and
also in eggs and stock, at moderate prices, as
well as a limited number from exhibition stock.

are likely to suffer. A box gi inches long,
6 inches wide, and 5 inches deep is the best size
for the dozen. Below the lid, at back and
front, half an inch of the wood should be taken
off, or a number of half-inch holes pierced, thus
allowing plenty of ventilation.

" In packing, a warm round nest of ha}- is
made in the box, and a nice thick piece of
flannel is caught with tin-tacks at the four
corners of the box, low enough down to rest on
the backs of the chicks, and beneath the open-
ing made for ventilation. This covering
answers two purposes, (i) the chicks are more
comfortable with something resting on their
backs, and (2) should the box get overturned
in transit, the chicks do not come in contact
with the hard wood, as the covering is some

AN ENGLISH BREEDER'S FARM.

157

way down from the lid. When the weather
becomes warmer, thinner flannel can be used,
as the chicks need less protection ; and in sum-
mer the chicks can be covered with open canvas.
It is most essential that the nest should be
round or oblong, and the corners filled up with
separate wisps of hay, so that wherever the
chicks nestle none can get into a corner, as this
would mean crushing and death. As they are
provided by Nature with food for twenty-four
hours, they travel long distances before feeling
hunger, and so do not trample each other in
search for food. When despatched by night
express trains they arrive at their destinations
for their first meal, and I have sent successfully

of chicks is ordered with a hen, the chicks
should be packed as described, and the box
tied to the inside of a hamper with the hen be-
side it. She hears the chicks, and keeps quiet
on the journey."

A more impressive example of the same kind
of business on a much larger scale is the
poultry-farm carried on by Mr. Simon Hunter
at Sowerby Grange, Northallerton, since the
year i8gi. Demand for eggs and stock bred
for laying on his place in Wensleydale, as men-
tioned in a previous paragraph, showed an
opening and market at much better than mere
market prices. This was gradually extended
vi^ith corresponding decrease of the other

Spinney Shelters at Sowerby Grange, Northallerton.

to remote parts of Scotland, Ireland, and the
Channel Isles.

" Should there be any delay in transit
during intensely cold weather, and the chicks
arrive seeming somewhat lifeless, they should
be immediately placed near the fire and
thoroughly warmed, and afterwards will show
no ill effects for being delayed en route. If it
is intended to rear them with a hen that has
been sitting three weeks or thereabouts, one
chick should be given her at dusk, and by the
morning it will be seen whether she means to
take to the brood or not. She usually does, pro-
vided she has sat the usual time. When a brood

branch, and it is now fully twenty years since
any eggs were produced purely for consump-
tion. Ever since he first commenced his poultry
operations, Mr. Hunter has made a point of
breeding solely from carefully tested layers,
with the result that his laying strains have
acquired a world-wide reputation. Trap-nests
are used to a certain extent for the purpose
of ascertaining the best layers, while those
pullets that grow right away from, and com-
mence to lay before, their sisters are retained,
as are also those birds that lay right through
their moult or during most severe winter
weather. Mr. Hunter does a large business in

158

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

the sale of eggs from pure breeds of poultry
for incubation purposes, and also in pure-bred
fowls. His &g% sales alone range between
7,000 to 10,000 sittings per annum. These eggs
vary in price, accordmg to quality and season,
but average about 6s. 6d. per dozen. The
number of fowls sold is also considerable, and
prices range from 7s. 6d. to 20s. each for good
stock birds, while occasionally as much as i^io
each is made on the choicer specimens for ex-
hibition purposes ; but the bulk of the business
IS at moderate prices. A really exhibition stan-
dard is not indeed aimed at, laying qualities
being the cardinal object ; but true type and
purity of breed are maintained, and high prices
are paid for suitable birds for a change of
blood or to renew the shock. Mr. Hunter has
devoted much time and an immense amount of
money for the purpose of securing good laying
strains of fowls, and he has travelled far to
inspect such stock, having visited nearly every
noted utility breeder, not only in Great Britain,
but in America and Australia, who is devoting
attention to this class of stock. The farm, in
fact, comes nearest of any we know to the large
American breeding farms.

From the point of health and accommoda-
tion, this farm sets a high standard. There
are forty-three acres of land, the fields near the
house being devoted to chicken rearing, for
which coops are arranged in long lines,
widely separated ; Wyandottes chiefly are
used as mothers, but about half the chickens
are hatched and reared artificially, while
many chickens are also raised by neighbour-
ing farmers. There are 150 breeding pens,
each containing from ten to sixteen birds,
and from these the main part of the farm
is divided into 150 runs of about a quarter of
an acre each. To keep the grass short about
fifty sheep are kept and grazed in one or another
of the runs ; and when the breeding season is
over, two or three of the pens are put together,
and the grass in the vacated runs is allowed to
grow a few weeks and then mown for hay, a
mower being used, and a length of fence made
movable for passage of the mower and carts.
The hay is reckoned to be worth fully ;{;'ioo
annually. After mowing the birds go back to
the clean and sweet ground. The runs are
boarded all round to the height of three feet
with three feet of two-inch mesh wire stretched
tight on top to keep all taut, the height over all
being six feet. There are about seven miles
of this fencing on the farm. Another special
feature is the water supply, which is laid on
all over the farm by pipes from a spring and
tank, running into deep wells ; the drinking-

troughs are below the surface and sheltered by
boards above, so that they rarely freeze. The
cost of this was considerable, but it keeps all
sweet and saves much labour.

But it is in the attention given to shelter
that this farm specially excels. We have
always upheld the great importance of that
point when many runs are involved, but
know no case where it has been studied as at
Sowerby Grange. Each pen has a house 7 feet
by 7 feet with a pitch roof, which is double-
boarded, and the space in winter padded with
hay. Near each house is a low, open shed, in
which is kept half a load of dry peat moss dust
for dusting ; but the shed never faces the door
of the house, so that the birds must go round
into the open. In the centre of each run is an
octagonal board fence, 3 feet high, closed on
all sides except for the one by which the fowls
enter, the diameter of the octagon being 16 to
21 feet. In each of these is planted from seven
to nine spruce firs or Austrian pines, which give
complete shade and shelter to the fowls. One
of these " spinney " shelters is shown on the
preceding page.

Five men are in constant work on the farm,
with extra assistance at times. The fowls are
fed twice daily, with mash in the morning and
grain at evening, animal food being fed freely
in winter and early spring, for which a horse is
used weekly, the flesh being well boiled and
minced, and mixed in the mash with the broth.
In the afternoon the five men start round, each
with two pails of grain, bringing the eggs back
on their return.

The houses on this farm cost about £}, each,
and the fencing of each run, including " spin-
ney " shelter, about £b. The money sunk in
fitting up, draining, and stocking was reckoned
at about £3,000, but additions are always being
made, about ;£'2,ooo being spent in extensions
during the years 1902 and 1903 alone. All that
is beside the original purchase of the farm,
while in 1908 J\Ir. Hunter purchased a larger
farm in Devonshire, which it is intended to
devote to the production of high-class exhibi-
tion stock. All through, dating back to the
former Wensleydale occupation, the fowls were
made to pay as they went, and gradually pushed
and extended as they did pay ; and the whole
has been bought and paid for, besides a good
balance at the bank, out of poultry-farming.

Success like this can of course not be very
frequent. Besides thorough practical know-
ledge and industry, there is in this case to be
easily seen a strong individuality and power of
organisation and management, which are never
common ; ability to see an opening, and quick-

THE COLONY HOUSE SYSTEM.

f59

ness to take advantage of what was then a
comparatively new demand ; and skilful and
systematic advertising. There are several other
large undertakings on somewhat similar lines,
however. Mr. Randolph Meech stated that
he sold over 76,000 "utility" eggs for sitting
during the year 1903, and this particular
line, of providing stock bred for utility from
pure breeds, is one of the branches of the
poultry industry.

There are other establishments which make
considerable sums, some which even furnish

In the previous edition of this work much
space was devoted to certain aspects ot
American poultry rearing. Since, however,
American some of the projects to which

Poultry reference was made subsequently

Keeping. proved to be abortive undertak-

ings, and, moreover, as much that was treated
of in the letterpress was applicable only to
countries that have, unlike Great Britain,
similar climatic conditions to those prevailing
in North America, it has been considered
desirable to eliminate much of this information

the entire income of the proprietors, from
breeding prize stock at high prices.
Prfz^e^'^Stock Success in this branch is not par-
ticularly rare, and when it is
reaped, means greater profits at less expense of
time and labour and buildings than any of the
foregoing. But we have regretted to see this
kind of breeding often recommended as if the
returns were both large and certain. That is
not so ; it demands special qualifications and
aptitudes, and any great success must from
the very nature of the case be confined to
a limited circle. Breeding of this kind will
be treated of in later chapters of this work,
and scarcely belongs to the subject now under
consideration.

peculiar to the culture of poultry in the United
States. No treatise on poultry farming would,
however, be complete without mention being
made of the colony house plan of rearing fowls,
a system that has a wide vogue in America,
especially in the Eastern .States. The system,
as its name implies, consists of keeping fowls,
generally laying hens or growing stock, in
colonies or flocks, in short, gregariously. The
plan was recommended by Mr. H. Stoddart
so far back as the year 1872, flocks of laying
hens being placed in cheap houses dotted about
the farm 150 to 200 feet apart, perfectly un-
fenced, or in any ready-made quarters avail-
able. The plan is recommended as costing
much less in plant ; and in Rhode Island there

t6o

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

are many farmers who keep 500 fowls in this
simple way, while there are a few who rear
1,000 to 3,000 birds under these conditions.
The idea is that money is saved in plant, in
food and in labour, and also, as the fowls
forage so much for themselves, a day or two's
neglect works little mischief. It is admitted
that the egg yield is not extraordinary, but it
is asserted that this lower production at less
•expense pays as well as, or better than, a high
average at the cost of expensive food and
buildings.

It is, however, by no means always the
case that the house of simple construction is
the one in use ; indeed, nowadays all types
are affected, from the latest approved fresh-air
Tolman or Woods structure to the modest
roosting place made from large, heavy dry-
goods boxes, as may be seen in the yards of
Mr. Carl H. Krippene. Usually, in the case
of laying hens, twenty-five birds are allocated
to one house, but in some instances as many
as fifty compose the flock. During the day-
time, when the fowls are at liberty, they all
mix together indiscriminately, and, it is con-
tended, they sort themselves out at roosting
time. How this is accomplished without over-
crowding taking place in some houses when
growing chickens are placed in such erections,
as is sometimes done, it is difficult to under-
stand, unless a plan similar to that adopted
by Mr. Toovey, as previously mentioned, is
in vogue, especially as the buildings are very
often only a few yards apart. An excellent
example of this plan is to be found at Little
Compton, Rhode Island, on a farm which is
the gradual growth of over forty years. There
are 200 acres, and over forty years since the
chief produce was beef. The owner began by
doubling the usual number of hens as kept in
the district, and gradually developed his
stock until he had a hundred detached houses,

each 8 feet by 12 feet, placed in rows about
150 feet apart, each roosting about forty hens
— say 4,000 in all. The birds are regularly
fed twice a day, with mash in the morning,
a wagon driving round and bringing back the
eggs. The houses cost about twenty dollars
each, being rough and cheap, of board, and no
pains are taken to avoid cracks. The birds
are at perfect liberty to go where they like,
but seldom mix much. All the houses in a
row are emptied and refilled at the same date,
when the new birds are shut in the houses for
two days, and then let out a little before night
to be fed close round the house ; thi;y return
quickly that night to roost, and are then given
liberty. No males are placed with the laying
stock.

In his excellent " Report of the Poultry
Industry in America," published in 1906 by
the National Poultry Organisation Society,
Mr. Edward Brown, referring to his impres-
sions of the colony house system, says that
where farmers and others desire either to devote
only a part of the land occupied to poultry,
making, however, the fowls a leading feature
of the work, the colony system extensively used
in the Little Compton district of Rhode Island
should be adopted, taking care to remove the
flocks on to fresh ground every year or two
years, and after cropping, not to use again
until the manure is exhausted. Under this
system, by the erection of wire netting fences
around the entire range, Mr. Brown is of
opinion that the fox difficulty would be largely
overcome, and the repression of poultry-keep-
ing in hunting districts removed, to the increase
of returns to farmers ; and, moreover, by this
plan large areas of land at present uncultivated
could be profitably occupied, more especially
in connection with small holdings, in many
parts of the country, to which it is specially
suitable.

i6i

CHAPTER IX.

NATIONAL AND COMMERCIAL.

IN considering poultry and poultry products
as national food, or as a branch of com-
merce, or as an industry, the point which
most forcibly strikes any British student is the
constant and enormous growth of foreign im-
ports, and of eggs especially. Hundreds of
writers have commented upon the fact, and
the statement that " millions of British money
goes out of the country for foreign eggs which
might just as' well be produced at home," is
a commonplace of leading articles which appear
in the principal daily papers with statistical'
regularity every year. Giving only alternate
years for the sake of space, the following simple
table gives the number of eggs imported into
Great Britain, their declared value, and their
average declared value per long hundred or
I20, from the year 1856 to igog.

Year.

No. of Eggs.

Value.

.\verage Price.

1856

117.2^0,600

^278,422

5/8

1838

1^4 685,000

303.617

5/5

i860

167 695,400

478,658

6/1 1

1S62

232,321,200

593.813

6/1

1864

33'?, 298, 240

. 835,028

5/11*

1866

438.878.880

1,105.613

6/oi

1868

383.969 o.^o

1,009.285

6/3

1870

430.842,240

1, 102,080

6/.J

1872

J?!. 591.720

1,762,000

7/iii

1874

6S0 552 280

2.433.134

8/7

1876

753,026 040

2,620,396

8/4

1878

783.714,723

2.511,^96

7/8i

1880

747,408,600

2.2.15.451

7/2

1882

811,922,403

2,385,263

7/t

1H84

993,608,760

2,910,493

7/-

1886

I,03i,i7t,ooo

2,884.063

6/8

1888

1,126,793.000

3,083,167

6/5

1890

I 234.950.000

3,428,806

6/8

zSgz

1,336,730 000

3.794.718

6/10

iSq4

1,425.236,000

3.786,329

6/5

iSg-i

1,589.401,000

4,184,656

6/4

1898

1,730,052.000

4,457."7

6/2

1900

2,o-'5.82o.55o

5,406, 14 1

6/5*

igo2

2,271,661,560

6..^ 08,985

6/7*

1904

2,393,111,280

5,73". 574

6/9

1906

2.264,893.083

7,098,137

7/64-

igo8

2.i85.2o8,4or,

7,183,112

7/ioi

1909

1,125.252.920

7,235.302

8/2

The immense amount of this import trade
is plain enough, as is also the startling fact
that the number of eggs thus imported equals
about 55 per head of the inhabitants of Great

Britain (excluding Ireland from this figure,
as being herself an exporting and not import-
ing country). It is further evident that the
values of such importations have grown more
rapidly of late years ; and it may seem natural
to draw the conclusion that the foreigner is
" ousting the British producer," so far at least as
regards the market for eggs. The moral is
often added, that the British producer is doing
nothing, and is being to all appearance "hope-
lessly out-distanced " by the foreigner, owing
as supposed to the latter's superior methods or
the nature of his farming.

Natural as such conclusions may appear,
they are in the main mistakes arising from
ignorance. We remember a great statesman
once declaring from his place in Parliament,
how he had found in his experience that
amongst all the different sorts of lies, the worst
were statistics. In sober truth, the number of
presumed authorities who are capable of truly
judging figures and reading their real lessons,
appears very small. In this case the foreigner
is doing nothing of the kind, as can be readily
shown. The first step towards drawing true

conclusions about foreign imports is
Analysis of to analyse the gross figures them-
Importa. selves ; and the following table

gives the value during 'the six years,
1904-1909, from the five countries which supply
the vast bulk of the trade; all other countries,
apart from Italy, Austria-Hungary and
Canada, amounting in 1909 to no more than
;£'928,I4I, which we will deal with separately.

Year.

Fi ance.

Russia.

Denmark.

Germany,

Belgium.

£

£

£

£

£

1904

710,057

2,042,520

1,461,459

1,191,161

837,120

'915

660,369

2,426,029

1,634,288

764.966

830,598

igo6

623,119

2,344,256

1,701,291

957.9-^5

992,103

1907

541,088

2,392,044

i.774.3'8

1,030,190

891,460

1908

5.55.249

2,518,051

1.824,273

855,256

884,686

1909

475.335

2.928,857

1,698,329

255,003

Note.— The blank in Belfiiun
.■aUie from this country was ir
•other Countries."

All other countries till recently included
Canada, and in 1891 amounted to ;£'i6o,496.

l62

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

In 1893 Canada was tabulated separately as
;£'7S,506, while in 1900 she sent to England
;fe288,945, all other countries amounting to
;£'46j,787. The latter amount included chiefly,
in 1899, America, Egypt, Spain, Portugal,
Morocco, Holland. A very few cases came
direct from Italy, but this country sends many
more through Holland and Belgium, part of
whose figures are therefore Italian. Russia
also sends many through Germany, and a less
number through Denmark, part of which should
therefore be credited to her ; she also exports
a considerable number to Belgium ; thus actual
direct imports from Germany and Belgium are
not so large as they appear on the surface, but
on the other hand Russia looms still larger,
as now by far the largest exporter of eggs to
Great Britain. In 1909 the Board of Trade
attempted to classify the imports according to
their country of origin ; but even now the re-
turns are far from complete.

These eggs from various countries are of
very different qualities. Those from France
arc both nearer and more promptly collected,
and realise the highest prices ;
Prices and those from Germany — many being
Quality. Russian — are next to Russian lowest

in price. In summer, Russian eggs
average barely 5s. per " long hundred," while
French even then approach 8s. Many Russian
eggs are almost rotten when sold in this country,
and are chiefly used in various manufactures,
for which such eggs answer perfectly, or for
the worst class of Italian confectionery. Calcu-
lating out from the declared values, the average
price of foreign eggs per 120 comes out for the
year 1909 thus: France, 9s. o3^d. ; Canada,
los. iid. ; Italy, 9s. i3/{d. ; Denmark,
9s. 63,^d. ; Germany, 8s. 3|<^d. ; Russia, 7s. 2d.

There is yet a further fact to be noted in
regard to prices. Those of foreign eggs, owing
to these changes in source of origin, are some-
what lower than formerly. In 1872, when the
bulk of imports were French, the average price
of the year was nearly 8s. ; in 1874, 8s. 7d. ;
and in 1876, 8s. 4d. It did not go below 7s.
till after 1884, but in 1902 was 6s. 73<d. A
large part of the better class eggs have thus
been displaced by the staler and commoner
Russian at a cheap rate, for purposes which
these adequately fulfil. It is not to be expected
that English producers should produce eggs at
such a low cost as to compete with these ; and
as conditions of life improve even in Russia,
it is likely that the cost may continue to rise.
But it would be wrong to conclude, as some
have done, that the foreigner has " ousted the
Englishman " from the egg-market. There is

no grain of evidence that one English egg the
fewer has been sold owing to foreign competi-
tion. On the contrary, that the foreigner has
merely stepped in so far as regards the better
foreign qualities, where the home producer
could not or would not supply the enormous
demand, is shown by the facts that an all-Eng-
lish supply of good quality has of late found
a better market at higher prices, and that home
production has increased prodigiously .

Of that enormous increase there is not the
slightest doubt. It is a disgrace to this country
that since 18S4 there w^as no attempt to give
official poultry statistics until 1908,
Increase in when a Poultry and Production
Consumption. Census was taken ; but the result
has not yet been published. In de-
fault of that, we have made many attempts to
get at facts ; but while all observers, with no
solitary exception, agree in reporting an enor-
•mous increase in British poultry and eggs, they
differ greatly as to the amount. None has
estimated it under tivice that of twenty years
ago ; more have said three or four times ; some
even more than that. The shops in all large
towns tell the same tale. In all leading
thoroughfares there are " dairy " and other
shops where clean (generally tinted) British
eggs are exposed for sale in neat dozen boxes
at " new-laid " or " fresh " prices, and very good
prices too, ranging up to 3s. per dozen in the
winter months. Every cyclist knows how often
he now gets really new-laid eggs about the
country. All this is a recent growth, a new
thing : such parcels of eggs at such prices were
absolutely unknown when a former edition of
this book was written. Thirty years ago, the
vast majority of persons, as we then wrote, had
never tasted a really new-laid &^^, and did not
know what it was like : now many thousands
do, and are willing to pay for it.

A more tangible fact of the same sort is
that there is now a London 7narket for " new-
laid " eggs. And the following prices were
paid per 120 for genuine new-
New Laid laid eggs during each month of
Eggs. 191O: January, i6s. to i8s. ; Feb-

ruary and March, lOs. to 15s. ;
April, 9s. to lOs. ; May, 8s. 6d. to lOs. ; June,
9s. to los. 6d. ; July, 9s. 6d. to 12s. ; August,
I OS. to 13s. ; September, lis. 6d. to 13s. 6d. ;
October, lis. 6d. to 15s.; November, i6s. to
21S. ; December, 17s. to 22s. The differences
depended chiefly upon size and even sorting :
if large and small were mixed, the lot only
realised the price of small, while all large were
worth more ; colour also counts, brown eggs
being worth more in England.

INCREASED EGG PRODUCTION IN ENGLAND.

t6.;

All these prices are above French prices,
the winter ones far above them ; and this
market has grown up in face of all the foreign
competition. We are told that the market is
steadily growing, and that prices on the whole
tend to increase rather than diminish, but that
the greatest difficulty is to get absolutely reli-
able quality. JMany of the early consigners of
these eggs would hold them back, say in
.September, to get October prices, and worse.
Very drastic measures had to be taken with
some, and these practices cramp and check the
demand and sale even now. It is essential, for
a trade at " new-laid " prices to grow, that the
eggs be sent regularly three times a week, or at
the outside twice, and all new-laid since the last
day of shipment down to date. Of course,
such a market might be occasionally glutted,
as any market can, by some accidental rush of
supply but the steady market is groitnug for
such goods, which can never be supplied by
foreigners.

The general course of the egg trade will
now be quite clear. It is beyond doubt that
the demand for eggs as food in England has
lately increased beyond all calcu-
British lation, and beyond any prospect

Supply. of home supply until quite recently.

Cycling alone has done much ; tlie
growth of town populations has done more, as
Mr. Edward Brown has repeatedly pointed out.
The dietetic value of eggs is appreciated as it
was not before, and the relish for such light
food is extending. But meantime the British
producer has not been standing still : he is
selling many times more eggs than he ever did
before, and yet getting better prices for them,
not worse. Besides those sent to market,
thousands are sent in smaller packages to
private customers, and many leading railways
now have special terms by which such produce
can be sent up by passenger trains, provided
it is packed in boxes which can be piled on
each other. The Great Eastern Railway
charges 4d. for 20 lbs., the Great Northern
6d. for 20 lbs, and is. for 50 lbs., from any
station on their systems to London. The in-
crease in the home egg-trade is simply incal-
culable ; and it is obvious that, whilst this
supply has been superseding the best and
highest-priced of the French eggs, the Russian
supply has been affecting the lower grades, but
that in the main the home producer need have
no fear of holding his own in face of the
enormous demand for a good article, now
really beginning to be appreciated.'

There are still difficulties to be overcome.
Eo-crs in summer fetch very low rates in manv

country districts, because thrown upon a bad
market, and also because kept till stale. The
egg once stored a week or more competes only
with the foreign article, and summer is always
the worst time to sell. There is also, unfor-
tunately, no doubt that fraudulent dealers
" candle " foreign eggs, and put them in as
" new-laid British," thus not only cheating \n
price, but depraving the public taste, since the
really " new-laid " British egg is sid generis.
The most amazing fact of all is that producers
themselves should act in the besotted fashion
above mentioned. Even the lowered railway
rates, however, leave something to be desired ;
and producers greatly need some such recog-
nised price and system as enables the Surrey
fowl to be collected, sent to London, and the
packages returned to the sender at the definite
net charge of one penny per bird. This is based
upon the light, but strong, square crates called
" pads," which are stacked solid upon each other
from floor to roof of the van. These " pads "
fill two vans thus packed, at Heathfield, three
times a week in the season.

The National Poultry Organisation Society,
whose offices are at 38, Queen Anne's Chambers,
Dean Farrar Street, Westminster, London, was
founded in i8g8 with a view to get the home
trade in poultry and eggs into a
Organisation, better business condition. It en-
deavours to establish local societies
and collecting agencies for forwarding and
marketing local products, and stamps the eggs
sold under its auspices with its own trade mark,
as a guarantee of freshness and quality, w-hich
shall at least prevent them from being mixed
with foreign importations. Collection appears,
upon the whole, to promise more success in Eng-
land than such local markets as are common on
the Continent, and should also transmit eggs
more frequently, and therefore fresher ; but in
one or two localities, as in Dorset, there are
general markets which are recognised and of
considerable use.

The great need, and it is one that cannot
be emphasised too often, is the necessity for
scrupulous care by the producer in the collec-
tion of eggs for marketing, so as to avoid the
slightest chance of a stale or doubtful &%^
being included in any consignment. Another
point upon which stress must be laid is that of
careful packing.

Results will much depend upon an adequate
winter supply. Not only are prices much better
from October till March, but London merchants
give marked preference in summ.-^r also to pro-
ducers from whom they receive their supply in
winter, when wanted most: hence pullets have

164

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

to be hatched all times of the year for an egg-
farm. Even the very early ones, which lay from
August till October or November and then
moult, are useful in filling up the supply, and
are often best killed directly moult comes on.
March and April birds will fill the winter pack-
ages ; and some late ones are often useful in the
summer.

Modern results (first obtained in America)
from the free use of clover and cut fresh
bone have done much not only to revolu-
tionise, but to systematise, the egg-farming of
the present day. The free advice always
available to poultry-keepers in the columns of
the better-class poultry papers has also worked
wonders in the direction of the proper feedmg
of fowls for ^%'g production.

We have made special endeavours to ascer-
tain what effect cold storage or freezing is
having upon the trade in dead poultry and eggs.
Storage of dead poultry has so far
Cold had some effect in steadying the

Storage. market, as birds are often now-

placed in the cellars to hold over a
day or two, instead of being absolutely sacrificed
on days of too free supply. But it has to be
remembered that with this the price goes down :
once gone into storage, a bird has to be sold for
6d. or even is. less than if it was fresh. As
most people know, animal food that has been
frozen will not "keep" well, once it is brought
out and thawed : it has passed from first-class
to a lower grade, and has to be sold quickly
and as such. In regard to eggs the risks are
considerable, as mentioned a little further on ;
and they too must be soon used when once
brought out. Eggs moreover require more
careful adjustment of the temperature, for if
too cold they burst or break the shells ; they
have to be kept at only about one degree below
freezing-point. Lastly, we believe they can be
detected by testing. A gentleman who markets
many eggs, and was therefore
Testing personally interested, told us that

Storage Eggs a frozen egg could be known by
completely filling the shell, without
apparently any air-bubble at the end, and that,
when boiled, the air thus diffused in freezing
localised round the yolk, which it clearly sepa-
rated from the white. We tried in vain to procure
a few cold storage eggs for further testing this,
there being none obtainable: but we took ad-
vantage of a mild frost to freeze some fair shop
eggs, possessing quite a large air-bubble. The
first assertion was perfectly true: the air-biibble
had totally vanished, va-ak\x\g the egg apparently
"better" than new-laid. Of the second state-
ment there remained more doubt, the frost

having cracked the majority of the shells ; in all
cases, however, the definite air-bubble did not
return, the air generally separating the white
from the membrane over the greater part of the
egg. It is satisfactory thus to find that cold
storage eggs, however good they may be, cannot
be permanently passed off as fresh.

The figures relative to the imports of
poultry into England during the }-cars 1907-9
are as follows : —

1907

1908

1909

/

£

£

Russia

277,799

360.362

35'.9i8

France

181,942

170.387

156,085

Austria-Hungary

87.335

"4.037

108,512

United States of America

203,588

152,135

1-49.552

Other Countries .

153.183

136 75S

154 602

Totals /903.S47 ^934.579 ;f920,e99

This trade does not at present very seriously
threaten the British industry, as regards gocid
quality. The cheap Russian fowls will be
mentioned presently ; of the better poultry, a
large proportion consists of turkeys from
France and Italy, many Italian turkeys being
credited as from France and Belgium, for the
December market. Poultry and turkeys from
Canada have made a great advance of late, but
can only compete as cold storage goods.

Ireland exports considerable quantities of
both eggs and poultry to England, and this
fact is obviously connected with the predomin-
ance in the country of small oc-
Ireland. cupations, the vast majority of

holdings being under 30 acres. The
statistics show, however, that too small holdings
are not favourable to either production or
prosperity. Between the years 1841 and 185 1
a great change passed over Ireland, holdings
under live acres decreasing from 310,436 to
88,083, and those between 5 and 15 acres
from 252,799 to 191,854, while those above 15
acres had correspondingly increased. Taking
therefore 1851 as our starting-point, we find
that in that year the number of poultry in
Ireland was returned as 7,470,694. By 1889
the number had increased to 14,856,517, and
in 1899 the number returned was 18,233,520,
an increase of nearly 25 per cent.

Such figures must signify a steadily growing
and, upon the whole, prosperous industry ; and
there is ample evidence that there has been
very great improvement in many parts of Ire-
land, both as regards quality of the produce
and prices realised. Writing in 1886, we had
to report with regret that much good that had
been previously done by poultry shows, and
the distribution of better stock by owners of

THE IRISH EGG INDUSTRY.

16=5

land, had been checked by the disturbed state
of the country. These efforts have lately been
resumed ; and still more has been done by the
Irish Agricultural Organisation Society (22,
Lincoln Place, Dublin), which works by estab-
lishing local co-operative societies all over
Ireland. These collect and forward produce,
and diffuse sound information amongst their
members, in which latter task they are aided by
qualified teachers sent from the central body.
Much of this work, of course, deals also with
other branches of agriculture ; but many local
societies thus afifiliated have chiefly to do with
poultry matters. These (and the head organis-
ation also) distribute plain and practical leaflets
bearing upon the production of eggs and table
poultry, and other details of the poultry in-
dustry. It is especially gratifying to observe
the practical and trustworthy character of the
teaching now thus disseminated, because at
an earlier period the laudable efforts of the
Congested Districts Board have been unfortu-
nately much frustrated by the incompetence
of advisers, destitute of practical knowledge,
who have either selected unhealthy stock, or
given advice in regard to stock from their
own theoretical views, rather than such as suited
the real requirements of the country. These
practical leaflets, on the other hand, have taught
Irish farmers to select the useful Asiatic crosses
mentioned in Chapter VII., and described the
points of table fowl, with the result that the
export of live birds to Surrey and Sussex has
largely increased, and prices been raised to
within a few pence of the local Sussex standard.
The raising of chickens for fattening is chiefly
carried on in Wexford, Kilkenny, and Queen's
County, from 2s. to 3s. each being often realised
at the best season for Irish birds from 2h lbs. to
4 lbs. weight : but co-operative societies are
gradually opening the eyes of farmers in other
districts to this profitable trade. A few societies
are even encouraging fattening in Ireland itself,
for the London and Liverpool markets, but
the bulk of the export of spring chickens is of
li\-e birds through Kilkenny, as before stated.
In the Belfast district many fine fowls come
to market at Lisburn, Saintfield, and other
adjacent towns. These, as a rule, are well fed
but not fatted, and, owing to the greater length
of the journey, cannot compete in quality with
Sussex birds, which get to London the night
of the same day they are killed. Co-operation
is however improving the packing, and con-
sequently the condition and price of these birds.
In large districts, however, there is even yet no
regular m-arket, and chickens can only be sold
for 6d. to gd. each to local customers. Such

chickens are however small, killed as they run,
and not perhaps worth very much more.

The Society above referred to has, however,
attained its most definite results in re-organising
the Irish egg trade. Formerly the cottagers
sold their eggs chiefly to women
Irish dealers, who usually added 4d. per

Egg Trade. 120 for collection to what they paid,
on selling to the larger dealers, or to
local shops, the latter chiefly paying for them in
groceries. In either case the bulk of the eggs
were generally a week to four weeks old when
collected for actual export, and the eggs were
often dirty, and of all sizes and sorts. A great
deal of the Irish egg trade is still carried on in
this way, which keeps these eggs at a lower price
than good foreign. The Organisation Society
engaged an expert from the export trade of
Denmark, Mr. Viggo Schwartz, to instruct the
local societies in the best Continental methods
of sorting and packing ; and we are glad to
record that wherever the teaching of these has
permeated, the people have been quick to seize
it and understand its pecuniary value. The
following account of the work that was done
is by Mr. Viggo Schwartz, and will show the
great improvement that was effected in this
important branch of Irish industry : —

" It is only a few years ago that the egg
trade was so much neglected in Ireland, and
so ill-managed, that the Liverpool and Glas-
gow merchants began to threaten to refuse to
buy any more Irish eggs unless the exporters
would im.prove their parcels on lines similar
to those which the foreign exporters had
introduced. As, however, the merchants were
unable to give any guarantee that better
prices would be paid for fresher and cleaner
eggs than had been hitherto paid, the farmers
continued to send their produce to market as
before. Very often the eggs arrived in a
stale condition, packed in damp straw and
most repellent cases, and such consignments
were fast doing great harm to the Irish egg
trade in general.

" It was at this juncture that the Irish Agri-
cultural Organisation Societj^ began to form
local co-operative societies among Irish poultry-
keepers, and to introduce amongst them better
methods of carrying on their business. The
Society's object is to infuse into the agricultural
population of Ireland a spirit of self-reliance,
and to show them how, by combination and
mutual help, they could give effect to that
spirit in a way calculated to better both the
individual and the community. These local
Poultry Societies are formed for the double
purpose of improving the breeds and methods

i66

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

of rearing and fattening poultry, and improving
the methods of placing poultry and eggs on
the market. Poultry experts are employed to
impart technical instruction, and amongst these
I myself was brought from Denmark, especially
to teach the Societies the Danish methods of
selecting, grading, and packing eggs for ex-
portation.

"A number of what may be termed Egg
Societies are now in working order. The Sub-
societies send the eggs collected during the
week, or when eggs are plentiful every second
day, to the exporting centre ; these central
stores are either at a seaport town, or some
station on a main line of railway, from which
there is good communication to the English
markets. The local depots, which are all within
carting distance of the centre, receive the eggs
from their members daily, by weight only, and
none but perfectly fresh and perfectly clean
eggs are received. The suppliers are paid cash
for the number of pounds weiglit of eggs sup-
plied, and not (as hitherto has been the way
in Ireland) for the score or the dozen and
paid in tea and sugar. Purchasing by weight
has had the effect of making Irish poultry
keepers much more ready to adopt the advice
given them, and cultivate breeds which pro-
duce eggs of larger size and in greater number.
The eggs are then placed in large cases with
cardboard divisions, holding i,ooo eggs each,
and so brought to the central packing station.
As soon as received there, they are graded to
their respective sizes, which range from i8 lbs.
per 1 20 eggs down to 13 lbs., then tested
carefully so as to detect any that may be bad,
and finally packed in export cases.

" The packing cases are of Continental
pattern, and are made in three sizes, namely,
'whole cases,' containing twelve long hundreds,
or 1,440 eggs, 'half-cases,' containing si.x long
hundreds, or 720 eggs, and 'quarter-cases,' to
take 360 eggs. The whole cases are practically
two half-cases, these being divided into two
equal parts by two centre-pieces, in such a
manner that by cutting the case between those
centre-pieces there will be obtained two half-
cases. The eggs are packed m these cases in
layers, and each layer in rows of a certain
number; not, as the custom has been in Ireland,
pell-mell. Every case of whatever size contains
four layers of eggs, and each layer in the six-
hundred cases or half-cases, iSo eggs, arranged
iS eggs in a row, and ten rows ; while the three-
hundred cases or quarter-cases contain only 90
eggs in a layer, 9 in a row, and ten rows. The
packing is done with such accuracy that the
eggs on unpacking occupy the same position as

they did when packed. To attain this a layer
of wood-wool is placed between each two layers
of eggs, and carefully arranged so that it is the
same thickness both between the layers of eggs,
and the eggs and the sides of case. Its quantity
must be such that no empty space is left when
the eggs are packed down. When the fourth
and last layer is packed, this ought, before
compression, to be on a level with the edges nt
the case. This layer is then also covered with
wood-wool of about two inches thickness, and
above again is laid a layer of dry, clean, and
stiff straw. In order to press down the lid to its
position the packer walks on it when nailing,
and this can be done without breaking a single
cg^. If the top layer is on a level with the cast
edge, the proper pressure will generally be had
on packing down, so that the eggs keep their
position, but of course either too much pressure
or too loose packing would cause breakages.

" This method of packing is new for Ireland,
but has been used on the Continent for a
great many years. Several e.vperiments made
in Denmark have shown that eggs packed in
this manner and forwarded to London by
steamer from Copenhagen to Newcastle, and
thence by rail to London, have reached their
destination without a single breakage. But
this implies another matter of importance, viz.
that both the steamship company's and the
railway company's porters, as on other routes
through which eggs are forwarded from the
Continent to Great Britain, fully understand
the handling of eggs. In this particular their
colleagues in Ireland liave still much to learn,
and no packing, however good, can avoid
breakages by careless transport. We hope,
however, before long to get this important
branch of Irish trade on a sound basis all
round, and that it may rise to a height
comparable with that in Denmark, where the
egg export is now for the most part on co-
operative lines, and one society I know has
a yearly turn-over of more than ;;r 125,000
sterling.

" Some of the local Societies have, in order
to prevent bad eggs being brought in, supplied
each member with a stamp, bearing the number
of the member and the letter of the Society.
With this the supplier stamps all his eggs, and
in this way it is possible to trace a bad egg
to its source. A good many Societies ha\'c
now been in working order for some time, and
some of them — for instance, those at Athlone,
Mallow, and Newmarket — are able to e.xport
weekly more than 150,000 eggs. No doubt
this movement, which has already attained such
striking results, will steadily enlarge as in Den-

POULTRY AND EGGS IN FRANCE.

167

mark, and the produce gradually find its way
to the best markets, giving satisfaction to those
who will help them by assisting their trade."

Besides the teaching of its chief egg-expert,
and those trained by him, the Society dis-
tributes admirable leaflets on this subject also,
stating the more suitable breeds and details of
management, and pointing out in simple words
that a good lien p^lys a profit of over 5s. per
annum. The establishment of creameries is
also helping the movement, and the collection
of eggs ; and thus by degrees, by the side of
the old business at the old low prices, there is
growing up a higher class Irish egg trade, which
can command an average price of lod. per
dozen in the London market, equal to the
very best of the foreign supplies.

Another influence which improved the Irish
industry was the increased number of winter
shows of dead poultry and eggs, many of
them established by the same local
Poultry in Societies as are referred to above.
Ireland. As a rule the Societies gave all their

prizes in the shape of live birds for
stock ; in this way good blood was brought into
the country, and in some cases the eftect was
wonderful. Mrs. F. C. Smith, of Boyle, wrote
us that at the first show in Mullingar the
heaviest turkey was only 1 1 lbs. weight ; the
second year the best was 24jj lbs. ; and in
1 8g8 there were over a hundred that weighed
between 20 and 25 lbs. dressed, and cockerel
chickens weighing 15 lbs. to i8_J^ lbs. per pair.
Wherever these shows were got up, the effects
were seen directly, and both eggs and fowls
were of very different size and quality within
a year or two The birds exhibited are chiefly
bought by Dublin poulterers and local private
gentlemen at high prices for Christmas ; this
shows the Irish farmers zvhat good foidtry will
fetch, and stimulates their ambition.

To the really practical poultry expert, per-
haps the most significant change of all in
Ireland, is seen in the choice of breeds. Years
ago, many people had spread amongst the
peasantry the most really desirable breeds ;
but all alike found that these rapidly dis-
appeared, with the exception of Hamburghs
and Leghorns. These pleased and were kept
on, because they laid well, yet were small and
ate little ! That reason has been given to us
personally in years past, even near Belfast, and
we have heard of it from scores of independent
sources ; the people could not get better prices
for larger eggs, and preferred the birds that cost
the least. The purchase of eggs by weight, and
selection of the largest by the creameries, and
the demand for chickens from Sussex, and

practical teaching brought Iwine to them, are
now changing this, and rapidly developing a
valuable national industry.

The production and consumption of eggs
in France is undoubtedly very large, for which
there are several obvious reasons, some of which
are common to the other Latin
France. countries. One is that these

are Roman Catholic countries, in
which eggs are the only extra-vegetable diet
besides fish allowable on fast-days. There
can be no doubt that this has had much to do
with (he creation of non-sitting, laying races all
round the Mediterranean, and largely stimu-
lated egg-production. Secondly, small occu-
pations abound, and these are specially adapted
for the general cultivation of poultry. Thirdly,
butcher's meat is rare as an article of food, and
much of what is used is old and tough ; this
turns the national palate to tender stews and
entrees, favours the taste for succulent chicken,
and increases the demand for it. Lastly, in
France especially the wom.en do much work
on the small holdings, and poultry-keeping
particularly suits their habits, and the general
economy of the small farms. A paper by M
Lavergne, published forty years ago, stated
that many farmers in the La Bresse and other
districts made from their poultry at that date
from £"}) to ;^5 per acre of their occupation.

The cultivation of poultry is still extending in
France, though it is difficult to say how much,
many " official " French reports and figures
being worthless. French Government statistics
in 1885 made the export of eggs to England of
only the value of £556,800, whereas it amounted
10.^^1,507,099; and we remember another case
in which the Government return of the value ol
poultry products in the three arrondissements ot
Mantes, Dreu.v, and Nogent was only one-tenth
of the municipal return the same year, for their
three chief towns alone. The best authority we
have been able to find is the result of the de-
cennial inquiry made under M. Tisserand in 1892,
through the prefects of the eighty-seven depart-
ments, and which are certainly more complete
than the ordinary returns. Going back for
thirty years, this report states the number ot
fowls in France in 1S62 as 43,000,000, and in
1892 as having increased to 54,000,000, besides
about 9,000,000 of ducks, turkeys, and other
poultry. It is remarkable to find that, as in
Sussex, this increase has been accompanied by
an increase in the area under oats : while other
cereals showed some decline, oats had increased
from 8,209,971 acres in 1862 to 9,399,560 acres
thirty years later.

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Eggs being therefore collected in France
from a large number of small occupations, what
has given the export trade and Paris trade such
a development is the fact that the collecting
mechanism is so well organised and efficient. A
gentleman in the trade, writing to the Grocer,
has described it for the benefit of English pro-
ducers. Every small town or large village has
a weekly market, and to these the merchants of
the district send their vans with market cases,
and buy all that are offered ; if bad eggs are
brought, the delinquent is subject to a fine, and
for a proved second offence may even be im-
prisoned ! The eggs are brought just as they
are in these cases to the central warehouse,
where they are "candled," and next morning
are sorted and packed, according to size, in
boxes containing twelve "long hundreds." By
evening train the same day they leave for the
boat. Thus the eggs bought from the farmers
on a Wednesday are packed on Thursday, catch
the Friday boat, and are in London market the
following Tuesday, and so of other days in the
week. They are packed carefully with white
rolled straw, in white deal cases, arriving in a
nice, clean-looking, saleable condition.

The home consumption of eggs in France is
also very great, and this has made the foreign
trade so sensitive to prices and other factors.
About 1866 Madame Millet Robinet calculated
the consumption in Paris alone at 120 per head
of its population ; and as the late Mr. Gibson
Richardson soon afterwards found that 6,000,000
eggs were sold weekly in the Paris markets,
some of these being of low quality used in
manufactures, the calculation must be pretty
accurate for that time. In 1S99 the Paris
Municipal Council published a return, showing
that the consumption per head the previous year
had increased to 212 per head. The consump-
tion in France for omelettes alone must be
something enormous. This home demand, as
we see presently in the case of America, keeps
up prices for the better quality, and the large
export to England was formerly replaced in part
by a considerable import from Italy. This was
greatly checked by tariff changes ; and when
prices in England somewhat decreased, owing
to English producers beginning to skim the
cream of the best market, as above described,
a quantity of the French eggs found a better
home market in Paris.

A large part of the French e.xport of dead
fowls to England is for the December, and
especially the Christmas market, to which many
turkeys are sent over ; but the whole of this
export is very little, as already shown, in com-
parison with the egg trade.

Of the Belgian trade, a considerable portion
is of Italian eggs, merely sent through the
country ; but it is impossible to ascertain what

proportion. Eggs are also shipped
Belgium. direct, but it is curious that many of

these are laid by Italian fowls —
what, in fact, we call Leghorns, imported from
Italy in the summer, kept to lay for about twelve
months, and then killed. The Belgian table
fowl -par excellence is the Coucou de Malines, of
which a number reach London in December ;
but more dead poultry go from Belgium to
Germany than to England. In Belgium the
rearers of lean chickens chiefly meet the fatters
at certain established markets, where the fatters
buy what they want or can get, and take them
away.

The most remarkable growth in European
poultry industry during the last twenty years is
undoubtedly in Russia, where the Government
has made considerable efforts to
Russia. encourage this industry. In 1S99

it held a great international ex-
hibition at St. Petersburg for the purpose of
making the people acquainted with foreign
breeds, many of which, especially German and
Belgian exhibits, were taken home by Russian
buyers. There was a monthly International
Poultry Journal, with departments in Russian,
French, German and English, which must have
been subsidised, or it could not have been carried
on. The Grand Duke Nicholas stated a few
years ago that poultry was recognised as the
branch of production which had most rapidly
advanced, and the export to England was only
a portion of Russia's export trade. This is, of
course, returned in roubles, and dividing these
by ten (which is almost exactly correct) to gi^'e
the figures in pounds sterling, the exports for
i8q8 (the last figures available) were: —

Description.
Live fowls
Dead (owls
Dead game

Eggs

Yolk of egg
White of egg ...
Down and feathers

Value.
/637,ooo
141.648
6,131

30,612

3.542

197.951

;f 4,130,270

It is of course the vast southern districts of
Russia which produce poultry and eggs, the pro-
ducers being nearly all very small men, from
whom their fowls and eggs are collected by
travelling dealers or higglers. The birds have
little attention and little food beyond what they
pick up : hence the cost and prices realised are
both very low. In the spring no more than

POULTRY IN RUSSIA AND AMERICA.

169

2s. 6d. a hundred is paid in Russia for eggs, and
in summer they may go as low as is. gd., but
later they may go as high as 4s. 6d. to 4s. gd.
They are sorted through rings of different sizes,
and- also as to quality ; and when packed in
cases are carried by rail at almost incredibly
low rates, on the Government railways, to Baltic
ports. Vast numbers go to German markets as
well as to England, and considerable quantities
to Hamburgh, whence they are shipped to
England as German eggs. Many other of these
"German" eggs are Austro-Hungarian and
Italian, and it is doubtful if Germany herself,
except as a carrier, is a factor of much real
importance in the British egg trade. The Russian
egg supply itself can never be of very high
quality, or seriously threaten that of really new-
laid eggs. The distances are vast, the collection
slow, the transhipments necessarily several.
Hence the relative prices already noted. They
must always be mainly of the cheaper grades.

The same applies to Russian dead poultry,
which necessarily come frozen, and are subject
to- the depreciation of frozen carcases. They
are shaped in cloths after plucking, the legs and
wings being folded tightly in, so that the entire
fowl is exactly the shape of a fir-cone ; each is
then tightly wrapped in thin paper and packed
in a case holding 100 birds of uniform size. In
April, 1899, we passed a very good class City
restaurant, and noticed on the vieiiit at the door,
" Half spring chicken, roasted, with bacon, is."
Though the hour was absurdly earlj^, and the
place nearly empty, we went in purposely to
try what such a portion at such a price was like,
and found it fully equal to any average, the half
being, of course, of a small bird. We investigated
further, to be met as usual with perfect courtesy,
and found these chickens were Russian, bought
that morning in the Central Market for is. 2d.
per bird. We do not see how English birds are
to be produced at such a price. On the other
hand, they are almost entirely sold for a restau-
rant trade, neither their size nor their keeping
qualities adapting them for sale by a poulterer
to private customers.

As regards the imports of Danish eggs,
there has, during the past year or two, been a
shortage, and in the year igog Denmark sent
to this country 359,407 great hundreds less eggs
than in the previous twelve months, a decrease
of 2" 14 per cent. But the value of Danish eggs
has continued to advance, and, taking the
average value of foreign eggs imported into
Great Britain during igog, it will be found that
Denmark, if Canadian eggs be omitted, comes
highest with gs. 63,^d. per great hundred. The

genuine Danish trade has been organised on the
same lines as the Irish trade, already described.

The most gigantic poultry industry in the
world, at the end of the first decade of the twen-
tieth century, is undoubtedly that of the United
States. According to the census of 1880, the
number of fowls in that year was
United 102,272,135, and in iGqo that num-

States. bet" had increased to 286,000,000.

The census returns for 1900 unfortu-
nately give a very inadequate idea of the facts,
only including fowls over three months old on
June 1st, on agricultural farms. Owing to the
climate this would include scarcely any of the
chickens of the year, and the 250,681,673 birds,
value 85,794,996 dollars, represent practically
little more than the farm breeding stock. A
better idea is given by a return of poultry
products " raised " during the preceding 3'ear
(1899). These were valued at 136,891,877
dollars for birds, and 144,286,186 dollars for
eggs, or over ;£^56,ooo,ooo sterling. Yet this
again is mainly yoimg stock. Adding any
lowest possible estimate for both deficiencies,
and for smaller and city lots, it is clear that
poultry exceeds in value either the wheat
or the cotton industry, and is probably the
largest single industry of the country!

Such figures necessarily denote an un-
paralleled consumption, the reasons for which
have been already stated. New York State
and City together are calculated to consume
45 million dollars in eggs and chickens annu-
ally, and in the city alone three to four millions
of eggs are eaten every day. Eggs are used in
all forms, by all people, almost universally. We
get from America also the best idea, probably,
of the extent to which eggs are used in trades
and manufactures, which probably applies more
or less to England also. It was calculated that
480 millions of eggs were consumed annually
in calico printing, 120 millions in wine clarify-
ing, and 240 millions in book-binding, glove-
making, and other leather industries. It is
remarkable that beside the enormous home
product, there is quite a perceptible import
of eggs from China, Mexico, and Japan, which
is probably absorbed in these manufactures.
There was formerly an import from Canada,
but this trade was stopped by the McKinley
tariff and diverted to England.

In connection with this enormous egg trade
has grown up a system of cold storage, com-
mencing in April and continuing till the winter.
This tends to localise in a few centres, pro-
minent ones being Kansas City and Chicago ;
but there has been considerable exaggeration

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

about the extent of it and the commercial
results. The eggs have to be very carefully
candled, and the superintendent of this process
at one Kansas City house, where eggs are
cold-stored for Texas, Colorado, California,
and others beside the home State, has from
ten to thirty men under him according to the
season. The overlooking of a single decayed
&^^ may spoil a whole easeful, and
a case with many very bad ones may spoil
many others near it. Prices realised also differ
much, according to the season ; and from these
various causes, several seasons the speculators
have made serious losses. On the whole, how-
ever, storage helps to steady the market,
raising prices in summer and moderating them
in winter, when the stored eggs come out for
use. Surplus imports into New York City are
also stored there.

In connection with storage, a great many
American eggs are canned, all eggs found with
their shells broken or cracked being thus treated.
The whites and yolks are separated, and then
canned in the same way as meat or vegetables,
the product being used by bakers and con-
fectioners, who find the separate yolks or whites
very convenient, and use a great many cans in
winter when eggs are dear. Good eggs are also
canned and exported for use in hot countries.
The eggs rejected for storage because cloudy,
or even rotten, are also canned, and sold to
be used in the above-mentioned manufactures.
Egg-shells are broken up small and sold for
various purposes, sometimes as a fertiliser.

It is unnecessary to dwell at any length
on the marked differences between British and
American table poultry. The chief point about
the latter is that the birds are not crammed,
but simply fed. Yet many of the larger ones
of the best quality, known as " soft " roasters
(i.e. the flesh tender, not hard), are really of
very fine quality, and raise a very interesting
question for British producers. The latter, as
already seen, depend chiefly upon cramming
with semi-liquid food, without fresh vegetables,
but with sour milk. Americans simply feed,
with large rations of cut clover in addition to
grain and mash and animal food ; and this
clover feed, as before remarked, seems to main-
tain appetite, cool the system, and enable it
to digest large quantities of the more solid
food._ The question is well worth study and
experiment in this countr)', of how this system
of feeding would answer in comparison with
the other.

Besides the roasters and broilers already
treated of, however, a half or quarter of one
of the latter being served to each person.

there has been, since 1S98, a new American
development in the shape of " squab " broilers,
weighing only from three-quarters of a pound
to a pound each, and sold wholesale at from
I to 134 dollars per pair. Wyandottes and
other medium-sized breeds make the best of
these. They have originated in a desire for
some new poultry dish amongst the wealthier
classes in the large cities, and the trade is
confined to this class. In size these small
birds closely resemble the fetits poussins, which
have been already described ; but they are
quite different in texture, and served quite
differently, being split down the back and
broiled just like their larger brethren ; the
only difference is that a whole bird, instead
of half or quarter, is served to each person.
They have to be very uniform in size, which
varies a little in different cities ; as it would
cause comment among hotel guests if some
were served differently from others.

In the former edition of this work, re-
ference was made to the import of eggs
from Canada, and attention was directed to

the prices obtained for Canadian
Canada. fowls, which were, of course, sent

over in cold storage. It was re-
marked that the industry was increasing in
Canada, and that it was being encouraged by
special instruction given under Government
auspices in various ways ; but there was no
data then available for stating the probable
outlook or immediate prospects of either the
industry itself or the Canadian-British trade.
For some time subsequently large quantities of
Canadian eggs continued to reach the English
markets, and apparently the Dominion was
destined to rank as one of our chief sources
of supply. To-day Canadian eggs are prac-
tically a negligible quantity, and are rapidly
approaching the point when they will cease to
be tabulated in the Board of Trade returns.
In igog only a little short of ;^2,000 worth of
British North American eggs reached Great
Britain.

In his excellent report on the Poultr}- In-
dustry in America, Mr. Edward Brown, hon.
secretary of the National Poultry Organisation
Society, by whom the book is published, ex-
plains this great decrease as follows: "The
explanation has already been given, namely,
that home demand and enhanced local prices
have made the trade unprofitable ; another
factor, as expressed to me by leading shippers
in Montreal and Toronto, is that it is entirely
a question of price, and if they can sell upon
the spot it pays much better than sending

CANADA AND AUSTRALIA.

i-ji

long distances, with all the risks involved
therein. The standard of quality upon the
British markets is distinctly higher than either
in Canada or the United States, and, as a
consequence, grading of eggs for England has
to be carried . out very strictly indeed, in
addition, strong complaints were made as to
the English system of selling on commission,
which had proved very unsatisfactory. One
merchant told me that he did not think, even
when the Canadian supplies had overtaken the
trade, they would go into it again to any
extent unless they can have their own repre-
sentative on this side. I have no means of
determining how far these complaints are
justified, but such were the statements made."

Australia also sends a certain amount of
dead poultry to England, and shipments have
been made of cold storage eggs, but the latter
trade is of little account. It would
Australia. have the advantage of opposite
seasons, sending off eggs when most
plentiful, to arrive when most scarce — but the
risks and uncertainties of the business have
been already mentioned. Poultry-farming is
quite a recognised industry in several parts of
Australia ; one very marked area being the
shores of Botany Bay, a few miles from
Sydney. Here as much rent is charged for a
few acres of poor land and a wooden shanty
as for an equal holding and decent cottage in
England, the competition is so great ; three
to twenty acres being the usual size of the
holdings, and the produce being sent in by
cart to Sydney, where the dead poultry are
often sold by auction. It is significant that
whereas the Sydney Labour Bureau had for
several years previously reported poultry-men
as wanting engagements, in the annual return
issued June, igoo, no person professing such

an occupation was registered as out of employ.
Some of those Botany Bay farms produce
chiefly ducklings, for which a Muscovy cross
IS largely used, others chickens, others eggs ;
and stock birds to improve stock have been
largely imported during late years.

So far (see table, page 137) dead poultry
has chiefly been sent from West Australia ;
but Sydney is actively moving in the same
direction ; and the only definite figures we
have are from that quarter. The expenses of
shipping, commission, etc., are found to amount
to about lod. per bird.

The latest development of the Australian
industry is a recent, and so far rapidly in-
creasing, export of dead poultry to South
Africa.

Taking a general view of the whole trade,
there is nothing to discourage the home pro-
ducer who can send to market the better

qualities of either poultry or eggs.
General The very fact of distance prevents

Conclusions, any foreign produce from being

first-class, and the British public
are becoming better educated to the higher
value of first-class. If attempt be made to
fight the question of distance by cold storage,
up to the present price, and quality also,
suffers. For cheaper grades the outlook is
less promising ; and so far as these satisfy
a public of their own, we are not clear that
British growers can compete at a profit any
more than in growing other things. The pro-
ducer must aim at the best, and at getting it
to market in the best condition ; and just as
our splendid English hot-house grapes are
beginning even to be exported to the Con-
tinent, so new-laid English eggs and the best
English poultry will, we believe, find a paying
market even during the present century.

17^

CHArTER X.

EXHIBITION POULTRY AND UTILITY.

BEFORE entering into the practical details
of breeding poultry in accordance with
recognised exhibition standards, we must
consider with some care the question as to the
good or evil effects of such pursuits, of such stand-
ards, and of the poultry fancy itself, and all con-
nected with it. That question has been more or
less debated for many years ; but of late attacks
upon the whole system of poultry exhibition
have been so repeated and carried to such an
extreme, as really to put poultry breeders upon
their defence, and make it necessary to see what
amount of truth, or how much of error, there
may really be in the sweeping charges brought
against them.

The controversy is no new one. So long
ago as 1S72, the Hon. J. Stanton Gould, an
eminent American stock-breeder, in addressing
the newly formed New York State
Early Attacks I'oultry Society, complained that
on Fancy the standards "tell us nothing about

Poultry. {Jig physiological condition of the

birds, nothing about their capacity
for laying on flesh, nothing about their capacity
for laying eggs, nothing about their powers of
digestion and assimilation, nothing about their
hardihood." He more definitely proceeded :
" In the rules for judging Brahmas, I am told
the beak must be well curved. I would
respectfully ask, Why ? . . . I read further
in the same standard of excellence that the
Brahma must have a pea-comb. . . . But
why, in the name of common-sense, is it
necessary that a Brahrna should have a pea-
comb? If it is true that the pea-comb is no
indication of the excellence of a fowl, or of its
profitableness, or of its purity of blood, and if it
docs not minister to the aesthetic gratification of
the owner, is it not simple nonsense to include
it among the points of excellence of the breed?"
The speaker intimated that "there can be no
real advance in poultry breeding until it is
removed from the realms of caprice and fancy,
and placed upon the sure foundations of
anatomical and physiological science."

That crude stage of the discussion is now
almost a thing of the past. It is understood, by

all who have studied these questions to any
purpose, that supposing for the sake of argu-
ment a Brahma really is of more value than

some mongrel or scrub race of fowls
What the — ^^'-^ ^^1 unspoilt Brahma cer-
" Points " tainly is so — if it is to be preserved
reaUy are. ^j- ^j] g^g 3^ race, it must at least be

described as such from characteristic
and true specimens, or you cannot distinguish
it, as a race, from others. But thus the pea-
comb or other points are indications of its
" purity of blood." In the main, they are the
stamps of the race as such ; while the curious
clause about the point not " ministering to the
aesthetic gratification of the owner " simply
baffles a fancier's understanding, except on the
supposition that this was Mr. Gould's first real
acquaintance with poultry breeders. So, also, it
is now seen that if a race celebrated for laying
on flesh is properly described, its standard of
form does tell us something about its "capacity"
for so doing ; or if a good laying breed be also
accurately described in regard to form, and
there be any indication at all in outward form
of laying capacity, we have, so far, some
indication of that too. And thirdly, it is now still
further understood that these are the only kind
of indications which we can have to decide
between fowls in show competition, from the very
nature of the case. When Mr. Gould asks why
they are not judged by their actual capacity for
laying eggs, the simple reply is that it could
not be done. That is a matter of experience,
or of testimony, which we cannot bring to the
show-pen at all. There we are confined to
something we can see before us, to outward
features of some kind. The actual laying
power can only be tested in other ways, as a
poultry organisation is now endeavouring to
test them in manner to be presently described.
But in the pens we are shut up to outward,
visible points, just as in a cattle show or a
pig show. These should be, as already said,
described from good characteristic specimens
of any animal it is desired to cultivate ; and
when once so described and fixed, it is a mere
abuse of terms to call them arbitrary ; they

57/? HENRY THOMPSON ON PRIZE POULTRY.

173

are laid down because found in characteristic
examples of the breed, and distinguishing it from
other breeds or from mongrels.

In 1885 much more direct attack was made

upon exhibition poultry by a man famed

throughout the civilised world as the premier

surgeon of England — -Sir Henry

Sir H. Thompson Thompson, also well known as a

on . ^ ' ,. .

Prize Poultry. writer upon dietetic questions.
In two long letters he relates
how he had begun to breed Brahinas in 1881,
erecting one of the most elaborate yards for the
purpose ever designed ; but sold off the whole
in the summer of 1S84. In taking up the
pursuit, he said, he "naturally concluded that
the most perfect birds were either those best
adapted for the table and the most welcome
when served there, or those which produced the
largest number of the finest and richest eggs
for the same purpose. For what other purpose
were poultry wanted if not for these .'' " But
he very soon discovered, he proceeds, that
however it might be in France, in England the
object was merely " feathers," and that, as a
consequence, " we produce races inferior to those
of France, cannot supply the moderate wants
of our population, and pay enormous sums
every year for the poultry and eggs of that
country.' To leave no possible doubt of his
meaning, after again recounting how prizes are
awarded according to the development of
arbitrary characteristics, he repeats, "Hence our
inferiority to France in the quality and abund-
ance of poultry products," and even traces the
effect of the " baneful system " to the farm and
cottage, alleging the deterioration of "even the
farmyard mongrels " by the cockerel purchased
from some celebrated source. Finally, he pro-
nounces that " no compromise is possible "
between the two ends, of competitive breeding,
and economic objects : for " either infallibly
neutralises the other," and so nothing can be
done really to improve poultry production
" until the prize feather system is swept away."

This language naturally aroused considerable
attention. Those who moved in poultry show
circles at the time (for this cult has its peculiar
"society" like every other) and who knew details
not known to the general public ; who knew
something of the sources and cost of Sir Henry's
stock, and the results of his " breeding," of the
expenses of the establishment as carried on, and
the respective shares taken by owner and " man "
'.herein ; and who could intelligently compare
the objects here alleged with the elaborate plan
of the yard he had built, smiled and shrugged
their shoulders when they read this tirade. We
have nothing to do with such matters here ; and

what is, in some measure, true in the charges thus
brought against poultry breeders may be best
considered after citing the more detailed state-
ments of Mr. Tegetmeier. At the moment we
have simply to say that Sir Henrj
Errors Thompson's assertions betray in

in these themselves a misunderstanding of

Statements. (.]-,g ^hole subject, and a consequent
mis-statement of simple facts, which
disqualifies him as an authority. Every one of
the broader statements is simply a mere error —
a mistake as to fact. It has been already shown
that quite other causes than those alleged
govern the exportation of eggs from foreign
countries to this, and that those from France
have, since he wrote, greatly declined to far
below their former proportion, and to a small
proportion of the whole ; while on the other hand
English production has enormously increased,
and is still rapidly increasing. It is equally an
error to say that from the alleged (or any other)
causes we " produce races inferior to those of
France." Fanciers have some races, it is true,
which are so (and which are also kept in
France) ; but our races which are meant for
eggs and flesh are as good as any in the world,
and one of the most celebrated French feeders
— Madame Ailleroit — informed us personally,
after looking over the exhibition Dorkings at
the Crystal Palace, that they were "Perfection!"
and that she would desire no better fowls to
work upon. If again it is complained that
English feeders do not equal the best produc-
tions of the French feeders, one is constrained
to ask how they should do so, in default oj
French prices. In Paris there is a demand for
the choicest fatted poultry at from 12s. to 25s.
each ; where and what is the demand for such
in England ? When such p-^ices have been
obtainable, we have seen in Chapter VII. that
the fowls can be produced, and are equal,
if not superior, to any in the world. The
neglect of such considerations as these proves
that a man may be pre-eminent as a surgeon,
and yet be an exceedingly poor authority upon
food economics ; and it is the more to be
regretted because the same failure to grasp the
conditions leads Sir Henry Thompson to deny
even the possibility of amendment, which is, on
the contrary, quite practicable under exhibition
" conditions " if exhibitors can only be persuaded
of its necessity, which they are little likely to
be by such extreme methods. These also tend
to obscure the amount of truth which does really
lie in such indictments, and which it is desirable
to ascertain and recognise with a view to that
amendment.

We shall be helped in this by the later and

174

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Mr. Tegetmeier's
Attack.

more detailed accusations made by Mr. W. B.
Tegetmeier, in Poultry for the Table and Market
versus Fancy Fozvls* The author of this work
was, as he states, a poultry judge at exhibitions
for over a third of a century, and
it is remarkable that his state-
ments should be the most extreme
of all. He writes : " I do not
hesitate to affirm, as the result of my experience
of half a century, that no one breed of fowls has
been taken in hand by the fancier that has not
been seriously depreciated as a useful variety of
poultry " ; and again, " Our agricultural societies
are doing what I conceive to be considerable
injury by giving prizes for useless birds," gi^'ing
as the reason that " fancy points only have to
be considered by the judges." He then pro-
ceeds to prove these statements, as he considers,
by comparing the fowls of forty years ago with
the same varieties as seen to-day. These
details it is which are chiefly valuable, as
showing the measure of truth and that of error,
in regard to both his facts and his conclusions.

Two important but common mistakes funda-
mental to all this should first be mentioned.
They were both brought into relief at the
National Poultry Conference held at Reading
in July, 1 899, in an able paper by the late Mr.
O. E. Cresswell, upon " Exhibition Poultry and
Its Influence on the Poultry Industry of the
Country," and the discussion which followed.
The first of them is to suppose that the
" exhibited " races of fowls have any distinction
from other and non-exhibited races ; they are
simply the best of the same, from a certain
exhibition point of view. The second error,
and more important by far, touches the state-
ment that the cause of all the evils alleged lies
in judging by "fancy faints only." As \lx.
Cresswell clearly brought out, these points,
now called " fancy only," were most of them
originally adopted because char-
Fancy Points acterising the best specimens of
originally the races, and believed to refre-

Utility Points. ^q^i some Jisefnl quality, or to
be connected with it.
This may be illustrated from Mr. Teget-
meier's own pages, in one of the most extreme
cases, wherein we have frankly to admit that a
breed once useful as a layer, and even as a
chicken, really has been utterly spoilt as a useful
fowl — that of the Cochin. The first show we
took any personal interest in was during the
Crimean War — hence probably in 1855 — and
our first buff Cochin chickens were hatched the
following year. Mr. Tegetmeier's drawing quite

• Horace Cox, Field Office. This work was first published
in 1892. We dte from the third edition, published in 1898.

fairly represents these, much closer feathered
and less massive-looking than those of the
present day, with, of course, far less shank-
feather ; and we can remember distinctly that
the flesh was quite, and the skin very nearly.
white. We also remember the birds as good
layers. As Mr. Tegetmeier quite truly says,

"Cochins, as at present exhibited,
Illustrated ^'^^ a- mass of useless feathers."+
in Cochins. There could be no stronger case ,

and yet it can be shown that if the
fancier has erred, he did so from good motives
in the first place. In Mr. Tegetmeier's own
Poultry Book of 1S66, the late Mr. Hewitt writes
upon the earliest Cochins as follows : —

The reason why some Cochins lay so much better
than others is that those which most abound with
" fluff," as it is termed, or downy covering towards
the roots of the feathers, are comparatively less in-
fluenced by sudden changes in the atmosphere, and
consequently their laying is unimpeded. I have noted,
as a rule without exception, that diminution of plumage
and a scanty, " weedy " build is always accompanied,
with proportionate decrease in the number of eggs
produced. I am confirmed in this opinion from the
fact that the best layers of Cochin fowls I ever yet met
with were white, a colour generally reputed by those
who keep any kind of live stock as being the most
weakly in constitution. They were the fowls with
which I obtained first prize at the Birmingham E.\hibi-
tion of 1853. They were most extraordinary fowls as
to the superabundance of " fluff."

We know now that this was wrong ; that
Mr. Hewitt generalised too hastily from insuf-
ficient facts ; and that tight plumage really goes
with free layers, loose and flossy feather with
poor laying and coarse skin. But fanciers did
not know it then ; they sought the mass of
fluffy feather as a point really good and useful,
and Mr. Tegetmeier himself, in a work the most
influential of all others for years prior to 1872,
helped to spread the error. His responsibility
goes, indeed, much farther than this. He was not
only acting as a judge for many years, but so
acting at a period when, as shown in Chap. XIV.,
individual judges had far more power in deciding
type than any of them possess now. He was, in
addition, actually the editor and superintendentof
the first Standard of Excellence, which, as further
indicated in the chapter just referred to, was the
precursor and foundation of its successors. As
these earlier errors were discovered, considerable
responsibility therefore rested upon him to
direct judging into more correct lines. We have
repeatedly endeavoured to do so from the fiist,

+ He adds a very interesting explanation, which would
never have occurred to us, that as feathers consist of nearly dry
nitrogenous matter, while flesh consists of such matter combined
v/ith, say, three parts water (see Analyses, p. .t,^, it costs aj
much in food to produce I lb. of feathers as 4 lbs. of meat, and
all wasted in moult annually.

WHAT "FANCY POINTS" ARE.

175

according to any insight permitted us,* and it is
in this way only that remedy can be found , but
we can remember no instance in which Mr.
Tegetmeier, previous to these wholesale attacks,
had done anything in actual detail to remedy
mistakes, in stereotyping which he had such a
considerable share.

The same general truth about " fancy "
points may be illustrated from another — the
e-^aggerated combs so prevalent in Minorcas,
Spanish, and Leghorns, which, in a
Exaggerated majority of cases, involves either
Combs. whole or partial sterility in breeding

males, and impairs health and laying
in the females. This is known now, and there
is no longer " mystery " about it, as some
fanciers seem to think. The hen or pullet is
practically blinded on one side, and in both
sexes the weight is too great for the brain,
causing brain-fatigue, and often headache, which
exhausts the nervous energy and so impairs the
sexual vigour. But most of the special laying
breeds have large combs, and it was believed
by all the old fanciers, and is still thought by
many, that to breed for the largest combs was
to breed for the best layers also; this opinion
came out very strongly in a discussion on the
subject in 1899. The point was, therefore, not
a " mere fancy " one to the early breeders : they
regarded it as a " utility " point ; and it was
they, not present breeders, who gave that shape
and bias to the standards originally, from good
motives. Before Minorcas were an exhibition
variety, we have seen combs on some as large
as any seen now. In spite of all these things,
however, Mr. Edward Brown once distinctly
stated,! as the result of many observations and
inquiries, that in consequence of the improved
stock on English farms, obtained from the
" fanciers " in every case, the laying average on
British farms generally had increased between
the years 1890 and 1900 to the extent of at
least twenty eggs per annum for each fowl.

The want ol basis for such indiscriminate
censures is well shown in Mr. Tegetmeier's
statements about Dorkings. These, he main-
tains, were spoilt by Mr. Douglas
crossing them with a Malay cock,
causing coarseness and " loss of
table qualities." The Cuckoo, he
one of the best and earliest to
fatten, but went " out of fashion " for various
reasons ; the extra toe, supposed to be an
indispensable characteristic, is a mere de-

* Thus, we had protested against the disastrous changes in
English Brahmas, and against the awards that produced them,
years before any one else drew attention to the subject.

^ Journal Royal Agricultural Society, December, 1900.

The Case

of
Dorkings.

says, was

formity and a " considerable drawback from
a utilitarian point of view " ; and the
Silver Greys, by breeding for feather, " have
lost the hardihood and plumpness they origin-
ally derived from the Game." Finally he quotes
Mr. Cresswell (in 1881) as witness to the "long
legs, dark feet, want of breast, and other defects
which have long been the trouble of the real
Dorking fancier." It so happens that Mr.
Cresswell himself, in the paper above referred
to, mentions the Dorking specifically as a breed
which has been, beyond doubt, much improved
bv many years of breeding for exhibition, and
at the Reading Poultry Conference in 1907 here-
iterated that statement ! He has seen both Whites
and Silver Greys developed from poor layers
into excellent ones, and from delicate birds into
hardy ones, under his own breeding, whilst at
the same time he was improving colour ; this
same whiteness of colour being shown, by his
experience, to be a sign of freedom from ten-
dencies to liver disease. These two are the
specially " fancy " varieties of the Dorking, if
any. On the grey or coloured we have already
quoted Madame Ailleroit, and could cite any
number more, that better fowls for the table
never existed, if properly reared % ; and the
" fancy " extra toe, so far from being the work
of exhibitors, comes down to us, and is described
as a mark of the " best " fowls, from the days of
the Roman Columella I It was the " fanciers "
who cried out against dark and long shanks,
and brought back short legs and white feet as
" points " to be insisted upon ; but these faults
were not produced by Mr. Douglas's cross, not
occurring till many years after that ; while the
cross itself was not a Malay, but a bird from.
India of the Dorking type in all but the extra
toe — probably a cross between an English
Dorking and some local fowl of the Chittagong
kind. Lastly, the Cuckoo variety is a good
witness. We never heard of a class for it but
thrice in thirty years' experience, and it has
never been taken up by fanciers at all ; it
ought to be the best, therefore, according to-
all this reasoning. On the direct contrary, just
because it has lacked the support and stimulus
of exhibition, it is the poorest and most back-
ward, and difficult even to find.

The Cuckoo Dorking, and its fate without
the fancier's help, also brings out well the great
service of exhibitions and breeders : They have
preserved breeds and made them known. The

X On the other hand, it is remarkable to find it stated in
Wingfield and Johnson's Poultry Book of 1S53, of Dorkings,
that "as bad specimens of that family as of any other have
presented themselves in every guise at our repasts.'' They
were not all good fowls even then !

176

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Game affords anothei illustration of this.
What Mr. Tegetmeier alleges about the trans-
formation of the old Game fowl into a stilty

and useless breed, is unfortunately
Preservation too correct ; v'e have for years
of Breeds attempted to enforce lessons of this
by Fanciers, kind, and have no debate with any

well-founded attempts on these lines.
But when he wrote, in 1S92, advising the use of
Old English Game instead, as a cross for the
table, he was obliged to say that these must be
sought in cock-fighting districts, and that a cross
was hardly ever seen. That is not so now. The
" fanciers " since then have reverted to a new
love of the old type ; they have taken it up and
exhibited it, and bred it largely. The conse-
quence is that, as we write to-day, the breed
can be obtained easily from many sources, and
is accordingly extensively used now as a cross,
which it was not before. So again, Mr. Teget-
meier recommends Indian Game for crossing.
That breed has been preserved, and even made,
by breeders for e.xhibition, and it is from them
it is now obtained. He gives a figure of a hen
" of good form," but which he declares, upon the
authority of the late Mr. Nichols, would now
be objected to by " fanciers " as being " too
prominent in the breast and not sufificiently
feathered in the neck." It is only needful to
state that the figure is one of an cxiiibition hen,
as drawn b)' Mr. Ludlow, and of the very same
type as in our plate to-day.

It is unnecessary to set out in full detail the
similar mixture of truth and error which attends
the same writer's remarks upon other breeds.
It is but too true that the Brahma has been
spoilt ; not, indeed, by breeding to a standard,
but by breeding to the wrong standard of the
Cochin. It is true that the Spanish fowl is now
practically useless, but this has not come about
by breeding for white face. The Spanish stood
that for many years, and so long as the Bristol
breeders held together, and Lane, and Parsley,
and Rou6, and Jones, and Hyde were able to
exchange blood, as they constantly did, it did not
seem to lose its laying powers much, though
delicate from confinement, and though the
faces were then better than any seen lately. But
at last one invented the comb-cage, which
encouraged still larger combs than before.
With that came sterility (and, of course, want
of vigour in hatched eggs as well), the cause of
which was not then understood ; and finally,
when the Bristol phalanx and their stock were
all dispersed, single breeders of less experience,
and with no change of blood handy, rapidly lost
ground. Again, the large comb of the Redcap
is mentioned as " useless waste," due to fanciers;

whereas the fact is that the Redcap has never
" taken " as a show fowl at all, and its comb is
generally believed, by those who keep it for its
useful qualities, to be associated with its enor-
mous laying powers. It is affirmed that " the
size and good qualities of the Houdan have
been greatly lessened." In real fact, it is
doubtful if the breed ever really took kindly
to this climate ; but those still kept are mostly
good layers, and at all events are, beyond
dispute, far larger than when imported. The
Wyandotte is pronounced "valueless," whereas
it is a most admirable layer, and when well
fed a good market fowl. But it is needless to
go farther in this direction, the more so as we
have admitted that if there be considerable
error, there is also in details too much truth.
It is more needful to see the fundamental
error ; to see why, instead of seeking practical
remedies, so many fly off into vague and whole-
sale condemnation which can bear no fruit.

This was well brought out in Mr. Cresswell's
paper, already twice referred to. Mr. Teget-
meier throughout assumes that in the early days
of shows the fowls of the country
Tlie Charges were in all useful respects better
Based on a than now, and that without shows
Grave Error, g^^d the fanciers they would have
remained so. All that is known
points the other way. A vast mass of evidence
goes to prove that poultry are far more abundant
and of higher average quality than they were
fifty years ago ; and there is every ground to
fear that v/ithout the zeal of the fanciers the
breeds themselves would have been utterly lost
in mongrelism. None but fanciers (and, in the
case of Game fowls, cock-fighters) have ever
kept them up. As Mr. Cresswell ably pointed
out, locomotion has broken down old limits;
and the old pride of districts in their own special
products has given place to cosmopolitanism ;
and all the rage amongst farmers and feeders
lately has been for crosses, and " new " breeds
made by crossing. Everyone acquainted with
country and cottage life knows how true this is ;
and owing to such and analogous causes, the
varieties not preserved by fanciers have nearly
or quite disappeared. It has been so with the
Cuckoo Dorking just mentioned ; it was so with
the Old English Game, until the " fanciers "
took up the breed again ; it has been so with
the old grey-speckled and with the red Dork-
ings. There has been nothing in the world to
prevent farmers and market breeders from
breeding and keeping up, in their own way,
these and other varieties alleged to be so much
better ; nay, if there really is the necessary
antagonism here alleged between them and the

POULTRY ARE NOT DETERIORATING.

177

fancier, it was their proper business to do it
from first to last, and not his at all. But they
have not done it, while he has ; not without
errors and mistakes, as we have seen, and as his
bitter accuser does well to point out, but still
he has done it, and it is his work entirely. We
may cite as a crucial witness the Surrey fowl,
which Mr. Tegetmeier himself cites
jjjg again and again, especially complain-

Surrey ing that the Royal Agricultural

Fowl. Society offers hundreds of pounds in

prizes to " fancy poultry," whilst " the
Surrey and Sussex fowls, which constitute nine-
tenths of the very best and most remunerative
birds coming to the London market, were
absolutely excluded from competition." The
iact is, as shown at length in an earlier
chapter, that the old so-called " Surrey fowl "
as known in the 'sixties has almost disap-
peared in the fattening districts ; that at several
shows within our recollection the " fanciers "
have actually given classes for it, from a desire
to encourage it, but there have either been no
entries, or nearly all have been mongrels with
no Surrey blood apparent in them ; that at the
Smithfield Shows of dead poultry, crosses
between the pure breeds which the fancier has
provided have been the finest specimens, while
amongst those actually exhibited as Surrey
fowls, most of the very best have been not
really Surrey at all, in the sense of the old
breed, but the identical feather-legged crosses
which are being so industriously condemned. So
far from supplying London markets, it is not
too much to say that unless exhibitors can be
induced not only to again give classes for it
(already tried in vain) but also themselves to
take it up and exhibit it, the genuine old
Surrey fowl will soon be a thing of the past.

There is another point, always forgotten by
those who bring these wholesale accusations,
and make such comparisons between the present
and the past. That is, the differ-
Difference ^'"^^ ^'^ markets. In the old days
in the demand and supply were small ;

Market. j^q^^ they are enormous, and the

great mass of both is for a cheap
product, of necessarily inferior quality. As
already hinted, there is no market practically
for fowls at the best French prices ; it is not
therefore reasonable to expect, at far lower
figure, equal birds. But going back only to
1S65, in that year we personally heard the late
Mr. John Baily, whose authority is well known,
state at a dinner that the price then and for
years past commanded by good early spring
Surrey chickens was ''four guineas per dozen"
or 73. each. The supply was small, the breed

was still to be had for it, and the price sure,
and relatively equal to at least 9s. each now.
That price will still obtain as good birds — nay,
a less price will do so, and in far larger quan-
tities than would have been possible formerly.
Such is the work exhibitions have done. But it
is not reasonable, when meat is 60 per cent,
dearer than then, to expect that chickens,
meant to be sold for very much lower prices,
should equal such as Mr. Baily spoke of. At
the Smithfield Table Poultry Shows, however^
we have seen many pairs of fatted fowls at
14s. per couple — the same price; and one of
the foremost West End poulterers told us that
no better fowls, if as good, could ever have
been found.

We have discussed this question in some
detail, because it is an important one in itself,
and also because there really are serious points
for concern in connection with it. If
Practical it is matter for regret that a veteran
Remedies. judge should have shown so much
want of moderation in discussing it,
it is not matter for regret that he should have
raised it ; and even his method may perhaps
enforce its consideration as more moderate
treatment might not have done. The practical
issue is to find remedies for so much as admits
of remedy. It is easy to say that none is
possible ; but the contrary is known by expe-
rience. We have shown that points now
proved injurious, were first adopted as utility
points ; it is not impossible, if general opinion
can be carried along with the change, so to
modify the standards as to remove most of the
evils now found. Beyond a certain point we
cannot of course go. The best show specimen
can rarely be the best layer ; for it must be
judged by the outward, while laying is an
unseen and unknown point so far as showing is
concerned. If careless in-breeding does impair
constitution, that too we cannot check in a
show pen ; we can only teach methods, as in
the next chapter, by which such evils may be
avoided. But all these problems need not
trouble us much, since the farmer and the
feeder mainly prefer crosses, for many reasons,
and in the first cross most of these evils dis-
appear ; moreover, we aim also to teach him how
to breed fowls upon his own utility lines, from
the stock the fancier provides. After you have
scoffed at the latter to your heart's content, and
though his very best show specimens may not
be good layers, possibly — some of them are —
we shall still find in practice that tlie fancier is
getting eggs when the farmer gets hardly any,
and that the fowls he kills for his own table are
better than most which are bought in the shops.

178

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

But yet it is desirable, and it is certainly-
possible, to modify points in a standard which
are now known to have a bad effect. Let us

briefly summarise the chief : —
Desirable I- -^ superabundance of loose

Changes. plumage is now known to cause poor

laying and coarse skin ; and exces-
sive leg-feather and vulture-hocks have proved
correlative with deficiency of breast. Effort would
probably be now wasted upon the Cochin, which
can no longer be considered a utility fowl ; but
attempt should certainly be made so to alter
the standard as to restore and encourage tight
plumage, moderate feather, absence of hocks,
and length of body as points in the Brahma.

2. Excessive comb is now known to be
directly injuring all the Mediterranean races, so
far as England is concerned. It has been
deplored by every standard writer upon Leg-
horns, and several upon Minorcas and Andalu-
sians and Anconas, and compels breeders to
dub many of their breeding males. It could
easily be checked by setting a limit, and deduct-
ing points for excess beyond. Being convinced
that many sketches of these birds, by artists,
really exceeded Nature, and thus increased the
evil by setting a pattern beyond the birds
themselves, we asked one of the stewards of the
London Dairy Show for 1899 to withdraw for
us four prize-winners of the Minorcas and
largest-combed Leghorns. Adopting as a
standard measure the distance from centre of
eye to point of beak in each bird, we found that
only one of the four birds reached tzvice that
distance, from centre of eye to the top of the
tallest spike in the comb ; all the others had
something to spare within that measure, which
will cover nine-tenths of all present prize-
winners, though we see drawings which measure
two and a quarter times, and even two and a
half It would be perfectly easy to define that
no comb should exceed the twice, in vertical
height, and that for any more, points should be
deducted. Leghorns would be better set at
rather less than twice ; but we would dread
violent changes, and trust to the steady influ-
ence of the penalised points for excess. This
would affect hardly a bird of to-day, and yet
certainly act gently and steadily towards
diminishing the comb.

3. All breeds of fowl specially valuable for
the table, and turkeys, would be the better for
points in the standard being deducted for want
of length in the breast-bone. To increase this is
almost the chief point wantea in many table
fowls, as we have found them at exhibitions
during the last few years.

We do not think that such moderate changes

as these should be hopeless, and they would be
very far-reaching ; much more so than those
who have not studied the subject would suppose.
There is encouragement for such hopes in what
has been done in America, where exhibition

poultry are now bred and shown by
Fancy and standards framed nearer to utility
Utility in lines. It is only in England that
America. jj^g Brahma has become a Cochin ;

in America it has still the long
body and moderate leg-feather and close plum-
age which it had in older days with us, and is
still a magnificent layer and table fowl. There
the Leghorn still has a moderate comb, and
pens produce their 215 eggs a year. The
general result is noteworthy, in the vast increase
of the poultry industry. Stock birds are sold
to the farmers by thousands annually, and the
farmers go to the breeders on a scale utterly
unknown in England as yet, providing a
steady market at good prices, which is far the
best and most profitable support for a pursuit
like poultry breeding. Yet in some respects
the Americans are more "fancy" even than
ourselves, and will disqualify for a hidden
feather not visible on the surface, where an
English judge would take no notice whatever.
There is the same system of exhibition, and of
judging by fixed outward points ; it is simply a
question of modifying the judging, in quite
moderate degree and in certain definite direc-
tions shown to be required.

We have not mentioned crests, because we
doubt if any crested fowl really is suitable in
general for the British climate, nor are we
satisfied that the evils alleged of the present
large crests are as stated. If it were necessary,
and opinion can be rallied to the necessity,
excess could be checked by diminishing the
points allotted to crest, and increasing those
deducted for want of size or symmetry. All
we are concerned about here is to point out that
such evils — real or only imaginary — are not
necessarily inseparable, as alleged, irom judging
by fixed outward points, but are definitely
remediable by improving the defined standard
for judging. It is to these practical, definite
directions that effort should be directed ; and
the default of the majority of the earlier judges
in such directions, at a time when unusually
great power lay in their own hands, is the
more regrettable, because judicious effort then
might have prevented much which it is far
harder to remedy now.

Another real and growing evil is the increas-
ing tendency to split varieties in two by mating
up different pens to produce the two sexes.
The reasons for this are explained in our next

REAL EVILS OF THE POULTRY FANCY.

179

chapter ; briefly, they lie in insisting upon
colours and markings for cock and hen which
Nature does not permit to be correlated, or

produced by the same parents. This
Double siso could be remedied, but can

Matings. only be remedied, by modifying the

standards so as to describe really
correlated colours and markings. If this could
only be done, we know of no reform which
would have such manifold good effects upon
poultry breeding generally; and the recent and
growing agitation in America for " single
matings " may perhaps bear some fruit, though
we are not sanguine. It should, however, be
pointed out that this evil, grave as it is, affects
the welfare of the poultry fancy itself, by driving
people out of it in discouragement (as it has
notoriously done), far more than it does the
practical usefulness of fowls ; since the latter can
easily be kept and bred of one of the sexual
sub-varieties alone. The evil effects from the
" utility" side then almost disappear.

There are yet other evils now connected
with the poultry fancy to which one cannot shut
one's eyes. When fowls come to be looked

upon in certain circles as mere
Other Evils marketable investments, or as in-
and Abuses, struments for exciting competitions

in which great money interests are
at stake ; when, in fact, they are shown by any-
one for mere pecuniary advantage alone, the
proper purpose of poultry exhibition is per-
verted, exhibition is abused, and evil cannot but
result. A new kind of poultry society often
met with now — the keen and business-looking
men who combine exhibiting with extensive
dealing, and judging, and borrowing, and lend-
ing, and " advice " for which fees are charged, and
other ways of making money — are not altogether
pleasant to reflect upon. Such men can rarely
be called true fanciers, though some of them,
with all their faults, certainly are. Evils of this
kind too, however, affect the poultry fancy
itself more than the utility of poultry, for the
birds these men exhibit to death do not enter
the stock of the country. Those of them who
are also breeders, may do some harm by in-
br-eeding carried on without knowledge, and by
that early breeding which has done so much to
sap constitutional vigour ; and these ill-services
to utility are shared by others, real fanciers,
who ought to know better. Such evils we can
only hope to check by the spread of better
knowledge. Thus it is that we must strive to
teach some how to breed systematically without
the evils of incestuous alliances ; to enforce upon
others the strong reasons for avoiding summer
shows, and even the stock of their usual sup-

porters ; to urge upon all breeders and fanciers
of the true stamp the study and sedulous avoid-
ance of the class of shows particularly affected
by the shadier class of exhibitors and judges.
If this class of really worthless exhibitions,
which any amateur can easily learn about for
himself with a little inquiry and experience,
could only be extinguished by such want of
popular support and the growth of public
opinion, and good local shows substituted, for
local breeders only, like the district vegetable
and flower shows so common in England, quite
appreciable aid would be given to the cultivation
of useful poultry.

Direct effort can also be made, and we are
glad to know is being made, to improve the
useful qualities of pure-bred poultry. As

already observed, this improve-
Work of the ment in useful qualities belongs
"Utility" properly to those who want

Poultry Club. poultry for those qualities, and

the field has always been open to
them. The " Utility " Poultry Club was
founded in 1897, its primary object being "to
encourage the breeding of pure and cross breeds
for utility purposes." It provides classes for
table poTaltry, for eggs, and lor systems of
packing and marketing. The Club also
provides skilled advice for members, facilitates
"change of blood" from good laying strains,
and has been greatly instrumental in stimu-
lating the cultivation and advertising for sale
of strains of pure breeds bred specially for
laying purposes. This is really practical effort,
which has already produced result. We need
hardly say that all the leading members of
this useful body were drawn from the much-
maligned poultry exhibitors, and that their
utility fowls were bred from exhibition stock.
The honorary secretary of the " Utility " Poultry
Club, which now includes well over a thousand
members, is Mr. L. W. H. Lamaison, Merst-
ham, Surrey, of whom all further particulars
may be obtained.

Another valuable feature of this Club is its
encouragement of " laying competitions," in
which pens of pullets are started on the same
day in separate yards under the same feeding
and management. The Club's competitions
have hitherto usually been during sixteen
weeks in winter, commencing about the middle
of October. Wherever held, such trials have
proved the vital importance and return in profit
of that breeding for eggs so often insisted on
in this work. In the 1902-3 contest, several
pullets laid no eggs at all, and many very
few ; but the winning pen of five (white
Wyandottes) laid 276, or on an average over

I So

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

four eggs a week each all through the entire
winter period. The following year, owing to
the bitter weather, the top score was only 243 ;
but it is noteworthy that it was the same yard
and strain which won again, and also that the
strain was from American pedigree layers. In
the 1905-6 contest 251 eggs were laid by the
leading pen (white Leghorns), while in the
1906-7 competition 237 eggs were produced by
the winning pen (buff Orpingtons).
Improvement Similar competitions for an entire
of twelve months have been held in

Laying. Australia with very beneficial re-

sults. The average, per hen, was
increased the second year from 130 to 163 ; no
less than 15 pens in 1903 surpassed the winner
in ig02 ; and most of the competitors had
increased their production, the winning pen
totalling 1,308 eggs from 6 birds, or 218 each.
Experiments in Ireland have shown similar
improvement, though as yet on a much lower
scale. The value of such competitions in em-
phasising the value of " strain " rather than
" breed " has been most useful.

A report issued by Professor G. M. Gowell,
of the Elaine Experimental Station, of theresults
of four years' work in systematic breeding is
equally conclusive, and the main figures may
fitly conclude our discussion of this important
topic. Out of 67 pullets, he found four which laid
over 200 eggs in a year. Selecting these, and
the best of the others, the second year seven
birds laid over 200 eggs, averaging 10 each
more than the preceding four, and the whole
flock averaging 127. The third generation
produced eighteen over 200 eggs, the best one
laying 251. The fourth year he was able to
confine his breeding entirely to birds that had
laid over 180 each, and twenty-six had laid
over 200. Another view of the result is the
fact that, while on an average of even the first
three years only one bird in twenty-eight
exceeded 200 eggs, the fourth year one bird
in every seven did so. It need hardly be
added that the breeding cockerels, equally
with the pullets, were selected from the progenv
of the best layers.

Exhibitions of dead table poultry offer
a very practicable method of effecting im-
provement in table qualities. In France such
exhibitions were established by market breeders
and feeders, whose proper business it is ; but
in England these classes had utterly neglected
all matters of the kind. Again it was the

much-maligned " fanciers " who came to the
rescue, and established classes of this descrip-
tion, but for years utterly without support from
those who should have been interested. De-
sirous to do their best, they be-
ExMbitions ga" by appointing poulterers as

of judges, and tried to fill classes

Table Poultry. j^y entering themselves ; but they

could not compete with practical
feeders and their practical knowledge, and their
exhibits were derided, while the prizes went
to just such large and " coarse " specimens as
moved Sir Henry Thompson's wrath. By de-
grees fanciers were associated as judges ; then
the judging at once improved, and with it the
fowls too, and these shows began to spread.
At length the poulterers also have come to aid
the movement, and the Table Poultry Show
at the London Agricultural Hall in December
is now one of the features of the year. But
it was the fanciers who initiated this move-
ment, and worked at it for years against sore
discouragement, and without support from
those on whose behalf it is supposed to be
that they are so persistently attacked. It is
they, also, who provide the stock which pro-
duces the best birds now shown ; and one of
the most significant features of these shows
has been the steady displacement or disap-
pearance of the so-called " Surrey fowls," for
avowed (or unavowed) crosses between the
fancier's pure breeds, and even by the pure
breeds themselves.

As usual, then, the real truth about this
question lies between the two extremes. The
work of the exhibitor is absolutely essential

to the poultry industry, and cannot
Practical be dispensed with. He has done

Conclusions. most valuable work, and is doing it

still, though his motives are his own.
Nevertheless, besides some serious evils in the
present exhibition system, manifest injury is
being done by the present judging in some of
the classes. Judging must be by outward
points ; yet some of these points, once adopted
from good motives, are now known to be
pernicious. But the remedy does not lie in
wholesale tirades, which, on the contrary,
obscure the real issues, and actually prevent
what ought to be practicable reforms, or the
alteration of present judging in certain definite
points. On these should attention be fixed,
and to these effort directed ; and such reforms
we would earnestly urge upon all concerned.

i8i

CHAPTER XI.

PEDIGREE OR LINE BREEDING.

EVERY desired quality which has become
characteristic of a race or strain of animals
is the result of repeated and continuous se-
lection, year after year, of breeding stock which
possesses that particular quality in more or
less perfection. This is equally true whether we
consider some purely " fancy " point such as the
pencilling of a Hamburgh pullet, or some useful
quality such as the laying of over i6o eggs in a
year, or the profuse milk yield of a highly bred
Jersey cow. Such a point may sometimes
occur occasionally, or as if by accident, in some
individual animal ; but if it occurs habitually, as
one mark of a strain or family, it has been bred
into it by many generations of selection. Some
seem to think that such is not the case with
wild animals ; but in reality it is in their case
even more so. Darwin has taught us that the
" natural selection " effected by surroundings,
food, struggle for bare existence, and competi-
tion amongst surplus numbers, is most severe ;
it is unmodified by pity or caprice ; and Nature
does not vary her methods save in long periods
and by imperceptible degrees. She does not
select like man, making one choice this year and
another the next, but her conditions are the
same for generations, and often for ages ; hence
the wonderful uniformity and permanence of
her patterns, as in the plumage of a partridge
when uncrossed by any foreign strain.

It is in this sense that the proverbial phrase
of the breeder — " Like produces like " — is true.
The "family likeness" of children to their
parents is familiar to all. In most
Features cases it can be clearly traced, and

Transmitted j^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^j^^^ j^ j^^^ ^^j. jj^

Inheritance. as a rule in one feature only. In
other cases some very strongly
marked feature is the predominant mark, and in
others no obvious likeness can be traced at all,
while there may be obvious mental or moral
resemblances. Supposing the father to have a
pronounced Roman nose, the feature will prob-
ably be recognised in a portion of his offspring,
while it may fail in other children, whose bodies,
however, show other resemblances, complicated
perhaps by stronger resemblances to the mother,

or to other members of the families of both
parents. So much is apparent to all ; and in
many cases, where no obvious resemblance can
be traced to the direct parents, a very striking
one often appears to the grandparents, or even
to other ancestors still farther back. Thus we
see that features have a greater or less tendency
to reappear in posterity, even beyond the next
immediate step in the family pedigree ; and
some extraordinary features, such as the posses-
sion of six digits instead of five, are often thua
transmitted through successive crosses with
great pertinacity. Many facts of this kind go
to prove that every feature in every animal has
some tendency to repeat itself, and would do so,
more or less, were it not counteracted by other
tendencies. If one human parent has black hair
and the other brown, the black-haired parent
has a tendency to cause that feature in his
children ; but this is modified or counteracted
by that of the other to transmit brown ; and
both are modified by the colour of the hair in
ancestors farther back. And the result here in
any case is impossible of prediction, because
there are so many discordant tendencies, and
marriages have taken place quite irrespective of
the colour of the hair.

The breeding which is to succeed in produc-
ing valuable animals, consists in throwing all
these tendencies into one desired direction, so

that the influence of remote ances-
•v^at tors, of great-grandparents and

the Breeder grandparents, as well as of the
^°«s- parents, combine towards the desired

point. Let us take a case. It would
be very easy to find a fowl which, from some
cross with the Dorking generations back, and
never repeated, exhibited the fifth toe. Though
really due to the long-back cross, such a fowl
may be so rare in that farmyard stock of to-
day, that we may almost call it an individual
variation ; however, we have got it. Breeding
from such a hen it is probable that a few (and
only a few) of her chickens may show the fifth
toe, the greater part reverting to the common
type. Mating a five-toed cockerel of this
produce to a five-toed pullet, the number of five-

jSz

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

toed progeny will be increased ; but still (sup-
posing, as we have done, no appreciable Dorking
blood in the farmyard), not so very many ; and
the four-toed progeny will still have little
tendency to produce five toes. But from these
five-toed chickens again select a pair to breed
together ; we shall now find the tendency much
increased ; probably half the progeny might be
five-toed, and even the four-toed ones would
produce more or less five-toed chickens. In the
next generation the tendency would be so
increased that probably very few four-toed
chickens would occur ; and in a generation or
two more a four-toed bird would be as rare as
the five-toed one originally was. We have

accumulated into one direction the
A Strain. transmissive tendencies of many

successive generations, and we have
now a strain, a race which we can depend upon
with almost absolute certainty to produce birds
with five toes.

Now suppose, we will not say the first hen
herself, but even our first pair of birds from her,
with five toes, to be still alive after six years, as
might easily be the case, we might probably
select from our last progeny a pair that as
nearly as possible resembled them both in that
and other points : we might be unable to see
any difference at all between them as to the
point in question. But their breeding value
would differ enormously. The first pair have
no tendency to be relied upon to any extent ;
the last pair can be depended upon as regards
nearly every chick. The first gives us nothing
beyond individual features, on which we were
able, by care and system, to build a " strain " ;
the other pair represents work done, a point
fixed, the " strain," which only requires ordinary
care to preserve its character.

Breeding for one point only is thus an abso-
lutely simple matter ; but every fowl is bred for
many points, which must be combined. Here

the difficulty begins, and the novice
The usually finds that as he attempts to

Breeder's deal with any one of those points
Difficulty which need improvement, he is apt

to lose in some other already
attained. The reason for this is of course the
fact that the faults as well as the good points in
a parent tend to be reproduced ; and it is
impossible to say when the tendency to revert
to any past fault apparently overcome is prac-
tically lost ; absolutely lost it never is, and the
fault may crop up again on any provocation,
after even twenty generations of absence. And
the novice in breeding is almost constantly
offering such provocation towards the reappear-
ance of apparently banished faults. As each

defect becomes distinctly apparent to him, he is
apt to select or buy a bird to correct it. Every
time he does this some influence really is
exerted, and if this were followed up the
ground gained might be secured. But little is
done towaxAs fixing the point by only one step ;
while the following season some other point
probably appears to need correction, and he goes
off after that And so he goes on, apparently
getting little farther at the best, and too often
confronted by the unexpected appearance of
new faults which fill him with as much amaze-
ment as despair.

The greatest service Mr. Darwin ever con-
ferred upon breeders was to account for these
unexpected reappearances of long-banished
defects, and to explain the kind of
Effects of " provocation," as we have termed
Crossing. it, that recalled them into being.

He clearly showed, by a large
amount of evidence, that the mere fact of cross-
ing between two entirely alien families has a
peculiar tendency of itself to produce reversion
to such long-lost characters. Thus it is that
when two different breeds of poultry are crossed,
there is always more or less production of that
black-red plumage which it is believed was the
colour of the wild jungle race of fowls ; or, when
two non-sitting breeds are crossed, there is often
a considerable recurrence in the progeny of the
long-lost instinct of incubation. In less degree,
but still in a very great degree, the same applies
to unrelated families of the same breed, which
have tendencies to different defects, or even
which have gone through a different course oj
breeding (as illustrated presently) in regard to
the points bred for. We knew a case in which
the mating with first-rate Spanish hens of a
cockerel of the finest quality from another
strain, produced an amount of red in face
sufficient to make a genuine Spanish fancier
tear his hair. This and many similar occur-
rences Mr. Darwin has made perfectly clear,
upon the simple principle that the mere act of
crossing — the mere fact that it is a cross in the
strain at all — has a strong tendency to cause
the reappearance of long-lost characters, which
will generally of course be bad ones from the
breeder's point of view, and this in great degree
independent of the individual merits of the
birds crossed.

Successful breeding, therefore, such as builds
up a real "strain," or maintains a high standard
of excellence already attained, will consist
mainly of two factors. We must study on
the one hand such a course of selection as will
work steadily towards the desired end, with-
out frittering away the ground gained by

COURSE OF SELECTION.

183

unsystematic little side-efforts which leave no
permanent mark. And we must also work out

such a course of breeding, or family
The Factors mating, as will protect us from
Breeding. those dangers which Mr. Darwin

has so clearly explained.
The first of these factors will appeal most
directly to the eye and to our individual
choice, and we will take it first, beginning with
a little consideration respecting differences in
faults. There are many which a breeder half
anticipates, or dreads to see in his chickens, but,
when he does find them, puts down to his own
bad luck or want of skill There are others
which, if he found, he would not account for on
that ground, but would justifiably conclude that
he had been swindled as regards the stock itself
In Brahmas he may dread want of pencilling,
or colour, or striping, but he has no dread that
he will find a Cochin's single comb. Here, then,
is a difference, and it must have a cause.
Thinking over it — and every real breeder must
learn to think about things — he will discover
that the difference lies in this : That the pea-
comb has long been regarded as such an abso-
lute requirement in a Brahma, that for many
generations birds which did not possess it were
never bred from. It was not so once ; we can
remember single combs, which were figured
occasionally in the earlier books. But now, for
generations not one single link in the chain of
succession has ever been dropped as regards the
pea-comb, and every one of these generations
has added to its fixedness. Such an unbroken
chain of succession, in which parents, grand-
parents, great-grandparents, and so on, all add
their respective tendencies towards the desired
point, is therefore what we require to fix our
good points.

Here of course the breeder's difficulty begins ;
for he has to keep up the continuous attention
and selection necessary for any particular

point, consistently with the claims
Coui-se of of other points also wished for, the
Selection. whole being too seldom found

together, in perfection. It is a hard
task enough ; still the true principle, and the
proper course, are quite clear, and utterly
opposed to such arbitrary and piecemeal work as
was alluded to above. He must first consider
all his principal desired " points " in regard to
their cotnparatiie difficulty and value. As a rule,
the difficulty of a point very much determines
its value, and it varies much. Some points are
obtained with comparative ease, and are readily
transmitted even from parents, so that a single
mating will produce them in a fair proportion
of chickens others will need years of work, and

one unhappy mating may upset much work
already done. Comparing many breeds and
varieties, we have found that about four points
will in nearly all of them cover those which
cause real difficulty and require serious breeding
for, those beyond four giving little anxiety or
trouble. Let us consider these, therefore, and
suppose that, taking all things into account, we
have determined their order in difficulty and
value, to be expressed by the letters A, B, C, D.
The breeder must, then, take first of all the
point A, and if possible also B, and fastening his
attention chiefly upon these, keep it there ; in his
very first mating, and ever afterwards, giving of
course such heed as may be also possible to C,
and then to D and other less material features,
but always keeping as chief in his selections
first A and then B. Thus out of his first
produce the best are selected primarily in regard
to A and B ; next to these choosing from the
best in C and D also, but not allowing choice
for these to overcome the choice for A and B.
That is what we mean by our " course of
selection."

As a corollary to this, for the first year or
two at least, the breeding must only be from a
few of the best. If, as is probable, more hens
are wanted merely as mates in a pen, they
should be of some variety which is distinguish-
able, or other means taken that their eggs are
not hatched with the others, such as the re-
cording nest-boxes presently mentioned. With-
out such precautions, where inferior hens of
the same variety are used, if the cock is first-
rate and of strong influence, or " prepotent "
(as such strong transmitting power is called),
they may " throw " a few good birds — the word
exactly expresses the chance nature of such a
result. The novice is apt to think this a clear
gain ; and in the sense that he may have a bird
or two more to sell, it perhaps is so ; but we
consider here only the breeding point of view.
From that, it will be seen that unless this chance
progeny can be clearly distinguished, and only
reserved for sale, it puts back the power and
value of his strain, and is a loss of ground and
valuable time ; since he may breed from some
of the birds thus produced, and then they
" throw back " or revert to their poorer parent,
and he has lost ground. At the earlier stages
especially, a man who really means to breed
good stock for himself can only afford to breed
from the best he has, even though it be a single
pair of birds ; such a pair are indeed, as we
will show presently, if absolutely healthy and
vigorous, of themselves sufficient to found a
strain. Neither can he afford to sell his really
best birds at an early period. Later on he may

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

sell stock far more perfect in points, and really
of higher breeding value too, because his work
will then be largely done ; but in the earlier
stages he is losing the very work itself, if he
loses the best embodiments of it.

The second and, still more, the third year's
breeding will show a marked advance ; but it
should be understood where this is to be sought
and how measured. If our breeder
Effects of was able to afford first-rate speci-
■uch a mens at the start, there may not be

Course. ^j^g chicken apparently a bit better

now. But the proportion of good
ones in the produce will be increased, and it is
this proportion which is the chief test of real
progress ; moreover, as this increases, in the
long run the " very best of the best " must be
better too, which bears on the question of prize-
winning. In any case, out of those good in
points A and B we shall have much less difficulty
now — perhaps very little — in selecting specimens
good, or fairly good, also in C and even D. Thus
we reap the advantage already of never dropping
the main points A and B. Though imperfectly
fixed, even yet, they are so far fixed that we
find we have a wider choice in regard to C and
D as well ; and it will be more and more so in
each succeeding generation. It will even be
found that when the most cardinal points are
thoroughly secured, a little may be occasionally
risked ; and this is another great advantage of
such a course of breeding as here described.
Our points A and B will have become at last so
fixed that a bird a i&\'^ degrees worse in one of
them may occasionally be bred from for the
sake of some other point badly wanted. But
let the nature and reason of this procedure be
understood. It is simply that the main point,
known to be so fixed, is probably only accident-
ally somewhat deficient in the bird so chosen,
which is therefore trusted to revert to the more
perfect type in his or her progeny. Such a step
should only be taken with caution, and never
repeated through two generations ; nor should a
bird absolutely bad in point A or B be so used.
It is only that one not quite so good in the first
points may be occasionally risked ; and that
even so it is a risk should not be forgotten.

Such is what we have termed " a course of
selection " in forming a strain, and in default of
which there is little deserving the name of a

strain at all. There is just one
Different more point about it which is worth

Courses and mention, especially as it will lead us
their Results, naturally to the other of the two

great factors referred to above. It
will be obvious that two breeders, in starting to
breed the same variety, may adopt "courses"

somewhat different, led thereto by the tenden-
cies of their original stock. Suppose two men
starting in Buff Leghorns. One may have birds
from a stock in which much colour-work has
been done, but good combs are rare ; while the
other's first stock may be generally good in
comb, but very rarely indeed good in colour.
Both would probably place colour and comb as
the first two points ; but comb might probably
be the A of the one, and colour of the other.
This difference in the course of selection has a
consequence whenever such two strains are
crossed, which we have never seen pointed out
clearly. We will suppose both breeders to have
bred for some years, with care and success ; then
at the last their birds will probably be to all
intents and purposes alike in appearance, equally
good now both in colour and in comb. We
proceed to cross these strains — a bird from each,
and both good birds, assuming that the blood
has never been mingled before, but that it is
what is known as a " raw " cross. The result of
the cross — merely as a cross — in conformity both
with what Mr. Darwin has taught us and with
wide experience, is more or less reversion to the
ancestral characteristics ; and here these are
governed largely by the two " courses of selec-
tion " in the two strains. In one the more
remote tendency is to a bad comb, in the other
to a bad colour. The result of the cross is
therefore very likely to be, in the first progeny,
a great deal of reversion to 6ot/i these faults, so
sedulously bred out.

We thus see the importance of finding out
that a bird purchased for " fresh blood " is not
only good in itself, but the product of a "course
of selection" similar to that in the
Fresh Blood, home yard ; that it has not only
reached about the same point, but
reached it in about the same way. It is this
which throws light upon a very common disaster,
after some rash use of fresh blood from another
yard. We find something in our stock needs
remedy, though secondary to the all-important
point to which our own chief attention has been
directed. We find a cockerel that gives us what
we want, and also seems all we could wish for
in what is to us the all-important point. All,
therefore, seems safe, and it may be so — happy
for us if it is ! But, on the other hand, the bird
may be almost the only one in the other yard
that has our own point A near perfection — only
a happy and rare exception. If so, we shall
have trouble, for his progeny will tend to the
more average and lower standard (in that point)
of the yard from which he comes. Or the matter
may be looked at in another way. The pro-
ducts of any carefully bred strain are the

BREEDING IN LINE.

185

embodied result of a number of characteristic
tendencies struggling together, some stronger
and some weaker. Some of these have only
been made strongly predominant by the long
and repeated selection of the breeder ; others,
on the contrary, regarded by him as defects,
have been kept down or made subservient —
what he calls "bred out." Still, as subservient
tendencies they still exist ; he does not know in
what way or in what proportion. But when we
introduce a sudden cross from another yard,
quite a new set of characteristics are introduced
into the struggle for predominance. It is no
matter for surprise if some of these combine
with those of the home strain in new ways, and
that so one or other of the subservient or sup-
pressed tendencies may acquire fresh power.
For some or all of these reasons, a cross with
totally alien blood too often entails more or
less reversion to something long left behind
and overcome — something, we do not know
what ; and so far it has a distinct tendency to
undo (for the time) what may be the work of
years already done.

These facts and their reasons must modify
very considerably what used to be insisted upon
in all the earlier works upon systematic breeding,
concerning the necessity for continually intro-
ducing " fresh blood " into a strain. Such
instructions are never pressed now by authorities
who have ever bred any animal whatever with
success. On the contrary, it is well known that
the introduction of such fresh blood into any
strain which has once been brought to high
excellence, is a most serious matter. In small
yards it may be necessary, from inability in such
small space to preserve sufficient independent
lines of breeding, which alone can supersede it
for any length of time. In large yards, which
are able to do this, the necessity should be rare,
provided proper care is taken to stamp out
diseased or weakly stock. Whenever the neces-
sity does arise, be it often or seldom, no pains
are too great in the way of inquiry or personal
visit to the other yard, or anything that may
possibly give information, to ascertain what the
purchased bird is likely to breed, or if any
known tendencies to particular faults e.xist in
the strain. Having done all that is possible in
this direction, it is best in general, where feasible,
to let the purchase be a hen or pullet. Then, if
the experiment be even an utter failure (as on
rare occasions it may be), the rest of the yard is
not tainted by it, and in the more usual result
of partial failure and partial success, the wasters
can be discarded without further harm, and the
more perfect progeny bred back to the home
strain with success. If a cockerel is introduced

he is better mated with one or two hens most
carefully selected, making up the pen if required
with others whose eggs will not be confused with
theirs. Then his produce will be similarly
selected, and " bred back " to the strain by the
general method presently explained. In all
cases birds from the cross should be selected for
further breeding with unusual care, with even
most rigorous severity, because the newly intro-
duced tendencies have become fresh dangers to
be guarded against.

A yard known to be more or less allied in
blood is much less dangerous. Thus, a bird
may be bought from some one to whom eggs or
stock have been previously sold, or from a yard
to which the strain partially or wholly owed its
origin some years before. Two breeders, who
are well acquainted with each other's yards and
sell or exchange birds every now and then, can
help each other materially in this way, keeping
up enough common blood to remove most of
the danger from the mere cross, and so imposing
no task beyond that of ordinary selection alone.
To this interchange of stock amongst five or six
breeders in Bristol, was chiefly due the excel-
lence and vigour of the Spanish fowl during so
many years. To reap such benefits, however,
neither party must strive to reap all of it, deny-
ing his brother any. Such foolish jealousy will
quite defeat its object, since there must be
mutual help, and a real willingness to give it, if
any real mutual benefit is to be secured.

It is most important, however, to understand
the manner in which, given only a sufficient
amount of room, line or pedigree breeding may

be carried on without a cross. The
Line genuine breeder cannot do without

Breeding. g^ch line breeding ; while, on the

other hand, if "in-breeding," which
is allied to this, be carried on indiscriminately
or to excess, a limit is found in physical weak-
ness, deterioration, or infertility. Darwin's
researches have made it doubtful whether this
is any necessary result of in-breeding in itself.
It appears, on the contrary, most probable that
the cause lies rather in the fact of both parents
having the same constitutional taint where there
is any at all ; such taint is therefore intensified,
like any other point possessed by both parents
alike. Where Nature's own severe selection for
greatest strength and vigour is carried out, there
are many proofs that much and repeated in-
breeding seems to cause no ill-effect. But the
breeder cannot kill off in Nature's wholesale
way, and must fight the danger by other
methods. The essence of that danger lying in
two parents possessing the very same elements,

iS6

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Felch's

Breeding

Chart.

the union of own brothers and sisters should be
worst of all. Experience proves this to be the
case ; and two generations of such mating
in succession will generally work conspicuous
evil. The union of parent and offspring is
much less injurious, the offspring having only
half the blood of one parent ; but this, too,
must be kept within limits. Other relation-
ships may be carried far, provided only that
variety be found between the blood of the
two individuals mated ; and by bearing this
principle in mind a
strain may be suc-
cessfully established
from two individuals
alone, and carried on
for years without a
cross.

Mr. I. K. Felch,
the veteran judge
and breeder of
America, many years
ago published in a
little book of his, called
Poultry Culture, a
kindof chart
showing at
a glance the
main prin-
ciple on
which this should be
done. We have
evidence that this
chart has actually
been of practical
benefit to severalwell-
known breeders in
England, even as then
published ; but in
some subsequent cor-
respondence Mr.
Felch very kindly
sent us an improved
form of it, which we
here reproduce, with
a little further modi-
fication to make its meaning more clear. We
suppose the strain to originate in two indi-
viduals only, though in the case of fowls, of
course, several hens or pullets might be used
as one of the units. In that case, however,
all should be of the same breeding.* The
two original units must, of course, be perfectly

* It need hardly be pointed out that in this case the scheme
may be carried out with less in-breeding at the first stages, as a
cockerel might be bred back to an aunt instead of to the mother.
But unless the hens or pullets are full sisters, the result will not
be the same or have the same certainty. Hence the utility
of the recording nest-boxes mentioned farther on.

F'g- 79- — -^I''. Fetch's Breeding Chart,

vigorous and healthy, and either unrelated or
only distantly related in blood. They should
always be from different yards, for it is found
that even change of ground has some effect in
producing that "different blood" which has so
much to do with avoiding constitutional disease.
Taking our two original units, then, Mr. Felch's
chart shows how they may be bred so as to
maintain health and vigour.

In reading this chart, every dotted line
means a female — i.e. a hen or pullet, and every
unbroken line a male.
Wherever two such
lines meet at a point
the circle at that point
denotes the produce
of the mating, bearing
a number distinguish-
ing it as a group or
product ; while the
fraction outside the
circle denotes the
mixture or proportion
in that product of the
blood of the two
original units from
which is bred the
strain. The first year,
for instance, the
original pair produce
group 2, whose blood
is half- and - half of
each. The second
year the original fe-
male, or one of them,
is bred to a cockerel
from group 2, and
the original male to
a pullet from group
2. Thus are produced
groups 3 and 4, each
of which possesses
three-fourths of the
blood of the unit on
its own side of the
diagram. Here begins
the real work of the breeder, since these mates
now taken from group 2 must be most care-
fully seUctcd to type, according to that " course
of selection " which we have already discussed.
From the very first all depends upon this,
and, of course, the two original units have
been chosen with equal care, so far as money
and opportunity allowed. The third year a
cockerel from group 3 is mated with the
original hen to produce group 5, and pullets
from group 4 to the original male to produce
group 7, all of which possess seven-eighths of

SINGLE AND DOUBLE MATING.

187

the blood on their own side, and are to be
rigorously selected true to type as before.

But the most noteworthy mating this year,
to which we would call special attention, is that
of a pullet or pullets from group 3, with a
cockerel from group 4, producing group 6. It
will be seen that all the members of group 6
possess equal or half-and-half blood from the
original parents, as much so as group 2. We
also mate a pullet from group 5 and a cockerel
from group 7, each of these owning seven-eighths
of the blood of one ancestor, and we again pro-
duce in group 10 a progeny whose blood is half-
and-half. Now suppose we had mated brothers
and sisters from group 2 to produce the half-
and-half blood and age of group 6, and brothers
and sisters from these to produce similar equality
of blood at the age of group 10, the result of
such incestuous in-breeding would have been
swift degeneracy. As it is, we have made our
matings from lines characterised mainly by the
original male and female, and yet preserved the
same mathematically exact equality of blood in
our group 10. A generation farther on we can
produce group 15 as shown, from groups 9 and
II ; or we might have mated groups 8 and 12 ;
or the produce of the former may be mated with
that of the latter. We have thus seen how it is
possible to keep up the half-and-half blood of a
cross, intact and exact, without any loss of size,
fertility, or vigour.

We also see plainly from this chart that by
the time we have reached the stage even of
group 10, we have got in our hands practically
three strai?is ; for while group 10
Three Strains possesses equal blood of both sides,
from group 8 has thirteen-sixteenths of

One Stock. ^j^e blood of the hen, or practically
represents the female line ; while
group 12, in like proportion, possesses the blood
of the male line. Yet all are related sufficiently
to prevent evil ; and all have gone through the
same " course of selection " towards our own
fixed type. From this point we have ample
material to go on with indefinitely, and need not
pursue that matter farther. The bottom row of
groups simply shows some of the results in the
next generation. But one point more may be
illustrated. Suppose that for some reason — as
for special cockerel or pullet breeding — we want
to establish also a line of sires in which pre-
dominates the blood of the original female. The
chart shows a cockerel from group 5 mated with
a pullet from group 3, and a cockerel from the
produce in group 8 mated with a pullet from
group 10. The result in group 13 gives us the
same proportions of blood, but derived through
a cockerel line of breeding.

Whenever a cross is necessary in a strain,
such a chart also shows the procedure that
should be followed. The cross is treated as a
new unit, and its produce re-mated back to the
home strain in the same way, carefully selecting
for the desired type as before. This is what
breeders and fanciers term " breeding back " to
a strain, and the philosophy of it can be clearly
understood from such a diagram as that before
us. Every cross thus involves more or less
breeding back to the " line " afterwards ; but
this need not be carried to the extent of inces-
tuous matings, or interfere with vigour in any
degree. The out-cross is not used as immediate
material, but to provide either pullets or cockerels
for really breeding into the strain the following
year.

We have now considered the two main
factors of line or pedigree breeding, as carried
on by those who really understand it and prac-
tise it with success ; but a few
Single Matings remarks should be added respect-
er ing the question usually described
Double Matings. ^s that of "single or double
matings." Did the exhibition
standard of the fancier for the two se.xes of any
variety correspond with the relations Nature is
ever seeking to establish, the same mating
ought to produce birds of equal excellence in
both se.xes. But unfortunately in many varieties
this is not so. The reason for this in most cases
is pretty obvious, primarily in the differences of
distribution in the colours in the two sexes
respectively, and secondarily in the propensity
of fanciers either to accentuate or to diminish
these differences. There are instances of his
doing each of these.

As a type of one case we will take the Dark
Brahma. This is a variety in which, like Dork-
ings, several colours in Game, Partridge Cochins,
etc., the colour is distributed in the hen amongst
small markings ; while in the cock it is collected
in large masses, of which the dark are mainly
upon the under, and the light coloured ones
upon the upper portions of the body. The
fancier has exaggerated this, and now seeks in
the pullet a uniform dark pencilling all over a
dirty white ground ; whilst for the cockerel he
wants a glossy solid black breast and fluff, with
nicely striped white hackles and clear wings.
The two, in this degree, are largely incompatible
as regards breeding from one pen. The nearest
we could come to it would be to mate with
pullets as described a cockerel with good striping
in the hackle and black breast, but the fluff
laced with a white edging. We might get some
really good pullets, such as won twenty years

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

ago, though too dark for present fashion ; but a
majority of the cockerels would be either laced
with white on the breast or have white ticks at
the tips of the feathers there. This, then, is the
type of cockerel which corresponds with the
type of pullet sought, while the darker pullets
approximate to the type of cockerel sought. It
is but natural for the breeder to mate up his
exhibition or black-breasted cockerels with the
darker females, though deficient in marking, for
cockerel breeding ; while with his best-marked
and lighter pullets he mates a ticked or laced
cockerel for pullet breeding. If he will insist
upon such strong contrast, he must do so ; but
one cannot but reflect how much better it would
be to recognise a nicely laced or evenly ticked
breast in the cockerel, as was once the case ; for
the practical result is that any variety, when
thus treated to excess, becomes practically tivo
breeds instead of one, to the confusion of the
novice, the inconvenience of those who have not
space enough for both, and the driving of
many out of that particular breed altogether.

As an e.xample of the opposite tendency, to
obliterate natural sexual differences, the barred
Plymouth Rock may be cited. This fowl has
now been bred for close upon forty years, and
all experience shows that the natural correla-
tion of the sexes is for the cockerel to show a
much lighter as well as more narrowly barred
plumage than the female, which is by compari-
son coarser in marking and darker in colour.
Not much has yet been done as regards scale of
marking, though some progress has been made
in giving the females a smaller pattern ; but
persistent efforts have always been made to
lighten the females and darken the males. From
this upset of the natural relations we again
encounter the necessity for double matings, if
the best results are to be produced in the
greatest numbers. The laced Wyandottcs, of
all colours, in which the natural relation is for
the cocks tobe much darker on breast and less
open in lacing than the females, furnish an-
other instance of the craving of the fancier to
obtain uniformity in the face of natural differ-
ences, which has similarly involved a system
of double mating.

Other instances, and their details, must be
left to their proper places, but two general
remarks may be added on this subject. We see
first the need there may be to pre-
Evilsof serve a line of cockerels in the

Double female strain, or vice versa. The

Matings. manner of doing this has been
already described and illustrated by
reference to Mr. Fekh's chart. Secondly, how-
ever, it must be insisted upon, and is self-

evident, that although it may be made necessary
by the demands of the fancier, such a system
of double matings is in itself a sore evil, and
every effort should be made to keep it within
bounds. The male and female lines should not,
if possible, be allowed to become absolutely
divorced or separated, as it is in some cases.
Much can often be done if really attempted
and carried on through systematic line-breeding
from one strain of blood. In the very year
before these lines were written, at the Crystal
Palace Show, we happen to know that the
second-prize Dark Brahma hen, the second-prize
adult cock, and the first-prize pullet, stood to
each other in the relations of grandmother, her
son, and her grand-daughter in the same line-
bred family, though the cock was not available
for exhibition imtil he had moulted out black.
One means by which this object may some-
times be at least partially secured is to mate a
cock or cockerel with hens or pullets of two or
more types. It is often done by some breeders
merely as a speculation. They hope that if one
hen does not " hit " with the male, another per-
haps may do so. This does, in fact, often occur,
and is another good reason for starting a Felch
chart with a pen of females. If the eggs and
chicks are identified, the bird or birds which
"nick" best can be preserved, and the others
and their progeny discarded. We are not, how-
ever, referring to that, but to more systematic
procedure, as when a Dark Brahma cockerel,
ticked as a cockerel but moulted black on breast
his second year, is mated to one or two pullets
of fashionable light ground colour, and one or
two much darker birds. Such a mating may
very likely produce some good pullets from the
first lot, and some good cockerels from the
second ; but there are many cases where it is
not practicable, as failing to produce the
present recognised standards.

For many of the reasons or purposes re-
ferred to in the preceding paragraphs it is
often needed to know not only the pen from

which any chicken is bred, but the
Recording hcn which is the mother. People
Nest-Boxes, constantly about, with only a few

fowls, soon get to know the z^^ of
each bird ; but with careful breeders for several
years past there has been increasing use of
what are termed "recording," "registering," or
trap nest-boxes. These are so arranged that
the hen can enter, but her entering closes the
door behind her, and there she remains till she
is liberated, when her number or name is noted.
Mr. A. Silberstein was probably the first to
design such a nest-box, and sold his pattern

RECORDING OR PEDIGREE NEST-BOXES.

by scores ; since then many have been brought
out by others. We ilhistrate one pubHshed in
\}ne Feather by the late Mr. C. H. Payne, C.E.,
which will sufficiently explain the essential
action of all such contrivances. Fig. 74 is a
section and plan, and Fig. 75 shows the en-
trance both open and shut. The hen steps up
a trip-board pivoted about two inches out of
centre, the upper or farther end of which has

PLAN
Fig. 74. — Plan and Section of Trap-Nest.

two catches which hold open or apart two half-
doors through which she enters. These doors
are hung by hinges (which must work very
freely) rather slanting or out of plumb, so that
when the bird walks on to the further end and
depresses the board and catches, they swing
back and imprison her ; they do not quite meet
in the centre, so as not to grip her tail. The
door at the other end is opened to take her out,
when the slide is pulled forward to open the
entrance doors again, acting as a "spreader"
between the leaves, and forcing them over the
catches, which gently slant from the centre of
the trip-board, but are square at the holding
end. The slide is then pushed in again, and
the nest is re-set ready for the next.

Such nests need, of course, constant atten-
tion to take the hens out and re-set them.
They are understood to be looked up about
every hour. They may therefore suit large
establishments where a man is always on the

spot, better than average English practice. They
are most largely used of all, however, to pedi-
gree the best layers, and the time consumed in
looking after them is reckoned time well spent.
As Mr. Boyer writes in Fai'ni Poultry, " Is it
as costly to spend five or ten minutes every
hour looking after a lot of traps, as it is to feed
and care for a lot of hens that are not paying
board?" Also the handling of every hen by
herself, so frequently, is found a good thing
every way. At all events, it is in this way
that the pedigree laying strains of America are
being built up. There is however a less exact-
ing system sometimes pursued, the further end
of the nest having similar doors without any
catch, which the hen can open for herself, and

Fig. 75. — Nest Open and Closed.

giving her exit into a separate " detention " pen,
where she remains till seen and allowed back to
the other, while the first door is made so that
she can enter at will, but cannot return when it
is closed after her. This method gives knowledge
in most cases of birds which have laid, though
some hens go on the nest without laying at all ;
but only the identification of every bird singly
can give really strict record of the breeding.

Other ingenious devices have been brought
out, but in all, save that mentioned in our
last edition, where the hen on leaving the nest
was said to be automatically invested with a
collar, the human element is necessary for the
bird's release. The latest development claims
only to trap the bird after an egg has been
laid, and if this holds good in practice non-
layers will not be detained. With the large
increase in trap-nesting, there is every hope
that appliance makers will devote greater
attention to this branch of their industry.

:go

CHAPTER XII.

PRACTICAL BREEDING AND REARING OF PRIZE POULTRY.

-^P^HE present number of breeders of prize
1 poultry vastly exceeds the figures of a
quarter-century ago, and every year shows
additions to that number ; but it is as true as
ever that the measure of success attained by
them differs widely. All cannot equally succeed,
in fact, and much harm has been done by the
advice of some authorities, who have constantly
taught in journals devoted to these subjects
that, with capital to purchase a few good birds,
properly mated, at adequate prices, a consider-
able profit can practically be "assured" from
breeding exhibition stock.

There are many people who do really make
a living by breeding, selling, and exhibiting
prize poultry ; but this is generally the result of
years, and in many other instances
Prize Breeding the would-be breeder is fain to
not a retire with more or less loss. While

Certainty. some take up the poultry fancy

merely as a pleasant and fascinat-
ing relaxation, others make it the serious
business of their lives, and study it as such in
all its branches of breeding, exhibiting, adver-
tising, and selling — the last being perhaps as
important as anything, since such a man, if he
has a decent reputation, may get two to five
guineas for a bird quite readily, where a
beginner would find great difficulty in disposing
of the same fowl for ten shillings. This difficulty
in selling produce until a certain standing has
been gained and reputation created, is not taken
account of by advisers of the school above
alluded to. If it be remembered that the prizes
at a great show go chiefly to a few birds picked
from hundreds bred by old and experienced
breeders, and that the novice, with his produce from
the pen mated up for him at a fee by one of these
advisers, has to take some respectable position
amongst them before he can find a market, the
folly of such wholesale promises and anticipa-
tions will be realised. Nevertheless, the field is
perfectly open, and upon the whole — spite of
what is so often written by disappointed parties
— free from favour. Although genuine breeders
are so much more numerous than formerly, the
combination of qualities which make a success-

ful one is still so rare, that anyone possessing
these (amongst them sufficient patience and
perseverance) can make his mark. We cannot
promise success in the indiscriminate manner
above censured, and it would be presumption to
attempt to instruct such as know already more
than we can tell them ; but assuming that these
chapters may be read by many persons with
some knowledge of fowls, who are thinking of
further attempting to breed prize stock, we will
endeavour to make clear the general course that
should be pursued, and what should be
avoided.

If the preceding chapter has been under-
stood, it will already be seen how it is and why
it is that it seldom answers to claim the first-
prize cock, and hens or pullets occupying the
same position at some prominent show, and
mate them up together for a "start." If it can
be afforded, when the time comes by all means
let first-class specimens be purchased, though as
a rule they will need quite different mates from
their fellow-winners of the other sex. But for
a novice this time has not come, for the simple
reason that he does not know enough to begin

breeding ; and his first object should
Study "^^ to get the points and true ideal

of the of the breed really into his mind and

Type. gye He has first to study the

standard description, with the aid of
an ideal illustration. The description should
then be compared point by point with winners
in the pen, and shows should be visited with this
object in view. Information should be sought
in detail of any exhibitor or other amateur, and
will almost always be freely imparted respect-
ing any definite detail concerning which it is
asked. Pleasant acquaintances and occasionally
a friendship may be made in this way. Disap-
pointed exhibitors are especially free in pointing
out where their bird surpasses the actual winner,
and often with truth as regards that one definite
point ; but the inquirer will be provided with a
grain or two of salt, and especially remember
that most likely there are additional points which
bear the other way. Perhaps he may be able to
get the judge's or the winner's views also, and

PURCHASE OF EGGS FOR SITTING.

191

then, like Dickens' celebrated writer upon
Chinese metaphysics, he can " combine his
information," which will both inform his mind
and be great fun.

Until a man has thus got the type itself
thoroughly into his own mind, he cannot breed
it successfully. It is not enough to know the
variety when he sees it, or even good birds
when he sees them ; he must know definitely
what makes these last better than others. That
is why we have spoken, advisedly, of one variety,
or possibly two varieties but of the same breed.
Not only, by attempting more, are all the
practical difficulties and problems of breeding
and selection increased enormously, so that
what might be a pleasure becomes an anxious
care burdensome to mind and body, but each
one needs the eye to be thoroughly trained in
all its points, and some varieties very much bias
the eye in regard to others. Old and experi-
enced breeders and exhibitors may manage
more, but they are constantly studying at shows,
and have their past successful experience to
guide them ; and even these always make some
special study of a fresh breed before they
actually meddle with it. At the same time, the
intending breeder need not keep away from
actual specimens of the fowl he fancies, and this
early stageisthe proper one for sittings of eggs, or
the purchase of a brood or two of newly hatched
chickens, to be reared by hand. If an absolute
novice, he will be thus getting his practical
knowledge of chicken rearing and some know-
ledge of the breed itself at the same time ; can
see how the chickens feather and grow up ; will
understand the " points " better and better as the
birds become familiar to him ; and finally, when
full grown, comparing these chickens with prize
specimens, will learn the points that need
development or improvement, studying system-
atically to see wJtere lies the great difference in
exhibition value. Cheap specimens unfit for
the show pen, but still typical, may be pur-
chased and bred from, with the same objects and
results.

In one season and at very small expense,
anyone with real aptitude ought thus to have
acquired a practical and sound knowledge of
the variety he proposes to take up ;
Purchase ^^d something also of how the'

of Eggs. beauties and defects develop them-

selves as the chickens grow. If he
has bought eggs from good breeders, he may
probably have a good chicken or two from them
in his own yard ; but too much must not be
expected from such sources. Many people are
utterly unreasonable in regard to sittings of eggs,
so much so that some of the best breeders now

refuse to sell any. Such people expect every
Gg^ to hatch, and every sitting to produce at
least one if not several " winners," whereas the
man who sold the eggs will be well content if
out of the many he himself hatches, and which
have not travelled, he gets a real winner or two
himself for the great shows of the year. Many
vendors undertake to "replace unfertile eggs, "and
the offer is liberal and fair where such are sold in
numbers, from flocks of typical and pure bred
but not first prize stock, but a seller of really
prize eggs simply cannot afford to do this. We
often wonder people do not recollect how we
used to hear proverbs about " a hen with one
chick," and about " counting chickens before
they are hatched," long before eggs for sitting
from prize poultry were even thought of. Of
real fraud we are sure there is very little, and
four or five chickens from good eggs are well
worth the price of a sitting, even if there be not
one actual winner amongst them. Actual
winners must be scarce from the very nature of
the case ; but they do occasionally occur, quite
often enough to show a really high standard of
honour among at least a good number.* Thus a
beginner who has purchased eggs may probably
have at least a decent bird or two, true to
type and of fair quality, at the end of the season,
and if he has, we strongly advise entering it at
the best show he can manage to attend ; not in
the hope of winning (though now and then an
agreeable surprise may occur) but that he may
compare, on the spot, this best specimen which
he can select, with those which do win. He will
be a more intelligent critic by this time, and
begin to see things ; and the comparison with
his own bird, which he has learnt to know, will
make it all real, and stamp it on his mind in a
way which nothing else can.

Now at last he is ready to purchase birds,
and will be able to do so with some judgment of
his own as to their real value. His year, so far

• As it is many years since we sold a fowl or an egg of any
kind, we may without impropriety mtntion a few instances
from trie days when we had Dark Brahmas. A pullet repur-
chased from our own eggs was in our first-prize pair at Birming-
ham in 1S71, and the unpurchased remainder established the
purchaser (Mr. John Evans) in a strain that was prominent for
three seasons. A cockerel repurchased from another egg
customer won second prize at Bristol in a class of forty, and
was the father of our cup winner at the Crystal Palace and
Birmingham shows of 1872. A hen hatched from our eggs won
the cup at Yarmouth in (we think) 1872, was pronounced by
the judge the best he ever saw, and purchased by Mr. Horace
Lingwood for £20, the highest price given for a single hen up
to that date since the early Cochin mania. A cockerel hatched
from another sitting of our eggs was purchased by the same
gentleman, and expressly mentioned in the Poultry Review as
the immediate progenitor of eleven cup and first-prize winners,
and of a strain of cockerels which proved almost invincible for
years. Similar cases are known to us in cormection with other
breeders and varieties of poultry.

192

TBE BOOK OF POULTRY

from being wasted, has done valuable work
which has tc be done before he can succeed, and
may just as well be done at small expense as
at a great loss. We do not advise
Purchaie further purchases of eggs at this

0.°^, more advanced stage, unless there is

money to spare and room to keep
the produce separate ; in fact, not even then.
The drawback is that you do not know what the
result is worth till months later, and if then it
does prove satisfactory, you are still ignorant of
the mating and breeding which produced each
bird. It is better to purchase actual stock, and
so have something definite ; though if any of the
chickens already hatched from purchased birds
are worth breeding from, as may well be the
case, by all means let them be considered as
stock, and proper mates procured, spending the
more of what can be afforded upon the new
purchases. It will depend upon circumstances
whether or not these latter are prize exhibition
specimens. Much advice is given
Exhibition upon this head also, as to the sums
of the to be " got back " by prize-win-

Purchases. \\\\\o towards their cost ; and an ex-
perienced exhibitor does often make
a profit from exhibiting a specimen, which also
keeps his name before the public. But a novice
has little skill in caring for birds thus shown,
which in his hands will probably lose condition
rapidly, or may even die ; and in any case, and
if he so far succeeds and does get back a great
part of the cost, he has missed his real object,
since fowls thus frequently shown have too
much taken out of them to produce eggs with
strong and fertile germs. If the birds are good
enough to win at one or two of the really
principal shows, that will do them no harm, and
will do useful work in bringing a new breeder's
name before the public as owner of good stock,
which will help him later on ; but to buy good
stock and work its strength out in exhibition
before breeding is — we have seen it often — a
mistake in the end.

Yet as good as can be afforded should be
obtained by all means, now the start is made.
Details of mating belong to other portions of
this book, and must be sought in
Mating proper place ; but one general point

of the applies to nearly all cases of

Stock. <■ double mating." In these, as a

rule, the cockerel or cock of a
cockerel breeding pen, and the pullets or hens of
a pullet breeding pen, are desired of the highest
possible exhibition excellence ; thus the better
that can be afforded, the less uphill work the
breeder has to do. So much is mainly a matter
of money, and the choice of the exhibition com-

ponents can be made personally from what is
seen. But the mates for these birds cannot be
so selected, and are seldom or never seen in the
show pen, being such as are bred by, and pro-
duce in their turn, such specimens as those to be
now mated. The chief difficulty, then, lies in
procuring these mates for the exhibition speci-
mens, which can only be done from a breeder,
and hence the quickest way to produce good
chickens is to procure a breeding pen, properly
mated, from one breeder's yard. This can never
be done except at a good price ; and its success
depends upon the character of the vendor, and
his honesty in also giving correctly the exact
amount of relationship there may be between
the male and female elements of the pen.
Without this knowledge, the new owner docs
not know how far he can safely carry in-breeding,
or what dangers he has to guard against. On
the whole, on this last account it is better to
procure the two components, if results can be
waited for, from different yards. The breeder
knows then that he can start safely so far as
relationship goes ; and although his produce
the first year will be uncertain, for reasons
explained in the preceding chapter, as soon as
he begins to re-mate from the produce things
will mend, and his progress will be steady.

Good stock can rarely be picked up cheaply,
but now and then it can, and the novice who
has spent a year as advised will be able to judge
for himself whenever such a bargain comes
before him, in a selling class or otherwise.
There are varieties in which second-rate stock
will breed better than in others. Thus, Dark
Brahma pencilling is so good now, that a pullet
may often be picked up in a selling class good
enough to breed really good chickens ; while, on
the other hand, in Spangled Hamburghs it will
be weary and disheartening work unless a first-
class specimen can be secured. One caution

ought to be given, viz. not as a
Summer general rule to purchase chickens,

Exhibitors however apparently good, which

to be Avoided. ^\^ ^^ j^g very early autumn or

late summer shows, or from
breeders zvlio cliiefly exhibit at such shows.
There are people who lay themselves out
specially for such exhibitions, as the competi-
tion then is small, and winning with a certain
quality pretty easy. The birds they exhibit are
very pretty looking in most cases, but rarely
large and fine, being hatched exceedingly early,
when fertility and vigour are not at their best.
They very often moult in their first autumn,
after laying and breeding early, and are thereby
debilitated by next spring, when really wanted
for breeding ; and even later hatched chickens

POINTS ABOUT A BREEDING PEN.

'93

from these regular summer exhibitors are
produced from the stock when partly worn out
by previous breeding. Of course no such rule
is absolute : for instance, marking may offer of
such an extraordinary quality as to override all
other considerations ; but the need for such a
general caution is very real. One of the great
shows of the year is generally the best time and
place for a beginner to buy, and there he will
meet plenty of breeders quite willing to sell ;
there also he can buy in actual presjsnce of the
best of the year ; and there he has the best
chance, short of actual visit to the yards, of
picking up what he wants to know of family
details concerning any purchases. An actual
visit to a good yard is, howeverj the best way of
all to purchase what is required. There rela-
tions can be pointed out, and the tendencies of
the strain observed, and there can also be seen
the faults which it is either safest to tolerate or
most necessary to avoid.

One or two guiding rules have been found
to have very general application. It has been
ascertained that the female has more prepon-
derating influence upon size, form,
Influence ^j.,^ constitutional qualities ; the
the Sexes. cock upon colour, markings, neat-
ness of comb, and eyes. One or
two exceptions to this rule are, however, also
general, mostly in giving more influence to the
male. Thus, cushion in Cochins is a point of
form, but has long been known to depend very
largely upon its correlative point of saddle in
\he cock, so that a male bird too narrow in stern
has often ruined the produce of a season. A
characteristic head, or a small " blood-looking "
head, is also a point of form ; but seems to
depend upon the male bird especially. In
regard to general carriage or symmetry, as a
rule the cockerels tend to follow the father's
type, and the pullets the mother's. These facts
assist in choosing between defects, some of
which perhaps viicst be tolerated ; but their
general truth may be upset by some unusual
prepotency of one parent. Such prepotency, or
stamping power, depends usually upon previous
consistent selection and in-breeding.

Inregard to the ages of breeding stock.no cast-
iron rule will hold good. Amongst those who have
bred many years the opinion is general that the
finest fowls of the larger breeds, and
A ges of especially those to feather most

Breeding kindly, are produced by parents in

stock. their second season. Unless forced,

however, which such birds do not
stand well, these would often fail to produce
early fertile eggs, and it is more usual to mate
the cocks with pullets, and a cockerel with

second-year or older hens. We have, however,
bred Brahmas from young birds on both sides ;
and smaller breeds mature earlier, and are often
so bred — in fact, the old Game breeders had a
fancy for putting "youth to youth." But in
regard to this much depends upon the time of
breeding. Supposing fertile eggs are not wanted
before March, and the se.xes are kept separate
until the beginning of February, and the pullets
kept back from laying as far as possible, young
birds, even of Asiatic breeds, will breed as
vigorous stock as any, though perhaps not quite
so fully feathered. It is when mated and
breeding earlier, in an unnatural season, and
forced accordingly, that immaturity entails some
degree of weakness. When a mating has really
" nicked " extraordinarily well, which sometimes
happens, it is generally wisdom to keep the
birds so mated as long as they will breed, or
until the cock can be replaced by a son showing
the same points. To what age fowls will breed
depends much upon how they have been treated
and to what extent their powers have been
taxed. We have known of a hen breeding in
her seventh year. An aged hen should not, as
some suppose, be mated with a cockerel : such
mating is generally too much for her, and may
destroy any chance of produce, and a two-year-
old bird is far better.

This leads to the question of fertility, which
must naturally depend much upon the number of
hens allowed to one cock. Experience proves that
the best number, for good results, differs enor-
mously according to circumstances. It has been
shown over and over again, beyond question,

that want of fertility may be caused
Number of ^Y ^oo few hens, as well as by too
Hens to many. We knew one case in which

One Pen. fQ^j. j^g^s with a cockerel gave very

poor results, which were at once
remedied by making them up to fifteen. No
definite rule can be given, except that, as a
nearly universal one, a cock on a good range
may have at least double what could be
allowed him in a very small run. In this
country, in confinement, four hens is usually
enough for a large male in a small yard, until
warm weather comes on, when the more safe
number may be five or si.x ; on the other hand,
an old cock in cold, wet weather may do better
with three, or even two. For much also
depends upon climate, and in America, during
the normal season, less than twelve Plymouth
Rock hens are rarely allowed to one male,
which in our cooler climate might possibly
be too much for, at least, an old bird. High
feeding, as in America, also makes a great
difference, and will do so wherever adopted.

•94

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Breeds also differ a great deal, and large combs
may cause sterility, and call for dubbing to
remedy this, as will be noted in its place. If
hens appear worn-out and partially stripped,
harm is being done, which will affect fertility as
well as health. The lighter breeds of fowls are
generally most fertile, and require most mates,
unless the cock's vigour is affected by ex-
aggerated comb. This matter is of importance
to a breeder newly beginning, as he may only
be able to afford, or to procure, one or two good
hens for his pen. In that case the number
should be made up by others, choosing birds,
as before advised, whose eggs or else whose
chickens can readily be distinguished. If this
precaution is not taken, his one or two hens
may be so overtasked as not to yield him half
the result they should, either in numbers or
vigour. Another expedient in this case is to
separate the male bird except for half an hour
morning and evening.

The established breeder also has much to
arrange for in securing the all-important object
of strong as well as fertile eggs. He will have
learnt by experience how many
Fertility. females to allot at different seasons

to his males of various ages ; but
he has also learnt the necessity for preserving
sexual vigour for the breeding season. Some
have carried this too far, and one writer has
even advocated separating the male of a breed-
ing pen at the end of April. We have seen the
evil of this upon several occasions ; thus to
frustrate the natural instincts at their very
height is a peril to health (even life in some
cases), and does more harm by the fret and
worry than it can possibly prevent. By the end
of June this danger has much lessened, and if
the male be then separated to lord it over a lot
of young cockerels, he will be quite sociable
and happy, recuperate during the intervening
months, and be far more vigorous when mated
again than if left with his harem. As a rule, he
should not be thus re-mated until about four
weeks before the first fertile eggs are desired
and expected, and a little before this some
animal food and iron tonic will be found
of benefit, especially to adult birds. It should
also be seen that he gets enough to eat, for
many a gallant bird, if only fed with his hens,
will not in their company eat eagerly enough to
get his share. The cock in a valuable pen
should always be felt frequently while roosting,
and if he is getting the least thin or light should
be carefully given extra food by himself, but, of
course, avoiding gross fatness. Birds are not
all alike in this respect, and only feeling their
condition can ensure that they are sufficiently

supported. In no case should a bird be mated
until quite through his moult. With one thing
and another, the end of November, or "after
Birmingham," is a very usual time to mate up
pens destined to give fertile eggs for the New
Year.

It does not seem quite sufficiently recognised
that the hens need conservation of their breed-
ing powers as well as the cocks, and should be

equally considered in relation to

Vigour the time when their eggs are desired

of for hatching. When very early eggs

Females. ^^g planned for, as in order to hatch

on New Year's Day — the earliest
legal day for chicken-showing — it is a heavy
tax on both sexes, but many people appear to
forget that the female system is liable to ex-
haustion equally with the male. High and
careful feeding will effect wonderful results
in maintaining both production and vigour, as
shown by constant and heavy duck produce
during the early months. But there are, never-
theless, many proofs that by early spring — the
best time for prize stock — the produce from
birds which have already been breeding for
months is not equal to that from parents which
did not begin till nearer the natural season.
This is, in fact, the chief great reason — far more
than in-breeding — for the decline in vigour of
much prize stock : it is produced from parents
already worn out by previous production. It is
also one reason why the produce of grown hens,
which lay later, and nearer the time when the
real work of breeding is done, is often stronger
and better than that of pullets ; the pullets have
been laying and partially worn their strength
out, when the hens are only freshly beginning.
A breeder should therefore " nurse " his best
birds, so that they are not taxed till as near as
possible to the time when he really wants their
produce for his own yard. It is also for this
reason that moderately late pullets, hatched in
April or early May, produce the finest stock, if
kept back a little so as not to lay till the winter
is fairly advanced. Very early breeding may
be necessary for early chicken showing, and
other purposes of the high-class breeder ; but it
should be clearly recognised that it has neces-
sary evil results, and most of all in its effects
upon size and vigour. Hence the stress we
have laid upon not obtaining first breeding stock
from those who chiefly support the early chicken
shows.

Sometimes special measures are necessary
to ensure fertility. Extraordinary fluff and
heavy vulture hocks very often interpose
mechanical obstacles to successful intercourse.
In that case cutting the hocks short and con-

CONTROL OF SEX.

195

siderably trimming down the fluff will make a
marked difference in the produce. The exces-
sively large combs, now bred so often in Minorcas,
Leghorns, and sometimes Dorkings

Special

and other birds, also cause a great

Causes of deal of sterility. In such cases
Infertility. dubbing at once remedies the mis-
chief, which is common among
breeders of these varieties who do not know the
cause. Many experienced breeders systematic-
ally dub all their breeding males of these
varieties, as soon as the exhibition season is
over. A very cold and at the same time wet
and dull winter is peculiarly prejudicial ; this is
often helped by iron tonic and a little cayenne,
or even by a few drops of tincture of damiana
daily. Sometimes one particular seison will be
mysteriously and generallydistinguished by wide-
spread infertility. The year 1899 was unusually
remarkable for this in America, and only less so
in England also. In the former country many
breeders, who usually sell thousands of eggs,
were obliged to withdraw them from the market,
and complaints came in from all sides ; the
calamity was as prevalent amongst Leghorns as
in the larger breeds, and extended to the middle
of June, after which things mended. Opinions
as to the cause were various. The only ex-
planation we can give is that the season was a
dry one ; and we had occasion to notice about
twenty years before that a very dry season,
especially if accompanied by dry feeding, had
on that occasion also been accompanied by
wide complaints of barren eggs, which must be
distinguished from poor hatching.

A point to be considered in regard both to
the time for breeding and the composition of
the breeding pen, is the sex desired in the pro-
duce, concerning which the breeder
Control has on an average (with, of course,

of Sex. numerous exceptions in detail) some

measure of control. Of course, he
will rather desire pullets in pullet breeding pens,
and vice versa in most cases. As a rule, also,
cockerels require quite a couple of months more
growth to bring them into full feather for
exhibition than pullets do, especially in the
larger breeds, which take longest to mature. In
small breeds chickens mature more quickly, and
cockerels are less behind. Thus a breeder likes
to get his exhibition cockerels out earliest, and
large cockerels earliest of all. Now amongst
the larger Asiatics it has generally been found
that a vigorous cockerel mated to three or four
adult hens in winter produces a high proportion
of cockerels in the early broods, this proportion
diminishing later. With an adult cock mated
to three pullets, pullets more predominate,

though sometimes, if the male is unusually
lively, cockerels will be numerous there also.
If there are more pullets than three or four, and
the eggs are fertile, the pullets are usually in
the majority ; but here, also, there are usually
more cockerels in the early broods than later.
When young or adult stock is mated together
the result is impossible to predict, save that
experience seems to show that the more
vigorous the stock and the fewer the females
(so long as evil is not produced), the greater on
an average the proportion of cockerels. Of the
small breeds we have little personal experience,
but the broad results will probably be on the
whole similar, with a somewhat higher number
of females to one male. In regard to the larger
ones, however, such facts suit the breeder very
well, as he can easily get a few of his early
moulted hens ready for early laying, while a
cockerel will ensure him fertile eggs for his
earliest cockerels ; and the rest, with his pullets
and older stock birds, will come on later for
his other champions, and provide progeny not
weakened by too early breeding.

Time of hatching has also some influence
upon the bodily character of the produce. Early
hatched cockerels from adult hens are usually

fully furnished in tail and hackles,
Season and and of good stature. On the other
Bodily hand, chickens hatched really late

Character. j^ ^j^g season — say at the end of

May or June — are, as a rule, less well
supplied with feather, and very often also more
slwrt legged in comparison. Occasions some-
times occur when these facts may be useful.

The first year's produce from newly pur-
chased and mated stock may very likely prove
of a most disappointing character. It is not

always so, since among the be.st
Further breeders there is now generally

Breeding some amount of blood common to

Operations. ^jj^ which prevents the worst results,

such as were frequent in earlier days.
But, as a rule, the reversion caused by the fresh
cross will be but too evident, and only a minority
of the first year's produce may be fit to use.
These will now have to be mated up again,
according to the principles explained in the
preceding chapter, and thus the new breeder
will go on to form his strain ; but he will be no
longer a novice, and no more need be added
with reference to such a stage of experience.
Mr. Felch's chart, with what has been said in
connection with it, will e.xplain the methods by
which line breeding can be carried on for years
without injury. He has only to remember that
any point, bad a? well as good, and weakness of
constitution as well as anything else, will be

196

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

intensified by line breeding just as surely as the
points he is seeking to breed, unless he rigorously
discards specimens which manifest them. It is
by such signs that he knows when " fresh blood "
really may be needed. If health or size is
failing, or if some fault persists in appearing, so
that he cannot find mates altogether free from
it, then he may need a fresh introduction. Here,
again, the first produce will probably disappoint
him, and it is the second season of his cross,
after " breeding back " that produce to his old
strain, which gives him the real result of his
work. We need only add that in the earlier
stages especially, whether of a new strain or
after any fresh cross, the more severe he is in
rejecting all but such as come up to a yery high
standard, the quicker will be his progress, and
the higher percentage of really prize-winning
stock will he get in the end.

Every year, of course, the more experienced
breeder devotes most painstaking consideration
to the mating of his birds for next season.
Weeks, or even months, before actual
Careiu pairing he begins to think about

Yearly " what he shall do." He thought-

Matings. fully scans his best chickens, as

their good points or their deficiencies
become manifest to him ; and if certain pre-
dominant fallings are too apparent, he tries to
trace out the bird or the mating to which they
are due. This tracing back of faults, if possible,
is all-important, for everything of the sort has
some definite reason. He may think that he
must have a cross, or he may decide that his
own stock provides all that is wanted : but all is
conditional until the Palace, or Birmingham, or
other show which to him sums up the results
and record of the year. He may have been
rather disappointed with his own stock, to find
at the show that some falling back is general,
and that his best birds are as good as any
others. Or he may have anticipated victory, to
find some one else has so much better that, if
he can afford it, he determines to buy at any
price. Or his champion bird which he depended
upon may be " claimed " at a big price, and his
plans so far upset. When all his actual mate-
rial is selected, be it at home or from outside,
no pains are spared in the final mating-up.
Sometimes a point previously overlooked will
suddenly strike the eye, and take a given bird
out of a breeding pen at once, perhaps to go into
some other. Of course one grand rule is that
no fault should be present in both of a pair.

What adult birds have done already is also
to be considered ; and with a view to that, it is
not a bad plan, when a pen has not seemed to
" hit " well, to change the mating and hatch

a few thus bred late in the season, when the
main breeding is over ; these chickens will be
no use, but serve to show what the effect ot

the different mating has been, and if
Experimental good this can be repeated the next
Changes season. Except for such a serious

of Mating. object as this, however, and at a time

when the first ardour of the birds is
exhausted, birds once mated up should not be
disturbed, nor capricious changes made. Such
may entail disaster. Even fowls often form
strong attachments in their way, and a cock
separated from his mates and put to others may
not infrequently turn sulky and thrash his new
wives, instead of paying them proper attention.
If this occurs as the result of emergency, it may
sometimes be remedied by smearing a little oil
of aniseed over the plumage of the rejected or
obnoxious hens ; but the wise breeder will,
unless actually obliged, leave his birds in peace.
Even removals often upset fertility and vigour a
great deal ; and of the folly of e.xhibiting brood
stock when once put up we have already
spoken.

This leads to the important question of the
duration of the cock's influence over hens with
whom he has been mated. Many experiments
and observations upon this head
Duration have shown that there is no

of the absolute or definite rule. The

Male Influence, most general one appears to be
that if one male is directly re-
placed by another, about the fourth or fifth egg
afterwards usually shows the change of parent-
age. We have many records to that effect, both
from English and American sources. We have
also records of about half a dozen cases in which
the cock was simply removed, and after from
four to eight days the eggs became clear ; these
being chiefly of the larger breeds. The latter
fact may possibly be significant, for we have
also records of cases in which the male's influ-
ence lasted much longer, these being chiefly
amongst the smaller and lighter breeds. Game
breeders found, as a rule, that after a cock's
removal all eggs were fertile to the end of the
" batch," and even a Cochin is reported as laying
sixteen eggs after separation, of which fourteen
were fertile. Of many such records another
which has reached us is that of a Leghorn
cockerel, which was taken away for roup on
March 29, 1899. As eggs had only been laid
for a few days then, his stock was much desired ;
all laid after were saved, but none could be set
for a fortnight, incubators not being used. The
earlier ones hatched freely, though so stale ;
later, fertility gradually fell off amongst them,
until of the last lot set, which were laid a month

OBSCURE INFLUENCES IN BREEDING.

197

after separation, ana set a month after laying,
none were actually hatched ; but five even of
these were fertile, and lived in the shell till
about the ninth day.

In regard to change of parentage, results
give similar discrepancies with what we have
stated as the general rule. Two Spanish pullets
having been running with a Spanish and a
Cochin cock, no eggs were saved till six weeks
after separation of the Cochin ; yet the chicks
had still feather on the legs. A Brahma hen
taken from her mate and put with a Hamburgh,
bred pure Brahmas for ten days, then half-breds.
We have other cases wherein the former parent-
age has been manifest for from one to three
months. There is no reason why such anomalies
should surprise us, when we consider how sus-
ceptible the reproductive system is of modifica-
tion ; so that, for instance, one breed may lose
the instinct of incubation, whilst another
develops it in extraordinary degree. We know
that one visit to a turkey-gobbler fertilises the
whole batch of eggs laid by a hen turkey ; and
after beginning to lay she, as a rule, avoids the
male bird. The hen does not so avoid him ;
and the inference is that his company is more
or less necessary. When, therefore, we duly
remember that we have multiplied natural egg-
production tenfold, we need not wonder that
there should be no uniform rule about these
phenomena. Differences may depend upon the
breed, the vigour of the male, the number of
hens with him, and the period or stage of her
" batch of eggs " at which union or separation
takes place, as also upon the dcfiniteness in
number of such a batch or laying of eggs, which
is more defined in most Game fowls than in the
forced laying breeds. On the whole, however,
from three to five eggs, or a week in time, will
generally be sufficient to ensure the parentage
for practical purposes.

There may, however, be more at stake than
direct actual parentage. Here we are on less
certain ground, and discussing supposed facts
which are disputed altogether by
Influence of many breeders, and on which
Former opposite opinions are expressed by

Matinga. some scientific investigators. But

there is a large amount of presump-
tive evidence for the belief that in a sense it is
possible for a chick or other animal to have two
fathers ; not to be the offspring solely of the
actual parent, but to be also influenced by
previous unions with the mother. Doubtless
much of the alleged evidence is open to all sorts
of objections : nearly all the evidence of practical
breeders is so. But most experienced breeders
who have really managed their own yards, not

leaving them to others, believe in the occasional
more or less permanent results of previous un-
desirable alliances, and take strict precautions
that their most valued stock is not exposed to
such. We can only allege one experience
personally, relating to one of several Dark
Brahma pullets which were reared for us on a
farm. One of these was frequently producing
traces all next season, and may have done later,
for all we know, of a common dunghill cross
there experienced by all of them. There were
no signs but in the produce of this one, and such
rarity and uncertainty may well account for
differences of opinion. The late Mr. Frederick
Wragg related to us a very similar experience of
his own. It is much more difficult to under-
stand such consequences in the case of birds,
where the germ is quickly enwrapped in an
impermeable shell, than in that of mammals,
where a half-bred offspring is for months con-
nected by direct blood-circulation with the
mother ; but it is at least better to be on the
safe side, and not allow a valuable pullet to
be contaniinated by undesirable society.

Equally disputed by many is another influ-
ence, which we are personally quite convinced
of, and which may indeed be possibly a cause

of that just alluded to. It is that of

Influence ^"y strong impression upon the

of the imagination or sight of the birds.

Imagination, j^ jg difficult to see the point of

some sneers about Jacob, which
have been worded in certain cases as if his
results were ascribed to special Providence ; on
the contrary, the whole is simply related as the
crafty expedient, with more or less result, of an
experienced and successful flock-master. We
were convinced by what seemed, and still
seems to us, the conclusive case, personally
known to us, of a breeder of white Cochins at
Bristol, who also kept some Minorcas for further
egg supply. He got many chickens with black
splashes when black hens were added to one of
his pens, and on removing them the black
splashes ceased. He was so struck by the
coincidence, that he repeated the experiment
again, with the same results. Here, too, all the
chickens did not come with black splashes by
any means, and in this diversity lies endless
room for doubt and contradiction ; but he and
we were both convinced, once for all. We also
acquired the conviction, when first breeding from
a heavily hocked Brahma cockerel, that after
cutting his hocks quite short (done in the first
place merely for fertility) the percentage of
hocked chickens, not then allowed for exhibi-
tion, decreased by an evident, marked percentage.
Doubtless any such phenomena are various and

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

uncertain, and offer ready occasion to County
Council lecturers for cheap ridicule ; but nearly
all practical breeders have come to believe in
them, and again it is well to keep on the safe
side.*

We turn now to the chickens themselves. In
regard to feeding, there is nothing to add to
what was said in Chapter VI., except that
cheapness of any food takes a very
Care of the secondary place in the case of prize
Chickens. stock, and as there can be no doubt
of the superiority of oatmeal and
ground oats as food for obtaining size, wherever
that is valued these should be mainly used in
preference to cheaper substitutes, though such
may come in as changes. Oatmeal alone mixes
up hard, but a little biscuit-meal added will
make it friable, and be also less dry ; dry meal
stirred with boiled porridge is also greedily
relished. It may be well to remark that such
choice of food and care in giving it is of great
effect in restoring size and bone to a strain
which has degenerated. Thus, let pencilled
Hamburghs, which have become almost Bantams
through long in-breeding for narrow pencillings,
be carefully subjected to such a regimen, and
size may be recovered by feeding alone, to a
very perceptible degree.

Prize poultry are not reared by people who
lie in bed in the morning. The chicks must
have their first meal as soon as it is broad day-
light, and for the earlier broods there is no
better material for it than Mr. Douglas's custard
squeezed from the whey, mixed perhaps with a
little oatmeal. In some yards the incubator
wasters will furnish eggs for this ; if not, a drink
of hot milk goes a long way, with the breakfast,
which in this case is perhaps best of porridge
and added dry meal. What is needed for rapid
growth is a first meal quickly digested, so as to
allow of keen appetite for the next one. The
extra feed at night, by lamplight, has been
already treated of, and we only add here that
this early and late feeding has a bearing upon
size and vigour which does not seem generally
understood. The object is not, as some suppose,
merely to get in an extra meal. While very
young it has that effect, but at a later period,
supposing that a stage when four meals a day

• It is worth noting here that during December, 1900,
some interesting correspondence bearing on this subject ap-
peared in the Lancet. One medical gentleman related a visit
to a professional Iriend, a cup-wmner with pigeons at the Crystal
Palace. One of the divisions of the latter's loft faced a lawt
generally covered with white linen being dried ; and the inmates
of this pen, whatever they were, were specially subject to
albinism. It was also found that some Turbits and Owls next
to a pen in which Pouters were kept were more or less subject
to Pouter markings.

are deemed best has been reached, the lengthened
time between first and last feeds will enlarge the
time between each two meals, and shorten the
night interval, which is longest of all. Meals
thus more divided are better assimilated, main-
tain keener appetite, and result in better growth.
We have already mentioned the use of bone
dust or dry bone meal, and its beneficial effects.
In deciding for or against its use, the postpone-
ment which it causes of the final
Use of make-up of the bird must be taken

Phosphates. \xi\,o account. There is another way,
however, in which phosphates can
be added to the food of any young stock in
which experience has shown that leg weakness
is to be dreaded, and it cannot be too well
remembered that this ailment is more easily
guarded against, than cured when it actually
occurs in any marked form. This is to add to
the food (which is better than with the water)
a little of " Parrish's Chemical Food," a syrup
of the phosphates of lime, iron, and soda. A
teaspoonful may be added to each feed of soft
food amongst a dozen chicks a fortnight old, or
half a dozen at the age of three months. The
effect is most marked in cases which require it,
and this valuable medicine, since we first intro-
duced it to poultry breeders in 1872, has well
established its merits all over the world. So
incontestible have these been, in fact, that they
have led to the use of Parrish's Food occasion-
ally in a manner simply ridiculous, for acute
ailments, such as rheumatism or cramp. It is
of no use whatever for such cases. It is essen-
tially a slow-acting method oi feeding phosphates
to a system deficient, or known from experience
to be likely to prove deficient, in them, and acts
solely by the long and gradual assimilation ot
these ingredients. Its effects are seen only after
weeks or even months, not after hours or even
days.

Such additions to ordinary dietary, which
may or may not be advisable, owing either to
delicacy in prize stock or greater size desired in
it, lead us naturally to the question
Condiments o^ condiments or spiced foods, so
and widely advertised as specially bene-

stimuiants. fl^ial to stock of this kind. The
question is a little complex, and it
is not so easy to state the truth in a way
unmixed with error. There is no doubt that
fowls on a wide range, and especially in the
tropical jungle which was the original home of
the sp.'cies, eat much of the leaves and fruit
of heather and other wild shrubs and plants oi
an aromatic nature, which give the well-known
aromatic flavour to our "game" birds. Such
merely aromatic principles, in moderation, can-

CONDIMENTS AND STIMULANTS.

199

not be injurious, and it is common experience
with ourselves that they aid appetite and improve
digestion. It is universal experience, also, that
the occasional judicious use of more stimulating
spices is often of great service, and, on cold or
wet days especially, may prevent or obviate ill-
effects in either very young or older stock. To
give really stimulating condiments continuously,
however, is like giving medicine regularly to a
healthy man, and, like that, any effect at all can
only be a bad one as regards health and vigour.
Such treatment, with ample nitrogenous food to
support it, may indeed force a pullet into earlier
and more profuse laying, which is legitimate in
a bird meant to be so used up as quickly as
possible. But though that may be profit, it is
not health, and health is what we want in
rearing prize poultry.

The general conclusions must be that real
stimulants should not be given constantly ; that
those for special occasions should be adapted
for those occasions ; and that any stomachic
condiments, designed for more or less constant
use, to supply the lack of what a wild bird
would pick up, should be of the milder aromatic
kinds. As the composition of advertised com-
pounds is not published, the only guide to
selection that can be given is to avoid for any
regular use such as to the taste are very hot or
astringent, choosing rather the mildly sweet and
aromatic, while the hot and astringent may
serve for special occasions. No one can be
equally good for all purposes, so far as we
can see, and we give here certain prescrip-
tions which have now been tested for many
years.

Suppose, first, that a change in the weather
has produced symptoms of a decided cold
amongst some of the birds, but slight, and not
appearing to demand any strong treatment ;
then the following would be a suitable condiment
to mix in the soft food of all, the ingredients (as
in all other cases) being carefully powdered and
mixed by a pestle and mortar, and sprinkled a
little freely : —

I. Liquorice ... ... ... ... 2 oz.

Ginger .. ... ... ... 2 ,,

Cayenne Pepper ... ... ... i ,,

Aniseed ... ... ... ... j ,,

Pimento ... ... ... ... 2 ,,

Sulphate of Iron ... ... ... i ,,

Here the liquorice, cayenne, aniseed, and iron
are chiefly active, the ginger and pimento (all-
spice) tending to rally the digestive system,
which is apt to be a little affected. Suppose
next that we have wet or cold weather, likely
to last a little time ; to guard our young birds
against it we may use : —

2. Cinnamon ... .
Ginger
Gentian
Aniseed
Carbonate of Iron .

1 5 07.

2i „

We first published this in 1S72 as the prescrip-
tion of a French apothecary, Mr. Mills, for
turkey rearing ; since then it has been more and
more widely used in France to bring turkey
poults through the critical period, and for moult-
ing, and it has been within recent years re-
commended for bad moulting seasons by Dr.
D. E. Salmon, the well-known American
authority upon poultry diseases. For more con-
tinuous use the following is as good as any: —

3. Cascarilla Bark ... ... ... 2 oz.

Aniseed ... ... ... ... ^ ,,

Pimento ... ... ... ... i ,,

Malt Dust 2 „

Carbonate of Iron... ... ... i ,,

Here there are no strong stimulants, but solely
more or less carminative aromatics, with a little
malt dust and iron. This powder may be mixed
with three or four times its bulk of sugar, or as
much more of malt dust, at discretion. With
either addition it is sometimes useful during the
last few weeks before exhibition, helping to fill
out a little, and being much relished by the birds.
Of the mi.xture as it stands above, just enough
should be stirred in the food to give a slight
characteristic taste, and no more. Of the No.
I, if wanted for a cold, as much as will lie on a
sixpence may be mixed with a little butter and
flour, and given as a bolus or pill.

The question of meat, or later on green cut
bone for prize chickens, or the quantity to be
given, must be answered differently according to
circumstances. A diet mainly of
Meat or grodts and oatmeal, with grit and

Cut Bone. bone dust, without appreciable
animal food, except insects and
worms, will rear chickens of very large size, but
takes time, and they will be slower in maturing.
Animal food given pretty freely, but not excess-
ively, also promotes size, and pushes the birds on
much faster and with fuller furnishing in plum-
age ; hence such a diet is so far preferable, and
numerous careful experiments proved that the
same results cannot be got by any dietary of
purely vegetable products, even though made
up to as high a nitrogenous ratio.

Eut free meat or green bone feeding is un-
doubtedly a cause of increased growth in comb,
leading to coarseness, falling over, and other
faults in that member. If, therefore, small neat
combs are desired, as in Brahmas, Wyandottes,
or Hamburghs, or if the breed has tendencies
to crooked or falling combs, as in Minorcas or
Leghorns, much meat may be very injurious,

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

chough on the other hand, it may be advan-
tageous in promoting the large falUng combs
of the females in the latter races. Great excess
sometimes has another and very curious effect
In America the large quantities of blood from
the great slaughter establishments are dried
and granulated, and sold as dry " blood meal,"
which causes rapid growth, and on that ac-
count is sometimes fed in large quantities. We
have collected quite a number of instances in
which such feeding has been followed by an
extraordinarily heavy growth of feather, even
to an extent that has so overtaxed the bird
as to cause death : chickens have been reported
which were dying off daily at two months
old, covered by an extraordinary growth of
feathers. In other cases results were less fatal,
though the increase in plumage was marked ;
and inquiry in England has elicited evidence
that free meat feeding, on a somewhat less scale,
has also been sometimes noticed to cause hasten-
ing and greater abundance of plumage. There
are cases in which this effect might be turned to
advantage. However, meat or green bone feed-
ing must always be watched in regard to its
effects in enlarging comb, which cannot be
remedied if once allowed to reach an injurious
extent. Later in this chapter we give a warning
as to its results upon laying pullets.

The best of all substitutes for actual animal
food is sunflower-seed. It appears far better

assimilated than other highly nitro-
Sunflower genous foods of the pulse kind, and
Seed. the large quantity of oil promotes

furnishing and good condition of
feather. Where meat is inadmissible, this seed
may be of service, and many poultry-breeders
would find it worth while to grow a portion for
their stock. As a crop, the produce is variously
stated. Some report a return of fifteen quarters
from an acre ; the Board of Trade Joni-nal, in
printing a report on this crop as grown in Russia,
where it is cultivated for the oil-mills, states that
an acre requires about 20 lbs. of seed to sow,
and should yield about 1,600 lbs. In Russia
the peasants eat the seeds as light refreshment,
which is another illustration of their excellent
quality, and of the reasons why poultry are so
fond of them. Land for this crop should be
ploughed in autumn and harrowed in spring,
the seed being sown in April or May in every
second or third furrow, or say in rows three feet
apart, the seeds a few inches distant, or it may
be very thinly broadcast, so that every seed has
two or three square feet to itself upon an average.
Poultry manure suits it very well while growing.
For a smaller quantity, some prefer to start in
hotbeds early in March, and plant out early in

May. One caution should perhaps be added.
Rats are as passionately fond of sunflower-seed
as the fowls are, and wherever it is stored they
are apt to come about the place. It should only
be kept in iron receptacles, and special care
taken to leave no loose grain about the floor.

The combs of many breeds require care in
other respects than avoiding excess of animal
food. Heat is quite as injurious, so that two

days in a hot gas-lit showroom will
Care of sometimes "draw up" the comb of

Combs. ^ \i\xA apparently mature and safe,

and ruin it for ever. In all cases
where combs are wanted small and neat, as
in Brahmas, the chicks should therefore be
brought up in cool and airy sleeping-places as
soon as taken from the mother, and not allowed
to get overheated or sweated in artificial
brooders. The same applies even more to single
upright combs, which must be kept straight, as in
Leghorn cockerels ; but these in addition should
be taken from a hen, if so reared, before the
combs get any height. If this is not done the
mere pressure of the hen's body tends, during
the youngest and most susceptible stage, to
bend over or twist the comb. Brooders which
have any nestling material in contact with the
head are injurious for the same reason. To take
the chickens' heads out of danger early, and rear
them with plenty of room in a cool though not
chilly brooder or other sleeping-place, makes
a great difference to this type of comb.
Rather later, when the combs are growing
fast, if there is reason to fear disaster it is
often of the greatest service to sponge the
comb gently every night with hazeline tinc-
ture, or to smear it with hazeline cream. This
is not only a mild though effective astringent,
but has a specific action in repelling congestion
of blood to the part where applied, and will help
much to keep a comb firm and within bounds.
It is of course only befor-e twists or thumb-marks
actually appear that such means can be of use.
A slight twist, if treated at once, can sometimes
be cured by affixing a stiff piece of cardboard on
each side, with sufficiently adhesive material,
and pressing close. A Spanish breeder we
knew used as cement, material scraped from
Alcock's Porous Plaster, which he said "held"
better than anything he had tried. If the card
is varnished on the outer side with French
polish, it will be stiffer and not get soft. Combs
actually fallen over belong to a later stage, to
be dealt with in our ne.xt chapter.

Another deformity has been much more
common since artificial rearing became so
general, and should be guarded against from the
first. We refer to curved or crooked toes,

VARIOUS BLEMISHES AND THEIR CAUSES.

the middle toe especially curving round in-
stead of being straight. This has thrown
many an otherwise good bird, and is generally
due originally either to a smooth
Crooked hard floor in the rearer, or later,

"^o*^- to perches too broad and flat, or a

shelf with too little bedding. Newly
hatched chickens are sometimes ruined for life
even in the drying box, the two limbs slip-
ping apart on a smooth floor, with consequent
strains which are never recovered from ; many
knock-knees and loose hock joints are also
caused in this way. But the more common
result is crooked toe. The nail being unable to
sink into the floor, raises the toe near the point ;
and to avoid slipping, relieve strain, and get
more "grip" on the ground, the toe turns rather
sideways so as to lie on the floor. We have
seen many a brooder and rearer with wooden
or zinc floors, and a mere sprinkle of peat moss
or other litter which slips about loosely, allows
the claws to reach the smooth hard surface, and
is of no real assistance except to cleanliness.
Enough material should always be supplied to
lie firmly as a bedded floor ; not so little as to be
blown about with a puff of air. On this the
chickens can walk firmly and comfortably, the
toes not being strained ; and if later on such as
roost are given perches which the claws can
really ^rrtjr/, without being stretched flat, there
will be very few cases of this annoying disfigure-
ment. Some advise curved toes to be treated
by binding them to splints, and appliances are
even sold for that purpose ; but this belongs to
a class of advice and treatment chiefly given in
display of pretended superior knowledge. We
liave known such means faithfully used on
various occasions, but have never known a case
cured yet ; and a moment's thought must con-
vince any breeder of the injurious effect of
binding or fastening into one rigid line, mem-
bers meant to be flexed and refle.xed at every
step. We have known disease of the hock joint
to follow from such unnatural proceedings, but
not the cure of the crooked toe.

We have mentioned overcrowding in a
brooder as apt to cause overgrown combs at a
tender age ; it has in some varieties a marked
effect in another way, causing the
A Cause of appearance oi white feathers xwVlW-
White desirable places. Many in England

reathera. have suspected this result, in Brown
Leghorns especially ; but in Ameri-
ca, where this breed is often reared in large
numbers, the fact has been established beyond
doubt. One breeder reported that whilst chicks
reared by hens were all right, those in a large
brooder had white feathers on their backs and

breasts as well as wings ; others have found that
where a few in a brooder kept sound, others
more crowded, from the same stock, would show
white in nearly every chicken. Some think the
reason is in greater liability to vermin ; others
that the tender young feathers are bruised by
close contact ; others that it is a consequence of
general loss in vigour. The main point is the
fact, which should be kept in mind.

There can hardly need any reminder of the
absolute necessity for a stud book, in which the
parentage and descent of every chicken hatched
is carefully recorded for present and
Necessity for future consultation. It is a great
Kecords. assistance if all the males used, and

at least the best of the hens or
pullets, have names given to them ; or one
family may have one common name, and the
individuals be distinguished by numbers, as Bates
did with his Duchess line of Shorthorns. If
the breeder also sells eggs, sending them out
honestly from the same stock he himself uses,
he will record particulars also in his register of
egg sales, if he is a wise man. We reproduce
from the first edition of this work the following
specimen, because in all but tlie proper name
it was an actual transcript from our own egg
book of 1S70, which is now destroyed. We
were breeding from three cocks that year, and
the pullets Princess and Countess were the
pick of the females in our opinion.

April 10.

May 2

Mr. John Smith,

Elankville

3 Goliath (l Princess), 4 Uncle Sam (2
Countess), 3 Sambo.

Result — 7 ; (l Uncle Sam and 2 Goliath
were clear).

The result of the sitting is very often stated, as
it was in this case by the purchaser on May 2,
and generally the names are reported also, as
here, if marked on the eggs. The possible
advantage of all this will now be very obvious.
Suppose, as is possible, we had very bad luck
ourselves from Uncle Sam, who is perhaps too
old to breed again, and that in December
Countess is either dead or sold, and we seem
" out " of that strain, and want it. Looking
over the egg sales book, we find Mr. John Smith
must have had one, and may have had two
chicks from the best bird in Uncle Sam's pen ;

* From experience, we never allowed a purchaser more
than ten Brahma eggs in any one sitting. It was the same
number we used ourselves. Incubators are of course quite-
another matter, but were scarcely used then.

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

and if he reared them we stand a good chance
of getting back at a fair price a bird which
circumstances may then have made invaluable.
Of course the chickens, as they grow, must
be marked in some way, or all this is useless.
Those hatched in incubators can often be iden-
tified in regard to mother as well
Marking ^s father, but if such identity is

Chickens. to be preserved it must be marked
at once. The readiest, and per-
haps the most simple, means for this is by what
is called "toe-punching," but which is really
" web-punching." This consists of punching

rhicken Toe-Punch.

small round holes in the web of the feet, and
is easily accomplished by the aid of a special
appliance that may now be purchased of most
manufacturers of poultry requisites. By this
method a reliable record of the produce of each
individual hen in the breeding pen may be
kept ; and if each chicken is further " leg-
banded " with a numbered ring, first at the age
of three or four days, on attaining the age of
three or four weeks, and again on attaining
to adulthood, it can always be identified.
*" Toe-punching," which is not cruel, as some

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'4 A

A

7

A

A

15 A

A

8

A

4\

18 A

A

Fig. 77. — Possible Variations in Toe- Punching.

believe, since the web of a chicken's foot is
by no means sensitive, should be done soon
after the bird is hatched ; and should the hole
become blocked, which will be an infrequent
occurrence, the process must be repeated. If,
however, the hole is cleanly punched, it is prac-
tically impossible for the web to grow together
again. A chart of the combinations of hole-
marks must be made, and kept for reference.
Many such combinations will suggest them-
selves, but the following will be found quite

sufficient for ordinary purposes : One hole in
the left web of the left foot ; one in the right
web of the left foot ; one in the left web of
the right foot ; one in the right web of the
right foot ; one in the left web of both feet ;
one in the right web of both feet ; one in the
left web of the left foot and one in the right
web of the right foot ; one in the right web of
the left foot and one in the left web of the
right foot ; one in each web of the left foot
and one in the left web of the right foot ; one
in each web of the left foot and one in the
right web of the right foot ; one in the right
web of the left foot and one in each web of
the right foot ; one in the left web of the left
foot and one in each web of the right foot ;
one in each web of the left foot and the right
foot blank ; the left foot blank and one in
each web of the right foot ; one in each web
of both feet. The diagram given above, taken
from The Encydopcedia of Poultry, explains
possible combinations of this kind very clearly.
Another method is one we saw practised
by an ingenious breeder who used nothing but
artificial brooders. He kept by him an assort-
ment of Judson's dyes (a set of any aniline
colours would do), and each chick, as soon as
dry, received a dab of colour on the down ;
with light chickens the back or saddle is a
good place, with dark or striped ones the head
or the stern may answer better. These colours
give ample variety, and are distinguishable
for several weeks, when the chickens are larger
and hardier for more permanent marking.
Single rings round the legs give four cate-
gories, as applied to the right shank, left, both,
or none ; two rings will give many more varied
with one. Such rings are easily applied in
the shape of a bit of coloured worsted, or of
tea-lead, or soft tin wire bent round quite
loose, but so that it does not slip over the foot.
Pedigree rings of various patterns, to which a
number can be affixed, and also coloured cellu-
loid rings, in which a variety of changes can
be obtained, are also procurable. Examples
of two forms of marking rings are given here-
with through the courtesy of Mr. W. Tamlin,
of 7, St. Margaret's, Twickenham. The metal
pedigree rings (Fig. 78) are non-corrosive, and
their interlocking fastening prevents dropping
off. They require alteration at two further
stages of life after the first ringing of the
chicken, namely, at a month old and when
ready for the adult rings. Cheaper and more
generally in use now are the spiral celluloid
rings (Fig. 79) ; these are easily put on or re-
moved, and do not drop off. With these coils,
as in toe-punching, a number of changes can be

SEPARATION OF SEXES.

203

rung by means of the various colours and ring-
ing on either left or right leg, or both legs.
The addresses of appliance makers like Messrs.
Tamlin, Craven and others, who make these
useful helps to breeders, can alwa\'s be found
in The Feathered World. A development of
the spiral ring in the form of a plain expand-

Unfastened. Fastened.

Fig. 78.— White Metal Pedigree Rings.

ing band of celluloid, capable of being num-
bered, embodies a further help to careful pedi-
gree breeding.

Shade, and change, and fiesh ground, and
care according to the weather, have already
been treated of in a preceding chapter, and it

only need be added here that the
Separation separation of the sexes should be
of Sexes. carried out early in prize stock ; the

smaller the runs the earlier should
this be done. Our own opinion always was
that, in most breeds, the best results were
obtained on moderate grass runs with sufficient
shade. In large numbers on unlimited grass
the condition and plumage are of the best, but
large breeds are apt to mature too quickly and

Celluloid Marking

not grow so large ; without any grass, it is more
difficult to get gloss and hard feather. Breeds
like Game and Hamburghs, however, do best
on unlimited range, if it is available. Large
Asiatics need not be separated till ten weeks
old or even a little later; but with the smaller
and more precocious breeds, the sooner the

better after they are removed from the hen or
the warm brooder. It may not make much
difference to ultimate size in their case, but they
become precocious and lay early when left to-
gether, and are ruined for the later and better
shows. The sexes can generally be distin-
guished at an early age, and many experienced
fanciers can with almost absolute certainty
differentiate between the males and females of
a brood of chickens on the day they are
hatched. As a rule the heads of cockerels are
larger, carried higher, and look bolder, with
larger combs, the whole carriage being loftier.
In most breeds our experience also is that the
pullets fledge most quickly, especially on the
back and down the breast. With buff, black
and white Orpingtons and white Wyandottes,
it is often difficult to pick out the cockerels
until the appearance of the saddle hackles.
In Asiatics and some other breeds we have
noticed that the first wings of the little
cockerels are generally narrow and pointed and
more of a self colour, while those of the pullets
are broader and rounded at the end, and with
more pencilling or marking. No one sign is
infallible, but generally a true judgment can
be formed.

The same period is convenient for " weed-
ing," or looking the chickens over and picking
out those which are only good enough for kill-
ing. Happy is the fancier who has
Weeding but few of such ! — though with

the Stock. every year the proportion should
decrease ; but, at commencing, the
proportion of such "wasters" will almost in-
evitably be very large. This is a point in which
all beginners fail, without exception. They do
weed out and kill just a few of the worst ; but
the rest, they think, do not look so very bad,
and perhaps may improve ; and so they are
kept on, crowding the yard so that there is
neither fresh ground nor fresh air for what
good birds there may be. Now the beginner
may make up his mind that only his very best
fowls will have the slightest chance ; and that
to keep all these birds alive destroys what
chance he has, besides "spoiling his eye." If
he knows enough to really select the best
quarter of those he has reared past chickenhood,
he may be absolutely certain he has retained
more than all really worth keeping ; and those
few will grow into finer birds for such severe
weeding, to which the experienced breeder with
limited space always subjects his yard.

Where grass-run is unlimited this does not
much matter, and chickens may be kept without
much detriment till full grown for table use.
But the owner of a limited yard, who wants to

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

make and maintain a reputation, cannot afford
this. The matter is very simply illustrated.
Let us suppose he can manage to rear really
well for the show pen two dozen full-grown
chickens, and no more, besides what adult
stock he must hold over for next season's opera-
tions. A novice will probably hatch about
forty, and after losing half a dozen, weed out
barely a dozen more of the worst. He cannot
expect much from the rest, for the first year or
two. But the experienced breeder, even with
better-matched stock, would act differently.
He would hatch at least sixty, and very likely
eighty, birds, killing a fair proportion as soon
as their very first feathers, at a fortnight old,
told him they would be no good ; and then, at
a still early period, he would kill half the re-
mainder. Keeping only the pick, he can hatch
more. Later on, when his breeding has become
more certain, he can be less severe ; but experi-
enced breeders will weed out much earlier and
more severely than novices can find it in their
hearts to do. Another reason for doing it
pretty rigorously is that a run containing only
pretty good birds has a wonderfully more
pleasing effect than another consisting partly
of inferior specimens, and also assists in that
training of the eye to perceive and demand
excellence, which is perhaps the real secret of
permanent success. In each Standard of Per-
fection that accompanies the descriptive text on
the respective breeds, a list of defects which
disqualify a bird as an exhibition specimen is
given. This the novice poultry fancier should
peruse carefully ere commencing his first " weed-
ing," since these defects are generally apparent
at an early stage of a fowl's development.

The chickens thus drafted should also be
sorted into lots of approximate age ; especially
should a young lot of cockerels not be intro-
duced amongst an older lot already possessing
the ground. They would in that case never be
free from persecution, or get their share of
food, and the wings of Asiatics would prob-
ably _ be spoilt. First possessors generally
remain masters of a run, therefore all its in-
tendecl tenants should be introduced together.
All will then shake down speedilv, and if a
full-grown cock can be turned in with a lot of
cockerels, it will be all the better.

There are few subjects less understood by
the beginner in poultry keeping
Newr°^ than the colouration of newly-
HaTched hatched pure-bred chickens, and 'it

Chickens. IS not infrequent that the lack of
this knowledge is the cause of
much acrimonious correspondence between the
purchasers and sellers of sittings of eggs. It

is widely thought that the colour of a
chicken's down should be an indication of the
pigment as it should appear in an adult of
the same variety ; and that the bird's colour
changes with the phases of growth is never
supposed. The following general descrip-
tion of the appearance of newly-hatched
chickens by Mr. F. J. Broomhead may there-
fore save many such disputes and also con-
siderable an.xiety to novices : " In the black
varieties of all breeds, Orpingtons, Cochins,
Wyandottes, Leghorns, Minorcas, Langshans,
La Bresse, Hamburghs, etc. , the newly-hatched
chicken is black and white, or creamy, the
former colour often being less conspicuous than
the latter ; indeed, a chicken of a black variety
that comes out of its shell entirely black will
almost invariably never be a brilliantly-
coloured adult, and it is well known among
breeders that the greater amount of white on
the breast and round the head, the better will
be the lustre of the final plumage. The white
will be frequently found on the flights and
secondary feathers, about the throat and head,
and on the breast and under parts. In white
varieties that have yellow legs, such as white
Wyandottes and Plymouth Rocks, the chickens
often present a creamy, or even canary, tinge,
some white Rock chickens being of a grey
or bluish colour iDut it will be found that such
chickens as they mature come more free from
sappiness (a pale primrose tint) than those that
are pure white at birth. In barred fowls, like
the Plymouth Rock, the downy chicken gives
no sign of marking, being somewhat similar to
the young of black poultry ; it is what may be
described as dark greyish-black and white or
creamy white, the black being mostly on the
back. As the down is cast, the barring gener-
ally comes first across the shoulders, then over
the crop and down the breast. The buff
Orpington day-old chicken will be of a buff or
yellow tint, with a soft reddish-yellow ochre
tinge in leg colour, the white shanks ofteii not
appearing until the bird is several weeks old.
Occasionally, in some buff breeds, there may
be ticks of black in the down, some buff Leg-
horn chickens having been known to show
indications of stripes on their backs. In
chickens of the black-red varieties, where
brown predominates in the plumage of the
hen, and black and red in that of the male,
such as partridge Cochins and W\'andottes,
brown Leghorns, black-red Game and Indian
Game, the colouration is almost identical. It
consists of a wide stripe of reddish-brown or
maroon, running from the base of the beak,
over the head, and down the back to the tail,

CARE OF THE BEST BIRDS.

with liglitcr and narrower, and sometimes black
and light fawn, alternating stripes on either
side, the general body colour being of a light
brown shade or fawn. A fact that should not
be overlooked by the novice poultry-keeper is
that the young of all black fowls, and of those
in whose plumage black largely enters, always
show white in wings.

As regards the leg colour of chickens, it
may be remarked that in yellow-shanked varie-
ties, more especially in black Leghorns, if
that colour appears at birth it may be reckoned
with a large degree of certainty that the adult
birds will have too pale-coloured legs ; it is far
better, provided that the under part of the
foot is yellow, that the leg be willow or marked
with that colour, or even show traces of green
or black. In the case of willow-legged birds,
on the contrary, it is usually considered a good
sign if the chickens come with yellow shanks.
As has been indicated, white-legged fowls are
born with yellow-coloured legs. Some strains,
however, appear to enter the world with white
legs ; but closer examination will show that
there is a distinct light slate-blue tinge ; it is
one that never clears, and will always be re-
tained. The legs of black Orpington chickens
are what may be termed " patchy," and are far
from solid black ; they generally come black
near the junction of the leg and body, and
then take on a yellowish flesh-coloured cast,
and change gradually with the plumage. The
above illustrations could be augmented, but
enough has been said to indicate that there is
much dissimilarity between the colour of a
newly-hatched chicken and the same bird in
an adult state.

The larger breeds are better not allowed to
perch till at least four months old. Cochins and
Brahmas even till six. It is to be remembered

that many generations of forcing
Roosting. diet and more or less confmement

have produced a weight of body
much greater than Nature would have attained,
with a softness of texture also greater than hers.
Hence the result of rash perching is often the
deformity of a crooked breast. A fowl on un-
limited range, sleeping out of doors or in trees,
would take no harm from perching ; but for
most large stock it is not safe, and the better
plan is soft bedding down, either an a dry floor,
or a shelf arranged as a roost. Dry ashes are
as good as anything for very young birds, or
peat moss litter ; later on plenty of straw keeps
the plumage cleaner, but is unnecessary till the
adult or exhibition plumage begins to grow. All
through, however, care should be taken to give
enouoh soft material for the claws to enter

easily, as crooked toes may be caused by a
hard flat surface as easily at this period as
during fledgling days.

The first appearance of the permanent
feathers, which do not replace the nestling
feathers by a definite moult as in adult birds,
but slowly and gradually as new
Care of leaves replace old on an evergreen

Adult tree, brings the breeder a new and

Plumage. different set of cares as he studies
to avoid or prevent anything that
may impair colour, or condition, or develop-
ment when full grown. Shade now becomes
more* important than ever, almost all-important.
Exposure to the sun turns white plumage
yellow, while buff and other colours are faded
or bleached, and even black loses its lustre for
a shabby dull colour, sometimes distinctly
brown. White lobes will suffer also from either
free sunshine or strong winds, the latter caus-
ing roughness as well as tinges of red. A
piece of coppice divided into runs is the best
shade of all for this period, but few can com-
mand it. Some shade is always possible, but
it needs to be remembered that while maturing
for exhibition it must not only be provided,
but the birds kept out of the summer sun ex-
cept for a very limited time. In many varieties
a good yellow in the shanks is also
Colour '^^ importance, and is best pre-

of served by habitual running over

Shanks. fresh grass, especially if on ferru-

ginous soil. Almost any shanks will
be bleached by running on chalky soil or loose
lime rubbish, which otherwise is conducive to
dryness and health in a shed ; hence such must
be avoided for yellow-legged breeds. Some
have advised making a run damp, or compel-
ling the birds to walk through a water-pan in
entering or leaving the houses ; but treatment
of this kind is dangerous to health in several
obvious ways, and (although moisture has
some undoubted effect in preserving a rich
yellow) is not so successful as supposed.
Shady grass is usually sufficient, but if it is
thought that more is required, about all that
can really be done will be secured by carefully
sponging the shanks each night with a sponge
nearly wrung out of tepid water containing a
teaspoonful of glycerine to the pint ; or
slightly with petroleum oil, sponging off so
as to leave as little as possible. If more be
used, dirt collects underneath the scales, but
by applying at night and sponging almost off
this is avoided, and perceptible improvement
effected in many instances, while the smell of
the oil will greatly repel insects.

Colour leads us to another very important

2o6

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

question, which has caused much controversy, as
to how far it is possible, and how far permissible
if possible, to alter the colour of fowls by the

food given to them. It has long
Colour been known that food has consider-

Feeding. able effect upon colour. Yellow or

red maize will make most white fowls
perceptibly more yellow than white maize or
other grain, and much hcmpseed will darken
the ground colour of a moulting Brahma hen. It
has also been known for many years that the
constant use of iron, whether in natural chaly-
beate streams or given artificially, tends generally
to intensify colour, whether in legs, plumage, or
yolks of the eggs. The most definite efi"ect of
food upon colour generally known is in canaries,
in which (or rather in some of which, for the
effect varies greatly in individuals) the constant
administration of cayenne throughout the whole
period during which the feather is growing con-
verts a rich yellow into very deep orange-red.
This fact, coupled with the success of some
breeders in showing rich deep buff in the many
buff varieties of fowls which have become so
popular since 1890, has led many to the conclu-
sion that the best specimens owe their fine buff
colour, and other colours like the bay of Golden
Hamburghs, their richness, to special feeding
even more than to careful breeding, and " colour
feed " for poultry is occasionally advertised in
the poultry papers.

The question has hitherto only practically
concerned buff varieties of poultry, in which
English taste about 1897 began to show a strong
inclination — perhaps spasmodic — for very rich
and deep colour, verging upon what was once
termed cinnamon, instead of the beautiful rich
orange-lemon once so carefully sought by all
buff Cochin breeders, and which we still think
the choicest colour for a buff fowl. But even
in that limited field it is difficult to say what
actual result can be accomplished in this way.
Mr. E. Cobb, a well-known writer and County
Council lecturer, has stated as of his own per-
sonal knowledge that " many " birds too light
for successful exhibition, but otherwise good,
have been converted into winners ; adding, how-
ever, that out of a number subjected to the
process only some will respond to it, as is also
the case with canaries. We have seen three
additional independent testimonies beside, from
exhibitors who state the same as their own
experience, after carrying out Mr. Cobb's advice.
On the other hand, we ourselves suggested
experimenting with cayenne feeding upon buff
Cochins thirty years ago, and we knew this to
have been done with no perceptible effect ; and
in a long controversy upon the subject during

iSgS, several large breeders of buff varieties,
whose word there is no reason to doubt, stated
that they had experimented extensively, and
given it up as yielding no result. It is abso-
lutely certain that no better buffs have been
produced in general since "feeding" was prac-
tised than were bred before it was known ; but,
of course, this does not prove that their number
has not been increased by specimens which
would only have been inferior otherwise. Also
in the early e.xperiments above alluded to,
cayenne alone was used, whereas it is now
believed that iron and some amount of fat are
also advisable. Our own opinion is that in a
certain number of cases there may probably be
appreciable gain, but that it has been greatly
e.xaggerated ; and certainly no breeder who will
breed with sufficient care need be afraid of being
beaten by mere colour feeding. Attentive
scrutiny of buffs generally at exhibitions, since
publication of the colour feeding process, has
led us to surmise that the more usual effect
when marked (for in many birds none at all is
admittedly produced) may probably be to
deepen the colour in localised patches rather
than all over — in pullets usually at the sides of
the breast and of the cushion near the tail,
sometimes on the flat of the wing, the deepened
colour being of a peculiar " bricky " tint by no
means attractive. It appears probable, however,
that in individual cases colour may be so gained
without this patchy effect.

The ethics of the question cannot be discussed
here beyond a few words. Earnest and ever*
violent efforts were once made in England to
induce the Poultry Club to pronounce colour
feeding fraudulent. As the means for this
kind of improvement, if any, have long been
published and open to all, while, on the other
hand, it is utterly impossible of proof by any
known test that colour feeding has been
employed, such a course would be obviously
impracticable, and could only handicap the
more virtuous breeders in favour of the dis-
honest ones, to the extent of whatever was
gained by the process. Till some method of
detection is known, nothing of the sort could
have other than calamitous effect. But there is
another insuperable difficulty as to drawing any
line. Iron undoubtedly has some effect, many
people think the principal effect. Yet we have,
ever since first writing on poultry matters, con-
stantly prescribed iron tonic, and that during
the entire period of moult ; and if iron tonic
or yellow maize are not prohibited, how is a
distinction to be made ?

The difficulty becomes greater still when we
consider the general law governing colour in

EFFECTS OF COLOUR FEEDING.

207

animals ; for there is such a law traceable. If
we heat a coloured oxide, we are expanding it
and also, as a scientific man calls it, " adding
energy" to it; and even in this
Laws of simple case, the usual result is to

Animal change its colour towards a tint

Colouration, nearer what a physicist terms "the
red end of the spectrum," in order
of the rainbow colours. Heating a globule of
copper borate, which is blue, it turns green ; if
we heat the yellow oxide of mercury, it gradually
turns orange, red, brown, and finally almost black.
Now, very curiously, it seems as if a general rule
can be traced by which animal colours also,
starting from the highest degree of vitality or
energy, as we diminish this tend to change in
the converse order of black (the highest), brown,
red, orange, green, blue, white ; this law explain-
ing most changes as an infant gains strength,
and again declines in energy with old age, or
from privation. Various monkeys, e.g. in in-
fancy are greyish yellow, then reddish brown,
and finally black. Children's hair generally
changes from very light or yellow to red or
brown or black ; while with age comes grey and
white. At the wreck of the Stratluiiorc it was
observed that not only did ordinary colours
become grey and flaxen, but black hair became
for a time red and brown. Thus it seems as if
•richer colour may be probably the effect of
either more vitality or heat of blood. Eastern
breeds lay brown eggs, and the early native
Cochins were darker, more cinnamon, than the
■colour became in our colder clime. Canaries
were green ; our rooms and more stimulating
food made them yellow; fed on still more
stimulating food, we have seen that many
become orange-red. Budgerigars are similarly
changing from green to yellow. Cayenne was
probably first given to canaries as a beneficial
stimulant, just as iron in various forms was long
ago prescribed by us for fowls ; and it is possible
that the main colour effect of these things may
be a t07iic effect. As to special ingredients and
effects, we remember personally the time when
the use of linseed for gloss, as described in our
next chapter, was a jealously guarded secret,
which we first made public : where is the differ-
ence between this, for one special end, and
heating tonics for another?

Colour feeding for enriching buffs, if carried
on at all, must be so from the first beginning of
the growth of the plumage to the very end of
that growth, whether in chickens or moulting
adults. The regimen usually recommended is
half a teaspoonful of cayenne, of which the
cool kind is just as good as the hot, given
every day in the soft food, along with about

two grains carbonate or three grains saccha-
rated carbonate of iron. A little fat should
be mixed also along with the cayenne. Merely

for enriching bays and crimsons^

Colour Feeding ^^^ '" ^ Partridge Cochin cockerel,

for there can be nothing gained by

Buff Fowls. anything more than saccharated

carbonate of iron ; plain carbonate
is cheaper, but saccharated is more readily as-
similated by the animal system. On the other
hand, there is some reason to think that iron may
be occasionally injurious to a buff bird, in accen-
tuating the slightest difference of colour. While
a uniform colour would probably be slightly
deepened in tone, any deeper patches, or the
slightest tendency to black specks, would prob-
ably be brought into stronger relief by iron, while
cayenne would be less likely to have this effect.
One or two people have recommended the
"yellow " cayenne or colour feed sold to canary
breeders ; and we have also seen Silk's and
Sandiford's canary feeds recommended. We
repeat, however, that if by careful breeding an
even and rich buff has been produced, there is
not the slightest reason to believe it will ever be
surpassed by colour feeding : the sole question
is as to how nearly inferior colour may be made
to equal or approach it.

As a field for experinicnt, colour feeding is
a tempting one, on which account we should be
sorry to see it barred, though we do not antici-
pate much direct result from it. The principal
facts known up to the present may be worth
summarising, and are full of interest. There is
a family of African birds known as Turacos or

Plantain-Eaters, containing twenty-
Remarkable five species, of which eighteen
Facts manifest the following extraordin-

Conceming ary phenomena. On certain wing
Colour in Birds, r .\ „f j i • 1 .. j

leathers, of dark violet ground

colour, are patches and spots of
bright crimson ; also in some, on a few head
feathers. This crimson soaks out into cold
water, and birds kept in captivity wash out
these patches to a dirty white in their bath,
while the wild ones become a dirty grey or very
pale pink in the rainy season ! In dilute am-
monia it dissolves easily. Analysis shows this
colour to contain 7 per cent, of its weight, when
precipitated from ammonia solution, of pure
copper, probably deposited from bananas, in
which copper is found, and on which the birds
feed. So full of copper is it that a red piece of
feather burnt gives a green flame. Copper is
also found in a green pigment got from the same
family ; and Mr. Lupton has found copper in
the feathers of some Australian green parrakeets.
It is remarkable that these latter are found in

2o8

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

the copper districts, and that in captivity the
birds prefer, and constantly mouth and peck
at, brass rails. Yet these strong metallic
colours are strictly localised, no colour, or any
copper, being found in adjacent parts of the
very same feather. Also in some species of
Turaco which have none of this colour, the
same patches, instead of being crimson, are
white ; where for some reason this colour fails
to deposit, there is no colour at all ! From
many other birds, various colours have been
extracted by Mr. Church and others, by such
solvents as alcohol, ether and alkaline solution.

The Brazilians have an extraordinary method
of modifying the colour of certain parrots,
which are naturally green about the head.
When these feathers are just showing, they
apply to them tlie secretion from the skin of a
certain native toad, with the result that the
feathers then become, not green, but bright
yellow ! This is no exhibition matter ; simply
a custom or fashion the people have. The result
and the process are alike extraordinary', and
still more, perhaps, how it can have been dis-
covered in the first place. Here we perhaps
have an e.xample of colour-feeding individual
feathers, for it certainly is not a dye in any
ordinary sense, only affecting the growing
plumage.

The most interesting results, as ascertained
by direct scientific experiment, were communi-
cated by Dr. Sauermann to the Vienna Ornitho-
logical Association.* He ascertained definitely
in regard to cayenne, that the piperine or hot
ingredient of hot peppers had no part in the
result ; that the coloured component given pure
had also very little effect; and that it was only
efficacious when given in chemical combination
with albumen or fat. Feeding cayenne to
twelve white Leghorns, two only of the birds
showed results, these two beginning to do so
after ten days. In their case the plumage was
turned red, but chiefly in two places only, the
breast and the hackles, the body much less so,
and the flights and tail remaining white to the
last. The colour only appeared on the surface,
where exposed to the light. The second season
or moult the same birds were cayenne-fed again,
but now became a duller reddish brown in the
coloured portions. The legs and feet were also
coloured orange red. The yolks of the eggs also
became red, in some cases bright blood red.
Such yolks could not be boiled hard, the soluble
fat being increased at the expense of the solids.
All the fatty parts revealed the presence of
colouring matter. On hatching the eggs, the

* Dit Schwalhe, April 30 .md May 15, 1S90. An English
translation appeared some time after in the Feathered World.

chickens showed no colour in the down, but
were decidedly red in the first feathers, which,
however, soon faded unless they were themselves
fed on cayenne. It was remarkable that while
only two out of the twelve pullets origin-
ally fed were able to absorb the colour, all
the chickens hatched from these two coloured
birds inherited the tendency.

A series of experiments were then made
upon canaries with aniline dj'es, which it was
found were rarely poisonous when pure. Given
in water, a few birds only were slightly affected,
and the effect lasted only during the growth of
the feathers. By rather difficult processes the
dyes were then combined chemically with oil,
but little result was obtained in the way of
colour, owing (as was afterwards found) to excess
of the colour feed. But a most extraordinary-
result was established in the way of direct
connection between colour feed and moulting
itself, which may possibly prove of use in regard
to the latter, and which Dr. Sauermann thought
probably due to the soluble fats combined with
the colour. The canaries fed with coloured oils
did not moult. Whenever the feed was stopped,
moult continued; when resumed, they " stuck "
again. Similarly, by feeding cayenne in larger
quantities to fowls, their moult also was post-
poned till the end of December. These facts
probably explain why some insectivorous birds
cannot moult in captivity. On the contrary
side, one colour was found — gentian violet —
which had the property of inducing moult at
any time, even quite out of the ordinary course.

Finally a few of the dyes were combined
with albumen, and in this form, and given more-
sparingly, striking results were obtained. At
first the dyes were boiled with grain, with whose
albumen they then combine ; but it was found
sufficient to mix them in ordinary bread before-
baking the latter. The dyes thus treated lose
their bitter taste, and crumbs are eaten freely.
Only two dyes are reported on in the paper.
By feeding fawn-coloured Isabel pigeons with
methyl-eosin (known to chemists as methyl-
tetrabromofluorescein) the colour was changed
to red, and was fast. By feeding Budgerigar.s-
with methyl-violet (chemically a combination of
the hydrochlorides of pentamethylpararosaniline
and hexamethylpararosaniline), they became
blue. These blue Budgerigars are the most
striking result yet produced in bird culture, and
in their case the dye was combined with millet,
or baked with egg-bread to be given to the
young. Only 30 per cent, of the birds experi-
mented with were affected, whilst of white fowls
fed with cayenne only 20 per cent, responded.
It will be remembered that amongjst canaries

CHICKENS N EARING MATURITY.

209

the Norwich chiefly is affected by cayenne, and
not all alike among even these. The patchy or
local effect on the white fowls will also be
noticed, and corresponds with what we found
amongst buffs.

Leg feather requires care, else it will be
worn off or broken. The grass in runs for
feather-legged fowls should be mown short

and frequently, so as to keep it not
Care of only short but soft and lawn-like in

Leg Feather, condition, and the shedding should

contain nothing but absolutely fine
and dry material. We do not think the plan
adopted by some of allowing no dusting
material at all, and depending upon insect
powder or other treatment to avoid vermin, a
good one. The vermin may be avoided, we
admit, but it is not good for either feet or
carriage to keep a heavy fowl on a hard floor,
and here again we have a cause of the recent
increase in crooked toes. We found a mixture of
either fine dry sand or finely sifted coal ashes,
with plenty of finely cut straw chaff, several
inches deep in a large shed, keep both the
plumage and leg feather of our Brahmas in
admirable condition, and they never had any-
thing else except their grass run or outer yard.
Long dry straw, on the other hand, does wear
away the feathering if allowed continuously.

The age at which chickens mature varies
from less than six months to eight or nine,
large Asiatic cockerels being the slowest to

mature, and pullets and smaller
Nearing breeds requiring less time. As it

Maturity. approaches, the taller birds may

suffer from some leg weakness if
they have grown fast, though the bone dust
already spoken of is a great preventive. Should
it occur in spite of this, its direct treatment
must be sought amongst that of other ailments.
W'hen near maturity, meat or other stimulating
food should be withdrawn from pullets which
it is not desired should lay early, and laying
may also be postponed somewhat by changing
them every two or three weeks to a fresh run.
The too free use of meat with pullets leads to
premature laying and to permanently small
eggs, through over-stimulation of the ovary
and consequent injury to that organ. In ex-
periments conducted by Mr. F. J. Broomhead,
the editor of Poultry, he found that by meat
feeding buff Orpingtons and Plymouth Rocks
were induced to lay at 16 weeks old. Their
eggs, however, were no larger than those of a
pigeon, and no subsequent method of feeding,
even when the birds were in their second laying
season, and weighed 9 to 9 '2 lbs., had the
slip'htest effect on the size of the egg. As

exhibition birds, pullets hardly ever look so
well as just before they lay. Cockerels are
better rather older, as already hinted. As they
attain the final stages every possible care
should be taken to avoid any accidental injury.
The holes into the houses should be of ample
size, every door that is open be left wide open
and fastened so, and care taken if they perch
that neither tails nor bodies come against a
wall. Every night they should be visited to
see that all are right and none squatting in
dirty corners. They should never be driven
about or frightened, and, if anything has to
be done, be taken from the perch at night.

All through let the chickens be kept tame.
A grain or two of groats or hemp every time
of passing will establish pleasant relations ; so
does waiting in the run whilst the
Tameness food is eaten. Stillness and quiet-
and Docility, ness of manner soon remove fear,
and with an occasional titbit they
soon lose all dislike of being handled, and
may be taken up out of a run with perfect
unconcern.

There is one danger to which the larger
Asiatic breeds are particularly liable during
this maturing period, and which often dis-
figures an otherwise fine bird. We
Slipped allude to what poultry men call

Wings. " slipped " or " turned " wings ; the

primary feathers, or those which
ought to be nicely tucked away out of sight
when the wing is closed, protruding in more or
less disorder outside the others. The tendency
is to some extent hereditary, no doubt, and it
mars the beauty of a bird completely. Pullets
are far less liable to it than cockerels, and
therefore when it occurs in the female sex it is
proportionately more serious in character. In
the most aggravated form the flight feathers
appear actually twisted, so that the proper in-
side of the feathers becomes outside, and in this
form the affection is both strongly hereditary
and, we believe, incurable. But when it merely
amounts to failing to tuck the flight feathers in,
without any great disorder among those feathers
themselves, it may generally be cured if taken
in due time. The usual cause we believe to be
the buffeting of cockerels by their stronger
neighbours, which causes rapid flapping,
followed by imperfect closing, and after a few
times this becomes habitual and the mischief is
done ; at least, it more rarely occurs in a wide
run, or in the master-bird of the yard.

The treatment is simple. As soon as any
displacement of the new feathers is observed the
wings should be carefully tucked up every night
at roost ; but nothing further can be done till

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

they are grown enough to hold a ligature, when
one or both wings, as required, should be care-
fully bound up with each feather in proper
position. The manner in which this is done is
shown in' Fig. So, the wing being bound round
rather tightly near the middle, after which the
cord is carried from the knot at A, round the
shoulder at B, to the inside part of the ligature
at C ; this is, of course, simply to prevent the
ligature from slipping off, which the bird will
use all his endeavours to effect. Soft string
about the thickness of stout whip-cord should
be employed, and the operation be performed at
night for the sake of quietness. A little judg-
ment in tying is necessary, as if the retaining
cord A B C be too slack the bird slips the

Fig. So. — Tying a Wing.

bandage off, while if too tight it may cut and
become embedded in the web at the shoulder,
causing irritation and distress. Patience and
tact are also required, and we have had birds
we were obliged to tie up afresh for five or six
nights before the feathers were retained in place
to our satisfaction. The greatest care is to be
taken that evoy feather is in position, on which
all depends, and the bird is then to be left with
his wing or wings tied till it is supposed the
feathers are properly set. The ligature may
then be cut, when if the result is satisfactory all
is of course over ; if not, the wings are to be
again confined. There are few but may be
thus cured if taken in due time. The ligature
has a tendency to cut the feathers, but this may
be avoided by folding a piece of stiff paper
under the wing at D, and tying the ligature
over that, which will preserve the wing from
injury. There is some slight danger of Asiatic
cocks acquiring the same fault during the moult
If the wings are seen properly tucked up every

night at roost nothing further will commonly be
needed ; but if the blemish should appear to be
becoming habitual, it must be treated in the
manner just described.

As winter approaches it is often of great
benefit to return to special 7iight feeding ; but
on this point judgment must be used.
Night Feeding If '^he chickens have made their
for Older growth, and are of good weight and

Chickens. substance, and fairly set, there is no

reason for it, and it may even do
harm by making them too fat. But if cockerels,
especially of the large breeds, are still immature
and lanky, though promising, very much may be
gained, when the days are short, in putting on
body and weight by getting in an extra feed.
We recollect once getting some Brahma pullets
hatched late in May up to another lot hatched
in April, so that one of each went as a pair to
ham. Suppose the three ordinary meals
:n at 8 a.m., noon, and 4 p.m. Then if
the chickens are lanky, much is
gained by another feed at 10 p.m.;
and, even if an extra full feed is
not thought needful, much may,
be gained in appetite and profit-
able assimilation of the food, by
giving the breakfast as before, a
mere sprinkle at noon, another
feed at 3 p.m., and the final feed
at 9 or 10 p.m. In immature birds
such night feeding does indubitably make size.
Our own plan at last was to pour boiling water
upon hea\'y uats in a bucket about 6 or 7 p.m.,
cover with a cloth, and give the warm steeped
grain at ten o'clock, when it was eagerly looked
for. We had tried other things, but the steeped
oats pushed them on better than anything else,
were eaten with avidity, and did not swell in
the crops. The birds themselves were at that
time bedded on straw, and when the lantern
was put down it was curious to see them
march forward, and when they were satisfied
get back to bed again as quietly as a lot of
children.

With such care and attention, if the stock
and mating have been fairly good, there ought
to be in due time some really good birds avail-
able for the show pen. Of course they may not
win ; for they are not the only chickens in the
country, and however good they may be, some-
one else may have still better. But there
should be some that will not disgrace the
yard ; and we will hope for the best, and
proceed to consider their actual exhibition.

CHAPTER XIII.

EXHIBITING.

AS the actual time for exhibition approaches,
/-\ it is well that attention and preparation
be focussed upon it, especially if for an
important show. In many cases special treat-
ment for condition is useful ; but it cannot be
said too plainly that it all amounts to nothing
in comparison with that general care in rearing
and treatment already described, that many
birds require no more, and that such as do not
are those which show best. First-rate show
condition means simply perfect health, cleanli-
ness, that amount of flesh which looks best, and
uninjured plumage, in a fowl tame enough to
show well in its pen. There is no mystery in
any of these ; and though lack in one or
another may be to some extent remedied by
special measures, the fowl which needs none, as
thousands do not, is the best fowl still, for
showing as for anything else.

It will be convenient to consider the younger
stock first. Here the time of hatching a bird
will have been considered in reference to the

exhibitions at which it is desired to
Summer appear. Some exhibitors lay them-

Shows. selves out specially for summer

chicken shows, which entails hatch-
ing at New Year, or as soon after as possible.
Some, we fear, anticipate January 1st by two
or three months, but we do not envy such
breeders their success over more honourable
competitors. It is sufficient for us that the
recognised rule of the Poultry Club, and of
every fancier who puts honour above mere gain,
is that chickens of the year should not be
hatched before the New Year opens. Taking
that as our starting point, it will be found that
there is much extra trouble in rearing such
early chickens, and the breeding stock and con-
stitution of the strain are exhausted, as already
pointed out ; but, on the other hand, competi-
tion at these early shows is very small, and
winning is now so difficult in the heavy com-
petition of autumn and winter, that it is found
by some worth while to pay the price for the
sake of the easier victory. The chief care of
those who engage in this class of showing is
ample shade for their young stock, as the plum-

age will be maturing during the heat of the
summer, and the sun tells more than upon the
later birds. Ample green food is unequalled
for giving condition to these forward chickens,
and if some lettuces can be grown and fed regu-
larly to them, they will be eaten with appetite
even upon a grass run, and have marked effect
in giving smoothness to the plumage. Such
chickens should only be penned up a few days
before exhibition, and if they can be kept clean
enough to be shown without washing, they look
much the better. These early birds mature
soon, because they finish their growth during
warm weather, being often in full feather at
from five to seven months old in the lighter
breeds ; but, unless in an exceptional season,
the more slowly maturing fowls will rarely be
fully furnished before October.

Chickens hatched later require more time,
especially the large Asiatics ; and for the chief
exhibitions much can be done to
Preparing " nurse " them, or have them just
for a ready for the time required. The

Given Date. furnishing of the cockerels may be
rather postponed by the use of dry
bone dust, or hastened (if the combs will admit
of it) by fresh bone or meat, and some sulphur
twice or three times a week ; also if a fine but
raw-looking cockerel be put with a couple of
hens for a few weeks before a show, it will often
set him up and " make " him up faster. Such a
bird cannot, however, be put back with the others
again, and this expedient should only be em-
ployed when needed, and when proper arrange-
ments can be made for him afterwards. Time
is still more important in the case of pullets,
which are at their very best just before laying.
That time would naturally vary with the breed
and the feeding ; and, if it does not come right,
effort should be made to postpone laying by
changing the best pullets from one pen to
another every ten days, and leaving off all
stimulating food ; in this way laying may often
be kept at bay for a month or two.

We advise that, if space permits, before
the season for exhibition or sales (and sales from
the yard itself involve a kind of exhibition to the

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

purchaser) the chickens be sorted out, not only
as cockerels and pullets, but into lots according
to their value, as well as age. It is distinctly
prejudicial to sales to show a purchaser birds
far superior to what he is able or willing to pay
for — it makes these latter appear distinctly worse
by comparison ; and for this reason some breeders
keep their very best away, where they are never
seen by visitors at all. On the other hand, a
successful breeder requires to keep even his own
eye in training, and critical to demand a certain
high standard of perfection ; this is far better
done if his very choicest are kept in one run
together. Such a plan, moreover, keeps the best
birds more constantly under the eye, and makes
any weak point apparent early, when perhaps
something may be done to remedy it.

Thus, in regard to the final furnishing or
feathering out, it may happen that the tail
and other feathers seem to hang
Backward in development. This should al-
Plumage. vvays receive attention, but its

proper treatment will depend upon
circumstances. If iron tonics and meat have
not hitherto been given, these and a little sul-
phur every other day will often put matters
right. But if they have been part of the regi-
men already, it is no use giving more ; possibly
they may have already been overdone. More
benefit is lilcely in such a case to follow a daily
dose of 6 to lo grains citrate of potash, which
is not lowering, but often has a wonderful effect,
purifying and invigorating the blood. Above
all, however, the bird should be most sedulously
examined for insect vermin, which is a most
frequent cause of these apparent stoppages, es-
pecially where dust baths are denied to the birds
for fear of injuring the plumage, and insecticides
relied upon instead. A fowl infested with
vermin cannot be matured into good condition.

Among the many large-combed breeds now
so popular, an apparently good comb may
appear to be falling over, and if treated at once,
may often be saved, at all events for
Comb one particular show. This danger

Falling Over, h^g much increased since the pre-
judicial craze for exaggerated combs
has been in vogue, and really bad cases are
not curable, especially when they have ensued
upon warm housing and free meat feeding.
Even when a biid is reared upon a moderate
regimen and in a cool house, however, the mere
strain of feathering out will sometimes cause
a flabbiness or lassitude of comb that denotes
evident danger. Here tonic, or if iron tonic has
already been given, change of it to a tonic pill
of I grain sulphate of iron and \ grain of
quinine, or better perhaps i grain citrate of

iron and lo grains citrate of potash, will be of
assistance; and the comb should be placed in a
support or cage. Such supports are advertised
of slightly dilTerent patterns, which may be
suitable for dift'erent heads and combs ; but all
are founded upon that formerly used by the
celebrated Spanish breeders of Bristol, devised
by the late Mr. Sydenham Roue, which is equal
to any of them, and is shown in Fig. Si.

The wire should be of aluminium or tinned
iron, not copper, and is bent in one piece from the
centre at A. The portion from A to B is care-
fully fitted to the skull at the base of the comb,
so that B exactly reaches the nostrils, and the
curve from B to C should about follow the base
of the serrations, the ends at C being a little
opened to avoid chafing. The wire should be
first covered with thin red worsted to prevent

Si. — Comb Support.

sores. To put it on, the thin horn or cartilage
between the two nostrils is pierced with a needle,
which does not appear to give any pain at all ;
then A being drawn forward as far as it will go
under the back of the comb, a bit of silk thread
(or carbolised ligature would be better) is passed
through the nostrils and corners B, and tied in
a knot, tightly enough but not too much so,
over the nostrils. If necessary, the wires at
some point in the curve between B and C can
also be tied together, by a thread through near
the bottom of the notch between two spikes.
Some tie to the wires between B and C, inside
and next the comb, curved slips of card. As a
rule, a bird thus decorated must be kept from
hens, who have a propensity to peck at any knot
and so destroy the arrangement. The legitimate
usefulness of such a support as this is great,
since cockerels often return from a heated show
with a comb relaxed and drooping, or it may
fall over during moult, or the frame may tide
a cockerel over the temporary critical period of
lassitude here in question. There are, however,
birds which rarely have it off except during
exhibition, whose combs " will stand about a
week " and no more ; and it was the deliberate

CARE OF COMBS AND EAR-LOBES.

2 '3

opinion of the old Bristol fanciers who first used
comb cages, and tested them in all degrees most
thoroughly, that their constant use to assist
really flabby combs, as is so widely the case to-
day, rather than breed good ones, brings sure
retribution in a weak-combed strain of birds.

On the other hand, the comb of an otherwise
promising pullet may seem backward, and need
encouraging, especially if she has been brought
up hardy, in a cool house. Here a
Combs of few weeks in a sheltered and

Pullets. slightly warm pen, with rather

more animal food, will bring her up
to the mark if the parents have been so ; but
birds so treated should always be gradually
habituated to a cool temperature again, before
winter comes on. Some have advocated work-
ing and extending a pullet's comb between the
fingers, as is practised upon the ears of lop-eared
rabbits ; and we have seen a comb enlarged
considerably in this way. Never*-heless, such
dodges are not worth while. No lop fancier
would dream of treating thus any rabbit with
really small ears ; and as it is, the result in his
case is hard callosity and loss of circulation in
the part so treated. So in pullets, really decent
combs are plentiful, and need nothing of the sort ;
and combs thus abused, owing to the effect upon
the blood circulation, are terribly subject to
frost-bite. As comb is not a really difficult
point in pullets, and decently bred birds need
nothing at all beyond possibly a little temporary
extra warmth and feeding, it is a great pity to
spread the impression that such dodges are
largely practised by extra " knowing" ones; in
reality they are almost confined to novices who
have learnt them from others about equally
well-informed.

Ear lobes which appear somewhat deficient

in growth are more susceptible of extension

without injury, the part being softer and more

elastic, with less of natural vitality.

Ear Lobes. Much depends, however, upon the

manner of it, as was discovered by

those old Bristol Spanish breeders already

mentioned, who brought white ear lobes to a

perfection that has never been equalled since

their day, much less surpassed. They had tried,

and abandoned, working about the lobes between

thumb and finger, as advised by some. This

will enlarge a lobe ; but they discarded it

because — so they said — it tended to enlarge the

surface more than the structure, and so increased

folds on that surface, which they desired smooth

and even. Their plan was rather, not only when

cleansing a lobe, but at roost and as opportunity

offered, to very gently stretcli a lobe by pulling

at the edges. It was essential to be gentle, never

stretching tightly, which also caused wrinkles or
folds ; but the lobe was so held at very gentle
tension for a little while, giving the principal
stretch in the direction where more size wa.s
specially wanted. Such was the method, they
found, by which most could be done, being useful
in promoting even surface as well as greater
size. It is best to let well alone, if nothing is
needed in this way ; but if a little more is really
wanted, or a fold threatens, matters can often be
improved by a little care and manipulation in
good time.

There is also colour of the lobes to be looked
after, and if red threatens upon such as should
be white, it is time to give the birds shelter,
especially from the wind, or in particular cases a
rather darkened run and slightly warm temper-
ature. A strong wind will often roughen and
redden a fine smooth lobe in three days ; but
it can generally be recovered by these means.
Where smooth whiteness is a great point, lobes
which have matured satisfactorily should be
carefully cleaned every day, using the first time mild
soapand tepid water, with a very soft bit of Turkey
sponge ; afterwards tepid milk and water. The
lobes should be gently but thoroughly dried
afterwards with a soft woolly towel, and when
quite dry dusted with violet powder, or if there
are any signs of soreness, with oxide of zinc.

A red lobe, on the other hand, may develop
evident tendency to an undesirable white or pale
centre. Here exposure to air and wind is the
natural remedy, which may often be assisted by
the citrate of iron and potash tonic above men-
tioned, and by brisk friction of the weak spot as
often as convenient with a piece of rough towel.
The rubbing is not to be hard, but of a quick
character, calculated to cause a hot glow under
it, and so cause more flow of blood to the part
Some allege benefit from application of stimu-
lants, such as capsicum vaseline, and it is not
improbable, these applications also bringing the
blood to the capillaries at the surface, which is
the effect desired.

A promising cockerel may sometimes develop
all of a sudden a tendency to wry tail, or
squirrel tail. Where this has appeared gradually
from an early age, the cause is
Wry Tail. curvature of the spine, and such birds
should be executed. But in other
instances it seems a habit, or due to some sudden
strain, as from a bird backing up against a wall,
or from some slight inequality of a muscle or
tendon, due originally perhaps to such a cause.
Such cases are not hereditary as the first class
are, and as they are often removable by a simple
operation, many think it as permissible to do
this as to operate for a squint in the human

214

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

subject. It is perhaps rather debatable ground,
which we must leave to each to decide for him-
self; but we certainly think such cases differ
radically from attempts to imitate fancy points,
which present real difficulty in breeding them to
the required standard. Nothing should be done
till the tail is grown, as sometimes it will appear
awry when only partly grown, but be all right
when fully out. Then if it still persists, in
slight cases it is often enough to make a small
scar or eschar at « or ^ (Fig. 82)
1 / on the side of the neck of the tail

joint, commonly called the " par-
son's nose." A scar is made by
snipping out a bit of the skin half
an inch long by almost a quarter
of an inch wide, the longer diameter
Fig. S2. being downwards ; an eschar by

well rubbing wetted lunar caustic
over a space the same size, and it should be
done on the side opposite that towards which
the tail is carried. The scar or eschar will tend
to slightly contract, and as if stretched it will feel
a little sore, to avoid this the bird will ease his
tail more to the desired side, and often the end
will be attained. If this is not effectual, when
the tail is strongly bent away from its undesired
position, very often a tight cord or tendon will be
felt, rising as it were against the finger, and if
this be cut (the same applying to the top of the
joint in some sudden cases of acquired squirrel,
tail ; chronic cases are not fit subjects for
treatment) a cure probably follows. The cut
should not be made from the surface, but a very
narrow sharp knife (called by surgeons a
bistoury) dipped in diluted carbolic acid should
be inserted under the cord, and the cut made
with a sawing motion from beneath, but without
cutting through the skin above. After either
operation the tail should be worked a little
daily, till it sets in the proper position.

At last the birds for exhibition at a given date
have to be finally selected. The usual error
is to send too many, which an experienced
exhibitor never does unless he wants
Selecting them on the spot for the probability

Specimens ^j- ^^yy^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^

Exhibition. team he has, or because, knowing
he is stronger than usual, he wants
for some reason to make a grand cojtp, as was
the case amongst the Dark Brahma chickens
at the Crystal Palace Show of 1899. Here
one exhibitor carried off the challenge cup,
third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth
prizes in the cockerels ; and another the cup,
second, third, fourth, sixth, seventh, eighth, and
ninth in the pullets. But such cases are rare,
and the beginner had better make up his mind

that only his very best have a real chance o\
winning, and that more will be waste of money
in entry fees. He may have more, really good
and worth money ; but a good show collects the
best, and his own best will make the best record
for him. These he should carefully select and
compare ?«/^«i', with a set of which, greater or
less in number, every sensible exhibitor provides
his establishment, being highly necessary for the
training of the birds as well as the selection of
them. We think it much better to have larger
pens than are used for exhibition, as the speci-
mens are equally well seen, and stand the con-
finement better; for our own Brahmas we adopted
three feet square. In such wired pens all the
possible candidates are closely scrutinised, and it
will often be found that those which look best
as they run do not appear so when in the pen,
for some reason or other.*

But all are better for some training in a
pen before showing, and the same proceeding
has further uses in promoting cleanliness and

condition. A fowl just picked up
Pen off a run, and penned up at a show

Training. foj- the first time, is wild and

frightened, and will never catch a
judge's eye ; want of symmetry alone would
throw it out. A week before the show will be
suflicient, tind before being placed in the pen the
bird should have its legs and feet washed clean,
using soap and a nail brush if necessary ; and
also the head, for which a softer tooth brush is
more convenient. The pen should be first
sprinkled with good grit, over which is thrown
straw chaff; this chaff will keep them clean, and
is most important, the grit for digestion being
equally so. As often as possible the birds
should be visited, and if unusually wild, first a
little stai-ved, in order that they may welcome
the feeder with food. But as much as possible
of passing and repassing, standing in front of
them, stroking them down the back with
the end of a stick, and occasional throwing of
a grain or two of hempseed, will soon quiet
them, till they will let themselves be turned
about with a cane into all different positions
without making a fuss, and stand composedly
to be looked at, and come to the front of
the pen. The object is then attained, and the

* We recollect upon one occasion possessing two cockerels
clearly ahead of the others, one of which we had almost deter-
mined upon for the Crystal Palace Show. We had, however,
both placed in pens, being too ill to do more at the moment than
wipe their heads and feet. We were confined to bed for the
next few days, but they were carefully fed, and on the day be-
fore sending off, we were able to get down to look at them,
wrapped up in shawls. We instantly reversed our former con-
clusion, selecting the other bird, which won the cup of the year,
as we feel sure our first choice would not have done, though in-
other hands he won at Edinburgh afterwards.

CLEANING AND WASHING FOWLS.

birds are " trained." Those which have been
petted and kept tame all through, however, make
the best show of themselves, and manifest a
calm aplomb which is seldom quite reached by
those pen-trained alone.

Some little modification in diet and regimen
is often advisable, not only during this training
time, but even perhaps for two or three weeks
before the show. There is no mystery about
this, nor is it a case for a table of directions; all
is simple enough, and to be governed by reason-
able judgment. Many birds, even chickens,
look better for a little more flesh than they
usually have while running at large ; that will
be a case for liberal though careful feeding.
Gloss will in most cases be increased, as well as

flesh rather promoted, if every other
Gloss of day for two or three weeks the mash

Plumage. jg mixed with thick linseed tea, well

stewed, and with sufficient water to
make a thinnish jelly; using this instead of water,
seeds and all. A velvety lustre is often added by
this means, and no measure of quantity is neces-
sary, taking enough of the hot linseed tea and
seeds to mix the meals into proper consistency.
Active and sprightly birds, from a good-sized
run, but not required " hard " like Game fowls,
benefit most from this regimen, while full-fleshed
ones previously kept in confinement might be
deteriorated in health and condition ; one must
use judgment. When it can be borne, some-
times a little fat or linseed cake carefully added
to the daily food improves lustre ; and on the
other hand, birds which have been kept in
confined runs are occasionally improved in
gloss by giving, for about ten days, two grains
daily of saccharated carbonate of iron and about
half a dozen cloves.

If the colour of comb and face be somewhat
pale, a little underdone meat, and one of the before
mentioned (p. 2 1 2) citrate of iron and potash pills

daily, or 10 grains of the iron citrate
Colour of and I drachm of the potash citrate

Combs. in half a pint of drinking water, will

improve matters, as will sometimes
a little toast soaked in old ale, or a teaspoonful
daily of port wine. Mr. Cobb recommends 10
drops daily of colchicum wine in such cases for a
week to ten days, and we have known marked
improvement in colour from its use ; but colchi-
cum is a rather risky drug, whose after effects
are sometimes bad, in depressing the action of
the heart. Citrate of potash and iron is safer,
we think quite as generally effectual, and can
only be of benefit in any case, purifying and
enriching the blood. Chopped onions and dan-
delion leaves daily in lieu of other green food
are also of service in reddening combs. Birds

with dark combs, from confinement and bad
feeding, are not fit for exhibition at all until they
have been brought into a better state of health.

What is needed in the way of cleaning will
depend upon the colour. Dark or rich plumage
will require nothing beyond the washing of heads
and legs, and the confinement in the training
pen, which is better rather out of the full light.
Kept clean upon chaff, as here recommended,
the plumage will become clean and briglit
and glossy, if the birds are healthy. We never
needed any more than this with our Dark
Brahmas. The ground colour may he light
enough or bright enough to require rather more,
as in some shades of Partridge Cochin pullets,
or laced Wyandottes ; in this case the best pro-
cedure, where there is accommodation, is to put
the birds into a room deeply littered with straw,
amongst which some wheat is scattered ; a week
or two of this will clean them up a great deal,
and still preserve the natural oil, the loss of
which is the great objection to washing rich
coloured birds. Even buffs may often be suffi-
ciently cleaned in this way, especially when from
country runs ; nay, we sometimes see pure whites,
reared far from city smoke, which are all that
can be desired, though evidently unwashed. The
owner must judge about this ; but as a rule
white fowls, and other light colours like buff, do
require washing all over.

Before washing birds of his own, a novice
will do well, if possible, to get 2i practical lesson,
otherwise he will be slow to grasp the very

thorough character of the process.
Washing This thoroughness is the secret of

Fowls. success, and most people fail in their

early efforts because too nervous or
squeamish about damaging the feathers. It is
little or no use just to sponge down the outside
plumage. At least one large oval tub, not much
short of a foot deep for large fowls, must be
provided, and unless there be facility for rapidly
emptying and renewing the water twice, it is
better to have three at once. Anyhow, plenty
of hot water must be at command. Also provide
a basinful of soap solution, such as washer-
women use, made by cutting up some good soap
into thin slices and dissolving in hot water into
almost a thin melted jelly. There is also wanted
a good compact sponge, rather soft and just as
large as the hand can squeeze easily, and some
soft dry towels. In commencing operations the
feet and legs should be washed first, and separ-
ately. Then the tub is filled about two-thirds
with water about the heat of an ordinary hot
bath, and the bird stood in this ; it should be at
least deep enough to come well up about the
body, and if when the fowl is pushed down it

Ji6

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

covers the back, all the better. The first thing
of all is to be sure that the bird is thoroughly
drenched to the skin ; just dipping in does not
do this. The plumage must be parted and worked
about with the bare hand under the water, or
the sponge, till every feather is soaked to the
root. Then we begin with the soap, taking some
up with the sponge, and thoroughly rubbing it
into the fowl, one place at a time. It is to be a
thorough good rubbing, all sorts of ways, except
that we would not go straight against the lie of
the feather, though we doubt if even that would
do much damage. But down, and across to and
fro, and energetically too, with the idea always
of getting down to the skin ; keeping on at one
part till more dirt ceases to come off. There is
really no danger at this stage, and no difficulty
provided the operator is not afraid to do his
work, and sticks to the one point that he has got
to get his bird clean. About the breast it is
necessary to rub almost up and down, which is
best done with the bare hand ; indeed, we have
seen a bird well washed with hands alone, not
using a sponge at all. The fluff also requires
the hand, well worked about. Some use a brush
to scrub, but this is not free from risk ; not to
the feather as a whole, but to the proper webbing
afterwards ; several times we have seen birds
scrubbed with a brush, which did not seem to
web smoothly when dry, and believe that the
bristles brush out or off some of the tiny micro-
scopic barbules which hold the web together.
One very good washer we knew used chiefly a
sponge wrapped in flannel, especially for the
secondaries of the wings, and the tails : the
slight roughness, he said, brought the dirt off
well. It is best to wash the head last, in our
opinion, for the simple reason that most fowls
stand quietly till the head is done. This may
be done with a nail brush if preferred, in that
case only working it down the hackle of the
head, but the late Mr. Elijah Smith, one of the
best exhibitors of White Cochins, used to take
the head between the palms of both hands, with
soap, and wash it like a ball, using nothing
else.

Here ends the first stage, on which most of
all depends ; for if the bird is not clean now,
it cannot be so later on. It may be worth
remarking that if a fowl has to be left for a
minute to get anything, and there be no assist-
ant, the wet sponge laid across its back, between
the wings, will generally keep it quite quiet,
believing it is being held. Sometimes a heavy
patient will appear faint in the hot water, or
even go dark in comb as if about to die; in that
case a good douche of cold water should at once
be given, which will bring it round, and it is

curious that it never, or hardly ever, faints a
second time. The soap is now as far as possible
sponged out in the bath (which is, however, itself
very soapy by this time), and the fluid also pressed
out by hand, after which the bird is placed in
another bath of clean warm water, and most
thoroughly rinsed. This is the second import-
ant point— to be sure the soap is all really
rinsed out, in default of which the plumage
clogs, and does not web nicely. This water will
of course do for washing the next bird. Pressing
out the slightly soapy water also with the hands,
the bird is finally to be transferred to a third
tub, and again rinsed, rather quickly but thor-
oughly, in cold -waiGT, which closes the pores and
prevents it taking cold. In the case of white
fowls, it is advisable to put a very little blue in
this final water ; not of course enough to look
the least blue when finished, but just a trace,
which adds considerably to the brilliance of a
white bird.

The washed and rinsed bird is now to be
taken out upon a table or board, and the water
got as far as possible out of it with the sponge
squeezed dry. Many prefer to
Drying Fowls dry still further with dry towels ;
after Washing, personally we prefer only to dry
the head, wipe down the neck, and
just sop up the rest. Anything at this stage
should be done the way of the feather. The
bird is now to be transferred to a drying cage or
box before a good but not fierce fire. A large
box open on one side to the fire, and open or
with a lid on the top, is best, or an exhibition
hamper just large enough, unlined, may be
stood in such a box. Considerable care is
required at this stage, as the bird must be turned
round from time to time, the wettest part to the
fire, and not exposed to a strong heat, which is
apt to blister the face, and will almost certainly
warp and twist the hackle and other feathers.
If room is scanty in front of the fire, its glare
should be shielded from the birds by a screen of
coarse linen ; what is wanted is a strong glow of
dry warmth, not a fierce heat, and for the bird,
in its basket or without, to be turned about with
the wettest parts to the warmest side, so long
as any evident wet remains. This may mean
hours of labour with a team of birds washed in
due succession ; one or two, of course, are done
with sooner. Be it few or many, however, this
final care is the third of the secrets in good
washing ; and when the birds are nearly dry but
still perceptibly damp, they should be placed in
lined exhibition baskets, in a warm but not hot
place, to finally dry out. The object of this is
to have the final drying in a slightly moist or
steamy atmosphere, somewhat confined by the

MOULTING OF PRIZE POULTRY.

217

lining; in such atmosphere experience shows
that the plumage webs again best of all.

Rain or soft water should always be used for
washing poultry, and really good mild soap, not
a coarse alkaline quality. White fowls of loose
plumage like Cochins may be shown next day
if necessary, and we know that Mr. Elijah Smith
on one occasion washed his birds in the morning,
took them a few miles to the first railway
junction (where he had in those early days
several hours to wait), and dried them on the
floor before the waiting-room fire ! But the
birds should, if possible, have at least a day to
preen themselves and get the plumage in order
in their own way ; also, if anything is not
properly done there is time to put it right.
We would prefer two or three days, and they
will keep perfectly clean if the pen has plenty
of chaff as above advised, and the droppings are
frequently removed. Another reason for a little
time to spare, is that often slight Irxity of the
bowels may follow for a day or two. The reason
for this, we believe, is either soap being swallowed
or a slight chill ; usually the latter, which might
probably be prevented by five or six drops of
essence of camphor on a bolus of meal first
thing next morning, and taking care that they
are not put direct from the warm drying basket
into a cold pen. They should always be
watched, and fed carefully the following day,
food in the least sloppy being especially avoided.
Management of adult fowls for exhibition
resolves itself mainly into care of the plumage
for the summer shows, good moulting for the

winter ones, and the attainment of
Adult Fowls a proper amount of flesh. While
for Exhibition, chickens can be fed freely at all

times, older fowls so treated would
be fat and useless for stock ; to be useful they
are best kept considerably more spare than the
most effective show condition. Hence actual
breeding stock often requires perceptible feeding
up before it can be considered in show trim.
It is better by far to treat them thus, than to
keep them in such condition for long periods,
especially if of the larger breeds ; and this is
one of the reasons why old fowls of such breeds
do not stand continuous showing. Here again,
however, constant and ample green food is the
greatest help and preservative. Most of the
extra feeding should be given whilst still on the
runs, and adult fowls which have had any expe-
rience will require less time in the training pen,
a very few days being usually sufficient. What
has been said already regarding gloss of feather,
and colour of combs and lobes, will apply to
them also.

Great care of their plumage is needed for

summer competition. The hens may require
seclusion from the cock during most of the day,
and when serious breeding is over, are better
taken away altogether. The male bird should,
however, have a couple or more common hens
left with him till about the end of June, during
morning and evening ; deprived altogether, he
often becomes listless and dispirited. Both sexes
should be shielded from hot sun, which bleaches
or tans the plumage, and makes it brittle. If
hens become broody, their management as to
being allowed to sit a little, or turned off the
nest at once, will have to be considered in con-
nection with the date when they may be wanted,
and how far the season is advanced, as any time
after the early part of July it may possibly bring
on a moult.

A fairly quick and good moult is the chief
thing to aim at in regard to the later shows, and
the fact just mentioned is of value in regard to
hens. These should always beallowed
Moulting ^ f^'"" nieasure of rest in the summer,

Exhibition for if they are not, the mere want of
Stock. strength thus caused may prevent

their moulting quickly and well ;
but should any become broody after the first
week in July, to allow them to sit for a month
and then turn them off will often result in the
casting of the feathers almost together, and the
rapid growth of the new coat whilst the weather
is still warm. This is the sort of moult a breeder
likes. Much depends upon the date of hatching,
and the experienced breeder lays his plans
greatly in reference to this. Chickens hatched
late in March and through April, and well cared
for, may be expected to moult well and fairly
early all their lives ; but late hatched birds are
apt to be late in moult, and on the other hand
pullets hatched very early, too often lay very
early and moult in their very first season, but
late in the autumn. When this happens, the
time of the bird's future moults is frequently
upset for life, but not always.

Valued specimens, then, should be prepared
beforehand for a good moult, by giving the hens
rest when occasion offers, and separating the
male birds for a reasonable time ; but not over-
doing this last, as already remarked. Their con-
dition should also be carefully examined, with
a view to feeding up, as already hinted in
Chapter III. They need e.xtra food and sup-
port through this period, but if already on the
fleshy side, this might be disastrous ; therefore
take special care that they are in full vigour, but
not in the least fleshy, and ready for the system
of feeding there described. If they seem to re-
quire it, the tonic powder No. 3, page 199, may
often be given with benefit, and if they are to be

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

exhibited soon after, the stewed linseed for
giving gloss should not be forgotten. Gloss is
best promoted in moulting birds by keeping
them in pens not exposed to full light, and giv-
ing linseed judiciously with carbonate of iron
(unless given in the above tonic, which will
suffice) to all except white or buff fowls, and
sulphur as alreadj- mentioned. The effect of
partial shade upon gloss is not understood,
but is very real; and extreme green glos=, as
desired in Langshans, Black Hamburghi and
other breeds, cannot be attained without it.

In spite of all, valuable birds may " hang " in
the moult, or have difficult}- in growing the new
plumage. A verj- usual cause of this is insect
vermin, which wide experience shows to take a

larger and larger place as the real
Vermin and cause of many poultr\' ailments.
Moult Pains should therefore be taken to

ensure that the birds are entirely
free before moulting and during the process.
The skin is naturally in an irritable and feverish
condition, and anj-thing of this sort is more felt
than at any other time, while the young feathers
are particularly liable to be attacked, and thus
prevented from growing out properly. This
cause of bad moulting was little known at one
time, when a drj- dust bath was freely allowed
to exhibition poultry ; but too often this is now
discarded — more's the pity — for insect powder,
petroleum washes, and other devices, and unless
these are sedulously kept up, the birds suffer.
Indeed, we have strong doubts whether they do
not suffer even then, the friction of the dust
bath being doubtless needed to cleanse the
scurf-skin, as well as to destroy the parasites.
Be tliis as it may, we do know that insect
vermin as a cause of bad moulting has greatly
increased since the new order of things.

Where moult seems to delay unaccountably,
or to stand still after just a beginning, a change
of temperature is generallj- a remedy. If the
bird has been in a warm house, and it is not too
cold, it may be placed in a cool one for a week
or two ; or, more commonly, it may be taken up
and confined in a warm house. If with this
change of abode there be coupled some sun-
flower-seed— about half the last feed of grain
daily — the process will often be started satisfac-
torily. Hemp-seed has been used for the same
purpose, but sunflower-seed is much better and
more strengthening.

The shanks also may need attention at
moulting time. Most fowls moult the scales on
the shanks as well as the feathers on their
bodies, and all are probably intended to do
so. There seem to be exceptions, however,
emd in cases where the appearance or colour

suffers from the persistence of old, dr}-, and horny
scales, it is well to assist nature, which can usually
be done. If such an old scale be nipped be-
tween the thumb-nails, it can usually
Moulting t)e removed, and when the required

of the action has been thus understood,

Shanks. ^j^g breeder will find no diflficultv- in

selecting at any surgical cutler's a
pair of tweezers or small forceps which will do
the work better and more quickly. Birds are
often seen in a pen in their old scales, which
might easily have been removed in this way, to
their great benefit in appearance. We also be-
lieve that leaving on these old and somewhat
loosened scales is a great predisposing cause to
the lodgment beneath of the little mite which
causes scaly leg.

In regard to training and washing, nothing
need be added to what was said above. Experi-
enced old birds often need hardly any training
or penning at all, so far as their manners are
concerned ; they have gone through the mill
already, and know all about it ; but penning is
in most cases useful for cleaning purposes also,
as before indicated. Special care should however
be taken in feeding them up to the proper
degree, any extra feed being given steadily and
uniformly up to the desired point, not all piled
on during a week or two. Though given more,
appetite must still be carefully preserved. Large
Asiatics need peculiar care to guard against
over-fattening for exhibition, as they are wanted
to look large and massive, whilst any approach
to lazy torpiditj- must be eschewed. Here malt
dust and ample green food are valuable aids,
and an occasional lo grains of citrate of potash
will often clear the blood and pick a bird up if
he seems to be getting dull and laz}'. Underdone
meat chopped small, and a little toast soaked in
strong old ale, will also help to impart spirit
to an old bird.

The final preparation before sending off will
be ver}- little, if the cleaning of the shanks and
heads was done, as it should be, when putting
into the pens. If not, it must of
The Final course be done now ; and in many
Preparation, cases where birds have been pre-
pared and already shown recently,
and have been refreshed betiveen by a small
grass run carefully kept, nothing more may be
needed than to take them up and again cleanse
the head and feet ; they will not have forgotten
their previous training. Where the birds have
been treated already, however, and then penned
upon a floor of grit and clean chaff, the shanks
will now only need wiping over, after which dark
legs may be greased with olive oil, but to be wiped
as free of it as possible. The face and comb, if

FINAL PREPARATION FOR EXHIBITION.

2ig

bright, also only need sponging over ; but some-
times a tooth brush brings the colour out better.
After that most exhibitors apply something to
the red parts ; some using salad oil, others vine-
gar, or vinegar and water, others cocoanut oil
and turmeric. Vinegar is very apt to blister a
newly washed comb, and we see many at
every show thus disfigured ; moreover, though
it brightens at first, the comb is apt to go dark
ten or twelve hours later. Dilute vinegar is
safer, and suits some birds very well, but the
best thing for most is plain oil, applied by a bit
of soft sponge. Whatever it is should be wiped
off as dry as possible. A white lobe must on no
account be greased or scrubbed, but gently
gone over with a sponge, as gently dried

Fig. S3,— Exhibition Hamper.

thoroughly, and when dry puffed with oxide
of zinc, this too being carefully and softly
rubbed off again as far as possible ; the object
is to dry and soften the skin, not to stain
it, and white powder found on it would amount
to artificial colouring. Finally the fowl is looked
over, any broken or bent body feather removed,
and the whole bird groomed over with an Indian
silk handkerchief or, failing that, the bare hand.
A common handkerchief is useless, but even the
hand, and still more a good silk handkerchief,
perceptibly increases the polish or gloss of the
plumage, so much so that we have thought it
might pay to thus groom a bird every day. It
is then ready to be placed in the basket. We
always did this at night, when it was done
peacefully and quietly; and preferred night
trains where possible, as usually going through
more quickly, but the birds are easily fed, if
necessary, in the morning. For the last feed,
wheat steeped in hot water, in moderation, is as

good as anything. The straw in the baskets,
for single birds, should be well bruised till
soft, put ii< deep, and so hollowed out, or deep-
ened in the centre, as to keep the bird there
and avoid danger to the tail.

The basket or hamper for a single fowl is a
survival of the fittest, and is shown in Fig. 83.
The wicker is only a skeleton, lined with coarse
linen or calico, or any other cheap
Exhibition material can be used. For very
Hampers. severe climates thicker material, or
a double lining, will give more pro-
tection on a long journey. The cover should
always be hinged in the middle, and is fastened
down with string, or soft wire, or sometimes
(when not meant for sale) a strap and buckle.
Many exhibitors add in the lining a pocket for
the expected prize-card. For a large cockerel
the proper size is about twenty-two inches dia-
meter and twenty-si.x inches high, other birds in
proportion. Regular exhibitors largely employ
baskets r.:ade with several compartments, the
freight of which comes cheaper. In such cases
special care must be taken that each is placed
in the compartment under its proper label ;
every show, almost, presenting e.xamples of
mis-penning due to carelessness in this matter.
As a rule, the birds will not require any
special treatment after return from exhibition,
but should be taken from the basket and given a
moderate feed of soft food, also a
Treatment moderate drink, and then placed in
after the training pen for the night, or the

Exhibition. i-est of the day and the night, feed-
ing again before night if necessary.
For every one should be most carefully looked
over before putting back in the run, lest any
complaint may have been contracted at the show ;
and if the owner happens to know that it has
been close to the pen of a diseased bird, a
quarantine of a few days may save much trouble.
This is only given as a caution, and not a scare,
for such mischief seldom follows. If the state
of the bowels warrants it, the sooner some
chopped green food is given the better, but here
judgment should be used, according to any
symptoms. Evident constipation and feverish-
ness maybe the better for 15 to 30 grains of
Epsom salts. If a bird seems quite done up, a
tablespoonful of port wine the last thing at night
will often give a good sleep and work wonders.
More can hardly be needed except after over-
showing ; but fine specimens are shown by some
people till they are regularly broken down, and
we have often been disgusted to see a once
magnificent cock who literally could not stand
in his pen. This kind of unbridled competition,
from merely sordid motives, is simply sickening,

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

and there is too much of it in certain circles.
If a bird comes home apparently done up, <\x on
tlie verge of such a breakdown, give it at once
one of Henson's cuca pellets, or a third of a
teaspoonful of the same chemist's fluid cuca, or
a teaspoonful of Hall's coca wine, and another in
the evening or after three hours. Cuca extract
is much used by cyclists, and (in reason) we know
it by experience to be a wonderful nerve restora-
tive ; but to go on with it, keeping up the strain
continuously, and trying to remedy the effects
by resort to drugs, means even worse ruin in the
end. The only real remedy is rest.

After a crowded show, it is safer in winter to
shut birds up in a dry shed for a day before
allowing them out, to harden them a little
towards the open air. It should be needless to
repeat that a cockerel once taken away and
shown cannot be returned to his old companions
without a fight ; and such a fight under the
circumstances involves considerable danger of
apoplexy, the bird having been highly fed and
in exciting surroundings. We have personally
known three cases in which birds thus care-
lessly treated have dropped down dead,
almost before a blow had been really struck
on either side.

Some exhibitors who reduce showing to a
regular business system, differ much as to the
manner in which they make it pay. To get any
remunerative sale at all for prize
Profit and Loss Stock, the owner must show him-
of self capable of taking fair rank in

Exhibition. the exhibition ring; but it is
sufficient for this if honours are
consistently taken at the few great shows of the
year. Many of the more genuine amateurs
confine themselves to these, which do not over-
task their best breeding birds, and are quite
sufficient to keep up their reputation. Beginners
generally try first in easier competition, and
there are plenty of second class but still good
class shows, at which a few wins gradually get a
new name recognised. But there are a distinct
class who buy to exhibit, and exhibit the bought
stock constantly, reckoning to get their money
back out of birds before they have used them
up, and at the same time keep their names
before the public. The increase of these regular
circuit-goers during late years has very much
affected the poultry fancy and exhibition matters
generally. These men have vast experience, can
appraise their birds as well as any judge, and
rarely waste entry fees. Some of them act as
judges in turn, which at times provokes scandal.
A certain number of them make exhibiting itself

pay well, often picking up first class birds
cheaply at out of the way shows, in their visits
to nearly all ; and to some extent arranging in
concert where they shall appear, and forming a
sort of inner circle of their own.

The majority of skilled breeder-exhibitors
probably about make their prizes pay entry fees
and carriage. That more is almost impossible,
may be seen at once on comparing the average
sum given in prizes to a class, with the fees and
average freight charges added up of the entries
in that class. But it pays in countless other
ways — by promoting sales, by keeping up personal
connection, by constantly keeping the eye and
judgment in training, and by opening the way
to advantageous purchases and sales. Many of
the best sales are made personally at the shows.
The novice cannot hope at first to clear his
expenses. But he may reduce these by training
his own critical faculty, and sending only the
pick of his best birds, in good condition, till he
feels his feet and finds his place. Notwithstand-
ing what is said above as to the " inner circle "
and all the rest of it, the field is as open as ever
to real merit, and upon the whole this gets fair
play. If certain exhibitors do appear at times
to "sweep the deck "to an extent almost for-
bidding, it is to be remembered that they have
often bought their champions at very high prices
indeed, and thus make much of his market for
the breeding exhibitor, who would not like to
lose those high prices, which only winning enables
them to pay. It is quite a complicated system
now, and not free from evils ; but we still on
many occasions see the honours fall to pre-
viously unknown exhibitors with new birds.

The exhibition value of birds bought mainly
for exhibition, depends on circumstances, as well
as upon the real quality. Some varieties have
a class of their own at every decent
Exhibition show, while others, even of the same
Value. major breed, will often have to go

under " any other colour," into one
mixed class besides the leading one. There are
breeds, like Hamburghs, where all varieties often
compete together at the smaller shows. And
there are breeds — even old recognised breeds
like Spanish, Malays, Polish, or Scotch Greys —
which have now at most exhibitions no separate
class, but compete in that for "Any other
Variety." This great inequality in the chances
of a prize considerably affects the exhibition
value. It is useless to more than hint at
these points ; but the hints may serve to show
how much has to be considered and learnt before
investing heavily in this line of business.

CHAPTER XIV.

SHOWS. JUDGING. TRIMMING. TECHNICAL TERMS.

THERE is no need at this date to enter
minutely into the details of show man-
agement ; but a few points in which im-
provement is still often desirable ought to be
mentioned. Penning and feeding are generally
contracted for now, and many old errors are
corrected ; but we are bound to say that cleanli-
ness does not seem nearly so well secured now
at the great shows as formerly. In the 'sixties
it was usual to cover the floors with chaff,
which kept the plumage clean ; but the birds
were at that time generally fed on grain, and
the absence of grit was prejudicial to health.
Grit is now substituted at most shows, but with
nothing else, and the birds too often become
filthy. A very small quantity of
Cleanlinesa. grit is required, and if this were
covered with chaff, as we have
indicated for the training pens, the inmates
would be kept in perfect health and cleanliness
so far as flooring was concerned. This is not
too much to ask of a show committee ; but we
have attended one of the largest shows of the
year where the pens were not even cleansed
daily. We have seen still worse effects, though
fortunately this is more occasional, from gaps
carelessly left between the boards which, in most
shows, have to form the roof of the lower and
floor of the upper tier ; the filth from the upper
will descend upon the occupant of the lower pen,
with results too well known to many an exhibitor.
Usually a wash when the bird gets home will
remedy matters ; but we have seen cases, at the
Crystal Palace itself, where copious discharges
from above have corroded the plumage so as to
absolutely ruin birds for the rest of the season.
We are not sure a committee, and through them
the contractors, might not be made liable for
damages in a case of this sort, since such evils
would be absolutely prevented by the simple
e.xpedient of half-lapped or match-boarding.

Feeding is much improved compared with
early practice, and at least one feed a day of soft
food is generally given. Still there is room for
improvement, this being usually biscuit meal,
often scarcely moistened. It is very mucl\
better, though rarely done, to mi.x a certain

portion of barley meal or oatmeal or ground
oats with it, and mix it properly, so that it can
be eaten comfortably without all falling to dry

meal on the floor. It is also still
Feeding the usual custom to fill the water

at Shows. tins for the birds on arrival, which

they will often drink entirely, to
their serious injury ; in particular such thirsty
drinking has a uniform tendency to darken, it
may be to almost blacken, the combs. A third
full is quite enough for the first drinking. The
whole grain — wheat is best — is much better
supplied in two small feeds than one large
one, and gives the birds some e.xercise and
occupation if well scattered about the pen, as
it should be, not just thrown down.

We hardly know a show yet where green or
fresh vegetable food is given. It would be much
better if it were, and really very easily managed
by such firms as do the contracting now, by
slicing up roots into small dice in a hopper
machine, and giving a sprinkle to each pen.
This is almost the only thing worth fussing
about by an exhibitor personally. Should he
be attending the show, it is well worth while to
take in some lettuces daily for his pets, and a
little chopped meat will not come amiss if they
have been used to high diet ; but it is worse than
useless to fuss about mere food, as some seem to
do, apparently anxious lest their birds get
enough. They may rest assured that they are
far more likely to be overfed than underfed,
while they are much better underfed than over-
fed ; only such extras as mentioned, which are
probably missed, are worth attending to if
occasion serves.

The most important point in some respects
of good show management, absolute fair play to
all, is unfortunately lacking at many shows,

particularly in regard to allowing
Unfair exhibitors or their men to pen their

Privileges. q^^,, birds. This manifestly gives

such birds a considerable advantage,
since — to take only one point — their heads and
combs can be " freshened up " at the very last
moment. These men very often make large
entries, and are well known personally through a

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

large circle all over the country, and it is easy to
see how strong is the personal pressure in favour
of granting such advantages. But they are dis-
tinctly unjust to such as have to trust their
specimens to railway and show officials ; and
there are, moreover, occasionally distressing
cases of malicious injury to formidable exhibits
sent unprotected, which can hardly be due to
any other than some of the parties thus illegiti-
mately admitted. Things are not as they have
been painted by some for reasons of their own,
and supposed by others to account for their own
want of success ; but unbridled rivalry and the
business interests at stake in some quarters are
the greatest curses of the poultry fancy, and such
admissions and favours present too many oppor-
tunities of several kinds to just the class which
it is most undesirable should have them.

The same rule should be applied to packing
birds when the show is over ; and for the same
reasons constant supervision over every alley or
promenade in the exhibition should be main-
tained. This ought to be a travelling or
peripatetic supervision, if only to see to the
prompt removal and breakage of eggs laid ; if
they are long left in the pen, breakage is sure to
occur there, and the bird may acquire the habit
of egg-eating. It is also necessary to prevent
unauthorised meddling with exhibits, which in
the exhibitor's absence have an absolute right to
be protected from all rival exhibitors, so far as
their private capacity extends. On the contrary,
we often see birds allowed to be taken out of
their pens by rival exhibitors, quite unchecked,
at even first-class exhibitions. This is simply
disgraceful, and must damage the plumage, if
nothing else, for which reason it is no doubt
often done. If any fraud is suspected, it is
right and necessary for the matter to be in-
vestigated ; but this should only be upon due
protest, with caution money,* and in the pres-
ence and with the sanction of ofiicers and
judges — at least one of each. We have actually
known an exhibitor, on his own mere motion
and responsibility, take out a buff bird belonging
to a rival in the same class, and apply what he
presumed to consider a "chemical test" to the
plumage, a test which was worthless as such, but
which dyed the plumage afterwards !

A point merely of good management, but
which is too often neglected, is the sending
notice of all sales of pens exhibited, at farthest
the same evening on which the show closes.

* At the best English shows it is usual to require a guinea
with any protest on the ground of fraud, which is not returned if
the piotest be decided to be frivolous and unjustifiable, as some
are. The fee is of course returned, if either the protest be sus-
tained, or even if not sustained, if the authorities consider there
was fair, frimi facie, o: plausible ground for it.

Neglect of this causes endless anxiety when
the sold pens fail to arrive along with the
others. Where a show lasts more than two
days, notice ought to be posted every evening
of sales made during the day.

At Birmingham a list of sales is posted out-
side the office, and also the awards as handed in
by the judges from time to time. Whenever
the public are admitted during the
Notice of judging, or on the first day at any

Sales and time, this prompt posting up of the
Awards. awards, from which exhibitors can

mark their blank catalogues, and
the prompt posting of the cards upon the pens
themselves, is of the greatest importance, but
not always attended to as it should be ; at the
largest show of the year we have on some occa-
sions known many awards not to be obtainable
even at nightfall, though handed in long before.
The question concerning what is called
"open judging" will lead naturally to the ne.xt
section of this chapter. All exhibitions of poul-
try were at one time privately
Open judged; but the public judging of

Judging. cattle and horses doubtless started

the other idea, and Birmingham first
began the system, since carried out at most of
the larger and some even of the smaller British
shows, of admitting the public at an enhanced
fee "to witness the judging." The judges them-
selves at first much objected to the new method,
but experience has endorsed it, especially as a
check upon the unauthorised influence of large
and habitual exhibitors, as above alluded to.
When we say that we have ourselves seen, at the
chief show of the year, a large exhibitor acting
practically as " steward " (or manual assistant)
to one of the judges, and that this would not
have been seen except for the " open judging,"
solid reasons for the system will appear. Of
course the class which is actually being judged
is always temporarily fenced off from the public,
who can only watch the proceedings from the
ends of the alley or from adjoining alleys, and
the judge is not impeded, though his proceedings
and method of work are under review. What
the public really care most about, however, is the
earlier knowledge thus possible of the principal
avtards, in advance of the published prize list,
and which to some of them may be of consider-
able importance. The higher fee for admission
also ensures a less crowded and more quiet exam-
ination ; and for all these various reasons " open
judging " is likely to remain an institution at
the large shows. Except under such equitable
conditions, open to all alike, exhibitors ought
to be most rigidly excluded previous to the
admission of the general public.

EARLY POULTRY JUDGLNG.

223

Good and upright judging is the greatest
object to be desired at all competitive exhibi-
tions. In poultry judging very great changes
in method and practice have taken place since
the first edition of the Illustrated Book of Poultry.
At first it was customary to exhibit a cock and
three hens, and after that the rule was a cock
and two hens, known as a " pen " of birds. As
a pen rarely contained the best in all its inmates,
this made judging complicated, and often
questionable. For years after that, when the
males were separated, a pair of hens or pullets
were shown together, and we often find ourselves
still regretting this, as a better test of the
breeder's skill ; though on the whole single
birds are better, both for the exhibitor, and in
making the judge's task so far simple and clear.
The early system of judging differed
Changes of entirely from that known to the
Method present generation of exhibitors.

In Judging. ^t the time we speak of, two or
even three judges always acted in
concert, and excepting one or two of the very
largest, usually made all the awards through
the entire show, in all classes alike, often
arbitrating upon as many as a thousand
pens. This system was only possible on
account of the little general skill in breeding
at that date, which made a few good pens stand
out so clearly from the rest as to be selected
with far greater celerity and ease. Even pens
worthy of being " highly commended " were
scarce in those days, so that at a large show
even such cards had a considerable money value
in selling stock ; and it was easy for any judge
then to judge more than double the number of
pens he could possibly manage now. The
gradual increase of birds of real merit made
necessary the suggestion of an extra grade,
originally due to us and now everywhere adopted,
of " v.'iry highly commended " cards, of which it
is understood that such a card, however freely
bestowed, should be restricted to specimens not
unworthy of a prize in a good class, but for which
prizes are not available. Since then a yet higher
grade has been invented, in a " reserve " card,
ranking next after the actual prize list, and
which also has conveniences should any prize
bird be disqualified after judging. At the Crystal
Palace show as many as ten actual prizes are
sometimes given in a few of the principal classes,
and there will be " very highly commended "
specimens outside even of these. Such great
changes in the very conditions of competition,
which many of the younger generation can
scarcely realise, may make clearer how it was
that one or two pairs of judges could at that
early period perform with more or less efficiency

a task which no judge whatever would dream of
attempting to-day.

But another reason was the entire absence of
public criticism, and therefore of any due sense
of responsibility. Even the nominal responsi-
bility was joint or corporate ; and if
Evils of the anyone protested, with evidently
Early System, much reason, against some award,
Jorkins said it was Spenlow's fault,
and Spenlow said it was Jorkins's. This was
convenient, and created in both an indifference
to dissatisfaction which at times was almost
lordly in its grandeur, since there was absolutely
no check upon it. The prize list, and one or two
lines (from one of the judges) as to whether a
class was good or poor, or some particular pen
" very fine," was all that appeared in the one
or two journals which gave even so much to
poultry shows ; of independent skilled criticism
there was none. The evils resulting from all
this had become manifest, and led us from the
first, as soon as able to exert any influence in
such matters, on the one hand to advocate single
judging, each judge being solely responsible for
his own awards and those only; and on the
other to endeavour to show by actual example
what intelligent criticism of exhibits and awards,
so detailed as to be capable of being itself judged
in the light of day, might and ought to be.*
The first innovation we felt would halve the
work and double the efficiency of the judging
staff; the other must in time enforce a more

* Our critical notes upon a few of the principal shows in the
Journal of Horticidtiire {then the only British poultry organ)
for several years previous to 1S74, were the first and only ones
attempted up to that time. They were then succeeded by
similar ones over a wider area in the Live Stock Journal and
Fancier's Gazette, which was for years, and while under our
direction, the leading poultry organ in Great Britain. In these
we still shared, but aided by a staff trained as far as possible to
follow the same system, the essence of which was not to pro-
nounce mere dogmatic opinion, but to give details and reasons,
above all whenever any award was seriously questioned. Thus
was commenced that metho'd of show reporting in England,
without which the present vast exhibition system would speedily
languish, and whose present scale may be judged from the fact
that a current issue of The Feathered World contains reporis
of 35 shows, occupying 63 large columns of small type. Our
own reports testify that in every case we gave detailed reasons
for any opinion expressed, but that on no occasion is there a
word to indicate that any exhibit of our own ought to have
stood any higher than it did. It can be stated now without
offence, tliat this is no small boast. The fact will seem strange
to-diy, when no judge dreams of resenting criticism that is part
of the accepted scheme of things ; but it is a fact, that in those
earlier years they did — especially the two of them who judged
the greater number of shows at that time — fiercely resent having
their long unquestioned infallibility called in question ; and as
soQn as our personal share in it became known, they taught us
effectually that it v. as absolutely necessary either to cease from
our criticisms, or from telling the truth, or from exhibiting under
them. There were other reasons, including heavy pressure of
work ; but that was the main reason which drove us out of
breeding poultry for exhibition. That the price had to be paid
is some measure of the work that had to he done in those days,
and of the necessity for doing it.

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

serious sense of obligation and duty. Both
expectations have been realised, and have
gradually worked a revolution in this depart-
ment of poultry exhibition.

Though the gain has been great upon the
whole, however, it would be a mistake to sup-
pose it an unmi.xed gain. It is all gain to have

an adequate number of judges —
Evils 01 the forty, acting singly, were employed
Modem at a recent Crystal Palace Show —

System. ^vho can therefore take adequate

time. It is great pain to know that
any considerable miscarriage in the awards is
pretty sure to be detected by the skilled
reporters of the poultry press. But the very
number of arbitrators now required, and the
necessity imposed by fiercer competition that
many varieties should be judged by those who
possess a breeder's knowledge of them, and the
far greater number of shows, have introduced
some evils of their own. A large portion of
the judges are necessarily now drawn from
the ranks of exhibitors themselves, and this has
had a perceptible tendency towards the creation
of certain circles, or " swims " as they might be
called, whose members work in with one another,
and reciprocate favours. We have seen too
evident signs of this, especially in certain Mid-
land and Northern districts of England ; and
there are one or two judges to-day, of un-
doubted ability, who have never gained a good
reputation. As regards the larger shows, grave
miscarriages are kept in check by the press,
whose vigilance holds minor matters also
under control ; but such vigilance has certainly
been required, and cases of muti:al favour do
undoubtedly occur. The old school of judges
were most certainly not above showing personal
resentment, as we too often had occasion to
know,* but they were mostly far above mutual

* After we had personally ceased to compete at shows, as
stated in a previous note, one of the most valued members of
our staff was compelled on one occasion to take serious objec-
tion loan award, the judge having himself sold the birds to the
exhibitor, which occasionally happened even in those days. He
consulted us over the pen, and we have not the slightest hesita-
tion in saying that his strictures were both perfectly legitimate
and imperatively called for, while he was not himself exhibiting
at all on that occasion. For a year afterwards that reporter was
treated unmercifully as we had been, though confessedly the
most eminent breeder of the day ; and the judge concerned
carried his almost constant colleague with him in the same
course. After about a year of it, the reporter at last went up
boldly to the judge and said, ' Mr. * *, don't you think you

have about taken it out of me for that report of mine?"

The judge laughed, simply replied "Nonsense," and turned
away. But the appeal was successful, and the next show at
which he appeared found our reporting friend once more in his
accustomed place, somewhere near the top of the tree. This
judge was a very large seller of the stock he judged — as bad a
case as any now, though such was then decidedly the exception.
Both parties are long since dead, and this statement can now
barm no cue.

" understandings," doing their work chiefly for
the love of it, or for the prominence it gave
them. There has also been evident of late a
kind of competition for public favour amongst
some who act as judges, not altogether pleasant
to a disinterested onlooksr ; evident attempts to
pose a? possessors of superior knowledge, or of
greater honesty of purpose and zeal for purity,
at the expense of others whose uprightness and
capacity are quite as great. It is well to open
one's eyes to all these things, and amongst new
conditions to seek for the highest ideals of the
older school, so far as those were good. But
upon the whole modern poultry judging, carried
out as it is by an adequate staff of practical men,
under the vigilant eyes of a whole staff of
skilled critics, is better and more consistent
than the old, and any clear miscarriage is sure
to be canvassed in the poultry press, which in
the long run ensures that justice is done.

This naturally leads to a few words upon
press criticism, or show reporting, which needs
quite as much care to keep it up to a high
standard as judging itself The
Press Criticism question of anonymous or signed
or reports has been much discussed

Reporting. ^^ times, but it is hardly worth

discussing. A journal of repute,
with adequate means behind it, makes itself
responsible for its unsigned reports ; and when
the character of its conductors is known, that of
itself is the best guarantee. On the other hand,
sometimes it is an advantage if the criticisms on
some important breed at an important show are
signed by a name of well-known weight, pos-
sibly greater than that of the judge; and there can
be no possible objection to it whenever thought
advisable. On the whole, we think that anony-
mous criticism under editorial responsibility is
the best general rule ; and this opinion is the
result of many years' experience. But the
system cannot be divorced from editorial respon-
sibility; and although the painful necessity only
occurred to us upon two or three occasions in
si.x years, there should not be any hesitation in
acknowledgment and frank repudiation, when-
ever any abuse of a reporter's position has been
fairly proved.

In the early days of critical reports the
judges often (especially at show dinners) used to
scoff bitterly at the presumption of careless
critics who, as they said, in a " skurry through
the classes " assumed to " set right in an hour
what had taken the judges the whole day."
There was here both a misrepresentation and a
misconception. Being present when the above
words were used at Birmingham, we had the
curiosity to make examination at the hands of

SHOW CRITICISM OR REPORTIIVG.

225

the stewards, to find that our rough pencil notes
on the Brahma classes, at that very show, had
occupied us longer time, by a good proportion,
than the two judges had taken over them ! But
a really competent critic is also in a better
position to judge, from the nature of the case.
He has the judge's work prepared for him as a
basis, and in the second place he has a cata-
logue. The latter, with its names, places him
in a position of very great advantage in many
respects, if he really knows the breed and its
chief breeders, as he ought to do. It teaches
him what to look for, in so far that good points
usually shown by a given breeder are not likely
to be overlooked by him. He has no motive for
disagreeing with the judge (apart from any
special cause of jealousy, against which his
editor will of course be constantly on the watch),
but will rather desire to agree with him ; and
with all this help he is really able, if of the right
sort, very often to form the best judgment. It
is not at all that he is personally the better
judge ; on the contrary, if he were the judge and
the other man the reporter, then the latter
would be in the better position, other things
being equal.

So great is this advantage, that we have for
long been inclined to advocate placing cata-
logues in the hands of the judges themselves.
Tranucribing words written so long ago as 1875,
" Whatever may be said as to a good judge being
able to judge a specimen without knowing whose
it is, after many actual experiments made as
fairly as we have been able to make them, we
are more than ever convinced that it is much
easier to form a just estimate of the real merit
of a class when in the full possession of such
particulars as a catalogue affords, than without
them. We feel this so strongly, that often-
times we have felt almost ashamed to find fault
with the work of gentlemen who have had to
decide under such disadvantages." It is, of
course, easy to ask what guarantee there would
be for impartiality under such a frank system,
and it is not easy to reply ; but, on the other
hand, one may ask what guarantee there really
is under the present, beyond the character of the
judges. That these recognise many exhibits
from memory, and are glad to catch at such a
memory as leading to awards which shall at least
appear "consistent," is notorious. That judges
of " shady " character do also get to know the
exhibits of their friends, is equally so ; straws or
chaff in the pens, handfuls of grit, etc., have been
identified as methods of telegraphy. Now the
main evil of this has lain in the fact that the
judge who really did know was supposed — but
only supposed — not to know ; if he was chal-

lenged he affirmed that he knew nothing, and
had done his best honestly, the merely presumed
ignorance being thrown over his collusion as a
shield. If he admittedly knew all the entries,
that excuse would be stopped ; he would have
no defence but the real merits of his award, and
his own interest might compel him to guard
against suspicion of being influenced by mere
names. However, the present point is simply
the vantage ground thus occupied by a really
competent and skilled reviewer of the judge's
awards.

Two points — we write it from long and ample
experience — need constant care, as regards crit-
ical reports: Impartiality and competence. The

principal journals keep a certain
Essentials of staff in their permanent employ,
Good who are quite independent ; but

Criticism. no journal can adequately report the

great number of poultry exhibitions
now, without the additional aid of some who are
themselves exhibitors. Many such make the
very best of reporters, from special knowledge
of their special breeds. But flesh is weak ; and
if anyone upon this outside staff of a journal is
lound stating or hinting in his reports that his
birds, or the birds of those whom it may
gradually be discovered are his friends or col-
leagues, do not get their deserts, or should stand
higher, the position is abused. It is equally
abused if an exhibitor is found bragging of his
commission, or using it to obtain favours from
breeders, or to obtain admission where he has
no business to be, or to handle birds as if the
show belonged to him ; all which things have
happened. A competent and scrupulous re-
porter will always be quiet and modest in
manner and proceedings, and take care to
keep himself on safe ground by procuring
official presence and sanction for any examin-
ation which he deems it his duty to ask for. One
or two ofTences may pass, as the result of inex-
perience or want of consideration, but should
receive notice and caution ; if such a course be
persisted in, a journal that values its reputation
will sever the connection, in discharge of its own
duty and responsibility to the poultry fraternity.
That there are fairly honest and very skilful
critics who yet succumb to such temptations we
know ; that there are some who rise above them,
quite sinking the mere exhibitor in the critic for
the time being, we also know ; and it is a serious
part of the responsibility of a poultry journal to
know the staff, who hold so much of its reputa-
tion in their hands.

Competence or ability also requires sedulous
concern. Many most capable and honourable
critics cannot write genuine "criticism" without

226

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

hints or training, and much that is published
is far from what it ought to be. Unless upon
occasions when his notes are signed, and thereby
carry the weight of his own name, like the
decisions of the judge himself, it is sheer pre-
sumption, almost impertinence, for a reporter
merely to say that an award is wrong, or that
some other bird ought to have received it. We
still see more than enough of this ; but it is only
dogmatism, and not criticism at all. The latter
ought to be so definite and clear that the reader
himself can judge to a great extent of the
question at issue. A judge almost always has
fairly evident reasons for his judgment ; and the
reporter's business, whenever he questions this,
is to discover and state such points, along with
those which in his opinion overrule them.
Often the case may be one on which opinions
are much divided. When no award is question-
ed, much less detail, or even no remark at all,
may be necessary ; but all questions really raised
should be fairly stated, especially in regard to
important classes at an important show. Such
a report upon a class, with such a discussion as
is likely to follow in any important case, may
clear the air and affect breeding operations
through the following year. We have often
seen this the case, and it is another of the
advantages of the modern system of public
criticism.

Taking the whole system as it stands, it
may safely be said that, upon the whole, judging
is very good, so far as the principal exhibitions
are concerned, which very often could not be said
of the irresponsible work of pairs of
Sources of judges as we knew it in 1S65-75.
Present Evils. There must always be some down-
right mistakes, and we fear there
will always be some downright rascality, both in
judging and reporting. It is mainly at smaller
shows, which the most able press reporters do
not attend, where anything in the shape of gross
abuse is practised. It is at such shows that a judge
ventures to give prizes to birds he has just sold,
or even lent from his own yard, or to the friend
who gave liim first prize the other day. It is such
shows as chiefly, in order to save adequate fees,
employ judges of this stamp, who take low fees,
or even act gratis, in order to make their money
in other ways. This class of men and their chief
colleagues and supporters are perfectly well
known, but it is in the absence of publicity that
they carry on their operations, and there is a
class of shows in England which it would be
most desirable to extinguish altogether ; in
default of this, the genuine amateur will do well
to sedulously avoid appearing at them. But at
the majority of important shows the judges are

competent men who know the breeds they under-
take, and who do their best; and these are
checked by the keenest eyes in the exhibition
world, quick to note any evident miscarriage.
Between the two justice is done, and the newest
exhibitor, if he shows a good pen, at any of what
we may call respectable shows, may beat the
veteran of years ; we have seen this happen
often. Transcribing a few lines we wrote in the
first edition of the Illustrated Book of Poultry,
we repeat that " It is not from judges of doubt-
ful integrity that the greatest dangers to the
poultry fancy are likely to arise, but rather from
the reckless and debasing rivalry which, without
either honesty or courage, seeks to win as the
sole object of keeping fowls, and sticks at no
means to accomplish this paltry end."

The method and standard of judging have
been subject to debate for years. It was some
time after poultry exhibitions were established
before there was any standard at all ; individual
judges simply had their own idea of what a
given fowl should be, and selected what they
considered " best " by the light of nature. This
was made possible by the fewer relatively
superior birds of those days. These stood out
and spoke for themselves, and gradually evolved
such type as was recognised, under the few judges
who judged practically all the then existing
shows, and who therefore had matters almost
entirely in their own hands. Their opinion,
gradually crystallised during practice, was the
first unwritten " standard " of poultry for exhibi-
tion, but had no fixed expression.

About 1865 a Poultry Club was formed in
England, but did not secure many adherents, and
was speedily wrecked by the personal animosity
which developed between one or two
The First ^^ ''^^ members. But it issued a
Standard of description of the recognised breeds,
Excellence. with numerical values for the points,
under the title of " The Standard
of Excellence," which was a land-mark in the
judging of poultry. In spite of many faults, it
embodied the principle that fowls ought to be
bred to definite points, and judged by them, and
that the points could be and ought to be defined.
This was a great idea, and a great service,
though the first Club's existence was brief and
its " standard " very crude. The scales of points
only added up to a total of fifteen through all
the breeds, which quite shut out the modern
system of " cutting " a portion off for defects ;
and in the descriptions themselves were several
errors — such as attributing red eyes to Malays
— which however could scarcely be avoided
at that early period. The existing judges

STANDARDS FOR EXHIBITING POULTRY.

227

ostentatiously declined to be bound by this
standard, which had in fact no authority ; yet
nevertheless its definitions or descriptions un-
doubtedly had great influence in bringing about
greater uniformity of type, and more general
acceptance of a real type, in many breeds.

This influence was accentuated by a Poultry
Convention held at New York in 1872, which
issued an American "standard." It was mainly
based upon the foregoing as regarded the de-
scriptions, but increased the total
The American numerical value of the points from
Standard of I5tolOO. This was an alteration of
Perfection. cardinal importance ; because the
value of every point, being now mul-
tiple, admitted of being diminished (or " cut," as
the Americans term it) for defects in fair pro-
portion. Hence it was held that if the values
of points accurately represented proper judging,
and they were equitably cut or diminished for
any defect, the adding up of the lowered figures,
or the " score " of the bird, as it was called,
scored on a card, would give the proper relative
position of every pen. The convention was re-
constituted soon afterwards as the American
Poultry Association, consisting of delegates from
all parts of the country, and which revises its
standard every five years in open session. This
is now termed, as in England, the " Standard of
Perfection," and in its present descriptions, as
well as values of points, differs from the first
English standard pretty widely. The Associa-
tion also controls the naming and admission of
any new varieties to the American Standard, and
such a history as that of the Buff Orpington in
England, for instance, would in America have
been impossible. A few remarks on this standard
and its method of application will be found a
little farther on.

In 1 874 the first edition of the Illustrated Book
of Poultry was con^pleted. In this was included,
under the title of " Schedules for Judging," a
standard of our own which embodied
The several new features, the result of

Book of many trials and much practical check-

Poultry." ingover,beforecompetingpens. First,
its basis was different ; for whereas
both the previous ones had embodied the
" views " of their compilers, we had taken these,
or our own revised " views," as a starting point
only, and endeavoured to ascertain how far they
were borne out by the best judging, as accepted
by public opinion, which was by this time crys-
tallised into fairly definite shape. Our experi-
ence was that what appeared beforehand to be
reasonable comparative value of points, in many
cases could not be harmonised with evidently
correct judging, so that the standard should

place the birds in the same order as the judges
did. We would then attempt to modify figures,
or their definition, so that the two should har-
monise ; and the modified result was checked
again on the next opportunity. Years of de-
tailed criticism at shows had prepared us for this
work, in which considerable practical success
was ultimately obtained ; and our figures were
eventually published, though avowedly upon
merely personal responsibility, not as embody-
ing our own opinion — for in many points they
differed widely from what we would have pre-
ferred, and even had previously supposed — but
as an analysis of the average actual jvdgbig in
England. A second point of difference was,
that we were subsequently led to prefer as a
system the tabulation of defects rather than of
positive points. The third was that, whilst we
started from a total of 100, many analyses led us
to give considerably more than 100 to the total
of possible defects, fully added up together.
The reason was that while points must have a
certain proportion to one another comparatively,
in order to represent correct judging each point
must also have a certain proportion to the 100 of
perfection. We found often that, if only 100
was divided amongst them all, proportionate
deductions according to the amount of defect
did not deduct efiough to give always the true
order of merit, as a good breeder-judge would
reckon it ; whereas raising the numerical value
of all points proportionately to some higher
ratio, brought nearly all such irreconcilable
awards into line. Such were the main features
of our own standard of 1874.

It is only the bare truth to say that this
standard has exerted profound influence on all
those of the present day, with the exception of
the last feature above mentioned — its excess of
total added defects, over the standard total.
The reasons for that, proved too subtle to be
grasped by the majority of breeders, and we are
now convinced that the simple 100 point system is
the only one capable of general acceptance, while
it will give true results in the majority of cases.
The reasons for the other are, however, as real now
as in 1874; and if any fancier of a mathematical
turn of mind will, on the next exceptional
occasion when he cannot possibly square the
order of merit per standard with the evidently
correct decisions (for it is no standard's business
to square with bad ones) of the judge, make the
experiment of deducting considerably heavier
cuts than the lOO-point scale seems to allow,
he may probably understand what we mean.
Our numerous revisions in description have
been mostly adopted in substance, where
not in words, on both sides of the Atlantic

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Finally, the system therein adopted, of tabulating
points of defect instead of positive merit, has
not only been adopted by the Poultry Club of
Great Britain, but the American Poultry Associ-
ation also, while not adopting it in the scale, has
in its "instructions" and the table entitled
" Cutting for Defects," practically accepted the
idea, as regards actual use of the standard. No
one can compare the English and the American
standards as used in 1872 with those of to-
day, without seeing how these schedules of
1874 have influenced both. They were, however,
expressly put out as individual and temporary ;
and having now accomplished all the purposes
hoped for, it is with satisfaction that they are
discarded for those adopted by a body having
real right to express the opinion of the chief
breeders and judges in the United Kingdom.

The present Poultry Club was established —
for it was an entirely new body, not a resuscita-
tion of the old — in 1878, mainly by the exertions
of the late Mr. Alexander Comyns.
The Foi" some years it attracted com-

Poultry Club's paratively little support, owing to
Standard. some undoubted mistakes in policy,

and various other causes ; but in
1886 it issued under his editorship Part I. of
a new " Standard of Perfection." This included
Cochins, Brahmas, Dorkings, Game, Houdans,
Creves, La Fl^che, Courtes Pattes, Polish,
Minorcas, Leghorns, Plymouth Rocks, and
Andalusians ; and was intended to have been
followed by Part II., containing the remaining
known breeds. This was, however, hindered by
minor causes, and finally prevented for the time
by the illness and death of this indefatigable
editor and secretary of the Club. By the time
the project could be taken up again, English
judging itself had perceptibly changed in some
respects, the Club had become much stronger and
more influential, and it was thought better
to undertake a new standard altogether, using
and incorporating any existing material, includ-
ing many standards already drawn up for single
breeds by special clubs, as far as found desirable
after conference and consideration. The work
was only seriously commenced in 1897, under a
Standards Committee appointed by the Club,
with Mr. T. Threlford for secretary. Progress
was necessarily rather slow, as the number of
special clubs who had framed their own stand-
ards independently of each other necessitated
considerable further labour in reducing the
whole to one common method or pattern. But
it was finally completed and published in 1901.
In 19 10 the entire work was again revised by
a small sub-committee, with Mr. W. W. Broom-
head as secretary, and these new standards are

also, by arrangement with the Club, incor-
porated in the following pages.

As regards the proper function, and proper
method of using a standard, and the method of
judging in itself, there are the widest differences
of opinion, ranging chiefly into two
The Use of a schools on the two sides of the
Standard. Atlantic. All would now agree that
the accepted standard should be
regarded as the standard or canon of a breed,
subject only to detected and obvious acci-
dental errors, or to authoritative revision ; and
this alone marks distinct advance upon the state
of things existing thirty years ago. No judge
would now claim a right, as many did then, to
ignore the standard altogether. Nevertheless,
in England the eye and judgment of experienced
and qualified judges have always been preferred
in determining awards, and it has never been
customary for any of these, that we know of, to
consult the standard on the spot. A few judges
always have, in cases of doubt only, used scales
of points arranged by themselves. The late
Mr. W. F. Entwisle furnished us with the scale
card for Game and Game Bantams used by him
in difficult cases, which we were not surprised,
though he was, to find in closest agreement with
what we had already drawn up ; and the late
Mr. John Douglas also used a scale of his own
in similar circumstances, for the same breeds.
But in the main such standards as have here-
tofore existed in England were regarded as
more descriptive than anything else. The
definitions have been accepted, but the judging
has remained personal, under the system of
organised public criticism already reviewed.

One reason for this was probably the want of
authority in previous standards. The framers
of the first worked with the avowed idea that
the points might be added ; but their number of
points was impracticable, and the sponsors were
too few in number to have any authority at all.
Our own scales never pretended to any, being
only intended to pave the way towards some-
thing more authoritative, which might, it was
hoped, be framed in due time, as is now the case.
Hence the English system of personal judging
continued of necessity till an authoritative
standard should be adopted, and barring occa-
sional abuses (which are not confined to this
system), we doubt if there is better or more con-
sistent judging in the world. But there was
another subsidiary reason. Owing to the same
absence of authority, there have been consider-
able changes in type amongst many breeds. In
some respects this is an evil, and when carried to
such an extreme as from nearly bare legs ia
Asiatics to heavy vulture-hocks, it is absolutely

AMERICAN SCORE-CARD SYSTEM.

pernicious ; but in smaller degree there are
constant fluctuations as to the faults which
prevail at a given period, and thoughtful
breeders have held it distinctly desirable that a
judge should have freedom, and be able to lay
more stress upon some fault which is becoming
prevalent, and which it is therefore desirable to
meet with a more decided check.

In America it was different. Though the same
imperfect standard formed the original basis
there also, its total " points " were from the first
raised to a practicable figure ; the
Score-Card most evident errors were corrected,
System in and it was adopted in public con-

America, vention, with the intention, from the

start, of being actually put to use.
There was not available a personnel with the
knowledge and experience of English judges,
and such judging as had been possible had
given ample cause for dissatisfaction. Here,
therefore^ the experiment was maae under far
more favourable conditions. We did not at the
time think it practicable ; but the event proved
otherwise, and set aside all a priori British
notions, for the leading American shows were
actually judged by standard and score card for
years, and the judging became admittedly far
better and more consistent than it had been
A printed score card is under this system
supplied for every pen, on which the " cuts " for
defects are written for every point, and the
totals added up, and when this is done the
prizes are awarded accordingly. Experienced
breeders are able to score their own birds pretty
nearly ; and a system has moreover grown up of
selling birds by their " score," and of judges, for
a fee or otherwise, " scoring " specimens for the
express purpose of sale. The development o/ the
whole system is both interesting and instructive,
and proves that judging in this way is perfectly
practicable under the necessary conditions.

Nevertheless, there has been some gradual
reaction against it, and in favour of the English
personal system, termed in America " compari-
son " judging. We will not venture
Reaction to predict the ultimate issue, since

Against the the reaction itself may be only a
Score Card. temporary phase ; but during the
last few years one after another
of the largest American shows has returned to
the personal system, and the subject is one
constantly discussed in American poultry papers.
The first reason for this reaction was undoubtedly
that of time* Again and again it happened that

* It is probable that an equal number of pens could be
scored almost as quickly as they could be judged by comparison.
But in the latter system the jutlge does not waste time over all
the birds alike, whereas at score-card shows every pen is expected

the scorings and consequent awards were not
completed even when the show closed ! That
would never have been endured in England ;
it began to be unendurable in America. People
wanted to know what had won, while they could
still compare the birds. There were probably
further reasons, in what we think the unsatisfac-
tory scale of cutting laid down in the standard
itself, as immediately indicated ; but however
this may be, the whole question is now matter
of debate. It is curious to observe that one of
the chief reasons for maintaining the score
system, constantly urged by very many of its
advocates, is its cash or selling value to the
recipient of the score card. The writers aver
that they can sell upon a score card, whereas
they cannot upon a mere award, unless it be one
of the prizes. This they term " intrinsic value"
of the score, and so long as it really exists it
will probably keep the score card in favour.
But the press has been full of cases of the
alleged worthlessness of fowls scored fairly high
in this way ; and altogether we would not like
to predict the system of American judging ten
years hence.

Part of the reaction, as we have already said,
we think is due to the faulty method of using
it laid down for judges in the standard, and
which might be improved. In many
Faults in cases, when birds had been duly

American scored and placed by it, somehow
Scoring. Q|. other (except the winners them-

selves) no breeder preferred them.
Something was wrong ; and it is pretty easy for
any student in these subjects to see what it is.
Another proof of the same error lies in the
absurdly high scores which are the present
result. Scores of 96 are habitual, and the
standard itself lays down that no bird below 85
should receive a prize, and that a first prize
ought to score 90 or more. All English
breeders, who are (allowing for differences in
their standard itself) quite as skilful as Ameri-
can, know that such approximation to perfection
is not in practice generally attained, upon any
valid system properly carried out ; and will
know equally that even 92^ birds (92^ seems
quite an orthodox and customary " selling
score ") are not really plentiful as blackberries,
though in America they are made to appear so.
But when we come to the directions given to
judges, the mystery is made clear, for many
of the "cuts" made as directed in the standard
are obviously far too small. Judges are " asked,"
if they find too few or too many serrations
in a comb, to cut half a point for each ; if
side sprigs, one point for each ; if a thumb mark,
not less than one ; if rear of comb " turns

230

THE BOOK OF POULTRY

around," one point. Now take a Minorca with a
twisted comb and two spikes too many, enough
to give him what in England are called "pencil"
serrations ; one point deducted for the pair of
them, or three points in all if, beside, his comb
" turns around " at the back and has a thumb
mark, still leaves him 97 points, though no
breeder would have him at a gift. This is
perfectly absurd, and sheds considerable light
upon " intrinsic value " and the high American
scores. There is plenty more of the same sort.
Take absence of sickles in a cock ; the judge is
requested for that to cut one point for each.
Take, again, an absolutely bare middle toe in
Brahmas ; the judge is to cut one point for
each — each foot we presume. Take, again,
eyes : for permanent " injury " he is to cut half
a point ; for an eye totally " destroyed, leaving
only the socket," one and a half points. It is
manifest enough that such trivial deductions for
such faults are merely nonsenical, and cannot
give judging which will permanently satisfy.*
Some alteration will inevitably become neces-
sary, sooner or later ; but whether in the direc-
tion of comparison judging, or in somewhat
drastic revision of the number of points to be
cut, and consequent general lowering of the
scores, it is at present impossible to say.

It will be found, in fact, by anyone who
will take the trouble to work the problem
out between three or four of the best pens in a
good class, that such small cuts as are usual
in America entirely upset the proportionate
value of sections as laid down in a standard.
Any point that is given great weight in the
table of points, such as perhaps 25 points,
has not its proper value in the judging unless,
for serious fault, really heavy cuts are made
in it. A curious proof of the small degree
in which many American breeders and judges
have realised this is the fact that Mr. I. K.
Felch publishes a " decimal " score card of
his own, and urges it on all possible occasions .
for universal use. In this, every variety of
every breed is divided into ten sections', each
valued ten points. Several authorities have
commented on the proposal to give the same
part equal weight in all breeds, which every
breeder knows is not so in fact ; but the curious
thing is, that it never seems to have occurred
to either those who attacked this card, or to

* One poultry periodical remarked (September, 1900), " The
tendency in the past among judges has been to score too high,
and 96-point birds have been numerous, but we believe that
fanciers now realise the fallacy of these inflated scores." Another,
the most thorough-going of all in advocacy of the score card, writes,
" No doubt we have in this country many birds scored too high ;
some of our best breeders say that all our birds are scored too
high.-

the patentee himself, that such a decimal set of
points, honestly applied, would radically alter
the judging from what it is under points widely
different in proportion. It is assumed on all
sides that the result in placing birds would be
the same ; and probably it would, in practice ;
but such a result would be due to the trifling,
perfunctory, unpropovtionate character of cuts
for defects as carried out hitherto in much of
American scoring.

Until the last few years, curiously enough,
American judging differed from English on the
side of strictness. In England, with some ex-
ceptions, as a broad rule the judge
American formerly went by the plumage

Strictness. seen, and took little or no account
of what was beneath the surface.
In America, just as here now, stress has always
been laid upon the plumage being barred, or
buff, or whatever it is, " down to the skin." At
the great Chicago show of 1899 there was
shown a beautiful Wliite Plymouth Rock pullet,
by common consent the best in the class, and by
many thought the best ever seen up to that time.
After she had " scored " out, well on top, the
judge happened to pass his hand through the
plumage, and found one feather near the root
of the tail, with a bar across it halfway down —
a sign of the barred descent. It did not show in
the least, and there was but this one speck all
over her. But the standard gives amongst its
general disqualifications, " in all white varieties
any feather on a specimen having positive black
or red in any part of the plumage," and the
judge disqualified her. Some upheld him,
other protested ; the veteran Mr. I. K. Felch
said if he had been the judge he would have
pulled that feather out and said nothing ; then
many of course sat upon him for that. An
English judge in those days would have
ignored such a feather, unless he too had gone
over to the Felch view. Sound undercolour,
however, is a necessity in the light of present
day judging, and a bird without it stands little
chance of success in the show pen with any
competent judge.

It is admitted by all, now, that a recognised
standard is both necessary and of the highest
use. To begin with, it defines a variety beyond
dispute. A judge by the comparison system
often meets cases of real difficult}' — much more
often now than formerly ; and in such cases the
actual addition of points will guide him to a
sound decision. Study of it will train a judge,
and teach him to seek and to find reasons for
preferring one bird to another. It will show an
experienced breeder about his fair chance of
winning. It is a canon to which criticism mav

APPLYING THE STANDARD.

=31

appeal in case of any marked error in judging.
On the whole, without attempting prophecy, we
are inclined to think that probably the standard
may be given in the future a more prominent
position in England, and a less so in America,
than in the past.

Supposing that the standard is actually used
in judging — and as above indicated, even with
comparison judging, or in criticism, individual

cases often occur where it is very de-
Method of sirable to do this — a few words upon
Applying the that use may be of service, the fruit
Standard. Qf jg^g ^^^ frequent experience.

The American system of scoring all
down one card, finishing one bird before going
on to the ne.xt, is bad, and will be found worse
when any correct moportion of cutting for
defects is adopted, ^he judge in this way often
cuts the same point more severely in one speci-
men, than for the same degree of defect in
another. This is perhaps the most frequent
cause of evident failures ; the eye to some ex-
tent forgets its judgment in a former case,
perhaps a dozen pens back. In all the pens
which compete closely, the same points — as, for
instance, head and comb taken together — should
be scored or cut by themselves alone, through
the entire number. In this way only, real com-
parison can be made, and each point should get
fairly dealt with. Not till all have thus been
gone through, one point at a time, should the
totals be added. Then finally — and we lay
special stress upon this — it should be noticed
whether the birds as thus placed seem to satisfy
the eye and general judgment. If they do,
there is an end. But if not, further scrutiny
should be made, to see if some tangible reason
cannot be found for this; it may be found that
there is error in the comparison of some point, or
some point has been overlooked, or some evident
defect may have been overlooked by the standard
itself, and requires noting for the future. Care
is needed that no personal partiality comes into
play ; but in direct opposition to some Ameri-
can advice, we strongly insist that no apparently
unsatisfactory result ought to pass wiqiiestioned.
It does not prove the apparently wrong bird
really the better, as seems assumed by Ameri-
can advocates of the score card " pure and
simple"; no real breeder on the spot would
agree to that at all. There is some reason for
it, which ought to be looked into, and accounted
for or else corrected. Our experience is that it
generally can be, provided the scale of points
itself be sound, though there are cases, as already
indicated, in which harmony can only be arrived
at by increasing the total possible cuts to over
a hundred, an expedient, it will be seen, the

exact reverse of the present American method
of making trivial cuts for defects of a serious
character.

The figures given in the new English stand-
ard are intended to represent the cuts which
should be made for defects as great as can exist, to
still leave a bird a chance of winning. Of course
a defect might easily be so great as to leave a
bird quite out of consideration. Taking as an
instance comb, if that is so bad that no judge
could award a prize, merely to deduct five points
would not ensure correct judging; the bird
would be ruled out, and no question occur. The
five points (in a scale giving that number) are
for the worst degree that may allow a win ;
while one point or even half a point will be
allowed for slight defect, and so in proportion.
The very intention is to give the judge more
latitude than such rigid detailed small cuts
mentioned above as laid down in America, and
that for serious defects really serious deduction
should be made. -^

One more feature of many shows, and one of
the most troublesome and responsible duties of a
judge in connection with his work, must receive
some notice before closing this
Faking chapter. We refer to the artificial

and trimming or faking of show speci-

Trimming. rnens, which demands constant
watchfulness, and when detected
should always receive, what unfortunately it
does not in some cases, immediate retribution.
For various reasons — mostly notoriety, perhaps
— a great deal of folly has been written about this
subject from time to time, calculated to give a
false impression about the actual state of things.
Every two or three years some exhibitor or
judge writes a series of frothy letters declaiming
against the iniquities practised, and prophesying
that " unless something is done " the fancy must
come to an end, that " all honest men will go
out of it," etc. Usually the exhibitor is one less
successful than others, and the letters imply that
his ill success is mainly due to the iniquity of
competitors ; or the judge is one new to the
ranks, and obviously desirous of establishing by
a short cut a first-class reputation for honesty.
.However this may be, very little ultimately
comes of it, and the discussion dies down with
wearisome monotony, the real check to these
practices lying all the while ready to hand.

The evil has always existed ; for its springs
lie deep in human nature, and not altogether
amongst the baser motives. But it has not the
magnitude which these interested correspondents
usually represent ; and it is also greatly kept in
check by the public criticism, which in fact

232

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

chiefly brings its developments to light. That
many birds win which ought not to win, because
their faults are removed by faking, and that some
of these cases are practically impossible cf de-
tection, is true. That the majority of winners
are so faked, or that faking has produced any
standard of perfection which would not have
existed otherwise, or which the honest breeder
cannot breed up to, is not true; and winners are
honest in the majority of cases, in the majority
of classes ; one or two exceptions there certainly
are. It is also the fact that the worst cases are
gciierally brought to light sooner or later, and
that there now exists recognised machinery for
dealing with them, which is able to exert more
and more steady pressure in that direction.
While there is probably more skill in faking to-
day than ever, the state of things on the whole
is certainly better and not worse than formerly,
owing to the circumstances above indicated.

There was a time, years ago, when energetic
agitation was required, and about the year 1870
we organised and obtained numerous signatures

to a written protest against the then
Agitation tacit toleration of these practices,
against which was printed and sent to the

Trimming. executives of the principal shows.

This had some perceptible effect,
chiefly in the wide adoption of our proposed
rule, to the effect that at the show adopting the
rule all cases detected by the judges would be
marked " Disqualified," and the prizes, if any,
withheld. That was something, but it did not
prove nearly enough ; for it was found over and
over again, that even when the judges had done
their duty, committees would not do theirs.
At the then principal English show of the year,
Messrs. Hewitt and Teebay had their attention
specially drawn to this rule. As stated by Mr.
Hewitt himself in the Illustrated Book of Poultry,
they found it necessary to disqualify nearly one-
third of the class of Dark Brahma pullets for
gross plucking of vulture-hocks, and reported
accordingly. The committee would, however, do
nothing, and when remonstrated with replied, as
Mr. Hewitt stated, that they had declined to re-
cord the penalty in any way, " as it might injure
future shows." We remonstrated personally in the
very same case, and were told that " as the guilty
parties had taken no prizes with the trimmed
birds, no harm had been done," so low was the
general tone of feeling at that time. Such is
obviously not true; for whereas, if punished, a
faker may be deterred from trying again, and is
at least debarred from immediately selling his
faked stock, while the public are warned of him,
impunity even if unsuccessful emboldens him
to renew the attempt elsewhere. However, it

became necessary to set on foot yet another
press campaign for the " Suppression of Fraud,"
the object of which was to provide some
machinery for action. This was steadily main-
tained, the chief burden falling upon us for
a year or two, until at length the personal
exertions of the late Mr. Alexander Comyns,
aided by a few leading exhibitors who collected
around him, especially the late Mr. O. E.
Cresswell, resulted in the establishment of the
Poultry Club, which made the systematic sup-
pression of fraud one of its cardinal objects.

For some time the progress of this body was
slow, and lack of power compelled it to be
cautious ; but as it gradually grew in member-
ship and influence (numbering now
Poultry Club ov^'^ 3. thousand) it became better
and able to carry out its consistent policy

Suppression of inducing committees, by more or
° ^^" less of its support, to hold their shows

under its rules. The number of shows
so held is now very great, and the influence thus
e.xerted has compelled even the few larger shows
which refuse formal adherence, to adopt as
their own rules very similar in form and object
to the Poultry Club's rules. These provide that
no person under present disqualification by the
club shall be allowed either to judge or exhibit
at the show ; that no exhibitors or their servants
may pen their own birds, or be admitted before
the public ; that entries may be returned or
refused (which is chiefly enforced to prevent
disqualified persons from exhibiting under false
or altered names); that no exhibitor shall act as
judge ; that the judges shall disqualify for any
detected fraudulent treatment, or for being over
the proper age ; that anyone may lodge a protest
against an exhibit with a fee of i^i is., which shall
be, however, only retained if it is held that the
protest was without reasonable ground ; and
the case protested shall be carefully examined,
and if necessary be disqualified ; that any
exhibitor disqualified for fraud, either by the
original judge or upon protest, shall forfeit all
other prizes won at the show as well, and
may be either temporarily or permanently pro-
hibited from exhibiting at all shoius held under
Poultry Club rules ; that any so disqualified pens
shall be detained by the show committee for
three days after the close, within which time the
exhibitor, who is notified of the penalty, may
appeal to the council of the Club, in which case
the exhibit is sent direct to the Club offices,
and the case again examined and finally deter-
mined. At many shows thus held under its
rules an accredited representative of the Club,
wearing a badge, attends to direct any necessary
proceedings ; and cases brought before it are

FAKING AND TRIMMING.

233

also reported amongst the council's proceedings
in the poultry press.

Such is the machinery actually in existence
in England at the present time for the suppres-
sion of fraud. And it is anything but a dead
letter. Month after month cases
Effects of sre reported of exhibitors being

Poultry Club's suspended from exhibiting at shows
Legislation. held under Poultry Club rules
(a large number now) for periods
of one to three years, and several unusually gross
cases have been disqualified for life. We specially
recollect one remarkable case in which a very
prominent Cochin exhibitor of that particular
time — a woman, by the way — was disqualified
permanently for her birds being "fluffed" in
the manner presently described, with suspicion
of other matters. Her Cochins were then shown
by a female relative, who was also shortly dis-
qualified ; and finally a third family connection
earned the same distinction. It took' time ; but
the whole guilty circle were ultimately, to all
intents, driven out of exhibition. Many exhibi-
tors seem still unaware of the completeness and
efficiency of this machinery, and we trust that
the short statement here given may spread the
knowledge of it, and increase its efficiency still
more. For honest exhibitors should do tlieir
part by entering " protest " against obvious
fraud, and by the vigilant use of the keen eyes
with which Nature has endowed them. During
the few most recent years, happily, they have
done so more and more, and this has partly led
to the idea that such practices are increasing ;
whereas it is quite the other way so far as the
best shows are concerned.

That a great deal of fraud still goes on, at
more out of the way shows especially, is true
enough ; and whereas formerly, as we have seen,
when the judges had done their duty commit-
tees often deliberately refused to do theirs, we
regret to say that much of the blame now rests
with the judges at such shows. That there is a
class of these who " work in " with exhibitors,
and who judge many shows gratis because they
have other ways of making money by it, is true
beyond doubt, though difficult of proof. Men
of this stamp wink at frauds they see plainly
enough ; and give prizes to birds which they
know are fraudulently dealt with. The fact is that
there is much which really cannot be detected,
or pronounced actual fraud with certainty ; and
some judges take shelter under that. The
danger is real, and it is better for three guilty
ones to escape for a doubt, than for one innocent
one to be falsely condemned. There are those
who have suggested that since the card
"Disqualified," though in itself most proper as

a mere statement of fact, has come by usage
to be regarded as a charge of fraud, another
card should be introduced, simply denoting

that a bird was " passed " for some
" Passed " alleged reason stated. Thus, sup-
Cards, posing a Partridge Cochin cock

which apparently is otherwise in full
feather, has scarcely any tail. It may be that
the tail really has not grown yet — we have
known such cases ; or it may be that there was
much white in it, and it was plucked. No one
can absolutely prove which it is ; but the card
would simply denote that the bird was " passed "
for deficient tail, for the matter of fact which all
could see for themselves. The exhibitor would
have no direct charge made against him, and
could not complain, since it may be very strongly
held that no one has a right to win with a bird
that really looks suspicions in regard to honesty,
however honest the exhibitor may privately
know it to be. The same holds good about
ages ; a pullet may have moulted out a second
time, so as to look like a hen. The exhibitor
may know that she is a pullet ; but for a bird
to win in such a class that looks in every point
a hen is unfair, because it places the judge, and
the show, and every other exhibitor, in a false
position. Thus even mere appearances have
much to do with right in such matters, and we
point this out because it does not seem to be
recognised as it should. If the introduction of
such a card would really induce judges gener-
ally to mark suspicious pens, and refuse prizes
for the reason stated, their use would be
valuable ; and we repeat distinctly that, what-
ever it may be in the knowledge of the owner,
a bird that does not look honest should not be
exhibited, and if it is, should not be awarded
any mention beyond that of a " Passed " card.

The upright judge must therefore be con-
stantly on the watch against attempts at
deceiving him by artificial faking. All he cannot
detect, and he is not called upon to go ruffling
through the plumage of all the birds to see what
he can find. That would seriously damage the
birds themselves, besides the question of time.
And a good judge may, especially at first, be too
"innocent" to discover what others can find
A case occurs to us as we write these lines.
wherein a judge who had disqualified one or two
faked combs, and presumably " meant business,"
passed without discovery three Buff Orpingtons
which were most beautifully dyed ! It is easy to
scoff at such an oversight; but the judge might
veiy well reply that he was not " up " yet to all
the tricks of the Buff Orpington men, and could
only learn them by degrees. He can but do his
best, and bring an open mind to any evidence

234

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

subsequently placed before him. It not unfre-
quently happens that some gross case of fraud
gets " blown upon " by some private informer ;
and though the motive for this is far more
usually malice than honesty, the public benefits
all the same. On the whole, we repeat that
things are improving, not deteriorating ; that
there is adequate machinery, which only needs
to be more freely used ; and that the proper
direction for effort is towards the more free use
of that machinery, and greater public vigilance,
not strong language, however fine and large.

Reasonable moderation must be also borne
in mind. We have already hinted that some
trimming was not done altogetlicr from the baser
motives. We knew a man who
Need of never exhibited, though he sold

moderation, winners largely to those who did,
yet who always removed single
foul feathers. The reason he gave was that he
" could not bear to see them." There are many
who have that instinctive fancier's feeling very
strongly, whether or not they act upon it ; we
once read in a New England journal, " It is im-
possible not to draw a little hard upon a feather,
when you know that but for that one your bird
would be a perfect beauty." Whoever does not
understand that feeling, has never been a true
fancier ; hence it is, also, that the best fanciers
generally feel a little gentle tolerance for that
kind of thing ; the {■A.ncxe.xs passion for perfection
in appearance, they know, is partly at the root
of it. While no club, or standard, or code of
morals can draw any line or make any dis-
tinctions— for if even one feather may be
removed, surely a second may, and a third, and
so on — all the same this minor degree of trim-
ming has palliations, and stands on a different
practical level from much else ; the White Rock
we wrote of above, was just as good and valu-
able a bird with that one feather in, as with it
out. However, it is needless to discuss this ques-
tion beyond pointing out that there is some
distinction ; because the abstraction of such rare
and stray feathers, of any kind, unless cardinal or
key feathers in wings or tail, cannot possibly be
detected even by the closest scrutiny, and the
propriety of removing any broken or bent small
body feather which merely mars the smooth
outline, has always been generally acknow-
ledged. It may, however, be useful to indicate
the chief kinds of more serious fraud, capable
of detection, which have been at one time or
another recorded.

Symmetrical and neat comb is a very import-
ant point in many breeds ; and when a bird is
good otherwise but defective here, the knife or
dissecting scissors are often employed to cut

it into better shape. Side sprigs on single
combs are frequently removed by a razor, and
we have often seen signs in Minorcas that small

or ugly spikes or serrations have been
Trimming cut into better ones. But it is in
Combs. Hamburghs thatoperations on combs

have been most general, the ends of
the little projections being sliced to an even
plane, and more extensive cutting off of entire
portions practised, in ways that had better not
be definitely indicated. We will only say that
we have known (for it is remarkable that, being
known never to break individual confidence, we
have been oftentimes given information freely
on these points, and even shown them) several
cases in which a large piece of wedge shape has
been cut out of the centre of a Hamburgh comb,
which was then sewn up so as to draw together
and make the whole much smaller ; and we
once heard of a horrid case — to this day we
hardly know whether to believe it or not — in
which one otherwise inferior bird having an ex-
quisite comb, while the show bird had a coarse
one, both were amputated by a horizontal cut,
and the two being at once transposed, were
sutured and reunited. Several cases have
actually occurred, and been recorded in print, of
the judges finding Hamburghs in the pens with
long pins or needles through the combs, in order
to hold parts in better position, or which may
have been inserted to hold cut portions together,
and been forgotten. It is needless to declaim
about the unbridled rivalry and greed which
could perpetrate a cruelty that is nauseating ;
unfortunately, Hamburghs are more often
victims to it than any other breed. We can
only state here that when a comb is cut, the
place of the scar covers over with smooth skin,
slightly glossy, and this is the chief sign of
the operation. If such a case is challenged, the
exhibitor usually says that the bird has torn his
head in fighting, or wire netting, or something
of that sort. But a bird with such signs in
suspicious places ought certainly to be refused
a prize, even if want of absolute demonstration
prevents the judge from going farther.

Dyed plumage is not so very uncommon, the
usual colours being black or buff ; the great
boom in buff breeds produced at least half a

dozen convicted cases in England in
Dyeing of twelve months. Tail feathers which
Plumage. should be black, but have much

white in them, are sometimes stained
with nitrate of silver, and there was at least one
case in which too much white in the foot-feather
of a Dark Brahma was treated in the same way.
A chemical test is unnecessary here. A tail
often passes unnoticed, for, as already said,

TESTS FOR DYED FEATHERS.

235

judges cannot possibly go overhauling all the
plumage of the birds ; but if anything does
excite suspicion — as if a bird previously shown
with the white, again turns up apparently ortho-
dox— mere close inspection will show that all
the supposed black is not alike. Buff dyeing
has been so far chiefly found in Leghorns and
Buff Orpingtons, and has usually been done by
washing in Maypole soap, or some other form of
what is really aniline dye. What a lady would
term a " really lovely " buff should excite sus-
picion ; but a chemical test is of course the
criterion. Much harm was done at one time by
a school of amateur detectives, who professed
to test buff dye by solutions of caustic potass ;
and years ago we remember the late Mr.
Blakston disqualifying a canary on that account
with the deepest pain and regret, the owner
being a man whom he had always believed
honest as the day ; but the colour came off, rich
and undeniable, in the fluid, and he deemed that
there was no escape. It is now known, and the
reader may prove for himself, that an honest
feather also dissolves and produces coloured
solution just the same, and we fear that in Mr.
Blakston's case the poor canary exhibitor was
an innocent victim. We have known an exhi-
bitor take a rival's Buff Leghorn out of the pen,
and apply this " test," not even to a pulled
feather, but to the plumage on the bird, with
the result that the feathers touched were really
dyed much darker, as shown to us by the
victim at the London Dairy Show of 1899. We
cannot put it too strongly, that potass solution
dissolves out colour from honest plumage, and
is no test for aniline dye.

There is fortunately a real test, however, as
published by Dr. Mossop in Poult>y. Test-
tubes should be provided, about six inches long
and three-quarter inch bore, and if possible a
genuine feather tested in another tube, along
with the suspected one — for only plucked single
feathers ought ever to be tested ; no one has a
right to risk disfiguring the bird itself. The
feather should be pushed down to the bottom of
the tube, strong hydrochloric acid poured in a
half inch or more deep, and the tube a little
shaken about (without spilling the strong acid)
so that the feather, at first greasy, may become
wetted by the acid. A feather dyed buff with
Maypole soap or aniline dye will quickly turn a
beautiful violet colour ; the genuine feather is
unchanged beyond the darkening from being
wetted. Dr. Mossop found one or two dyes that
resisted this test, but these responded in another
way, by losing all the dyed colour to a solution
of crj'stals of protochloride of tin dissolved to
saturation in hydrochloric acid diluted with its

own bulk of water. This solution spoils by
keeping, and should therefore be freshly made,
dissolving a few crystals when wanted in tha
diluted acid. Sometimes a feather that seems
to resist will bleach out the dye if the test tube
containing the tin chloride is warmed over a
spirit lamp. If no decided bleaching takes place
then, and the feather has not been turned violet
by the acid either, the plumage is probably
honest, and at least no ordinary dye has been
used.

The shanks are sometimes coloured, either
for yellow, or willow, or black. A handkerchief
or clean white rag, successively applied with
water, methylated spirit, and benzol, will usually
detect either of these, if appearances seem
suspicious.

Plucking is the most frequent kind of fraud.
As already indicated, it may be of a very mild
and comparatively innocent character ; but as

such cases could not possibly be
Plufkiiiff detected even if suspected, or even

if known, such cause no questions.

Tail feathers are mostly plucked for
white or black in them where it should not be, or
wing feathers because twisted or out of place ;
counting will reveal these, if suspicion be aroused.
If the whole tail be absent, or apparently far too
short, the judge will act according to his view of
the case, since at some periods it might be
natural enough, as in an adult cock early in
November. The most difficult cases are per-
haps those of wholesale plucking of body feathers,
which is too usual in some laced and spangled
breeds, especially silver spangled Hamburghs.
Here also a fair number of single feathers might
obviously come out without detection, but we
have seen a bird so plucked that bare patches of
skin were exposed even on the feather tracks.*
Instances not so extreme as this give most diffi-
culty ; but so peculiar is this special case of
Hamburghs that we have sometimes thought it
might be better if Hamburgh trimming were
legitimatised, as in trimming Spanish faces.
The simple fact is that the " largest " spangles
are desired by some breeders, and they have
been bred so large that a pullet with all the
feathers left in would show no spangling at all,
but her breast especially would appear almost
black. Enough feathers are therefore plucked
to show the spangling separated, and a good
Mooney will sometimes lose half a basketful.
Birds can only be shown naturally in this
breed, either by breeding spangles rather smaller,
or allowing them to appear almost entirely

* Some writers seem to suppose that the feathers grow equally
all over. That is not so ; they grow or are arranged in certain
bands or tracks, which differ in dilTerent genera of birds.

27.6

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

black in the pen, which hides their mark-
ing and prevents their winning. Hamburgh
men are a peculiar set, who have kept much to
themselves for pretty nearly half a century, if
not more, and it is quite certain that every gOL«d
pullet or hen with spangles of the largest size
is plucked more or less before she can show her
pattern. Anyone can see for himself, in some
other breed, how much of any single breast
feather is naturally exposed, and that this is not
enough to show separately a large Mooney
spangle, and there we must leave this particular
matter.

Vulture hocks were largely plucked at one
time, but their admission in England has put a
stop to that for many years. It is easily de-
tected by passing the hand up against the
feathers ; if the remainder are felt too stiff and
jagged, close inspection will reveal the plucking,
either by the holes or the young shoots of new
quills.

The greatest triumphs of the faker are per-
haps the insertion of perfect feathers instead of
imperfect, especially in regard to the sickles of
Hamburghs and Bantams. There
False have been men who always treasured

Sickles. an unusually fine pair of sickles for

further use, and even now it is done
occasionally. The natural quill is cut off about,
an inch long, and cleared out, the perfect plume
being then inserted in the stump as in a socket.
In one case the pair were found fastened in with
cobbler's wax ; in another the two were bound
round with thread. The more usual plan now
is to either fasten the feather in with some
transparent cement, or use extremely fine waxed
silk with an " imping" needle. This fraud can
always be seen on blowing into the roots of the
tail, to expose them to view; but a judge cannot
be always putting birds under the microscope, as
it were, because fraud is perpetrated occasionally.
The best ground of suspicion is, perhaps, if a
bird exhibiting much gloss generally, appears in
the sickles a little dull or faded in comparison.
In that case an examination should certainly be
made, in all breeds wherein sickles are a leading
point.

The chief other practice which has come
under our own notice we may perhaps term
" flufSng," or adding to the fluffy appearance of
Asiatics. In Cochins especially,
Fluffing. great globular masses of soft plum-

age are highly valued. In a case
already alluded to, wherein the Poultry Club
had been successful in e.xcluding successively
three representatives of one family and of the
same yard, amongst other frauds this one was
very prominent. In several well-known birds,

when carefully examined, it was found that ovei
large regions of the body the buff plumage
had been gone over, feather by feather
almost, each being bent back by thumb and
finger, or perhaps forceps, and then re-bent in
the opposite direction rather higher up, so as to
stand out from the body more than naturally, and
thus deepen the fluffy mass. It was calculated
that one disqualified fowl must have occupied
many hours in this treatment. Here, again, the
fraud was plain enough when suspicion was
aroused ; and the lack of suspicion is the chief
reason why such things may go on unpunished
for a while, though Nemesis generally comes at
last. A minor form of fluffing we would hesitate
to call downright fraud, but certainly it is highly
objectionable. After washing a Cochin or Light
Brahma, it is very easy so to keep working the
fluff of the thighs outwards whilst drying, as to
make it protrude much more, loose and flossy,
instead of lying down naturally. We often see
birds so, and much dislike it ; and as this is
obvious to the naked eye, we think judges
should deduct points for it, rather than allow
anything for the supposed fuller fluff of the
birds.

It will be seen that both the judges ana
committee of a poultrj' show have very serious
responsibility, and that the judges' task, in
particular, is no easy one at best
Duty of Whatever can lighten it should be

the Public. most sedulously studied. The press
also has its heavy responsibilities,
and is waking up more and more to these every
day ; some of its representatives rank as author-
ities with the best judges in the land. But
when all these duties have been discharged,
more or less perfectly as the case permits, the
exhibiting public still has its share of respon-
sibility also. It is not only responsible for
using upon occasion the machinerj' ready to
hand for the suppression of real fraud, but for
keeping up a tone in the fancy adverse to it, and
in favour of such effective proceedings. For
many years this was much lacking. In our own
earlier battles with fraud, our experience too often
was that after taking up some flagrant case upon
distinct promise of the necessary personal evidence,
this was ultimately refused for cowardly or in-
terested reasons, and we were left to face the
issue unaided by those who alone could ensure
full success, and at whose own urgent entreaty we
had moved in the matter. It does not lie with
people like this to rail at judges, or exhibitors,
or committees, or the press. The state of things
is neither so good as one could wish, nor nearly
so bad as it is often painted ; but such as it may
be depends far more upon the great mass of

TECHNICAL TERMS.

237

exhibitors than upon anything else. There
are exhibitors and judges both, well known or
who can be known, with whom it is no credit
to be on particularly intimate terms ; there are
many shows, ascertainable by inquiry, which
the genuine amateur should refuse to support
by his entries. Mere declamation is of no
use ; it is the quiet performance of one's own
duty as it comes in one's way, on the side of
justice, that is required ; and to have largely
modified public feeling in this direction is
not the least of the good work which the press
and the Poultry Club have effected during
recent years.

Before passing to detailed treatment of
various breeds, it will be convenient to present
a glossary of the technical terms constantly
employed by fanciers and breeders, with a
diagram to assist in their clefinitioii.

Barred^ Barring. — Alternate stripes of light and dark

across a feather.
Bean. — A bean-like patch on the extreme tip of the

upper mandible of some varieties of ducks and

geese.
Beard. — .A bunch of feathers under the throat of some

breeds, as Houdans or Polish.
Blocky. — A word used to describe a thick-set,

squarely built bird with legs placed wide apart.
Brassy. — A term used to indicate that the plunuige

of a barred Plymouth Rock has become dis-
coloured, or burnished, owing to exposure to

weather or sun.
Breast. — In a live fowl, the front of the body above

the point of the breast-bone up to the throat.

(Xo. 6.) In a table fowl (dead) the breast is

below this, and would be called the under part

of the body in the live bird.
Breed. — Any variety of fowl in all its distinct char-
acteristics. The breed includes all the varieties

of colour which are found in it.
Brood. — The family of chickens under one hen or

brooder.
Broody. — Desiring to sit or incubate.
Cape. — The feathers under base of the back hackles,

between the shoulders.
Carriage.^Th.^ bearing, attitude, or " style " of a

bird.
Caruncles. — Fleshy protuberances, as on the neck of

a turkey-cock.
Chick. — A newly hatched fowl. Used only till a few

weeks old.
Chicken. — This word is often applied to any age in-
definitely until tw-elve months old.
Cockerel. — .A young cock.
Comb. — The red protuberance on the top of a fowl's

head. (No. i. Fig. 84.)
Condition. — The state of the fowl as regards health

and beauty of plumage — the latter especially.
Crest. — .\ crown or tuft of feathers on the head. The

same as Top-knot.
Crop. — The bag or receptacle in which food is stored

before digestion. Can be easily felt in any fowl

after feeding.

Cushion. — The mass of feathers over the tail-end of a
hen's back, covering the tail ; chiefly develojied
in Cochins.

Deaf-ears. — Same as Ear-lobes. (No. 4.)

Diamond. — A term sometimes applied by Game
breeders to the wing-bay. (No. 15.)

Ditbbing. — Cutting off the comb, wattles, etc., so as
to leave the head smooth and clean.

Duck-footed. — Having duck-like feet, i.e., a fowl
with the hind toe placed close to the inner side
of the foot instead of being in a line with the
middle toe, and pointing straight behind. The
term is generally used in connection with game
fowls.

Ear-lobes. — The folds of skin hanging below the
ears. They vary in colour in different breeds,
between red, white, blue, and cream, and also
greatly in size. (No. 4.)

Face. — The bare skin round the eye. (No. 2.)

Flights. — The primary feathers of the w'ing, used in
flying, but tucked under the wing out of sight
when at rest. (No. 17.)

Fluff. — Soft downy feathers about the thighs, chiefly
developed in Asiatics ; also the downy part of the
feather.

Foxy. — Birds of the black-red varieties, particularly
brown Leghorn liens, are said to be ■' foxy " when
the wing colour is very dark red, and which
looks 'hard" when compared with the softer
body colour.

Furnished. — Assumed the full characters. When a
cockerel has obtained his full tail, comb, hackles,
etc., as if adult, he is said to be "furnished."

Gills. — This term is often applied to the wattles, and
sometimes more indefinitely to the whole region
of the throat.

Gipsy-faced. — A fowl is so designated when the skin
of its face is of a dark purple or mulberry
colour ; or when it is covered with short hair-
like feathers.

Hackles. — The peculiar narrow feathers on the neck
of fowls, also found in the saddle of the cock.
In the latter case they are called " saddle "
hackles or feathers; hackles alone always refer-
ring to the neck-feathers. (No. 5.)

Hen-feathered, or //(?«w/..— Resembling a hen in the
absence of sickles or hackle-feathers, and in
plumage generally.

Hock. — The joint between the thigh and the shank.
(No. 19.)

Keel. — The vertical part of the breast-bone. Also
applied to dependent flesh and skin below the
latter, as in many ducks.

Knock-kneed. — The hocks standing near together, in-
stead of well apart.

Laced, Lacing. — A stripe or edging all round z
feather, of some colour different from its ground
colour, as in Sebrights and Wyandottes.

Leader. — .\ single spike terminating the "rose" type
of comb, as in Hamburghs, Wyandottes and
Rosecomb Bantams, etc.

Leg. — In a live fowl this is the scaly part, or shank.
In a bird dressed for table, on the contrary, the
term refers, as is well known, to the joints above.

Leg-feathers. — The feathers projecting from the
outer side of the shanks in some breeds, as
Cochins.

Mealiness. — Used to denote defective buff colour,
when the plumage, instead of being one level
tone, is spotted with white.

238

TBE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Fig. 84. — Points of a Fowl

1. Comb.

2. Face.

3. Wattles.

4. Deaf-ear or Ear-lobe.

5. Hackle.

6. Breast.

7. Back.

8. Saddle.

9. Saddle-hackles.

REFERENCES.

10. Sickles.

11. Tail-coverts.

12. True Tail-feathers.

13. Wing-bow.

14. Wing-coverts, forming the

" bar."

15. Secondaries, the lower-ends

forming the wing or lower
butts. Wing-bay. Diamond.

16. Lower wing butts.

17. Primaries. Hidden by Second-

aries when the wing ia
closed.

18. Thighs,
ig. Hocks.

20. Legs or Shanks.

21. Spur.

22. Toes or Claws.

/

TECHNICAL TERMS.

239

Mossy. — Confused or indistinct in marking.
Pea-comb. — A triple comb, resembling three small

combs in one, the middle being the highest.
Pencilling. — Small markings or stripes over a
feather, either straight across, as in Hamburghs,
or in crescentic form, as in Partridge Cochins.
Poult. — A young turkey.

Primaries. — The flight-feathers of the wings, hidden
when the wing is closed, being tucked under the
visible wing composed of the " secondary "
feathers. Usually the primaries contain the
deepest colour all over the body, except the tail,
and great importance is attached to their colour
by breeders. (No. 17.)
Pullet. — A young hen. Some think the term is not
properly applicable after December 31 of the
year in which a bird is hatched ; others that it is
so up to one year old.
Reachy. — A term applied to Modern Game fowls (in
which " reachiness " is an important point in a
show bird) to denote that they stand erect.
Roach-hack. — A convex-shape of back, and a great
fault in all fowls, with the exception of Malays.
Rooster. — An American term for a cock.
Rose-comb. — A broad solid comb, the top of which is
nearly level and covered with small points. It
becomes broader as it recedes from the front,
ending with a spike or " leader " at the back.
Saddlc.—The. posterior part of the back, reaching to
the tail, in a cock, answering to the cushion in a
hen. (No. 8.)
Soppiness. — A bird is said to be " sappy " when the
" sap " in the feather is perceptible on the sur-
face of the plumage. It shows in a white fowl
in the form of a yellow or light primrose tint.
Secondaries. — The quill-feathers of the wing which

are visible when the bird is at rest. (No. 15.)
Self-colour. — A uniform tint over feather or bird.
Shaft. — The stem or quill of a feather.
5Aa;;/{'.— The scaly part of the leg. (No. 20.)
5/i£.(.M. —Another term for "lustre." The word is
used to denote that a black Orpington, Langshan,
Hamburgh and the like, of beetle-green plum-
age, is oi a rich and transparent colour.
Sickles —The top curved feathers of a cock's tail.
Properly only applied to the top pair, but some-
times used for one or two pairs below which can
hardly be called tail-coverts. (No. 10.)
Spangling.— The marking produced by each feather
having one large spot or splash of some colour
different from the ground-colour. When applied
to a laced breed, as in Polish, explained by the
much broader lacing at the tip of each feather.
Sf>nr. — The sharp weapon near the heel. (No. 21.)
Squirrel-tailed.— The tail projecting in front of a

perpendicular line, over the back.
Stag.— Another term for a young cock, chiefly used

by Game breeders.
Station. — Another term for symmetry, but rather

markedlv in connection with height or reach.
Strain.— .\ race of fowls which, having been carefully
bred bv one breeder or his successors for years,
has acquired an individual character of its own
which can be more or less relied upon.
Symmetry. — Perfection of proportion.
Tail-coverts.— The soft, glossy, curved feathers at
the sides of the bottom of the tail. Usually the
same colour as the sickles. (No. 11.)
Tail-feathers. — The straight and stiff feathers of the
tail only. The top pair are sometimes slightly
curved, but they are always nearly if not quite

straight, and are contained inside the sickles and
tail-coverts. (No. 12.)

Thighs.— The joint above the shanks; the first joint
clothed all over with feathers. The same as the
drumstick in dressed fowls. (No. 18.)

Thnmb-marhed. — A term used an connection with
single-combed male fowls, such as Minorcas and
Leghorns, to describe a comb that is indented or
hollow on one side and protrudes on the other,
as if a thumb had made the depression.

Top-knot. — Same as Crest.

Trl-coloiircd. — ts. term often applied to cockerels
which should be of one uniform colour, when
their hackles and saddles and tails are niuch
darker, and the wing-bow darker still. Chiefly
in buff varieties.

Trio. — A cock or cockerel, and two hens or pullets.

Under-colour.— Th^l portion of the feathers under
the surface, only seen when the plumage is
opened or separated. That of the fluff of the
feather. It often differs greatly from the sur-
face-colour, and is of great importance in breed-
ing.

Variety. — Some definite division of a breed known by
its colour or marking. Thus the breed includes
all the varieties.

Vulture-hock.— StiS projecting quill-feathers at the
hock-joint. The feathers must be both stiff and
projecting to be thus truly called and con-
demned. (Fig. 85, leg of Brahma pullet.)

Waitles.—The red depending structures at each side
of base of beak. Largest in male. (No. 3.)

Web.— This term is indefinite, expressing a flat and
thin structure. The web of a feather is the flat
or plume portion ; the web of the foot, the flat
skin betw^een the toes ; of the wing, the triangular
skin seen when the member is extended.

Wing-bar. — .A.ny line of dark colour across the middle
of the wing, caused by colour or marking of
feathers known as lower wing-coverts. (No. 14.)

Wing-bay.— The triangular part of the folded wing
between the wing-bar and the point. (No. 15.)

IFm^-Jo7£'.— Upper or shoulder part of wing. (N0.13.)

Wing-butts.— The corners or ends of the wing. The
upper ends are more properly called the
shoulder-butts, and are thus termed by Game
fanciers. The lower, similarly, are often called
the lower-butts. (No. 16.)

Wing-coverts. — The broad feathers covering the roots
of the secondary quills. (Xo. M-)

CHAPTER XV.

THOUGH less popolar nam tisca farEserhr,
Codsms ipeQ besenre snU to head Siie
Est of breeds m eutt boot of pcfnZtrr.
ladgpende^' of rbar awn XDerira, •srhjch hsr'e
aasbd^s feZ'en izto iiie harVgracrid sedcs tK?
raodsni stsnGsrd of iir^afcig' iiss nrmaired liserr
stiliti" ss iaj"sr5 zuc. tabSe-fcriris, i
tiie disef pro^snrrors of a "^ _

End aZ ?."~Te fonDoed an a Cochin cross. And
apsrr from even rhst. liieir introdncian -stes tie
raosi msniarzxiue erem tisa; h;?^ ersr iisTtoerjed
in liss pc<nltiy irocld: tJiere has been
2ks h before or ^nce. Prericcish-, -perr- few
peoQJe indeed except xsj-nssrs fcepi fcwls. snd
tbose OEiIy scrubs or r^ongrels ; 2i}d ooe or two
saoK-s tsiiich made attempes to sitract pobBc
irsteiesu irere only looked span vitri a good-
Batored cgn'erii' ■ n In 1S50 C-ociiiiis irere
ssintrted at Brrmirsgtiasi, and chaaged eveiy-
ttrng. Ev err risitor -srent bcime to lal of tie
new and wonderSf^ fcwii. wbkii were as hcg- as
rstncbes, sr>d roared lie joqs, vrHJe genzje as

a garret, aDC tooi: to pening ^ike ts
Oibers cruwdsd m to see ''^Hptti and li;

End even rbe street ocxsade die sihow
and Pifloj^ drew and wrote aboot
air rew bcrds ; and before peopje tnew wbere
ibey were, tbsy were in f"*^ '~t~~ of the CEno^s

coaid Doe last ; tmi tbe breeding and esiifbrban
of poaltiy did, to soch an extent tkat erer snce
rhere bas never "ipcked a market for a rsElhr
good bcrd. And tbe Cociin did it alL He is
tiie fetker -- - - -- -- - -sjt, and xjone msy

Bocdcs .. __-_: — :_on bare traced tbe

odgt- of liis oresc xo some fowls inipccted in
: f-13. windi afterwards became tbe nropertv oe

tbe late Oaeen Vldxnia, Trnder tbe
rvig^ af name ot Codim O^TTia fowls. As
flw^'Tffi regards "^i**^ tcwls tberEselTes •Htt=

is a total '^''^:~~=V'=' A diawing
was givea in tbe lUxSirsted LjriiZrt: 2^ais of
tbat n^tf, xTtES u'lt'i.-^ sad tbe fii°^ 1 1 j>i ino it b

mamfest tisat tbsy bad ab'yfeis^p no paints d
"i^ Cochin at alL sa-s^ peibsps yeZcw jsgs s-ni^

lar^e and carried bigb. tbe back "org- and

skitEi^ to lie t-stI ibe eyes ^'fary. tie -■" :?-g^

^e axjd bard. Of wbai we may rs" Malar-
- 1 tbey probsKy bad a gtsa: fel" : of C-i.-"-^
- . ---ti nozie. or bet socne trace in a cross. 3ct2
ooe thing abozr tbsm there -was : tbese fcTrls
were net aruy big, bnt tisey probr.b'hr did isaZy
come from CodLin C~'^'~.- and fmm ~H=rn ;rr»n
' at iacr came xmoosbiedly tbe c2«e£. wbkb wSI
now beiong, winle poaltry breeiSng lasts, tZ)
asotber fowl thar b^ no rigbt to it at z~L

Tbe real stoci fesc reached ~^-^ cozntrv in
3a47, Mr. Moody, in Hampsnfre and Mr. Alfrei

in tbat year. Mr. Moody's, so far as we csr.

jeam, were iafer5ar in ch^Tff.rrfT and kg-satber
to Mr. Sturgeon's, brt wsre very large and of
ibe same broad lyte : and aH alike c£me £01.11
tbe port of SbangT;?sf- or is neigbbtii^bocid.

bad never been near CociaE China: and foe-
years attsniDE were •"•j^i^^ to pnt tiss «i:i ■ .^.t
straigbt. Tbe rrst Pniilrrj Booi of Wmgneld

and all Anserican writers strcve for tbe ssme

tbe -r-^c^ ^ and so it was bere. Tbe psbbo bad gat
to sjxpir tbe sew bag fowls as Cocbizs, asd
woELsd Tse no ocber word: and so lise TT-'-nif'
stack, in tbe teedi of tbe facs, aaad bouds ne
Seld to rhV= dsy.

t>orts from Sban^bae. 'l^~-= been tbe 7t\h~t'- scgetcs

frocn which Cckthirs were tn^

Amenca bas bad many

tioQS. Mr. ■pnntbard's stock was mainly &de3

Mr. Sturgeon, tbe latter ieetrng mm tbooce

tbe dark birds whkb ceigmaied ibe panri^es,
cdiCi!:^ V^^g t-esy T?vy-TTi ia tbe brasdi^ s£

'1.Y cocHiys.

mose c=.;.-=. izs. i2.te -•Ir. iturgecsi gare, m
1S53, tins arcanut of tiae caigin of Jiis itjxk :- —

is s. v^av a"^ *^' - '"^ TsT^ sud

bsa-iT. sr=d ■»T>ai3

':^^-

"-■srsci occa-

.: 3 -D tZ= COC£

rKucujOus-v rxrra'i'Bggiii. anLi enidai uls cI
jf; psr pen of ttree. Accardiag to an
l;:;--: eivea bv Mr. Sturgeon to Mr. Ncrrls-

Z.-.t"" Mr. Pnijcnard's -Dens -a-ere all r'a.:~£d.

ai 7a: Feczka^ M :v^~ Orxs.

and Mjt. Stnigeoo's w:_.z i ; ;t:- also.
orer and over again, bat the wouid-be bcyers

■s-aited in tbe snpposilion that be woiild take
less, as Mr. P-oncbard's were so rnmch lower
ia price. Mr. Smigeon was thns enabled to
clairn tbe entire lot, and keep tbem \- - -
own bands : and a year or two later
be had a sale — tbe first ponltrr sale :: :;.:
kmd erer beld — wikb was cxHidticted by-
Mr. '^.'TT.-rr ?t^5''?rd tbe late well-known
' -i tbe pnblisber of

'. his snrplns stock
-; :_- i_7_r z^^^-. i net total of ^609.
The Cochins thus introdnced into England
were perceptToly dif-
ferent trom tbe present
^f^_ »yps t>f bird, tfaoiigb

exhibiting in the main
— ^t the chief character-

~ ^^ irr::5 which distin-

; r : i ner features free:
other ra£2s of f :" I5.
Tl^ accrtuipaeyzjig
iIlTistratian, •rincn is
rsdiired from a draw-
ing bv tbe l:-f
Mr. Harrison ' ;.-
in tbe IIIiis:-z:cd
London Ne-j:s of is: 3,
^sill show tbe cbar-
arters of tbe ^"y^rcs
iSzer tbev had settled

vrLT or two of ex-

:ililt;Dn. There wil
;>e rensrked in r'nU
cc rtenporaiT.- drawing
~" ----- tne g.coTi.F.r masses cf

rnS" over tis ben's
- -- ^_^ ^g 4^:_-_, . - __.■_ j=^g5 . j4je siicrt

".Li. : tne rr tLthered ^^hsTiki: ;

- . ^m-sized i^--- :.::-_. tbe low and for-

wand cairiage : tbe short i^s set wide ajert. Yet

there is one diSerence of a marked character,

apart nrnn tbe less amount of shank-feathering

and absence of vnlture-hock. Tbe fiii^ masses

- - ^_ 53_^^ Qjjj £ji eren more globular pro-

: ^ than tbev do to-day ; and considering

-' 'tr TTs observe that the plumage of

- ' tbe bodj- in boA sexes is more

."---- --t-ntting than now, and hence t>T"=:

appears £~.r-,.fT in propord'^n to the hinder-parts.
Tbe dinerence is dne more to plumage than
anything else, for Mr. Stnrgeon. writing in tbe
same year, insists on ' great depth from tbe
base of tbe neck to tbe point of the breast-
bone," and also on length of tbe latter. To

242

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

this comparatively greater closeness of plumage
over the forward portions of the body, while
the hinder parts only were covered with deep
fluff, we now know was due the greater laying
powers of the Cochins of those days (see p. 174).
One or two other details about these early
Cochins are very interesting. Mr. Sturgeon
wrote (of buffs) even in 1853, that "the eye
should be red and full," since it had already been
found that " in all cases of contracted pupil and
blindness, the pearl or broken-eyed birds have
been the sufferers." This weakness of the pearl

/x^/ /,

stock as Mr. Sturgeon's buffs, one breeder pre-
ferring the light and the other the darker
colours. To the same mixture of colours is no
doubt due the number of varieties recognised
in the early " standards," buff, lemon, silver-
buff, silver-cinnamon, and cinnamon being all
separately described.

Ten or twelve years did not make much
change in the general characteristics of Cochins,
yet a little is observable, as will be seen from
the accompanying drawings made in 1865 by
M. Jacque, the leading French poultry artist

Vi«v\<\(.Q^M^_

Fig. 87. — Cochins in 1SG5.

eye, and even of light yellow, still remains. The
early birds also bred most amazingly in regard
to colour, and the finest of the early blacks were
bred from a white cock and buff hen. From
one brood of ten chickens of this cross, two
pullets were pure black ; two pullets and three
cockerels black, with more or less gold in
hackles, and marked wings ; the other three
darkly pencilled birds. Another breeder put a
buff cock with dark partridge hens ; the pullets
from this cross were all light fawns. It has
already been noted that Mr. Punchard's par-
tridges were originally selected from the same

of that day. Though the head is ill-drawn, the
cock here shows more "type" than the 1853
drawing, being more like the Cochin as we
know it ; and both birds show more softness
and looseness of feather over the zvhole of the
body than in the original type. It is this latter
change which was to proceed so much further
in later years, as shown very strongly in our
plates of to-day, and reaching its climax, per-
haps, in the American Cochin as now bred.

The last marked change which took place
was the admission of vulture-hocks, due to the
passion for heavy shank-feather, together with

CHARACTERISTICS OF COCHINS.

243

most inconsistent conduct on the part of the
then leading judges. Tliese had carried prac-
tical disqualification for vulture-hocks to such

an extreme, that birds with the
Vulture least fulness of shank-feather were

Hocks. repeatedly passed over for what

was really only nice covering with
quite soft and well-curled feathers. That pro-
voked reaction to excessive shank-feather, and
birds were exhibited with hocks heavily plucked ;
and then almost of a sudden the judges gave
way and went to the other extreme, and vulture-
hocks sprang in with a bound, so far as England
was concerned. It always seemed to us that
heavy and stiff quill-feather was inconsistent
with the idea of a Cochin ; and it has been
proved in America that heavy shank-feather
can be bred without stiff hocks ; but in England
the hocked fashion has now prevailed since
about 1875. As the Cochin, with this and other
changes, has now become almost entirely a
"fancy'' fowl, kept up by fanciers solely,
nothing can be said in objection to the standard
they adopt ; but the few birds now exhibited
in comparison with the large classes which
formerly appeared at large shows,* are an
eloquent testimony to the change which has
taken place in general appreciation of this once
popular breed.

Turning next to the Cochin as it is bred
to-day, its great characteristic, above all, is
massiveness of appearance, especially in the
buffs, which are superior to the
Characteristics Other colours, as a rule, in Cochin
of character. The bird really is very

Cochina. large and heavy,a full-grown cock

weighing from 10 lbs. to 13 lbs.;
but a good bird looks larger for his weight than
any other breed, owing to the fluffy plumage.
This is thinner in the quill, broader in the web,
and with more length of loose fibrils from the
root than other breeds, thus standing out more
from the body, and making it look larger, even
on those parts where it appears to lie close. The
comb is single and straight, only medium in
size, with neat top outline and serrations ; and
these and the wattles and the face and lobes
should be smooth and fine in texture, not red-
pimpled all over. The head should be small,
with a gentle and intelligent look ; the neck
rather short, and very full towards bottom of
the hackle, which flows well over the shoulders.
These are wide and flat, and the back so short
that the saddle or cushion seems to rise to the
stern almost from the base of the hackle. The
saddle or cushion must be very broad, and rise

•There were 58 buff cockerels at Birmingham in 1874.

well, all but burying the short tail of the hen ;
the tail of the cock should be as short, and the
coverts or sickles as soft as possible, the whole
forming a sort of smooth line with the saddle
hackles. The body is deep and large every
way, the fluff on cushion and thighs standing
out as profusely as possible ; but the wings are
not quite so tight-feathered, or clipped in so
close as formerly, but themselves carried more
loosely from the body, so that the thigh-fluff
in most birds does not show such marked
" globes " as it did some years ago. The breast
should come down very deep, and be well
covered with soft plumage. The shank-feather
should be very abundant, and stand well out
from the shanks, especially at the weak place
just under the hocks. In the hocks, as little of
projecting stiff quill as possible is preferred,
and to be sought for. Vulture-hock is objec-
tionable, but the heavy feather down the shank
m.ust not be mistaken for vulture-hock. Close
examination would reveal the different nature
of the feather, for vulture-hock means hard
quilled feathers standing out from the back of
the hock. The shanks must be short and set
wide apart, and the feather extend to the end
of outer and middle toes. The attitude is
rather forward, with the stern carried high,
and the head (in comparison with most breeds)
rather low, and the carriage is dignified.

Coming now to the varieties of Cochins, at
the head of them all stands the class of colours
now all known as Buffs. As already observed,
at an early date the buff colours
Buff were much sub-divided, ranging from

Cochins. the lightest silver-buffs and silver-

cinnamons, through lemons and buffs,
to the deep-coloured cinnamons, which would
now be called almost red. The lightest of these
colours were very pretty, the breasts being so
pale as to be almost a French grey, while the
hackles and top plumage of the cockerels were
much darker. The propensity for uniform
colour all over displaced these variegated
colours, and then lor some years the classes
were headed "cinnamjon and buff." The colour
of many birds was still lacking in uniformity, and
for several years cockerels occasionally won,
which would now be called " tri-coloured," the
breast being lemon or orange buff, the hackles
and saddle much darker, and the wing darker
still, even a red. Such birds did not breed well,
besides their variegated appearance, and would
not now be tolerated in any decent competition.
It may be stated broadly that the chief thing
now desired is unifoniiity of colour all over in
buff Cochins. Of course the hackle, from its

^44

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

dififerent texture, has a somewhat different
appearance, and more solid, if not deeper tint
than the body colour, but the tone of the whole
is desired as uniform as possible. The following
valuable remarks upon mating and breeding
buff Cochins are kindly contributed by that
well-known exhibitor, Mr. George H. Procter,
Flass House, Durham : —

" A good buff Cochin should be as large as
possible, and should look bigger than it really
is, owing to the plumage being so loose, fluffy,
and soft. A tight-feathered bird I dislike very
much, and consider such far from the true type.

"The head should be neat and nicely curved,
and free from coarseness. The comb should not
be very large, but evenly serrated, and free from
thumb-mark and side sprigs. It should be of
fine texture, and, as with the wattles and ear-
lobe, a bright red. White in the lobe is a very
common defect, and though close confinement
aggravates the fault, it comes with age. The
eye should be yellow or orange, though pearl
is not objectionable. The beak must be short,
strong, curved, and of a bright yellow.

" The neck must be short, nicely curved, and
covered with long flowing hackle. The back
should be very broad, the saddle or cushion
ri:>ing towards the tail, with an arch in the hen ;
in the cock the saddle hackle is very long,
reaching well over the wing points. The wing
must be short, the tips well tucked up, and, as I
have said before, buried under the saddle hackle
or cushion, but not carried too close to the body,
as this does away with the loose feathery look
a Cochin should always have. A slip or loose
wing is a most serious fault, and the most
certain to appear in the next generation. The
tail of the cock should not be carried too high,
but rather obliquely, with full, flowing, soft,
ribbon-like feathers. Some birds are shown
minus part of their stiff tail feathers, which I
consider a great mistake, as, instead of improv-
ing their appearance in the eyes of a breeder
(who can see at a glance the unnatural moult),
it spoils the outline. The breast must be very
full and broad, the feathers on the under side
soft and curly.

" The thighs should be covered with long,
soft fluff, and on the front curly feathers. The
fluff must stand well out, and not cling to the
sides, else, however good the bird might be, I
should hesitate to use it in a breeding pen.
There has been much written in days gone by
about vulture-hocks, but I have always allowed
a good deal of latitude in this point, and would
rather have a stiff hock than a lightly covered
joint, as this with scant shank- and foot-feather
generally goes hand in hand. At the same time

nothing improves the look of a Cochin more
than a hock properly covered with soft feathers,
curling round the joint. The shanks should be
strong and set well apart. The feathers should
stand well " off" on the outside, sometimes quite
six inches, but on no account pointing down-
wards, as such are much more liable to be
broken, and although there may be a great
amount of feathers, they do not show to the
same advantage in the exhibition pen. I
strongly object to any break or scarcity of
feather between the hock and shank. The
feet are yellow in chickens, but in many old
birds flesh-coloured, which I think quite admis-
sible. The feathering should be very profuse
and running to the end of the middle toe, which
should be quite hidden from view. A badly
covered middle toe I look upon as a great
defect, and ene likely to increase in the next
generation.

" The colour of the cock is as follows : The
neck and saddle hackle, in fact all the top
feathers, should be of a bright rich golden buff,
free from any red or bricky tinge, as well as any
suspicion of mealiness. The breast, thighs, and
fluff a sound, dense buff down to the skin, and
not showing the rib of the feathers. A washy -
coloured breast, chalky or blue fluff is con-
sidered fatal in a breeding bird. The tail coverts
must be rich chestnut, and the stiff feathers free
from black or white. The former is a fault many
otherwise good birds have, but as pure buff tails
can be bred, I consider that the black should be
heavily penalised. The flight feathers, in a
cockerel to breed from, must be of a sound,
rich buff, without white or black ; but in an old
bird a little white is almost certain to appear,
and, although by no means desirable, I should
not penalise it much. Foot and shank feathers
should be the same colour as breast and fluff,
also free from black or white in a cockerel ; but,
like the flight feathers, in many cases a little
white appears in the second year.

" The colour of the hen should be of an even
soft buff throughout, with no suspicion of red or
bricky tinge. All wing, foot, and shank feathers
must be free from black. In no case should
the rib of the feathers show, but the buff colour
must run down the fluff to the skin. I dislike
a hen with a chalky fluff much more than one
of lighter top colour.

" For some time I noticed in the poultry
journals a controversy going on respecting
colour feeding. I am no believer in the system,
for, in the first place, perfectly coloured buff
birds can be bred without any artificial feeding,
and in the second, I should say birds so fed
would be useless for breeding purposes. As a

BREEDING BUFF COCHINS.

24s

matter of fact my buff Cochins have never been
subject to any such treatment, and I am quite
certain I shall never allow it in my yards.

" In mating up a breeding pen, I select a
cockerel that has not been exhibited, if possible,
and do not mind if rather late hatched. He
must have a neat, well-serrated comb, short,
heavily feathered shanks and feet, especially the
middle toe, together with a broad back, full
breast, and plenty of fluff He must be perfectly
sound in colour, with a small, clear buff tail.
The flights and fluff buff to the skin ; if just a
shade darker on the wing I do not object, but
at the same time I strongly object to a red
backed or tri-coloured bird, many of which
have been awarded prizes and used for breeding
by the inexperienced breeder, much to the detri-
ment of the colour of the offspring, more espe-
cially of the pullets bred from such, as they
come mottled, and show unsoundness on wings
and streaky breasts. It is a mistake to think a
dark-winged cock mated with light hens will
breed sound, medium-coloured chickens. This
mistake, I notice, is being made in other buff"
varieties, and so long as these dark cocks are
allowed to win prizes, we will see faulty-coloured
hens and pullets.

" When I am satisfied with the selection of
the cockerel, for choice I should say put with
him five two-year-old hens, large, roomy birds
with neat heads and plenty of feather and shape,
and of the same strain if possible. I do not
mind if a bit pale in colour or mottled, so long
as the colour runs down to the skin, and they
are not chalky in their fluff They should be
as free as possible from black in tail. I con-
sider the cock is mostly answerable for the
colour and feathering, and the hen for size and
shape, of the offspring.

" My old birds are fed twice a day, in the
morning on sharps or middlings, mixed with a
little scalded cut bone, or any of the patent
poultry foods, given warm, and about 3 p.m. a
good feed of sound wheat, a few acres of which
I grow for the purpose every year, and find this
suits my birds best. The chickens are fed every
two or three hours for the first few weeks, mostly
upon oatmeal, mixed with a little scalded meal
and some chopped bone and hard boiled egg,
but I soon begin to substitute sharps or mid-
dlings, mixed with some of the patent poultry
foods. I get chickens on to small wheat for
a change, and find nothing brings them on
quicker than a judicious use of this grain."

The Buff Cochin being, as already intimated,
the real progenitor of a whole tribe of buff
poultry, it will be convenient to enter here
fully, once for all, into the essential principles

of breeding all-self-coloured buff fowls, ignorance
of which has led to much failure and disap-
pointment, the more so since a certain change
of fashion already generally indicated
Breeding above. Formerly some difference in
Buffs. colours on various parts of the body

was recognised, the silver-cinnamons,
for instance, having very light under parts, with
much darker colour in the hackle and cock's
upper parts, and in the tails. Such colours
have now quite disappeared in favour of
a self-colour, as uniform as possible all
over. It may range from cinnamon to pale
lemon in tint, but the tint is desired the same
all over, with only the difference in shade or
richness which the difference of hackles in tex-
ture of feather necessarily makes. This stand-
ard of colour has brought the natural tendency
to black in tail into stronger relief; and nothing
has been more common than for purchasers to
insist, above all other points, upon any bird Gent
them having no black in tail. It cannot be too
well understood that while a buff or bronzed
tail is the ideal for a perfect bird, a cockerel
with dark tail may be a valuable breeder, while
one with no black in tail may be absolutely
worthless.

The great essential in breeding self-coloured
buffs, is freedom from any " meal " in the buff, or
white anywhere in the plumage so far as growing
stock is concerned (there may be some come in
good old birds, as indicated by Mr. Procter
above), and good buff under-colour. The latter
means that the fluff at the base of the feather
is to be buff, not white, or " buff to the skin," as
it is termed, and the shaft of the feather also
buff, not white. The web of the feather and
surface of the bird may be buff, but if the under-
colour be white or nearly so, good chickens will
be very few. Many birds in any new strain
may be very pale buff in the under-fluff at first,
almost white ; but as selection proceeds darker
and darker should be chosen, until fairly rich
colour is obtained. After that the breeder will
have less trouble.

Mealiness in colour does not mean mottling,
as when feathers bleach in the sun ; it means a
most minute speckle of white among the buff,
like specks of flour, so fine as almost to need a
magnifying glass to see it, and leaving the bird
apparently quite a nice even buff, looked at
carelessly. Such a bird will never breed good-
coloured stock ; but it is just such as are most
generally free from black in tail, and often get
chosen on that account ; while on the other hand
a cockerel with black in his tail, of the proper
sound colour, and " buff to the skin," may breed
most successfully, and be a very valuable bird.

246

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

as may a pullet a little ticked in her hackle or
dark in tail. There is so much tendency to
" breed lighter," that these faults are far less
troublesome than white under-colour, or any
approach to " meal" on the surface.

Another point to be borne in mind, is to
breed so far as possible from darker birds than
the progeny are desired. One only has to mate
two really pale buffs, to get chickens with a
great deal of absolute white in them : that
shows the tendency in this colour. If hens and
pullets can be selected on the dark side, all the
better ; and even then the cock or cockerel
should be decidedly dark — he may even be
almost a rich red. This is still more essential if
the females are not dark. But whatever colour
the birds are, they must be even all over if the
result is to be good, mottled or uneven colour in
different parts being strongly hereditary. Even
colour is, if anything, still more important in
the male bird than in the female. One form of
unevenness in colour is lacing on the feathers,
with either lighter or darker buff, especially on
the breast or wings. We have often thought
that the darker lacing, which is most common,
might easily be developed with care into a very
beautiful variety ; but in breeding for self-colour
at least, it must be carefully avoided, being very
apt to perpetuate itself

Thirty years back the fashion in buffs was
for what were called lemons, the under-parts
being a rather pale yellow buff, while the
hackles were a bright lemon. At the present
time a rich medium shade of colour is preferred
for the cockerels, although in the pullets the
paler shades are tolerated at least by some
judges. This variance of colour is the result
of breeding the two sexes from separate pens.
Birds have been shown almost bricky in colour ;
but of late some signs have been manifest of a
disposition to regard with more favour again
the brighter orange and lemon shades.

Buff chickens usually become darker in
colour with the adult plumage, and in their first
feathers often show a mottled and pale surface,
which is very disappointing, but which moults
out all right. This is rather curious in con-
nection with the necessity for depth of colour
in the parents, and must be borne in mind.
Chickens which look dark enough in their
chicken feathers, will very often moult too dark.
This is to be remembered, and if they are bred
from good parentage, such light chickens should
not be discarded. After one season's rearing of
his own birds, if from good stock, a breeder
new to Buffs will know about what to expect
in this way, and be able to do his weeding
accordingly.

Partridge Cochins have gone down very
much during the past ten years ; why, is not
easy to explain. In the early 'nineties Messrs.
Mead, Woods and Holland kept the
Partridge colour very much to the front, but
Cochins. with their demise the colour lost

popularity. They have seen great
changes since the early days, most of Mr.
Punchard's early cocks having been brown in

Fig. 88.— Partridge Hen's Hackle Feathers.

breast. Black was however preferred, and we
have been told by several old breeders who
remember those early days, including the writer
of the following notes, that the origin of the
black breast was a cross with Mr. Lacy's brown
Brahmas of that time, which also tended to
improve the marking of the hens. Most of the
early Partridge hens were light brown, finely
pencilled with dark brown, the shaft of the
feather showing white over most of the body.
Along with these were shown hens known as
grouse, from their solid grouse pencilling with-
out any streak in the shaft of the feather ; some
of these being distinctly traced to the cross
mentioned just above. The streaky- feathered
hens have since died out, and the grouse-
feathered type, more or less modified, is the
modern Partridge Cochin, with a black-breasted
cock as show companion. The grouse marking
was gradually bred to great perfection, and
about 1868 — the precise year is difficult to
ascertain — there wis introduced another cross

BREEDING PARTRIDGE COCHINS.

of more modern dark Brahma, which imparted
the beautiful pencilling of that variety and a
somewhat lighter ground colour, almost verg-
ing on yellow in some birds, with black
markings. Still later there is evidence that
there was at least one marked introduction
of Brahma blood for the third time, with a
view still further to "clear" the pencilling.
With this cross came a smaller size and a
narrow weedy build, which has not bred out
yet, so that many Partridge pullets are the most
inferior of any of the varieties in Cochin type

Cochins, from the days of the late Mr. Edward

Tudman downwards : —

"To breed Partridge Cochin cocks is now a

very difficult task, the reason of which is I

believe that they have got mixed up with the
pullet strain, which tends to brown

Breeding in the fluff, and too plain hackles.

I have not bred the cock strain
now for many years, but believe

there is always danger in breeding from birds

not black up to the throat and darkly striped

in the hackle.

Partridge
Cochins.

Fig. 89. — Partridge Cochin Pencilled Feathers.

and massiveness. This point needs special
attention from the breeder. All strains have
not been so crossed, and the result is apt to
be, unless care is taken, some anomalies in
breeding owing to such great differences in
blood. We were told by the writer of the
following notes of one very curious case,
that of the best cup Partridge pullet perhaps
ever seen at Birmingham up to even now,
claimed at the price of .£^34, which was bred
from a cock-breeding hen, of a mere mouse
colour ; but this mother of that splendid bird
never bred another good one either before or
since.

The following notes are from Mr. Richard
Southern, of Worsley, well known as one of the
oldest and most successful breeders of Partridge

" To breed pullets the first thing is to choose
your hens, which should, of course, be the largest
and best-shaped possible, short on the leg, and
plenty of foot feather, with, if possible, nice soft
hocks ; but above all things must be heavily
pencilled from head to foot, the breast in parti-
cular. I have always bred my very best pullets
from hens heavily pencilled in the hackle, and
find these always breed the best pencilled ones,
so that my strain of Partridge Cochins may be
called a pencilled-hackled strain, and I have had
it for over twenty years. These hens breed the
striped hackle as well, and the three hackle
feathers in Fig. 88 show this. Feather A is a
heavily pencilled hackle from a hen three years
old, which is the mother of both the hackles in
B and C, one being a partially pencilled hackle

24S

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

and the other a striped. I have won scores of
times with pencilled hackles, but prefer the
striped hackle for a show hen ; but until you
get them to breed both in this way, you do
not get so many well-pencilled pullets.

"The cocks to mate with these hens should
have a rich orange-coloured hackle, broadly
striped ivith black, with a few brown spots on his
breast, but not brown patches ; he should also be
just a little tinged with brown on his fluff, and
if his tail feathers have a very narrow edging
of brown or bay I like him all the better, as this
tends to breed pencilled tails in his pullets. The
hens should be chosen a little darker than is
required, as they will breed pullets lighter than
themselves in regard to the greater portion. I
have always chosen my breeding cocks from
one to two or three years old, and the hens
the same, and never breed from cockerels and
pullets. One reason is that I have had many
pullets that did not moult out as I should have
liked, and it is much safer to breed from those
hens which have improved in pencilling up to
one or two years old. 1 also choose my hens
and cocks (for breeding) with the shaft of the
feather almost black to the skin."

Fig. 89 is photographed from feathers of this
old grouse strain, and will show the perfection
of its marking, the colour of these being almost
black on a light brown ground. But the
specimens have also been selected, out of
quite a number sent us by Mr. Southern, to
show how remarkably a strain bred for many
years for pencilling, without a cross, tends
gradually to approximate to the Hamburgh
type of pencilled marking, a feature much
in evidence to-day. The hackle of the mother
hen in Fig. 88 also shows this character
strongly. In Fig. 89 A and E are a breast
and cushion feather from the same hen, and
in the latter Hamburgh-like bands of pen-
cilling appear at the base of the feather.
But the tendency is shown still more strongly
in B, C, and D, which are all breast feathers ;
B from one, and C D both from another or
different pullet : the two last are specially
suggestive in regard to possibilities of pen-
cilling.

The Brahma-crossed pullets, which are more
often seen, exactly resemble Brahma feathers
in the character of their marking ; and the
ground colour, though not yellow, generally
partakes of a brighter tinge approaching that
colour, while the marking really is black, and
varies from narrow markings to broad bands, as
in strains of Brahmas. What is said above as
to pencilling of the hackles also applies to these
birds, though marking so nearly approaching

that of pencilled Hamburghs is rarely found
amongst them. Good pencilling should be
looked for in fluff and foot-feather, as well as on
the body and breast. The males for these
birds will have as a rule orange red hackles,
and should be marked on the breast and fluff,
the black feathers having either an edging or
lacing of brown, or a small pear-shaped tick at
the end of each breast feather : either will do,
provided, of course, the bird be of the pullet-
breeding strain, and have hackles densely and
sharply striped, especially on the saddle. If
there is a little fine black edging round the tips
of the hackles, as well as in the centre stripe, it
is none the worse for a pullet-breeding cockerel.

Apart from the glossy black breast, and
dense black fluff and foot feather, which are now
expected in him, the exhibition Partridge cock
is deeper or richer in colour than the one for
pullet breeding. His hackles are preferred of a
deep reddish orange, or even red, while the
wing-bow and shoulders and back are of a
glossy red, almost crimson in tone. When the
condition is good and the gloss on the feather
is perfection, the upper part of a Partridge
cock is a gorgeous display of colour, which
hardly has a parallel in any other breed for
its beautiful waxy lustre and brilliance.

To breed these birds it is no use now to use
exhibition or grouse-marked pullets. The male
must, of course, be chosen as perfect as possible
in all exhibition points, including Cochin
character as well as colour, the most common
fault in the latter being white in tail, which
clings to this breed with e.xtraordinary persist-
ence. The hens to mate with him are very dark
all over, the ground-colour of the feathers being
dark brown nearly as dark as roasted coffee,
covered over with very small and minute pencil-
ling, too close to be distinguishable as bands,
and almost black. The feathers of such a hen
are shown in Fig. 90, and the great difference
between them and the grouse-marked feathers
on p. 247 will be observed. These feathers very
often show a little white in the shaft, which does
not matter much ; and altogether it is very
obvious that this strain contains more than the
other of the older Partridge blood. The entire
bird is very dark and dull looking, and the
cushion feathers are often almost dull black,
except for a narrow lacing of the brown ground ,
birds without that lacing breed cockerels not
bright enough. It does not of course follow that
all dark and dull-looking hens like this will
breed exhibition cockerels ; but if they are the
next relatives of such, and therefore of the
right blood, there will be little disappointment
after the strain has been bred a year or two.

BLACK COCHINS.

249

The hackles of these hens should be deep red-
dish orange, with a broad and dense black stripe
resembling C in Fig. 88.

These dark hens are often of noble and
massive proportions, and hence the males of
this variety are at present often better than the
females, which, since the last Brahma cross for
pencilling, have too often been small and weedy.
It was very striking, until the older style of
marking had died out, to see the two side by
side, and mark the grandeur of the older type
compared with the modern. The increase of
size and Cochin shape in the exhibition females
is the most pressing desideratum in Partridge
Cochin breedmg, and much might be done by
selecting the finest birds, and systematic feedmg

tridges and Whites in size and form, and
awakened quite a new interest in this variety
amongst Cochin breeders. For their slow pro-
gress in early years there were several reasons ;
one being the predominant rage for buffs and
whites, and another the scarcity of stock, which
led to in-breeding, and caused want of size and
weediness of build, the proper methods of line-
breeding not being then understood. Another
reason was the attempt to keep up bright yellow
shanks, which all black fowls strongly resist
From one cause and another they had become

Wing.

Back.

Fig. 90. — Feathers of Cockbreeding Partridge Hen.

for size, as treated of in the earlier chapters of
this work. Even a cross from the browner and
more massive type of Dark Brahma hens might
possibly prove useful ; it being obviously the
smaller paper-ground birds, chosen for beauty of
marking, which have done the mischief, and
whiteness of ground not being necessary in the
Partridge Cochin.

Black Cochins have been known from the
earliest days, but until comparatively recent
years have been little bred in comparison with
other varieties, and generally be-
Black hind them in Cochin quality. At

Cochins. the shows of recent years, however,

the specimens shown by Capt. R. S.
Williamson and the Rev. F. Sutton Dodd
have, in several instances, surpassed both Par-

nearly extinct, when the introduction of Lang-
shans in 1872 gave strong fresh blood, renewed
size, and better colour. Such a cross now would
be hopeless ; but the illustration of the original
Langshans on a later page will show that at
that date the poor existing Black Cochins had
little to lose even in model from the new blood
as then known, and the chief change really
wrought by it was in the question of leg colour.
For a time this was generally quite dark, as in
the Langshan, but gradually a very dusky
yellow came to be generally recognised as the
correct type, and the strengthened stock has
been, with the aid of other Cochin crosses, bred
up to Its present standard.

The following notes on Black Cochins have
been kindly contributed by Capt. R. S.William-
son, of The Grange, Hednesford, well known as

250

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

one of the most prominent breeders and ex-
hibitors : —

" Seeing the popularity of the Buff and
Partridge Cochins amongst poultry fanciers, it
is somewhat remarkable that Black Cochins are
not more largely kept. They possess many
advantages over the other varieties from an
amateur's standpoint ; they are nothing like so
troublesome to keep in show form, and in smoky
and dirty neighbourhoods they can be kept
where it would be impossible to keep the other
varieties. Again, in exhibiting Black Cochins it
is not so necessary for the would-be exhibitor
to be an ' expert,' as beyond taking proper
care of the foot-feather very little is required.
And as regards a utility point of view, they will
compare favourably with any of the Cochin
varieties, and for hardiness they cannot be
beaten.

" Many years ago exquisite Blacks were
shown. Some writers consider they were bred
from Buffs and Whites. More recently the
crossing of a dark male Partridge Cochin with
female Black Cochins had been known to pro-
duce most excellent birds ; but oddly enough
only the pullets came pure in colour, the
cockerels in nearly every case showing red or
coloured feathers in their neck hackle. The
introduction of crosses has no doubt been the
means of getting size into the breed, but at the
expense of disgusting many would-be breeders
and exhibitors, by the appearance of discoloured
feathers amongst their stock. Once these red
or discoloured feathers get introduced, it takes
considerable time and trouble to breed them
out. If a cross has to be tried, it should be of
Whites, as by crossing two distinct colours like
black and white, an improvement may be given
to each variety. No doubt some years ago the
Langshan blood was used to get colour ; but
this spoilt the shape and type, and accounts
for the huge tails some of the Black Cochins
possessed years ago.

" The chief characteristics of Black Cochins,
apart from tneir being a lustrous green black,
are much the same as in the other varieties of
Cochins. The question of colour of leg is how-
ever one that has not yet been definitely settled.
Some breeders maintain that they should have
bright yellow legs, others dark slate colour, and
by others again the " lizard " or dusky yellow is
preferred. The latter colour is, I consider, the
correct one. The yellow leg has no doubt been
got by crossing with the other varieties of
Cochin ; and from a breeding experience of over
thirty years of this variety, I invariably find
that the bright yellow legs bring discoloured
feathers. The dark slate-coloured legs may be

attributed to the Langshan cross, but stock with
this coloured leg produce a much larger pro-
portion of pure coloured birds. The lizard
coloured leg birds have also been found to be
much more reliable to breed from than the
yellow, and, from an extended experience,
should, I think, be taken as the standard, as
they are much more characteristic of the Cochin
than the black or slate-coloured.

" Regarding the other points, a pure and
bright colour should be insisted upon ; either red
or black eyes ; and the shape should be similar
in every way to the other varieties of Cochins.

" It is most gratifying to see the progress
Black Cochins have made during the last few
years, a very great improvement in size, shape,
foot-feather, and colour being noticeable ; and
in addition, at our large shows, where only,
unfortunately, classes are given in the majority
of cases, the entries in many instances have
come up to those in the Partridge and White
classes."

There is not the slightest doubt that a large
proportion of the early Black Cochins really
were bred from Buffs and Whites, as stated in
the early part of this chapter : the fact is
recorded both as fact, and actual personal expe-
rience, by the authors of the Poultry Book of
1853, as also the fact that other specimens had
been imported direct. These latter appear to
have been the inferior of the two, for the same
authority states that " some of the best " had
been bred from the cross. At a Bristol show of
1S55 we distinctly remember the Black Cochins
as having bright yellow legs. No breeder of
any black fowl need be told how the attempt to
keep up this must handicap a black breed ; but
now the dusky leg is finally acknowledged as in
the " Standard," there is no reason why Black
Cochins should not enter upon a new career.

In this respect the modern Black Cochin
possesses several present advantages over the
other colours. The hardiness above spoken of,
is beyond doubt due to the several recent
infusions of new blood already referred to. Its
superiority to the other colours as a layer, which
is noticeable, is partly due to the same cause,
but is further due in part to the desire for lustre
in the plumage This cannot be attained with
too soft and fluffy body-feather, but demands a
certain closeness of texture over those parts of
the body where lustre is desired ; hence in this
respect the Black Cochin approaches rather more
the older and better laying model, while at the
same time fluff and cushion can be developed in
ample proportion.

In regard to colour, it is possible to over-
estimate the effect of crossing in producing the

WHITE COCHINS.

251

red or golden feathers which are so tiresome in
breeding. Crossing would of course increase
these ; but all black fowls, however well bred,
have more or less tendency that way — even
Spanish and Hamburghs manifest it occasion-
ally. In one way, red may be regarded as a sort
of excess in lustre; and though the colour should
as a rule be bred out rigorously, and green gloss
selected for in breeding, it is an undoubted fact
that if lustre has become deficient in the females
of black races, it can sometimes be restored by
the use of a male with a little red in his hackle.
The lustre of these birds is best attained and
preserved for exhibition by keeping them for
some weeks out of the sun and strong light ;
the rest is health and condition.

White Cochins were shown of very high
quality from quite early days, those exhibited
by Mrs. Herbert then, not being, surpassed for
many years : in regard to hens,
White indeed, many good judges considered

CochinB. that the Whites surpassed all others

in Cochin points and development
at this period, though of the cocks so much
could not be said, the tails in particular being
as a rule too long. One reason for this
curious superiority of White hens over other
Cochins, probably lay in the fact that much
heavier leg- feather was bred for; yet since body
shape and feather has been improving, the leg
feathering is not so good as in the earlier days.
However, the past five years has seen a great
advance made in White Cochins, and in point
of popularity they run Buffs very close. There
is still trouble in getting a pure-coloured cock,
though occasionally one is shown with plumage
white as the driven snow.

The following notes on breeding and exhibit-
ing White Cochins are from a lady whose
marriage has taken place since they were
written, but who was, previous to that event,
well known as their most prominent exhibitor
under the name of Miss Edith Rouse, Lost-
withiel, Cornwall : —

" This beautiful breed has many admirers,
and nothing can be more pleasing to the eye
than to see a flock of White Cochins on a
lawn, with their brilliant red faces and combs,
which look very lovely against the green grass.

" To start with, the first thing is the mating
of the breeding pen. As colour is the leading
feature, and that is influenced greatly by the
cock bird, he should always be of a silvery
white. In this I am very particular, not only
as regards the bird himself, but to see that his
father also came from birds very sound in
colour. We must not forget that our sire, in

order to breed birds to win, must have the ideal
Cochin shape, with a very neat comb, and an
abundance of feather. I am not so very par-
ticular about mere size in the cock, provided he
is of the above stamp. For breeding early
chickens I find nothing better than a cockerel,
and should prefer one that has not been kept
up for the show pen, but bred and kept for
stock. But for my principal hatching I use a
two-year-old cock, with my best typical hens.

" Respecting hens, I do not study colour so
much, provided they are large, with plenty of
feather. In the breeding pen, to secure strong
healthy chickens, the pen should consist of not
more than four hens ir, the early spring, and five
later on, with one male bird. The breeding pen
should be fed sparingly, otherwise the chicks
will hatch out weak, and often die.

" My most successful broods have been
hatched when the nest has been made of earth,
just covered with a layer of hay on the ground.

" To prepare White Cochins for exhibition,
they should be kept in a shaded run, and scrupu-
lously clean, and a fortnight before being shown
should be placed in a pen similar to an exhibi-
tion pen, only larger. Here they should be
bountifully fed ; and handle them often to make
them familiar with the show pen, when they will
show themselves to a great advantage.

" Two days before sending to the show
the birds should be washed [see p. 215], finish-
ing the neck and head last of all. Have
another bath by your side with clean cold
water, to which add a little blue. When the
bird is properly washed, throw a little cold
water over its head ; then plunge it in the cold
water (keeping its head above water), and
properly rinse out all the soap from the feathers
and place it on a small table ; have a quantity
of dry towels ready ; then squeeze out all the
water from the feathers with the towel, when
one is wet taking a dry one ; by this means you
can wipe the bird nearly dry. Now place it in
an exhibition pen, on a platform in front of a
good fire — near enough but not too close — and
if attended to it should be dry in two hours,
but it will take quite twelve hours for it to
fluff out quite perfect. I consider it will take
about fifteen minutes to properly wash a bird
that has been on a run."

The chief difficulty in breeding White Cochins
is of course that of colour ; and beyond that,
the greatest de.'^.ideratum at present is probably
size. Thirty years ago there was a strain of
Whites which had a well-known tendency to
show a kind of reddish-sandy colour as a faint
stain in the cocks' wings, quite distinct from
that yellow tinge which is the more common

25 =

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

fault ; but this sandy strain seems to have died
out or been bred out, for we have not seen it
lately. The main point is to select birds which
were not only white as chickens, but have
moulted white, and kept white in moulting.
The last test will probably prove too severe for
any new strain, the great majority of cockerels
showing yellow — what is called " sap " in the
feathers — while the latter are growing out of
the quills ; but as soon as possible this crucial
test should be applied, and the very few which do
grow the young feathers white throughout, given
the preference. When once this stage is reached
there will be less trouble in regard to colour ;
but shade will always be necessary for the male
birds as soon as the permanent plumage begins
to appear. The late Mr. Elijah Smith, who
wrote the notes on this variety for the first
edition of the Illustrated Book of Poultry, was
also very particular about the dusting material
which he supplied : he found some sand and
road-dust injure colour very much, and always
carefully selected a pure white sand or sifted
gravel, as was also done by a friend of ours
who bred these fowls successfully at Bristol.

In regard to size, the White Cochin does not
fall far behind the other colours. By selecting
some big hens, with great wealth of feather,
there is no reason why Whites should not be
produced equal to the Buffs for size, while in
shape they are well up to the standard. Much
can be done by careful and regular feeding,
and anyone wanting size must be prepared for
early and late meals with the youngsters. To
obtain purity of colour it is essential that the
cock should be pure. Many successful breeders
have tried a black hen in with the white cock,
the idea being to get a dead white plumage ;
but the silvery feather so necessary will not
come the first year, but from the second or third
cross. The same result can be reached by stick-
ing to the whites, but all coloured birds must
be eliminated.

Other points of colour should receive a word
or two. Orange or red eyes are greatly to be
preferred in Whites, the pearl eye appearing in
this variety to be even more prone to blindness
than in the others. It is also rather unusually
subject to a stain of white in ear-lobes, which
should be carefully avoided : very slight cases
may sometimes be cured by frequent friction, or
a stimulant to the surface as described on p. 213.
Bright yellow shanks should also receive atten-
tion, as pale shanks are apt in their turn to
breed white ones, and the next stage may be
that green tint which is fatal. Rich colour
in the beak should accompany that in the
shanks.

Cuckoo Cochins have now and then been
shown, but have never met with favour. They
were no doubt produced by a mixture of dark
and white blood, which sooner or
Cuckoo later always produces this colour,

Cochins. with a constant tendency to repro-

duce the black, or white, or coloured
feathers which have been its components. To
get rid of these foul feathers requires much care
and skill in breeding, and the Cuckoo Cochin
has never had sufficient admirers to make the
attempt very successful In fact the colour does
not appear to suit the Cochin type very well,
and has now become so identified with the
Plymouth Rock. Were it ever to become popu-
lar, it would have to be bred in the same way
as the barred Plymouth Rock in regard to
colour, looking after Cochin points as usual.
Most of the few we have seen have been de-
ficient in these latter points, and unless the
true Cochin character is predominant, then the
colour must die a natural death. Though for
years past the Cuckoo has been dormant, a pair
was shown at one fixture during 1910, and
should they have really fine Cochin character,
they would probably win in the class for mixed
colours now so common at many shows.

Cochins in America were in 1900 bred to a
perceptibly different type from that recognised
in England, and the difference and its history
are interesting. Up to about 1890
American American breeders had adhered
Cochins. strictly to the older fashion of

English birds, vulture-hocks being
still rigorously disqualified, long after they had
been tolerated at British shows. But about
the year just mentioned, a pair of very heavily
feathered Buff cocks were sent over by
Mrs. Scriven to be exhibited at the New
York Show. These birds were disqualified for
their hocks, but were much admired for their
grand appearance, and purchased by American
breeders, others of the same type being also
imported in consequence of the impression
which these had made. These importations
woke up quite a new interest in Buff Cochins,
and for a couple of years there were separate
classes for both the ordinary American type,
and what were called the " full-feathered "
birds. This stage was however only ephemeral,
American breeders speedily setting themselves
down to the problem of producing the heavy
foot-feathering and full plumage generally,
without the quilled vulture-hocks which in
England have been the accompaniments of
these points.

That they successfully solved this problem

AMERICAN COCHINS.

253

there is no doubt — so far at least as regards
the best American breeders and their best birds.
The choicest specimens amongst the Cochins
exhibited by the brothers Sharp in Buffs, and
Mr. Mitchell in Partridges, were pronounced
by those who saw both to have been nearly if
not quite equal to English Cochins in foot-
feather, but entirely free from stiff quills about
the hocks. There is not only ample testimony
to this effect, but it is confirmed by the Ameri-
can method and canon of breeding, which has
produced a type, if anything more globular
than the English ideal, as will be seen from
the accompanying illustration, which we take
from the Reliable Ponliry Journal. The

genuine fluff of the thighs

has been developed lower

down, so as to cover the

hocks and upper part of

the shank-feather ; and

the breast plumage is also

much increased towards

the bottom, and is profuse

and fluffy in character ;

and the result is, although

the American and English

•standards are practically

identical, a Cochin even

more developed in total

roundness of form, with

the hollows and angles

still more filled up, than

in England, with the fluff

further developed, and

coming more down over

the hocks and shanks

towards the ground. We

have already noticed the

changes in this direction

which have taken place

here, but in the modern

American type we find that change carried to
its furthest degree.

This model has been produced by system-
atic cultivation of what we may call "fluffy"
plumage. Feathers differ greatly in the pro-
portion of fluff to solid webbing, the Cochin
having always been remarkable for weakness
of quill, width with shortness of web, and
ample fluff. Americans have systematically
developed these points, until one or two
breeders now express as their opinion and
practice that, so far as possible, stock should
be selected in which the body feathers possess
only about one-fourth of their length in solid
webbing, the remaining three-fourths being
loose fibrils or "fluff." At all events they select
birds in which that is the main character of

the plumage, and by this course, and the re-
jection of stiff quills, they have succeeded in
banishing vulture-hocks, while yet retaining
heavy foot-feather, which is unquestionably a
very great achievement in breeding.

It is worthy of remark that years ago there
would appear now and then, in strains of Buff
Cochins, specimens in which all the feathers
consisted of loose fibrils, resembling those
figured later in these pages, of the Silky
fowl. We have seen none now for many years,
but they were mentioned as far back as 1853,
and at one time were known as Emu or
Silky Cochins, but were considered delicate,
as well as difficult to keep in nice order.

■^'■^■^

American Partridge Cochins.

This entire " silkiness " of feather is the
extreme limit, perhaps, of the kind of plumage
which American breeders have sought to
develop to the extent above stated, with the
result of so much increasing the fluffiness
and apparent bulk of their birds. We have
it on good authority from several sources
that the best specimens at the chief shows
do exceed considerably, in this fluffiness of
plumage, any English stock that has so far
been imported.

As regards colours, in America the taste is
now for " rich golden buff " in Buffs ; but in
Partridges there is a considerable difference
from English fashion. American Partridges
are often most beautifully pencilled, and show
beautiful Cochin development as described

254

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

above. The pencilling extends all the way
down the feather, clean, clear, and distinct,
and in this they are far ahead of the English
variety, but in the matter of colour the two form
a striking contrast. While our own is a light
and dark shade of brown, the American bird
is of a rich mahogany-red colour and the pen-
cilling rather coarse. The cocks are alike in
breast and feet, but the top colour is more
ruddy and nearly uniform in America.

As regards the Black and White varieties,
it is interesting to observe that in the former,
whereas the English standard allows the eyes
to be bright red, dark red, hazel, or nearly
black, the American Poultry Association insists
on a black or dark brown eye, and that the
under-colour of the plumage must be black to
the skin. Further, while we require " lizard "
legs, black gradually shading into yellow is
preferred in the States ; but the bottoms of the
feet must be yellow. In the White variety,
practically the only difference is that while
we insist on pearl or bright red eyes, in
America reddish-bay is the correct colour.

The bodily characteristics of Cochins require
some special care in rearing and management.
They are above all breeds prone to lay on fat,
both externally and internally : hence maize
should be carefully avoided for them., and a
most careful watch kept upon too great weight,
or signs of laziness. When kept in confinement
they require even more than other fowls to be
regularly and plentifully supplied with green
food : if this is not attended to they are pecu-
liarly apt to suffer from liver disease in some
form, though in other respects the breed must
be classed as hardy. The same ample supply
of green food has much to do with the successful
rearing of chickens, keeping the system in a
healthy growing state, and preventing premature
deposit of fat. Over-crowding is perhaps more
prejudicial in rearing chickens of this breed than
almost any other, and wasters should therefore
be picked out early ; there will always be suffi-
cient even as regards Cochin character and
plumage, independent of faults in colour.

The plumage naturally requires great care to
preserve it in good condition, owing to its pro-
fuse and soft character, which makes it easily
injured. More than in any other breed, pullets
intended for show should therefore be separated
in good time from the cockerels. So in regard
to washing, while we have already said that as a
rule it is little matter how or in what direction
feathers are rubbed about, a little care not to
rub violently too much against the lie of the
feather is advisable in the case of Cochins, the

feather being so much weaker than in other
breeds. To preserve foot-feather, the bird must
never be allowed to run in long or stubbly grass,
which rapidly wears down the lower plumes. A
grass-run for Cochins meant to be exhibited
should be mown and kept like a lawn, short and
tender. Neither should they be allowed to
scratch much amongst long straw, a course
which cleans many other fowls so admirably,
but which tends to injure heavy foot-feather
by friction.

One of the most tiresome difficulties in
Cochin breeding is the propensity to " loose "
or "slipped " wings, a propensity more common
in them than in Brahmas, which also share it,
owing to the greater softness of the plumage.
The very first birds imported showed this so
strongly, that some of the newspapers of the
time described such wings as a peculiar forma-
tion, enabling the bird to " double-up " and fold
its wing in a peculiar manner. It is strongly
hereditary, and should, therefore, be sedulously
guarded against in breeding stock ; if this be
done, individual cases can often be cured as
described on p. 210. But special care should be
taken of any unusually promising cockerel, that
he be not driven about or flurried, which we are
quite certain has often started this blemish at a
critical age.

From a utility point of view it cannot be
denied that Cochins have deteriorated : but they
still have useful qualities in their size, hardiness,
and capacity for winter laying, which
Qualities of some strains have never lost. The
Cochins. great size of the drumstick and de-

ficiency in breast detracts of course
from their table value ; yet we have had cockerels
pronounced " delicious," and not without reason,
the large drumsticks being much more juicy
than in an ordinary fowl. The small space in
which they can be kept, and the little fencing
which will confine them, would make them, with
all their faults, very suitable for many small
yards, were it not for two serious drawbacks, in
the crow of the cocks and the constant broodi-
ness of the hens, which often want to sit after
laying a dozen to twenty eggs. This could of
course be bred out by selection, but is not worth
that trouble when so many breeds with less of
it already exist ; and such a quality almost dis-
qualifies the breed for many of the small runs
where it would otherwise be most suitable. It
does not answer to deny such a strong instinct
altogether, and the best plan is to " dodge " it
by letting one hen hatch the eggs, and by
removing one or two when nearly hatched, to a
second, get her to take to the other chicks when
all are out, thus letting one brood satisfy and

JUDGING COCHINS.

255

rest two hens. Cochins are so tame and affec-
tionate and easily cheated that this can nearly
always be done with them, as it could not be
with other fowls. Any birds thus kept for
utility will probably be far less furnished with
fluff and foot-feather than is necessary for
exhibition stock, and will on that account be
generally found more profitable.

Their size and hardihood make Cochins
even yet of some value as a cross, provided care
and judgment are used : without that the result
is ruin. Cochins were turned down on farms all
over the country in the days of the " mania,"
the progeny being a lot of scraggy, coarse, long-
legged mongrels which did the chicken industry
distinct harm. With good Dorking hens the
cross produces rather coarse but large and useful
fowls, which any housekeeper is glad to buy,
though the Brahma is certainly better still. The
cross between a really short-legged Cochin and
the Creve is finer in bone, and very good indeed.
The Houdan cross is also well spoken of by
those who have tried it. On the other hand,
our notes in Chapter VII. have already shown
how even the disastrous primary cross of the
Cochin on local fowls, when further over-
powered and tempered down by further crosses
of the local blood, has entered into some of the
most useful stock of tabic poultry in the
country.

The Cochin has, however, had far more
marked influence as one of the progenitors, the
real foundation, of quite a group of other
breeds, which owe to it size, hardihood, yellow
legs, and in many cases buff or other plumage.
We should have known nothing of Plymouth
Rocks, Lincolnshire Buffs or Buff Orpingtons,
and Wyandottes, but for the Cochin, to say
nothing of such American varieties as Rhode
Island Reds, Danvers Whites, and others,
which may or may not achieve some day a
wider popularity. If he is himself less popular
than formerly, he has cut his mark deep in the
poultry world even of the present day.

The judging of Cochins has altered a great
deal since the breed was first introduced, most
of all in regard to shank-feather. At first a

very moderate amount of a rather

Judging ^°ft character satisfied fanciers and

of judges ; and for years after more

Cochins. began to be sought, vulture-hocks

were practically disqualified, though
not avowedly so. So many birds were then
shown with plucked hocks, that as a lesser evil
toleration crept in, and hocks sometimes mean
little detriment at English shows. Personally
we agree with the description in the latest

edition of the Poultry Club Standards — " as
free as possible from any stiff quills (vulture-
hocks) "• — since stiff quills, except in wings and
tail, are inconsistent with the fundamental
Cochin idea of soft plumage.

The chief points which require vigilance
as regards trimming and faking are tails,
wings, and " fluf&ng." Tails are sometimes
plucked because too long, sometimes because of
feathers the wrong colour — especially white
feathers. Wings are sometimes plucked to get
rid of twisted feathers, which occur oftener
in Cochins than in any other breed. And
after the case alluded to in our last chapter, it
is certainly as well just to see whether any
artificial amount of fiuff has been imparted by
ingenious tampering of the kind referred to.

The Poultry Club Standard of Perfection
for Cochins is as follows :

GENERAL CH.ARACTERISTICS

Head. — Sliull : Small. Beak : Curved, short,
stout at the base. Eyes: Expressive. Comb: Single,
upright, neatly arched, perfectly straight, free from
excrescences, of fine texture, and symmetrically
notched or serrated. Wattles: Long, thin, and
pendant. Ear-lobes: Sufficiently developed to hang
nearly or quite as low as the wattles.

Neck Rather short and carried somewhat for-
ward, thickly furnished with hackle, vi-hich should
flow gracefully over the shoulders.

Body. — Large and deep. Back : Broad but very
short. Saddle: Broad and large, with a gradual
and decided rise towards the tail, forming a har-
monious line with that member. Wings: Small,
closely clipped up, the flights being neatly and
entirely tucked under the secondaries. Breast:
Broad and full, coming as low as possible.

Tail.— Small and soft, with as little hard quill
as possible, and carried low or nearly flat.

Legs and Feet.— Thighs : Large, and thickly
covered with fluffy feathers standing out in a globular
form. Hocks: Nicely and entirely covered with
soft, curling feathers, but as free as possible from
any stiff quills (vulture hocks). Shanks: Short and
thick, wide apart, and heavily feathered down the
outside, the feathering to start out well from. the.
very hock, and continue to the ends of the middle
and outer toes. Toes: Four, large, straight, and
well spread.

Carriage. — Rather forward, high at the stern, and
dignified.

Weight. — From lo lb. to 13 lb.; cockerel from
S lb. to II lb.

HEN

Head Skull: Veiy small. Beak: As in the

cock. Comb and Wattles: Also similar, but as small
as possible, the comb being uniformly serrated.
Ear-lobes: Well developed, but smaller than those
of the cock.

Neck. — As short as possible, carried well forward,
and thickly furnished with hackle.

Body. — Large, nearer a square than that of the

2S6

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

cock, the shoulders being rather more prominent
Bach: Very flat, wide, and short. Cttshion : Ex-
ceedingly broad, full, and convex, rising from as far
forward as possible and almost burying the tail.
Whigs: As in the cock, but smaller in proportion,
the points being nearly buried in the abundant body-
feathering. Breast: Full, the keel as low as possible.

Tail. — Very small, carried almost horizontally,
and nearly buried in the cushion.

Legs and Feet.^As in the cock.

Carriage. — Tending forivard, high at the cushion,
and with a very matronly appearance.

Weight. — From 9 lb. to 11 lb.; pullet, 7 lb. to
9 lb.

COLOUR

THE BLACK

Beak : Yellow, horn, or black. Comb, Face, etc. :
Ai in the Buff. (The comb in black Cochins has a
great tendency to be rough, but this is to be avoided.)
Eyes: Bright red, dark red, hazel, or nearly black.
Legs : Lizard.

Plumage.— A rich black, well glossed (dull black
very objectionable) and free from golden or red
feathers.

THE LEMON-BUFF, SILVER-BUFF, OR CINNAMON

Beak : Rich yellow. Comb, Face, Ear-lobes, and
Wattles: Bright red. Eyes: To match the plumage
as nearly as possible. White or pearl eyes are
admired by many, but are very apt to become
blind. Red is preferable to any colour, as it denotes
greater vigour of constitution ; but red eyes in
Buffs are very rare. Legs: Yellow, and fading in
old birds, with a shade of red between the scales.

Plumage of the Cock. — Breast and Under-parts :
Any shade of lemon-buff, silver-buff, or cinnamon,
provided it be even, and free from mottling. Neck-
hackle, Back, Shoulders, Wings, and Saddle: Anv
shade of deeper and richer colour which harmonises
well — lemon, gold, orange, or cinnamon — the wings
to be of perfectly sound colour, and free from meali-
ness. Tail: Of a still darker tint, but as free from
black as possible; white in the tail is very objection-
able in any colour except the White variety.

Plumage of the Hen. — Body: All over an even
shade, free from mottled appearance. Hackle: A
deeper colour to harmonise, free from black pencil-
ling or cloudiness, cloudy hackles being especially
objectionable. Tail: As free from black feathers
as possible. Birds must match in the same pen,
and in matching different sexe.'i.lhe hen's body colour
must match that on the cock's breast and lower
parts.

THE CUCKOO

Beak : Rich bright yellow, but horn-colour per-
missible. Comb, Wattles, etc. : As in the Buff.
Eyes: Bright red. Legs: Brilliant yellow.

Plunicige. — Ground-colour of blue grey, barred or
pencilled across with bands of dark blue grey; the
cock's hackle to be as free from a golden or red
tinge as possible, and his tail free from either black
or white feathers.

THE PARTRIDGE OR GROUSE

Beak : Yellow or horn colour. Comb, Wattles,
etc.: As in the Buff. Eyes: Bright red. Legs:
Yellow, of a dusky shade.

Plumage of the Cock. — Hackle: Rich bright red
or orange red, with a dense black stripe in each
feather.- Back, Shoulder-coverts, and Wing-bow :
Rich red, of a more decided and darker shade than
the hackle. Wing-coverts : Metallic green-black,
forming a wide and sharply-cut bar across the wing.
Secondaries, rich bay on outside web, which is all
that appears when the wing is closed ; black on
the inside web ; end of every feather black.
Primaries, very dark bay on outside, dark on inside
web. Saddle: Rich red or orange red, either same
colour as (or one shade lighter than) the hackle.
Breast, Under-parts, Thighs, and Leg-feathers:
Glossy black, as intense as possible. Tail: Black,
richly glossed ; white in the tail not a disqualifica-
tion, but very objectionable.

Plumage of the Hen. — Hackle: Bright gold, rich
gold, or orange gold, with a broad black stripe in
each feather, the marking extending well over the
crown of the head. Remainder of Plumage : Brown
ground-colour distinctly pencilled in a crescent form
with rich dark brown or black, the pencilling being
perfect and solid up to the throat, the leg-feather
to be pencilled as the body.

THE WHITE

Beak : Rich bright yellow. Comb, Face, etc. : As
in the Buff. Eyes: Pearl or bright red. Legs:
Yellow.

Plumage Pure white, • free from any straw or

red shade, or ticking of black or buff. The cock
will often show a straw tinge on his upper parts,
but this is to be avoided as far as possible.

SCALE OF POINTS

Colour, or marking in Partridge or Cuckoo ... 20

Size ... .'.. ... ... ... ■... 15

General symmetry ... ... ... ... 10

Leg feather ... ... ... .. ... 10

Head ... ... ... ... ... ... 10

Cushion ... ... ... ... ... ... 8

Fluff 7

Tail 5

Hackle 5

Ear-lobes .... ... .. ... ... ... 5

Condition ... ... ... ... ... ••• 5

Serious defects : Primary wing feathers twisted
on their axis — "slipped" wing, the primaries being
outside the wing is objectionable, but cannot be
considered as a sufficiently serious defect to cause
a bird to be entirely thrown out of competition ;
utter absence of leg-feathers; legs of any colour than
yellow or flesh, except in Blacks, which may be
black; white or black feathers in Cuckoos; badly
twisted or falling combs; crooked backs, wry tails,
or any other actual deformity.

2 57

CHAPTER XVI.

THERE never has, perhaps, been such long
and acrimonious discussion upon any
poultry subject as upon the origin of
this breed of fowls, and there never was
so little real reason for any at • all, or more
practical certainty about the facts,
Origin j^g established by all the really

Brahmas. respectable evidence. This proves
the Brahma to be quite one of the
earliest imported of the feathered Asiatic races,
having, in fact, been introduced into America in
the very same year that Cochins were imported
into England. The controversy is now closed,
and it will not be necessary to recapitulate it at
such length as was imperative in the second and
subsequent editions of the former Illustrated
Book of Poultry, which had the effect of placing
the facts beyond any further doubt, or even
disputation. At this date, therefore, a brief
summary will suffice.

In a letter to Dr. J. C. Bennett, dated
March 2nd, 1852, Mr. Virgil Cornish, of Con-
necticut, gave the following account of these
birds :- —

In regard to the history of these fowls very little is
known. A mechanic by the name of Chamberlain, in
this city, first brought them here. Mr. Chamberlain
was acquainted with a sailor, who informed him that
there were three pairs of large imported fowls in New
York ; and he dwelt so much upon the enormous size
of these fowls that Mr. Chamberlain furnished him
with money, and directed him to go to New York and
purchase a pair of them for him, which he did. The
sailor reported that he found one pair of light grey ones,
which he purchased ; the second pair were dark
coloured, and the third pair were red. The man in
New York, whose name I have not got, gave no
account of their origin, except that they had been
brought there by some sailors in the Indian ships. The
parties through whose hands the fowls came, so far as
I have been able to trace them, are all obscure men. I
obtained my stock from the original pair brought here
by Mr. Chamberlain, and have never crossed them in
the least. These fowls were named Chittagong by Mr.
Chamberlain, on account of their resemblance, in some
degree, to the fowls then in the country called by that
name ; but it is certain that they never bred until they
reached this town.

A valued American correspondent, Colonel
Mason C. Weld, then associate-editor of the

American Agriculturist, forwarded for us to Mr.
Cornish a series of questions on the subject,
and transmitted to us that gentleman's reply,
as follows : —

New Britain, Connecticut, U.S.,
November gth, 1S69.
Mason C. Weld, Esq.

Dear Sir, — I have your letter of 5th. I give below
all the facts relating to the early history of the Brahma-
Pootra fowls I can call to mind at this late day. At
an earlier day I could have given a history of these
fowls more satisfactory to myself, i.e. more fully than
I can now ; nevertheless, so far as it goes, the truth of
it cannot he questioned. I will at once answer your
questions.

1st. — Mr. Chamberlain's Christian name is Nelson H.

2nd. — The' sailor's name I never made note of, and
cannot give it.

3rd. — The ship arrived in New York in September.
1846. The first brood came out in May, 1847. i
purchased the most of that brood in August, and the
old pair the April following.

4th. — The name of the port from which the ship
sailed with the fowls on board is Luckipoor. This port
is up from the mouth of the Brahma- Pootra river, in
India. The name of the ship I cannot give, neither
can I give the name of the captain. Did not at the
time think it of importance, and made no record of it.

5th. — The Brahmas were first exhibited in Boston by
Mr. Hatch, of Hampton, Conn., under the name of
Grey Chittagongs, in 1850. I declined exhibiting mine
at that time ; I believed them to be a breed different
from the Chittagong, and preferred to accumulate stock
and test them further before bringing them out publicly.

6th. — I attended the exhibition at Boston, and con-
tended that they differed from the Chittagongs, and
should pass under a different name. A committee was
appointed, and the name Brahma - Pootra given ; it
being the name of the great river from the banks of
which they came. The name was then established.

7th. — Weight of cocks, full-sized, twelve to fourteen
pounds ; cocks, six to seven months, nine to ten pounds.
Hens when first introduced, nine to ten pounds.

8th. — I did notice the "pea-com'o" on the first birds.
It was small. It was not so with all, and yet it appeared
different from the comb of the Chittagong.

gth. — There was no degeneracy in the birds of my
breeding. I had some specimens larger than the
imported birds. I sold no birds until December, 1850.
I sold at first at twelve dollars per pair, and soon after
from fifteen dollars to fifty dollars per pair. The price
went up as the fowls became better known, and recog-
nised as a distinct breed.

loth. — I bred them eight years, when my health
failed, and I was obliged to leave all care for a time. .

nth. — There was a tendency to throw dark chickens,

2.s8

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

but a greater tendency to become lighter, and yet not
white like the White Dorking. All breeds of fowls
having dark and light feathers can be varied either
way, to darker or lighter, by choosing always the
darkest or the lightest for breeders. If your stock of
Brahmas are pure, and they are allowed to breed
together promiscuously, the variation in colour will be
slight. I never bred to either extreme.

Yours truly, VIRGIL CORNISH.

The most important point in relation to this
testimony is, of course, the position and trust-
worthiness of Mr. Cornish ; concerning which
we will quote part of another letter from him
to ourselves, dated April I2th, 1870, but we
ought to add that we carefully verified its
statements from independent sources : —

As my name has appeared in this country and in
England in connection with the history of the Brahmas,
I beg you to allow me a word for myself.

My letters to Dr. Bennett and others, from which you
make extracts, were called for, written, and published
at an early day, when the parties who brought them
(the Brahmas) from India to New York, and from
thence to Hartford, Connecticut, were living and to be
sent by all men. They were often seen and inquired of
by parties interested, and their statements were never
discredited, nor doubted by anyone except Mr.
Burnham, and by him only by falsely stating that he
originated them in his own yard.

At the time the original pair of Brahmas were brought
to Hartford, Connecticut, I was an officer at the Retreat
for the Insane in that city; having in charge all the
business of that Institution, except that which belonged
strictly to the medical department. I had purchased a
farm of fifty acres for the institution, and thereon fitted
up a large yard for the accommodation of rare animals,
flowers, and birds ; and had placed in them more than
sixty distinct breeds (of fowls and other animals), in
which I took much interest and pleasure. This I had
done for the amusement of our convalescent patients. I
had no pecuniary interest in bringing out the Brahma
fowls, but saw at once that they were a distinct breed,
and worthy of a high place.

As far as any record has been preserved,
these birds were first shown at Fitchburg, Con-
necticut, in 1850, under the name of Grey Chit-
tagongs, by Mr. Hatch, who had purchased stock
of Cornish ; Dr. Bennett, at the same time,
exhibiting some cross-bred birds from Chitta-
gongs, which he called Burram-pooters. He
liked Mr. Hatch's birds so much better than his
own crosses, that he dropped the latter, bought
birds from both Mr. Hatch and Mr. Cornish
direct, and thenceforth "boomed " the new stock
for all he was worth under the name of Brahma-
Pootras, speedily contracted to Brahmas. All
the early exhibitors belonged to Connecticut,
which, of itself, corroborates their direct testi-
mony that this State was the head-quarters and
centre of the new breed, and that all were from
Mr. Cornish's stock.

Against this uniformly consistent testimony
there never was any protest except that of the

most notorious charlatan ever known in the
American poultry world, who did not receive
any credence amongst respectable authorities
until Mr. Tegetmeier, in his Poultry Book,
rashly endorsed him as follows : —

Those who maintain this theory say they originally
came from Luckipoor, a port on the Brahma-Pootra
river, but they have forgotten alike the name of the
ship, that of the captain, and also that of the sailor who
brought them over. It is also acknowledged that they
were first exhibited in Boston under the name of Grey
Chittagongs in 1850. There is not a particle of evidence
to show that they came from India.* ... In fact,
Brahmas originated not in India but in America, and
the two varieties of the breed now known as Dark
and Light Brahmas, had unquestionably very distinct
origins.

The light Brahmas undoubtedly originated in or were
identical with, those grey birds that from the very first
importation came over from Shanghae with the buff
and partridge birds now universally known as Cochins.
But public attention was first called to them in con-
sequence of an acute American fancier, Mr. George
Burnham, presenting a consignment to her Majesty.
... Of the origin of these birds it will be best to let
Mr. Burnham tell his own tale. In his amusing and
unscrupulous work, entitled, A History of the Hen Fever,
published at Boston in 1S55, he says: "An ambitious
sea captain arrived at New York from Shanghae, bring-
ing with him about a hundred [!] China fowls of all
colours, grades, and proportions. Out of this lot I
selected a few grey birds that were very large, and con-
sequently very fine. I bred these with other grey stock
I had, at once, and soon had a fine lot of birds to dis-
pose of, to which I gave what I have always deemed
their only true and appropriate title (as they came from
Shanghae) to wit. Grey Shanghaes. In 1851 and '52
I had a most excellent run of luck with these birds. I
distributed them all over the country, and obtained very
fair prices for them; and finally the idea occurred to
me that a present of a few of the choicest of these birds
to the Queen of England wouldn't prove a bad advertise-
ment for me in this line."

. . . The origin of the Light birds has already been
given. Of the Dark breeds, Mr. Burnham states that
they were grey Chittagongs crossed with Cochins. " Of
this," he says, "no one now entertains a doubt: they
were the identical fowls all over — size, plumage, and
characteristics."

Unfortunately the late Mr. Charles Darwin,
who in one or two other cases also has somewhat
too rashly adopted statements from the same
quarter, received without doubt or question Mr.
Tegetmeier's view of this case, and wrote f that
" Dark Brahmas, which are believed by some
fanciers to constitute a distinct breed, were
undoubtedly formed in the United States
within a recent period by a cross between
Chittagongs and Cochins." Such scientific
endorsement of the mere unscrupulous self-
advertisement of a foreign poultry dealer
necessitated correction, and in the very first
edition of the Illustrated Book of Poultry,

* Mr. Tegetmeier seems not to have noticed that even
Chittagong also is an Indian name.

+ Variaiion oj Animals and Plants under Domesiication.

'A LITTLE ONPLEASANT DIFFERENCE."

259

from such material as was then available,
we presented sufficient reason for concluding
that Burnham's claims could not be regarded
as truthful statements, and were perhaps not
even meant as such. To have gone further
then (as we could have done even from
material then in our hands) would have seemed
ungenerous, as we did not know that any
parties to the old American controversy of
1850-55 were still alive. But Mr. Burnham

made the fact that he was very
The Final much so, speedily evident by a

Controversy. series of letters in all the poultry

journals of America, during many
months of 1874, which he got together and
reprinted in a book called The China Fowl*
dated the same year, the style and tone
of which will be sufficiently shown by the
following brief specimens :

I repeat it : I was utterly ignorant of the virulence,
the total falsity, the bitter misrepresentations, the
carping, silly, unwarrantable language you had adopted
towards nie in your two bool<s [the Brahma Fowl
and the Illustrated Book of Poultry are here re-
ferred to] until the last few weeks, when I, for the first
time, had access to these ignorantly composed and
miserably spirited volumes 1 Wherein have I ever
offended ^low, that you should thus in your books black-
guard, malign, vilify, and prate like a hen with a sore
head about Burnham this, and Burnham that ? I am
a gentleman, sir, by nature, education, fortune ; and
never did a human being wrong, so help me God, to
my knowledge, in my life.

When you — 3,000 miles away — undertake to com-
mingle and involve mc in this cursed, obnoxious, Burram-
pooter, Brahma-pootra, Burmah-pater, Bahama-poodra,
sailor, Cornish, Chamberlain, Bennett, Hatch, Wright,
Plaisted, Knox, balderdash — I protest, . . . and
shall endeavour, in my own way, to answer and refute
your infamous and spiteful tirade against me. Before I
get through I have no doubt I will succeed in impress-
ing upon Mr. Lewis Wright, of England, if upon no
one else, that that gentleman had much better have
informed himself of the facts in this case, ere he so
maliciously and so stupidly ventured to assail and
malign the undersigned.

I should say you penned these sentences with the
Fiend at your elbow.

As Mr. Burnham had this all to himself for
many weeks, it is not surprising that for a short
space of time it produced some impression. One
gentleman wrote about the "little onpleasant
difference, which B. so far seems," he said, " to
have the best of" ; and another, "the personal
strictures in that lengthy extract upon Mr.
Burnham [from first edition, Illustrated Book of
Poultry'] I think are highly prejudiced, as well
as unwarranted " ; while others adopted his
arguments in detail, one paper openly exulting
over the spirited way in which the American

• This curious produclion is in the possession of the Poultry

was " standing up to the Britisher." It was this
which necessitated a more thorough dealing
with the matter, with the aid of much more
ample evidence then in our hands. This time
the result was final. Without of course imitating
the style of the above quotations, by a series of
contemporary extracts the whole of Burnham's
statements were so demolished that no one has
since ever attached the slightest credence to
them, and the result in America itself, where he
had been permitted his full fling of statement
and abuse, may be summed up in the later
comment of one of the same papers cited above
for its earlier impression, that " Burnham had
much better not have gone upon the war-path,
since the only result has been that the English-
man returned from it with the scalp of the
other hanging to his girdle." The Cornish
account has ever since been thoroughly accepted,
in America as well as in England, as the
true history of at least the Light Brahma.

This being so, we need only now very briefly
summarise the points and the results of that
direct controversy between Burnham and our-
selves.f He began with long statements to the
effect that he never in those earlier days had
used the name of Brahmas, or ever referred to
them by that name at all ; and with further
denials that he had ever had any controversy
with Dr. J. C. Bennett or with Mr. Cornish, or ever
had any of their fowls, though he said he had
better ones ; the whole when put together boldly
asserting that he had his own distinct birds,
which he never put in comparison with the
others, and that he had let the other party go
on their way with theirs. This was met by
ample quotations from contemporary papers,
and letters in our possession also of that old
time, showing that Burnham was in hot and
bitter controversy with Dr. Bennett and Mr.
Cornish over both the name and the fowls ; that
he always averred their fowls were the same as
his own, and derived from his, and were grey
Shanghaes ; and that he had himself often used
the name of Brahmas, before we had done so at
all. After that had been exposed, Burnham
threw off any mask, and coolly stated concerning
Dr. Bennett and the sailor story — Dr. Bennett
having been many years in his grave — that
" Dr. John C. Bennett coined this sailor's yarn
originally, and the others tacitly agreed to it.
The fowls were from my yards or out of
my stock ; and Bennett never denied this in
America, or England, for he couldn't" {China
Fowl, p. 114). On a later page he reiterates

t For fuller details, see Illustrated Book of Poultry, second
and subsequent editions ; and still more fully, a series of articles
in the Fancier's Gazette, 1874-75.

26o

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

how Dr. Bennett had shown him this "pre-
pared account " months before ; and once
again he asserts how Dr. Bennett had prac-
tically forged the entire account. In reply
to this we cited reiterated statements by Dr.
Bennett to the direct contrary ; while Burn-
ham had never dared to say in his lifetime,
what he ventured upon now he was dead. But
more occurred in America itself; for the dis-
cussion brought out Mr. C. Flaisted, Dr. Ben-
nett's old partner, who professed to correct
certain " errors " both in Cornish and Bennett,
while confirming their narratives as a whole ;
but only succeeded in showing that they might
possibly be one year out in some of their dates,
they being however proved right and himself
wrong in one alleged case by almost contem-
porary documents which were better evidence
than Plaisted's mere memory a quarter of a
century later. It also brought out the very
man who had bought the fowls in New York —
a Mr. Knox, who turned out to be not a
"sailor" but a sort of ship-clerk — who added his
evidence. And finally we received, and possess
still, quite a bundle of letters from Mr. C. Flais-
ted and Dr. Bennett to Miss Watts, the editor
of the English Poultry Chronicle, most of
which are still unpublished, containing ample
evidence to the same effect, and showing how
they had combated Burnham's statements from
first to last, and all along the line.

But it also appeared that Burnham had been
breeding birds of his own, quite distinct from
the others, from either grey Shanghaes or from
grey " Chittagongs" so-called, and an important
question arose of how they stood related to the
others. Mr. Burnham alleged that his birds,
sent to the Queen as above, were the first sent
to England, and were, as stated in a letter by
Dr. Gwynne, " admitted by Dr. Bennett to be
precisely similar to his own." He manipulated
Dr. Gwynne's statement so as to read that
Dr. Bennett had admitted Buriihani's stock to be
precisely similar to his ; but we discovered and
proved by ample evidence, that what Dr. Ben-
nett always alleged was the fact that those
sent to the Queen were birds not of Burnham's
own, but of the Cornish strain, purchased from
Mr. George Smith of Rhode Island. Bennett
gave plenty of evidence of this in letters above
alluded to, which we cited ; but we also proved
from Burnham's own statements in a paper
which he edited in 1853, that (on his own
showing) he had purchased from Rhode Island
two pens for Lord Northby ; and later that the
Queen's birds " were from the same stock as
those lately sent to Lord Northby." They
were not the first sent to England, Dr. Bennett

himself having sent over a pen to Mrs. Hosier
Williams previously ; but they had great in-
fluence in spreading the breed, being exhibited
by Prince Albert soon after their arrival ; and
this proof of their real origin is therefore of
considerable historical importance.

Still there is no doubt at all that Burnham
did breed and exhibit birds of his own, and
that he had some at the Fitchburg show of
1850 : the only remaining point of importance
is to disentangle the separate exhibits at this
exhibition. About that there is no difficulty.
Burnham alleged that Dr. Bennett's " Brahmas "
were bred from a grey Chittagong cock bought
from Dr. Kerr. Dr. Bennett always admitted
that those he showed at Fitchburg in 1850
were so bred, and shown as Burram-pooters ;
but he always denied that he bred them after
that ; he then dropped them in favour of the
Hatch stock, which had been bought from
Cornish, and which he thought infinitely better.
That Bennett and Burnham were both trying
to " boom " poultry against each other, is
perfectly clear ; and it was to further this
self-advertisement that the latter affirmed that
all the Brahmas came from his stock, and that
his was the original. The following sentences
will settle all these points clearly : —

At the Fitchburg Depot Show in 1850, my original
" Grey Chittagongs " [already described] were in the
possession of G. W. George, Esq., of Haverhill, to
whom they had been sold by the party to whom I
had previously sold them. Nobody thought well of
them ; but they took a first prize there, and the
" Chittagongs " (so entered at the same time) of Mr.
Hatch, of Connecticut, also took a prize. My friend
the Doctor then insisted that these were also " Bur-
ram-pooters " ; but, as nobody but himself could
pronounce this jaw-cracking narhe, it was taken little
notice of at that time.

Mr. Hatch had a large quantity of the Greys at
this show, which sold readily at $12 to $20 the pair;
and immediately after this exhibition the demand
for " Grey Chittagongs " was very active. I watched
the current of the stream, and I beheld with earnest
sympathy the now alarming symptoms of the fever.
"The people" had suffered a relapse in the disease,
and the ravages now promised to become frightful —
for a time !

An ambitious sea captain arrived at New York from
Shanghae, bringing with him about a hundred China
fowls, of all colours, grades, and proportions. Out of
this lot I selected a few grey birds, that were very large,
and (consequently) " very fine," of course. 1 bred
these, with other grey stock I had, at once, and soon
had a fine lot of birds to dispose of — to which I gave
what I have always deemed their only true and appro-
priate title (as they came from Shanghae) — to wit, Grey
Shanghaes. — Hen Fever, date 1855.

Burnham alleges that he fought against the
claims and the name of Brahmas, because he
always objected to the" needless multiplication "
of either breeds or names. It was felt that some

BURNHAM ON PURE BREEDS.

261

reason had to be given, and this was the one
given : it appears rather curious in the light of
the following-, from his own pen {Hen Fever,
p. 274). A gentleman wrote him in these
words : —

I have read much on this subject of poultry, and
I want to begin right, you perceive. I have made up
my mind that there are not so many variities. of fowls
extant as many breeders describe. I am satisfied that
these domestic birds hail originally from China, and
that all of them are of one blood. What is your
opinion ?

Write me your views, please, and let me know if you
can furnish me with what I seek, upon honour, bearing
in mind that I am ready to pay your price, whatever it
may be, but that I want only pure-blooded stock.

What followed is best described in his own
words : —

I informed my correspondent that I agreed with him
in the ideas he had advanced, precisely (I usually did
agree with such gentlemen), and I entertained no doubt
that he was entirely correct in his views as to the origin
of domestic fowls, of which he evidently knew so much.
(This helped me amazingly.) I pointed out to him the
distinction that existed (without a difference) between a
" Shanghae " and a " Cochin China," and finally con-
cluded my learned and H/iselfish appeal by hinting (barely
hinting) to him that I felt certain he was the best judge
of the facts in the case, and I would only suggest that, so
far as my e.xperience went, there were in reality but ten
varieties of pure-hred fowls known to ornithologists (I
was one of this latter class), and that these ten varieties
were the Cochins, the White, Grey, Dominique, Buff,
Yellow, Red, Brown, Bronze, and Black Shanghaes — and
these were the only kinds I ever bred.

As to their purity of blood, I could only say that
I imported the original stock myself, and "enclosed"
he had their portraits, to which I referred with pride
and confidence and pleasure, etc. etc.

He then quotes the letter he received m
reply, of which it is only necessary to state
that it ordered six chickens of each of the
varieties he had named. The fulfilment of the
order he relates as follows : —

I sent this anxious purchaser sixty chickens, at ten
dollars each (cheap enough, to be sure), in accordance
with his directions, and he was delighted with them. I
do not now entertain a shadow of doubt that every one
of those ten " different varieties " was bred from white
hens and a black cock, one of the ordinary " Shanghae "
tribe.

That was not quite the last, however, of this
transaction. In the renewed controversy of
1874 an American fancier roundly taxed Mr.
Burnham with the affair : and he might possibly
have rejoined that he wrote it to amuse, or
invented it, or exaggerated it. He did nothing
of that kind, but replied as follows : —

I said I had no doubt of this. I have not now.
Those white, light-coloured, and black imported
Shanghaes of mine produced all sorts of colours in my
hands— in breeding. Could I help that ? I imported
the birds at heavy cost, and did the best I could with

them. In those years we had not got this thing
down so fine as you and I have in these later days of
improvement in poultry-raising. Where exists the
harm or the deceit in this confession, pray? I sent
my customers what they wanted to buy ; and bred all
colours very frequently from the very same birds, in
those days, as everyone else did. And we did not
know any better. Bless you, Mr. Athole, this was
but the commonest result everywhere. It did not
change the purity of the bloml, but simply the colour.

If this were so, he surely might have swal-
lowed the Brahma also, name and all, and
admitted one more " pure breed." And it
would be also somewhat like a miracle that if
his " Shanghaes" bred like that, just one lot of
birds which he says were bred from these same
Shanghaes should have bred with the uniformity
of colour and purity of race which he too
always claimed for this one variety, the Brahma.
But it was not so. The very same book re-
cords a conversation between himself and Dr.
Bennett, who had been relating his production
of " new varieties " by crossing ; and that he
clearly pointed out to the doctor how impossible
it was to avoid chance results from mixing
varieties. He did know better, and was fully
aware of the results of crossing colours, and had
described these birds as " pure bred," knowing
they were not so ; and he had further described
Cochins as dijfereut from Shanghaes, yet sent
Cochins from the same stock. Honest breeders
found differences, and curious results, in the
produce of early Cochins, as recorded in the
preceding chapter, but they did not find their
stock vary in this extraordinary way : Sturgeon
and Punchard, and Fairlic, and others did not
breed " all " colours from the same stock : but
then neither did they advertise " ten varieties
of pure-bred fowls " all from the same, nor mate
white with black in order to produce them.

To go back however to the Fitchburg Show ;
so far from the Burnham stock being either
the first, or the best, we have it above under his
own hand that " no one thought well " of either
Dr. Bennett's original cross-made birds, or of his
own shown by Mr. George ; but that the third
stock — Mr. Hatch's — which came from Cornish,
"sold readily" at good prices, and at once
created an active demand for " Grey Chitta-
gongs," under which name they were entered.
It is also proved that it was seeing this Hatch
stock, and its success, that gave Burnham the
idea of himself breeding Greys, which he only
began after seeing them at that show ; that he
then bred them and sold them in imitation of
the Chamberlain strain ; but that when he
wanted really fine birds to send to the Queen,
he had recourse to a stock of that strain itself in
the possession of Mr. Smith, of Rhode Island.

262

THE BOOK OF POULTRY

There are many independent testimonies to the
effect that Hatch called his birds " Chittagongs "
because they were grey and had some resem-
blance so far to fowls already known by that
name in America, with evident Malay blood in
them; but the same testimonies make it clear
that these original Chittagongs, or at least their
crossed produce, were of an " owl " colour as
described, probably what we now know as
cuckoo or barred, whilst the Hatch stock was
mainly cream-white, with pencilled hackles and
black tails. This, with the more detailed proofs
elsewhere given of the above facts, settles all
questions connected with the early American
shows and the Light Brahmas.

It is not so certain that it equally settles the
origin of the Darks ; and the upshot of the con-
troversy left us, as stated at the time, rather

disposed to believe that in regard

Origin of to them we might have done poor

ax ra as. g^rriham some injustice, and that

he really had originated these in
his own yard. If more than this cannot be said,
the reason is simply that the flat self-contradic-
tions of the man absolutely prevent any positive
conclusion : it is only possible to grope through
a fog, most of which he himself has made.
Previous to that controversy and the fresh light
it threw on this curious old bit of poultry history,
we had always thought that the Lights and the
Darks were from the same stock, and Burnham
himself has also written, "both the Dark and
Light were bred from the same originals, pre-
cisely, at first," so that he could not complain
of such a conclusion on our part. There is
ample evidence, too, of the possibility of this.
Miss Watts never crossed her strain, from Dr.
Bennett, and assured us that she had bred
by selection both Dark and Light ; and Dr.
Joseph Hinton, a well-known breeder in 1870,
told us how his original strain was Light, but
that from a darker (though only medium-
coloured) bird bred by Mr. J. K. Fowler he bred
a most beautiful dark cock, and hens even
darker than were then often seen, the next
generation producing his " Champion," a well-
known show-bird of those days. There is other
evidence of the same fact, but of less definite
authenticity ; and to show how recklessly Burn-
ham himself has made it impossible to come to
any conclusion at all with absolute certainty, he
published in America in September, 1874, the
statement : " I now say that neither the Dark
Brahmas nor the Dark Grey Shanghaes are
alluded to in The Hen Fever " ; while at the very
same date (since it was published in England in
November, 1874) he wrote, contrariwise: "In
The Hen Fever I referred to the Grey Shanghaes,

Light and Dark, which I have bred from 1849
to 1874, and which we now call Brahmas." It
is further to be noticed, that if any real distinc-
tion is to be established between the origin of
Darks and Lights, it is necessary to exactly
invert Burnham's own statements about both,
since he affirms of the first ones shown (Lights)
that they were the " Grey Chittagongs," while it
was later that, as he affirms, he bred from his
" Grey Shanghaes." And yet, in spite of all
this — -which it is best to dismiss as simply
worthless either way — we do think, upon the
whole, that there was a difference, and that
Burnham did originate the Darks. Take such
a passage as the following : —

I originated the Bark Brahma fowl in my own yard
at Melrose, Mass., Lewis ! . . . The Dark Brahma,
or Dark " Grey Shanghae," i% my patent, Mr. Wright.
I originated it, in 1S53. I never saw them till that year,
but it was the result of a studied experiment of mine ;
and I raised a great many of these fine Dark birds in
the succeeding years. Look over the records and see
if you can find any " Dark Brahmas " spoken of — any-
where on earth — until my first splendid trio went out to
John Baily, of Mount Street, London, in 1853. And
tell me too if, subsequently, at any time before the war,
anybody but G. P. Burnham, of the United States, sent
to England one single specimen of this Dark variety to
any living man. You can't name him, sir ! He doesn't
exist. Nobody had that stock but myself in all those
years. — China Fowl, p. 163.

There are several other passages like this;
and after a lifetime spent in examining docu-
ments, it still appears to us, as it did in 1875,
that there is a tone about them rather different
from the reckless assertion and abuse of other
passages such as are cited above. There seems
a ring of real truth, of genuine indignation that
something really done had received no recogni-
tion. Supposing that to be the case, the truth
of the matter does not appear difficult to dis-
cover, if once we disregard the maze of Burn-
ham's own contradictory statements ; and the
secret lies apparently in the birds previously
known in America as " Chittagongs."

These fowls Burnham always admitted that
he had from Dr. Kerr, of Philadelphia, as Dr.
Bennett had his ; but he always added the state-
ment, carelessly adopted by Mr. Tegetmeier,
that those birds also came from Shanghae. On
this point, however, Dr. Kerr himself is the
proper authority, and he states that they came
from Calaitta ; in fact, the Indian name alone
is sufficient proof of their Indian origin. Now
it is remarkable that even recently, direct Indian
testimony has been given to fowls resembling
the earlier Dark Brahmas being still found in
the Chittagong district. The Broad Arrow, a
Civil Service journal, reviewing in March, 1874,
our monograph on the Brahma Fowl, attributed

OLD STRAINS OF BRAHMAS.

263

the Darks to the big fowls found around the port
of Chittagong ; and an old Indian officer now
dead, wrote us in 1872, "The fowl you make
so much fuss about is the Grey Chittagong, of
which I have seen hundreds in India," and we
have seen other letters in MS. and print making
similar statements.

If in this light we turn over Burnham's many
contradictory assertions with a discriminating
eclecticism, we find one that seems significant.
He says, for instance [China Fowl, p. 97), that
" the Dark and the Light varieties both came
out of the Philadelphia greys, and the lighter
coloured grey birds I subsequently obtained."
There seems truth here as to the Darks, because
if it were made up, he would be more likely to
say that it was by a da^-kcr cross he got them.
We have seen that Dr Bennett had shown grey
birds cross-bred from Chittagongs at Fitchburg,
and that Burnham had done the same ; Hatch's
Cornish Light Brahmas beating both these in
popularity, and causing Dr. Bennett to drop his
entirely for the new stock. We have seen further,
that later on Burnham also purchased Cornish
Brahmas, from Smith of Rhode Island. We
have seen also that Hatch called his Cornish
birds " Chittagongs," because they " in some
degree resembled " the Indian fowls already
known by that name ; and we know that birds
from Luckipoor would pass Calcutta (from which
the ship probably cleared as a port), the very
same place from which Kerr's Chittagongs had
come. It seems probable that after Burnham,
had got some of his Cornish Brahmas, he once
more tried crossing lliein with his old Grey Chit-
tagongs, and in so doing produced the Dark
Brahma. If he did so, he was crossing strains
both hailing from the same general locality,
with more or less in general of the same Indian
blood, and which "in some degree resembled"
each other, as Cornish himself admits. In this
way we seem to best harmonise all that is
known, and as many as possible of even Burn-
ham's own statements, and we also account for
the undoubted common element in both breeds
and for the pea-comb, which probably came in
the first instance from the Indian bird now
known as the Aseel. It is some corroboration
of this conclusion that Mr. Teebay undoubtedly
received all his earlier Dark Brahmas also from
near Boston, which was the nearest large town
in Burnham's neighbourhood.

Summing up the whole in brief, that the
Light Brahmas originated in the Cornish-
Chamberlain birds there is now absolutely no
doubt : the controversy brought forward an
absolute wealth of evidence to that effect. In
all the old disputes, Mr. Cornish alone comes out

clear of suspicion, In all the others, Dr. Bennett,
and Plaisted, and some others, we find more or
less of questionable motive, and even of proceed-
ing ; Cornish alone never exhibited the fowls, and
as a respectable public official his evidence alone
outweighs the other, but has been triumphantly
corroborated. On the other hand, we think it
probable that the Dark Brahma was really
originated by Burnham, most likely by cross-
ing this strain with the darker grey Chittagong
already in America from the same original
locality, and the earlier crosses of which had
failed to make any impression, as bred by either
Burnham or Dr. Bennett. If more than prob-
ability is impossible for this conclusion, the
reason lies in the maze of absolute contra-
diction in which Burnham himself has involved
whatever did take place.

In the United States there appears to have
been somewhat more variety in strains of
Light Brahmas than in England, where all
have been practically derived
American from the stock sent - over by

Strains. Yix. Bennett or Mr. Burnham;

the latter being, as shown above,
practically identical so far as those sent to the
Queen were concerned. Mr. Felch * traces
various strains as follows : (i) Burnham's,
later known as Phillips', and later still as the
foundation of the stock of Mr. E. C. Comey
and Mr. Philander Williams ; but as Mr.
Phillips always affirmed this stock to be the
same as " the Queen's," this must now be
referred really to the Cornish or Chamberlain
strain. (2) Rankin's strain, affirmed to be
from a fresh Indian importation ; quite probably
correct, as this strain was marked by a peculiar
blue vein down the inside of the shanks, which
it strongly transmitted, and which distinguished
it from all others. (3) The Philadelphia or
Tees strain, said to be the produce of Indian
birds with Dr. Kerr's birds ; the latter formerly
regarded by Felch as Chinese, after Burnham,
but which have been shown above to be also
Indian on Dr. Kerr's own authority. (4) The
strain from "Autocrat," bought in New York
as imported from India ; which is probable, as
he also stamped on all his progeny a special
tendency to dark under-colour ; he was used by
Mr. Felch and Mr. Williams, and his blood is
highly valued. (5) The Chamberlain strain,
believed now to be purest in Mr. Felch's, with
the cross of " Autocrat " just mentioned. It will
be observed that we have here more or less
evidence of three fresh independent importa-
tions, all from India ; and that when we correct
Burnham's old statement about Dr. Kerr's birds

* See Poultry Culture: Chicago, U.S.

264

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

being Chinese, and trace the " Queen " section
of Burnham's stock, at least, to their proper
source of the Cornish-Chamberlain blood from
Rhode Island, the evidence is stronger than
ever of the entire race tracing back, through
one importation or another, to the Chittagong
district of India, save only as it may have been
contaminated by crosses with Burnham's or
other Shanghaes.

If this origin of the Brahma be borne in

but more or less cropping up in all Indian
races. In such a composite race there are
always the two types contending for the
mastery, and yielding to man's selection ;
and it is instructive to see the Shanghae and
Indian types (or in that case Indian archipelago
type) similarly contending for emergence in the
fowl treated of in our next chapter. How
different from the first Cochin type the earliest
Dark Brahmas were, can be seen from the

The First Darl: Brahmas sent to England.

mind, it will be easy to understand how it has
varied in model according to the selection of
The feather-legged Chittagong fowl
was obviously a mixture gradually
formed to some rough type, of the
single-combed, more fluffy, feather-
legged, indolent Shanghae fowl,
with a far more tight-feathered, active, and
agile Indian stock, whose signs are found in
the longer tail, tighter plumage, and that
pea-comb, found most perfect in the Aseel,

breeders.

Variation
in Type.

accompanying illustration, reproduced from the
Field oi December 24, 1853, of the first sent by
Mr. Burnham to Mr. John Baily, of which a pair
were speedily re-sold for ;^ioo. It will be
noticed at once that the birds are far more bold
and active-looking, have far more tail, quite
different carriage, (upright instead of forward)
and in particular, far more length of body.

In what a noble form the Indian type some-
times came out, may be seen from the con-
temporary portrait of our own old " Favourite

CONTENDING TYPES IN BRAHMAS.

26;

2," of 1 87 1. He was the son of a bird even
more slim and agile than himself, of a strain
(Mr. W. Hargreaves, of Bacup) renowned for
breeding beautiful cockerels, many of which were
of course of much more orthodox sort, or they
would not have been successful. This one of
his progeny won second prize at Bristol in a
class of forty, the largest class of Brahma
cockerels ever exhibited up to that time, and
was in his turn the sire of the cup-winner at the
Crystal Palace and Birmingham in 1872.
Artists who could draw fowls were scarce in
those days, and his head is not " fine " enough ;
but the contour is true, and the bird appears
" alive " in the drawing. Looking at it critically,
one sees the same greater proportionate length
of body ; but the most striking feature, next to
the full and sweeping tail, is the magnificent
" balance " of the bird, and the supple vigour of
his attitude. He flew to the top of a six-foot
fence with ease; in fighting struck with the
spur like a game cock ; and it would have been
dangerous for any stranger to touch one of his
hens. Mr. Teebay, who judged at Bristol, told
us that though not of the customary style for
exhibition, he also knew that type of bird well,
as appearing from time to time in the Dark
Brahma ; and we have also seen the same
general pattern, with less tail, but the same
grand sweep of outline, active lissomeness, and
noble carriage, in the yards of Lady Gwydr
and others, though of course the slimmest and
longest-tailed ones were kept at home as not
likely to find favour with the judges.

It is difficult now not to regret that even
this more pronounced development of the Indian
type, rather than the Chinese, had not been
encouraged ; for it was full of good qualities
which the Chinese type does not possess. The
skin was thin and pinky-white ; the pullets were
often magnificent layers, and showed only
moderate broodiness at long intervals ; the breast
was long and deep, so that the fowl on the
table looked like a small turkey. Such was the
more Indian type of the original Brahma fowl ;
but, in spite of the early lesson presented by the
question of comb, no one properly understood
then the significance of the choice to be made
between the mixed components in its blood.
For the struggle came out plainly in that
question of comb. Some chickens had single-
combs, some pea-combs, and either could
have been bred with ease amongst English
stock ; in America there were strains which
chiefly bred one or the other, owing to the
rivalry of Bennett and Burnham. In this point
the Indian feature was fixed without the
slightest difficulty, and there is little doubt that

fixing it had some influence in a tendency
towards other features of the Indian model ;
but in regard to Brahmas, English judging has
been unfortunately more erratic than in the case
of almost any other breed. For years any
approach to a covered hock was so persistently
disqualified, that shanks almost as bare as
present-day Langshans became the rule. When
breeders had at last got good leg-feather to be

accepted, the two leading judges began giving
prizes to pullets which only weighed about 6 lbs.
each, and were narrow weeds with nothing
Brahma about them except pea-combs, for a
new style of broad and very rich marking ; none
of these birds ever reappeared as hens, and their
encouragement did much harm in many yards.
Then the awards went, in flat contradiction of
this, to a very silvery pencilling, usually found
with white heads, which was exhibited (chiefly
by one exhibitor, who it was notorious had
his stock from one of the judges) in birds larger
than the preceding, but still narrow and weedy
in build, and short of leg-feather as those also
had been. Finally, and probably in sheer
reaction from this fashion, the pendulum swung
right over from it to breadth of body and loose
plumage, and tremendous leg-feather (with

266

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

vulture-hocks) which had already found toleration
amongst the Cochins of that day. With this
change in fashion, the Chinese element began
to over-power the Indian, and the Brahma to
assume more and more of Cochin character ;
losing far too much at the same time, unfortu-
nately, of its former good qualities. There was
a time, indeed, when many winners were little
else than Cochins of another colour, with the
constant broodiness, thick skins, and coarse
flesh which generally accompany that model ;
but some reaction from that extreme has lately
been observable.

Under these circumstances the general
characteristics of Brahmas cannot be described
with quite the same definiteness as in the case

of some other breeds. Both the
Characteristics Dark and the Light are supposed
of Brahmas. j-q be exactly the same in size,

shape, and carriage ; but this has
not always been the case, and can hardly be
said to have been absolutely so at the end of
1900. In the earlier days of the breed the
Lights were considerably inferior to the Darks,
possibly owing to mixture with Cochin strains ;
now the Lights as a rule are more broad and
massive and fluffy than the Darks, with more of
the Cochin type. This should not be so ; but
the truth really is that the Dark Brahma
breeders have made rather a more successful
fight for the Brahma model, and it is too true
that under many judges a Light Brahma cock
of the same model as is still often seen in Darks,
would stand little chance. Still, the leading
points may be preserved in both colours, and
may be described as follows.

The Brahma as a rule looks smaller than a
Cochin, but is in reality very often heavier,
because the Cochin's loose fluff adds to its
apparent bulk. On the other hand the Brahma
plumage, though far more abundant than
formerly, is still desired to be close-fitting.
Cockerels six months old should weigh 8 or
9 lbs., and pullets 7 lbs. or more ; really pure-
bred strains are never remarkable for early
weights, though these may be forced ; but on
the other hand they grow more than most other
breed? the second year. Adults sometimes
reach great weights. We once knew a cock
weigh 1 8 lbs., but he was a brute; 14 lbs. and
IS lbs. we have come across several times in
exhibition specimens, but 1 1 to 12 lbs. is more
usual. The heaviest hen we possessed was
11^ lbs., but we knew several over 12 lbs. As
a rule these enormous birds are deficient in
symmetry.

The head of the cock should be small, short,
and rather wide over the eyes ; not enough to

give a cruel or Malay expression, but a sort of
peculiar archness or intelligence : the beak also
should be thick and short, in harmony with the
grouse-head model. Many birds lately have
had large and coarse heads, or else long and
slender face and beak, either of which looks
very mean. The comb — the " pea-comb " —
resembles three small combs pressed into one,
the centre being the highest. This should be
small, with the centre ridge straight, and the
shape preferred is to rise somewhat from front
to centre or beyond, and then decrease a little,
with a slight arch. Formerly a very common
shape was to rise towards a peak behind, and
this is still occasionally seen, but looks very
ugly. In some cases we have seen a comb
evidently of this type originally, with the rising
portion at the back cut off, as shown by the
glossy scar : trimming of this kind should not
pass unnoticed. The face should be fairly
smooth, not too hairy. The ear-lobes in all
early Brahmas which we can remember were so
long as to fall below the wattles, which ought to
be rather small, not long and pendulous ; this
should be sought therefore as a Brahma point.
They should be smooth and bright red and
free from feathers.

The neck should be very full in hackle, so
that it stands out and makes a sort of junction
with the head. It should be long, and well
arched, which gives grandeur and nobility of
appearance ; but the more Cochin-shaped
birds generally have rather short necks. The
shoulders should be wide and flat, not too
much gable-shaped, and the back short, the
saddle starting from very little behind the base
of the hackle. The saddle is, however, to be
very long as well as wide, rising uninterruptedly
to the tail, with hackles long and abundant,
flowing well over the points of the wings.
However massive and thick the bird is other-
wise, or even fluffy, the saddle feathers should
lie close and hard-looking, and rise more and
more with almost a concave profile towards the
tail, which rises still more upright so as to form
part of the same graceful " sweep " of line from
end to end. The tail may be nearly upright,
but should not be quite so, and in any case
should work in with the contour of the saddle,
not stand up "out" of it. However profuse in
plumage and thick in shape, this Brahma
" sweep " should be well seen, and is faithfully
depicted in the coloured illustration, which at
the same time should be massive enough for
anybody.

The real Brahma tail is itself characteristic,
but only seen occasionally. It is sometimes
described as if the upper sickles diverged, but

DESCRIPTION OF LIGHT BRAHMAS.

267

this is not correct It is the upper pair of true
tail feathers which curve outwards, like the tail
of a black-cock, and the fine sickles curl over
between their opened ends. In another type
of tail, the whole group of feathers appears
to spread out laterally. Neither type is very
common now, and if we get a handsome tail,
with a good sweep, we may be satisfied. The
saddle should on no account get narrower
towards the tail.

The breast should be deep, broad, and rather
prominent, coming well down between the
thighs. These and the legs ought to stand wide
apart, and the latter be fairly short ; but they
certainly may be too short, though this does not
often happen. . They are to be feathered as
heavily as possible down the outside of the
shanks, and to ends of outer and middle toes,
with the feather sticking out well, especially
under the hocks, which is the difficult place to
get good feather. As a rule the inside of shank,
and back toe and inner toe also, are more or
less fluffed or feathered too, which is not a
beauty. The required leg-feather is practically
always accompanied in England by vulture-
hocks, for which we have already expressed
regret, as usually accompanied by coarser skin
and deficiency in breast. But there is a great
difference in vulture-hocks, some of them pro-
jecting far more than others for the same
amount of real feather ; and very offensive-look-
ing hocks should certainly be penalised, as
against those in which more downward direction
or curling in, diminishes their prominence. The
fluff should be fairly abundant and well covering
the thighs, though neither so full nor so downy
as in Cochins. The wings are of medium length,
considerably longer than a Cochin wing, and
should be tucked up rather tightly. The toes
should be well spread apart and straight : a
curved toe is rather often seen in this breed,
perhaps from its weight.

The hen should present the same small head,
which in her case looks particularly arch and
coquettish when of the right model, yet with a
sweet and gentle expression also. The body
should present the same deep-breasted general
outline ; and in her case also there is the same
characteristic difference between her cushion and
that of a Cochin, the cushion of the Brahma
rising more and more to the tail, which standa
out at the end, instead of drooping as in the
other Asiatic breed. The fluff is abundant, but
should not be globular, the general appearance
being rather square than rounded. The cushion
should also grow wider and wider towards the
tail, though of late many Dark birds have tended
to run off narrow and weedy. The Light pullets,

on the direct contrary, have often shown such
enormous fluff and cushion as closely to resemble
the Cochin type. Some breeders and judges
evidently prefer this stamp of bird, which is often
of great size ; but such a model is foreign to the
original Brahma and should be discouraged.

We must now deal with the colours
separately, and will take Light Brahmas first.
In this breed the real ideal of colour has not
varied much, though different faults
Light have appeared at different times.

Brahmas. -pj^g comb and face have been
described above; the rest of the
head of the cock is pure white, and the hackle
below silvery white, more and more striped
towards the bottom of the neck with black.
This stripe should be as intense and sharp as
possible, and run well up the feather, the edges
being sharp and the edge of the hackle white.
We have seen magnificent birds on the rather
dark side, with a black edging as well as striping
to the lower hackles, and are bound to say we
thought it looked very handsome, but it is
considered a fault, and is also a sign of too much
colour in the stock. The most difficult part of
the hackle to get good marking is where it
comes round to the front of the neck. The
hackle cannot be too full and flowing, and
should slide like glass over the shoulders and
back. The head and neck of a Light Brahma
cock, both literally and in fact, form the frontis-
piece to the entire bird. Red or bay is the
best colour for the eyes, but the lighter colour
is fully recognised.

The shoulder-coverts and back between them
are preferred white on surface, but are black
quite as often underneath the hackle, at the
part often called the cape. The saddle hackles
are by most preferred white, but these also are
allowed to be striped, though it should be much
more thinly than the neck, and general harmony
requires that a striped saddle should accompany
a rather dark and brilliantly - coloured neck-
hackle : personally we rather prefer the striped
saddle. The tail is black, except that the top
feathers may be narrowly laced with white : tail
coverts black, edged with white. The primaries
are black, edged or not with white on the outer
web : secondaries, white on outer web, and
generally on a little of inside web, rest of the
inner web black. The rest of the body and fluff
is pure white on the surface, with either white or
bluish grey under-fluff; the shank-feather may
be either white, or preferably with some black
mottling. The shanks should be brilliant
yellow. All the black except in shank-feather,
should have as much green gloss as possible.

268

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

The hen is the same general colour, the head
being white, and the hackle lower down broadly
and densely and sharply striped with black.
Her tail is black, or may be laced with white,
and primaries and secondaries of the wings, and
shank-feathers, are as in the cock. The rest of
the body pure white all over in surface-colour,
except the rearmost tail coverts, which are black
edged with white, and the cape between
shoulders, which is often more or less black.
The under-fluff may be either white or grey as
in the cock.

We have now to consider how su.ch birds are
to be bred : a task which is not easy according
to the high standard of the present day. To
have any chance of success, a cock
Breeding qj- cockerel vmst be selected with

Brahinas. Vi&^y head and comb : the male bird
is all-important in these points, and
the day is gone by when a coarse head and a
bloated mass of red can win at good shows.
The bird must, of course, also be typical in
shape and size ; but on the other hand, if he
is really good in other points, there is no need
that he should be large. Size is the one point
in which, if necessary, expenditure may be
saved.

The next most important point to look
after is the quality of his colour ; by which we
mean, not the amount of black he may have,
but that his white is clear skim-milk white, and
the black a dense black. The same remarks
about what is called "sap in feathers" while
growing, made in the case of Cochins, apply here
also. If such a bird can possibly be got, one
that has been white as a cockerel, and moulted
white, and grown his feathers white whilst in the
quill, will save a lot of trouble in breeding out
yellow tinge later. The point is not quite so
vital in hens, but in their case also this pure real
white, not cream, is the point of greatest value.
Brown or indistinct striping in the hackles, will
also entail tedious work later on to breed them
good.

The amount of colour in the birds mated
is the final thing to be considered, so far as
colour is in question. If a cockerel as first
described can be secured of the exhibition type,
and also pullets or hens of the ideal exhibition
type, that is, with hackles really sharply and
densely striped like Fig. gi, and nicely edged
tail coverts, and both sexes are really free from
all surface splashes or ticks in undesirable places,
this mating will usually produce good chickens of
both sexes, unless too " raw " a cross (as ex-
plained in Chapter XL). But such mates are very
hard to get. The standing difficulty remains
where it was years ago, in getting sufficient

marking in the hackles and about the tail,
without ticks or splashes of black where not
wanted. Of late birds have been shown with
darker hackles and saddles than formerly, and
pullets with their hackles almost black ; and as
a result there have been too many in the pens
showing black specks all about the body, or at
the ends of the wings, or splashes on the hocks
or amongst the fluff. This may occur from
mating either dark hackles together, or when
both of the pair have grey under-fluff, which is
undesirable with the present stock of to-day.
Both sexes being of exhibition standard in
colour, therefore, if one sex has dark under-fluff,

Fig. 91.— Show Hackle. Fig. 92.— Dark Hackle.

the other should have white ; and if the cock
has a striped saddle and somewhat dark hackle,
both may often have white under-colour with
advantage. The result will then depend chiefly
upon the density and sharpness of the hackle-
striping, particularly in the hens. If the cock
is not particularly dark, but what may be called
a nice average, it is as well to have one or two
of his mates with rather too dark hackles, the
produce of which may often be amongst the best
of the bunch.

The above may be termed exhibition matmg
or single mating, and this is a breed in which
with care that may at least be bred up to, if not
always possible at first. But there are other
ways of mating which are quite successful,
balancing too much colour on one side by less

BREEDING LIGHT BRAHMAS.

269

on the other. Fig. 91 shows a hackle such as is
desired in a Hght IBrahma pullet or hen, and
Fig. 92 another such as is very often seen, and
which has even won at times, though seriously
faulty owing to the black extending almost or
quite to the edge of the feather. It is the tolera-
tion of such hackles in winners, with striped
saddles in the cocks, and breeding the two
together, which produces so many birds with
black ticks or splashes all over the body, but
especially the back or the hocks. But if a
female with such dark hackle and free from
black splashes be mated with a cockerel clear in
saddle with rather narrow stripes in his hackle,
while not more than one of the pair has grey
under-colour, the produce is usually quite satis-
factory in regard to pullets ; and there is often a
certain portion of very fair cockerels, though
mostly, like their father, rather on the light-
hackled side.

The converse mating is also often satisfactory
to a large extent, putting a very dark-hackled
cock with striped saddle to hens deficient in
striping. Success will depend upon the striping
in both cases being sharp and dense, what there
is of it ; and the greatest difficulty in Light
Brahma breeding has been the undefined or
cloudy hackles, which have been tolerated in so
many hens. Such cloudiness gives no end of
trouble, and can only be bred out of by degrees.
But where the hackles are sharp, this mating
also often breeds very well. Perhaps in this
case more cockerels may be expected good
than pullets ; the number good and quality of
the latter will largely depend upon whether the
mothers are free from ticks and splashes,
especially on the back, and a proper balance of
under-colour.

We lay stress once more on the absence of
black elsewhere than in the standard places. It
is mere common-sense, one would think, though
some do not appear to see it, that if a pullet not
too dark in hackle, also has a lot of black show-
ing all about her, she is full of surplus black
blood, sure to come out in all ways, but
especially in that same way which it is so
desirable to avoid. On the other hand, if we
get hold of a bird which is too full of colour in
hackle or tail, or both, but clear white all over
where it should be white, and maybe light in
under-fluff as well, such a one may be invaluable.
Her colour is too great, but all of it is where
colour is wanted to appear, and this tendency is
of all others most valuable.

There is no doubt that many strains of
Light Brahmas have been produced by crossing
with White Cochins, but now the strains have
become pure owing to no crossing of late, and

no need for the infusion of fresh Cochin
blood. Many years ago, however, we were in-
formed at Birmingham by a well-known winner
there, that his birds there had been^ bred from
a Dark Brahma cock and White Cochin hens ;
and we think it not unlikely that the greater pre-
valence of black ticks and splashes for many
years past may be due to this infusion of all-over
dark blood. The result has been increased size,
width, and especially fluff about the thighs, many
Brahmas now shown being far more wide and
fluffy on the thighs than Cochins themselves.
There is besides to be seen in many birds, a
body-plumage of very wide, soft, fluffy feathers,
entirely different in size and texture from the
closer plumage which may generally be seen
only one or two pens off, and so compared with
the other. Some breeders evidently like this
Cochin model, heavy and torpid as it is com-
pared with the more square, compact, and active
Brahma type, and no one has a right to pro-
nounce as to matters of preference. We would
only urge, as indispensable, whatever the width
or the fluff, that at least the rising cushion and
tail in the hens, and the grand sweeping out-
line in the cocks, be preserved. How these
points may be shown even when combined with
great massiveness, Mr. Ludlow has shown in
the illustration.

The head of a Dark Brahma cock should be
almost similar to that described for the Light,
but though correctly called white, there is
a sort of pearly grey about this
Dark white rather different from the snow

Bralimas. white of the other. In the neck

hackle there is less latitude of colour
than in the Light variety, it being essential
that the neck hackle should be broadly and
densely striped with brilliant black, extend-
ing well up the feathers as in Fig. 93, and with
any white shaft showing as little as possible,
the rest of the feather being a brilliant white,
unless occasionally the extreme edge may show
a sharp and very fine black edge near the tip,
as also shown in Fig. 93. The saddle hackle
is also brilliant white, more finely striped, and
generally showing rather more white shaft in
the feather, as in Fig. 94. What little there
is of back should be silvery white, but between
the shoulders, where the hackle flows over it,
the feathers are black laced round with white :
a cockerel has much more black here than a
bird in his second year, and black often mixes
partly in the white of the back also. The
saddle hackles gradually merge at the rear
into the tail coverts, which are more and more
broadly striped with black, until next the tail

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

they become quite black, the tail and sickles
also being black, unless the upper pair of black-
cock feathers are thinly laced with white :
white in the tail otherwise is a great blemish,
not uncommon the second year. The shoulders
and wing-bows are silvery white in old birds,
usually mixed with black in young ones, but
should be free from brown or red feathers :
the wing-coverts lorm a brilliant black bar
across the wing : the secondaries are white on
the outer web except a large spot at the end,
this and the inner web black, leaving the wing
very white : primaries black, with or without a
white edge on outer web. All the black feathers
of these upper parts should be brilliantly glossed,

f^ig- 93- — Hackle of Dark Brahma Cock.

Fig. 94.— Saddle Hackle of Cock.

a green gloss being best, but a purple tinge
is not a very serious defect. The breast and
thighs and underparts are preferred solid black
in an exhibition bird, but small mottling on the
breast and lacing on the fluff, or fine white
lacing on breast and fluff, are in theory and
standard admissible, though practically they
seldom win : the shank-feather should mainly
correspond with the other underparts, but
with even a black breast, a little white there
is quite permissible. A real silvery whiteness
in the white, free from yellow or straw, is one
of the chief points in colour. The shanks
should be deep yellow or orange, but any
distinct yellow is sufficient.

The colour of hens and pullets has varied
more than in any other breed. Up to about
1870 there were two distinct schools, Mr. Boyle
advocating a " dingy-white ground " closely
pencilled with dark steel-grey, and Mr. Lacy,
whose birds were usually largest in size, openly
preferring very dark brown pencillings on a
dark brown ground. This preference is his-
torically very significant, because Mr. Burnham

has often asserted* that his birds were always
free from brown or any colour but fine steel-
grey ; while Mr. Lacy wrote us personally in
1S67, that he had then been breeding Brahmas
fifteen years, ten of which were in America .
he therefore bred them there from 1852 to 1862,
and either Burnham's must have been brown,
or there was, as early as 1852, other Dark
Brahma stock obtainable, which originated the
strain he brought over. For years Mr. Lacy
was a most successful exhibitor, and his birds
were used to cross Partridge Cochins as already
related ; but this absolutely brown Brahma
has now practically disappeared. For many
years now, the pencillings at least have always
been black or dark steel-grey, but
the ground-colour has varied greatly.
For a good while it was a grey

= which had a slight tendency to

, /> ^ brown on the sides, and usually

'f/'/S''''' moulted rather browner in the hen ;

while there was alsoe.xhibited almost
a slate or bluish ground, with black
markings, the two schools being
equally beautiful. The latter was
known as the blue-grey, and Fig. 95
represents a set of feathers from
one of the birds which won at
-^ Birmingham in 1871 : it will be
noticed that the markings are finer
than those photographed on a later
page from birds of igoo. Then
for a time the judges went for a
new marking which burst out
suddenly, broad green - black bands, on a
darkish ground with perceptible brown in it,
but the whole so rich as not to look the least
dingy. The colour would have passed well
enough, but the pullets themselves were quite
small birds, of no Asiatic shape at all, narrow
and weedy and nearly bare legged — there
simply never was such a farce in poultry-judg-
ing. After a few years of this, the judges threw
it over and went for a pale silver-grey pencilling :
these birds were better than the others, but
moulted very dingy, and also lacked substance :
this also could not last, and was succeeded
by the massive hocked type that has since
prevailed.

The colour of the pullets now fashionable
is a pure grey ground colour with black or
nearly black pencillings, as nearly uniform as
possible all over the body, breast, back, wings,
fluff", and leg feather, with black tail and
striped hackles. This colour used generally to
show brown areas or patches, and moult brown
in the hens, but recently many birds are practi-

* lo The China Fowl, and many places elsewhere.

BREEDING DARK BRAHMAS.

271

cally clear all over, and the best breeders
have a fair proportion that moult out as
clear. This breeding for colour and marking
affected the type somewhat for a time, but
we are pleased to see that the general char-
acter of the breed is returning without losing
any of its beauty. This want of shape
and grandeur was apparent in the beautifully
marked pullets shown many years ago by
the Rev. J. D. Peake and Rev. T. C. Peake,
from which we believe most of the present
clear-grounded birds arc descended ; and much

Elye and Mr. J. Martin Longe have been
prominent exhibitors of the paper-ground birds.
These changes in colour have very much
altered the breeding of Brahmas for exhibition,
so that it is now impossible to breed the fashion-
able colours good in both sexes,
from the same breeding pen. This
is, however, entirely owing to the
change in colour, and it is quite
wrong to assert, as some breeders
do, that black-breasted cockerels and well-
pencilled pullets — so far as pencilling only goes

Breeding

Dark

Brahmas.

n;

Fig- 95- — Dark Brahma Pullet Feathers in 1S71

as we admire the marking itself, we scarcely
ever see a hen of it, which in size or shape can
be compared to those of a fonner period.
Another serious drawback, in our opinion, is
the loss of the old striped hackles. Birds bred
for this marking become more and more
pencilled in hackles, as in Partridge Cochins,
and several breeders profess now to admire
this marking, and consider it the proper one :
but this is evidently the old case of the fox
who lost his tail, and because they cannot help
themselves.

A dark grey ground also holds its own to
some extent, and most of such birds are
superior in size to the preceding, and some of
them make really fine hens. Some of these
have very fair striped hackles, and are usually
better layers than the paper-ground birds.
Mr. Henshall has often shown fine Brahma
pullets and hens of this type, while Mr. Norris-

■ — cannot be bred together successfully, or from
the same stock. Mrs. Hurt's celebrated strain
of thirty years ago was beautifully marked and
everywhere successful, and a large portion
of the cockerels always came black-breasted ;
and going back to our own experience, a son
of our old " Favourite 2 " which won the
cup in 1872 at both the Crystal Palace and
Birmingham, after his purchase by Messrs.
Newnham and Manby became the sire of a
number of pullets that were well known for
several years. The real incompatibles are
the extremely light ground-colour in pullets,
combined with solid black underparts, espe-
cially black fluff, in the cockerels. People
who wish to exhibit birds to win now must
breed from two pens.

To breed exhibition cockerels, the first
essential is, as in all cases of double mat-
ing, a sufficiently good exhibition cockerel

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

or cock in all points of head, shape, colour,
and plumage : the one point which may be
perhaps spared to save the pocket, is size,
which is not very important if his hens are
massive and large. The points need not be
repeated in detail, laying emphasis only
upon the colour of the white, which is all-
important. Nothing but vexation can come
of breeding from yellow birds, or any with
red about the back or shoulders ; and while
the exhibitor saves the colour of a good
bird all he can by keeping him out of the
sun, on the other hand, if in his choice for
breeding he can pick up one that has been
out a great deal in all weathers, and yet
kept his silvery colour, such an one is twice
the value. There are such birds, and there
is that difference in strains. This bird we
choose on his own merits, and no more need
be said.

Of the hens to put with him, among all
the mixture of strains one important point
is that they be more or less of the same
cock-breeding strain : for this we have to
trust to personal knowledge or inquiry.
The only " points " that can be certainly
laid down are, that they must have good
heads with small neat combs, and solidly-
striped hackles. The body-colour of good
cock-breeders varies enormously. We have
seen some nearly black, others black pen-
cilled on brown, others covered with minute
microscopic pencilling, hardly visible, on a
dark slate-colour ; very rarely a really well-
pencilled blue-grey hen will breed good
cockerels, but generally the offspring of such
are spotted on breast. As a rule these
hens are pretty dark, and at least very
poorly marked ; and supposing they have
good hackles — that is one point which really
can be seen and is essential — the blood of
good exhibition birds in their veins is the
main thing. If the cock is short of shank-
feather, they must of course have abundance,
but that is obvious. In starting a new
strain, if the cock or cockerel is really good,
however poor the first year's produce may
be, breeding back to the cock the next
season will generally give an adequate reward,
and so on while line-breeding is carried on.

The pullet-breeding pen will be entirely
different. Here we must select the females
from the exhibition point of view, at least as
regards colour and marking, and be especially
severe as regards breast-pencilling under the
very throat. It is an excellent plan to have
one or two birds rather darker than the rest in
starting a new pen, and to keep watch which

hit the best. The great point is uniformity of
marking. It is very common to see good breasts
with cushion-markings so small as to be indis-
tinct ; or there may be a brown patch on the
wing. A hen which was clear as a pullet and
moulted clear, is especially valuable. If possible
select some striped hackles and some pencilled,
with a view to avoid getting the whole strain
pencilled all up the neck. Most pullets from a
clear ground strain, will have what may be
called partly-pencilled hackles, which moult
out more ipencilled still. Pullets of the darker
steel-grey type are much more easy to obtain
with properly striped hackles. The great faults
of the clear pullets at present are want of size,
and long narrow backs, and these faults should
as far as possible be avoided.

The feathers photographed in Fig. 96 from
a prize bird of 1900, the specimens being sup-
plied by Mr. J. Martin Longe, represent the
exhibition type of that day, and it may
be interesting to compare them with those
shown in Fig- 95 of nearly thirty years before.
It will be seen that the pencilling has become
broader, and the bands, upon the whole, are
more solid and sharply defined. The two
hackles exhibit a greater and less degree of
pencilling, which increases in most birds the
second year, and is tending to increase more
and more as the pencilled strain is bred more
exclusively by itself. We have seen hackles in
some hens recently, and now and then even in
pullets, far more pencilled than this, and
with that straight-across barring (like that of a
Pencilled Hamburgh) which we have already
referred to in the case of Partridge Cochins.
The law of Nature appears to work out the
same way in all cases of breeding foi' purely
pencilled marking, and there is little doubt that
a straight-pencilled Brahma could be ultimately
produced, and perhaps one day may be the
accepted type of bird.

In choosing the male bird, again we must
start with the condition that he be of the right
strain ; because even cock-breeding strains
occasionally produce a mottled or laced-
breasted cockerel, and such an one will not
answer. Supposing that, his chief points are
dense striping in his hackles, and all the better
if with a hair-line edge as in Fig. 93. This
should be free from white streak as drawn, and
the tolerance of white shaft or streak is the
chief cause of the prevalence of pencilled
hackles in the pullets, which may to some
extent be kept in abeyance by choosing solid
striping in the cockerels. The cape, or back
under the hackle, should be black feathers well
laced with white ; and the edges of the lacing

SINGLE AND DOUBLE MATING.

273

at the tail coverts should be sharp and clear.
The best colour for the cockerel's breast is a
narrow lacing with white on each feather ; but
another marking which answers well, especially
with the darker pullets, is a small pear-shaped
white spot on the tip of each, with the shaft
showing as a black line up its centre. The
cockerel or cock should also be compared with
his mates in regard to their respective colour
fore and aft. If the hens have perfect breasts
but poorly-marked cushion, the cock should
have narrow but intense stripes in his saddle and
tail-coverts, and sharply laced fluff; ifthehensor

and live in hopes of the fashion changing to the
darker shades ; it is such a satisfaction to see
one's hens improving, if anything, after each
moult.

"A few years ago, at the ' R'oyal ' show
held at Chester in 1893, I won first in cockerels
and pullets with own brother and sister, and
a splendid layer she was ; she laid before the
show in June, and when she came back laid
seven days running ; and in her second year
laid about 23 eggs per month in the four
months of January, February, March, and
April, before getting broody — so show birds are

I /

Fully pencilled Hacltle

Partly pencilled Hackle. Breast Wing.

Fig. 96. — Feathers from Dark Brahma Pullet, 1900.

pullets fail near the throat, the male should be
narrower in lacing up there, and than he is on
the fluff, and on no account have a white cravat.

Some breeders of Brahmas have always
objected to the double-mating system. Amongst
them is Mrs. A. Campbell, of Uley, in Gloucester-
shire, who wrote in 1900 :

" I have always bred my Dark Brahmas of
both sexes from the same pen. I do not at all
admire, the snaky-headed pullets which now
win, which have neither the size, nor the shape,
nor the feather of the old-fashioned Brahma. I
think it a pity that one shade of colour should
be thought of more importance than all these.

sometimes ' utility ' birds too. Then I won the
Poultry Club medal with both a cock and hen,
own brother and sister, and in 1894 I won at
Tunbridge Wells with brother and sister : in
the former case the cock won altogether at 26
shows and his sister at 32 shows. I admit
that I get a larger percentage of cockerels for
show than I do pullets.

" The loss of size from this new craze is I
think worst of all. The 'two pen' system I am
sure hinders many from taking up the breed for
exhibition, for not every one has space enough.
I shall stick to the old way, and believe I shall
win with it still."

974

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Writing now, in 191 1, Mrs. Campbell sees
no reason to alter the foregoing remarks, but
considers Dark hens have been shown recently
much finer in size and shape. Dark cockerels
seem to have slipped back in numbers, for in
1909 and 1910 the Dairy classes were cancelled.

Our experience was that it was perfectly
possible, with the richer colour, to produce both
sexes of the same strain for exhibition. The
simple necessities were that while the breast
might be perfectly black, and if so must be up
to the very throat, the fluff behind the thighs
had to be a little laced round the edges. The
rest depended upon the strain, and upon a proper
balance of striping in the cockerels, as between
neck-hackle in front, and saddle-hackle and
tail-coverts at the other end. We too could
heartily wish that the grander and darker birds
of former years could be revived.

One expedient has sometimes occurred to
us, which might perhaps meet the views of both
parties, more especially in days when the making
of extra varieties seems fashionable. It would
consist in recognising the newer colour, and
dividing the Dark Brahma into two varieties.
If the lighter shades in pullets and hens were
called say " silver-pencilled " Brahmas, and their
laced-breasted cockerels (which are sometimes
very beautiful) shown as their mates, breeders
of this type would have a scope for their cockerels
which they have not now, and breeding for
marking only might be expected to reach yet
greater perfection. On the other hand the
" Dark " Brahma could then be restricted to the
really dark birds, which also could be bred and
shown as in the olden days. Even in these,
speckled-breasted cockerels often occurred, and
were invaluable for pullet-breeding ; but these
often produced black-breasted offspring in turn,
and had a sort of deep colour about their black
which is very different from such as would be
shown in the suggested laced or speckled
" silver " class. Generally speaking, whatever
system of breeding be pursued, it is better
to use a cockerel bred from hens or pullets a
shade darker than the colour desired, or those
he is mated with, as in the pale-grounded strains
especially, the depth of colour tends to run out

Weeding out wasters is in one point rather
a ticklish process in Brahmas. By the time
they are four or five months old, many of the
cockerels are so dreadfully " gawky " that no
one could believe they could ever come to any
good, whereas these ugly birds often turn out
best. But we learnt in our own yard that at
ten or twelve weeks old, very often much of the
real carriage and gait would be seen, to be lost
for several months and then recovered aeain

in the grown bird. An eye should always be
kept upon the cockerels at this age, therefore ;
and if a chicken has fine body and proportion
then, never mind if he gets leggy and ugly later
on ; let him make his frame, and by-and-bye he
will settle down again. Light chickens often
show all sorts of black splashes, which moult out
by autumn. Dark cockerels usually have more
or less brown in their chicken feathers, which
moult out clear; but these are certainly less
common than they were, and it is possible that
some day we may have a race that never shows
other than pure white and black.

The type of Brahma in America, as we have
gathered from attentive comparison of many
articles and illustrations, and correspondence

with the veteran Mr. I. K. Felch
Brahmas (of Natick) and Messrs. Sharp (of

in Taunton, Mass.), differs very con-

America, siderably from the British in both

varieties. In regard to shape,
American breeders have mainly kept to the
older model, with less fluff and foot feather, as
it was known in England about 1870-4. Es-
pecially have they retained the longer body of
the more Indian component in the fowl, and
consistently disqualified for stiff projecting hocks.
From these causes the Brahma in America has
retained much of its popularity and reputation
as a " utility " fowl, some of the very best layers
recorded — far above 200 eggs per annum —
being Light Brahmas, and some of these suc-
cessful exhibition specimens. Mr. I. K. Felch
writes us, that from the average of many obser-
vations, so far as he has been able to compare
specimens (derived from English stock) of the
more Chinese or short-bodied type, the " long-
bodied Brahma will lay at least 40 per cent,
more eggs than the shorter-bodied birds." If
there is anything in " egg-type " at all, this is
probably correct.

Some prominent breeders have during late
years endeavoured to produce profuse shank-
feather in combination with soft curling hocks,
and have succeeded in great measure, as
in the case of Cochins. The illustrations we
have seen of this class of birds appear to
indicate a rather shorter body than the older
type, but still with more length and sprightli-
ness of form than shown by most of the
present English exhibition Brahmas. The
accompanying illustration by ]\Ir. Franklane
Sewell, facile princeps as the poultry artist of
America (for which we are again indebted to
the Reliable Poultry Journal), exhibits this
more modern type of American Brahma. The
length of body in the cock will be noticed, and

BRAHMAS IN AMERICA.

275

the greater squareness and sturdiness of the
hen. Some American breeders of the old school
would perhaps consider her, at least, rather too
Cochiny, and both would, we think, if fine in
size and colour, still stand pretty well at even
a great English show. Not many years ago
they would certainly have won at such ; but, as
just observed, are themselves a somewhat modi-
fied type of American Brahma.

Taking the colours, in Light Brahmas the
American breeders have achieved greater suc-
cess than the British,
simply because they
have set themselves
to do it, and refused
to tolerate faults
often seen in English
prize birds. Such
black specks and
splashes all over as
have sometimes been
common with us are
not tolerated, especi-
ally about the backs
of the birds ; and the
hackles are more uni
formly and sharply ^^^
striped, also the tail- ^r
coverts in the cocks 7)i
Such black and
cloudy hackles as we
have often seen in
hens do not pass
muster at a good
American show.
Much greater atten-
tion is also paid to
the correct colour of
flights and secon-
daries ; and it is at
least possible that
this particularity

may have to do with the breeding out of faults
elsewhere. The American light Brahma is a
somewhat heavier bird than its dark relative,
the standard weights being, cock, 12 lb. ;
cockerel, lO lb. ; hen, 95^ lb. ; and pullet,
8 lb. ; while those for the dark are cock,
II lb.; cockerel, 9 lb.; hen, 8^ lb.; and
pullet, 7 lb.

In Dark Brahmas the older model is more
preserved than in the modified Lights as here
illustrated, although something has lately
been done to produce specimens of heavier
feather ; but there is no doubt that the Dark
Brahma is far less bred than the Light in the
United States. In colour and marking both
American and English breeders who have seen

both consider the English birds much
superior, so far at least as hens or pullets are
concerned ; but all agree that unless size and
character can be added to the marking, the
clear ground-colour so much valued in Eng-
land would not be accepted without these
points.

The economic merits of the Brahma cannot
be stated with the same confidence as forty
years ago, owing to the changes which have
taken place, as above stated. We have

'^■^.fy^f^fi^^^^^

Qualities

of
Brahmas.

American Light Brahmas

known it as a magnificent layer, and in the
first edition of The Illustrated Book of
Poultry we cited cases, some from
our own strain, where far above 200
eggs in a year had been recorded.
In America there are many such
strains still ; but in the old country we
fear it would be difficult now to find such,
though Mrs. Campbell's evidence above is
worthy of note. There are various causes for
the decline in laying powers, which is cer-
tainly general. Of course, the one general
cause' of breeding merely for feather has sonie
effect, as in all other cases ; but that alone is
usually soon recovered from in " utility "
stock, such as gets about the country. In

276

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

addition to that, however, the Brahma is a
breed in which it is particularly desirable to
keep the pullets back from laying, with a view
to the best show condition ; and this, repeated
for generations, has also had effect. But be-
yond even these factors, all experience goes to
show that activity and close plumage are in-
dispensable to any marked laying power ; and
the gradual change to looser feather, with
wider and shorter body, has had probably the
greatest share in the deterioration ; the bird
has actually been bred to a model which cannot
lay so well as the older one. There are still
to be found about the country flocks derived
from the older stocks, which keep up the old
reputation ; but if the Brahma is desired as a
layer, some effort should be made to ascertain
what the character of the strain really is in
that respect.

Table quality has, we think, suffered less,
but is far from uniform. The heavy hock is too
often accompanied by want of breast, and the
more fluff}' plumage is, correspondingly, often
associated with a coarse or even yellow skin.
But these points are by no means always so,
and the older thin, pinky skin is often to be
found. Where this is present, with a good
shape of body and long breast-bone, the
Brahma is a splendid table-fowl, even pure.
It is often called coarse ; but such birds as we
had to kill in old days never failed to win
praise as something better than most of our
visitors had either seen or partaken of before ;
the meat was (except on the legs) white and
juicy. If economic qualities like these are
wished, however, they must now be bred for ;
they cannot be depended upon in almost every
strain as was once the case.

As a cross the breed is very valuable, for
with the Dorking they make a splendid table-
fowl, showing good breast and a sweet, juicy
meat, using for preference the Dorking male ;
and either of the French breeds also produces
good crosses. The cross with a Minorca cock
usually produces a large and hardy bird that
lays splendidly, and is a very fair table fowl ;
and of habits, and dark colour, and hardiness,
and general qualities which make it very suit-
able for runs in a town. In choosing birds for
producing economic crosses, however, great
care should be taken to select a proper model,
especially in regard to the length of body and
proper development of breast. Where any
fault is to be found with the result of Brahma
crosses, the reason will be found in want of
care in these respects.

In judging Brahmas, the most important

point is to give still, so far as possible, proper
weight to Brahma characteristics as compared

with Cochin points. That is not
Judging so easy now as formerly ; but the

Brahmas. small wattles and long ear-lobes,

the short grouse head, close plum-
age, and chief of all, the cushion or saddle
rising more and more into the tail, and grand
" sweep " of outline in the male bird — these arc

Hkoto] \Fettfhered IVorla Burfau

Dark Brahma Cock, ist, Crystal Palace, igcg.

points which a judge may and should still
keep in mind.

Whether any more can be done, it is never
possible to say in the poultry world. Vulture-
hock and excessive leg-feather can be bred out
again, and more importance laid upon size and
character in the pullets, and a return to the
longer and more agile body once general in
the breed, and an insistence on striped hackles
in the females, as once demanded, and which
of itself would set right several points ; but
wishes count for little. We may, however,
point out here, once for all, an important

STANDARD FOR BRAHMAS.

277

matter which this breed well illustrates, and
which we need not further mention again.
While it is perfectly true, as explained at
length in Chapter X., that the "standard" of
judging at any show must always be and can
only be a " fancy " standard, and that fanciers
alone preserve breeds in their entirety, the fact
remains good on the other hand, that fancy
alone never keeps a breed widely popular.
There must be a utility basis also for this ; and
if ever the utility basis is really deteriorated or
bred actually away from, winners may still sell
at high prices, but general demand is gone.
We see pure " fancy," as divorced from any
utility, in pigeons, some of which attract many
entries and sell at high prices ; but at any large
show the comparative attendance is far less
than in the poultry division, which has also a
utility interest. It will also be observed that
all the new "breeds" which have been lately
introduced, and achieved such popularity,
have based their claims upon being " utility "
breeds, either as layers or table-fowls. From
this point of view, the relative popularity of
Brahmas at a time when the breed was and
could be described without hesitation as one of
the most generally useful in existence, and,
since it has been bred away from a type that
could be broadly and generally so described,
is very instructive.

The Poultry Club Standard of Perfection
for Brahmas is as follows :

GEXERAI, CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Skull : Small, rather short, of medium
breadth, well rounded, with a shght prominence
over the eyes. Beak : Short, curved, and very
strong. Eyes : Large and fairly prominent. Comb :
Triple, or " pea," as small as possible, fitting very
closely to and drooping behind to follow the Une
of the head. Face : As smooth and as free from
feathers or hairs as possible. Ear-lobes : Long, of
fine texture, and free from feathers. Wattles : Small
and well rounded, of fine texture, and free from
feathers.

Neck. — Long, well covered with flowing hackles
reaching well down to the shoulders, and free from
twisted feathers. A depression should be apparent
at the back of the skuU between the head feathers
and the upper hackle feathers.

Body. — Broad and square, with great depth.
Breast : Full and carried well forward with the
breast-bone horizontally. Back : Short, either flat or
slightly hollow between the shoulders, the saddle to
rise about half-way between the hackle and the
tail, and to continue to rise until it reaches the tail
coverts. Wings : Of medium size, with the lower
line carried horizontally, free from twisted or slipped
feathers, and tucked up under the saddle feathers,
which should be of ample length.

Tail. — Of medium length, rising from the line
of the saddle and carried nearly upright, with the
quill feathers spreading well out, and the tail coverts
broad and abundant, weU curved, and nearly cover-
ing the quill feathers.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Of medium length (not
too short), powerful, well apart, and feathered ; the
thighs large, and so set that the lower feathers of
the breast cover them in front ; fluff soft and abun-
dant, covering the hind parts and standing well
out behind the thighs ; hocks amply covered with
soft rounded feathers, or with quill feathers pro-
vided they are accompanied with proportionately
heavy shank and foot feathering ; shank feather as
profuse as possible, standing well out from the legs
and toes, extending under the hock feathers and
to the extremity of the middle and outer toes, pro-
fuse leg and foot feather without vulture hock
being desirable. Toes : Four, straight, long, and
spreading.

Carriage.- — Sedate but fairly active.

Weight. — From 10 lb. to 12 lb.

Plumage. — Profuse, but hard and close com-
pared with that of the Cochin.

With the exception of the Neck, which is rather
short, and the Legs, which are short in proportion
to the size of the bird, the general characteristics
are similar to those of the cock, allowing for the
natural sexual differences.

Weight. — From 7 lb. to 9 lb.

COLOUR
Beak : Yellow, or yellow and black. Eyes ;
Orange red, pearl, or grey, orange red preferred,
since pearl or grey eyes are generally signs of weak
constitution, and have a tendency to blindness.
Comb, Face, Ear-lobes, and Wattles : Bright red.
Legs and Feet : Orange yellow, or yellow ; the legs
often show a deep red tinge between the scales and
at the back of the hock joint.

THE DARK

Plumage of the Cock. — Head : Silvery white.

Neck-hackle : Silvery white, with a sharp stripe of
brilhant black in the centre of each feather tapering
to a point near its extremity and free from white
shaft. Breast, under-part of Body, Thighs, and

Fluff : Intense glossy black. Back : Silvery white,
except between the shoulders, where the feathers
should be glossy black, laced with white. Saddle :
Similar to neck-hackle. Wings : Bows, silvery white ;
primaries, black, mixed with occasional feathers
having a narrow white edge on outside of web ;
secondaries, part of outer web forming "bay"
white, remainder of feathers forming " butt " black ;
coverts, glossy black, forming a distinct bar across
the wing when folded. Tail : Black, or coverts
laced or edged with white. Leg-feathers : Black,
or black slightly mixed with white, but black
preferred.

Plumage of the Hen. — Head : Silvery white, or
white striped with black or grey. Neck-hackle :
Similar to that of the cock, or the centres showing
pencilling as on the body. Tail : Black, or black

278

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

edged with grey, or with pencilhng. Remainder of
Plumage : Ground colour, any shade of clear grey ;
pencilling black, or a darker shade of grey than
the body or ground colour, following the outline
of each feather, fine, sharply defined, uniform, and
as numerous as possible.

THE LIGHT

Plumage of the Cock. — Head and Neck-hacklc :
Similar to those of the Dark. Saddle : White, or
white sUghtly striped with black, white preferable
and the dark saddle only admissible in birds with
very dark neck-hackles. Wings : Primaries, black,
or black edged with wlute ; secondaries, white on
outside web, black on part of inside web. Tail :
Black, or black edged with white ; coverts, glossy
black, some evenly laced with white. Remainder of
Plumage .' Clear white, with either white, blue-
white, or slate under-colour, though this latter should
not be visible when the feathers are undisturbed.
A mixture of black and wliite is admissible in the
shank and toe feathering.

Plumage of the Hen. — Xeck - hackle : Silvery
white striped with black, the striping being more
dense at the lower part of the hackle, and the black
centre of each feather to be entirely surrounded
by a white margin. In other respects the colour of
the hen is similar to that of the cock.

SCALE OF DEFECTS

Defects — Dark V.-^riety, Hen (Conid.)-

IN THE DARK VARIETY

"-"-"-I^ DclucI

up to

Colour : impure white, 10 ; breast patched or
splashed with white, 7 ; tail splashed with
white, 5 ; excessive white in feet or shanks,

3 ; other defects, 6 . . . . . . . . 31

Head (including stain of white in lobes, 2) . . 11

Hackle : want of stripe, 5 ; scanty, 4 . . . . 9

Legs : feathering, 6 ; pale shanks, 2 . . . . 8

Size 8

Carriage or symmetry . . . . . . . . 8

Wings : primaries out of order . . . . . . 6

Saddle : scanty or Cochin carriage . . . . 5

Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Fluff : scanty . . . . . . . . . . 3

Tail : shape or carriage . . . . . . . . 3

Toes : curved . . . . . . . . . . 3

Colour : dull or uneven ground, 9 ; white in

foot feather, 4 ; other defects, 5 . . . . 18

Marking : irregular pencilhng of body, 10 ; of

shank feathering, 3 . . . . . . . . 13

Head (including stain of white in lobes, 2) . . 10

Deduct

Legs : feathering, 7 ; pale shanks, 2

9

Breast : streaky or hollow

9

Size . .

8

Carriage or symmetry

8

Cusliion : scanty or Cochin carriage

6

Condition

5

Hackle : scanty

4

Fluff : scanty

4

Tail : shape or carriage . .

3

Toes : curved . .

3

IN THE LIGHT VARIETY

Colour : impure white, 10 ; splashes of white
in tail, 5 ; black in breast, 4 ; much black
in hock, 4 ; black in fluff, 3 ; other defects, 4

Head (including stain of white in lobes, 2)

Hackle : want of stripe, 5 ; scanty, 4

Legs : feathering, 6 ; pale shanks, 2

Size . .

Carriage or symmetry

Saddle : scanty, or Cochin carriage, 5 ; striped

\Vings : primaries out of condition

Condition . .

Fluff : scanty

Tail : shape or carriage . .

Toes : curved

HEN

Colour : much black m hock, 15 ; impure white,
10 ; black splashes, 10 ; other defects, 6
Head (including stain of white in lobes, 2)
Legs : feathering, 7 ; pale shanks, 2
Size . .

Carriage or symmetry
Cushion : scanty, or Cochin carriage
Condition
Hackle : scanty
Fluff" : scanty
Tail : shape or carriage
Toes : curved

Serious defects : Comb other than pea shape ;
badly twisted hackle or wing feathers ; total absence
of leg feather ; great want of size in adults ; total
want of condition ; white legs ; deformity of any
kind ; buff on any part of the plumage of Lights ;
much red or yellow in the plumage or much white
in the tail of Dark cocks ; utter want of pencilhng, or
patches of brown or red in plumage of Dark hens.

279

CHAPTER XVII.

LANGSHANS.

IT seems more than probable that birds very-
similar to Langshans had been imported as
Black Cochins in the early days of those
fowls ; but the fowls now known under this
name were first received in 1872 by the late
Major Croad from the district whose name they
bear, and exhibited in the Variety Class at the
Crystal Palace show the same year, where they
received a V.H.C. card. Reporters and judges,
without exception, wrote of and described them
as Black Cochins ; that was the impression the
birds themselves then made upon everyone who
saw them ; but the question of their distinctness
from that breed, and what they really were,
gave rise to a controversy which for rancour
and almost ferocity on one side has had no
parallel in poultry history. Now that it can
be seen how much real distinctiveness there
really is in the Langshan, and that its advocates
had some truth on their side, it is impossible
not to regret more than ever that such a spirit
should not only have retarded the object they
desired, but also, in the end, given to the fowl a
type which its early advocates dislike and con-
demn, but which has come about as a natural
consequence of the line of conduct pursued.

It may seem strange to breeders who look

at Langshans of to-day, or at the illustration to

this chapter by Mr. Ludlow, that the fowl should

ever have been confounded with the

V^? . , Cochin. Such birds, indeed, never

Original , , , , ', , '

Langshans. would have been so ; but the fact is
that birds like these were never then
seen. What the Langshan was in the early
days is shown by the accompanying illustration
(kindly supplied by Mr. Gedney), which was pub-
lished as the frontispiece to two editions of T/te
Lmigshan Fowl* and which can be compared
with the drawing of early Cochins on page 243.
It was inevitable that when such birds were
seen in the show-pen they should be classed as
Cochins. All the judges — including Messrs.

* In the last edition Miss Croad writes : " The birds pour-
trayed by Mr. Gedney were faithful likenesses of a type that
does appear, but not our favourite." The former editions stated :
** The accompanying illustration conveys a very accurate idea
of the style and carriage." From personal recollection, we can
vouch for its entire correctness, some of Miss Croad's own birds
being even more heavily feathered, and slightly vulture-hocked.

Hewitt, and Teebay, and Leno, and Dixon, and
Tegetmeier, and Nicholls — considered them
such ; all the reporters of all the poultry journals
formed the same impression : we ourselves
shared it to the fullest extent. The only real
difference to be observed was the pure black
colour of the shanks ; and on this point it was
remembered that Black Cochins also had been
long ago reported* as coming with black legs,
and that the yellow shank, though striven for,
had always been a difficulty, as it is with Black
Leghorns to-day. Black Cochin breeders, at all
events, gladly resorted to the new blood, which
blended with the old in the kindliest way, and
speedily worked a most marvellous improve-
ment in that breed, which has continued to the
present time.

In spite of all this, we now know that the
Langshan really possessed a very distinctive
extra-Cochin element indeed, though amalga-
mated with Shanghae blood, as such

J"^* . had been in the Brahma, and as sus-

Langshan . . '

Controversy, ceptible as m that breed, of more or
less development by wise or unwise
selection. It was their intuitive experimental
knowledge of this real distinctiveness, that
caused so much feeling amongst early Langshan
breeders ; but there was no excuse for the way
in which that feeling found expression, even
though it may have had one good result in
preventing the absorption amongst Cochins of
a fowl which had better and distinctive qualities
of its own. What ought to have been done was
to select and exhibit the most distinctive type,
and thus to show wherein the difference existed ;
but here Langshan breeders gave no help.
Birds were shown of the most opposite types —
some quite fair Black Cochins, with ample leg-
feather and vulture hocks ; others almost as tall
and bare-legged as a Malay. It was admitted
that some were bare-legged ; that some had
crests, and some rose-combs ; some black, and
some brown eyes ; but fanciers were asked to
believe that as such variations were found " in
our imported stock," they were " accidents and
non-essentials," and did not prevent the fowl
being " one of the purest, if not the purest breed

* Cottage Gardiner, 1850.

2 8o

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

we have." The fowl was indeed supposed to
be quite siii generis. Said to be a sacred bird
in its own country, there arose something like a
ciiUns of the Langshan* in England also ; while
in default of distinctive type and explanation,

rvri?^

some way from others, and believed to be
" allied to the wild turkey." When this was
justly ridiculed, it was explained away as the
belief of the Chinese, forgetting that the wild
turkey is not even known in China. It was

The First or Original Langshans.

its claims were supported by statements simply
absurd. It was said the fowl was distinct in

* Miss Croad writes (Langshan Fowl, 3rd ed., p. 17)
that if the authorities confounded the Langshan with the Black
Cochin, it was because " their eyes were holden that they could
not see." It is best to add no remark to this, except that the
quotation marks are her own.

further asserted that Langshans were entirely
free "from that essentially Cochin disease,
elephantiasis " (scaly leg), and that as this alone
was a " conclusive answer " to any connection
between the two breeds, " none of our opponents
have ventured to say anything about it." More
lately Miss Croad reaffirms that this was true

THE LANGSHAN CONTROVERSY.

up to 1887,* though not since ; the fact is that
we personally noted and reportedt cases of
. scaly leg in Langshans so early as the Bath
and West of England Show at Oxford in 187S.
It was further affirmed that Black Cochins were
a mere cross-made bird, and consequently the
cocks always moulted out more or less red and
yellow in the feathers : it had soon to be
admitted that Langshan cockerels also often
came with red and yellow hackles, and it was
easily proved that Black Cochins had been
imported and bred pure, and as free from
coloured feathers as other black fowls. This
statement of a simple fact was coolly described:!:
as an " impudently false assertion," and as an
"unscrupulous editorial canard" of the writer of
these lines ; and another concerning the dark
legs of former Black Cochins was stigmatised as
"effrontery" in the same coarse way.§ Stress
was also laid upon the longer tails, larger
combs, gloss on the plumage, and black legs — ■
points in which we now know there was more
or less force ; but which had also been found
in early Black Cochins, and all of which are
largely matter of selection or condition, while
unfortunately no attempt was made to select
types for exhibition which made them con-
spicuous. Instead of the gloss insisted upon,
hens were repeatedly shown quite out of condi-
tion, with no lustre at all, and almost brown ;
a cock high and almost bare on leg would
appear in the same pen as a hen very short,
heavily feathered, and hocked ; and amid all
this confusion and absence of any type at all,
judges and reporters were expected to see that
which Langshan breeders could not select even
for themselves.

This would speedily have righted itself as
more people bred the fowl ; but unfortunately
the members of this peculiar cult attributed the
difficulties which had arisen entirely from their
own utter want of knowledge and experience
to their critics, and mean motives were
freely imputed in the most reckless fashion.
When Mr. Ludlow pointed out, for instance,
that the lustre said to be so peculiar was mainly
a matter of condition, and that Black Malays
and Hamburghs exhibited as much of it as
Langshans, his statement of such an elementary
fact was affirmed by these people to be "utterly
false."

[In the last edition of this work Wx. Lewis
Wright gave further particulars of the con-
troversy which took place over a number of

• The Langshan Fowl, 3rd ed. , p. 72.
t Live Stock Journal, June 14, 1878.
■•■ The Langshan Fowl, ist ed., p. 34,
5 The Langshan Controversy,

years, and which it is not now necessary to
relate so fully. — Ed.]

Repeated appeals were made to ourselves
and to the judges to " select a type," and the
ideal then selected precisely describes a bird
provided later in the Black Orpington. But it
was not accepted, and the confusion went on,
so that in 1878 Lady Gwydyr won prizes simul-
taneously in Black Cochin and Langshan classes
at the same shows, with birds of the same
breeding. Facts of this kind were no doubt
annoying, and such views and arguments may
have been irritating to people who knew and
felt that they had something distinctive, iii spite
of it, though they could neither define it nor
make others see it. But to represent it as
coming from " Cochin champions," or say that
it was all because the Langshan "threatened
vested interests," was farcical in face of the
notorious desire everywhere in the fancy, both
then and now, for anything really new. The
same must be said of the assertion that_ any-
thing in those old days conveyed in the faintest
way any imputation upon Langshan breeders
of being " impostors, who were endeavouring
to impose upon a credulous public." _ Still the
bitterness of the replies to any criticism, how-
ever legitimate, greatly retarded the progress
of the Langshan. People preferred to keep at
a respectful distance from those who so freely
indulged in fierce recrimination over differences
of opinion rather than run the risks of closer
acquaintance with them or their birds. Such a
feeling does not further the prospects of any
new breed ; and it hindered those of the Lang-
shan ; but we gladly leave here this phase of
its history, except so far as it had actual effect
upon the evolution of the fowl itself, and upon
the form which it has ultimately assumed.

That evolution is rather curious. We still
continued to seek for some " type " in the show-
pens, and at last, at Birmingharn in 1877, while
we could see no guiding standard in
Changes t^g class as a whole, we remarked
that one pair shown by Mr. Heasel-
den,* "if they are admitted as the
type — whatever that is — we thought the hand-
somest pen in the class." There seemed to us
there something really distinctive and handsome,
and which we had never seen before. At the

* We have previously stated, from recollection only, that this
type was first discovered by us in birds shown by Mr. Thomson
at Birmingham in 1877 and 1878. The first date being challenged
by Miss Croad in regard to Mr. Thomson, we have referred
to our actual show criticisms, and find that the "type" alluded
to, which is the only important point, and the only one regarded
by us, had been observed in regard to two other exhibitors as
here stated, one having been confounded with Mr, Thomson's
birds.

Type.

2S2

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Crystal Palace show next year we found three
pens of that same stamp, reporting of them :
"Third prize [W. Morris] and 1611 and 1620
(Thomson, unnoticed) struck us as the nearest
together to any real type, and one which we
last year thought might possibly have given the
breed some character of its own." Mr. Thomson
stated next week that his birds were from a
totally distinct importation of his own, a fact
we were entirely ignorant of. At the Birming-
ham show a week or two later we noted again
that "in old Langshans Mr. Croad's and Mr.
Thomson's birds were the only pairs, so the
utter difference in type could be seen readily."
The birds referred to were very bare of feather,
and had very moderate to short legs, very full
breasts, and a full " flowing " tail and " sweep "
of profile, which we compared to that of both
the Dorking and the Hamburgh, with a justice
that will be seen from the small illustration
given. It rapidly became, and for some years
remained, the winning type of Langshan, as
exhibited by Mr. Bush, Mr. Orme, Mr. Pope,
Mr. Housman, and others ; and with its adoption
we hoped at one time that the long controversy
had been settled.

But the bitter feeling of the inner cult of
this mysterious fowl — deemed "joss" or sacred
in China, there really did seem something
uncanny about the bird— forbade this, and the
recommendation of the type was imputed to us
as a fresh offence and injury. Judges in general,
and ourselves in particular, had been pointedly
appealed to for such a selection, and all had
agreed upon this model most unmistakably ; but
all concerned in it were now attacked tooth and
nail. Miss Croad affirmed* that our preference
was expressed " as an apple of discord thrown
in " ; it was said that we had " attacked her yard
through his " (Mr. Thomson's) t ; and when later
we noted similar birds as shown by Mr. Bush,
we were accused point-blank of " personal
hostility" for not stating a fact we could not
possibly know, that those birds were from Miss
Croad's own eggs, a fact we gladly published as
soon as it reached us. That was the first know-
ledge we had of her yard ever producing this
type ; and when a year or two after we noticed
birds of the same stamp to be now and then
shown by Miss Croad herself, we gladly said so.
But this proved yet another offence. She wrote
at once,t " This I emphatically deny I' and stated §
that she had rejected all birds from eggs Mr.
Thomson had sent her, " because they were so

* Live Stock Journal, fune 27, 1SS4.
t Poultry, June 4, 18S6.
: Ibid, May 7, 1886.
g Ibid, June 4, 1886.

different from my own." However this may be,
the small illustration herewith is reprinted from
a block prepared for and used by Miss Croad
herself to illustrate advertisements of her own
stock in the year 1888, and which is the exact
type we first observed in 1877. This type of
bird was, however, now opposed to the bitterest
extreme, for no apparent reason (since Miss
Croad's own yard was proved to produce it)
except that we had recommended it. She wrote
admitting that our advocacy of it "certainly for
a short time had the effect intended," but
intimated that the victory was not won yet.
And it was not. These birds were now furiously
attacked as Cochiny ! At the Dairy Show of
18S4 the chief winners were Mr. Merton Orme
and the Rev. A. C. Davies ; it was said of
Mr. Orme's winning pullet that " it was a

As Advertised by Miss Croad, 1888.

decided Cochin type, short-legged, atid if more
prolific in feathers might have stood for a Black
Cochin ; second pretty much of the same style."*
Mr. Harrison VVeir affirmed that the winning
cockerel had none of the Langshan character-
istics, and " ivould have passed muster in a Black
Cochin class!"[ It was proved that all these
birds were of Croad blood, absolutely uncrossed ;
and such reckless assertions are a truly curious
commentary upon the many previous statements
that there was nothing in common between
Langshans and Cochins I

All this is only important now, because it
affected the Langshan itself profoundly. For it
succeeded, and stamped that type out. The
inner circle, whose vehement zeal
Reaction finally achieved this result, bred

Fmher Change, fo"" "lore and more height of leg
and of tail, and carried those
points. When they had succeeded in this, and
the deep-bodied and short-legged model had
been fairly displaced, an astute breeder and
dealer who saw its superior merits, stepped in

• Live Stock Journal, October 10, 18S4.
f Hid, November 7, 1884.

CHANGES IN LANGSHAN TYPE.

283

and appropriated the type, only with clean
legs, for his so-called Orpingtons. After that
Langshan breeders were compelled to breed
away from the Orpington, as well as from
the Cochin, and it was inevitable that points
as opposite as possible to both breeds should
be more and more encouraged, and the result
is the Langshan of to-day.

We still think that the more Dorking-like
type of bird was a better model, from at least
the utility point of view. It carried more meat,
and was not subject to leg weakness, as all
long-limbed breeds are ; when tight-feathered it
was as good a layer ; and it presented a better
appearance on the table than the long-limbed
birds now bred.* But the change became
inevitable under the circumstances ; and the
merits of the modern Langshan are
"^^ great enough. Its white skin and

Lirngshan. meat, its hardiness, its fine laying
capacities (which have become more
uniform since tight feather was made a sine qua
non) and its noble appearance, are all in its
favour. It has been alleged to be crossed with
the Indian Game, and we should not like tu
pronounce absolutely on that question : our
own impression is that some specimens may
have been, while others probably are not. We
have seen in a few examples a narrowness and
hardness of feather not seen in others, which is
suspicious ; and in such a bird we once noticed
several feathers with a kind of lacing of
distinctly superior iridescence. Such a fact is
very significant in regard to such specimens ;
but others we have carefully examined betrayed
no such signs, and their points embody nothing
beyond what steady breeding could effect in a
race of such compound and therefore plastic
nature, and which would respond so readily,
as the Brahma also did, to selection by man
of one or other of its contending types.

That the Langshan is such a breed must be
obvious. That there is ample Shanghae element
in it, is on the very surface ; we have seen that
the very people who so furiously denied it, did
not scruple to brand as " Cochins " the uncrossed
produce of their own birds. But there is in the
bird at least one other element, and perhaps
more — some strain of dark blood, of a very
peculiar stamp, seen in the rich brown eye, the
tendency to purplish face, and the peculiar
crimson tinge between the toes. The latter
colour was the first characteristic point we were

• Writing in 1911. when these pages were submitted to him,
Mr. Harry Wallis, of Warley, Essex.'says : "As regards this point.
I find my birds are better breasted than when they were shorter on
the leg." The utility qualities of the type are also upheld by other
breeders.

able to observe ; but curiously enough, when we
pointed it out as really sui generis, this was
denied, and it was said to be merely due to
" thin skin " ; the utter incapacity of early
Langshan advocates to see what there really
was in the fowl, is one of the strangest things
about the whole business. The nearest other
exponent of this peculiar, dark, and sprightly
element, comparatively pure, seems to be the
Black Java of America,* which has the same dark
eye and alert disposition ; but it does not follow
and is not meant that the present Java was
the real progenitor, or that there has been
any recent cross. The probability is rather that
some dark-blooded race from which the Java
also is descended, long ago amalgamated with
the Shanghae. During late years the Chinese
appear to have bred for black colour alone,
which would lead to great variety in other
points, such as combs, leg-feather, top-knot, etc.,
and the various components would come out
under selection, exactly as in the case of the
Brahma already discussed.

We come now to the Langshan as it is, and
its breeding. The following remarks have been
kindly supplied by the Rev. A. C. Davies, of
Antingham Rectory, North Walsham, Norfolk,
one of the oldest breeders, and are very interest-
ing historically, as well as for the details they
convey, though we do not think, as above
intimated, that some at least of the discarded
type could be justly described as either Cochiny
or loose in feather.

" Having been a breeder of the Langshan
for upwards of twenty years, it has fallen to
my lot to see the change in type from the
looser feathered bird to that of the tighter
and closer feathered one of the present day.
Many fanciers were not satisfied about the year
1884 with the bird then winning in the show
pen, some saying that the true Langshan was
or should be a bird of tighter feather and
more alert in appearance and general bearing,
in contrast to the then "Cochiny" type seen
at the exhibitions. The idea took hold
quickly, breeders evidently thinking that a
bird of this class would become more
popular, and prove more useful so far as the
economic properties of the breed were concerned.
However, it was not until the Palace Show of

* Miss Croad maintains that the Langshan made the Java,
adding that we do not " seem to be aware " that the Java is a
"made" breed, as she learns from various American papers.
We prefer more original information than recent American
papers, and the Java is mentioned in Dr. Bennett's Poultry
Book of 1851 as then known in America, from direct importa-
tions, some of them being occasionally called Malays. The
Java always bred truer to type than the early Langshans ever
did until breeders who really knew what type means had pro-
duced some uniformity in them.

284

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

1889, that any improvement of a decided char-
acter took place, when birds of the closer type
came to the front and swept the deck con-
sistently for the first time. The change, I well
remember, caused quite a flutter of excitement
amongst exhibitors, and of course did not please
them all ; but the majority were satisfied at the
turn things had taken, and it may be said that
from this time forward the new and improved
type made progress. The ideal might have been
reached more quickly had it not been that most
of the judges would not forsake their old love
for the new, but still gave the prizes and
honours to the old and now discarded type — in
fact to that which the prominent Langshan
breeders were determined to give up, and con-
trary to the standard of the Langshan Society.
This retarded matters from proceeding as fast
as the Society desired, and it was not until
specialist judges came more into vogue, who
understood better what was wanted, that matters
were placed on a more satisfactory basis, the
result being that now, through perseverance and
in spite of much difficulty, many are the birds,
both in and out of the show pen, that are to be
found bearing the stamp the standard requires.
The Palace Show of igoo confirmed this m
some measure. At that show the judge had no
difficulty in being consistent in his awards, and
placing birds of the correct style in the front
ranks. It is to be hoped that this satisfactory
state of things will continue, and that the novice
will not be so perplexed in the future as he has
been in the past, but that now there is some
fixity of type, his many difficulties as to what
to breed for will be overcome.

" It may be helpful to many to make a note
of some of the chief points a Langshan should
above all possess. Richness of colour, I think,
stands first; for the chief beauty of the breed
lies here, and gives it a charm which is most
attractive. This colour should be a pure black,
with a metallic sheen of beetle green, the richer
and greener the better, and any birds with
even a suspicion of blue or purple in their
feathers should be set aside or consigned to the
kitchen. It has frequently been stated that
breeders run the risk of spoiling the useful
properties of the Langshan by breeding too
much for colour ; but this, as far as my own
experience goes, is a certainly mistaken view,
for I have always found that those birds are
invariably the best layers which carry lustre of
plumage in a very high degree. It is thus satis-
factory to know that we can safely combine
beauty with usefulness, without there being the
least danger of impairing the prolificacy of this
handsome and beautiful bird.

" The plumage, besides being pure in colour,
should be tight-feathered all through, and
especially so if anything, over the back, without
any suspicion of cushion. Down and around
the thighs it must be the same, fitting down if
possible more closely and evenly over the hocks,
and from thence passing into a fringe of feather.s
down the shank to the end of the outer toe.
Feathers on the middle toe should be carefully
avoided.

" In regard to the eye, this must be almost
black in colour, or at least a very dark brown ;
any yellow, orange, or mottled colour being a
great disfiguration and blemish. The young
fancier should be very particular in selecting
birds for breeding that are especially strong
and first rate in this respect.

" The legs and feet are of a dark slate colour,
and the skin between the toes of a vivid and
delicate pink, and the toe-nails white. The beak
is of horn colour, dark at base but running off
into a lighter shade. Combs, face, and wattles
all should be a very brilliant red. For the rest,
I think with the aid of the Standard, and the
illustration of the pair of Langshans before him,
the amateur will gain all the theoretical know-
ledge he requires. He will observe at first
sight that the bird is tall, upright, of alert and
active appearance notwithstanding its size, and
in type also the birds are as nearly as possible
a faithful representation.

" There is one point upon which it is neces-
sary for me to issue a word of warning, as it is
one whereby the perfect symmetry of the bird is
endangered. There is a tendency in my opinion
to get it too long on shanks and thighs, and
especially the latter. A moderately and only
fairly long shank and thigh should be bred for,
otherwise one gets a bird out of proportion at
once, and with no counterbalancing advantage.
There is not a shadow of a doubt that length of
leg is rather overdone in some birds, and there
being neither beauty or usefulness in it, a com-
promise might with advantage be effected. It is
a point that might well be conceded with profit,
for besides being a direct improvement to the
bird itself, it would gather many more fanciers
into the ranks of the Langshan Society, and
gain a larger number of admirers.

"At any rate, despite one or two weak points,
which I feel sure in course of time will be
rectified, the modern bird is far and away
superior to the old type in nearly every respect
As it stands it is a fine, useful, and profitable
fowl, with great beauty combined. With more
activity and more inclination to ramble and
forage for themselves, they have become more
interesting, for they make the poultry yard full

THE LANGSHAN OF TO-DAY.

of life, while the grace and dignity with which
they carry themselves is both charming and
attractive. All this has not been gained at the
expense of their useful qualities, for as layers
and table fowls they have never been better, and
while they lay in great abundance, their eggs are
of a good size and of a most delightful colour,
ranging from a delicate salmon pink to a rich
chestnut brown, and form a most tempting
accompaniment to the breakfast table. With
regard to their size I have this testimony from
America, where I understand the old type still
prevails. A gentleman writing to me says : ' I
am more than pleased, and wish to compliment
you on the splendid large eggs, the largest fro^n
Langslians I ever saw on the average.' This is
quite a feather in the cap of the English breeder,
and for the modern type, coming as it does from
a country where they are generally prepared to
'lick creation,' and have in the main hitherto
preferred another type of bird. As a general
all-round fowl, too, they are excellent. I know
of none better, and I have tried many. They
are not frequently broody, yet they make the best
of mothers ; the chicks (which hatch half white)
are easy to rear and are very strong ; in fact
there is no reasonable test that the Langshan
will not stand, and come out of it with great
honour and credit to itself."

The following additional notes are kindly
supplied by Mr. F. Onslow Piercy, of The Elms,
Lowthorpe, formerly one of the most successtul
exhibitors of the modern type of Langshan,
and whose remarks upon its economic qualities
are especially worthy of attention.

" Perhaps a few remarks on the Society type
of Langshan from one who has bred and studied
the breed for many years, may possibly be of
some use to persons who contemplate going in
for that type. In the first place I ought to say
that originally I produced my Society type of
Langshans from the original, by careful selection
in picking out the tallest, finest boned, closest
feathered, best coloured, and most stylish looking
birds, and breeding from them. Most breeders
will be aware that many different types may be
produced from any breed ; it is only a matter of
time and selection in mating the breeding pens,
choosing the birds most likely to produce the
type you are aiming for. Briefly, the difference
between the original type as imported from the
Langshan district, and the modern type, is this :
the former is shorter and coarser in bone,
much looser in feather, carries much more fluff,
and is coarser in feather on the shanks and toes ;
also the feather about the hocks is very much
heavier ; the body is shorter, and the colour too
is not so brilliant as the later type of Langshan.

" The latter is a tall bird, with a nice length
of shank but medium length of thigh, sufficiently
strong in bone to carry the weight of the bird,
neither too coarse or too fine ; good length of
body, with a long, deep, and well rounded
breast. It is close in feather and of a brilliant
green colour, free from purple ; a tall, stately,
deep-breasted bird, with a beautifully rounded
outline and good upstanding carriage, in pro-
portion all round, and not a bird that strikes
one as being excessively leggy, neither should
it have a cut-away appearance in the breast,
as some specimens have. I consider there is
nothing handsome in a Langshan if you can
almost dra"v a straight line from the head right
along the keel without catching the breast.
The scales on the shanks, etc., of young Lang-
shans, till after the adult moult, should be nearly
black, turning paler afterwards. The shanks and
outer toes should be nicely, although not too
heavily feathered, the shoulders should be broad,
the shanks set well apart and the tail carried
slightly elevated, and in the case of the cock
should have an abundance of green side hangers,
and of course the two sickles projecting beyond
the rest ; the eyes dark, face and comb brilliant
red ; the latter firm, erect, and evenly serrated.
The cock should be fairly long in the neck, with
a full and well rounded hackle. Nearly all of
the best Langshans show red between the toes
and the scales down sides of shanks, especially
the male birds.

" In breeding Society type Langshans, I prefer
to breed from two-year-old hens, although I
have bred some of my best pullets from first
season hens. I would choose large but not
coarse boned hens (there are many modern
Langshan hens weighing over lo lbs. each, and
not a bit coarse in bone for their size), as green
as possible in colour, with shanks well apart,
broad across the shoulder, and with a long deep
breast and good length of back, close in feather
and of good carriage, well, although not too
heavily feathered on the shanks and outer toes,
and as dark as possible in the eyes ; with neat,
small, firm, erect, and evenly serrated combs if
for pullet breeding, but for breeding cockerels it
does not signify so much if the breeding hens'
combs are large and loose, so long as they are
evenly serrated.

" I may say at once that there is not the
slightest necessity to have two pens for breeding
cockerels and pullets, as one pen can un-
doubtedly breed first-rate birds of both se.xes
if correctly mated ; but occasionally one has a
good hen with a large loose comb. Such a bird
is not suitable for pullet breeding, but it is quite
possible that she might breed some grand

286

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

cockerels if of good shape, size, colour, etc. In
choosing a male bird to mate with the hens, I
should prefer to use a cockerel or two-year-old
cock, a tall, stylish, well-shaped bird, close in
feather, as green as possible in colour, fine in
bone, dark eyes and brilliant red face and comb ;
the latter firm, erect, evenly serrated, and back
part of same carried close to the head. The
male bird should be very stylish and have as
green a tail as possible, legs perfectly straight,
and shanks set well apart. The shanks and
outer toes should be well feathered, but the
feathers not coarse. Any fault which the hens
may have must be counterbalanced by the cock.

" It is quite possible to breed goijd-coloured
Langshans supposing the hens are short of
colour, if mated to a grandly coloured cock, but
I think it is most important in order to breed
good-coloured Langshans that you should have
the colour to start with on one side, either in
the cock or the hens, the former for preference.
Of course, if you have colour on both sides so
much the better. You must breed for colour,
and will not get it by feeding, only so far that
by good feeding you improve the condition
of your bird.

"The modern type Langshan I find is a
splendid winter layer. I have one large pullet
in a run alone (as I was anxious to breed a few
cockerels from her) and for a long time she has
been laying splendidly. She lays for nine days
as a rule without a miss, she then misses one
day and starts again, and she has been laying
like this for weeks. Then as regards table
birds, not many breeds can surpass this type
of Langshan. In the autumn I sent twelve of
my Langshan chickens hatched late in April to
market, dressed, and the twelve averaged slightly
over 6s. 8d. each ; the four finest were sold at 8s.
each, and this in a market where the top price
for ordinary fowls was 5s. per couple. The above
average broke my record in 1899 of 13s. per
couple for the best table birds.

" Langshan chickens are very hardy, and are
very easily reared, and as all breeders of Lang-
shans know, are black and yellow when hatched.
Generally speaking, the yellowest chickens turn
out the most brilliant coloured birds. Lang-
shans require practically no preparation in order
to exhibit them. Mine are in no way treated
differently during the show season, from any
other time of the year. Of course the legs,
faces, and combs require washing before sending
to a show, and it is a good plan to stroke the
birds down with a silk handkerchief when in the
hampers before sending to a show, but nothing
further is required."

These notes, from two such representative

breeders, leave us practically nothing to add, but
we may perhaps make one remark upon breed-
ing for colour. There is no doubt that green
parents on both sides are far the best. But
there is also no doubt that in glossy green-black
fowls, the male offspring of glossy pullets often
show red in the hackles ; and if there is no
other promising stock available, the experience
of Hamburgh breeders goes to show that such
a red-hacklcd cock, bred from a good hen or
pullet, may be used for imparting gloss and
green colour to his female offspring. His
cockerels will be red, and this red gives a great
deal of trouble to breed out when once intro-
duced directly; hence the desirability of avoid-
ing it and using green stock on both sides ; still
there may be cases where the knowledge of
such facts may be useful in pullet breeding.

In regard to the plate which illustrates this
chapter, both Langshan breeders and our-
selves are under special obligations both to
the artist and to Mr. G. Fielder. Mr. Ludlow's
first sketch was based upon various photographs
supplied by Mr. Fielder, and all subsequent
slight modifications in detail were made under
the patient criticism of that gentleman, con-
veyed to us personally with the actual birds
before us, and illustrated and justified by yet
further photographs, in a manner which cost
the artist also an amount of time and trouble
quite unusual. But after all that had taken
place previously, no pains were thought too
great by all parties to procure unimpeachable
representation of the type now recognised by
a majority of Langshan breeders ; and it has
been a satisfaction to all concerned to have
received already most emphatic approval and
endorsement of it by those interested.

In America the Langshan is bred to an
older type ; not to that we had advocated and
shown in the small block on page 282 from
Miss Croad's advertisement, but with the some-
what greater length of limb and higher and
taller tail which first began to supplant it,
before the reaction had become fully developed.
In all points, save a few minor details, the
American Langshan as now bred resembles the
type known in Great Britain as " the Croad,"
since, in 1904, the Pure (Croad) Langshan Club
adopted as the model for which its members
were to strive an illustration representing the
type in vogue in the United States, and of
which the accompanying illustration, from the
pencil of Mr. Franklane Sewell, in the Reliable
Poultry Journal, gives a very fair idea. The
model may probably be taken as representing

AMERICAN LANGSHANS.

287

also the ideas of those in England who look
askance at those specimens of the Langshan
that conform to the type required in the
Langshan Society's standard of excellence. As
a matter of fact, there is not such great dis-
similarity between the two types as is popularly
supposed, the only real differences being found
in the weights, length of back and shanks,
carriage of tail, and character of plumage ;
and a glance at the standards reveals the fact
that they are compiled on very much the same
lines. A comparison of the illustrations on
pages 280, 282, on this page, and in the plate,
will amply bear out our remarks upon the
character and plasticity of the original stock.

American Langshans, 1898.

That plasticity is in fact amply sufficient
to account for all the modifications of type
which have been here reviewed, without any
offensive imputations of a " mongrelism " which
is at most doubtful, and quite unnecessary
to suppose. Not only have we the assurance
of gentlemen, as above, that their birds have
been modified in type simply by the well-
known processes of selection, and not only
was the process carried at least half-way by
the very people who now severely condemn
its result when merely carried somewhat far-
ther, but the converse still holds good : birds

can still be selected from almost any yard
which would breed the American ideal as
here illustrated. So lately as the spring of
1900, Mr. F. O. Piercy informed us he was
able to send out to his brother in Canada a
pen of Langshans, bred from cup-winners at
the Palace and Society shows, but selected
to suit the American standard, of which the
cockerel was passed for insufficient feather on
outer toes, but the females took the highest
honours possible, and one of them in addition
the medal for the highest scored bird in the
show. These birds, in their new quar-
ters, would breed produce according to
both English and American ideals.

White Langshans appear to have
originated with Mr. R. J. Pope, of
Barcombe, near Lewes, who was at
the time (1886-89) a
White very successful exhibitor

Langshans. ;„ the Black Langshan
classes. The propensity
of the original Black Langshan to
produce white feathers and occasion-
ally white splashes, has been already
noticed ; and one of these mis-marked
birds in Mr. Pope's yard produced
one or two pure white pullets. These
were bred with one of the black
cocks, and by carefully breeding
selections from their produce, a White
variety was established, so that at
the time of a visit we paid to Bar-
combe in 1 888, a flock of about seventy
white birds was in existence. This
flock is the origin of the White Lang-
shans ; but the well-known strain of
Mr. Will Smith was, we believe,
originated quite independently in
1896 or 1897 by sports from Black
Langshans procured from Mr. Stirz-
aker, a well-known breeder of the
Black variety. The white is not an
" albino," birds or animals of that
curious type having pink eyes, which the White
Langshan has not ; it is a white variety, as in
the case of Cochins, derived from sports whose
history we have shortly given. The variety
gives an interesting incidental proof of what
we have stated above concerning the intimate
connection between colour of plumage and
colour of shanks ; the scales on the latter having
become a pale blue-grey, and the crimson
between them assumed a paler pink shade,
though distinct from that of the white Dorking.
A curious thing is that when these white birds
sported back to black, as they often did at first,

288

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

and still do occasionally, these black sports
revert to the usual colour of shanks and beak
in all respects. The following notes on White
Langshans were kindly contributed by Mr.
W. B. Westlake, of North Walsham, well
known as a breeder of this variety : —

" Although this breed originated about 20
or 25 years ago, it has made but little pro-
gress amongst fanciers, which is a great pity, as
it is one of the handsomest and hardiest white
breeds we have. In shape and general char-
acteristics it is exactly like the Black Langshan,
from which it is a sport, differing only in colour.
As a layer it is quite equal to, if not better than,
the black. The eggs from the pullets are larger,
averaging 2| ozs. in weight, and are of a
beautiful brown colour. The hens are reliable
sitters and good mothers, but are apt to break
an egg or two, as they are heavy birds. The
chickens hatch out a dirty grey colour, and like
their relations the Blacks, feather rather slowly,
but nevertheless they are strong, and thrive well
even in the coldest weather, providing they are
kept dry and sheltered from the wind. If
required for exhibition they should be hatched
during January and February, and for winter
laying not later than the middle of March, as
they take rather a long time to mature. About
the middle of February is the best time for
hatching, for both purposes.

" The average weight for full grown birds is,
cocks 9 lbs. to 10 lbs. ; hens 7 lbs. to 8 lbs.
The cocks have been known to scale 14 lbs.
The colour is as follows : the beak should be
white, with a pinkish shade near the lower edges.
The legs and feet are light grey or slate ; the
scales rather loosely put on, thus showing the
pink skin between. The plumage is pure white
all over, the upper parts, wings, and tail glossed
over with a brilliant silvery sheen.

" As a table fowl these birds do not rank
high, owing to their being rather slow growers,
but at the same time they are excellent eating,
there being an abundance of white meat on both
breast and legs. I believe a cross with the
Houdan would be admirable for market pur-
poses, as they would be ready for the table
weeks sooner, and still retain the juicy white
meat on the breast. For this cross I should
recommend using the Houdan cock on white
Langshan hens, and not a white Langshan male."

The White Langshan has some points which
make it peculiarly suitable for such breeders
as like a white fowl. It is very large and
hardy, with good flesh and a beautiful skin ; a
good layer ; and its close and hard plumage
enables the White to keep cleaner than some
other breeds. Like the Blue, it is sometimes

shorter in leg than tne prevailing type of Blacks,
having sported and been developed at a period
when less length of limb was the accepted
model ; but the modern type is being more
and more bred up to, and somi: winners
lately have been quite as tall as the older
variety.

When once really kindred black and white
varieties of a breed are in existence, it only
requires breeding together, to produce sooner or
later the colour known as blue, blue-
Blue dun, or Andalusian. It is a mere
Langshans. matter of choice or experiment.
This line of breeding was taken up
by Messrs. Kirby and Smith, of New York, in
the case of the Langshan, and their first Blues
were exhibited at Charleston in January, 1S90.
They had taken five years to get the colour
presentable, aided in some degree by a blue
" sport " from pure black raised by a Mr.
McLean of Connecticut. The first specimens
that appeared in England were sent from Mr.
Smith to Mrs. Sismey of Rutland, who disposed
of the stock afterwards to Mr. Shelton and
Mr. W. A. Jukes, all eventually finding their
way into the yards of the latter ; and another
pair, from Mr. Bradbury of New York (but
also from Mr. Smith's yard originally), was
also sent to Liverpool Show in 1893, and there
purchased by Mr. Jukes. From these two im-
portations probably all, and certainly most,
of the present stock in England is derived.
They are beyond doubt true Langshans, bred
between black and white without going outside
the original breed. The following notes are
kindly supplied by Mr. W. A. Jukes, hon.
secretary of the Blue Langshan Club :—

" Since the last edition of this work was
produced, a great change has been wrought in
the appearance of the Blue Langshan ; not
only has the colour been intensified, but the
type has been altered from the feathery, cobby
type, as originally introduced from America,
to the tight-feathered, upstanding type now
generally recognised as the Modern or Club
type. The accompanying illustration of a
cockerel bred and exhibited by me will show
this very clearly, and it is not too much to say
that in this respect the Blue is quite equal
to its older brother, the Black.

" This change has been partly brought about
by occasional crosses with the Black Club type
Langshan, selective breeding having done the
rest. Fresh blood was, of course, necessary,
not alone for vigour of constitution, but also
in order to keep up the colour, and as this
was produced in the first instance from the

LANGSHANS.

BLUE LANGSHANS.

union of Black and White, the Black Langshan
was naturally selected for the purpose ; and as
my own predilection was for the Club type,
in preference to that known as the Croad type,
it was to that I turned ; but there can be no
doubt that it would have been just as easy to
breed the Blue Langshan to the Croad type
had I so desired.

" A few words as to colour may not be out
of place here. Of the original importations
and their progeny, I found that those which
were of the rather pale shade, level through-
out, without lacing, and only slightly darker
in the upper portions of the cocks, very quickly
faded in the breeding pen to a dirty smoke-
colour, whereas those which showed some in-
dication of lacing resisted this fading process
considerably longer. The upper portions of the
cocks were also much darker.

" I argued from this that Nature's preference
was for laced Blues, and determined to breed
accordingly. We have not yet been able to
arrive at anything like the clearly defined
lacing of the Andalusian, but I think this is
largely accounted for by the fact that the
Blue Langshan has so far been in a com-
paratively few hands, and consequently each
breeder's field of choice for his matings has
been too restricted, which, again, has meant
that recourse has had to be made to the Black
for fresh blood more frequently than would
have been necessary otherwise.

" Now that more breeders, especially breeders
of experience like Mr. Harry Wallis, have taken
them up, and the type has become fixed, I
am hopeful that we shall see rapid strides made
in the near future in this point of colour
and lacing ; but more are needed, and I can
confidently recommend this variety to anyone
wanting an interesting and fascinating hobby,
the results from which will handsomely repay
the time and thought and trouble expended
upon it.

" I am convinced that no real progress is
possible on the lines of solid colour without
lacing, and I am sure that those breeders who
are attempting to breed other Blue varieties
on these lines will eventually come to agree
with me. It is hardly possible to write any-
thing on the subject of Blues without referring
to Mendelism, as the breeding of Blues is a
classical instance quoted in all works on the
subject ; and while I cannot go so far as to
state that the percentage of Blues is 50 against
25 Black and 25 splashed W'hites in every 100,
I can warn breeders that they must be pre-
pared for results, if taken over a number of
years, approximating to those figures.
37

" In this connection it may be interesting to
readers to know that whenever I have mated
a Black Langshan male of totally unrelated
blood to the splashed White females thrown
by the Blues, I have almost invariably had
results entirely Blue, though the lacing was
not always so perfect or so clearly defined as
from Blue parents on both sides. On one
occasion I used a male bred from a Black
mother by a Blue father ; he was very dark,
but still a Blue. I mated him to splashed
Whites, but the results were nothing like so

Blue Langshan Cockerel.

good as when, later in the year, I put an
unrelated Black male with the same females.

" As for the vexed question of double
mating, i.e., of Cockerel-breeding and Pullet-
breeding pens, I have not found this necessary,
and have never attempted it. • Whether, as
further progress is made in the direction of
clearer ground colour and deeper lacing, such
as in the Andalusian, this will become neces-
sary, time will prove, but I sincerely hope not,
as it is an undoubted bar to popularity.

" In utility qualities, whether as egg-layers
or as table fowls, there is nothing to choose
between Blues and Blacks ; both in size and
tint their eggs are alike, and the flavour and

290

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

texture of the meat, if given time to come to
maturity, is unsurpassable.

" To come now to Club matters. The old
Langshan Fanciers' Association, itself a suc-
cessor to the original Variety Langshan Society,
has, since the date of the last edition of this
work, been dissolved, the Whites being taken
over by the Langshan Society ; and a new
club, called the Blue Langshan Club, of which
I have the honour to be secretary, was formed
to look after the interests of the Blues, tlie
standard adopted being that of the Poultry
Club, which is practically the same as the
Langshan Society's standard. There is thus
every inducement for breeders to take up the
variety, which, for the sake of its improve-
ment, I trust they will do."

Buff " Langshans " have been advertised,
but only by individuals who advertise buffs of
all possible descriptions. Whatever differences
have existed amongst Langshan breeders, all
would agree that black and white were the sole
components of the fowl, with any legitimate
product of these alone ; and any buff colour
must denote a mere mongrel of quite recent
making. The only other colours that could
occur amongst the pure race might be cuckoo
or barred plumage, or white mottling on black ;
both of which might possibly occur, arising also
occasionally from breeding black and white
together. Such colours do not, however, seem
to " hit " well with the general make of this
fowl, and need not be discussed.

The following is the Standard of Perfection
of the Poultry Club, being adopted (except in
being rendered into the general pattern adopted
for all its Standards by that Club) as that of
the Langshan Society.

LANGSHANS (SITTERS)
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Skull : Fine. Beak : Fairly long and
sUghtly curved. Eyes : Large. Comb : Single,
medium size, straight and upright, of good sub-
stance and fine te.xture. and evenly serrated (five
or six spikes). Face .- Of fine texture, and smooth.
Ear-lobes : Of medium size, pendant, and inchned
to fold. Wattles : Of medium size and fine texture,
neatly rounded.

Neck.— Fairly long, broad at base, and covered
with full hackle.

Body. — Full and deep breast ; long and broad
back, horizontal when in normal attitude (the saddle
abundantly furnished with hackle, close fitting, and
not too long) ; broad shoulders ; and large, closely car-
ried wings, though not ' cHpped up " or " pinched in."

Tail. — Full and flowing, spread at the base,
fairly high, but with no approach to " squirrel "
carriage, furnished with abundant side-hangers and
two long sickles, each tapering to a point.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Thighs not too long, but
well developed and wide apart, and covered with
closely fitting feathers, especially round the hocks ;
shanks rather long, strong, but not coarse boned,
and having an even fringe of feathers (not too heavy)
on the outer sides. Toes : Four on each foot, long,
straight, and well spread, the outer toe (and that
alone) being slightly feathered.

Carriage. — Graceful, upright, and alert, strong
legged, and with the bearing of an activ-e bird.

Weight. — lo lb. ; cockerel, 8 lb.

Plumage. — Close and smooth, but not so hard
as in the Game fowl, and with \-ery little fluff until
after the first moult.

With the exception that the Tail is not carried
so high the general characteristics of the hen are
similar to those of the cock, allowing for the natural
sexual differences. It might be added that the hen's
shape should be " free from lumpy or squat appear-
ance," and that her back should be devoid of cushion,
or fullness at saddle.

COLOUR

THE BL.\CK

Beak : Dark horn to black. Eyes : Dark brown
to black — the darker the better. Comb, Face,
Wattles, and Ear-lobes : Brilliant red. Legs and
Feet : Dark grey, with black scales in front and
down the toes (losing their density after the first
moult), showing pink between the scales and on
the skin between the toes, especially down the outer
sides of the shanks. Toe-nails : White. Under-
foot : Pink-white. Skin : Of body and thighs, white
and transparent.

Plumage. — Black, with brilliant beetle-green sheen.

THE BLUE

Beak : Medium to dark horn. Eyes : Dark hazel
to black — the darker the better. Comb, Face,
Wattles, Ear-lobes, Legs and Feet, Toe-nails, Under-
foot, and Skin : As in the Black.

Plumage of the Cock. — Hackles, Back, Tail,
Sickles, Side Hangers, and Wijig-bow : Rich deep
slate, the darker the better, with brilhant purple
sheen. Remainder of Plumage : Clear slate blue,
each feather distinctly laced (edged) with the same
dark shade as the back, the contrast between the
delicate ground and the dark lacing to be well
defined.

Plumage of the Hen. — Clear slate blue ground,
each feather (except on the head and upper part
of the neck) distinctly laced (edged) with dark
slate, the contrast between the ground and lacing
to be well defined. The small feathers on the head
and upper part of the neck, a rich dark slate.

THE WHITE

Beak : White, with a pink shade near the lower
edges. Eyes, Comb, Face, Wattles, Ear-lobes, Toe-
nails, Under-joot, and Skin : As in the Black. Legs

CROAD LANGSHANS.

291

and Feet : Light grey or slate, showing pink between
the scales and on the skin between the toes.

SCALE OF DEFECTS

In head properties

Deduct up to

15

General coarseness . .

IS

In legs and feet

10

In plumage . .

10

Too much fluff

10

Want of size

10

Want of condition

10

Bad carriage and shape . .

10

Crooked breast

10

. ^ Serious defects : Yellow skin ; yellow base of
beak ; yellow or orange-coloured eye ; yellow
around the eye ; yellow on shanks or under foot ;
legs other colour than standard ; shanks not feathered ;
more than four toes ; permanent white in face or
ear-lobes ; comb other than single ; wry tail ;
"squirrel" tail ; coloured feathers other than men-
tioned in the standard.

Faults : Absence of pink between toes ; feather-
ing on middle toes ; outer toes not feathered ; too
scantily or too heavily feathered shanks or outer
toes ; twisted toes ; short shanks ; crooked breast ;
twisted or falling over (lopped) comb ; side sprigs
on comb ; general coarseness ; too much fluff ; purple
sheen (in Blacks) ; yellow shade or sheen (in Whites).

THE CROAD LANGSHAN

In previous editions of T/ie Book of
Poultry this important section of the Lang-
shan family has had to be content with but
scant notice beyond the discussion in the open-
ing pages of this chapter as to the causes
which led to the production of the two t\'pes
of the breed, now known as Langshan and
Croad Langshan. With the present wide
popularity of the latter variety, due largely to
its utility properties and also to the better
spirit now prevailing amongst all sections of
Langshan breeders, we have thought it desir-
able to give Croad Langshans separate treat-
ment, and Mr. Herbert P. Mullens, Hon.
Secretary of the Croad Langshan Club, has
very kindly contributed the following notes on
the breed ; —

" The Langshan fowl was first imported
from the Langshan District of North Cliina
by the late ]\Iajor Croad, of Durrington,
Sussex, in the year 1872, and at that time
there was much discussion as to whether it was
a distinct and pure breed, but eventually it
was clearly proved that the new importation
was not only a distinct breed but one of excep-
tional merit for utility purposes.

"There were two distinct types, one tall
and reachy and the other of medium height

with full flowing tail, and these two types have
been accentuated by their respective admirers.

" It is with the latter of these types that this
article deals — namely, the Croad Langshan ;
the prefix ' Croad ' was given to this branch for
two reasons, firstly, to distinguish them from
the tall, reachy type, and, secondly, as a per-
petual reminder of the debt that poultry
keepers owe to the late Major Croad for intro-
ducing such a useful and ornamental breed,
and to the late Miss Croad for the way she
championed the breed through good and ill
report.

" In colour the Langshan is a dense black
throughout, with a brilliant beetle green gloss
upon the plumage; a flat and broad-
shouldered bird, with a deep, long meaty breast
supported by legs of medium or sufficient
length to give a graceful carriage to the bird ;
the legs are feathered down the outer sides
and toes, but not heavily. Adults weigh about
9 lb. in cocks and 7 lb. in hens. They
are good table birds, possessing flesh which is
exceptionally fine in grain and very juicy, very
much resembling that of the Houdan ; the skin
is very white and thin. But their chief call
for public favour is their exceptional &^^ pro-
ducing qualities, especially during the winter
months ; the egg is brown, varying in tint from
very dark to a medium shade. Some of the
eggs are far darker than those laid by any
other breed.

" As an exhibition bird the Langshan first
appeared in separate classes at the Crystal
Palace in 1876 ; and though for some years the
Croad Langshan was seldom seen at shows,
of recent years, since the formation of the
Croad Langshan Club, it has been steadily
advancing in public favour, both as regards
numbers and quality, until now at all the
big shows well filled classes are to be seen.
In a nutshell, the Croad Langshan is of such
all-round excellence that it must always appeal
both to the show lover and utility fancier."

Subjoined is the Poultry Club's standard
of excellence based upon that approved by the
Croad Langshan Club, and, we may remark,
considerably condensed therefrom. Breeders
of the Croad Langshan will therefore do well to
also secure the fuller form from the club's sec-
retary, especially when exhibiting under club
judges, for faults which figure as " Serious
defects " in the Poultry Club standard are
" Disqualifications " in the Croad Langshan
Club standard, for instance : " Yellow legs,
yellow at base of beak, or around eye, per-
manent white in ear lobes, slate or blue legs in

292

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

young birds, white feathers in adult fowls,
coloured feathers, decided blue or purple
sheen, or barring, and wry tail."

CROAD LANGSHANS (SITTERS)

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head.— SA:»// .• Small, and fuU over the eyes.
Beak : Fairly long and slightly curved. Eyes :
Large. Comh : Single, medium size, straight and
upright free from side sprigs, evenly serrated with
five or 'six spikes (five preferred), of fine texture.
Face : Smooth, and of fine texture. Ear-lobes :
Well developed, pendant, and of fine texture.
Wattles : Rather large and of fine texture.

Neck. — Of medium length, and with full hackle.

Body'.— BacA .■ Broad, of medium length, flat at
the shoulders, and the saddle rising abruptly to the
tail, the saddle being abundantly furnished with
hackles Breast : Deep and well rounded, with a
long breast-bone, and the keel sUghtly rounded.
Wings : High or low, the latter more usually.

Tail.— Fan-shaped, carried rather high, with
plenty of side hangers, and the two sickle feathers
some six inches or more bevond the rest.

Legs and Feet.— Legs .■ Thighs rather short and
covered with soft feathers ; shanks of medium
length, small boned, standing well apart, and
feathered down the outer sides (not too heavily nor
scantily). Toes : Four, long, straight, and slender,
the outer toes being feathered.

Carriage. — Graceful and extremely active.

Weight.— 9 lt>-

With the exception that the Fluff should be rather
more abundant, the general characteristics are
similar to those of the cock, allowing for the natural
sexual differences.

Weight.— 7 lb.

COLOUR

Beak : Light to dark horn. Eyes : Brown to
very dark hazel, the darker the better. Comb,
Face, Wattles, and Ear-lobes : Brilhant red. Legs
and Feet : Blue-black, showing pink between the
scales, the web and bottom of the feet pink-white
(the deeper the pink the better), and toe-nails white.

Plumage. — Dense black, with a brilhant beetle-
green gloss and free from purple or blue tinge.

SCALE OF POINTS
Size . .
Symmetry . .
FUchness of colour
Condition
Head and comb
Legs and feet
Thin skin and white flesh
Fine bone

Serious defects : Yellow legs ; yellow at base of
beak or around eyes ; five toes ; permanent white
in ear-lobes ; slate or blue legs in young birds ;
white feathers in adults ; coloured feathers ; decided
blue or purple sheen or barring ; wliite tips to
feathers ; brown or black patches on toe-nails ;
wliite in shank and toe feathers ; wry tail ; lop
comb ; side sprigs.

.\ Croad Langshari Cockerel.

3 ^hjlcsf-afh kindly sufplitd by lilr. K ('. Rid.'r

293

CHAPTER XVIII.

ORPINGTONS.

WITH the fowls known by this name we
enter upon a large class of modern
breeds, produced by crossing from
one or more of the original Asiatic races, in-
cluding in every case some proportion of the
Shanghae element. Most of them originated
in America ; but all those treated of in this
chapter were produced in England, and some
had quite different origins.

Writing in 191 1, Mr. W. Richardson, of
Horsham, Sussex, founder of the Buff Orping-
ton Club, and President of both the Black and
the White Orpington Clubs, to whom we are
indebted for notes on the Black, Buff and
White varieties, says : —

" There is no breed of modern production
in which so much interest is taken or over which
there has been so much controversy as the Or-
pington. A good many fanciers of the older
breeds raised at first all sorts of objections
to them, but the opposition to their introduc-
tion only seemed to make their admirers more
keen to develop the breed, with the result that
there are now probably more fanciers and
breeders of Orpington fowls than of any other
breed of poultry.

"There are seven varieties of Orpingtons,
and I will name them in their order of intro-
duction to the public: Black, Buff, White,
Jubilee, Spangled, Cuckoo and Blue. There
are also rose-comb specimens of the Black, Buff
and White varieties. The first two are hardly
ever seen now, but there are a few fanciers who
breed the rose-comb White Orpington, which
seems to be largely developed from the White
Wyandotte, as the original single comb White
Orpingtons never produced any rose-comb
specimens."

The one to be first described, and the
original Orpington, is so largely a Langshan
that we should have included it in the previous
chapter if it had stood alone. It
Black was originated and pushed by the

Orpingtons, late Mr. W. Cook, then living at
Orpington, in Kent, from which
Kentish town he took the name. He stated
that the method of production employed in re-

gard to the single-combed Orpington was to
cross a large Minorca cock with black sports
from Plymouth Rocks ; pullets of this cross
being then mated with clean-legged Langshan
cockerels, and the produce carefully bred to a
deep-bodied and short-legged type. The re-
sult was a black fowl with the green gloss of
the Langshan, but with clean legs, of the
plumper make of the illustration on p. 280,
with white skin and meat and a well-shaped
carcass, and which is an excellent winter layer
of brown eggs. The weakest point of the Orp-
ington is that the eggs are not so large as might
be expected from the size of the fowl ; still they
are, in single-combed strains, of a fair average
size. Mr. Cook also produced a rose-combed
Orpington from the rose-combed Langshans
mentioned in the preceding chapter, which had
the same general qualities, but with the curious
difference, which we are unable to explain un-
less from some individuality of the rose-
combed Langshans employed, that the eggs
are smaller than from the single-combed.
Owing probably to this difference, the rose-
combed Black Orpington has never become
generally popular.

There is no doubt that some original Black
Orpingtons were produced as stated ; but there
is as little doubt that the breed has since con-
siderably changed in two distinct directions.
As stated in cur next chapter, there is little
question that one of the components of the
Plymouth Rock was the Black Java fowl ; and,
as stated in the preceding, it is equally obvious
that this Black Java has much in common with
the Langshan, however that fact be interpreted.
This darker and more typical component in
the Asiatic blood had thus a double pre-
potency, and its predominance over the more
Shanghae components would be intensified by
breeding for clean instead of feathered shanks.
This doubly strong element therefore rapidly
overpowered the Minorca element, and the Or-
pingtons quickly became to all intents and
purposes clean-legged Langshans, taking the
place of that shorter-legged, symmetrical type
once popular, but subsequently discarded by

294

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

the personal feeling of Langshan breeders. In
addition to this tendency, in the early days of
the breed it is known that clean-legged pure
Langshans, from perfectly orthodox sources,
were sold to Orpington exhibitors, and
appeared immediately in exhibition pens, as
well as being used for breeding with their
stock. This still further strengthened and
hastened the reversion to Langshan type,
which was then so pronounced that at many
shows only one class for " Langshan or
Orpington " (or the converse) was provided
for the two breeds. The index of this change
has lain chiefly in the size of the eggs, which has
somewhat lessened since the Minorca element
lost power ; and in the colour of the eyes, which
was often red while any foreign element re-
mained, but has now almost everywhere
reverted to the Langshan brown or black.

There has been, however, quite another
change, a black Orpington of practically new
blood coming upon the scene in iSgi, when
the late Mr. Joseph Partington exhibited at
the Dairy Show in October two cockerels and
two pullets, which secured first and second
prizes in each class, three of the four birds
being immediately sold at £io each; not-
withstanding which, at the Palace Show a few
weeks later he brought out fresh birds of each
sex that beat these previous winners. These
birds were of a size that had never before been
seen, creating quite a sensation and consider-
able curiosity. Mr. Partington assures us that
these Orpingtons also were cross-made birds,
but had none whatever of Mr. Cook's original
strain in them at all, and that he had deliber-
ately started with the idea of breeding him-
.self something in the same line, but more
striking and handsome. They were very
large, and of splendid colour, with massive
shape, and all had dark eyes. These points
made them invincible in the show pen, and
from this new strain, combined with the
original, are descended the bulk of the
winners of the present day. Many of the new
strain displayed so much more fluff than
former Black Orpingtons, that we cannot help
thinking large females of cither Black, White,
or perhaps even Buff Cochin may have been
employed with Langshan males.

Writing on the Black Orpington, Mr. W.
Richardson says: — "The first variety of the
Orpington fowl to appear was the Black single
comb_ and rose-comb. The birds were
identical but for their combs, and the single
comb variety was always much more popular.

" The Black Orpington is our handsomest
black fowl, and to see the classes at the

classical shows is a treat to a lover of black
poultry. They are, as a rule, good layers
of a nice brown egg, and, except for their
black legs, a first-class table bird.

" The colour of the cock should be black,
with a rich beetle -green sheen on all his
feathers, free from bronze purple, purple
barring or red or white in neck or saddle
hackles. He should be massive, short, broad
and deep in body, showing a wide U-shaped
curve on the back and underneath, and stand on
short, straight legs, black in young birds and
dark slate colour in old ones. There should
be no red or yellow in feet or legs, and his
toes should be well spread out and straight
with white toe-nails. The comb, wattles, and
ear-lobes should be medium in size and of a
fine deep coral red, the comb should be
straight, evenly serrated, and set firmly on his
head. His eye should be dark brown or
almost black, the darker the better, and his
beak should also be black or very dark horn
colour. His plumage should be silky in
texture and very abundant, and his tail and
hackles should be flowing, but his tail should
not be long nor the feathers too stiff.

" The hen's colour should be the same as
that of the cock. She should look as massive
as possible, her tail should be short, and she
should have a nice wide rising cushion like
the Brahma, rising gradually to the true tail
feathers, as distinguished from the round ball
cushion of the Cochin, which is very objec-
tionable. The curve of her body should come
straight down from her head round the breast
and passing under and up to her tail in a
perfect wide U shape, the same as the curve
on her back from head to tail.

" Some birds show a keel which is not
required, and it rather spoils their outline and
appearance. The weight of the cocks should be
from 9 lb. to ii lb., and that of the hens 7 lb.
to 10 lb. Equally good cockerels and pullets
can be bred from the same pen, which saves
double mating, though some strains seem to pro-
duce better cockerels and others better pullets."

Colour should be bred for as in the Lang-
shan, but the crimson between the toes is not
required. Particular attention should be
given to preserving the correct
Breeding shape, with a broad and deep
OrSgtons. breast, the whole body looking
massive and solid, and set rather
low. Excessive fluff should be avoided, as
tending to decrease laying, and being often
accompanied by thicker skin ; too small
combs, also, are apt to be signs of diminished
egg-production. We have seen one or two

BUFF ORPINGTONS.

295

specimens distinctly keeled, almost like some
exhibition ducks, and this ought certainly to
be deprecated.* It is probably due to care-
lessness of these points that statements have
lately appeared to the effect that some strains
of tlie Black Orpington have not kept up its
reputation as a good layer. Both abundance
and size of eggs would, however, quickly
respond to selection for these qualities, in the
manner insisted upon in former chapters of
this work.

The first pair of Buff Orpingtons ever
shown as such were exhibited by the late Mr.
W. Cook at the Dairy Show of October, 1894,
when Mr. Cook drew our special
Buff attention to them, and made the

Orpingtons, same statement which has been
made on many other occasions, that
they were produced by mating a Golden-
spangled Hamburgh with a coloured Dorking
hen, pullets from the produce being mated
with a Buff Cochin cock, the main character-
istic of the birds being the combination of
buff plumage, with white legs and feet. We
remarked, on this earliest possible occasion,
that a fowl with such points might probably
prove both valuable and popular ; but that
there was grave objection to calling them
Orpingtons, since he had already appropriated
that name to another fowl, which had, accord-
ing to his own account, not one single element
in common. Such nomenclature would not
have been allowed by the Poultry Association
of America, and objection to it was widely
expressed by the most prominent authorities in
England, with scarcely an exception ; the
already existing Orpington Club also pro-
tested against the same name being given to
another fowl which had not in it one atom of
the same constituents as theirs. A consider-
able amount of discussion took place later,
emphasised by the fact that precisely similar
fowls were exhibited under another name at
the Smithfield Club Show of dead poultry.
Owing largely to this latter circumstance, the
question was finally brought before the
Poultry Club, who decided that it was then
too late to interfere ; but intimated that such
a case would not again be allowed to pass
unnoticed, and in this way it is to be hoped
that the circumstances may have produced a
more definite understanding concerning such
matters in the poultry world.

The actual origin of the breed must be
questioned, as well as its present name.

* The only other breed in which we have personally seen such
a peculiarity is the Faverolles.

There is no reason to doubt that Mr. Cook
really did breed birds as stated, and that
these have been sold as Buff
^"a^d*"^^'"^""^ Orpingtons, or that to his per-
Lincolnshire Buffs, sistent advertising and pushing
it the popularity of the fowl was
mainly due ; the latter fact proving that
capital may be employed as successfully in
floating a variety of poultry as in founding a
new journal. But evidence was published
simply overwhelming in amount, to the effect
that the stock about the country is mainly
derived from breeding up to points a gradu-
ally formed and popular local amalgam of
Buff Cochin and Dorking, which has long
been known in Kent, Surrey, and Sussex, and
still more so in Lincolnshire ; whence it has
been called, in market parlance, the " Lin-
colnshire Buff," forming a large portion of the
" Boston " fowls sent to the London market.

To sum up a controversy given at some
length in a previous edition, there is no reason
to doubt that Mr. Cook bred birds as alleged,
and it is well known that some of the early
Bufl: Orpingtons sent out bred very much as
might be expected from such heterogeneous
crossing. There is an abundance of evidence
that all breeders who took up the new breed
found plenty of work to do in it, and that
some of them selected simply the best speci-
mens they could find, wherever they could find
them, in Surrey, or Lincolnshire, or anywhere.
That birds were bought in the latter county
of people who had bred nothing else for a
quarter of a century and were shown directly
as Buff Orpingtons, and used by Buff Orping-
ton breeders, is quite certain ; and various suc-
cessful strains have no doubt had different
local origins, v.'hich accounts for the fact
stated by Mr. Richardson presently, of the
evil results found to follow from crossing
these difl:erent strains. It is noteworthy
that none of the early show specimens had
the shape of the Black Orpington, all being
higher on the leg, longer in the back, and less
massive in the body ; but breeders have, as
we write in 191 1, by paying attention to make
and shape, overcome these defects.

The merits and utility of the breed stand
apart from its origin and name. Those who
objected to the latter were accused of making
a "virulent attack upon the breed," but with-
out, as far as we know, any foundation. The
fowl itself was recognised by nearly all as
a most valuable one, endorsed already by the
long experience of the Lincolnshire breeders
as a first-class breed for the market ; and
speedily found, as soon as kept alive for other

296

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

purposes than market, to be a most hardy bird
and prolific layer. Putting aside some of the
claims advanced to which there are reasons
for taking exception, the late Mr. Cook may
be given full credit for " booming " and
making known in other than poultry-fattening
circles, what is recognised as one of the most
attractive and useful of all classes of poultry,
combining the beautiful and popular buff
colour, with admirable table and laying quali-
ties. It is probable that the Buff Orpington,
as now known, comes as near to the ideal of
an all-round, general purpose fowl as is
humanly possible ; and it is not a small
service to have made such a bird popular
amongst breeders generally.

In breeding Buff Orpingtons the main
points to keep in view are (i) colour of
plumage, as in all buffs ; (2) clean
^"«^°e white legs ; (3) make and shape.
Orpingtons. "^^^ following notes are kindly
supplied by Mr. W. Richardson,
founder of the Buff Orpington Club, and well
known as a successful exhibitor.

" Following close on the Black Orpingtons
the late Mr. W. Cook introduced the Buff
Orpington, showing a pair at the Dairy Show
in 1894, and the bulfs soon jumped into the
ranks of first favourites with many fanciers.
I took up poultry in 1895, and the first pure
bred fowls I had were Buff Orpingtons, and
I have always placed them first favourites and
bred 500 or more every year since. There
was a great deal of controversy with regard
to their introduction, and no doubt any kind
of buff fowl that looked at all like a Buff
Orpington was sold as such. Taking a deep
interest in the breed, I set out to find what
was their real origin and if they were, as
many asserted, only Lincolnshire buffs. I
visited about the years 1897, 1898, and 1899 all
the breeders I could hear of, and also several
breeders of Lincolnshire buffs, and I satis-
fied myself completely that they were two
different breeds. In the first place all the
Lincolnshire buffs bred on the farms in Lin-
colnshire that I visited, where they professed
to breed them and nothing else, were identical
with the original Buff Cochins as shown in
this book, and I have no hesitation in saying
that the present-day Lincolnshire buff is
nothing else but the descendant of the old Buff
Cochin.

" I met a large farmer in Lincolnshire who
had bred buff fowls for many years and liked
the clean white-legged buff birds, and he told
me how they had been evolved. In the old
days the people kept Dorkings, and when

the Buff Cochins came along they w-ere crossed
with the Dorkings, but finding the cross not
very good layers, they again crossed them
with Golden Hamburgh cocks, the result being
a clean white legged buff fowl of very good
all round qualities. By selecting the best
specimens to breed from every year the birds
bred more and more to the type required.

" This farmer also told me that the late
Mr. W. Cook had bought all the birds he
would sell two or three years before I was at
his place, and he also told him how the birds
had been bred, so there was no doubt in my
mind that these birds formed some part at least
of the foundation of the Buff Orpington fowl.

" Many breeders have tried to improve the
Buff Orpington by introducing crosses of the
Buff Cochin and Buff Plymouth Rock, and,
as far as I have seen, without much success,
as where one point might be gained two would
be lost. I have never introduced any cross
into my birds, though I have tried the same
experiments as others, because I found there
was no advantage, and, on the other hand,
a lot of trouble. I also prefer to keep the
breed pure and develop it from itself, and
this in the long run has given me much more
satisfaction. The Buff Orpington is a most
useful and handsome bird, and in my opinion
it and the White Orpington are the two most
useful fowls we have. The real Buff Orping-
ton is an everlasting layer, a first-class table
bird, and a grand exhibition fowl. It is
hardy and strong, and as I have always bred
mine on the cold w-et Sussex clay, on which
some kinds of poultry will not do, they must
be strong to stand it. If anything, I find
the chickens stronger every year ; out of 400
chickens I hatched in i g 1 1 , with the exception
of a few that never started, I lost but two.

" The Buff Orpington cock should be of as
nearly as possible the same type as the black,
but owing to not having as much length of
feather they look somewhat taller and not
so massive, yet there is not much difference in
their body measurements. In colour the buff
should be of an even dense orange, neither
red, yellow nor brassy, and the colour should
be bright and as near one shade all over as
possible. The best specimens are very nearly
perfect in colour, but most of them show a
little dark in flights and tail, and a few of
them some white, and I think it will be some
years before they all come perfectly buff in
a flock, even if they are bred from the best
picked specimens.

" Strain has a great deal to do with the
breeding of Buff Orpingtons. I have proved

BUFF ORPINGTONS.

297

over and over again that even if the best
cockerel of one strain is mated with the best
pullets of another the result is very dis-
appointing, as they invariably throw back.

" Each feather on the bird should be the
same even shade and be buff to the skin.
There should be no mealiness, and the shaft
of the feather should not be lighter in colour.
There should be no light lacing or fringing
in the feathers, and the wider the feathers are
the better. A good many cockerels show an
unevenness in the feathers on their backs which
is known as rustiness and is very objection-
able, and those birds generally breed pullets
with dark lacing on their backs.

" If the feathers of a hen are closely ex-
amined, especially on the hackle and back,
it will be seen that the very edge is hard and
shiny, resembling the ends of the hackle
feathers of the cocks, and I find that the edge
of the feather does not fade in the same way
as the rest of it, therefore the feathers of a
partly faded bird look laced. The comb,
wattles and ear-lobe should be bright red,
the comb medium, evenly serrated and straight,
and the eye should be red.

" Exhibition hens and pullets should be as
massive as possible and short on the leg, but
not stumpy, and their colour should be an
even golden orange, free from any meal,
which is about the worst fault in the hen's
plumage. They should be the same shade on
the breast as they are on the back, and should
not appear to have lacing on the feathers,
either dark or light. They should have neat
heads and small combs, evenly serrated and
straight, free from side spikes, and the eye
should be red. They should show plenty of
bone in their feet and legs, and the toes
should be well spread out and straight in
shape. They should resemble the Black
Orpington as much as possible and be free
from the objectionable ball cushion of the
Cochin, and the legs should not be blue, as
this is a bad fault."

Writing in our last edition, Mr. Percy
Thorniley said : —

" In selecting birds for stock, I proceed as
follows : first examine all birds for colour ;
then for type ; and lastly for size, especially
in the female. My experience is that you
cannot breed big chickens from small hens, no
matter how big the cock is. Of course, the
minor points must be taken into consideration,
too, according to their degree of imperfection,
for if you once get one of these minor points
established in your strain you will find it most

difficult to get rid of; such, for instance, as
a badly-formed comb, or a white ear-lobe.

" For exhibition purposes the buff is a most
difficult colour to keep sound, and to ensure
this it is most essential that the birds have
complete shade and protection from the sun
and rain, such as a run in a wood or shrub-
bery. Where this is not possible other means,
must be devised. The suggestion has been
made to me of planting artichokes in the
runs a short distance apart. But however
much shade you give your birds through the
summer and during the moult, they will be
much lighter in colour the second year than
the first. The tendency is, from the time they
are hatched until they assume their adult
plumage, to go darker and more even ; after
that they go to lighter again. This is why
it is such a difficult matter to advise which
chickens it will pay to keep, and which to put
in the pot. The chickens are very hardy and
easily reared."

Reference may also be made to what was
laid down respecting the breeding of buff
poultry generally, on page 245 ; and Mr.
Cromack, in a lecture to which we acknowledge
indebtedness, related experience which is a
very practical commentary upon the advice
there and above given. Out of the first
seven pullets with which he was successful
(and which he had picked up in Surrey, after
failing with the first stock he secured),
there were different shades of plumage, two
only being buff to the skin, while the others
were white under-colour, though buff on the
surface. By the advice of a friend he mated
up the white under-colour, and not one of
the produce was worth exhibition. Next
season he bred from the all-buff birds ; and
out of one brood eight realised nearly ;£^30.
The white legs and skin require all the greater
care in selecting sound buff plumage.

In Sussex, and Surrey, and doubtless other
localities, the white shanks are more easily
preserved than in others, owing probably to
effects of soil. But the greatest difficulty in
keeping up this point arises from the different
origin of various strains, as already alluded
to. It is still attempted in some quarters to
attribute the occurrence of yellow shanks to
" crossing with the Lincolnshire Buff," and
there are no doubt plenty of these birds, of
the rougher type, which would have such an
effect, while there are strains of Buff Orping-
tons which rarely breed a yellow-legged
chicken. But there are also strains of Lincoln-
shire blood which for generations have done
the same ; and the result of our own inquiries

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

into this matter has been a conviction that
the chief cause of the difficulty now is the
introduction of either Buff Plymouth Rock,
or of. stock into which that blood has been
introduced.

For the following notes we are also
indebted to Mr. W. Richardson: —

" I showed my first White Orpingtons as
Albions at the Dairy Show, I think, in igoo,
and the only White Orpingtons that were
known before that time were some
White rose-comb birds which were evi-

Orpingtons. dentlv a cross of White Dorkings
and White Leghorns, showing little
of the true Orpington characteristics. The
birds I showed were pure sports from Buff
Orpingtons, and, of course, were similar in
type except for their white colour, and I pro-
cured these four white sports as chickens from

Albions.

At rKhxbiitd at the Dairy Show in 1900.

the same farm in Lincolnshire whereon I saw
the Buff Orpingtons. I had myself bred
a white chicken (a pullet) from my buffs the
year before, but sold it, as single-comb White
Orpingtons had not then been heard of.
I agreed to change the name from ' Albion '
to ' Orpington,' as several fanciers who had
taken them up thought they would go better
as such, especially as they were sports from
buffs.

" The birds I had at first were rather small,
but of good type for those days, and per-
fectly white, and my stock to-day are directly
descended from them without any other cross.
I once crossed a White Plymouth Rock cock
with two or three pullets, but the result was
so disappointing that I killed all the chickens
to make sure that they did not get mixed with
my original whites.

" The White Orpington has one or two
faults in breeding, but these are not very

troublesome to overcome. One is that they
throw a few yellow-legged chickens, a defect
not due to a cross, as the original Buff Orping-
ton that they sported from did the same.
Anotlrer defect is that some White Orpingtons
come with a creamy oi sappy colour in their
feathers, but I find a very small proportion
now in the total of the chickens. Birds are
also shown, especially hens and pullets, with
blue legs, which is very objectionable, and I
think due to some out cross. I have also seen
a few specimens with green or willow legs.
There is little doubt that when the single-comb
White Orpington was first brought out that it
became so popular that it \wd^s impossible to
breed enough birds to supply the orders, and
many people tried to produce them from
various crosses. These attempts at short cuts,
of course, led to many faults in the birds thus
bred that my original birds never had. Others
may have had odd sports from their buffs, and
I have heard that there were white sports from
the Black Orpington some years before the
White Orpington was before the public, but I
never saw any.

" One thing is important, and that is to be
able to distinguish between a sappy bird and
one that has been turned a bit yellow on the
top by the sun or weather. Exposure of this
kind only affects the hard part of the feather
in the hackles of the cocks and on their wing
bows and saddles and the hackles of the hens.
Sap, however, shows all through the feathers to
the skin. Some birds, indeed, look as if they
had been dusted with yellow sulphur. It should
also be remembered that white birds are easily
stained by being bedded down with oak saw-
dust or straw, as when either these or the birds
get damp their plumage becomes discoloured,
and this is very annoying as it is impossible to
get it out.

" The White Orpington cock should be a
large massive bird of the same type as the
Buff and Black, and should have clean ivory
white legs with as little pink showing in them
as possible. His colour should be snow white,
and the feathers should be dense and of a nice
silky texture. His comb wattles and ear-lobes
should be bright red and medium size. The
comb should be evenly serrated, straight, and
free from side spikes ; his eye should be red,
and he should be free from sap in the feathers
or a pink shade on the wing bow. Whites
throw a few feathers with a little black or buff
in them, but as a rule very slightly, and it is
not of much consequence.

"The hen should be the same as the Black
and Buff Orpingtons, massive and cobby.

WHITE ORPINGTONS.

299

standing on good, stout, white legs, the head
should be neat and the eye red, the worst
fc-ults to be noticed being blue in leg and white
in lobe.

" The White Orpington is a marvellous
layer of a nice large brown egg, surpassing, I
think, the Buff in that respect, though some
buffs run them very close. I have known a pen
of my whites to average 206 eggs in the year.
In conclusion, may I add that it has given me
much pleasure to write these notes on three of
the finest breeds of poultry in existence, and I
hope they may be of some assistance to those
fanciers who wish to breed them."

We have thought it of interest to reproduce
an illustration from The Feathered World of
October 26th, 1900, of Albions exhibited at
the Dairy Show of that year, and for compari-
son therewith a photograph of the winning
White Orpington cockerel at the same event
in igio. There is no doubt that, consequent
upon the success of the Black and Buff Orping-
ton, other breeders were working concurrently
with Mr. Godfrey Shaw and Mr. Richardson
upon the production of a white fowl of
Orpington type. It may be of service histori-
cally therefore to quote here an extract from
" The Orpington and Its Varieties " {Feathered
World) from the pen of Mr. Wm. H. Cook: —

" The origin of the White Orpington is
somewhat remarkable, as, in the first place,
the originator, the late Mr. W. Cook, in breed-
ing the Buff Orpington, was surprised to find
many chickens coming pure white, and as these
sports grew, their colour remained absolutely
snow white ; they appeared to be thicker set
or more cobby specimens than the then exist-
ing Buffs, and by experimenting in mating
these sports (which, by the way, were all
pullets) to White Cochin, White Dorking, and
White Game male birds, the White Orpington
was produced, and is to-day perhaps the most
popular variety of the Orpingtons. It might
be advisable to here add that occasionally a
single specimen will revert to one of the above-
named male birds used in their production,
therefore one may see a little feather on the
leg from the Cochin, a fifth toe from the Dork-
ing, or a tinge of yellow in the legs, feet, and
beak. These defects are now rarely seen on
stock bred from the best and most reliable
strains."

It is, comparatively, only recently that the
Orpington has been kept to any extent in
America, and even now the Black, White, and
Buff varieties are alone recognised by the
American Poultry Association. In the Ameri-

can Standard of Perfection (1905) only single-
comb Buff Orpingtons were recognised, the

reference to them being as follows :
Orpingtons " These are our latest importation
America. from England. They are large

and stately in appearance, with
long, round, deep bodies and very full breast
and back development. The abundance
of back and saddle feathers on the Orpington
male gives him the appearance of having a
short back. In colour a harmonious blending
of rich golden buff in all sections is most desir-
able. The same shade of colour should prevail
throughout the specimen." Since 1905 the

^,

^^#\^'

|^%.

White Orpington Cockerel.

White has usurped the Buff's position as
regards popularity, while the Black takes third
place, the latter variety being now bred less
feathery and slightly longer in the back than
the English type. The standard weights re-
quired in both Buff and White Orpingtons
in America are 10 lb. for cocks, 8j^ lb. for
cockerels, 8 lb. for hens, and 7 lb. for pullets.
Our chapter on the Orpington would not
be complete without notes upon the latest ad-
ditions to the family, even though, as in the
case of the Buffs, exception may be taken by
some as to their strict right to the family name,
and in at least that of the Jubilee variety of
marked similarity to the Speckled Sussex, an
old and useful breed. However, the Variety
Orpingtons have come and won much popu-
larity, and Mr. Wm. H. Cook, of St. Paul's

300

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

•Cray, son of the late Mr. W. Cook who
originated the Orpington, and who therefore is
quite au fait with the methods of their pro-
duction, very kindly contributes the following
notes on the varieties in their order of intro-
duction, viz., Jubilee, Spangled, Cuckoo, and
Blue:—

" This handsome variety was introduced
early in 1897, and derived its name from the
Diamond Jubilee year of our late Queen
Victoria. The birds are particu-
larly handsome, with their
chocolate ground colour, a black
bar and white spangle at the end of each

Jubilee
Orpingtons.

Jubilee Orpingtcm Hen.

feather, and to-day are exhibited showing even
markings of the three colours. They are cobby
in build, are deep and broad, with short, white
legs and four toes, all quite free from any
stubs or feathers. The comb should be of
medium size, firmly set upon their head, and
free from any side sprigs ; and the birds
should have red ear-lobes and small, rounded
wattles.

" During the last two or three years Jubilees
have increased in size, and there is not now
(191 1) so marked a difference between them
and the Black, White and Buff varieties.

For table birds the Jubilees certainly equal any
other fowl ; they are quick growers and
very prolific winter layers ; and the cockerels
are in great demand amongst farmers for
turning down with their cross-bred hens, and
excellent results have been obtained by such
mating.

" Among fanciers the Jubilee is very
popular, as double mating — i.e., one pen for
producing the best cockerels and another for
breeding the best pullets^is not necessary,
and a single pen will produce first-class
specimens of either sex. The leading poultry
shows provide classes for Jubilees, and where-
ever exhibited they attract attention by their
pretty appearance and uniform shape ; and
they are suitable alike to a working-man, with
quite a limited space, or a poultry farmer
having acres at his disposal. They have,
moreover, the advantage of having their in-
terests looked after by the Jubilee Orpington
Club and the Variety Orpington Club.

" As to how Jubilee Orpingtons were pro-
duced is not generally known among many of
the oldest breeders to-day, but I may state at
the start that Buff Orpington pullets were
selected of a chocolate or reddish-brown
colour, and these were mated to the old Red
Dorking, the cocks showing the most black in
them being used. Many good coloured speci-
mens were thus obtained by the first mating,
and by continuous and careful selection of the
progeny, the fifth toe and long back of the
Dorking was stamped out. Golden Spangled
Hamburgh cocks were also used on to many of
the above first-cross pullets, and here again
the difficulty of the white lobe and rose comb
had to be bred out.

" Present day breeders can still easily trace
three bad faults sometimes arising in their
stock — viz., the large comb of the Dorking,
which often becomes floppy, side spikes on
this particular kind of comb, and white in
lobe, the two latter faults coming from the
mating of the Hamburgh cock on to the single-
comb Dorking-Buff pullets.

" The ground or main colour in both sexes
should be a nice reddish-brown, then a black
bar (which is usually a beetle green), the end
of the feather being tipped or spangled with
white. In the cocks the neck and saddle
hackles are extremely pretty, being a bright
mahogany colour, a black beetle-colour strip-
ing, and tipped with white. The average
weight of the cocks is 10 lb., and the hens
85^ lb. A few defects that breeders must
avoid, if they are intending to exhibit, are:
White in ear-lobe ; spikes on either side of the

SPANGLED ORFIA'GTONS.

301

comb, or too large or weak a comb ; black or
dark neck hackles in either sex ; ground
colour too pale, or resembling a lemon or pale
buff ; other than four toes or white legs ; or a
black and white breast in the males, for the
brown ground colour must predominate.

"The \-ear 1900 saw the introduction of the
' Black and White ' variety of the Orpington
famil)', known as the ' Spangled Orpington.'
The writer must here explain
Stons. that the word 'spangled' has
quite a different meaning to
that of the word 'tipped.' The latter should
be understood as meaning a small half-moon
shape of some colour different from the main
or ground colour of the feather. By
'spangled' — or, as often described, 'spang-
ling ' — is meant that almost half the feather is
covered with some other colour than that of
the ground colour. Owing to the plumage
being striking and made up of but two colours,
this variety has made good headway, particu-
larly in the exhibition world, as, besides being
a handsome fowl, it is a true Orpington in
shape and build, and easy to breed true to
markings. The Spangled is, if anything, a
larger bird than the Jubilees, being somewhat
longer in breast and body, and therefore
making a very hne table fowl, with pure white
flesh. As all-round layers they are prolific,
and hold their own well with other varieties of
Orpingtons. Excellent reports have been re-
ceived from breeders in Canada who have im-
ported eggs or birds, as to their hardiness and
capability of withstanding any climate.

" In plumage they somewhat resemble the
Ancona and Houdan, but are, of course, a
much heavier and deeper bodied bird. The
Spangled Orpingtons were in the first place
simply sports cast off in producing the
Jubilees. Many of these coming black and
white were saved for at least one year to notice
how they moulted out, and, in most instances,
this proving satisfactory, they were equally
divided, part being mated to very dark-
coloured Dark Dorking cocks, the others were
put with Black Orpington cocks. The progeny
from these two matings were carefully selected
and re-mated, thus producing the present day
Spangled Orpingtons. Breeders of several
years' standing can, after carefully considering
the various breeds used for the Jubilees and
later for the Spangles, trace the very few
faults that occasionally disport themselves in
their present Spangled Orpingtons. The
ground colour should be a beetle -green black,
«ach feather having a fairly large spangling of
white from the tip to almost a third of the way

up the feather ; the comb is a single one, of
medium size, firm, and well set upon the head ;
ear-lobe red ; legs short, stout, and well set
apart ; four toes on each foot, and leg colour
in accordance with the latest standard is
mottled black and white, though all white is
allowed. Weight of cocks 10 lb., and in hens
9 lb.

" Breeders should avoid using birds for
breeding purposes, having the following de-
fects, viz., side spikes on comb, white in ear-

%

H^

bi

\

9r

was3

mF

L i«ti

^¥

Spangled Orpington Cockerel.

lobe, black legs and feet, any straw, red or
brown markings in the plumage."

"In 1907 the poultry fancy were surprised
to find yet another variety of Orpingtons
placed before them, and many remarks were
expressed that, as the originator
of the five former varieties had
passed away, they did not antici-
pate a further addition. The experience I had
gained with my father in the production of the
former Orpingtons had naturally been of
value, and as nothing is more interesting than
making and perfecting a new variety, I
worked at and introduced the Cuckoo Orping-
ton. Classes have already been provided at

Cuckoo
Orpingtons,

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

the classic shows for the Cuckoo, and they are
in the hands of many well known and
prominent exhibitors, but I confess that my
aim was not so much to make them an ex-
hibition bird, as one possessing high-class
utility qualities, combining a big, deep body
on low legs, with prolific winter laying ; and
these merits are in themselves sufficient to
make the variety popular. In appearance the
'Cuckoos ' are somewhat similar to die barred
Rock, without the objectionable long, yellow
leg, which has given place to a short, perfectly
white leg. The flesh and skin are pure white,
the back is short and very broad ; in fact, the
Cuckoo is the blocky type so prominent in all
the Orpingtons. They are e.xtremely hardy,
and lay a very large, rich brown egg.

" Single mating only is required, so that
even the purchase of a small pen is sufficient to
build up a good foundation stock of a general,
all-round useful and handsome fowl. The
colour is a light, bluish-grey ground, having
bars across the feathers of a darker blue-black,
proportioned to the size of the feather and the
same on all parts of the body. The beak, legs
and feet are pure white ; lobes red ; comb
small, firm and evenly serrated.

" Defects to be avoided are white in lobe,
any yellow in legs and feet, long legs, stubs
or feathers on leg, side spikes, and more than
four toes."

" Quite the newest of the Orpington family
is the ' Blue,' which I introduced just as 1907
was drawing to a close ; and I do not remem-
ber any variety that caused such
a sensation. Fanciers recognised
in it a breed that would make
tremendous headway, and the demand far
exceeded both supply and anticipations.
' Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery,'
and though 'Blue' birds of a different shade
and shape have been exhibited, the 'original'
Blue stood its ground, and for colour and type
has now set the standard to the whole world.
A true Orpington in build, with wide chest,
broad back, small head and tail, low, wide-set
legs, they resemble the Black Orpington more
than any other fowl. As a layer the Blue is
second to none. It is extremely vigorous and
hardy, thrives well in any climate, and in ap-
pearance and colour is both pleasing and
striking.

In their production Blues have certainly
proved the most difficult variety to produce
that I have as yet experienced, for the Blue
colour is extremely hard to fix. Nothing but
pure Orpington blood was used in their pro-
duction, and these consisted of the White,

Blue
Orpingtons.

Cuckoo, Spangled and Black varieties, crossed
and recrossed, and marked success, as admitted
by the oldest and keenest breeders, has been
achieved.

" The colour in cocks is of a dark
blue top colour, with a somewhat lighter
blue breast and fluff, laced with an outer
edging of a darker blue shade. In hens
the chief ground colour is of a medium
blue, each feather laced with a darker blue
on the outside edges. The eye, legs and feet
are black, ear-lobe red, comb and wattles
small. Weight in cocks 10 lb., hens g lb.

" Defects which should be carefully
avoided are: Hazel or light-coloured eyes,
white legs, white in lobe, pale blue body
colour."

ORPINGTONS (SITTERS)

GEXER.A.L CH.\R.\CTERISTICS

Head. — Skull : Small and neat, and fairly full
over the eyes. Beak : Strong and nicely curved.
Eyes : Full and bright. Comh : (a) Single or (b)
rose ; (a) of medium size, erect, evenly serrated,
and free from side sprigs ; (fe) small, straight and
firm, full of fine work or small spikes, level on top
(not hollow in centre), narrowing behind to a dis-
tinct peak lying well down to the head (not sticking
up). Face : Smooth. Ear-lobes : Of medium size
and length. Wattles : Of medium length, rather
oblong, and nicely rounded at tlie bottom.

Neck. — Of medium length and abundantly covered
vvith long hackle feathers, which should reach weU
on to the back.

Body. — Deep and broad ; wide and sUghtly rising
saddle with full hackle, which with the long neck-
hackle give the back a short and somewhat concave
appearance. Breast : Broad and well rounded (not
flat), carried forward. Wings : Rather small, carried
closely to the body, the ends almost hidden by the
saddle-hackle.

Tail. — Rather short, compact, flowing and in-
clined backwards, but by no means in " squirrel ''
fashion.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Short and strong, the
thiglis almost hidden by tlie body feathering. Toes :
Four on each foot, straiglit, and well spread.

Carriage. — Erect and graceful.

Weight. — 10 lb.

Plumage. — Fairly close but not so hard as ia
the Game fowl nor so soft, loose, and fluffy as in
tlie Cochin.

Handling. — Firm flesh.

HEN

The general characteristics of tlie hen are similar
to those of the cock, allowing for the natural sexual
differences. It is worth noting that the Cushion
should be small, sufficient to give the back a short
and graceful appearance, but not fuU and round,,
or " ball " shaped as in the Cochin.

Weight.— 8 lb.

ORPINGTON STANDARDS.

?o3

COLOUR

THE BLACK

Beak : Black. Eyes : Black, with dark brown
iris. Comb, Face, Wattles, and Ear-lobes : Bright
red. Legs and Feet : Black. Toe-nails, Soles of
Feet, and Skin : White.

Plumage. — Black, with a green sheen.

THE BUFF

Beak : White or horn. Eyes : Red or brown,
red preferred. Comb, Face, Wattles, and Ear-lobes :
Bright red. Legs, Feet, and Skin : White.

Plumage. — Clear, sound, even buff throughout to
skin.

THE CUCKOO

Beak : White. Eyes : Red. Comb, Face, Wattles,
and Ear-lobes : Red. Legs and Feet : White, or white
mottled with black, white preferred. Toe-nails and
Skin : White.

Plumage. — Blue-grey (light shade) ground, each
feather barred across with blue-black (dark shade),
the markings in keeping with the size of the feather.

THE JUBILEE

Head poi)its. Legs and Feet : As in the Buff.
Plumage of the Cock. — Ground colour mahogany,
. of a bright shade, and not dark nor maroon. Hackles
and Back : iNlahogany, with black centre stripe,
mahogany shaft, and white tip. Breast, Thighs, and
Fluff : I\Iahogany, with black spangle and white
tip, the three colours clean and distinct and showing
in equal proportions, avoiding a ticked effect on
the one hand, and a blotchy effect on the other.
Wings : Bow, similar to hackles ; bar, black ;
secondaries, mahogany, black, and white ; primaries
similar, but more white allowed. Tail : Sickles
white, or black and white, or black, white and
mahogany ; coverts, black, edged with mahogany
and tipped with white.

Plumage of the Hen. — Neck-hackle : To match
that of the cock. Body, Thighs, and Fluff :
IMahogany, with black spangles and white tips,
similar to the breast of the cock. Wings : As body,
but with primaries to match those of the cock. Tail :
As in the cock.

THE SP.\NGLED

Beak : Black, white, or slightly mottled. Eyes :
Red or brown, red preferred. Comb, Face, Wattles,
and Ear-lobes : Red. Legs and Feet : Black and
white, mottled as evenly as possible. Toe-nails and
Skin : White.

Plumage of the Cock. — Hackles : Black, with
white tips. Back : Black, slightly ticked with white.
Breast, Thighs, and Fluff : Black, with white
spangles, the two colours showing in equal propor-
tions, avoiding a ticked effect on the one hand,
and a blotchy effect on the other. Wings : Bow,
similar to back ; bar, black ; secondaries and
primaries, black and white, but more white allowed

in the primaries or flights. Tail : Black and white ;
the sickles and the coverts black with white tips.

Plumage of the Hen. — Xeck, Wings (flights only),
a)id Tail : Similar to those parts of the cock.
Remainder of Plumage : The same as the breast
of the cock, the effect to be uniform through-
out the bird. (Note. — In both sexes the black
should have a bright gloss (beetle-green), and the
white should be pure and bright, the two colours
distinct and not running into each other.)

THE WHITE

Beak, Legs and Feet, and Skin .
points a)id Eyes .■ Red.

Plumage. — Pure snow white.

SC.A.LE OP POIXTS

THE BL.\CK

Shape : body, 15 ; breast, 10 ; saddle, 5
Head : Comb, 7 ; skull, 5 ; face, 5 ; eyes, 5 ; beali
Plumage and condition
Carriage
Size . .

Tail

Legs and feet

Skin

White. Head

THE BUFF AND THE WHITE

Colour*

Type*

Condition

Head

Legs and Fee

Size . .

THE CUCKOO

Colour and marldng

• 25

Shape

20

Size . .

20

Head

. 10

Legs and feet

10

Condition

10

Slvin . .

5

100

THE JUBILEE AND THE SPANGLED

Colour and marking

• 35

Size and shape

■ 30

Condition

• 15

Head

. 10

Legs and Feet

10

Serious defects : Feather on shanks or feet ; white
in ear-lobes ; long legs ; side spikes on comb ; any
deformity ; yellow skin or yellow in shanks, or feet
of Blacks ; any yellow on slianks or feet of Cuckoos ;
other than black and white coloured feathers in
Spangled ; any yellow in Whites.

* In 1910 //le Buff Orpington Club allotted 20 point! to
colour and 30 to type.

304

CHAPTER XIX.

PLYMOUTH ROCKS.

THIS breed is of American origin, and is
still occasionally stated to have been first
formed by Dr. Bennett in 1850, but is not
in reality nearly so old, except so far as he did
undoubtedly give that 7iaine to one of his many
curious productions. In his American Poultry
Book of 1851 he gives the following remarkable
account of these old Plymouth Rocks : " I have
given this name to a very extra breed of fowls
which I produced by crossing a Cochin China
cockerel with a hen that was herself a cross
between the fawn-coloured Dorking, the great
Malay, and the Wild Indian. Her weight is
6 lbs. 7 oz. The Plymouth Rock fowl, then, is
in reality one-half Cochin China, one-fourth
fawn-coloured Dorking, one-eighth great Malay,
and one-eighth Wild Indian. Their plumage is
rich and variegated, the cocks usually red and
speckled, and the pullets darkish brown. They
are very fine-fleshed, and early fit for the table.
Their legs are very large, and usually blue or
green, but occasionally yellow or white, generally
having five toes upon each foot ; some have the
legs feathered, but this is not usual." Of course
a " breed " such as this, with legs feathered or
clean, four-toed or five-toed, and of all the
colours in a pack of cards, was too " extra " for
any such common world as this, and inevitably
died out by sheer disintegration of materials
even more heterogeneous than were alleged of
other breeds recently mentioned, but which
had at least strains in their blood predominant
enough to save them.

For years nothing more was heard about
Plymouth Rocks ; and in the New York
Poultry Bulletin, the first American poultry
periodical ever published, during its
Origin of fij-gt two years such a fowl was never
Rc^s." &v^x\ named. Their first mention

in that paper was about 1870; and
in response to a direct inquiry of our own, we
received the first direct information about them
in a letter from Mr. W. Simpson dated August 12,
1 87 1, in which he states that their plumage
was " Dominique " (the American term for blue
barred or " cuckoo " colour), that they had been
produced by crossing the native Dominique or

comiuon cuckoo fowl with Asiatics, and up to
that time did not breed very true, while their
eggs were all colours and sizes. Everything
points to a new production about that time,
from quite recent crosses, and there is not the
slightest doubt that the present Plymouth Rock,
of totally different colour from Dr. Bennett's old
creation, had its origin about this time and in
this general way. The first ever seen in
England were sent over by Mr. W. Simpson
in 1872, and took honours at Birmingham that
year in the class for Any Other Variety ; since
which time they have rapidly grown in numbers
and popularity, all the original stock having
come to us from across the Atlantic.

Further investigation in America has made
it pretty clear that the modern Plymouth Rock
had more than one origin, and that the claims
of various breeders, such as Mr. Spaulding, Mr.
Drake, Mr. Upham, Mr. Giles, and Mr. Pitman,
to have produced ancestors of the present birds,
were all more or less well founded. Mr. I. K.
Felch, whose long memory makes him a good
authority, has traced various crosses made by
different breeders, including the following: (i)
Spanish on White Cochin, top-crossed by
Dominique ; (2) Dominique on Buff Cochin
hens ; (3) White Birmingham (supposed to be
an English fowl, but what, no one can tell) on
Black Java, the produce coming as white, black,
and Dominique, and the Dominiques alone being
bred together ; (4) the same produce top-crossed
with Dominique ; (5) Black Java and Dominique ;
(6) some of the above crossed with Brahma.
This last cross distinguished the Drake strain ;
and it has been stated by some that the amal-
gamation or breeding together about 1869 of
this Brahma-crossed strain, with that of another
strain also containing Black Java blood, pro-
duced the final improvement and stamp which
gave the new Plymouth Rock its growing popu-
larity from 1870 onward.

This origin of the fowl will explain the chief
difficulties in breeding barred Rocks. The
colour itself is not a natural primary one, but
the produce of white with either black or very
dark colour. Such colours, mated together,

BREEDING BARRED ROCKS.

305

produce as the result, on a wide average of
cases, more or less of blacks, whites, mottles
or splashes with the plumage of Houdans and

Anconas, blues or blue duns like that
Difficulties of blue Langshans and Andalusians,
Breeding. ^"'^ ^^at bluish barred plumage

known as Dominique in America
and cuckoo in England. When once produced,
this last colour has however a strong tendency
to permanence ; and in the common native
Dominique fowl of the West Indies and United
States it had been preserved and bred so long
as to be of a very fixed type indeed, though
even in these fowls there was a constant
tendency for the white or black feathers of the
original components to appear, as well as the
straw or red which always troubles breeders of
white or black fowls. But in the barred Rocks,
fresh blood of both white and black had been
thrown in ; and in the Black Java particularly,
which all accounts agree in stating had been
always used on the female side, a strain had
been used which we have already seen is
perhaps one of the most strong and prepotent
now in existence. To this day that strong
black blood is constantly cropping up in barred
Rocks, black sports continually occurring to an
extent not known in any other blue barred fowl.
These are almost always on the female side,
though black feathers will also often appear in
the male, which is however more subject to
white than to black in his plumage. These
facts are explained by the origin of the fowl,
which, when well understood, affords valuable
indication to the breeder as to his choice in
certain cases.

The general characteristics of the Plymouth
Rock are very much what might be expected
from its origin. It is a large fowl, only
slightly inferior in size to the
Characteristics large Asiatic breeds. The comb
Plymouth Rocks, 's single and straight, evenly
serrated, much like a good Cochin
comb, but preferred rather smaller, with wattles
large in proportion ; ear-lobes smaller, and red.
The head and neck are carried upright, and
not forward like the Cochin's. The body should
be large and rather square, but with a deep and
compact appearance, and the plumage close,
with only very moderate fluff ; wings moderate
in length and carried close. The shanks should
be moderate in length, not long nor yet too
short, and set wide apart ; they are clean, and
bright yellow in colour. The cock's tail should
be neat, and carried only moderately high, and
well compacted ; but we never could under-
stand the original Standard, which said it
was " smaller " than a Cochin's, as even in

England, where the ideal differs widely from
the American, we have never seen a bird without
a tail much larger and higher than any Cochin
breeder would recognise as at all proper in his
variety. The tail of the hen, though small, is
also considerably larger and more projecting
than that of a Cochin.

The plumage is not easy to describe with
exactness, and we have known two observers,
both accustomed to consider their words, de-
scribe the same bird, and the verj
B^^°' same feather from the same bird,
Rockl differently, and in each case rather

differently from our own idea as
to its real colour. It is not so in regard to the
barring ; that runs straight across the feather,
much like that of a pencilled Hamburgh, but con-
siderably coarser ; also the bars are not sharply
edged, but the dark bar shades into the light
through a small space, though they should not do
so too gradually, or so as to destroy the distinctly
"barred" effect. From about 1890 the bars
have been bred perceptibly narrower and more
numerous than formerly, though not so much
so in England as in America ; there is pretty
obviously a happy medium, unless some
day a fashion should set in for breeding an
out-and-out " blue-pencilled " fowl ; and beyond
a certain point narrowness is not desired in
either country. There is also a proper pro-
portion between the dark bars and the light
spaces, not very different from equal spacing
being desired.

The real difficulty, no doubt, is how to
describe the colour. Looking at the whole bird,
in England especially, there is distinctly a blue
dun shade or appearance about it ; but when we
examine a single feather, it is difficult to see any
blue colour in it at all. The English Standard
gives the ground as blue-white, evenly barred
with bands of black of a beetle-green sheen ;
while the American Standard gives the ground
as " greyish white," barred with " defined
bars that stop short of a positive black."
Yet average English feathers are certainly
darker and with more approach to blue-dun
in the ground colour than American feathers,
while on the other hand American birds appear
a distinctly brighter blue in the whole effect,
than English birds. The fact is that the colour
of a single feather is greatly affected by that of
any surface on which it is laid ; and when
American feathers are laid upon a white surface,
many of them appear merely black and white,
each colour being a little dull, the white not
quite pure and the black very slightly greyish.
The feathers in Fig. 98 are photographed thus
on a white ground, and show that effect ; on a

5o6

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

darker ground they would appear differently.
English feathers similarly treated would appear
greyer in the ground, and the bars on many we
have seen are quite black, with more or less
green gloss>. It is difficult to find any single
feather from Rocks as now bred, which appears
blue at all ; and yet the whole mass of feathers
when superposed gives that impression distinctly.
If any breeder will examine single feathers
laid upon papers or cards of different colours,
these remarks will be understood, and such facts
make a really definite standard of colour very
difficult to frame.

It was as a very profitable and generally
useful fowl all round, that the barred or original
Plymouth Rock steadily achieved popularity

in the United States, and later in
Merits England. The colour wears well

Rocks. ^"d looks well, especially about a

farm ; the laying powers are above
the average, and when cultivated reach a very
high standard indeed ; the meat, though not
white or such as in England is considered first-
rate in quality, is extremely good and juicy ;
and the bird makes a rapid growth which is
only equalled by Dorking or Houdan crosses.
The constitution is hardy, and the chickens
easily reared. Until the White Wyandotte
arose, no fowl was ever bred and kept so
extensively as the Barred Rock was in the
United States, and it probably holds the first
place there still ; and we have already seen that
it forms the basis of a large portion of the best
table fowls sent over from Ireland.

The Barred Rock plumage is not easy to
breed to present exhibition standards, and as
a rule requires more or less of the system of

double mating. In this case the
Breeding necessity arises from fanciers desir-

Barred Rocka. ing to make similar in both sexes,

barring and colouring which Nature
has arranged to be finer in barring and lighter
in colour in the males than the females. That
would apply to all cuckoo barred fowls ; but in
this particular case there is the added difficulty
of the strong Black Java blood always tending
to reappear in pullets, if birds too dark are used
on either side*; some birds of this kind are
inevitable if adequate colour is to be preserved,
but they are getting somewhat fewer than they
used to be. We do not think breeding is so
difficult in England, at present, as it is to the
American standard of colour and marking.
The following notes are kindly contributed by

* There is little doubt that some of the so-called Black Javas
in America are these black sports from barred Rocks, but have
been used as ciosses on the older Java stock, which of course
500Q absorbs them.

Airs. Wilkinson, of Scotforth, Lancashire, well
known for her successes in the exhibition pen,
and set forth the necessary points clearly.

" The description and systems of breeding
given below are based upon experiments per-
sonally conducted during the last seventeen or
eighteen years ; and, as my successes have not
been infrequent, it may perhaps be taken for
granted that the principles are sound. I will
commence by describing, as well as my rarely
used pen will permit me, the qualifications re-
quired of the breeding stock, and how to mate
for the production of youngsters of high-class
exhibition merit.

" The chief question has been, shall we
retain the old style of single matings, or em-
ploy systems whereby we breed separately for
the two different sexes 1 Much may be said
for both sides of the question. As an instance
of the utility of single mating, it may be men-
tioned that at the Royal Show of 189S the first
prize winners in both the cockerel and the
pullet classes owed their existence to the same
parents. Since that date, however, events seem
to prove that the would-be prize winner must
study his fowls more closely and ascertain
which of his stock produce the best cockerels
and which the best pullets, and so mate that
these newly discovered proclivities may be
accelerated. I believe that since the period re-
ferred to the most successful cockerels owe their
origin to totally different sources from the
pullets. There are admitted exceptions, for
I have myself bred high-class exhibition
cockerels and pullets from the same pen, and
they have won first honours at leading events in
both classes; and, as late as 1910, the pullet
that won the champion challenge cup at the
Crystal Palace and all the large shows owed its
origin to a pen that produced a few first-class
cockerels that were well up at the chief events.
Still, in spite of this, during the seventeen or
eighteen years of my experience, the majority
of the champion winning pullets have been pro-
duced from different matings to the first-class
cockerels. This fact has converted me to
favouring double mating.

" I have bred from a good many pens in
each year, and I have found that for breeding
the highest class cockerels, the females in the
pen must be of very dark rich colour, with good
undercolour, with tails well barred to the end,
and care must be exercised to have the feathers
with black tips. If this was strictly adhered
to we should not have so many cockerels with
white in tail. Care should also be taken to
have the female well built, standing fairly
well up with good shoulders. The stock

mmfmm

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN TYPES.

307

male for such a pen must, of course, be a
typical exhibition bird, with good straight
barring of rich green =heen well defined from
the ground colour.

" For exhibition pullet breeding the females
should be good exhibition birds with straight,
well defined bars on clean ground colour, per-
fectly even throughout, which, of course, is a
great feature in the exhibition pen. The
shade of colour is not so important as its
evenness, for judges somewhat differ as to the
former, but all agree as to the necessity of the
latter. Hence it is most important to select all
as even as possible. The male for the pullet
breeding pen is a bird which is too light for
English shows, yet perfectly even and distinct
in barring. Such an one has in my yards
proved to be the most successful. It is not

be taken as too fine m that respect, while those
with fewer as running too coarse in barring.
When a bird is too finely barred his plumage
is too cloudy in appearance and lacks definition
between the bars and ground colour, a blemish
which tends greatly to spoil the attractiveness
of the Plymouth Rock.

" The Cjuestion of under-colour received but
little attention in this country up to a few years
ago. Totally black or white under-colours have
been at a discount certainly, but distinction in
barrings below the surface has not been con-
sidered a sine qua non in either the exhibition
or stock specimens, but during the last few
years more stress has been laid on the under-
colour, and, hence, more care must be taken in
choosing breeding stock.

" In America they manage things differ-

F'g- 97- — American Plymouth RocW Phimage.

necessary for this male to be barred to the skin,
but he nmst have good even barring on breast
and wing bars, and the latter must be of rich
colour.

" On examination every feather of the male
and female should possess a ground colour of
light blue-grey, crossed at regular intervals
from root to tip (with the exception of the
pullet breeding cockerel, in which it is not so
particular for it to go to the root of the feather)
with straight, sharply cut, clearly defined bars
of a green lustred black. Brown or bronzy
tinges must be totally absent. A fair amount
of latitude is allowed in the number of bars on
each feather, but in birds which have been con-
sidered as near perfection as any yet produced,
I have found that the feathers in the middle
of the back are marked with from seven to ten
bars each, so that those may be taken as about
the limits. Birds with bars more frequent may

entiy ; for years they have been breeding to
produce barrings to the roots, and from the
illustrations in Fig. 97, representing the
plumage of an American pullet, it will be
seen that the results justify the labour. The
photographs show how the undcr-barrings are
developed on the wing, back, and tail, all well
cut and remarkably even, not only throughout
the body, but also on every flight and tail
feather ; but to compete with success at English
shows, each bar should be a little wider, and
therefore the complexion of the whole bird a
little darkei. There is no denying the fact that
these American Rocks have a very pleasing
appearance, yet they seem to lack something of
that dignity and substantiality peculiar to our
darker specimens.

" Be that as it may, such photographs are
a reminder that although v.-e can give points
to any country on Rocks, taking the birds all

3o8

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

round, size included, we are certainly not up to
brother Jonathan in under-barring. ' Fashions
are said to rule the world, including the poultry
world, and none can say that in a year or two
we may not be searching energetically for those
barrings which are hidden, and therefore add
nothing of beauty to a fowl, but which may
probably aid us to breed them truer to type on
the surface. This I would rather welcome.

" I appreciate the American Barred Rock,
but they lack the lustre in colour ; if only they
had a green lustrous black barring I feel sure
it would add to their beauty, particularly if

with five points, and perfectly straight and firm
on head, and with lobes and wattles a bright
red, beak to correspond with legs."

The American Barred Rock differs from the
English type perceptibly in shape. The tail of
the cock is larger and carried a little higher,
though not nearly vertical ; the legs upon an
average are rather shorter ; the body perceptibly
longer and more Dorking-like in shape, with less
fluff about the thighs than in average English
birds, and rather less cushion in the females.
All these points tend towards a better layer and
better table fowl, with finer skin. The size of

^1^

^

Breast. Wins.

Fig. gS.— Feathers of Barred Rock Hen, 1S72 : Broad and Crescentic Marking.

ir

coupled with longer legs on both males and
females. I believe that then both England
and America would soon adopt the same
standard, which would be very beneficial to
both countries, for as it is at present very little
trade is done between us and our fancier
friends across the Atlantic in Barred Rocks.

" I have not said much about shape, and so
will give just a brief outline of my ideas in
this respect. A Rock must be on the large side
to be a specimen of much value, not only tall,
but broad with good deep body and a long,
straight breastbone, and full chest. It should
stand straight on good stout legs of rich orange
colour ; the tail small, compact, and not
carried too high. The head should be of good
length, surmounted by a comb of medium size,

the American bird is also smaller, by an average
of about 2 lbs. per bird : this is no doubt greatly
due to that demand for " broiler " chickens so
often alluded to, but American breeders con-
sider that the Rock when bred very large has a
tendency to coarseness both of bone and skin,
which they dislike.

The plumage has already been described
as perceptibly lighter and brighter in colour ;
the total effect being often that of an almost
bright and lightish blue shade. Some years
ago it might also have been described as finer
or more numerous in the bars ; but in' this respect
English breeders have now adopted American
views, as also in preference for straight bar-
ring and " ringlet " effect, over the older and
coarser crescentic form. In all but lighter colour.

SINGLE AND DOUBLE MATING.

309

in fact, the barring photographed in Fig. 99
would be accepted by an Enghsh breeder of to-
day : the comparison between it and the coarser
crescentic marking of Fig. 98, drawn from a hen of
1872, will show the change in character of the
marking in both countries since that date.

For the following notes upon American Rocks
and their breeding, we are indebted to Mr. E. B.
Thompson, of Amenia, New York, well known
throughout the United States as the breeder of
what is famous as the " Ringlet " strain.

" It seems unfortunate that there should exist
such a difference between the English type of
Barred Plymouth Rock and the American type.
The difference is very strong, and it is to be
much wished that in some way the breeders of
both countries should get together on this
matter.

" The American standard male is medium to
medium dark in colour,* with an even blue
shade from head to tail ; the dark bars being a
black or blue black, but free from any lustre or
metallic black. My customers across the water,
in both Germany and England, demand very
dark birds in both males and females, the darker
the better so long as the birds are clear in colour,
and free from brown and smoke. These very
dark specimens cannot have the beautiful blue
shading that birds medium in colour often show,
and which surely adds so much to the beauty of
the breed.

" The American type of female is medium
light in colour, well barred, and as blue in
shading as they can be produced. My experience
has shown me that very dark females, as we
consider them, suit the best in Europe ; in fact
such females as the American breeders use as
their highest type for producing cockerels, being
fine in size and shape, well barred, and with
yellow legs and beaks. Such hens, while the
best for producing cockerels, are too dark for
exhibition in America. It seems that the light
to medium-light males which are used here to
get the best medium-light show pullets, do not
take well in England.

" Some breeders here use one style of
mating only, called a standard or ' single mating.'
Such a mating consists of medium-light exhibi-
tion coloured females, and a medium-coloured
male, a shade or two lighter than the standard
American show male. But without doubt the
best exhibition Barred Rocks of this country
are produced from the double-mating plan, or
one mating to get cockerels, and another to get
pullets. The first is made up of an exhibition

* This definition has to be read through American spectacles.
What is called " medium dark " would be perceptibly lighter
than Knglish standard, and '* medium " considerably lighter.

male, of the highest class, mated with hens too
dark in colour, well barred and clean, and bred
from exhibition males. The pullet mating con-
sists of the best exhibition pullets or hens, mated
with a medium-light to light-coloured male,
whose dam was a prime show bird. These two
matings are not related one to the other. They
are two distinct lines.

" Herewith I send some feathers from an
American standard exhibition male and female,
and also from the American type of female
for producing exhibition cockerels. These
feathers are of the highest type, and show
some exquisite barring and the mild blue colour
admired here.

" All breeders in both countries, I believe,
admire the regular parallel barring in a Barred
Rock, which is best described by the term
' Ringlets^ for when the feathers are properly
placed upon the bird, the bars show upon the
surface in rings, which make the bird very
beautiful. The mild blue colour, together with
these ' Ringlets,' combine to make an attractive
bird, and the blue colour is certainly lost in too
dark a specimen. I wish that the standard for
any breed could be the same the world over,
and hope that some day not far off this may
be so."

Photographs of the pullet feathers sent appear
in Fig. 99, but being taken upon a white
ground, appear rather lighter than they would
upon the bird. They, however, show the scale
and distinctness of the barring, which it will be
seen extends to the base of the feather ; and the
last feather, from the cockerel-breeding female,
shows the somewhat darker character of the
plumage as above described, and would fairly
represent the type admired in England. It is
obviously plucked from nearer the tail, than the
feather next to it from the exhibition bird.

Perhaps no subject has been so fully dis-
cussed in America of late, as the mating of
Barred Rocks, and the modifications of practice
which have taken place are interesting. The
original system pursued for many
Various Matings years was rather haphazard : selec-
Ba^^'ed Rocks. t'O" .was simply made of a good-
looking cockerel, which was mated
to good-looking females, with little regard to
pedigree. The produce of such breeding was
naturally of a very mixed character, and about
1885 it began to be abandoned for mating
" standard " birds on both sides, with greater
attention to ■' line-breeding." This worked
great improvement, especially in the average
produce, while it gave a percentage of exhibition
stock of both sexes sufficient to show that such
breeding was practicable, as is also shown by

3IO

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Mrs. Wilkinson's notes above. Some American
breeders of repute have never abandoned that
method ; but the majority were not satisfied
with the results, especially in brightness of
colour and distinctness of barring, and hence
came in the system of double-mating described
above by Mr. E. B. Thompson. It will be
observed that this system is more complicated
than that formerly adopted by breeders of
using similar females in both pens, with a
rather dark cockerel to breed cockerels, and

that only " handle well " continue to monopolise
the prize-money, the once deep-breasted, long-
keeled, broad-backed male and the long,
broad-bodied female which is such an excellent
layer, will become defunct.

Commenting in a recent article* on the mat-
ing of barred Plymouth Rocks, Mr. A. C.
Hawkins, one of the most famous of American
breeders, says : —

" Modern Barred Rocks are bred by the
double mating system, which requires a special

F'g- 99- — Feathers from Americin Barred Rock Pullet, 1901.

a rather light one to breed pullets ; the females
keeping the strain related or in union.

In America at the present time there is a
tendency among some judges to give prefer-
ence in the show-pen to birds that have strong
under colour, type apparently being a second-
ary consideration with them. And it is not
infrequent that specimens of angular contour,
narrow bodies, shallow breasts, and by no
means brilliant top colour, are found high up
in the prize lists. To such an extent has this
been the case that some prominent breeders
have not hesitated to point out that if birds

mating to produce exhibition cockerels, and a
special mating to produce exhibition pullets.

"The cockerel mating should be headed by
a male as near the perfect type and colour as
possible. Select a bird with a medium-sized,
evenly serrated comb that sets firmly on the
head, a rich red eye and a deep full breast
with long keel. Have the body and back broad
with a concave rise from the hackle to the tail.
The tail should be well spread and not carried
above thirty-five degrees. He should have
strong yellow legs, set well apart. Select a

* Reliable Poultry Journal, March, 191T.

BUFF PLYMOUTH ROCKS.

3"

male of this type that has a clean-cut, sharp,
even surface colour, with a snappy blue tinge,
absolutely free from any trace of smutty or
brassy colour and of the same shade from head
to end of tail. The wings should be clearly
and evenly barred and the tail barred to the
skin. Select a male with this brilliant snappy
surface colour that also has clear, evenly barred

Coarse, long-legged males are not desirable
breeders, and wc do not wish to favour extra
heavy birds. It is quite important that the
male in a cockerel mating should be directly
descended from a long line of high-class ex-
hibition males, as very often some of our very
finest show birds inherit some of their valuable
characteristics from their grandsires.

Black Rock Cockerel.

under-colour well down, but do not expect in-
tense heavy under-barring in a male with bril-
liant surface colour. Let nature have its way
with the under-barring and it will give you a
more attractive surface colour and a more
beautiful bird all over, with all the barring
that a rich-coloured bird should have.

" I prefer a male not much above Standard
weight to insure vigour and early maturity.

" In selecting the females for a cockerel
mating, I use hens or pullets with long, deep
bodies, full, broad breasts, medium low tails,
well serrated combs, bay eyes and yellow legs.
The surface colour of the females should be
well defined in all sections, with clear, distinct
barring in wings and tail. The under-barring
of the females should be narrow and well de-
fined to the skin, in all sections, with straight,

312

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

clear neck barring. This intense under-barring
in the females will give the cockerels in the
progeny all the under-colour they will need,
and they will inherit the brilliant surface
colour from the male. One of the most im-
portant features in selecting the females for a
cockerel mating is to have them bred from a
long line of exhibition males. With this kind
of a cockerel mating you should produce a
large percentage of high quality males for
breeding and exhibition.

" For the mating to produce exhibition
females, I select a male of medium light
colour with narrow, even barring throughout.
The wings and tail should be very clear in
barring and the under-colour should be clearly
defined in all sections. Select a male with low,
evenly serrated comb, yellow beak and legs,
long keel, with deep full breast, broad back
and low-spread tail. This male should have
high-class exhibition females for dam and
grand-dam as this is very important if we are
to secure the best possible results from the
mating.

" The females in a pullet mating should be
high-class exhibition specimens of Standard
specimens of Standard size, with deep bodies,
full breasts, broad backs and low-spread tails.
Have them clear in under-barring throughout,
and with narrow straight bars in the neck sec-
tion and clear even barring in the wings and
tail. The ringy appearance in the surface
colour of the female is most desirable in show
specimens and in breeding birds. Do not use
a female because she is good in under-colour
unless she has the surface to make her attrac-
tive. A Barred Rock that does not show well
at sight is not suitable for the show room and
should not be considered a first-class breeding
bird. Select females with low, evenly serrated
combs, and with yellow legs. From such a
pullet mating you may reasonably expect a
large percentage of choice females.

" For thirty years I have seen the Barred
Rocks improve in some characteristics and go
backward in others. The breeders of to-day
should keep in mind the practical qualities in
framing the Standard for the breed and should
request the judges in placing the awards on
Barred Rocks to give more attention to correct
type and surface colour and not to be misled
by intense under-barring.

" The White Plymouth Rocks," writes Mrs.
Wilkinson, " are beyond doubt a pure variety,
owing their origin to sports from the Barred.
These have not been so frequent in England as
in America. They are believed to have been
first preserved and cultivated by a Mr. Frost,

of )>Iaine, about 1880, and later they were
brought to about perfection by the late Mr.
Harry W. Graves, of Higganum,
White Conn., who won almost all the

Kocks. prizes at Madison Square for a

few years before his death. In
1905 Mr. Graves sold the champion male for
one thousand dollars, so there is no question
of the variety's popularity in America.

" It is said that Whites are easier to breed
than the Barred variety. No doubt that is true to
some extent, but to breed a typical bird of pure
white with good orange yellow legs and beak,
with face, comb, earlobes and wattles red, is
difficult enough, and when attained the result is
truly a beautiful bird. White birds, as a rule,
have a tendency to straw colour or sun burn,
but White Rocks in the best strains have almost
overcome this and now rank amongst the most
perfected varieties in existence, especially so in
America, and also in one or two English yards.
White Rocks should correspond in shape and
size with Barred Rocks, and although not so
popular they possess better utility qualities.

" Black Plymouth Rocks are also sports
from the Barred variety. It is seldom that a
cockerel is thus produced, but pullets are very
prevalent in some strains. A few
Black enthusiasts have bred them exclu-

Rocks. sively and produced some hand-

some specimens. They are of the
same shape and size as the Barred, and have a
good lustrous green-black colour with grand
yellow legs and beak ; bright bay eyes, red
face, comb, wattles and earlobes. The con-
trast is certainly very becoming, and, more-
over, the blacks are undoubtedly very good
layers and useful table fowls. They develop
more quickly than any other of the Rock
family, and yet have the smallest number of
followers amongst breeders who breed them
pure, though several breeders mate them up to
their Barred Rock cockerels to improve the
colour of the latter."

There is also a Buff variety of the Plymouth
Rock now widely bred and exhibited, but
which obviously cannot be considered any true
descendant of the original. In the
Buff United .States its chief component

Rocks. has undoubtedly been the Buff

Cochin ; in England some of the
stock has come from America, but more owes
its origin chiefly to the Buff Orpington or
Lincolnshire Buff. There is little doubt that
the one " breed " was in England at first largely
bound up with the other, quite a number of
breeders exhibiting both, and putting a bird
into either class according to the colour of its

BUFF PLYMOUTH ROCKS.

313

shanks. Such a double refuge for produce was
highly convenient in many ways, for the
exhibitor ; but it was not so good for either
variety, in the long run, and there is little doubt
that some of the difficulty about yellow shanks
occurring in Buff Orpingtons, has been due
to the allied Plymouth Rock blood, which
has both given encouragement to yellow, and
sent it back again into the white-legged strain.
The only remedy for this, as already intimated,
is greater insistence upon true type or form,
in both breeds.

The following notes upon breeding Buff
Rocks are also kindly supplied by Mrs. Wilkin-
son, whose successes in this variety have been
well known : —

" A Self-colour is not so complex as a bi- or
tri-colour, and is therefore simpler to describe,
but the production of either black, white, or buff
self fowls is not so easy as the uninitiated would
imagine. In the past there have been many
heated discussions on the correct shade of a
Buff Rock, but at present all is serenely peaceful,
one shade being generally accepted as the ideal.
This shade can best be described by comparing it
to the colour of a new golden sovereign, which it
exactly resembles. Of course a little latitude is
allowed, especially in the stud birds, provided
softness and soundness are retained, — all hard
bricky colours are most undesirable.

" Buff fowls should have one colour and one
only, from head to tail, and from root to tip of
each feather, with not the slightest suspicion of
lacing round the edges of the feathers (generally
found at bottom of breast and wing bars), nor
yet possess any feathers which are ' mealy ' — a
sprinkling of tiny white spots like meal, generally
clustered round the quills on the wing butts, but
occasionally all over the body. These two
defects, along with black or white undercolour,
are infinitely more to be dreaded than a little
black in tail or flights, and should never be
allowed in the breeding stock. White should be
entirely absent from young stock, but as quite
90 per cent of the good youngsters show white
after the first moult, we are obliged to allow a
little after this period, but even then, only a
touch on flights and tail.

" I have described colour first, but I believe
shape ought to have had that position. It has
often been truly said that shape makes the
breed, colour the variety ; and this most par-
ticularly applies to the Plymouth Rock family.
The Buff Rock should have the shape described
above for the Barred variety, and not that
of a moderated Cochin, like many that were
exhibited about 1S95 and i8g6. Short round
heads, huge cushions, and an abundance of

fluff, are not Plymouth Rock properties, and
should be carefully avoided.

" When mating this variety, select birds
which comply as nearly as possible with the
above description. Don't use a bird because of
its surface appearance, but be satisfied that it
is sound to the skin, and that it comes from a
strain which has been carefully bred to type for
years back.

" An article on Buffs, at the present time,
would be incomplete without some reference to
colour feeding, so I will conclude with a few
words on that subject. A few years ago every
prominent breeder of Buffs was under suspicion
for colour feeding ; why, I cannot say, for it has
never, to my knowledge, been proved that it
is possible to improve a Buff in colour by
feeding. It may be possible to make a light
colour darker, but even if so, I feel assured that
the lovely soft tones one has become accustomed
to see, will never be attained by other means
than skilful breeding."

There is nothing to add to these observations,
with those previously made upon breeding Buffs
in general, under the headings of Buff Cochins
and Orpingtons. It may perhaps be remarked
that upon the whole this colour is about as easy
to breed in Rocks as in any variety, the rich
colour desired in the shanks harmonising and
working in well with that sought in the plumage.
For this reason it will be found, comparing two
average classes, that the colour in the Rocks is
as a whole slightly richer and sounder than
in Orpingtons.

All the varieties of Plymouth Rocks have
also been bred in America with pea-combs.
Some of these are probably sports, from the
original Brahma cross which has already been
stated to have existed in the Drake strain ;
others have been avowedly produced by a fresh
cross with the Brahma. The danger of frost-
bite in some parts of the States causes a
preference for the pea-comb in itself, among
some farmers, which does not exist in England ;
but in spite of this such varieties do not appear
to extend much, and in England have never
taken root at all. Partridges have also been
shown, but such attempts to multiply varieties
that can have really nothing in common with a
breed of real character and value, are rather to
be deprecated than encouraged.

Tliere is another Rock, the Rose-comb
Barred, which has been consistently cham-
pioned for several years by Mr. and Mrs. Wm.
Rice, of Rettendon, Essex, who claim that it
is a genuine "sport," a reversion maybe to the
(rose-combed) Dominique, already referred to ;
one of the ancestors of the Rock, and of which

3U

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

a coloured illustration appeared in the tirst
edition of this work. A cockerel secured third
prize in 1908, and a pullet gained second prize
in iqio, in the A.O.V. Class at the Dairy
Show, but the Rock Fancy does not take
kindly, at present, to the sub-variety, while the
Poultry Club has deferred " recognition."

In judging Plymouth Rocks the greatest
needs at the present day are two. The first is a
more definite understanding respecting colour
and marking, concerning which tliere seems a
great want of consent or unanimity amongst
different breeders and judges, arising no
doubt in part from the real difficulty in de-
scribing even any given specimens, to which
we have already referred. Present signs point
rather to the probability of a somewhat nearer
approach yet — already made to some extent —
to the lighter and more sharply
Judging barred American ideal, though

Plymouth Rocks, probably not to the degree seen in
many American cockerels, some
of which are almost black and white, and do
not stand sun or exposure at all well. The
other point needing attention, we must once
more emphasise, is form or type. A Rock not
of a good table form has no justification for
existence ; but we still see many such, with legs
too long, and deficient breast, and narrow
bodies, and fluff showing far too much of the
Cochin ancestry. More consistent judging
would do much to stamp out such faults, and
is especially necessary in cases where, as in the
Self colours, other breeds of similar colour re-
quire to be in some way distinguished.

The Standard of Perfection of the Poultry
Club for Plymouth Rocks is as follows : —

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Skull .- Strong, but not thick. Beak :
Short and stout. Eyes : Large and bright. Comb :
Single, of medium size, straight and erect, with
well - defined serrations, and free from side sprigs.
Face : Smooth. Ear-lobes : Of fine texture, well
developed and pendant. Wattles .- To correspond
with size of comb, and moderately rounded.

Neck. — Of medium length, thick, and profusely
covered with hackle feathers, which should flow
well over the shoulders.

Body. — Large, deep, and compact. Breast : Broad
and well rounded. Back : Broad, of medium length.
Wings : Medium sized, carried we'll up, the bows and
tips covered by the breast feathers and saddle-hackles.

Tail. — Rather small, rising slightly from the
saddle, the sickles and coverts of medium length
and nicely curved, the coverts being sufiiciently
abundant to cover the stiff feathers.

Legs and Feet.— Legs ; Wide apart, stout, and

strong, thighs two to three inches long (from hock
to bod}^), with shanks to correspond. Toes : Four
on each foot, strong, straight, and well spread.

Carriage. — Upright and graceful.

Weight. — 10 lb. to 12 lb.

HEN

The general characteristics of the hen are similar
to those of the cock, allowing for the natural sexual
differences.

Weight.— 8 lb. to 10 lb.

COLOUR
Beak : Bright yellow. Eyes : Clear, rich bay.
Comb, Face, Ear-lobes, and Wattles : Bright red.
Legs and Feet : Bright yellow.

THE BARRED

Plumage. — Blue-white ground, each feather barred
across with bands of black of a beetle-green sheen,
the markings to be moderately narrow and of equal
width, and the colours to be sharply defined and not
shading into each other, the barring to continue
through the shafts of the feathers and into the
fluff and under-colour, and each feather to finish
with a black tip.

THE BLACK

Plumage. — Black, with a beetle-green sheen.

THE BUFF

Plumage. — Clear, sound, even buff throughout to
skin, any shade from lemon to orange, at the one ex-
treme avoiding washiness and at the other a red tinge.

THE WHITE

Plumage. — Pure white ; straw tinge to be avoided.
SCALE OF POINTS

THE BUFF

OTHER VARIETIES

; tail 10, in Barred)

Colour

Type . .

Size . .

Condition

Head

Legs and feet

Colour (includiu!

Type . .

Size . .

Condition

Head

Legs and feet

Serious defects : The slightest fluff or feathers
on the shanks or feet ; shanks other than yellow ;
white ear-lobes ; black, red, or white feathers in
the Barred ; other than black feathers in the Black ;
spotted hackle or saddle, mealiness, any black or
white in the wings or white in the tail of the Buff ;
any coloured feathers in the White.

315

CHAPTER XX.

WYANDOTTES.

IT does not appear possible now to determine
either the precise origin of the Wyandotte,
or the date of its production, respecting
which a great deal has been published that is
self-contradictory and certainly erroneous. We
can only state one fact, but that is from personal
knowledge and recollection. We saw every
issue of all the earlier American poultry journals,
and it was in 1873 that large laced birds were
first mentioned in these, under the name at that
date of Sebright Cochins, and with the general
description that they had been produced by
crossing Cochins with Silver-spangled Ham-
burghs and " other blood." These birds
were figured and described as with smooth
yellow legs and rose-combs, which latter, ac-
cording to illustrations of the time, did not
turn downwards at the back as now, but were
far more Hamburgh in character and some-
what larger, as can be seen in the illustration
we have reproduced a few years later in date
than this, but of these earlier American birds.
The Iticing in this illustration is a great deal
idealised, being much better than anything
really seen at that time, but the Hamburgh
type of comb, as then bred, can be recognised
distinctly. In the main, however, though per-
haps slightly less cobby in shape than the
present birds, there are all the characteristic
features of the Silver-laced Wyandotte, which
was the original type of all the varieties now
known under that name.

As Sebright Cochins, or American Sebrights,
a name which was also given to these birds, they
never became widely popular, and it is somewhat
uncertain whether this original
stock did not die out. The name
was not American or distinctive
enough for popularity, and for
several years it is difficult to trace
any such fowls at all. But about 1880 similar
large laced birds began to be freely written about
again, and it is significant that regarding these,
there was always an impression, and there were
many actual statements, that the Light Brahma
had been the Asiatic race employed. They
were now also termed Wyandottes, and the

History

of
Wyandottes,

comb, while still rose in character, had assumed
that downward curve at the back and of the
spike, parallel with the top of the head, which is
now a recognised Wyandotte point. This kind
of comb would probably result from a Brahma
cross ; and upon the whole the evidence, though
not conclusive, tends to show that some time
before 1880 the Wyandotte had not only been
re-named, but actually re-made, upon a Light
Brahma and Hamburgh foundation, with possible
aid from Polish stock, as " crested " birds are
mentioned in one account we have seen. The

Early American Wyandottes.

first importation we were able to trace into
England, was one by Mr. J. Pilling, of Ashton,
near Chester ; and the first English-bred speci-
mens to be exhibited were, we believe, shown by
Mr. T. C. Heath, at the Staffordshire show of
1884. The history of the breed in England,
therefore, only dates from that time ; and the
progress made since, both in popularity and
multiplication of varieties, is remarkable.

This is not without solid reason, for the
Wyandotte is an undeniably valuable and
generally useful fowl. It is a capital layer of
tinted eggs, when bred with any reasonable
care to maintain that property ; is very hardy
and easy to rear, feathering well and easily in

3i6

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

chickenhoud ; is a capital sitter and mother,
though not excessively broody ; and is a very
fairly good table-fowl. In this last respect it
cannot .stand so high in England
Qualities as in i^merica, where they prefer

and that yellow skin and shank which

Characteristics, j^ England are rather disliked ;
but even in England it is begin-
ning to be understood that a yellow-skinned bird
may be excellent eating, and is sometimes more
juicy than a white-skinned. It is a bird with
capital breast and wings, at all events ; and at
the Smithfield show of table poultry in 1894,
where all other breeds besides Dorkings and
Surreys and Games had to compete in one class,
the winning pullets were Wyandottes. In
regard to laying qualities, it may be noted that
in America, where fowls have been more per-
sistently bred for laying than anywhere in the
world, the White Wyandotte has slightly ex-
ceeded the average of any other breed, so far as
we have been able to ascertain.*

Apart from the plumage which distinguishes
each of the varieties, the general characteristics
of the Wyandotte are few, marked, and easily
described. The head should be short and rather
broad, the Brahma ancestry being here clearly
traceable. The rose comb is smaller and
narrower than a Hamburgh comb, and the back
and spike or leader should curve rather down-
wards, parallel with the top of the head ; this
comb is typical of the breed, and should be pre-
served, otherwise it should be neat and full of
" work " as usual in rose-combs. The face,
ear-lobes, and wattles are smooth and fine, and
brilliant red. The neck-hackle of the cock
should be full and flowing, the back short, the
saddle rising to the tail in a nice curve, the
tail well filled up and sweeping, but rather
upright. The body is very full and broad in
breast, and deep, but not very long ; rather what
the Americans call "cobby'' shape. Thiscobbi-
ness, on medium or rather short shanks, is the
characteristic type of the Wyandotte.

The recognised head and original of the
Wyandotte family is the Silver or Silver Laced.
In this variety, the head of the male is silvery
white, the hackles lower down becoming striped
with dense black, as also are the saddle hackles.
The back is silvery white, as are the wing-
bows ; the principal wing-coverts white, broadly
laced with black, forming good laced bars
across the wing ; the secondaries are black on

* It is impossible to be certain, with fresh egg-scores issued
every month in various papers. But at the date these lines are
wriaen, of such as came under our notice, the highest single
score, and the highest general average, were conceded to the
White Wyandotte in the States and this country ; but in Australia
to the White Leghorn.

the inner web, and white with a broad black
lacing on the outer web, edging each visible
feather with black. The breast and under parts
are white laced with black, from
Silver throat round to back of thighs, the

Wyandottes. under-fluff slate or dark grey ; the
tail black with green reflections.
The female has also a white head and striped
hackle, and black tail, and secondaries of the
wing as in the cock ; the rest of the body white,
with each feather laced round with black, the
tail-coverts approaching that character as far as
possible, or with a white centre to the feathers.
Regularity and rich density in the black lacing
is the main point in the value of the marking.

For the following notes upon breeding and
exhibiting, not only Silver Wyandottes, but
their allied varieties, of Golden and Buff-
Laced, we are indebted to the late Rev. John
Crombleholme, of St. Mary's, Clayton-le-
Moors, Accrington, who was recognised as one
of the highest authorities regarding them in
this country, and also as one of the most suc-
cessful breeders : —

" Without entering into the origin or history
of the Wyandotte, of which there is little to
record, I will merely discuss here the points, the
breeding, and the exhibition of our most popular
fowl ; and it may be well in the first place to
refer to the general characteristics which apply
to all the varieties and distinguish them from
any other breed, and by which we recognise
them as pure-bred Wyandottes. Here shape
should have precedence, and we must combat an
impression which the Americans seem to have,
that we are not at one with them in this essen-
tial. The recently revised Standard issued by
the Poultry Club and endorsed by our special
Club, does however describe the breast as full
and round, the back broad and short, the neck
well arched and of medium length, the tail well
developed and carried rather upright. Here wc
have a general outline of the body which is
suggestive of a cobby or blocky bird, especially
when we add that the legs should match the
tout ensemble and only be of medium length.
Our ideas of a standard bird cannot therefore
differ to more than a degree or two from those
of the originators ; and any dift'erences in practice,
or in the pens, can only arise from our tem-
porarily fastening attention chiefly upon the more
difficult points of colour and lacing, which as
regards all varieties, is the English habit in
breeding. There have been and are many birds
shown, whose outline is far from coinciding with
the Standard, and some of these have won at our
best shows ; but it is only fair to record that they
have been beautifully laced. No doubt in the

-'^./^•'j

SILVER LACED WYANDOTTES.

317

race for perfection of markings, and for the
more modern fashion of open centres, shape has
not always been sufficiently considered by some
breeders, who find that their customers insist
upon clear and open lacing as a jirst considera-
tion in all purchases. But calling to memory
the great winners of a few years ago, there is
little room in their case for complaint as to their
shape. Those who saw the winning Silver
cockerel at the Dairy in 1897, and the unstinted
admiration accorded to him, will remember that
he was not perfectly marked, his hackle running
rather dark, and his breast showing faint signs
of splashing at the base ; but he had a beautiful
outline, and was an immense blocky cockerel,
rather on the dark side, with massive frame,
thick legs, and green-black sheeny lacing. £10
was offered and refused for him, and I myself
heard an interested American remark : ' My !
isn't he a Jimmy Dandy .'' ' The same may be
said of the winning Silver cockerels at the
Dairy and Palace shows of 1S98, and in a still
greater degree of the two magnificent Gold
cockerels that won first and second at the same
two shows in 1899; the sensation they caused
still pulsates in the fancy. There might also be
cited the White Challenge Cup cock of 1899,
and the White and Buff winners at the Dairy in
1900. Whilst these may seem ancient history,
they are yet winners that most fanciers of the
breed have seen, of which no one can dispute
the standard shape and excellence ; and we may
not judge the progress of a breed by the common
run, but by the best specimens.

" So far then as either ideal, or as the best
actual birds go, shape is not different with us ;
but amongst the rank and file of the classes there
may be some justification for the complaint, and
it should be heeded. There are two causes
which partially account for narrow long backs
and undeveloped breasts. One is an excess of
in-breeding ; the other, mating together stock
which is too young. The best breeders are now
aware of the effects of this, and are more careful
in their matings.

" Passing now to the divisions of the Wyan-
dotte, and beginning with the Silver Laced, let us
clearly understand what is meant by its distin-
guishing attribute, the silver-laced feather. Such
feathers we find on the breast, fluff, and thighs
of the cock, and on the body of the hen. We
may define it as a white feather edged round
with black ; the centre should be pure white, and
not a creamy tint, and the edging quite black in
a true light, side-light often showing up the
black with a lustre of beetle-green. This adds
to the quality ; but if the black shows a tendency
to grey, it is deemed a fault in proportion as the

green sheen is looked upon as an acquisition.
The laced feather should be broad, but the lacing
itself narrow ; the broader the feather and the
narrower the lacing, providing the combination
possesses the distinct black and white, the
better. Naturally the feathers at the shoulders
and at the base of the hackle in pullets are
narrower than the cushion and breast feathers,
and it is quite impossible to obtain a bird in
which the lacings are put on equidistantly all
through ; yet the nearer we can get to the ideal
of equal and level lacing, the better.

" There are various kinds of faulty laced
feathers to be found ; and as it frequently helps
the imagination, and impresses the true ideal
feather more vividly on the mind to study the
matter in that way, let us see what these faults
are.

" I. The double-laced feather. — This is a
feather with a frosted edging, or an outside
fringe of white bordering the black (Fig. 100*).
The black lacing should be clean cut, and show
no white on the border. It is not often that we
find the double-laced feather on the back or
wings of the female, but it is frequently seen on
the breast, and more especially at the throat.
This fault is very difficult to eradicate. Cocks in
many cases exhibit the same weakness, but not
generally in so marked a degree as the females.

'■ 2. The spangled or horse-shoe feather is a
worse fault than the double-laced feather. The
term means that the lacing does not run round
all the feather, but only partly round it in the
form of a crescent (Fig. loi). Breeding from
light-coloured stock is chiefly to blame for this
defect. Again, it is at the throat, and on the
breast of the hen, that we most frequently
discover this weakness.

" 3. The almond feather versus the rounded
feather. A difference of opinion did exist at
one time as to whether the almond-shaped
feather, such as we admire and breed for in
Sebrights (Fig. 102), or the round and broad
feather (Fig. 103), is the handsomer on a Wyan-
dotte. It is true that the best black and white
Wyandotte perhaps ever shown, possessed the
almond-shaped feather, but then the centres
were narrow, and a preponderance of black lac-
ings seemed rather to overbalance the correct
juxtaposition of the two colours. Hence the
term ' heavy-laced.' Little by little public taste
has come round to the broad feather, with large
white centre, rounded extremity, and narrow
lacing. If the broad-feathered specimen were
placed side by side with an almond-shaped one,
and each perfect in its respective class, nine out
of every ten fanciers would see more beauty in

* These figures will be found on a separate plate.

3i«

THE BOOK OF POULTRY

the former. Unfortunately a great difficulty pre-
sents itself in breeding good open-centred laced
Wyandottes, for in the endeavour to increase
the volume of white, not only have the black
lacings narrowed (which is desirable), but they
have lost considerably in intensity of black, and
we seldom find an open-centred bird whose
lacings are not inclined to grey.

" 4. The mossy feather is the bite noire of all
silver and gold laced Wyandotte pullet breeders.
Instead of the feather having a clear white
centre, it is peppered with black or grey ticks
(Fig. 104), destroying entirely the essential re-
quisite of a true lacing. The mossy feather is
eternally appearing even when the greatest care
has been taken in mating up, generally on the
back of the female, sometimes under the hackle,
and oftentimes on the wing itself When a
judge sees a collection of such feathers on a hen
or pullet, he wastes no time in searching for
good points, but passes on to the next exhibit ;
so let young fanciers keep such birds at home,
and save both entry fees and railway expenses.

" 5. There is another faulty feather, called
ticked at the base. It may be apparently clear
and well defined at first glance, but if we
examine closely, we find that at the base, or
where the web begins to be separated from the
fluff, the white is disfigured by streaks of black
to a certain extent (Fig. 105), but generally not
more than what we might call a splash. Being
confined to the unseen part of the feather, this is
not a great fault, and should only be taken into
account when separating two good birds for
prizes.

" 6. Sometimes the definition of the black
edging is faulty. Instead of a clean inside edg-
ing we see a zig-zag line of black as in Fig. 106,
or streaked as in Fig. 107. This failing is mostly
noticeable on the breasts of cocks, especially on
the lower parts.

" All that has been said of the faults of the
laced feather on hens, is equally applicable to
the laced feathers on cocks. But there is another
point to breed for in the male bird, and that is,
top-colour. All who have seen a laced Wyan-
dotte cock will have observed that the top-colour
is totally different from that of the hen, both as
regards shape of feather and style of lacing.
The cock with a perfect top has his neck and
saddle hackle of a silvery white colour, and
down the centre of each feather there should be
a narrow, sharply defined black stripe (Fig. 108).
Faulty tops may be threefold.

" I. The sooty top, in which the black stripe
is generally to be seen, but the silvery edge of
the web is replaced by a greyish black, which
is termed sooty. The general effect of this loss

of pure silver colour is well described by the
term applied, or by the word ' rusty ' or
' smoky.'

"2. The brassy top. — Birds with this draw-
back have their neck and saddle hackle spoilt
by a tanned appearance, as though they had
been running out for some time in the sun.
It is not caused by the sun generally, but bred
in them. The same fault is peculiar to all
cocks with a light or white top-colour, such as
white Leghorns, silver-grey Dorkings, etc.

" 3. The plain top.-:— That is, a pure silver
top-colour without any stripe along the centre
of the feather.

" A cock's breast should be evenly laced
from the throat to the base of the breast, and
also on the thighs, and even into the fluff. Some
cocks are what is called ' blind ' at the throat,
that is, the feathers are almost entirely black, or
perhaps with a faint centre of white ; lower down
towards the middle of the breast the feathers
open out in better style, and finish off too open ;
in other words the lacing ' runs out' This is a
bad and faulty breast, and to breed for cockerels
from such a male bird is very unadvisable.
Everybody knows that white in tail or white
in ear-lobe cannot be admitted. The wing-bar
feathers should be laced distinctly all round,
and as evenly as possible, just as the other
laced feathers on the Wyandotte are. They too
can have the faults of being mossy, splashed,
and horse-shoed.

" How to mate up to breed exhibition or
standard birds is a question not yet solved in its
entirety ; but certain fixed principles guide all
the better breeders in their choice of
Breeding mates. The object of the fancier is

Laced to get chickens that will score the

Wyandottes. highest possible number of points in
the show-pen. Experience has
taught that whilst it is possible to obtain
good cockerels and good pullets from the same
pen, it is far easier and much surer to breed
from two pens, one mated up to produce
standard males, the other to produce standard
females. This is the principle of the double-
mating system. Much has been written
against the double system, but nothing from the
pen of any well-known successful Wyandotte
breeder. In my own yards I once had a strain
(Wood's) that bred both good pullets and well-
laced cockerels from the same pen, but the cocks
were inclined to be brassy-topped, although the
pullets that were produced from the same mating
never showed the least sign of soot or brassiness
in their hackles. These brassy and sooty-topped
cockerels I mated again to the whitest pullets,
and similar results followed : namely, clear, well

BREEDING LACED WYANDOTTES.

3 '9

laced pullets, and faulty-topped cockerels. In
fact, one of the best Silver pullets ever shown
was bred from a cock very bad in top-colour.
From this experience I deduced that top-colour
in cocks does not affect the sound lacing in
pullets bred from them, and in choosing my
pullet-breeding cocks, I never regard the top
colour now.

" Another important item needs to be noted,
namely, that pullets bred from a standard-
breasted cock often run light at the throat. It
will be found that the best breasted cockerels
often have their own sisters with light breasts.
An observant breeder, then, will not choose
perfect-breasted hens to put in his cock-breeding
pen, but those that are inclined to run light, and
mate them to a perfect breast-laced cock on the
dark side. It was this mating that produced my
1897 champion silver cockerel.

" But the chief point to regard, or rather to
disregard, in cock breeding, is the cushion
of the hen. This may be as mossy as a
pepper-castor, and yot the bird be a splendid
cock-breeder. In other words, the feathers on
the back of the female have no influence on the
progeny of cockerels in the saddle hackle ; they
influence top colour in no sense whatever. This
should be apparent. The feather on the hen is
laced on the back ; the feather on the saddle of
a cock is purely distinctive of the male, and finds
no counterpart on the cushion of the female.
Practice bears out the theory, and in breeding
for cocks, mossiness in the hens mated up never
troubles me, nor do I find the top-colour in the
young cockerels bred from such is discoloured
because of the faulty cushion. Cocks bad in top-
colour are the outcome of sooty, brassy, or smoky
neck hackles of the female, together with the
already faulty saddle of the sire.

" To breed good cockerels, I therefore choose
(i) A standard cock of the heavy laced stamp.
(2) He must be free from white in tail. (3) A hen
with a well-laced breast on the light side, per-
fect wings, with a good black tail. But (4) do
not regard mossiness on cushion ; in fact, she is
better for being dark near tail. (5) Comb, legs,
shape, to be standard quality in each. Thus
many a champion show cock has been bred from
birds, none of which would gain a first prize in a
second-rate show.

" Pullet-breeding is a question I should prefer
to have been treated by an abler pen than mine.
That the art is not theoretically or surely dis-
covered, is apparent from the fact that nearly
every year the best pullets come from different
yards, and from those, too, whose record for first-
class birds has not been eminent. Breeding
is a trifle flukey with most breeds, but that of

Silver-laced pullets is uncommonly so. With a
certain amount of diffidence, then, I simply offer
the fruits of my own experience. It was just now
remarked that standard-breasted cocks mated
with standard-breasted hens are inclined to throw
light-breasted pullets, and I wish now to empha-
sise that remark. In choosing a pullet-breeding
cock I always select a dark-breasted cock, and
that from a pullet-breeding strain. It is no use
buying a cock for breeding pullets from a strain
that has been used for years in producing ex-
hibition cocks only, because the females in such
a yard will most probably never have seen a
show pen. Again, breeders always try to obtain
the clean lacing of show pullets right into the
tail. To produce such we must not regard too
closely the exhibition points of the sire, and I
would have no scruple in using a cock that had
white in tail, and for choice would prefer one,
especially if there were under the cock's saddle a
number of clear laced pullet-feathers running
into the white in tail. But whilst unorthodox
in these points, I like to be very particular as
to fluff. A dark fluff is always correct, both
for show and breeding purposes. A light fluff
and peppery thighs largely account for double
lacing, horse-shoe lacing, dulness in black, and
other evils amongst the progeny.

" There is only one thing to be considered in
the female we breed from to produce pullets.
That is, to get as perfect a show bird as you can.

" Two practical hints may be added. Don't
cross strains too much, unless you find that
through continual in-breeding you are getting
weak, and require more stamina in your stock.
Then introduce new blood in the female line.
And always have a few old birds in the breeding-
pen. Young stuff breed bad feathers, lanky
chickens, and narrow, long backs."*

American practice among some breeders is
changing rather in the direction of more pre-
ference for single mating ; and some of them
differ a little from the above in one or two de-
tails. In many American cocks, the wing-
coverts or bar-feathers, instead of being laced
entirely round, with the open centres, resem-
bling other laced feathers but somewhat heavily
laced, are black over the upper half of the
feather, and only open in the centre on the
lower half. The effect on the surface-pattern or
" bars " is the same ; but such an extra portion
of black on the part of the feather which is
overlapped, must somewhat alter the balance of
colour in breeding. It may be partly owing to
this fact, that many American breeders find it

* Capital object-lessons in what is required for cockerel and
pullet-breeding pens of Laced Wvandottes will be found in two
coloured plates published by The Fcalliered World, London, in
November igoS and 1909.

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

distinctly better to use every now and then a
bird with light instead of dark under-colour or
fluff, and we believe the same has occasionally
been done in England also, with advantage in
clearing the centres. In all such cases, par-
ticular care is taken to have the lacing itself
rich and black ; when that is secured, we are
given to understand that a cross with such light
fluff has several times been known to have
evident result in clearing out mossy feather.

Another point relates to the hackles and
saddle-feathers of the cocks. Many American
breeders have come to the conclusion that the
laced character of Wyandotte plumage should
(in due measure) extend to these male feathers
also, consequently in the latest standard it is
stated that the shaft of the feather " is white,"
so as to permit of the breeding of more open-
laced birds (Fig. lo8); and in the broad part
of the saddle-feathers they seek for what they
call a tapering " diamond," or open centre of a
diamond shape (Fig. 109), which in a photo-
graph we reproduce measured about three-
quarters of an inch long by a third of an
inch wide. This is probably the American
method of defining what our English contri-
butor has described above as " clear laced
pullet-feathers " under the cock's saddle in
a pullet-breeder, and so far the two rules
would run on parallel lines. The only real
difi:erence — if, indeed, it be any difference — is
that American breeders define the marking as
just stated, and systematically select stock
possessing it ; and give as their experience that,
by breeding from standard cocks with these
hackles and saddle-feathers, and a little judg-
ment as to balance in lacings generally, they
can breed both sexes good from a single pen.

The Golden Wyandotte was at least several
years later in date than the Silver, but all we
are now able to ascertain is that Golds were
written about as " new " in the
Golden American journals of 1885, and

Wyandottes. that in the winter of 1888 ]\Ir. Sid
Conger came unmistakably to the
front with them, and that after this date they
were largely bred by crossing his Gold cocks
upon the Silver hens of other breeders. The
first imported into England were sent to Mr.
A. W. Geffcken, and others soon followed,
those early importations being considered fully
equal, if not superior, to the then average of
Silvers in Wyandotte type, and especially in
comb. But there is not the least doubt that both
comb and general type, subsequently to that,
suffered considerably in this country from cross-
ing with Indian Game, of which the signs were

at one time very evident in many exhibits. Some
used this cross for enriching the ground-colour,
which became too dark in consequence ; others,
we believe, resorted to it with the idea of getting
depth of colour in the lacing. At all events, we
have seen many pullets which, in their sloping
backs, narrowness at stern, and narrowness and
hardness of feather, betrayed the cross most
unmistakably; and in pullets as late as 1899
we actually found double lacing — not that
above described, of a light edge outside the
black line, but the double black lacing seen in
many Indian Game pullets. We knew one
breeder, in fact, who bred and exhibited pullets
from a cross of Indian Game upon Silver
Wyandottes. The faults thus introduced,
however, have now practically disappeared.

On the Golden Wyandotte Mr. Cromble-
holme wrote as follows : —

" The only point in which these differ from
the Silver is that of colour. For faults and
good points in the lacing, reference may be
made to v.hat has been said above on the laced
feather of the Silver Wyandotte, and it is only
necessary here to treat of colour. Those who
have drawn up the standard are responsible for
the description of the ground-colour as rich
golden bay. I am glad to see the word
' golden ' in addition to the ' rich bay,' and also
the reference to ' brightness ' of colour ; for the
term ' rich bay ' has for a long time been mis-
interpreted for a dark shade of bay, too dark
to please the eye. In The Wyandotte Annual
for 1S98 I called attention to this fact, notic-
ing that the dark heavy-breasted winner seemed
to be falling into disfavour with many, for a
bird of a brighter and more real golden colour.
This move of popular taste is in the right
direction ; for the laced WVandotte being a
fowl whose beauty lies in symmetry of mark-
ings and contrast of colour, the effect is
destro_\'ed when the background is so dark and
sombre that the lacings are rendered compara-
tively undiscernible. Judging such birds is
quite a task, comparable to assorting flowers
by star-light. The brighter shade alluded to
does not, of course, include the clay-coloured
breasts sometimes seen, nor top-colour in the
cocks like lacquered brass, any more than the
deep gold means red or maroon colour.

" I used to like to see the deep rich gold on
the back of a cock, and do so yet in breeders,
for in the breeding yard it is better to have too
much colouring pigment than too little, the
tendency in breeding being rather to lose colour
than to gain. But, in show birds, I have come
to the opinion that the ' bright ' gold cock is the
one that catches the judge's eye, and is also the

BUFF LACED AND VIOLETTES.

choicer sample from the artistic point of view.
Let it be understood that this refers to colour
taken by itself, and other things being equal ;
and it is not to be supposed that a bright bird
with faulty lacing is to be preferred to a dark
well-laced one. Colour is only one of the points,
and the judge who goes for one point to the
exclusion of others of equal importance, is termed
a faddist.

"In mating up the breeding pen, all the
remarks made above on the Silvers in regard to
lacing, should be followed in the Golds. As to
colour, there is however a little difference. White
is white always, and we cannot choose degrees in
it for breeding; but in breeding Golds, it is
better to err a little on the dark side. I have
always noticed that pullets are inclined to be
lighter in ground colour than their parents; so
in the pullet-breeding pen one should go for
plenty of ground-colour. The cockerels, on the
other hand, come better and brighter from
parents of the correct standard shade."

From the same fountain-head of the original

Black-Laced Wyandottes, have proceeded yet two

other varieties of singular beauty, known as Buff

Laced and Blue Laced, or Violettes,

Buff Laced which are closely allied, and in the

and main of the same parentage. The

Bine Laced. y^fl- Laced resembles in colour the

variety formerly known as Chamois

Polish, the ground-colour being some shade of

rich buff, laced with white instead of black ;

the Blue! Laced has a similar ground-colour, with

a lacing of blue-dun or Andalusian colour.

Both these varieties originated in America,
Mr. Ira C. Keller appearing to have been first in
the field. He commenced in i8S6 to cross
Golden Wyandottes with Whites, producing
birds whose lacing was violet-blue ; these violet-
laced birds threw a certain number with white
lacing, and from these were derived his Buff
Laced breed, first shown at New York in
1895, and some of which were sent over to
the Rev. John Crombleholme, in 1897. Mr.
Keller aimed at a golden or golden-buff ground-
colour.

Quite another strain was originated by Mr.
Brackenbury, from entirely different materials.
He mated a Golden cock with a hen of solid
blue or Andalusian colour, produced from two
generations of Golds on the male side, and of
blue on the female side. She produced a pair of
Golds with blue lacing, of which the female died,
and the male was bred to Golden females, pro-
ducing again blue-laced Golds. Meantime Mr.
Brackenbury had got from a cockerel bred from
Golden Wyandotte and Buff Cochin, and pullets

bred from White Wyandotte and Buff Cochins,
a " sport " with Buff Laced plumage ; and this
bird was mated with some of the blue-laced
females above mentioned. The cockerels from
this mating all came black-laced ; the pullets
partly blue-laced and partly white-laced. One
of the best bluc-\z.cQdi. pullets was mated to a
blue-laced male, and three-quarters of her
chickens came creamy white with buff heads,
and ultimately moulted out Buff Laced. The
same bright-blue-laced pullet was afterwards
bred to a Buff Laced (i.e. a white-laced) bird, and
all of her pullets and three-fourths of the
cockerels came white in the lacing, or of the
Buff Laced variety.

Other American breeders, like Mr. Charles
Pond, have also originated Buff Laced Wyan-
dottes by crossing Golden with White, Violettes
always appearing in the process. Probably from
these crosses of unallied blood, all breeders,
without exception, have reported them as re-
markable for hardiness and great laying powers,
ranking with the Whites in that respect.

The Rev. J. Crombleholme's notes on these
varieties were as follows; —

" Opinions differ, but in mine the Buff Laced
Wyandotte is the prettiest of all the varieties.
What should be the colour and what should be
the markings of a Buff Lace .•' For a perfect
hen, imagine a real rich buff with every feather
laced all round with pure white lacings; and a
perfectly coloured buft' cock, with white lacings
and stripes, would be a standard Buff Laced cock.
Or put it another way, comparing the Buff
Laces and Golds. Wherever the Gold is bay,
the Buff Laced is buff, and wherever the Gold
has black lacing, or striping, or fluff, the Buff
Lace is, or should be, white. You simply substi-
tute buff for bay, and white for black.

"In breeding Buff Laces, the great difficulty is
to steer clear of the blue and black feathers, which
continually appear where the feather should be
pure white. They were probably made originally
from Golds and Whites crossed. Whilst
judging a show in Holland, I came across a
cockerel and a pullet which the owner declaied
to be a cross between a Gold and a White. They
were very fair specimens of Buff Laces, without
a trace of black about them, but I fear if the
owner breeds again from these birds the old Gold
blood will reassert itself, and many blue and
black feathers will be found in hackle and tail.
I know some English breeders also who have
made this cross, with a certain amount of success,
but Buff Laces require time and skill to breed.
One thing is certain, that in their composition
no alien blood has been introduced. They are
Wyandottes, made from Wyandottes. We never

3"

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

find single combs in the chickens, nor do we
ever hatch chicks with feathered legs. Much
advance has already been made in their breeding,
and although as yet not the fowl for the million,
some of the very best breeders have been work-
ing at them. Probably we have almost bid adieu
to the black-tailed cocks which have been seen,
and which looked so extremely mongrelised in
the show pen, that if it had not been for the
graceful beauty of the female, I do not think
they ever would have ' taken.' She was always
attractive, and far ahead of the male bird from
the beginning. But even the hen was at first too
red in ground-colour, and showed a dirty blue-
black hackle. The new century has inaugurated
better quality ; the red is changing to buff, and
the nondescript blue-black dirty hackle to one
composed of a clean blend of buff and white.

" Little can be added in regard to the breed-
ing of lacing in these birds, for the theory was
exhausted on the subject of Silvers, and the
colour directions closely follow in principle those
on Golds. Just as the breeder would disqualify
from the breeding pen any white feathers in
Golds, so he must be as severe in discountenanc-
ing black feathers in Buff Laces.

" Some writers have quarrelled with the
nomenclature and the name of Buff Laced ; they
say a buff-laced fowl is a fowl with buff lacing,
whereas the one in question is a white-laced
buff. Can anyone point out, however, a fowl
whose name conveys an accurate description of
its marking } If there is any attempt at descrip-
tion, we invariably find that the first word of the
compound designates the ground-colour, the
second its qualification. For example, silver-
spangled Hamburg, silver ground-colour, with
spangling ; and so also the gold - spangled
Hamburg, silver-pencilled Hamburg, silver-laced
Wyandotte, gold-laced Wyandotte, and logically
the buff-laced Wyandotte. In no case is the
colour of the spangle, pencil, or lacing, expressed.
Why therefore should we be compelled to de-
scribe our Buff Laces in any other way ? It is a
euphonious name, a pretty name for a pretty fowl.

" Breeders must face the difficulty of getting
the pure white lacing round the buff feather. It
will be a most arduous task, and will 1 doubt not
cause as much trouble as the mossy feather in
Silvers and Golds. Whilst in the incipient stages,
when dark hackles in pullets were tolerated, the
white lacing was fairly distinct ; but now that
we insist upon a true buff ground-colour, and
true hackles, the lacing has appeared to be less
distinct. Perfection cannot be attained at a leap,
and there is little doubt that in time we shall
get what we are trying for — a true buff feather
with a pure white lacing.

" About the same time that Buff Laces were
introduced, there appeared the Violettes. They
may be described as a Buff Wyandotte with an
Andalusian blue lacing, or as the same as the Gold
Wyandottes, but substituting the blue lacing and
fluff for the black. I consider them to be
sports from the Buff Lace, or perhaps they
appeared in the breeder's yard who was trying
to make the Buff Lace from a Gold cross. This
surmise seems the more probable from the fact
that the American breeder who was responsible
for the introduction of Violettes and Buff Laces
was also noted for his Golden Wyandottes, and I
believe kept no others. It was from this breeder
that I first purchased my own Buff Laces, and
they repeatedly threw Violettes amongst their
progeny, till I got rid of the strain altogether,
and started afresh after my own ideas of produc-
ing a good Buff Lace. The original American
Buff Laces I gave to a farmer, and he has bred
from them some Violette pullets as well laced as
any I have seen in the show pen. So much for
the relationship of the two varieties. The
Violette is a nice Wyandotte, but to my fancy
is not ' distinct ' enough, as florists say of flowers,
to become very popular or to catch the eye.''

Blue-laced Wyandottes are now recognised
in the Standard. In breeding them, it will clear
up some of the points mentioned in the above,
to recognise fully and clearly the relationslup of
the blue lacing. As already stated in Chapter
XIX., whenever we cross black or very dark
plumage with white, we always get a certain
proportion of blue, either of one shade, or in the
form of cuckoo barring, along with a certain pro-
portion of the original white or black. Where
the black is mixed with colour, as in a Golden
laced fowl, or a black-breasted Red, the oj^posites
appear to contend with each other specially,
leaving the coloured part of the feather more or
less unaffected ; so that we get a Pile in Game,
or a white-laced bird instead of a black-laced
one. Thus the blue lacing simply means that
we have in it a bird with the black and white
tendencies mingled, or balanced. In this way
the blue marking is often most plastic in a
breeder's hands, as shown in the brief account
of Mr. Brackenbury's proceedings given above.
It is always half way to iv/iite, and if this be re-
membered, the course will often be clear, and it
may be most valuable material.

The greatest difficulty in breeding both these
varieties arises from the combination of buff with
white in the feather. We have seen already, in
one buff breed after another, how all experience
has taught Buff breeders to avoid any trace of
white in the feather. The only way to meet the
difficulty appears to be the selection of the most

WHITE WYANDOTTES

•323

solid and rich buff possible, or else a rich gold
or bay. The most beautiful Chamois Polish
we ever saw were a deep rich gold, of a shade
which not only increased the beauty of the
lacing, but would probably be easier to breed
free from blurred lacing or from " meal."

Of the White Wyandotte, the last really
pure or uncrossed descendant of the original
Wyandotte race — for it was undoubtedly a
sport from the Silver — the Rev. J. Cromble-
holme wrote as follows : —

" If I desired to keep Wyandottcs for utility
purposes only, I should select the White. The
White, as a rule, is tiie plumpest Wyandotte
grown, for, as there are no mark-
White ings to breed for, but purity of
Wyandottes. white Only, one need not fear to
regularly introduce new blood in
the yard. As a consequence, the enervation of
constitution that follows too much in-breeding
does not exist, and strong progeny is ensured.
Another consequence of this freedom of choice
is that the Whites are the best layers. Sweep-
ing assertions of this nature are, perhaps, open
to contradiction ; at all events, my own best-
shaped Wyandottes are the Whites ; they are
also my best layers, and produce the most
fertile eggs.

" In breeding Whites we must insist on
purity of colour. It is no use trying to get
good chickens from sappy parents. There is
something in a ' sappy ' feather which no one
that I know of has been able to diagnose, and
which is always perpetuated in young stock.
Anyone, then, anxious to breed exhibition
chickens must insist on a true white colour in
the parents. No matter how big or how fine
a cock or hen looks, if they are yellowish or
discoloured, keep them out of the breeding pen.
When I first began breeding White Wyandottes
I wrote to a noted breeder of White Leghorns,
and asked him how he managed to show such
extremely white birds, hinting that if there was
anything in it he might let me know. His
answer was, that his was a white strain. I
took it then that he did not wish to tell me his
secrets, and let the matter drop ; but now, after
eight years of breeding, I have come to the
conclusion that this White breeder was not
joking, but telling a straightforward tale."

As supplementing these remarks, we quote a
description of " Standard Requirements "* in
W'hite Wyandottes from the pen of the Club's
Hon. Secretary, Mr. J. Stephen Hicks: —

" I^tilitarians should remember that a per-
fect shaped bird, according to the standard, is

* The Feathered World, No. 1119.

necessarily a useful type, because good shape
indicates good table properties, and, in this
particular case, also winter-laying qualities.

"Taking a cockerel first, and beginning
with his head, the beak is bright yellow, the
colour of the comb, face, wattles, and lobes
bright red, showing no traces of white ; the
comb itself is of course rose, or double, having
a fairly long and tapering spike or leader,
which must follow the curve of the head and
neck. What is termed the ' work ' in the comb
is really short, fine sprigs or spikes, which
should be regular and not coarse. The whole
appearance of the comb must be neat and sym-
metrical, broadest at the front or base, and
gradually narrowing. A plain, neat comb is
preferable to an overweening, lop-sided affair
full of coarse ' work.'

"The neck hackles should be flowing and
fairly full, without being twisted or bunched ;
the shoulders are required broad and level ;
the wings straight and carried at a medium
height when folded to the body ; the whole
back outline should be one graceful, regular
curve, resembling the letter U with its sides
pulled outwards. The tail itself is very im-
portant ; it must be full and well spread, but
carried by no means high, and should help to
give a cobbiness so desirable to the general
impression of a white Wyandotte male. The
tail should not protrude much beyond the
body, and, indeed, if the true tail feathers
and the fluff about the stern almost form the
same line, the effect v/ill not be far wrong. The
body itself must be deep and broad, and if
that extremely difficult point, a full ' front,' or
deep, rounded breast be obtained, so much the
better. Many otherwise shapely males fall
away in the chest, leaving a hollow when
viewed sideways. The thighs should be of
medium length, and be strong and thick, giv-
ing an impression of good size without a trace
of lankiness, gawkiness, or the other extreme
of dumpiness.

" Shanks and feet are required to be stout,
with well-spread toes, and of as bright a yellow
colour as possible, without a red tinge or any
signs of feathering. A good cockerel will
have them set well apart, as this is a sure sign
of vitality.

" Purity of colour is of course required in
both sexes, but there is so much that might be
written on the subject that I will content my-
self by saying that the whiter a bird is the
better, and so much the more valuable for
breeding purposes.

" The texture of the feathers is neither very
hard nor very soft — something a good deal

324

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

looser than that of a Game bird, but not going
to the fluffiness of a Cochin.

" So much for the male bird. Regarding
hens or pullets, there are of course many fea-
tures, such as comb, legs, colour, etc., which,
allowing for the differences of sex, are just the
same as in the cocks. Shape is perhaps the
only thing that requires an additional word or
two of explanation. There should be no
straight lines in the outline of a good pullet ;
she should be, as I once heard a Yankee fancier
say, ' A succession of curves.' Faults to be
especially guarded against in the shape of
females are hollow backs, squirrel or too long
tails, lack of depth, and harshness of general
outline.

" From the spot where the neck hackles meet
the shoulders to the tip of the tail there should
be one gradual, gentle slope upwards, and the
tail itself should just protrude, short and
wedge-shaped, from the cushion feathers. The
cushion itself need be only just perceptible, not
by any means like that of a black Orpington ;
but still, if it be there, it lends an added effect
to a pullet's appearance.

" Be careful not to breed from single-
combed birds, weak-kneed or narrow-chested
males, green-legged ones, or even those that
have many green flecks on their shanks. Select
a male always that is as near perfection as you
can obtain, but search him well for his faults
(and mind, these exist in every bird). When
mating him, take care that his wives do not
possess the same faults, for, believe me, the
bad points will perpetuate themselves without
any trouble ; but this is not always the case,
alas ! with the good points.

" Finally, though double mating is abso-
lutely unnecessary with white Wyandottes, and
once you have a reliable strain good birds will
crop up not infrequently, please do not imagine
the variety is as easy to breed to perfection as
shelling peas. Such is not the case, and there
is plenty of scope yet for new breeders."

Next to the White, among the self-coloured
members of the Wyandotte family, the Black
is the most popular. The reason is not far to

seek, for the handsome contrast
The Black of red headpoints .with rich

Wyandotte. orange beak and legs and bright

beetle - green black plumage,
makes a most attractive fowl. It is, moreover,
well suited for its colour, docile disposition,
and is a capital winter-layer to the poultry-
keeper with limited accommodation and sur-
roundings where the lighter plumage varieties
would soon become dirty and unsightly.

Black Wyandottes have long been favourites
in America, and curiously enough also in Hol-
land; but it was not until IQ06 and 1907, fol-
lowing on correspondence in The Feathered
World, that a decided boom took place in
them in this country, and with a powerful
specialist club formed in its interests the Black
Wyandotte has a bright future.

As to type, the Black should be a true
Wyandotte so as to differentiate it as far as
possible from a Black Rock, and in other
points allowing for colour the remarks on the
White hold good. The yellow legs and beak,
combined with sound black plumage, are the
chief difficulties to be surmounted. Some
breeders adopt double-mating ; but others
equally successful breed from the one pen
only, and in the best interests of the variety it
is to be hoped that this latter system will be
generally followed.

Buff Wyandottes are avowedly cross-made
birds, and were produced independently both
in America and England. The first American
birds were exhibited at Liverpool
Buff in 1893, but English strains were

Wyandottes. already in existence or being
formed at that time. In America
they were produced by crossing Silver Wyan-
dottes both with Buff Cochins, and in some
quarters with Rhode Island Reds, an American
yellow-legged amalgam of Cochin and local
stock, very similar to our own white-legged
Lincolnshire Buff, now known as Buff Orping-
ton. In England the Silver Wyandottes and
Buff Cochin were chiefly employed. Owing to
this further cross of the Cochin, Buff Wyan-
dottes are rather apt to manifest more pro-
pensity to sitting than the other varieties ; but
m spite of this are remarkably good layers.

In regard to breeding the plumage, nothing
need be added to what has been already stated
in treating Buff Cochins, Rocks, and Orping-
tons. As in the case of Rocks, the yellow
shanks and beaks required, make the colour
rather easier to breed than it is in Buff Or-
pingtons. The variety, as is natural, seems
scarcely to hold its own in competition with
Orpingtons and Buff Rocks.

Partridge Wyandottes should have the exact
colour and pencilling of the Partridge Cochin,
with the shape and comb and legs of the
Wyandotte family. They are of
Partridge comparatively recent origin, but

Wyandottes. have become popular rapidly, and
seem likely to remain so ; the fact
is that there is a natural fitness between certain
breeds and certain colours, and the Partridge
markmg, or rather the colour which now passes

Fig. 100.
Double laced Feather.

Fig. 101.
Spangled Feather.

Fig, 102.
Almond Feather.

Fig. 103.
Open Feathe

Fig. 104.
Mossy Feather.

Fig. 105.
Ticked Feather

Fig. 106.
Irregular Lacing,

Fig 107.
Streaky Feather.

Fig. 109.
American Saddle Feathe

WYANDOTTE FEATHERS.

PARTRIDGE WYANDOTTES.

325

b)- that name, ap[)ears to suit the neat and
close-feathered Wj'andotte type particularly
well. The following notes upon this variety are
contributed by Mr. John Wharton, of Honey-
cott Farm, Hawes, who was the first to
introduce it into this country : —

"It was, I believe, in the year 1S94 that I
noticed in an American poultry journal a letter
by the late Mr. McKeen, stating that he was
working on the manufacture of Partridge
VVyandottes, and this letter was immediately
followed by one from Mr. Geo. H. Brackenbury,
stating that he too had been engaged in breed-
ing such a variety. These fanciers, it must be
remembered, had been working quite unknown
to each other, as their homes were some
thousand miles apart. Mr. McKeen had the
assistance of Mr. E. O. Theim, an able and
careful breeder, whilst Mr. Brackenbury had an
equally good helper in Mr. Cornell. On
noticing the above letters, I wrote Mr. McKeen
asking if he had any birds to spare. He replied
that he would be pleased to fill me a small
order in the autumn, when he thought he
could send me a good start ; but before autumn
came Mr. McKeen was removed by death — a
valuable worker in the fancy was gone. How-
ever, through the extreme kindness of Mr.
Theim, we were able to procure a cock
and two hens, and two cockerels with six
pullets, and these reached us safely early in
December, 1896. They immediately com-
menced laying, and from the very first sitting
we hatched the well-known hen ' Pippin,' which
has won forty-eight first prizes.

" I never asked how they were originated,
but from what I have noticed in their breeding,
I should say Partridge Cochin blood laid the
foundation, whilst a judicious mixture of
Golden Wyandotte and Indian Game made up
the remainder.

" Of course the birds we imported were not
perfect ; in fact, they were far from that standard,
which could be accounted for by more reasons
than one. They were a new breed ; and no new
breeds are expected to be perfection, or the
charm would be lost in taking them up. But a
greater reason than that made them look im-
perfect to British eyes, and that was their red or
mahogany ground-colour, the idea of their
originators being to get what we don't want,
viz. a foxy or red ground-colour [see on
American Partridge Cochins, page 256]. No
one regrets this difference of opinion over the
breed more than myself, as otherwise we could
year by year have improved our yards by
importation, and they would have reaped a good
harvest of dollars. As it was, a second importa-

tion proved to us the folly of importing any
more from America, as English judges considered
them far too red in ground-colour and too dark
in hackle.

" I ought here to mention that Mr. Petti-
pher, of Banbury, brought out a little later than
our importations another strain, of his own
home manufacture. In making this he strove,
and with much success, to improve the ground-
colour, and keep it of an English type. This
strain was said to be produced by the careful
blending of five different breeds.

" Many have an idea that the breeding of
Partridge Wyandottes will be easy compared to
Silvers and Golds. To such I say, ' Try.' I will
give a little of my experience with the variety,
which may help those that who taking them up
to know how to breed, and what to breed for.

" First we will take the cock. The beak
ought to be a bright yellow, though very few
are yet to be found that possess this point.
Next, the eye should be red, or at least bright
bay : a pearl eye is a great objection, and
very hereditary. The comb should be of that
true Wyandotte shape, termed a ' cradle comb,'
one that fits close to the head, and has the spike
following the arch of the neck. Colour of head
should be a rich orange, not red as we often see
them. The hackle should be full, and fall well
on to the back. The colour should be orange
or golden-red, each feather having an intense
black stripe down the centre, but not running
up the full length of feather, or this will give
the fault known as a smutty hackle, which is
very objectionable. The breast should be a
raven black right up to the throat ; no feather
should be tipped with red, neither should there
be any red visible even when the feathers are
separated. The black should also continue
over the thighs, between his legs, and right up
to the root of tail ; a bird that shows light or
grey behind is faulty. His back is required to
be a rich red, but a bright red, not too dark a
colour. The saddle hackle should harmonise
with the neck, and be equally as well striped.
The bar across wing should be as black as the
breast, free from red tipping. The secondaries
should be a rich bay on outer web, having a
solid rich appearance when closed. The tail
should be black right to the roots ; many birds
have white in tail. Legs, as in all Wyandottes,
are required a rich yellow all round, not red up
the side or smutty in front, with toes well spread
and free from any sign of ' duck foot.'

" 1 o mate for the above we should require a
male as near like it as possible. To him we
would mate large hens or pullets, because with-
out large females we cannot get large cockerel.s.

326

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

See that these females have good combs, and
decent coloured legs, with plenty of bone, and,
moreover, a good Wyandotte shape. The neck-
hackle is perhaps the most important point ;
see that these possess a good stripe, with an
equally good orange edge. As we do not
require pencillings in cocks, we should not
look for it in his mates, and, indeed, we con-
sider females without pencilling more likely to
breed good exhibition cockerels. The ground-
colour must, however, be of the desired brown
shade. With the above mating we should get
exhibition cockerels, but the pullets would only
be suitable for again mating up to produce
cockerels in their turn.

" The pullet's beak, eye, comb, and leg colour
should be e.xactly as in the male, but of course
harmonising with her sex. The ground colour
all over her body should be a rich light brown,
not red, or it will be termed foxy ; neither do
we want it to err on the other side, or it will be
termed grey or clayey. Each feather should be
pencilled with a darker shade, the pencilling
to follow the shape of the feather, as in the best
Cochin hens. The pencilling should extend
well up to the throat and right back to the tail,
and with as much pencilling as possible on the
thighs — in fact, pencilled all over except tail,
which should be black, and hackle, which should
be orange striped with black. Pullets with good
yellow legs are few as yet, but breeders must
strive for this important point.

" To produce exhibition pullets we require a
different mating from that for cockerels. The
females must be as near the e.xhibition type as
possible, and the male required is one that has
been ' pullet-bred.' He will generally be one
with tipping on breast and thighs, but here lies
a great danger. You must know for a certainty
that he is 'pullet bred,' because faulty e.xhibition
cockerels are sometimes sold as such, and such
a male upsets all the mating.

" One thing which makes these birds valu-
able from an e.Khibition point of view is the
fact that their exhibition career is not over in
a couple of months, like many breeds. The
pullets moult year by year sharper and more
distinct in pencilling, whilst the cockerels have
generally a brighter top colour after their first
moult."

It will be observed that the breeding of this
colour in Wyandottes is precisely the same as in
Partridge Cochins, and reference may be made
with advantage to the details of the breeding of
those birds as described in Chapter XV. The
close and tight plumage seems to suit this mark-
ing especially well, and many think Partridges
the most attractive of all the W'yandotte colours.

Later varieties to be added to the family
of Wyandottes are the Silver Pencilled and
Columbians, and these bear the same relation
to Dark and Light Brahmas that the Part-
ridges do to Partridge Cochins. The former
were originated by Mr. George H.
Pencuied Brackenbury, the well-known Ameri-
and can fancier and judge already men-

wyand'o'tws. tioned in connection with Partridges,
and were fashioned, as might be
supposed, by mating the existing Partridge
Wyandottes with selected Dark Brahmas, care-
fully selecting and " line-breeding" the produce.
The first consignment received in England were
two trios imported by Mr. Wharton in January,
1901. The three varieties are remarkable as
presenting the beautiful Partridge and Brahma
colours, with more moderate size, and freedom
from leg-feather and fluff; thereby retaining
the closer feather which the Brahma has now
unfortunately lost, and with it the quality of
heav)' laying.

Both the name of Silver Pencilled, and con-
trast with the Partridge colour, have determined
the choice of the whitest or paper-ground pen-
cilling for these birds, and it must be bred in.
the same way as that type of Brahma. For
details of this reference may be made to p. 272,
and different pens will be required for breeding
cockerels and pullets. To produce cockerels a
bird must be chosen as good in show points as
possible, and especially as clear as possible in
white, as dense in the black, and with good
striping in hackle. Want of clearness in white
is the chief fault at the present stage. His
hens must be of the same strain, and have
solidly striped hackles and neat heads ; their
body colour may differ in various strains, but is
generally rather dark ; the blood is the main
point. For pullet-breeding, on the other hand^
we want hens or pullets with pencilling and
show points as perfect as possible, and a
cockerel of the same strain. He must have
clear silvery and broadly striped hackles, and
his breast will have either white ticks, or a
laced edge at the tip of each feather, and on
the fluff. If there be a narrow lacing of white
in the tail or largest coverts, all the better.
But again blood is the main thing, as a cock-
breeding pen may also throw ticked or laced
birds, which are, however, valueless for pullet-
breeding. If the first year's breeding fails,
breeding back to the se.x the pen is selected for
will usually succeed, if those birds are really
good.

Columbians were first produced by breeding
White Wyandottes to Barred Rocks, and the
early birds were much wanting in striping of

STANDARDS.

327

the hackles, and black in the inner webs of the
wing feathers. This was gradually improved
by care, and some breeders introduced Light
Brahma blood, which of course remedied this
fault a great deal, but brought occasional
trouble with the leg-feather, and also too much
fluff. The progress of the variety has been by
no means rapid, and there is much yet to be ac-
complished before a perfect specimen is pro-
duced ; but there is no doubt that better hens
than cocks have been bred. The greatest
improvement, within recent years, has been,
perhaps, in hackle marking, both density of
black and lacing being much better than
formerly. Still, there are yet to be seen too
many males showing canary -colouied tops,
somewhat ugly combs, and fluff on legs. Hens,
on the other hand, are of good type generally,
and have much improved as regards hackle
lacing, while body colour is good. With a
little more density of black in hackle, and
better lacing at the throat, the female would
almost attain to ideal standard requirements ;
but this will take some time to accomplish.

In this case also the selection of colour and
markings for breeding should follov.' the same
lines already described in Light Brahmas
(pp. 268-269). The main points are a really
clear while, not cream, and distinctly striped
hackles, not all black ones, which involve too
often black ticks on what should be a white
body. The proper balancing of colour has
been described in the chapter referred to, and
it is a good plan to mate with a cock hens
showing a little more than less colour, until
the way they breed is ascertained.

As regards the recently introduced varieties,
the Blue, Red, White-laced Black, Pile, and
Spangle may be mentioned. All are at present

practically in an evolutionary
Other stage, the more advanced being

Varieties. probably the blue and the pile.

The former, which is the most
popular, is as far as possible bred to one level
colour, and several very creditable specimens
have been seen at poultry shows. A few good
piles, spangles and reds have also been penned
at the classic exhibitions. It is impossible to
say with any degree of certainty if all are
likely to have a vogue, but the newly formed
Variety Wyandotte Club should greatly assist
in encouraging the breeding and exhibiting of
these sub-varieties of the Wyandotte family.
Cuckoo Wyandottes, of which a pair were ex-
hibited at the Dairy Show of 1897, have not
made the headway expected, possibly owing
to their resemblance to Barred Rocks in
plumage.

The Wyandotte is perhaps the most im-
pressive modern example of the efficacy of that
line-breeding fully explained on pp. 185-187
of this work. The " m.arked " varieties present
plumage of considerable difficulty, obtained by
amalgamating very heterogeneous materials
and some of them have been produced within a
very recent period ; yet something like standard
marking has been obtained in a surprisingly
short space of time. Years ago so much pro-
gress in so short a time would have been im-
possible, as is proved by the history of the
Silver Wyandotte, the first and progenitor of
the family. We saw many yards of that
variety, and the average produce of the great
mass were to all appearance the merest
mongrels, of all kinds of marking and pepper-
ing, from which only a few could be selected
that were fair show specimens. That was the
result of buying and crossing stock according
to the ordinary method, which many fanciers
pursue even yet ; while some of those who
adopted in-breeding, and thereby soon ob-
tained better marking, by their want of system
obtained less than they might have done, and
in many cases lost size and shape and constitu-
tion. By employing the more systematic
methods already referred to, the history of
the more recent varieties has been a marked
contrast to this. Breeders have knov.'n v.'hat to
do, and by the systematic method of line-
breeding have obtained equal results in a much
shorter space of time, and upon the whole
without any manifest physical deterioration.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Skull : Short and broad. Beak : Short
and well curved. Eyes : Of medium size. Comb :
Rose, firmly and evenly set on the skull, low, square-
fronted, and gradually tapering towards the back and
terminating in a small but well-defined spike or
leader, which should follow the curve of the neck
and without any upward tendency, the top oval
and covered with small and rounded points, the
side outline of the comb being of convex shape,
curving to conform to the shape of the skull. Face :
Smooth, and of fine texture. Ear-lobes : Of oblong
shape, well developed and smooth. Wattles : Of
medium length and fine texture, and well rounded.

Neck. — Of medium length, and abundantly covered
with hackle.

Body. — Short, deep, and round. Breast : Broad
and round, with straight keel. Back : Broad and
short. Saddle : Full and broad, and rising with a
concave sweep to the tail. Wings : Of medium
size and well folded. Sides : Well rounded. Fluff :
Full and abundant.

Tail. — Well developed, spread at the base, the
true tail feathers carried rather upright, the sickles
of medium length.

?28

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Legs and Feet. — l^egs : Of medium length, the
thighs well covered with soft and webless feathers,
the shanks strong, fine, and well rounded, and free
of feather or fluff. Toes : Four on each foot, straight,
and well spread.

Carriage. — Graceful and well balanced, resembling
that of the Brahma.

Weight. — Buff Laced, /-l lb. ; other varieties,
Si lb.

HEN

The general characteristics of the hen are similar
to those of the cock, allowing for the natural sexual
differences.

Weight. — Buff Laced, 61- lb. ; other varieties, 7 lb.

COLOUR

THE BLACK

Beak : Bright yellow. Eyes : Bright bay. Comb,
Wattles, and Ear-lobes : Bright red. Legs and Feet :
Bright yellow.

Plumage. — Black, with a beetle-green sheen, the
under-colour as dark (black) as possible.

THE BLUE-L.\CED

Head points, Legs and Feet : As in the Black.

Plumage of the Cock. — Bay ground with blue
marliings. Hackles : With distinct blue stripe down
the centre of each feather, and free from black
tips or black round the edging. Back and Shoulders :
Free from black, or smutty blue. Wings : Bar,
laced blue, and well defined. Breast : With well-
defined lacing, free from double or outer, or black
or smutty marldng, and regular from the throat to
the back of the thighs. Fluff ; Blue powdered with
gold. Tail : Solid blue, free from black or white.

Plumage of the Hen. — Neck-liackle and Tail :
As in the cock. Remainder of Plumage : As on
the cock's breast, the lacing to extend to the back
of the thighs into the fluff.

THE BUFF

Head points. Legs and Feet : As in the Black.

Plumage. — Any shade of buff from lemon to
dark, at the one extreme avoiding washiness and
at the other a red tinge, the colour to be perfectly
uniform, allowing for greater lustre on the hackle
and saddle feathers, and the wing-bows in the case
of the cock only.

THE BUFF LACED

Head points (except Beak : Yellow, or horn
tipped with yellow). Legs and Feet : As in the Black.

Plumage of the Cock. — Rich buff with white
markings. Hackles : With white stripe down the
centre of each feather. Breast and Thighs : With
clear and regular white lacing. Wings : Bars laced
with pure white, and well defined ; secondaries white
on the inner web, and rich buff laced and white on the
outer web. Tail, Fluff, and Under-colour : Pure white.

Plumage of the Hen. — Neck, Tail, and Fluff :
As in the cock. Breast, Back, and Wings : Rich
buff with regular white lacing, and the lacing on
the cushion may continue into the tail coverts.

THE COLUMBIAN

Head points (except Beak : yellow or horn).
Legs and Feet : As in the Black.

Plumage of the Cock. — White, with black mark-
ings. Neck-hackle : With a distinct black stripe
down the centre of each feather, but free from a
black outer edging and black tips. Wings : Prim-
aries black, or black edged with white ; secondaries,
black on the inner edge and white on the outer.
Tail : Glossy green-black, with the coverts either
laced or not with white. Remainder of Plumage :
Pearl white, entirely free from ticking, the under-
colour being either slate, blue- white, or white.

Plumage of the Hen. — Hackle : Bright, intense
black feathers, entirely surrounded with a silver
white margin. Wings, Tail, and Remainder of
Plumage : As in the cock.

THE GOLD LACED

Head points (except Beak : Horn, shading into or
tipped with yellow). Legs and Feet : As in the Black.

Plumage of the Cock. — Rich golden bay with
black markings. Hackles : With distinct black stripe
down the centre of each feather, free from ticks,
black outer edging, or black tips. Back : Free from
black, or from deep maroon. Breast and Under-
parts : With well-defined jet black lacing, free from
double or bay outer lacing, the markings regular
from throat to back of thighs, showing green lustre.
Thighs and Fluff : Black or dark slate, slightly
powdered with gold, with clear lacing round hocks
and outer side of thighs. Shoulder Tip : Laced with
black. Wittgs : Bow, rich golden bay ; coverts,
evenly laced, forming two (at least) well-defined
bars ; secondaries, black on inner and wide golden
stripe on outer web, the edge laced with black ;
primaries, black on inner web, and broadly laced
gold on outer edge. Tail : Black, with green lustre.
(Note. — Brightness and uniformity of colour to be
considered of more value than any particular shade.)

Plumage of the Hen. — Hackle, Thighs, and
Fluff : As in the cock. Breast, Back, and Wings :
As on the cock's breast, the secondaries and primaries
as in the cock. Tail : Black, with a green lustre,
the coverts black with a rich golden bay centre
to each feather. (Note. — Brightness and equality
of ground, and regularity of lacing throughout, to
be of first importance.)

THE P.\RTRIDGE

Head points, Legs and Feet : As in the Gold Laced.

Plumage of the Cock. — Hackles : Orange or golden
red, with puler shade at back, each feather having a
glossy black stripe down centre. Back and Shoulder :
Rich bright red, free from maroon or purple shade.
Wings : Bars, solid black ; secondaries, rich bay on
outer web, and black on inner web and end of feather,
the rich bay alone showing when the wing is closed.
Breast : Black, free from ticks. Fluff : Sohd black.
Tail : Including sickles and tail coverts, glossy
metallic black.

Plumage of the Hen. — Hackle : Golden yellow,
clearly pencilled. Breast, Back, and Wings : Light
brown ground, free from red or yellow tinge, every
feather distinctly and plentifully pencilled with a
darker shade, the pencilhng uniform throughout,
and following the form of the feather ; a brick or
yellow ground is objectionable. Fluff : Brown (free
from yellow or red), slightly pencilled ; the more
pencilhng the better. Tail : True feathers black, shad-
ing to brown at top, which should be well pencilled.

JUDGING WYANDOTTES.

329

THE SILVER LACED

Head points. Legs and Feet : As in the Gold Laced.
Plumage. — Except that the ground is silver-
white (free from yellow or straw tinge), instead of
rich golden bay, the Silver Laced is similar to the
Gold Laced. (Note. — In the hen, regularity of lacing
and quaUty of colour in all cases must count above
any particular breadth of lacing.)

THE SILVER PENCILLED

Head points, Legs and Feet : As in the Gold Laced.

Plumage. — Except that the ground is silver-
white in the cock and steel-grey in the hen, instead
of red (of various shades), the Silver Pencilled is
similar to the Partridge.

THE WHITE

Head points, Legs and Feet : As in the Black.
Plumage. — Pure white, free from yellow or straw
tinge.

SCALE OF POINTS

THE BLACK

Colour; surface, 20; under, 15 .. .. .-35

Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Head : comb, 10 ; other points, 5 . . . . 15

Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Legs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Tail

Neck
Fluff

THE BUFF LACED
COCK

Breast and thighs . .

Tail

Head : ear-lobes and wattles
Neck and saddle
Back and wings
Size and condition
Fluff and undcr-coloui
Legs . .

HEN

Breast

Back

Tail

Head : ear-lobes and wattles, 6

Size and condition

Wings

Fluff

Legs

6 ; other points, 8 i

other points, 8

THE COLUMBIAN

THE BLUE LACED

lobes and wattles

Breast

Head : comb, 8 ;

points, 3
Back and wings
Tail . .

Size and condition
Fluff . .
Neck . .
Legs . .

Breast

Back

Size and condition

Head : lobes and wattles, 5

Wings

Fluff ..

Tail . .

Neck . .

Legs . .

other points.

Body colour. .
Hackle

Size and condition .

Head : comb, 5 ;

other points, 3

Typs

Legs . .

Tail

Wing carriage

ear-lobes and wattles, 4

THE GOLD OR SILVER LACED

Head : comb, 8 ; ear-lobes

other points, 5
Breast
Back . .

Size and condition.
Wings
Neck . .
Tail . .
Fluff ..
Legs ..

and wattles, 6

25
24
15

19
14
14
14

THE BUFF

Colour

Head : comb, 8 ; ear-lobes and wattles, S ; other

points, 5
Size and condition

Back

Legs

Breast
Wings

42

Head : comb 8 ;

other points, 5

Size and condition

Neck

Back . .

Breast

Wings

THE PARTRIDGE
COCK

ear-lobes and

vattles

19
14

23°

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Fluff
Legs
Tail

Head : comb, 6 ;
other points, 5
Size and condition
Breast
Back . .
Wings
Neck . .
Legs . .
Tail . .
Fluff ..

HEN

ear-lobes

and wattles, 6

THE SILVER PENCILLED

Head : comb, 8 ;
other points, 4
Size and condition
Neck . .
Breast
Back . .
Wings
.Fluft ..
Legs . .
Tail . .

Breast

Size and condition

COCK

ear-lobes and wattles,

Back and wings

Hackle

Cushion

Legs . .

Type . .

Head : ear-lobes and wattles, 4 ; other points

Tail

Fluff

THE WHITE

ear-lobes and wattles, S

Head : comb, S ;

other points, 6
Size and condition
Body
Neck . .
Back . .
Wings
Tail . .
Legs . .

Serious dejects : Any feathers on shanks or toes ;
permanent white or yellow in ear-lobe, covering
more than one-third of its surface ; comb other
than rose, or falling over on one side, or so large
as to obstruct the sight ; wry tail ; deformed beak ;
crooked back ; shanks other than yellow (except
in adult cocks and hens, which may shade to light
straw) ; feathers other than white in Whites ; white
in tail, or any conspicuous spotting or peppering
on ground of the feathers, in Silver and Gold Laced ;
black in tail, or any excess of blue or grey in lacing,
of Buff Laced ; white in tail of Blue-Laced.

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331

CHAPTER XXI.

MALAYS, ASEEL, AND INDIAN GAME.

A1~>HE fowls treated in this chapter, though
I the relationship is probably not very
-*- recent, are obviously more or less allied,
and represent variations of another Asiatic race
as typical as the Cochin, and which in the branch
which first comes before us is also distinguished
by its gigantic size. It is perhaps most probable
on the whole that the Aseel represents the more
ancient as well as the most pure original stock ;
in which case the Malay would owe its origin to
crosses of that stock upon common local poultry
of various kinds, gaining thereby in size, and
losing somewhat in definite type, very much as
the Malay is found to exist in actual fact. But
there is strong ground for another hypothesis.
A large bird of this general type is the indigen-
ous or common fowl of a large part of India, as
well as of the peninsula whose name it bears,
and is in fact to this day more diffused than any
other through a very large part of Eastern
Asia. Upon this ground Temminck believed it
to be the domesticated descendant of some wild
Callus gigantcus now lost, but more or less re-
sembling it. This view has lately been over-
shadowed by the theory of Mr. Darwin that the
Callus bankiva is the origin of all races of poul-
try ; but when we consider how general and
widely spread is this Malay shape and type, and
how constantly merely domestic races revert to
more primitive types unless preserved with a
sedulous care which Eastern peoples never give,
except to the strains cherished for cock-fighting
purposes, the view of the older naturalist will be
seen to have more in its favour than is generally
supposed. If it were true, then the Malay would
be the more ancient stock of the breeds now to
be treated of, and the Aseel the cultivated aristo-
crat of the family, developed out of it by genera-
tions of careful breeding for one special purpose.
In any case, the occurrence of two totally
different races of poultry in the East, both dis-
tinguished by gigantic size, raises a rather
interesting question in regard to poultry feeding.
I'^owls are never fed in India or China with the
care given them in England or America, nor
with any study of nitrogenous " ratios " or any-
thing of that kind, yet there have come to us

from thence several marked varieties of two
distinct races, both gigantic in size. The only
noticeable fact which appears upon inquiry into
the subject, is that the ordinary food of these
fowls in their own country is " paddy," or un-
husked rice. We know of this grain when husked
that it is the very poorest of food, unless supple-
mented by other elements : we actually give
it to Bantams to keep them small. But we
know in the West scarcely anything about the
husk of this grain, and no analysis of either the
husk or the whole grain has ever been made
that we know of; such facts as those before us
suggest that the analysis and food value of
uiihtisked rice is a question which might repay
investigation.

Coming back to Malays, there is perhaps
hardly any breed with characteristics so distmct-
ive and well marked, which makes it the more sur-
prising that some of the " all-round "
Chajacteristica judges should appear still unable to
Malays. grasp them. The head of the cock

is large, and particularly very broad,
with heavy overhanging eyebrows, which give
a cruel expression to the face by no means belied
by the character of the bird. Besides this, some
of the older writers describe the bird as " serpent-
headed," and observation will confirm the
singular aptness of the expression, quite differ-
ent from the snaky head sometimes spoken of in
Game. The beak is very stout and quite curved,
almost hooked in fact. The face is smooth and
skinny, with the throat rather bare, wattles and ear-
lobes small, and the comb unique, neither single,
nor rose, nor triple, but like half of a walnut
covered with very small projections. This should
be fairly small and set well forward ; but if two
small combs are bred together, it is significant
that pea-eombs are apt to result, showing clearly
the relationship with both breeds treated of in
the following sections. The neck is long, and
hackle full there, but short and scanty below,
which gives the entire neck somewhat the ap-
pearance of a pillar the same diameter all the
way down, and rising almost abruptly out of
the shoulders. The body is large round at the
shoulders, which are very prominent and carried

^3*

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

high, and tapers away towards the tail, the back
being long, rather convex in outline, and slant-
ing downwards : the tail is also carried low and
drooping, so that the back of the neck, the back,
and top feathers of the tail appear as three
nearly similar curved lines meeting at nearly
equal angles : these curves were first represented
by us in 1872, and are so characteristic as to be
now adopted in the standard, as given on p. 344.
The tail is fairly long, but well whipped, or
carried rather close together, and the sickles and
coverts should be narrow, and tapering very
gradually towards the points. Both thighs and
shanks are very long, the wings fairly large, and
the shoulders standing out prominently from the
body even when they are closed. All the plum-
age is short, narrow, and hard, so much so that
the breast of the cock is generally bare in the
centre. This bare breast-bone is not caused by
wear, and is so characteristic that when absent
it is sometimes artificially produced by plucking ;
but when any such bare strip appears in a bird
whose feathers on each side are too broad, any
judge who passes it without penalty ought to feel
humiliated. The plumage is also marked by
great lustre when the birds are in good condition.
The size is very large, especially in height, some
cocks standing 28 to 30 inches in the pen ; but
the plumage is so scanty and close, that the body
always appears rather small for its real size and
weight. The comb and beetle-brows, the narrow
and hard feathers, the height and length of limb,
the prominent shoulders, and the " three curves,"
are the main points of a Malay, and so prominent
that no judge can be excused for overlooking
them.

The hen has the same prominent shoulders,
the same type of head and neck, and the same
general carriage, somewhat less pronounced.
She has a peculiar habit of "playing" her tail
about more than other breeds, and this point
is rather valued as evidence of good blood.

In regard to colour, all varieties should have
brilliant red faces and appendages, pearl, or
yellow, or daw eyes, rich yellow shanks with
large scales, and yellow beaks, or yellow and
horn ; or horn-colour is allowed with very dark
plumage. The most common colour shown is
a Black-breasted Red cock, with Red Wheaten
or cinnamon-coloured hen, a combination which
is natural, and breeds true from single mating.
Pure Whites are perhaps next common, but
less so than many years ago. Of late we have
several times seen birds of more or less brown-
er ginger-breasted type. Many years since we
used to see really magnificent Piles, applying
the adjective to both size and colour ; but this
variety seems rare now. We have known it

imported direct in the old days, but it is also
easily bred from Whites and the Black-breasted
Reds, and it is probable that really good Piles
would again be popular at the present day.

The Malay is mentioned so far back as in
the first edition of Bonington Moubray upon
Domestic Poultry, m 18 15, and is there spoken

of as practically synonymous with
Early the Chittagong, which may have been

^of'"^ correct at that time of loose state-

Malays, ment and nomenclature; but we have

already seen reason for believing
that at a later period the Chittagong represented
a more composite race, crossed more or less with
Shanghae, and possibly with Dorking, and
probably owing more of its Indian blood to the
Aseel than the Malay, as shown by the pea-
comb and less prominence, though still marked,
of the brows. We preserve the following notes
written for us in 1870 by the late Mr. Hewitt,
as carrying the personal recollection of a well-
known judge and fancier so far back as the year
1830.

Taking a retrospect of the Malays, as they existed
before poultry-shows were so common, it appears that
the strong elastic feather, so hard and metallic, yet so
scanty, and the extreme length of the thighbone — so
unsightly, yet so all-important characteristics — owners
of late years have attempted to soften down, simply to
ensure a better-looking and more compact fowl on the
table. We thus have lost, in a great measure, the
lovely narrow, lustrous feather that once stamped this
breed as standing far aloof from all others — a feature
that in the Malays of the years 1S30 to 1835 was almost
universal, the breast-feathers of birds of about that date
being so narrow and free from down as scarcely to cover
the fowl's body ; whilst the sickles and side coverts
of the cock's tail never exceeded a half-inch in width,
were of the brightest iridescent hue, but slightly curved,
and tapered very gradually indeed to an extremely fine
point. Though carrying with them first impressions of
being so barely supplied as to quantity of plumage, such
birds when adult never appeared chilled, but, on the
contrary, as though encased in whalebone-like armour
from the effects of the cold.

Neither do we now see any close approach to the
great weights customary to Malays of bygone days.
In 1S33 I possessed a flock of Red Pile Malays, bred
from a pen of three birds purchased for me from on
shipboard at Liverpool : the old cock was nearly eleven
pounds weight and the best hen a little over nine pounds.
With the enthusiasm of youth, I weighed them scores of
times, hoping to make this couple twenty-one pounds,
which, however, at their best they never did attain by
two or three ounces. I think we may look in vain for
birds of that weight in the present hour. For the
amusement of friends, I frequently tested this cock by
putting a piece of bread on a table twenty-eight inches
in height and four inches from the edge, and yet he was
so lengthy and stilty as to easily appropriate the much-
coveted morsel without jumping. These fowls bred
well, and tolerably true to feather; but among many
chickens, I obtained two white pullets and a black-red
cockerel, though for three years they bred exclusively
Red Piles, the three "sports " just named all occurring

VICISSITUDES OF MAIAYS.

333

in one nest. Some few years back a pen of the same
variety of Malays were siiccessfullv exhibited at several
shows, by a member of the Council of the Birmingham
Poultry Exhibition, under the name of "Rangoons";
they were identical with the breed I once had, and were
much larger than our present Malays.

The fine size and character of those early
Malays was due to the abundance of imported
stock, which frequently came over in the East
India Company's vessels, and to an extent that
made the fowls then quite common in the
neighbourhood of the London Docks. With
the fancy for Cochins, this nearly ceased, and
such a long-limbed breed specially suffered from
in-breeding, as it was then carried on by most
of those who practised it at all. Thus it came
about that in 1872 we were compelled to write
of the fowls then known as fully one-third less
in height and weight than the figures given by
Mr. Hewitt, and as appearing small in body
rather than large. Judges also lost hold of their
points ; so that the breed was actually described
in the Standard of that day as red-eyed, and we
have seen at Birmingham a hen win second
prize which was short in the leg, flat in the
back, with a spread tail, and to crown all, a
single comb ! More on this head is stated in
the notes below, but it may be added that it was
in order to recover the lost size and constitution,
that at that date we strongly advised crossing
with the Indian Game of Cornwall, which was
actually far larger and more vigorous than
Malays were then, and with enough Malay
character in all except height and comb to
make such a cross quite legitimate. The advice
was followed, and to this cross was largely due
the temporary loss of type, for a few years,
alluded to below ; but it did recover size, and
renewed much of the lost constitution, and there
can be little doubt that during the interval until
further importations took place, it saved Malays
from extinction or something near it. Later on
fresh stock was received, some from India and
some from Australia, and stature as well as size
was fully recovered. A magnificent cock shown
by Mr. De Courcy Peele at the Palace show of
1900, had a poor comb, and was very unorthodo.x
in colour (a sort of brown breast spangled with
black), but in size and character was one of
the most remarkable birds we have ever beheld
during more than forty years.

The following notes on Malays are con-
tributed by Mr. Edgar Branford, of Woodbridge,
Suffolk, well known both as an exhibitor and
specialist judge of this breed.

" It is with feelings of great pleasure that I
furnish a few notes on Malays. First, because
I regard it as an honour to be associated with

Mr. Wright's well-known work ; and secondly,
because of a nearly lifelong attachment to a
fine old breed. Pedigrees in poultry yards are
no longer popular ; but personally I must con-
fess to preferring creatures about me that can
speak of their ancestors without a blush. Many
people abuse my fowls, but few question their
individuality, and none deny their claim to long
descent. Once seen they will never be taken for
anything else. In the first issue of Tlie Illustrated
Book of Poultry, the Rev. A. G. Brooke told
us of a gentleman who ' had no sympathy with
Malays.' Probably the variety has as many
detractors as of yore ; but now as then it
attracts a portion (shall we say the elect?), of
fancy's followers, and now as then, when the
fancy fever takes the Malayan form it is apt to
prove a chronic ailment. The names of old-
time votaries crowd upon me as I write : Brooke,
Hawkins, Ridley, Hinton, Fairlie, Terdrey,
Owen, Frayn, and Huxtable ; and all I think
still stick to the ship save those who have, alas !
gone over to the great majority. The mushroom
man, indeed, is perhaps unlikely to persevere
with Malays, for their little idiosyncrasies often
prove trying, such as the uncertain temper of
the cocks — that of the hens is consistent enough,
if none too amiable — the hang-dog appearance
of the birds when a bit out of sorts, and the
tendency of one's best cockerels to go off their
pins just when one is counting upon cups and
specials.

"During the half-century or so which may
be said to cover the modern fancy, this breed
has had its ups and downs, now rejoicing in

separate classes, and anon banished
Changes in to the colder atmosphere of the
Malays. ' Any other variety.' In quality also

the birds, like their fortunes, have
fluctuated, and a short resume of these latter
changes, so far as they come within my own
knowledge, may perhaps be of interest. Early in
the 'seventies our breed had not emerged from
the shadow which fell upon it with the advent
of the Cochin. Malays were in the hands of few
breeders, and those few appear to have been
compelled to resort to in-breeding, which
resulted in loss of size, though shape and
character were retained. Five years later the
birds filled the pens better, but the growth
was mainly In breadth, while a square Anglo-
Saxon sort of look pervaded them, strongly
suggestive of some shameful viesalliance. Then
for a time came improvement, and in the early
'eighties were to be seen specimens with old-
fashioned necks and thighs, and presenting
quite the cut-up swashbuckler appearance so
characteristic of the breed.

334

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

" Between 1883 and 18S7 circumstances pre-
vented my seeing Malays other than my own,
and when at the latter date I again looked upon
classes of the variety, it seemed to have reached
the lowest ebb within my experience. The fowls
were of fair size, but their good points, if they
had any, were shrouded in feathers, their carri-
age approached the horizontal rather than the
perpendicular, they mostly stood upon wretched
feet, while the typical old-time heads were
conspicuous by their absence. Indeed, at this
period one old breeder told me he thought the
beetle-brows gone past redemption. Happily,
he was mistaken ; and we have them back in
great perfection, and not only them, but points
which to my mind are of equal value, such as
correct outline and carriage, broad shoulders,
big bone, sound feet, great stature, with short-
ness and narrowness of feather ; although in
this latter particular we cannot yet rival our
Australian cousins ; witness the birds shown by
Mr. Ravenhill at the Palace in 1893. ' Size in
Malays,' very truly wrote Mr. Wright in 1874,
'should be greatly judged by height,' and I do
not hesitate to affirm that the average length
from beak to toenail of birds seen in the show-
pen during the decade just brought to a close,
exceeded by five inches that of those exhibited
in the preceding twenty years. Truly gigantic
were some of the chickens produced in the early
'nineties, and as good as they were big. About
that time Mr. Brooke wrote me, ' I have just
been looking at the best pullet I ever saw in my
life.' Just lately, perhaps, there may have been
a little falling off again in the quality of the
youngsters, but the grand class of cocks and
useful level lot of hens at the last Palace show,
preclude any idea of deterioration.

" I have never recommended Malays for
utility purposes, though nothing can beat a six
months' pullet for the table. But to the true
fancier, asking what breed he should take up, I
would most certainly advocate their claims. Let
such a one turn to the appended standard, noting
the saliency of the features therG described.
The greatest tyro cannot fail to see wliat is
wanted. Moreover, with few breeds will he find
his desideratum so easy of attainment. Well-
bred Malays will breed nearly as true to type
as sparrows. The neophyte need not fear their
' reverting ' to Cochin China or Cuckoo Dorking ;
and this fixity of type tends to help him in
another way, inasmuch that in the show arena
the scale is usually turned by size and bone, so
that if he can only rear a bigger bird than more
experienced competitors, a cup may grace his
sideboard very early in his career.

"A good breeding-pen may consist of a March

hatched cockerel, measuring 38 inches and
weighing about 10 lbs. He should stand upon
sound feet and straight legs, and be good in
points ; for given health and vigour.
Breeding the best show bird is the best for stock

Malays. purposes, though the less he has been

shown the better. If red Malays
are the fancier's choice, the stag, whether of the
old maroon or the bright red shade, should have
a black breast and be quite free from white
feathers. His mates should consist of from three
to six adult hens measuring 33 inches, and weigh-
ing as much over ji lbs. as they can be obtained.
In colour they may be any shade of cinnamon,
wheaten, or partridge marked, but any signs of
lacing or spangling should go far to disqualify.
Minor faults in colouring, such as red feathers
on breasts and fluff of cocks, or smutty ones
similarly situated on cinnamon hens, are regarded
by good judges with lenient eyes. Indeed the
axiom that a good Malay cannot be a bad
colour, appeals strongly to most real lovers of
the variety. In choosing stock birds, every
effort should be made to obtain them hard, short,
and narrow in feather, otherwise their good
points are completely hidden. Light eyes should
also be insisted on. When Mr. Wright wrote in
1S74, ' There never was a Malay with a red eye,'
he and I were in agreement, but since that date
the horrid thing has crept in, probably in this
wise. Towards the end of the 'seventies Malays
were undoubtedly crossed with their own
illegitimate offspring, Indian or Cornish Game,
with a view to regaining size. Now though the
Indians have now, and indeed usually had then,
pearl or daw eyes, owing to the potency of
their Asiatic ancestors, yet their veins also
contain the blood of the old red-eyed English
fighting Game, and hence the occasional rever-
sion in our favourites to those fiery optics.

" It should be noted that though I have
advised the mating of a cockerel with hens, very
good chickens may be reared from pullets
running with an adult cock ; still personally 1
find cockerels more reliable for breeding in the
cold springs with which we have to contend
in our eastern counties. It is also a fact that
my own best youngsters have been the
produce of three and four year old hens. It
will be found that the age of the latter is
not so important as might be thought. The
question is, will they produce a quota of eggs
sufficiently early in the season .' and some will
do so for several consecutive seasons, while
others prove failures even from pullet-hood.
In most cases the male and female birds should
be procured from different sources, as at present
our Malays are almost all more or less related.

'p^-ftf^ V

MANAGEMENT OF MALAYS.

335

So far as I know it is some years since any
importations from abroad have been made, and
there is more danger to be apprehended from too
close in-breeding than from too violent a cross.
Useful typical Malays are to be purchased
cheaply enough, but there has never been a time
in my experience when a 'flier' would not
command a bit of money. The best are of course
the cheapest in the end, and in no breed within
my knowledge is so little danger incurred in
claiming high-class exhibition specimens, pro-
vided they have not been overshown ; still it may
sometimes be within the power of a friendly
breeder to give the beginner a cheap as well
as a good start.

"With regard to housing and feeding, Malays
will stand confinement fairly well, but under such
conditions all varieties require special treatment,
such treatment in fact as has already
Management y^^^^^ advised and described in this
Malays. work for fowls so situated. But

those in the enjoyment of perfect
liberty to roam over field and plantation are
content with a simpler regimen. For roosting-
[ilace nothing beats a roomy shed, constructed
if you please with ash poles and gorse faggots ;
a few galvanised sheets on top of the gorse
roof will render it absolutely watertight. If no
danger is apprehended from foxes, or other
thieves, a door can be dispensed with. The
perches should be placed about 3 feet from the
ground, and the floor should be well littered
with brakes or fallen leaves, otherwise the feet of
such heavy short-winged fowls are sure to suffer.

" The feeding of the stock birds gives little
trouble. A small handful of sound wheat per
bird early each morning, with nearly as much of
the same grain as they will eat shortly before
they go to roost, and of course access to clean
water, will meet the case. Should the hens in
early spring prove chary of their eggs, a hot
breakfast composed of sharps and liverine, or
an occasional ration of cooked meat, will usually
bring them to a sense of their duties.

'• With regard to selection, it is of course
desirable to weed out the wasters as early as
possible, but owing to the fixity of type before
alluded to, this weeding is with very young
Malay chickens not an easy task for a tyro ; so
for a season or two he will do well to keep
nearly all his youngsters until they attain the
age of sixteen to eighteen weeks, when he will
readily see which are likely to make the tallest
and finest birds.

" But we must hatch our chickens before
we can count or cull them, and at once crops
up the question, broody hens or incubators?
Personally, after giving the latter a fair trial, I

have returned to my allegiance to Dame Nature,
though a machine always running throughout
the season proves a capital receptacle for for-
saken eggs or chickens. Malay hens
Hatching ^^^ steady sitters, but it must be

and . -^ . . , '

Rearing. borne m mmd that they require a

very large amount of nest room, and
must be kept free from all disturbing elements.
They are also good mothers to their own
children, but under no circumstances will they
go in for baby-farming, so if coops are used
they should be placed wide apart. My own
broods are never cooped for more than forty-
eight hours after hatching, each hen when set at
liberty going her own way and minding her own
business. The first food my baby Malays
receive consists of Spratts' chicken meal,
broken wheat, and a little canary seed. For
the necessary animal addition to their diet I
had for many years depended upon crissel, but
last season resorted instead to freshly cut fresh
bones, with very satisfactory results. As the
birds grow older, if on a free run, plenty of
sound grain with a small allowance of the
crushed bone is all that the pullets will require
to bring them to maturity. But the cockerels,
from the time they are separated from their
sisters (and the sooner this is done after their
mothers desert them the better) require a more
forcing treatment, if their ultimate destiny is to
shine in the show pen. Mine get daily a liberal
ration of ground bones, also a hot dinner con-
sisting of equal parts of coarse sharps, Sussex
ground oats, and liverine. I am also a great
believer in the efficacy of a daily dose of
I'arrish's chemical food.

" From all specific diseases Malays seem
wonderfully free, but the cockerels during their
fifth, sixth, and seventh months are e.xtremely
liable to leg-weakness. As a remedy for this
trouble, the pills recommended in the first issue
of The Illustrated Book of Poultry [these will be
found in the final chapter of this work] have in
my experience proved almost infallible. This
complaint must not be confounded with either
cramp, gout, or rheumatism, in the first of which
there is contraction of the toes, in the others
heat and swelling of the parts affected. Leg-
weakness is rather a form of nervous paralysis,
a simple loss of power usually unaccompanied
by any constitutional disturbance.

" The exhibitor of Malays starts with the
great advantage, that no trimming is recognised
or required in the preparation for the show-pen.
Certainly I have seen birds plucked at breast,
hock, and hackle, but seldom with beneficial
results in the way of prize money. Chickens of
course need a little training before making their

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

first bow to the arbitrator, but when once they
have learnt the business, they give Httle further
trouble, save picking them off their runs and
washing their legs and faces : their bold nature
makes them capital showers. On their return
from a show in the winter season, it is well to
confine them for a couple of days in a cool airy
room, and when put back on their runs care
must be taken to prevent fighting. Malays
require suitable baskets in which to travel, and
the shape I like best is a long oval. For single
cocks they may be 25 inches long, 25 inches
high, by 13 inches wide, all inside measure-
ments ; for hens, same width, with a fourth
taken off the other dimensions.

" One word in conclusion as to judging. The
longer I live the more I am convinced that the
fate and fortunes of a breed are mainly in-
fluenced by the way in which it is judged.
During the years in which the Palace classes
were taken by Mr. Chas. E. Waring, the quality
and quantity of the birds advanced by leaps and
bounds. We knew what he wanted, and what
he wanted was the real Simon Pure. But alas !
many 'all-round' judges like Mr. Brooke's
friend before mentioned, ' have no sympathy
with Malays.' I once asked dear old Mr.
Dixon why he had not given a certain bird a
card. He replied, ' Isn't he one of those beg-
gars with hardly any feathers? I can't stand
them.' At the Dairy show I have seen an
unnoticed cockerel sold for £2'^. Not long ago
at the Crystal Palace, I myself had a bird in
similar cardless condition. I could not attend
the show, but I think every Malay breeder who
was there, either wired or wrote to me wishing
to purchase, or congratulating me on having
produced such a warm specimen. Three weeks
later he was awarded Challenge Cup at the club
show. Such instances might be multiplied
almost indefinitely, and they play the mischief
with a grand old variety."

Malays are better not hatched until May, 01
at least the very end of April, as the chickens
feather very slowly during the first three months,
and though hardy in a way, suffer from wet or
cold winds. It is advisable to give them
Parrish's Chemical Food towards the end of
the fifth month, as a precaution against leg-
weakness ; should the cockerels after all be
attacked by this complaint, to which all very
long-limbed breeds are specially liable, recourse
must be had to the pills mentioned above, which
will be found in the final chapter of this work.

As a cross, the Malay possesses many of the
good qualities of the Indian Game, imparting
large wings and breast to other breeds in which

Judging
Malays.

these points are less developed, and also weight
of solid meat ; but the Indian Game has now
almost superseded it for this purpose, giving the
same advantages with less length of limb and
less tendency to yellowness of skin and flesh.
In the early days of the poultry-fancy some
crosses with Spanish turned out remarkably well,
producing a very glossy black fowl, known for a
few years as the " Columbian," which was a good
layer of large eggs : these birds died out, how-
ever, and any place they might have had is now
taken, in all but size of eggs, by the Langshan
and Black Orpington.

In judging Malays, special stress should
always be laid upon the characteristic points
as above indicated, which are so striking and
obvious, that it is difficult to under-
stand how some of them can be
ignored as they seem still to be on
some occasions. They are shortly defined as
(i) Head and brow ; (2) Height and limb ; (3)
Shoulders; (4) the "Three Curves"; and (5)
Narrow feather. For marked deficiency in any
of these, nothing can really compensate.

As already stated, it cannot be determined
now whether the Aseel should be regarded
as the ancestor of the Malay type of fowl
described in the foregoing section, perhaps
through crosses upon larger common poultry of
the country, or whether it has been developed
from it by long and assiduous care in breeding.
The relationship is very evident, as can be seen
by the plate ; and which is the aristocrat of the
family, in either case, is no way doubtful. The
Malay is tyrannical and quarrelsome, often even
ferocious ; but a good sharp-fighting English
Game-cock will always make him turn tail,
unless some chance happens to disable the
smaller bird at the outset. The Aseel is of an-
other character, and there can be little doubt
that the birds whose battles are alluded to in The

Institutes of Menu, looo B.C., if not
Antiquity (-he Aseel as now known, were at
^gggj least their ancestors, and that the

present race has been either main-
tained or gradually evolved, with express refer-
ence to combat, during a period of almost three
thousand years. The following chapter will
record cock-fighting as practised very widely in
past ages amongst civilised races, to an extent
that may come as a surprise to many ; but in
India it has from time immemorial been pursued
with a universality and a passion that elsewhere
had no parallel. The result of all this is mainly
represented to-day by the Aseel.

ASEEL AND INDIAN COCK-FIGHTING.

337

The type varies somewhat, however, as we
traverse the Indian Archipelago. In the first
edition of The Illustrated Book of Poultry was
^iven a reproduction of a coloured drawing by a
native Chinese artist of the highest class of
fighting Game-cock used in the Malay peninsula,
Sumatra, and the neighbourhood. This bird
presented the low carriage and much of the
symmetry of the Aseel, but with more full and
flowing plumage. Allowing for the different
style of a native artist, the breed was evidently
the same as figured in old American poultry-
books of 1853, as the Sumatra Game, which had
the same flowing tail and sweep of outline. The
sickles of the Sumatra Game Fowl, carried low
as they were, very nearly touched the ground,
and the breed had a small and beautiful pea-
comb. Other American importations were
known as Javan Game and Malacca Game, all
of which had very similar characteristics, but
the Javan and Malaccan being larger in size.
They all had a small pea-comb ; and they
are all reported as " dead game," beating the
best English and Spanish Game then fought
in the United States •. one of these Eastern
birds is recorded as having won no less than
75 battles against all comers.

The retired Indian officer to whom we were
indebted for the drawing above alluded to, part

of a collection originally intended to
Indian illustrate a work on Indian fowls and

Cock- cock-fighting, supplied some interest-

Fighting, ii^g particulars of Eastern methods of

carrying on that sport, which differ
totally in many ways from those formerly prac-
tised in England as described in the next chapter.
He was stationed for years in the Straits, and told
us that in some districts almost every native walk-
ing about would have a cock under his arm ready
for any challenger. This was specially the case
in Sumatra, and at a great ceremonial cock-fight
sometimes a thousand spectators would assemble.
The methods of fighting were briefly as follow : —

Some birds live for years and win many matches,
for generally one escapes altogether. Malay cock-
fighting is really much less cruel than English ; a few
minutes and the longest fight is over. The spurs vary
in outline, some being straight, some curved, and some
waved ; but all have edges as sharp as razors, and are
in fact like blades of penknives fastened on. This makes
the fighting so quick. It takes yards and yards of soft
cotton thread, wrapped round and round in all sorts of
ways, to keep the spurs firm in loco; and this is the
first art of <i Malay. The golok (a straight spur) is
generally fastened under foot, close to the ground ; the
crooked spur in the natural position. They take a long
time to heel the birds, and lots of people (friends) look
at the position, and give their advice. All this time the
money is collected on the mats — piles of dollars on
either side — for they are very clannish, and if one side

puts down a thousand dollars, the other must do so, or
no fight ; that is, unless a quarrel ensue, and they
fight each other. Very few English engaged in the
pursuit — I did not know above half a dozen that ever
did ; there was some danger of rows, and few liked to
have to do with it, though nothing like so bad as an
English cockpit. I once went into the pit at Westminster,
and was so disgusted with a main, I never repeated my
visit. I never saw a fight at Malacca; they fight there
sometimes, but it is the purely native States that make
such a business of it. The Rajah of Siak, the first cock-
fighter of his day {1825-6), once sent a deputation to me
of five boats full of officers, and about thirty cocks, with
a pedigree to each bird : they were various colours and
various names, and fine birds all. It was quite a grand
ceremonial.

Many of the birds are carefully trained. I have
seen a man throw down a bird and hold out one finger
two or three yards off, and the bird would fly at it
and strike it ! The birds know their owners, and they
handle them most dexterously. They are generally put
out of hand on the ground by the competitors at say
eight or nine yards apart ; but each man seeks to put
his bird down at advantage, and there is manceuvring.
The result depends much on training. Some run under
and others fly high ; it matters not how they meet, but
meet they do, and strike home ! They often meet high
up in the air. I have seen — at different times, of course,
and different birds — two cuts from Malay spurs, which,
if they could have been done at once, and in one bird,
would have quite cut the fowl in two pieces ; one cut
going clean through the back deep into the breast, and
the other through the breast deep into the back — so
keen are the edges of these deadly weapons, and so dread-
ful are the wounds. Generally one cock at once falls dead
or next door to it, so that the other has only to give just
one peck and rise, and it is over ; but sometimes the
dying bird lays hold of the unwounded one, and by a
well-directed blow kills his assailant at once, and wins
the battle. They are seldom touched after once let go,
because, as I said, one is liors de combat.

When tlie Bugis come to trade in the States the
betting is very heavy; and sometimes when a man loses
all he has he becomes desperate — in Malay language,
" )neng-a-mok" (Anglic^, "runs amuck"), and perhaps
kills many. It is quite a royal affair when Bugis chiefs and
Malay rajahs meet, and most intensely exciting, as they
all have weapons ready for the least affront, and no man
can offer another a greater insult than saying to him,
" Eteeh bcr taji" (i.e. "Duck-spurred") — the contrast
is between tlie duck and, to their minds, the noblest of
birds, a Game-cock 1 I have seen hundreds, and even
thousands, of dollars lost and won on one fight of a few
minutes' duration ; and they go on most of the daylight
after they once begin, about noon.

It is uncertain how long the true Aseel has
been known in England. In 1871 Mr. Joseph
Hinton, writing upon Malays, gave the following
account of some other imported fowls which he
had seen : —

Last year I saw some birds brought from India by
a friend. These birds he called Game, but in many
respects they more resembled Malays. The cock's
comb and gills appeared to have been cut ; the shoulders
were very prominent, and of extraordinary breadth for
the size of the bird ; the weight probably under six
pounds, but the size and hardness of thighs something
marvellous. The thickness of the neck was also

333

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

another marked point ; the hackle was scanty, and the
tail drooping ; whilst the general carriage was very
Malay. The hens were even more Malay in character
than the cocks, and their combs appeared warty. Of
these birds my friend was remarkably proud. No strain
could stand against them in fighting in India, and he
had been offered fabulous sums for them. The hardness
of these birds was something quite out of the common,
■nd he tells me the same bird has fought four days
following. The method of fighting there is a test of
pluck and endurance, for they cut off the spur and bind
tape over it, so that the battle is lengthened out ; yet,
he says, these birds would fight day after day for the
time I have stated.

Mr. Hinton believed that these birds were
probably a cross between English Game and
Malays ; but there can be httle doubt now that
they were Aseel, which were not known at that
date. The details about fighting with muffled
spurs are very interesting when compared with
those above, by an authority who really under-
stood Indian cock-fighting, respecting the sharp
and deadly character of real combat. This latter
was little test of endurance at all, but depended
upon muscle and quickness; and upon that very
account, as we have heard also from other
sources, the muffled fighting, besides, was
practised as training, in order to produce that
hardness of muscle for which the Aseel is
distinguished. For the modern in-
Aseel troduction of the breed, however,

in fanciers are chiefly indebted to

England. Mr. Charles F. Montresor, who

both imported it and spread the
knowledge of it to the best of his ability, by
exhibiting, and offering classes, and in other
ways.

The following notes upon Aseel are kindly
contributed by Sir Claud Alexander, Eart, of
Ballochmyle, Ayrshire, whose attachment to the
breed has lasted many years.

"Aseel, as their name (which is an Indian
adjective meaning " highborn " or " aristocratic ")
denotes, are perhaps the oldest breed of domestic
poultry in existence, having been kept from
time immemorial by princes, and indeed by all
classes in India, for fighting. How well they
have been selected and bred for this purpose,
will soon be apparent to anyone who takes them
up ; for so inborn in them is the spirit of
combativeness that even tiny chickens, before
they have exchanged their down for feathers,
will fight to the bitter end, while the introduction
of a new hen into a pen always leads to many
bloody heads, and often to more serious damage
in the shape of broken beaks and blinded eyes.
This, from the point of view of the English
exhibitor, is their greatest drawback; for even
when a goodly number of promising chickens
have been hatched, no amount of care will

prevent some of them from being ruined for
the show-pen by their brothers and sisters.
Added to this, although their plump breasts and
freedom from oftal make them excellent table
birds, they are bad layers, and the hens cannot
be depended on to lay more than eight or at
most a dozen eggs each. Considering all this.
it is, perhaps, not to be wondered at that many
who have set themselves up with a stock of this
variety, have given them up in despair, and been
glad to exchange the mangled remnants of their
carefully collected pen for a more peaceable
breed. Even as I write, my two best pullets
are dead, lying slain by a sister of the same
hatch ; yet oddly enough Aseel show little or
no inclination to fight with other breeds, though
in every individual of their own race they seem
to see an hereditary' foe.

" Their Indian originators have not confined
their efforts to cultivating the mental character-
istic of their birds, but have been equally careful
to develop them physically to the best advan-
tage, selecting always those hens to breed from
which were best suited in appearance to produce
fighting birds, while in the cocks, survival of the
fittest has been secured by the simple process of
fighting them incessantly. No one who has
seen and handled a good Aseel can fail to
admire the skill which has produced such
enormous power in so small a compass ; while
offal has been reduced to a minimum, and
dubbing rendered unnecessary ; the tiny pea-
comb giving no opportunity to an adversar\-,
and the wattles being practically non-existent.
For days before the battles come off, the natives
will argue and wrangle as to the prospects of
their respective favourites, and in many cases
before the arrangements have reached comple-
tion, the owners instead of the birds have come
to blows.

" I am told by friends who have watched
these fights in India that the birds in common
use are of all colours, as is the case with those
seen at English shows. Through the kindness,
however, of Colonel Hallen, who probably
knows more about Aseel than any other Eng-
lishman, I obtained some birds whose parents
he had imported from the most carefully kept
collections of Indian princes, and these were all
either black-red or bright ginger, while a few of
the hens showed faint traces of the lacing to be
seen in our so-called Indian Game, which have
undoubtedly been manufactured from the more
ancient Aseel. Colonel Hallen informed me
that no other colours were admitted in the best
strains, and indeed he once expressed to me his
horror at receiving from a well-known and
successful English exhibitor a spangled cock of

ORIGIN OF INDIAN GAME.

339

the now fashionable colour, which he promptly
returned. That he subsequently accepted a
black-red cock from my own yard as a change
of blood, may be taken as proof that the English
show bird is in all, save colour, a worthy descen-
dant of his warlike Indian ancestor.

" The Standard now embodied in that of the
Poultry Club, was drawn up some years ago at
the request of several admirers of the breed,
by Mr. Charles F. Montresor, and those who
wish to take up this interesting variety cannot
do better than study it carefully. No remarks
on Aseel would be complete without a reference
to the great benefits also conferred on the
breed in England by such careful breeders as
Mr. James Hutchings, Major Dunning, Mr.
Stawell Bryan, Mr. Peele, Mr. F. C. Tomkins,
and Mr. E. Leake, all of whose names are
household words in the annals of the show pen."
The Aseel resembles the Malay somewhat
in the high and prominent shoulders, drooping
tail, and short and narrow feather ; but the
shoulders are a little less angular, and the bird
has much shorter and more powerful limbs,
striking one as a little low in carriage of the
body. The most marked characteristic of the
race is weight compared with size : taking in
hand an apparently small bird, it feels " like
lead " compared with any other fowl, the Indian
Game coming next to it in this respect. This
arises from the e.xtraordinary density of muscle
which has been produced by generations of
severe competitive selection, and we fear it
must tend to decrease as the Aseel is bred
year after year without that training and
selection, as a mere fowl. Rigorously to dis-
card any approach towards " softness " either
of flesh or feather, is all that can be done to
guard against this tendency.

INDIAN GAME.

This breed has been familiar in Devonshire
and Cornwall for at least si.xty years, but has
only been practically known to any extent out-
side of those counties since about the year
1875, being at that date often spoken of or
referred to as " Cornish " Game, in recognition
of its local character. For j'ears previous to
that it often received and filled classes at the
local shows, and in 1870 we found a large and
good collection at the Plymouth show of that
year. We had at that date never seen the true
Aseel, and our idea was then that the breed
had probably been produced by crossing Malays
with English Game. Other various accounts
have been given of its origin. The late Mr.
Comyns leaned to the opinion that it sprang

from Game and Malay "with a touch of Aseel
and Indian Jungle Fowl"; and Mr. Tegetmeier
also believed it to be mainly Malay. It was
known as Cornish " Game," because on many
occasions the fowl was actually fought by the
Cornish miners, being in the early days — as we
know from many sources — fierce and possessed
of some courage. But even at its best it was
never able to stand against good English Game,
being too heavy and slow, and lacking spirit in
comparison ; and any fighting capacity which it
ever did possess has now almost disappeared.

There can, however, be no doubt at all now
that the true ancestor of the Indian Game fowl is
the Aseel, from which is derived the pea-comb,
more moderated carriage and pro-
Origin portion, and more rounded form.

of The chief question really debatable

Indian Game, has been, whether the Aseel had
been crossed with Malay, or with the
British race; and this is practically set at rest
by the direct affirmation of Mr. Montresor. That
gentleman published a statement in Poultry a
few years ago, to the effect that in 1846 he had
been personally informed by the late General
Gilbert (afterwards Sir Walter Raleigh Gilbert)
how he had himself originated the breed in
Cornwall, years before that, by crossing red
Aseel, which he had imported direct from
India, with English black-breasted Red Game of
Lord Derby's strain. Taking into consideration
date, and social position, and locality, and detail,
this statement must be held to settle that
question in the main. But from inquiries we
made in various directions respecting changes
which we noted with our own eyes in the birds
as exhibited, there can be little doubt that some
further modification of the breed took place
about 1870-77, crosses being made with birds
intensely black in the cocks and magnificently
glossed in both sexes, then e.xhibited occasionally
as " Pheasant Malays." From this cross was
derived a solid black breast and darker colour
in the cocks, and greater richness of colour and
more iridescence of the lacing in the hens ;
and we suspect the double lacing also, which
we never remember to have seen before. What
this " Pheasant Malay " itself really was, we are
at the present date unable to say. It was
certainly not Malay as otherwise shown ; being
smaller, with fuller tail, and with more symmetry
and rounded shoulders, and it had a pea-comb.
Neither was it Aseel as now shown ; having too
much tail, though of very narrow feathers, rather
too much limb, and too upright or Malay a type
of carriage. Our own impression, confirmed by
every American fancier who has ever seen the
breed in the United States, and whom we have

34°

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

been able to consult, is that these birds were
probably specimens of the magnificent Sumatra
Pheasant Game fowl, and that this breed has,
therefore, been a third component of, and given
the final " polish " to, the Indian Game. Its
own close relationship to the Aseel has been
hinted at in discussing that bird; and upon the
whole the successive mixture of strains here
indicated appears the most probable pedigree
of the present Indian Game.

The general appearance of the fowl is
very much what might be expected from
such an origin, but yet with a character of
its own. The cock's head is rather broad and
beetle-browed, but not nearly so
Characteriatics much SO as that of the Malay ;
of and longer than the Malay, but not

Indian Game, nearly so much so as the English
Game. It is surmounted by a triple
or pea-comb, which is apt to be rather large,
and is very often dubbed. Wattles and ear-
lobes are small and brilliant red, beak either
yellow or horn-colour, or a mixture ; eyes full
and bold, and varying in colour from pale
yellow to red, the latter colour evidently coming
from the Derby Red cross, and being strong
evidence of it. The neck is of medium length,
and rather arched, with short hackles, but
enough to just cover the base of the neck. The
body should be very thick and compact, large
and broad round the shoulders and tapering
towards the tail, with a wide and deep but
well-rounded breast, and tolerably flat back,
with the shoulders standing out well and
prominently, but not so as to cause a hollow
back; neither must the bird be flat-sided. The
wings are rather short, and earned close, with
well-rounded points closely tucked in. The
thighs and shanks are stout and only medium
length, not nearly so long as in the Malay, the
shanks being rich yellow or orange, the feet
well spread and flat, with the back toe well
down and almost flat on the ground. The tail
is medium length, with narrow sickles and
coverts, very hard, carried drooping. The whole
carriage is very upright, with high shoulders
and lower stern, the back sloping ; altogether
with much of the Malay character, but much
tempered down and differently proportioned.
The plumage is throughout short, hard, close, and
extremely lustrous. The breast, under-parts, and
tail are rich, glossy, green-black. The head
is the same green-black, but the hackle lower
down is mingled or streaked with rich bay or
chestnut, as are the saddle hackles, the shafts
of the feathers being deep crimson-brown. The
wing-bows are a somewhat similar mingling of
deep bay or chestnut with green-black ; the

wing-bar green-black of the most lustrous kind ;
the secondaries deep bay on the outer web, and
black on the inner webs and ends of feathers,
forming a chestnut triangular wing-bay.

The general characteristics of the hen are
similar, allowing for sex, but her colour is
different, and almost unique among the black-
breasted Reds. Her head and upper hackles
commence also as rich green, but lower down
the centre of the feather becomes chestnut, with
only a green border. The body generally is of
a very rich bay or chestnut ground-colour, each
feather laced or edged with beetle-green, with
such iridescence as causes the lacing to look
as if embossed or raised above the surface of the
feather. At the throat and upper part of the
breast this lacing is very often single, but lower
down, as the feathers get larger, and on the
back, and on the wing-bows, there should be
a second or inner lacing. Fig. i lo is photo-
graphed from some feathers of a beautiful hen,
sent for the purpose by the writer of the notes
below, and show the type of this double-
lacing admirably. The feathers on the wing-
bows are generally amongst the best for
marking, and the coverts or bars should
especially be well and boldly laced. Some-
times a tJiird black centre-mark may be found
in the larger feathers, inside the second lacing,
but this is not usual in England. In America,
however, where the Indian Game has become
very popular since 1890, many breeders try to
cultivate a still further or " triple " lacing, and
the American Standard, till a few years ago,
actually stipulated for "two or more " lacings on
each feather. This is the principal difference
between American and English ideas concerning
these fowls, for in England even double-lacing
is by no means apparent upon all feathers,
though acknowledged and held desirable. To
lay stress upon yet further lacing, must not only
inevitably lead to the mating-up of special
pullet-breeding pens, but would probably des-
troy that grand and " embossed " character of
the marking which is so great a beauty ; and on
both these grounds it is a matter for congratula-
tion that the last edition of the American
Standard has omitted the words "or more,"
leaving only double-lacing as its description of
the hen's plumage.

This fowl has been very largely bred of late

for the production of table poultry, having in

unusual degree the property of im-

Qualities parting good breasts and wings to

of crossesof whichit forms acomponent,

Indian Game, and weight and juiciness of flesh

when crossed with fowls whose flesh

may be in comparison "short" and dry. Such

\, '

i

'

"J

^■1

QUALITIES OF INDIAN GAME.

341

crosses, as we have already seen, are not
always the best for all circumstances ; but when
an adequate price can be realised to repay for
proper age and growth, make the very finest of
table fowls. When crossed with the Dorking
the produce is very often white both in flesh
and skin, and not seldom in shank also ; but
this point is found to differ curiously in dificrent
strains, or rather perhaps in birds reared upon
difi'erent soil, to which the Indian Game appears
unusually susceptible. Both colour of leg and
richness and lustre of plumage have appeared
to us, as the result of many observations,
closely connected with run upon rich pastures,

Under Throat. Back of Thigh.

Fig. no.— Lacing of Indian Game Hen.

such as those of Devon ; and we have noticed
repeatedly that when stock has been trans-
planted to drier soil and more scanty herbage,
it was extremely difficult, if not impossible, to
keep up that richness of appearance which gave
no trouble at all on the rich grass of the West.
In the United States this fowl is even more valu-
able for the table than in England, the yellow
colour being there in special demand, and need-
ing no tempering at all. The birds have hither-
to been too valuable to be very much used as
broiler chickens ; but it has been found that the
required 2 lbs. is often made by cockerels at
seven weeks old, and this with more breast and
wing in proportion than any other breed known
there. Even in England, it is chiefly the ex-
cellence of Indian Game and its crosses that
has_ so greatly broken down the former pre-
judice against yellow-skinned birds, which we
are glad to learn is to a large extent lessening-

in the London markets. The size and weight
differ enormously according to the manage-
ment and feeding. Like the Malay and Aseel,
it always weighs much more than it appears to
do, but giants are not desired for the show pen.
On an average, we should say that the standard
weights of 8 lbs. for an adult cock and 6 lbs.
for a hen were generally exceeded by about a
pound each in practice ; but these exhibition
birds are usually brought up quite hardy, with
but little feeding. When fed up we have actually
known a cock to reach \2\ lbs., which must be
nearly the extreme ; but we are bound to say
that such great size does not seem to suit the
general appearance of the fowl.
As a layer the Indian Game
does not stand in the very first
class, or in the same rank as
those specially known as " lay-
ing breeds," but it is by no
means a bad layer, comparing
rather with breeds like the
Dorking or ordinary fine farm-
yard poultry. Averaging vari-
ous reports we have had, many
strains are probably good for
100 to 120 eggs per annum.
The eggs are from pale to dark
brown, and particularly sound
and smooth in shell as a rule,
rather short or roundish, and
of very rich flavour, at least
upon the Cornish or Devon-
shire pastures. Pullets hatched
at proper seasons are good
winter layers.

The following notes upon
Indian Game are kindly sup-
plied by Mr. William Brent, of Clampit, Call-
ington, well known as a judge, and as one of
the oldest and most successful breeders :

"This breed, which has become a very
popular variety during the last two decades, and
now has admirers in almost every part of the
globe, was scarcely known outside
of Cornwall and the fringe of
Devonshire across the Tamar until
somewhere about thirty years ago,
but has been a leading variety in
the Callington district for certainly more than
half a century. The fowls were originally
imported from India, and although the size
of the breed has been increased, and the colour
and markings have become more defined, they
still retain in the main their original character-
istics. In the earlier times the cocks were
used in the 'pit,' and often 'won their spurs,"
but although somewhat pugnacious still, they

Mr. W. Brent

on
Indian Game.

342

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

are not now nearly so quarrelsome as their
ancestors. The writer has frequently seen
from 30 to 60 cockerels, weighing from 7 to 10
lbs. each, living together in harmony, and
scarcely ever a blow struck.

" These birds combine utility with beauty in
a high degree, and have won their popularity
from inherent worth, as very little in the past
has been written about them. They are
particularly hardy, and never do better than
when allowed to roam in the fields, and sleep at
night in the trees or bushes ; but from their
hardy constitution they also bear confinement
well, and will lay well in winter if provided with
sheltered runs. They breed true ; and I have
known as many as ten winners reared from one
sitting of eggs. From some of the most care-
fully-bred strains, such a thing as a waster is
practically unknown. Yet for beauty of
plumage the Indian Game will compare with any
of the fancy varieties of poultry. Each feather
(especially of the females) possesses great beauty
in itself That of a pullet is a clear chestnut
ground colour, with an outer and inner green-
black metallic lacing of most exquisite lustre,
which reaches the zenith of grandeur when the
sunlight plays on the plumage. The general
colour of the male is green glossy black, and the
plumage is very close and hard, so that the bird
looks as if he were wearing a coat of mail.

" For the table, Indian Game are unsurpassed,
having a broad and deep breast from which many
slices maybe cut, and always in killing condition
if moderately supplied with food. The some-
what yellow-tinted flesh (when ordinarily fed)
has told against them in the London market ;
but this prejudice I hope is dying out, and
whatever the flesh may lack in colour, is far more
than compensated for by a very marked delicacy
of flavour. At Plymouth, Exeter, and other
western markets where they are better known,
the Indian Game are eagerly bought, and
command higher prices than any other breed of
fowls ; and this without cramming or any extra
feeding whatever. They are also the best breed
known for crossing with almost any variety for
breeding table poultry, reproducing as they do
to a very large extent their own characteristics
on the cross-bred progeny, which is an evidence
of their ancient pedigree.

" From my experience as a successful breeder
and exhibitor for twenty-five years, I maintain
that no class of poultry can be bred, reared, and
successfully shown with less expenditure of time
and attention than Indian Game. The first step,
which is of paramount importance, is to possess
healthy stock birds, of reliable blood. I allow
the hens to sit on their own eggs in March,

April, and May, and sometimes later, and when
hatched I usually feed the chickens liberally
twice a day (but oftentimes they provide for
themselves), and the brood is healthy and grows
rapidly. The hen will often guard her offspring
until the cockerels outgrow their mother. If
bred before March, the chickens require more
attention, as there is then no insect life for them
to feed on, and the cold winds play havoc with
them, as for the first two months they are almost
featherless. They get in full plumage when
from five to six months old.

" The only preparation required for showing
is to tame them by occasional handling ; and to
wash the legs (if dirty) and sponge the face
before sending off to show."

As indicated in the above notes, both
cockerels and pullets of this breed can be bred
from one pen, when the birds are of an old and
reliable strain, and while the present standards
of colour are preserved. Already,
Breeding however, some breeders profess to

Indian Game, get better results by mating up
two pens, using hens with dark
ground and heavy lacing to produce cockerels,
and lighter ground and somewhat narrower
lacing to breed their pullets. It will be a pity if
this system spreads, or goes any further ; and
still more so if another system, which one or two
breeders have pursued, of breeding pullets from
red-hackled cocks, should extend. Hackles of
this kind are a great fault in the male bird, and
if tolerated merely to breed females, double-
mating would be introduced in its worst form.
Fortunately (from this point of view), while we
know that some really fine pullets have been
bred that way when the hens have been good,
the bad ones have been in very large proportion,
even more than when the usual system has been
pursued. What can properly be done, and what
(judging from analogy) ought to be effective
in breeding well-marked pullets as well as
rich cockerels, would be to choose males for
breeding in which the chestnut or crimson in the
back or saddle of the cock was sharp and
well defined amongst the green-black, without
being more in proportion or amount. It would
be a great pity to go further, throwing away
in any degree the benefit of the present
acknowledged sex-colours, which have been
proved to be natural and to breed true ; and
the greatest evil of encouraging triple or
further lacing, as was once likely in America,
is that it would certainly bring in ultimately the
practice, if not the necessity, of using cocks
with other than green-black breasts, merely
for pullet-breeding. Independent of this reason,
such changes would destroy that grand and

BLUE MADRAS GAME.

343

bold character of the lacing which at present
distinguishes and makes so beautiful the Indian
Game.

It is better, so far as possible, to breed
from birds over one year old, though this
cannot always be done. The chickens are
slow in feathering, though clothed sooner than
Malays ; and the progeny of adults fledge
more quickly and kindly than those of young
birds. The chickens are hardy to mere
exposure, provided they are brought up so,
but they must be kept running about, and
there are none which suffer more surely from
the falsely called " cramp " described on p. 85,
if subjected to too much heat or to over-
feeding. A prevailing diet of grain or hard
food seems to suit them best, including
especially a portion of canary seed if brought
up in partial confinement : on free range, as
indicated by Mr. Brent, they give hardly any
trouble or anxiety at all.

There is really only one recognised breed of
Indian Game, as described above. Whites have
been shown as such, and appear recognised in
America, but are mere mongrels, and were
protested against by the Indian Game Club
in 1900. A soft bird, with neither colour, nor
marking, nor lustre, has no right to the name,
and is not likely to preserve even the useful
qualities for which the breed is valued, and
which depend largely upon unbroken pedigree.
Such birds would be disqualified by any com-
petent judge recognised by the Club.

In a somewhat difierent category must be
placed an undoubtedly pure breed of which
very little is known now, but of which specimens

were occasionally shown years ago
^'"® under the name of Blue Madras

Game. Game. We have felt in some doubt

whether they could most properly
be mentioned under the heading of Aseel, or
in this place. Their undoubted gameness would
rank them with the Aseel, as would also their
shorter legs and low carriage. But their large
size, their much better laying than anything
known of Aseel, the fact that they never sported
white, while they sometimes did sport nearly
black in the cockerels, and especially the lacing
which distinguished them, seem to place them
most properly here. At all events, while clearly
not Aseel, they were undoubtedly a pure local
variety of real " Indian Game," if not directly
allied to the Cornish bird of that name, and
had many qualities in common. For the follow-
ing details we are indebted to Mr. R. Gordon,
of Cheviot Cottage, Leven, N.B., and shall be
pleased if they awaken some renewed interest

in a variety which otherwise must soon become
e.xtinct.

" I fancy there are now very few specimens
of this breed in this country, and doubt if more
than one or two importations ever were made.
Mr. R. R. Fowler imported some birds from
India many years ago, and he stated that they
were brought from the interior for over three
hundred miles on camel-back. For myself, I
kept the breed for three seasons, having obtained
some stock from his original strain. Although
very fond of them, I finally cleared them out,
simply because I had not the space to do equal
justice to them with other breeds I then had.

" Still, the breed was a good one. The birds
were large, adult cocks weighing from Si lbs. to
9 lbs., and hens about 7 lbs. In colour they were
something like the Andalusian, but with less
grey slate, and more clear blue in their plumage,
than the latter. They were also laced some-
thing after the Andalusian pattern, sharp and
narrow round the margin of the feathers, and
the colour of the lacing was dark blue. The
hen was one uniform shade all over, hackle
excepted, the latter being dark blue. Tails
were solid colour, not laced. With regard to
the cocks, breast and wing-bars were similar
in colour and lacing to that of the hen's body,
and the tail was also solid blue in colour like
that of the hen. Neck hackles, back, shoulders,
wing-bow, and saddle very dark blue, many
specimens throwing a lot of red in neck and
saddle. We never found any red feathers in
the hen. Legs were dark slate ; ear-lobes red
The comb was a very neat, low-set pea-comb.

" This breed did not throw all blue chickens.
Perhaps twenty per cent, or thereabouts of the
cockerels came pure black, and these generally
grew into the finest of the flock so far as size
was concerned. No whites ever appeared, and
none of the pullets ever came other than blue.
The shape of the birds was also very pleasing.
They partook of something of the character of
the Indian Game, but had hardly anything of
the angularity of the latter. That is to say,
they were fairly short and close in feather, broad
built and cobby, short in leg (much shorter than
Indian Game), stout in bone, nicely curved neck.
which was also fairly short, and in harmony
with length of leg, and wings carried well up,
the butts showing clearly.

" I found that the best way to mate this
breed was a rather dark cock with good lacing
to clear blue hens, also showing good lacing.
Many of the latter were of a beautiful dove
colour, and well adapted for the breeding-pen.

" As to utility qualities, the hens proved fairly
good layers of large-sized eggs, cream or bufi-

344

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

coloured in tint, but sometimes with a pinky
shade. They were not persistent sitters during
the warm weatiier, like many Asiatics, and
moulted fairly early. The breed had also ex-
cellent table qualities. The skin was white,
and the flesh both abundant and of fine grain
and flavour.

" To many people, however, the breed had
one bad fault. Both cocks and hens were
incurably pugnacious. Many of the cock-
chickens fought each other to the very death
when about three months old. That is to say,
they would scalp each other, knock an eye out
with the beak, and so tear and mutilate each
other about the head that if not quickly
sepaiated they frequently never recovered, but
died m a day or two after their battles. The
adults were as bad, every bit. I was greatly
pestered by cock-fighters for specimens of the
breed. (Pray, do not imagine there are no cock-
fighters now ; there are at least a couple of
hundred in this county alone, to my certain
knowledge.) One old fellow, well up in his
sixties, who had followed the pastime all his
life, told me that he recognised the breed
from a pair which a Glasgow ship-captain had
brought from India to a friend of his more
than thirty years ago. The cock of this pair
won several battles, and after breeding from
him they ' cut him down,' to test the probable
quality of his chickens. That is to say,
they cut his spurs off, and matched him
to a strong cock with naked heels (not
armed wich steel gaffs, however), to test his
endurance and courage to the death. It took
more than one strong bird to finish him, but he
died without a flinch, with his face to the foe.
It was and is a cruel proceeding, but it satisfies
a cock-fighter whether a bird of a particular
strain is ' dead game ' or not.

" I have w-ritten in the past tense, but hope
that some specimens of the breed may still exist
in this country. At any rate, it is still possible
to make them ' come again.' "

The following are the Standards of Perfec-
tion for the foregoing breeds, as adopted by
both the Poultry Club and, in all but the
exact form, by the specialist Clubs of the
breeds concerned.

MALAYS (SITTERS)
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Skull : Very broad, witli deep-set ej-es
and beetle or overhanging eyebrows, giving a cruel
and morose expression. Beak : Short and strong, and
well curved. The profile of the skull and beak

approaches the shape of a segment of a circle. Eyes :
Deep-set. Comb : Shaped Uke a half walnut, small,
set well fonvard, and as free as possible from irregu-
larities. Fac3 : Smooth. Ear-lobes and Wattles .-
SmaU.

Neck. — -Long and upright, tliick through from
back of skull to gullet, the bare skin of the throat
running some way down the neck, hackle full at the
base of the skull, elsewhere very short and scanty.

Body. — Very wide and square at shoulders,
tapering to tail, the wing butts and shoulders promi-
nent and carried well up, and usually bare of feathers
at the point. Back : Short, very sloping, and of
convex outline, the saddle narrow and drooping.
Breast : Deep and full, generally bare of feathers
at the breast-bone, and the chest inclined to flatness.
Wings : Of medium length, large, and strong, carried
high and closely to the sides ; the feathers should
be hard, short, and scanty. All the Unes of the
bird should present a hard, clean, cut-up appear-
ance.

Tail. — Of moderate length, drooping, not wliipped,
the sickles narrow and only slightlv curved, and
the side-hangers rather full, also slightly curved
and finisliing to a point. The outline of the neck-

Fig. III.— The Three Curves.

hackle, back, and upper tail feathers should form
a succession of curves at nearly equal angles.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Set well on the front of
the body, long and muscular thighs, wdth very httle
feather on them, and leaving the hock perfectly
exposed, shanks long and beautifully scaled, flat
at hocks, and gradually rounding to setting on of
spur, a downward curve in spur to be preferred.
Toes : Four on each foot, long and straight and
with powerful talons, the back toe lying close to
the ground.

Carriage. — Very erect, high in front and drooping
behind, standing straight at the hock, fierce and
gaunt.

Weight.— II lb.

Plumage. — Very close, scanty, narrow, and lus-
trous.

Handling. — Extremely firm and muscular.

Except that the Tail is rather short and square,
neither whipped nor fanned, carried sUghtly above
the horizontal line, and well played, as if flexible
at the joint or insertion, the general characteristics
of the hen are similar to those of the cock, allowing
for the natural sexual differences.

Weight.— 9 lb.

JUDGING MALAYS, ASEEL, INDIAN GAME.

345

COLOUR

Beak : Yellow or horn, yellow preferred. Eyes :
Pearl, yellow, or daw. Comb, Face, Throat, Wattles,
and Ear-lobes : Brilliant red. Legs and Feet : Very
rich yellow.

THE PILE

Plumage of the Cock. — Hackle, Saddle, and Back :
Rich red. ]Vii!gs : Bow, rich red ; secondaries,
bright bay ; flights, white on inner web, with red
outside edging. Remainder of Plumage : White.

Plumage of the Hen. — Hackle : Gold. Breast :
Salmon. Remainder of Plumage : White.

THE RED

Plumage of the Cock. — Hackle, Saddle, and Back :
Rich red. Wings : Bow, rich red ; secondaries, bright
bay ; flights, black on inner web with red outside
edging. Remainder of Plumage : Lustrous green-black.

Plumage of the Hen. — Any shade of cinnamon or
wheatcn, with preferably dark purple hackle. Par-
tridge marked and Clay are also allowable. The
Red variety should be quite free from white feathers
in wings and tail.

THE SP.\NGLED

Plumage. — Somewhat similar to the Red in ground,
except the Breast, Under-part, Thighs, and Tail of
the cock, which should have an admixture of red
and white. The hen's colour should be rich, and
boldly marked with black and white. Each feather
in both sexes should somewhat resemble tortoise-
shell in the blending of its red or chestnut with
black, and should have a bold white tip to it ; even
the long feathers of the wings and tail should be
as tri-coloured as possible.

THE WHITE

Plumage. — Pure white, free from any yellow or
black, or ruddy feathers.

Note. — The foregoing are the principal varieties,
and others are not sufficiently numerous to warrant
description. The above colours and markings are
ideal, but in Malays not so much value is attached
to these points as to type and quality.

SCALE OP POINTS

Head : skull, 5 ; brow and expression, 5 ; beak,

5 ; comb, 3 . . . . . . . . . . 18

Shape (curves, etc.), strong shoulders and wing

butts . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5

Length of limb and neck, and stiltincss .. 15

Size and bone . . . . . . . . . . 0

Carriage and outline . . . . . . . . 9

Feather : short, narrow, and hard . . . . S

Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . S

Tail 5

Colour . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Eyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Feet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

ciently penalised by the deduction of the maximum
number of points allowed in the above scale.

ASEEL (SITTERS)
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Skull : Short and small, though broad
between the eyes and jaw, and thick at the base.
Beak : Strong, thick, and somewhat short, upper
mandible slightly curved, lower mandible straight.
Eye? : Bold, set back in the head. Comb : Triple
or " pea," the smaller the better, very hard fleshed.
Face : Hard and of fine texture. Ear-lobes : As
small as possible. Wattles : None.

Neck. — Of medium length, the same width through-
out, powerful, and furnished with scanty feathering,
with the throat clean, not prominent or fleshy.

Body. — Short ; straight back ; broad and high
shoulders ; stern narrow in comparison, but thick
and strong in hand at the root of the tail, this latter
being a great indication of strength. Wings : Strong,
short, and level, carried well out from the shoulders.

Tail. — Short and slightly drooping, with the
sickles tapering like a scimitar to within three or
four inches of the ground.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Thick and muscular
thighs, well apart, and short shanks, free of feathers.
Toes : Four, thick and straight ; hind toe, if ■■ duck-
footed," not a disqualification.

Carriage. — Upi'ight ; not too " Gamey " in general
appearance.

Handling. — Short, close, and wiry plumage, diffi-
cult to break, devoid of fluff ; very heavy body in
comparison with size ; almost naked at point of
breast-bone and first joint of the wings.

Weight— 6 lb.

The general characteristics are similar to those
of the cock, allowing for the natural sexual differ-
ences.

Weight.—; lb.

COLOUR

Except that the Co)nb, Face, Jaws, and Throat
are red, there is no standard or fixed colour of Beak,
Eyes, Legs, and Plumage. The principal varieties
of the breed are the black, grey, red, black spangle,
red spangle, white, and yellow.

SCALE
Head (want of skull)

Type

Condition
Legs and feet
Carriage of tail
Eyes and comb

Neck

Stern
Plumage

OP POINTS

Serious defects : Any clear evidence of an alien
cross ; diminutive size ; single or pea comb ; bow
legs ; knock knees ; very bad feet ; in short any
defect that in the opinion of the judge is not suffi-

Serious defects : Wry
any other deformity.

tail, or roach back, or

346

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

INDIAN GAME (SITTERS)

GENKRAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Skull : Rather broad, long and deep,
not so "keen" as in English Game, nor so thick
as in Malays, yet slightly beetle-browed. Beak :
Short and well curved, stout where it is set on the
head, and giving the bird a powei^ful appearance.
Eyes : Full and bold. Comb : Pea type, small, and
fitting closely to the head. Face : Smooth and of
fine texture. Ear-lobes and Wattles : Small. Throat :
Bare, but not so much as in English Game, being
dotted with small feathers. (Note. — It is customary
to exhibit Indian Game cocks after being dubbed —
i.e. having their comb, ear-lobes, and wattles removed,
and leaving the head and lower jaw smooth and
free from ridges.)

Neck. — Of medium length, fitted with short
hackle, which just covers the base of it.

Body. — Broad and thickly set, short and fiat
back, prominent shoulder butts, fairly deep and
weU rounded breast. Back : Gradually tapering
from shoulders to tail. Wiitgs : Short and muscular,
carried rather high in front, but well rounded at
the point and closely tucked at the ends, and not
flat-sided.

Tail. — Medium length, with short, narrow
secondary sickles and coverts, close and hard, and
with a slight droop.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Very strong and thick,
thighs round and stout, shanks of medium length,
and set well apart. (Note. — The shank should not
in any case be so long as that of the Malay, nor
in any way stilty, but of sufficient length to give
the bird a Game appearance.) Toes : Four on each
foot, long, straight, and strong, well -spread, with
the hind toe set low, nearly flat on the ground,
and extending backwards.

Carriage. — Very \ipright and vigorous, with
sloping back.

Weight. — lo lb.

Plumage. — Narrow, short, hard, and close.

Handhng. — Firm flesh, with plenty of muscle.

HEN

With the exception that the Tail is rather short,
well venetianed but close, and hardly so low, the
general characteristics of the hen are similar to
those of the cock, allowing for the natural sexual
difierences.

Weight.— 8 lb.

COLOUR

Beak : Horn or yellow. Eyes : Varying from
pale yellow to pale red. Comb, Face. Wattles, and
Ear-lobes : Brilliant red. Legs : Rich yellow or
orange.

Plumage of the Cock. — Head, Neck, Breast,
Under-fltiff, Thighs, and Tail : Black, with a rich
■green-black sheen, the base of the neck and tail
hackles a little broken with bay or chestnut, which
should be almost hidden by the body of the feathers.
Back : Glossy green-black (or beetle green), touched
on the fine fronds at the end of the feathers with
bay or chestnut, which gives the desired sheen.
Shoulders : Glossy green-black, slightly broken with
bay or chestnut in the centre of the feather or shaft.

Wings : Bows, similar to shoulders ; secondaries,
glossy green-black on the inner web, and bay or
chestnut on the outer web, a triangular patch of
bay or chestnut alone showing when the wing is
closed ; primaries, deep black, except for about
2^ inches of a narrow lacing on the outer web of
a light chestnut. Tail-coverts (or furnishing) : Glossv
green-black, slightly broken with bay or chestnut in
the base of the shaft.

Plumage of the Hen. — The ground colour is
chestnut brown, nut brown, or mahogany brown.
Head, Hackle, and Throat : Glossy green-black, or
beetle-green. The pointed Hackle that lies under
the neck feathers is glossy green-black, with a bay
or chestnut centre mark. The Breast, commencing
on the lower part of the throat and expanding into
double lacing on the swell of the breast, is of a rich
bay or chestnut, inner or double lacing being most
distinct, the Under-parts and Thighs being marked
somewhat similarly, and running off into a mixture
of indistinct marldngs under the vent and swell
of the thighs. The feathers of the Shoulders and
Back are somewhat smaller, enlarging towards the
tail-coverts, and are similarly marked with the
double lacing. The marldngs on the wingbows and
shoulders running down to the waist are the most
distinct of all, with the same kind of double lacing ;
and often in the best specimens there is an additional
mark enclosing the base of the shaft of the feather,
and running to a point in the second or inner lacing.
The Tail-coverts are seldom as distinctly marked,
but with the same style of marking. The Primary
or Flight Feathers are black, except on the inner
frond or web, which are a little coloured or peppered
with a light chestnut ; the secondaries are black on
the inner web, while the outer web is in keeping
with the general ground colour, and edged with a
delicate lacing of glossy green-black. The Wing-
coverts, which form the bar, are laced like those
of the body, and often a little peppered. The lacing
mentioned should be metallic glossy green-black or
beetle green, and should look as if embossed or raised.

SCALE OF POINTS
Shape and colour of body and thighs, lo ; back,

S ; breast, 8 ; wings, 8 . . . . . . 34

Head ; skull, 3 ; eyes, 3 ; brows, 3 ; beak, 2 ;

wattles, 2 ; lobes, 2 ; comb, 2 . . . . 17

Carriage . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Shape and colour of tail . . . . . . . . 8

Shape and colour of legs and feet . . . . 8

Neck . . . . 3

Serious dejects : Crooked back, beak, or legs ;
wry or squirrel tail ; in-knees or bow legs ; red
hackle ; flat side ; single or Malay comb ; and in
the hen, in addition, too light, too dark, or mealy
ground colour ; or defective marldngs.

(It may be remarked that a scale of points is
not given in the annual report for 1909 issued by
the Indian Game Club, and that which appears
above is a copy of the one published in the former
— third — edition of the " Poultry Club Standards."
— W. W. Broomhead.)

347

CHAPTER XXII.

THE OLD ENGLISH GAME FOWL.

THE bird known under this name stands
by himself alone. In lineage none may
compare with him, since his origin is
absolutely lost in sheer antiquity, and when we
do first hear of him, he is already of noble blood
amongst other fowls. He has for generations
been known as " the English fowl " — Buffon
writes of him as such ; and he has stamped his
very name upon our speech, so that when we
want to express a dogged courage that does not
know how to yield, no matter what hopeless
odds there are arrayed opposite, we say that our
soldier heroes stood "game" to the last against
their foes. He has earned the distinction well,
lifting the name out of the very gutter — for it
was first given him as being identified with
"sport " or " gaming " in the old sense, so that
household bills of James I. contain entries for
the expenses of " cocks of the game for his
Highnesse's recreation " — as he fought for his
owners with the courage of his race ; until at
last the higher meaning of the word came not
from them who had bestowed it, but from the
bird who fought so undauntedly for a meaner
master's stakes.

Let none suppose that all summed up in this
was unmitigated evil. Rude times require rude
virtues, and it will not be forgotten that the
original of the very word virtue itself, stood
equally for virtue and for courage amongst the
Romans. Thus it occurred naturally, that nearly
all primitive nations and civilisations deliberately
sought to learn from the stubborn valour of the
fighting cock. Every schoolboy will remember
how Themistocles revived the courage of his
soldiers by an example before their eyes of two
cocks fighting, and afterwards instituted cock-
fighting festivals. These festivals the lads were
expressly directed to attend in order that they
might learn courage ; a course approved by such
moralists as Socrates and Solon. The Romans
followed the same example. Of more primitive
peoples, some of the earliest Chinese records
mention cock-fighting ; in India there are notices
dating back to at least looo B.C.; and the
Persians had practised it for centuries before the
Greeks learnt from their example. Cock-fighting

has also been traced amongst the Phoenicians;
and some Jewish authorities believe that the
Assyrian war-god Nergal was symbolised by a
fighting cock, but this seems doubtful.

It is impossible to determine whether or not
cock-fighting was introduced into Britain by the
Romans. If it did not previously e.xist there, it
certainly would be ; but as Cfesar tells
Antiquity "s " that the Britons kept fowls for
al pleasure and diversion" though it was

Cock-fighting, unlawful to eat them, the probability
is that they found this particular
diversion already there before them, perhaps
introduced by Phoenician traders. The first
authentic notice of cock-fighting as an English
sport only dates back to the reign of Henry II.,
and is by William Fitz-Stephen ; but it is to be
observed that this notice records it as fully
recognised and carried on at public schools,
especially on Shrove Tuesday. At a later
period we find the " cock-penny " payable by
each scholar at Shrovetide, in order to provide
cocks for the customary festival, a recognised
custom if not a regular fee ; and so lately as
1867 Mr. J. Fitch, one of the Schools Inquiry
Assistant Commissioners, reported that this old
cocking custom was at that date still the occasion
for charging a guinea and a half to each scholar
at Sedgebury School, the master receiving a
guinea and the usher half a guinea, " for which
the scholars received no equivalent." He adds
that " at other free schools similar fees are
collected " ; but this we believe has come to an
end since attention was thus publicly drawn
to such a curious survival of ancient usage.
These details are of special interest as
showing that there was in England, as in
ancient Greece, real and deliberate purpose of
firing the youth of the country to a spirit of
valour and endurance by the example of the
courageous fighting cock.

Still, it was as " cocks of the game " that
these birds were mainly bred, and a treatise
upon their breeding, feeding, and management
formed an important portion of all the earlier
editions of Hoyle's Games. Now that cock-
fighting, though still carried on in secret to a

348

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

certain extent,* has otherwise become now a
matter of history, some authentic details will
be of interest. The following notes were kmdly
supplied by an old and valued correspondent
of ours during many years, who told us that
he fought and won his first main about the
year 1840, with the -parish constables keeping
order in the pit, since which he had fought and
assisted in scores of mains in various parts
of England, Scotland, Wales, and the Con-
tinent. They will prove that some votaries of
this sport have been neither low nor ignorant
men ; and record also a widespread and
almost passionate attachment to it, which may
be a revelation to some, and which is only to
he explained by what we have already hinted at
respecting an affinity with some phases of the
English character. There can be no doubt that
real and genuine admiration for the birds and
their courage has lain deep at the root of it,
however perverted. Many of the following
details were given to us long ago, but at the
date of the first edition of The Illustrated Book
of Poultry it was not deemed advisable to
publish them, for reasons which the lapse of
forty years further have largely diminished.

" For seven centuries cocking was more or
less a national sport with us ; and althougli
disapproved and prohibited by Edward III. and
our eighth Harry, who was so tender-hearted as

not to allow the poor cocks to be
Historical fought for the amusement of his
DetaUs. beloved subjects, the latter built a

cock-pit at Whitehall, to himself,
wherein to take his royal pastime. Many suc-
ceeding edicts were passed against it, including
one from Cromwell, the Protector, a fac-simile of
which, with his seal, I have now before me. It
dates ' Fryday, March 31, 1654,' and is signed by
Henry Scobell, Clerk of the Council. On the
other hand, many of our kings have been partial
to and encouraged cock-fighting, and it has been
called a royal sport. King James was one of
its royal patrons ; and in the Travels of Cosmo
HI., Grand Duke of Tuscany, through England,
in the reign of Charles II., 1669, it is said,
' Attended by Lord Philip Neville, Gascoigne,
and Castiglione, his Highness went out in his
carriage to the theatre appropriated to cock-
fighting, a common amusement of the English,
who, even in the public streets, take a delight
in seeing such battles, and considerable bets are
made on them. To render the cocks fit for
fighting they select the best of the breed, cut off

* Only a few weeks ago we saw an advertisement asking
for reliable spurs ; and in recent years have seen steel spurs ad-
vertised, but all is now carried on under great difficulties, and
decreasing more and more.

their crests and spurs, keep them in separate
coops, and mix with their usual food, pepper,
cloves, and other aromatics, and yolks of eggs, to
heat and render them more vigorous in battle.
When they want to bring them to the trial, they
convey them in a bag, put on artificial spurs
made of silver or steel, and let them out in the
place appointed. . . . This amusement was
not new to His Highness, for he had seen it on
board ship on his voyage from Spain to
England.' The above description is not far
different from later custom ; and to the monarch
already named is ascribed the introduction of
the Pile cock, so called from his different and
distinct colours.

" To such a height was this sport carried
in former years, that in old deeds tenants were
bound to walk so many fighting cocks for the
use of the lords ; and in corporation accounts
of expenses I have seen large sums charged
for entertaining this or that dignitary with
cock-fighting. In the Easter week of 1822,
in one pit, 188 cocks, weighing together
7 cwt. 4 lbs. 6 ozs.,* were fought for sums
amounting to upwards of £6,000. Still more
recently over 1,000 cocks have fallen in a
single season in one of our northern towns.

" Victory lay with no special colour. In
Queen Anne's time a noted sportsman, named
Frampton, had the best strain of cocks of the
day. They were grey, with a brown, tawny
wing, and the progeny of ' Old Sour-face ' was
long in high repute. Greys, Yellows, and Red
Piles were also highly prized, and Bradbury's
Duns and Whites fought their way into notoriety.
In the eighteenth century the mealy Greys, with
black legs, beaks, and eyes, of Hugo Meynell and
Sir C. Sedley could scarcely be surpassed. Then
followed Mr. Nunis's wonderful yellow Birchens,
the Earl of Mexborough's true-f^eathered Duck-
wings, Sir Francis Boynton's slashing Duns, and
Col. Mellish's Dark Reds. Lowther's and Hol-
ford's Light Reds with yellow legs cut down
everything before them ; and Mr. Elwes bred
one of his red Duns that won twenty-seven
battles. Then Vauxhall Clarke came into the
royal pit to carry off the annual gold cup with
his Greys. He bred different colours, and
beating him was out of the question. The
Cholmondeleys, Raylances, Molyneuxes, etc.,
bred Smocks and the light Cheshire Piles, that
would frequently electrify the pit by dropping
their cocks as dead as a log in a severe battle,
with the long odds against them. Dr. Wing,

* The interest of this total consists in the proof that the
average weight per bird was 4 lbs. 3 ozs. No cocks over
4 lbs. 8 ozs. or under 3 lbs. 6 ozs. were formerly allowed to
be lought in regular mains.

OLD STRAINS OF GAME FOWLS.

349

of Leicestershire, bred all colours, and won with
them. Sant's famous Derbyshire Dark Reds,
with their dark-striped hackles, would always
set the Derbyshire squires offering lOO to 8o on
the battle ; and old Nathaniel Monk, when
sleeping in church at Dean, on being awakened
by the beadle, cried lustily, ' I'll have the Black
cock for a fiver ! ' so enamoured was he of
the famous Black cocks of Lord de Vere. Mr.
Sketchley, the author of The Cocker, astonished
the readers of the sporting periodicals by the
prowess of his Shropshire Reds ; and Weight-
man, with his famous Parkhouse Reds, lowered
the colours of the Lancashire men at Burton for
the heaviest stake ever fought for ; although it
has been stated in error that Gilliver, when he
won the main at Lincoln for £\<X)0 each battle
and ;£'5,ooo the main,* fought for the largest
amount. The Earl of Derby, too, bred some
grand black-breasted, white-legged Reds and
Duckwings ; and his Pile was looked on by
admiring thousands, as the engraving was long
exhibited in sporting print-sellers' windows.
Dr. Bellyse sometimes walked a thousand cock
chickens out in a season, and was generally
quite invincible. Once, on a sporting nobleman
offering him ;^50 for a setting hen, he then and
there lifted her off the nest and put his foot on
the eggs; and on his lordship remarking that he
bought the eggs too, he replied, ' If you had, I
should have charged you a thousand.' His were
about the only cocks that could beat Walker's
celebrated Piles. I have not named a tenth
part of the famous strains and breeders, but have
mentioned sufficient to show that it was blood
or strain that won, not colour ; for even the
Gurney Pied cocks were for a time thought to
be superior to all others.

" The standard of a fighting Game cock is
keenness of aspect, richness of plumage, and
cleanness of feet. He must have a good box-
ing beak, very big, and crooked
The Old Q[. hawk-shaped ; large, full, fiery eye,

P(,^l_ and tapered head, not too long ; for

if the head be long and beak
straight, he loses much holding-power when
taking hold to strike; long, strong neck; flat,
broad body, tapering wedge-shape to the tail ;
strong, long wings, so that when clipped the
quills are of a powerful description ; muscular,
round, short thigh ; legs (as to colour, I endorse
the opinion of the most celebrated cocker of the
nineteenth century, that the best he had ever seen
were white, carp, and yellow, in order named as
to merit) of good hard bone, and not at all
gummy or fleshy like other fowls, standing with
a good bend at the hocks, so as to have a full

* These figures are authentic.

spring when rising, and in line with the body,
not out or straddling ; spur set on very low
down ; clean, thin feet and toes, with a long,
open back claw ; and to be light, corky-fleshed,
looking large to his weight. The great thing is
breeding for liecl, since it is the heel that always
wins, and although health and strength is a
great desideratum, without heel it is nothing.

" The old breeders never on any account
bred from a cock or hen that was not in the
most perfect health. The cock's feathers must
not be dry or loose : he should be ripe in the
feel, his flesh firm, and his crow clear. A
general want of constitution requires no cross,
the only cure is total eradication. Some were
ever crossing with this fine cock or that grand
hen, but the produce seldom came up to their
expectations ; and no one can dispute that the
best strains of cocks ever bred, were bred in-
and-in, and as soon as crossed with others,
though equally good, were robbed of their win-
ning qualities. Meynell's cocks as well as his
hounds were so bred, and perhaps the world
never saw either more perfect. Sant's were so
bred. The celebrated Coath's had not a cross
for forty years, and yet they were seldom
beaten, and not in the least degenerated.
Those Cheshire Piles and Bellyse's Reds that
so often put down their opponents by a single
fly, and were as much prized by some old
Cheshire families as their own birthrights, were
of one family, and as they were so long thought
to be the very best, nothing else was allowed to
contaminate them. In fact, with judicious care
and a due regard to health and age, not only
the best cocks, but the best horses, cattle, and
dogs that England has been so justly proud of,
have been bred in-and-in.

" They should early be put to separate walks
that are healthy, where there is not a great
number of hens, where they will neither be kept
short of food, nor so hand-fed as to render them
heavy and inactive ; for the more exercise a cock
takes in his walk, leading forth his hens, etc., in
search of food, so much more agile and active
will he be in his battle.

" At two years old the cock is at his best for
fighting ; previous to which he went into the
feeder's care, who reduced his weight, and got
him into that high state of health and
Training condition which centuries of close

Fighting. observation had brought to perfec-

tion. From veryearly times the craft
have kept their secrets a profound mystery. At
the middle of the eighteenth century, the cock-
ing instructions of that scarce work. The British
Legacy, published as a very special addendum,
' The following choice and valuable secret for

3SO

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

feeding a cock for four days before fighting,
which was communicated by a noble lord to
J. Macdonald, M.D., by which remarkable and
valuable method ninety-three battles have been
won out of one hundred ; now fir:;l published, by
permission,' etc. etc. It was subsequently pub-
lished in Tlie School of Arts, 2inA consisted of bread
made of the flour of millet, rice, barley, vetches,
cochineal, the whites and some yolks of eggs,
wetted with ale, and baked for four hours, with
which the cocks were fed after being purged, and
with a slight allowance of bruised seeds and
corn, and cooked flesh. Many other recipes for
'cock-bread' have been published at different
times.

" Cocks put up and in training were weighed
and their match colours and marks taken and
noted three days before fighting, when each
feeder would produce his birds as light as he
could, and as soon as weighed and matched,
proceed to get them up as quickly as possible
to their highest weight. The birds would
be occasionally purged if they were thought to
require it, and at intervals muffles* were put on
and they A'ere sparred a little for exercise and
to keep them in good wind.

" Previous to fighting the wings were cut from
the first rising feather slopewise. Hackle and
cloak-feathers were shortened, the sickles all cut
off, and the feathers around the tail, vent, and
under the belly were cut short. The natural spurs
being previously sawn off to about half an inch
long, the silver or steel spurs were then placed on,
and this again is supposed to be a great art by
some ; but I affirm it must be bred in the cock,
and it is impossible to put on spurs to a bad-
shaped cock to kill quickly, while a child can
put on the spurs to a proper-shaped one. They
must be padded firm in the socket, not tight,
and rest well down on the leg, then tied tightly
enough to prevent their moving, but not to cramp
him, and from the natural spur place it in line
with the outside of the hock. Then the handler
stepped on the scene, who required a calm
temper, as well as a quick eye and light hand, and
had to take into consideration the condition of
his opponent's cock as well as his own, otherwise
he would not know when to force the fighting or
when his bird required rest. This was the most
difficult part of the whole routine of cocking ;
and Fisher, Straddling, Martin, Gomm, Probyn,
Porter, and Fleming often won mains of
importance by their exertions alone. Fleming

* Leather muffles were fastened over the already shortened
natural spurs, to prevent any serious injury, and the birds thus
protected allowed to fight for exercise. The beak alone does
little harm, and they were of course watched to prevent any real
damage.

was, perhaps, the cleverest setter that evei
entered a cockpit.

" The Cockpit Royal, Westminster, was
formerly the chief place for this sport, although
there were many other public pits in the
metropolis, and more than one of the London
theatres was originally used for this purpose —
Drury Lane for one ; the next in importance
was the royal pit, at Newmarket, immortalised
by Hogarth. Hogarth is not the only one who
has painted such scenes, as Vandyke, Elmer, Mar-
shall, Barringer, Fielding, Aiken, Cruikshank, and
Wilson also painted them — the latter, a very
large painting of the Salford pit and noblemen
who frequented it. Neither were London and
Newmarket the only places that supported cock-
pits, for few towns of any size were without one,
and many cities and towns had established cock-
pits under patronage of their respective corpora-
tions ; as an example, the Canterbury Corpora-
tion pit was an apartment of the beautiful
gateway forming part of St. Augustine's Mon-
astery, and this is not by any means a singular
instance of the church and cockpit forining close
alliance, either at home or abroad. A former
venerable Dean of York bred such cocks as to
trouble even Weightman with his best to beat
them, and had he lived might have seen the old
keeper of the York pit in charge of a Noncon-
formist chapel. On the site of the old Aintree
pit there has been built a new church. The law,
too, as well as the church, has been mixed up
with this now tabooed sport ; old gentlemen are
still living who recollect, in attending to their
professional duties at county sessions, having a
six days' main of cocks fixed for the same time ;
and although the sessions might have been got
through in the first two or three days, those
magnates of the law would have been troubled
with serious thoughts of having shirked their
duties had they left before seeing the last battle
in the six days' main decided.

" The Melton Mowbray pit, I believe, was
the last built in England, at a cost of 700
guineas. The Subscription pit, at Chester, was
one of the last abandoned, and no pit in England,
perhaps, could boast of more aristocratic patron-
age, heavier betting, or superior fighting. The
first main ever fought there was a main between
Ireland and England of forty-three mains and ten
byes. As the celebrated Doctor Bellyse repre-
sented Old England, he won, as he almost
invariably did. The writer of this was, by
the courtesy of the then occupier, forty years
ago invited to see the spot where for years
Ralph Benson's Shropshire Reds contended with
the Piles and Reds of Cheshire to the admira-
tion of all the old county families of Lancashire,

HISTORICAL DETAILS OF COCK-FIGHTING.

35 1

Mains or
Matches.

or mam.

Cheshire, Shropshire, and a great part of Wales.
At that time the seats were all removed, and the
pit used as a confectioner's factory ; the feeding-
pens were turned into a nice sitting-room, and
the rooms where hundreds of thousands have
changed hands, and where they formerly betted
in a madness of frenzy, were and probably are
now used as bedrooms. The skeleton remained
much as formerly, the inside being about 45 by
45 feet, and between 30 and 40 feet high.
There were nine large windows and a glass
dome over the pit, which was some 20 feet
in diameter. Of all the stirring scenes that
quaint old Chester has witnessed, some of
the most exciting have taken place in that
now quiet building.

" Of the different matches made, the most
usual was to show say twenty-one pairs of
cocks, which was called a short main. They
were weighed, and all that fell
within one ounce of each other
were fought for so much per
battle, and so much the odd
It was also formerly a practice
at the Westminster pit to show sixty-one
pairs. They were weighed, and the colour
of breast and body taken, as well as the
eyes, legs, nails, shape of combs, marks (as
' in-right ' or ' out-left,' mouldy ears, peak-
backed), etc. ; then all that fell within one
ounce of each other were matched, and
divided into three or six days' play, the
lightest pair beginning the main three days
after weighing : this was called a long main.
At Edinburgh, on one occasion, a long main
was fought which lasted twelve days, and
was finally drawn. There were matches
made for turn-outs ; each side got a certain -^
number of the largest cocks obtainable, and *^
fought them without weighing : this is said to
be of Dutch origin. There were, besides, the
Welsh main, and the battle royal, which last
has become quite proverbial. In the battle
royal any number staked a certain sum, and
produced a cock under a stipulated weight, and
each standing round the pit tossed in his cock
(same as was customary with the masters of a
match with the first pair of cocks in a regular
main), and the last living cock took the whole
of the money staked. There were also mains
for set weights. In the Welsh main, si.xteen
cocks were first matched up in pairs, the nearest
weights being matched together. Then the
winners were matched again (just as successive
'heats' are decided in a race), and so on; so
that the ultimate winner had to fight four
battles. All mains have an odd battle, to pre-
vent the main being a drawn one, as it would

be by each party winning an equal number
of battles. Notwithstanding, this occasionally
happened by the odd battle itself being drawn,
both cocks being struck dead at the same time,
for instance."

The writer of the foregoing interesting notes
kindly supplied a Game cock trimmed or " cut
out " and heeled for fighting, of which the en-
graving is a representation, being carefully

Game Cock Trimmed and Heeled.

drawn from life forty years ago. The bird was
bred in Cornwall by the late Mr. John Harris,
who until his demise in 19 10 preserved the
blood, and was from a Coath's hen of the Red
Derby strain, by one of Holford's black-
breasted, yellow-legged, light Reds. It won
five matches, and fought in three mains, mostly
in the pair of Watling's steel spurs depicted.

From the same source we are enabled to
give a few particulars and interesting illustra-
tions of the artificial spurs used in cock-fighting.
It is doubtful if ancient nations used these, but
for hundreds of years more deadly weapons
than those provided by Nature have been used

353

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

in England and the East, though the fashion of
Oriental and Occidental spurs radically differs.
In the East the spurs are two-edged knives:
English spurs were always points only, edges

not being allowed. Patterns have
Artificial at one time or another differed con-

Spurs, siderably, as will be seen from Fig.

112, drawn partly from specimens
and partly from an old print. The left hand
example shows the more usual pattern, and it
will be seen that even in this the spur starts
from below the natural weapon, thus increasing
the " heel " of the bird. But this was some-
times increased, as in the centre specimen, called
a " full-drop socket," or the one on the right,
termed a " half-drop socket," which brought the
weapon still nearer the foot. These extremely
lowered forms, however, were considered unfair.

Cockspur Street, to which it gave the name, but
not confined to it by any means. The best
makers of silver spurs were the Clays (father
and son), Gregory, Smith, Gatesfield, Green,
Toulmin, and Vincent, the latter keeping in
employment a dozen workmen at the time of
his death in 1797.

We give in Fig. 113 figures of three silver
spurs of various lengths and patterns. Of these
A is by Toulmin, B by T. Smith, and C by the
elder Clay. This last spur is of some historical
interest, the pair having been presented to
Charles II. by Nell Gwyn. The usual price of
a pair of silver spurs was two to three guineas,
and a reputation in this line of business was
highly valued, as may be seen from the follow-
ing, which we have copied verbatim from the
trade label pasted inside the cover of a box of

Fig. 112. — Old English Steel Spurs.

and it came to be a usual condition in matches
that they should be fought in " fair " silver
or other spurs. The illustration also shows
how leather flaps were stitched round the
metal socket, these flaps being wrapped round
the shank of the bird, and the whole then firmly
bound round.

Both steel and silver were employed for
spurs, or rather an alloy of the latter metal, for
a Game cock strikes with fearful force, and only
metal much stififer and tougher than pure silver
would stand the strain. Much study was
devoted to such alloys, and the contributor of
these details informed us that in his own day he
knew a man who paid £\o for the supposed
formula, and further expended over ^^40 in ex-
periment, but failed to produce the old temper
of metal. Hence genuine old silver spurs are
highly prized by those who still practise cocking
in secret ; and we well remember, after a descent
of the police at Aintree in the 'seventies, that
the chief cause of chagrin amongst various per-
sons we were acquainted with, was a number of
valuable old spurs being seized and confiscated ;
"the loss was irreparable." The manufacture
was a distinct trade, specially carried on in

spurs by Toulmin, who it will be seen succeeded
Gatesfield, who had in his turn succeeded
Smith:—

Samuel Toulmin,

Silver Cockspur Maker, successor to Smith and Gates-
field, at the Dial and Crown, near Hungerford Market
in the Strand, London. N.B, — Mr. Gatesfield was
friend and successor to the late Mr. Smith, mentioned in
Mr. Hallatn' s ingenious Poem called the Cocker, page'fi.

As curious Artists diffrent Skill disclose,
The various Weapon diffrent Temper shows.
Now curving Points too soft a Temper bear,
And now too hard their brittleness declare ;
Now on the Plain the trecherous Weapons lye,
Now wing'd in Air the shiver'd Fragments fly,
Surpriz'd, chagrin'd, th' incautious Feeders gaze,
And Smith alone ingenious Artist praise.

Steel spurs, which sold at 50s. to 60s. per
dozen pairs, also had their celebrated makers.
The temper of those by Singleton of Dublin,
was as proverbial as that of O'Shaughnessy's
Limerick fish-hooks ; those of Kendrick of
Redditch, and Ross of Bloxwich, were also
highly prized. Sheffield had several good
makers ; and in the West Country the manufac-
ture of J. Watling, of Exeter, was preferred to all
others. Great attention was given to what were

METAL SPURS USED IN COCK-FIGHTING.

353

thought the most deadly curves, and to the spur
being able not only to penetrate, but to cut its
way out again. Of the steel spurs shown in
Fig. 1 14, D is by Watling of Exeter ; E by

Fig. 113. — Silver Spurs.

while many have pointed to " Nature's laws" as
ordaining fatal combats of the same kind. This
last argument is not sound, since it omits to
consider that in the case before us the fighting in-
stinct has been developed by the selection of man
until it has attained an intensity that does not
exist in Nature left to herself. Nature's com-
batants do not as a rule fight to the death, but
when one is thoroughly whipped, it gives in or
runs away ; in the Game fowl courage and spirit
have been developed artificially, until a bird has
been produced that caimot yield till death, or if he
does, is at once ignominiously consigned by his
master to the pot, a vengeance Nature does not
inflict. That is to be remembered ; but there can
be little doubt that if a Game cock had the
choice offered him of having his neck wrung
or meeting an antagonist, he would unhesitat-
ingly prefer the latter, and is conscious of little
beyond the fierce joy of the combat, during
all that befals him. In mere suffering of
the victim, the old apologists were probably
right in placing their favourite sport below
shooting and some other " sports " which
still hold their ground.

Neither, as many suppose, can the use of
metal spurs be deemed additional cruelty. As

Singleton of Dublin ; F by Ross of Bloxwich ;
and of the different forms which will be noticed,
each was thought much of by its admirers of a
bygone day. Steel spurs were also plated with
silver, and as the plating of those days was
mechanical, not electro, these could scarcely be
distinguished from silver spurs of similar shape.

Such then was cock-fighting ; such were its
methods, its votaries, and the scale upon which
it was carried on in the days of our grandfathers,
or perhaps some of our fathers. It is not so
necessary now as it was even
Barbarity y^ j8;2, to declaim against the
Cock-fighting, cruelty of it, since its total sup-
pression is only a question of time ;
but it still seems necessary to point out clearly
wherein the " brutality," which we must still
ascribe to it, really consists. That does not lie so
much as supposed, in the actual suffering of the
birds themselves. It is curious that some of the
original promoters of the Society for the Preven-
tion of Cruelty to Animals expressly exempted
cock-fighting from their strictures. One of them
— and not himself addicted to it — points out how
the Game cock is kept in comfort till the day of
battle, and then cannot be forced, but is actuated
by his natural instinct, "and in fact gratified."
Another remarks very much to the same effect ;

Fig. 114. — Steel Spurs.

the contributor already quoted remarks, " If two
cocks are left together in a state of Nature, deatli
to one or both is a natural result, but it is likely
to be the work of hours ; whereas a battle with
two heeled cocks in good condition rarely lasts

354

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

five minutes, and a great many are struck dead
much quicker than if their heads were cut clean
off." It is indeed a somewhat mysterious fact, of
which we are assured by many whom we
implicitly believe, that while the difficulty of
(apparently) killing a fowl is proverbial, very
often a struck cock appears to die instantly : the
excitement and brain pressure having probably
something to do with this phenomenon, which
seems a merciful provision of Nature, or rather
of that Power which overrules her provisions.
Thus metal spurs actually lessen, by shortening,
the pain inflicted ; though there can be no doubt
that individual blows are more sharply felt, since
some birds that will fight stubbornly in a natural
condition " will not stand steel," and others which
have fought well in steel, have flinched under a
long battle in silver spurs, which, being thicker,
do not cut such deadly wounds. In America,
spurs over i^ inches in length are often debarred,
expressly in order to prolong the contest, and an
enthusiastic cock-fighter recently wrote that " a
good lotig battle in silver spurs is the onlv cock-
fighting worthy of the name."

From this and other causes, the actual suffer-
ing often lasts much more than the "few
minutes " spoken of above, and is of a kind
which we must indicate, however briefly, by a
few examples (which we have quoted before)
from unimpeachable sources. An American
writer (Dr. Cooper) in his work on The Game
Fowl, gives an account of a main between New
York and the Daffodil Club of Porchester, con-
sisting of seven battles. These occupied respec-
tively eight minutes, forty minutes, thirty
minutes (drawn), forty-three minutes, thirty-
three minutes ; the other two not being
stated. One bird fought on for forty minutes
with a broken wing ; and in another battle
"an unlucky coup" blinded the Daffodil cock,
which nevertheless kept on, till he somehow
got hold of the other and finished him after
all ; for which he is enthusiastically compared to
the " old Jackson strain," which it is said had an
actual reputation for " fighting better after losing
their eyesight." In another report of a main at
New Jersey in January, 1873, in four of the ten
battles fought, blinding occurred ; " New York
had both eyes torn out " being the words used to
describe such a result. By all the rules, legal
provision is made for birds being struck blind,
what is to be done in such cases being laid
down.

Such are the actual facts of the cock-pit, as
described by those who have delighted in it: but
as already remarked, the amount of suffering
involved is not the real point, and forms of sport
not tabooed by society, may really involve more

to the individual animal. The great difference
lies in this : that in other sports the suffering, be
it what it may, is only incidental, and is either
unnoticed or forgotten. In the " run across
country," passing by the fact that one fox affords
the enjoyment to a large number (which is of
course not any real argument at all, much less a
sound one), most of those who participate never
see tlie fox suffer, or ever think of it : the excite-
ment and the run is all they are conscious of.
To the lady who receives the brush, it is at that
time only a " brush " ; she has not seen the fox
" broken up," or torn limb from limb by the
pack. If she had to zvatch that every time she
rode to hounds, it would be very different ; it is
because it is not so, that such sports have no
inherent brutalising tendency upon those who
take part in them. But in cock-fighting it is far
otherwise. The sufferings of every bird have the
riveted attention of every person engaged, who
is thus habituated to disregard the constant sight
of blood and pain, in the excitement of the
contest and of gambling upon it. Such a state
of things marks off any " sport " in which it is
essential, widely apart from any other where it
is not, whatever be the actual amount of pain
actually caused. Take a quite different case :
it is not cruel to kill animals for food, if due
care is taken to avoid unnecessary pain ; it is
right to do it, and the most refined lady who
eats meat really does it by deputy, however she
may look down upon the butcher. But if the
slaughter-house were made a spectacle, at which
scores looked on, to grow excited and lay odds
upon the duration of life or the symptoms of
death, then it would become as brutalising to
the spectators as was the Roman arena. Like
that, the moral evil would consist in finding
pleasurable excitement in the actual circum-
stances of blood-shedding, suffering, and death.

That is the real character of cock-fighting.
Every fresh injury to either bird is eagerly
watched, and perhaps recorded in the betting,
and has to be deliberately disregarded by the
" sportsman " except from that point of view. In
rough and rude times, when men sought to
inculcate disregard of pain and suffering as a
bulwark of the State, this had use and excuse,
and helped to " make men " who fought the
world : we recognise all that, and that there are
some even now from whom these instinctive
feelings hide much else ; but there are too many
proofs of the inevitable brutalising effect of the
cock-pit upon the mass of its votaries. The
faces of the crowd in that very picture by
Hogarth alluded to by our contributor in his
notes on page 350, tell their own tale; and we
have seen it as plainly written in those of the

QUALITIES OF THE ENGLISH GAME FOWL.

355

majority of a company arrested and charged
in a modern police-court. Years ago we
quoted an American champion of this " sport,"
who made the terrible vaunt that he could
take one of his celebrated birds, and cut
off both of his legs and wings, and the bird
would fight then ! We hope and believe that
no Englishman could make such a sickening
boast, and no English journal publish it ; but it
is a terrible proof of the callous brutality to
which man can be brought by habitual seeking
of excitement in the spectacle of animal suffer-
ing. We are sure that we need add no more.

This noble breed is now widely exhibited
and still more widely bred, for its beauty and its
quality of flesh. In combination of grace with
agile strength it is unequalled, and the qualities
for which it was bred produced also the utmost
proportion of muscle (flesh) in the best places
for the table, so that in wings and breast-meat
it had no superior. It found its way into the
exhibition-pen in the earliest days of poultry
shows ; but there, unfortunately, the changes of
fashion of which other instances have been
quoted already, played havoc with the breed.
At first changes were slight, the birds being
only slightly more tall and " reachy," which was
generally admired ; but the change went on, as
shown in our next chapter, until the breed had
been transformed out of all recognition. At
last a reaction set in, and in 1S82 a class for the
" old " breed was offered at Cleator
Revival Moor in Cumberland, followed by

Olf EngUsh classes with a special judge at Wig-
Game, ton in 1883 ; ever since which
time, classes and popularity have in-
creased continuously. In 1887 the Old English
Game Fowl Club was formed, to encourage and
watch over this noble breed, the first secretary
being Mr. J. W. Simpson, at that time of Silloth,
in Cumberland, a county which was long the
headquarters of the Old English Game.

For the following article on the fowl as now
bred and exhibited, we are indebted to Mr.
Herbert Atkinson, of Ewelme, Wallingford, one
of the vice-presidents of the Old English Game
Fowl Club.

" The Old English Game fowl or British Game
fowl of Buffon is a great contrast to the modern
exhibition, or fancier's breed of Game, in almost
every particular. It was owing to the modern
variety having been so continuously bred for
show points for a considerable period as to have
very much modified nearly all hs useful qualities,
that some fanciers began, about 1885, to try to
revive the breeding and exhibition of the old
English breed of Game fowl, as it used to be

bred for cock-fighting, when that sport was
recognised as one of the national and even
' royal ' sports of this country, ranking even
before horse-racing in importance, antiquity,
and popularity. This sport was suppressed
in England about 1835, and some fifteen years
later Game fowls began to be exhibited at
poultry shows. By breeding for certain and
entirely fancy points, and by selection, and
crossing with alien breeds, the modern Game
fowl had been produced. It was necessary
therefore to seek out the old breed again, either
from old breeders who had kept them pure, or
from cock-fighters. These old breeders, and
' cockers,' had all these years kept the breed in
its purity of blood, and vigorous constitution,
never exhibiting, never selling, merely keeping
them solely for love of the old breed, and it was
therefore at first almost impossible to obtain
them. However, one way and another, many
birds of good blood were obtained, and exhibited;
their useful qualities were soon re-discovered
and appreciated by several modern fanciers ; and
from the first shows where classes were provided
for them in the 'eighties, they have increased in
numbers by leaps and bounds, until at the
present time they form some of the largest
classes at all the important shows. This is less
a cause for wonder when we consider their great
beauty and many useful qualities, to say nothing
of the liking of most Englishmen for anything
thoroughbred ; and nothing can exceed the
thoroughbred racehorse and the Old English
Game cock in purity of blood, unless it be the
Arab horses and the native Indian Game, or
Aseel, as we now call him. While other breeds
of poultry and horses, etc., may be what the
Americans call ' standard-bred,' they cannot
trace a pure pedigree for any great period of
time.

" Returning then to the useful qualities of Old
English Game, they stand not only in the front
rank as table fowls, but surpass all
Qualities of other breeds in delicacy, flavour, and
Old English nutritive qualities of flesh, while they
Game. carry more of it, in proportion to

bone and offal, than any other breed,
while in flavour it vies with that of the pheas-
ant. They of course lack the great size of
the Indian Game and some others, but that
size is only produced together with great
bone, offal, yellow skin, coarser meat, and
large appetites. Old English Game chickens
grow fast, and are always plump and full of
meat, not requiring to be fattened, which indeed
they will not bear, owing to their restless
temperaments. If allowed to go at liberty with
the hen on a good range, they require but little

356

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

feeding ; indeed, will almost keep themselves,
and show such glossy plumage and condition as
can be obtained by no other method. As layers
there are several varieties of this breed that (on
a free range) equal any of the sitting breeds of
poultry ; Hennies, Black-breasted Reds, Piles,
and Duckwings leading the way, while perhaps
the worst layers are the dark Brown Reds
and dark Greys.

" The hens are all most excellent sitters,
steady on their eggs, and regular in their leaving
and returning to the nest, but they will brook
no interference, unless very tame. They are
excellent and careful mothers, and go with their
chicks even after recommencing to lay, while
the marauding rat or cat had better beware of
trying to take one of the brood, for she will fly
at any foe in their defence. Beware, however, of
having the hens with chickens near together,
or a terrible fight may ensue between the two
mothers to the detriment of the chickens, as
after her separation during sitting, and after
the chickens are first hatched until they are
let go at liberty, she will appear as a stranger
to the other hens.

" Old English Game cocks are seldom any-
thing but gallant and attentive to their harem,
and will fight in defence of their hens, instances
having been known of a Game cock with full
natural spurs having killed a fox that was
carrying off one of his hens. Now and then
they will take peculiar dislike to a hen of some
particular colour, or with a large comb, in which
case remove her at once or she will be killed.
Instances are also known of Game cocks sitting
and even hatching eggs ; I have known two
such cases amongst my own birds. It is almost
impossible to keep two Game cocks together,
as they would fight and destroy each other.
This can be obviated by keeping an adult two
year old bird and a young cockerel, but even
that is not safe, for some day the young one
will turn, and then it means death or injury
to one or both.

" This inherent quarrelsome disposition, so
characteristic of the breed, renders it unsuitable
for those who have only a confined space, or
desire to keep a large number of fowls ; and
confinement does not suit them : the chickens
come weakly and the hens become indifferent
layers. The Old English Game is essentially
the breed for the country gentleman, who desires
fowls and eggs for his own table; and being
obtainable of so many different colours, their
owner has only to choose his favourite hue, or
the combination of colours that pleases him best.
For the cottager too, who has a free range, no
breed is more thrifty, having small appetites

and being most excellent foragers, never standing
idle for hours like the Asiatics, but ever moving
and seeking for insect life, etc., ranging the grass
and hedgerows ; near a road, or in a farmyard
amongst cattle and stock, and in the stable-
yard, they from their fearlessness and activity
in avoiding danger are an ideal breed.

" For crossing purposes it is always best to
use the Old English Game cock, with large hens
of another breed. With all the Asiatic breeds
he is an excellent cross, giving quality and breast
meat, which all birds of these varieties lack.
With Dorkings a most splendid table-fowl is
produced. With all the boasted best crosses (and
their name is legion) none will bear a comparison
for quality and quantity of flesh combined,
with the oldest and only pure English breeds
combined, the Game and Dorking cross. The
Game-Houdan is a wonderfully prolific layer,
besides being of excellent table qualities.
Game-Plymouth Rocks, and Game-Wyandottes
are capital winter layers ; indeed any of the
larger breeds are greatly improved in utility
and quality by crossing with Old English
Game, improving, as he does, their table, laying,
and foraging properties. The late Mr. John
Brough of Carlisle (who won such a number of
prizes with Old English Game when they were
first revived in the show-pen) was so well aware
of the fine table and utility properties of this
breed in his business as a poulterer, that he
kept large numbers of them all round the
district, from which he obtained his most prime
supplies, and had done so long before their
advent in the show-pen.

" The points required in the Old English Game
cock are a small tapered head, with a strong
hooked beak, rather short and pointed, a quick,
large, and fiery eye, the skin of face
Points of ^'^^ throat of fine quality, loose and

Old English flexible ; a rather long and very
Game. strong neck, a short flat back, wide

across the shoulders, and tapering
to the tail, which should be large, strong, and
spread ; breast large and wide, the pectoraf
muscles largely developed, and the breast-bone
straight ; the belly small and tight ; the wings
large, long, and strong ; with short, round, and
muscular thighs, and clean-boned, strong legs
parallel with the body and well bent at the
hocks. The spurs should be set on low, and be
thin and sharp, the toes long, thin, straight, and
spreading ; the hind toe flat on the ground and
extending straight backwards, the nails long
and strong. His feathers should be hard, close,
sound, and glossy, and his carriage should be
proud, quick, graceful, bold, and smart. Such a
bird should when taken in the hand feel firm in

COLOURS OF ENGLISH GAME FOWLS.

357

flesh and at the same time corky, or springy, and
warm, drawing his legs well underneath him.
He must be well balanced, and ' clever,' that is,
every part in due proportion, so that he sits
easily in the hand, not lumpy or helpless ; the
thumbs should not sink in between the wings
and the back, but be firm across ; there should
be very little fluff or underdown on him. His
weight should be about 5i lbs. or 6 lbs., larger
birds generally being coarse and dull, and
lacking that alertness and quickness so desirable
in this breed.

'' The hen should, as far as her sex will allow,
possess all these points. Her head should be
small and tapering, comb small, straight, and
evenly serrated ; very thick, curved, and pointed
beak, large, bright, and full eye ; strong shanks,
the bone of fine texture, hard and evenly scaled,
and if spurred, and of the same colour as eye,
beak, and plumage, it is a sign of purity of race
and high breeding, flat clean feet, with long
tapering toes, wings very long and full, with
hard, strong quills, tail large and fan-shaped,
carried well up denoting strength and courage,
as a weak low tail indicates weakness and a
craven spirit. She should be wide in breast
and back, and taper nicely to the tail ; the im-
portance of the hen cannot be overrated in
producing Game cocks.

" In colour of legs much latitude is allowed,
the rule in breeding being that the eye, beak, and
legs should match in colour. In Black-breasted
Reds, for instance, white, yellow, carp, etc., are
allowed to compete on an equal footing, each
breed having its admirers, and being equally
good and handsome. The white-legged ones
may have also grey or daw eyes, as not only
have some breeds (the Lord Derby's always
had them), but they match the legs and beak,
and the white under-plumage of these birds,
which also usually show a few feathers wholly
or partly white, in wings or tail, all in character
with it.

" The colours in Black-breasted Light Reds
are much the same as in the modern Game,
except that in the Old English the colours are
richer and more brilliant, and may be darker, as
some little latitude is allowed. For the hens,
partridge colour is to be preferred to whcatens,
the latter being used to produce bright hackle
and saddle in the cocks, and if persisted in, also
producing mealy breasts, while those bred from
good partridge coloured hens produce sound
coloured cocks, though a trifle darker m colour.

" Brown-breasted Reds may have clear brown
or robin breasts, or brown shaded or marked
with black ; the hackle and saddle are dark red
or dark orange, and the eyes and legs dark. The

hens to match them should be a rich dark
mossy brown all over, or they may be black
with a tinsel hackle ; of course legs, eyes, and
beak to match the cock.

" The Silver Duckwings are in colour the
same as the modern Silver Duckwing Game, or
the Silver-grey Dorking, and should be kept to
their own colour in breeding, and not crossed.
The Yellow Duckwing may also be bred from
Duckwings entirely, or can be produced by
crossing with Black-breasted Reds, which will
produce bright and rich coloured cocks, using
either a Duckwing cock with a Partridge hen
or a Black-breasted Red cock and Duckwing
grey hen, though nearly all the pullets bred
this way will show ruddy wings, which are fatal
in the show-pen.

" Duns (or, as they are improperly called,
' blues ') may also be crossed with Black or
Brown-breasted Red cocks ; the former with a
blue hen producing Dun-breasted Reds or
' Blue Reds,' as fanciers are apt to call them,
and a Blue hen with gold hackle and a Robin-
breasted Red cock producing excellent ' Red
Duns.^

" Piles are much like the modern in colour,
but brighter. Some prefer the white-breasted
birds, but the streaky-breasted are also very
handsome. The colour is liable to become
lighter unless an occasional cross of the
Black-breasted Red is used.

" Blacks and Whites should, of course, be
bred from pure self-coloured birds.

" Spangles are very popular in the show-pen
at present. They may be bred from Spangles,
or as a cross with Black-breasted Reds, which
also produce very good Red Spangles.

" The Black-breasted Black Red is a breed
that is considered one of the best and purest
strains, and one that should be revived if not
too late. The cock is a clear vivid dark red
free from spot or streak, on hackles, shoulders,
back and saddle feathers ; while his breast, belly,
tail, primary and secondary wing feathers, his
thighs, legs, beak, and eyes are jet black, and
his under-plumage black all over, also beneath
his hackle ; the hen to match him is a dark
partridge, brick breasted, with hackles red above,
and black beneath, and beak, eyes, and legs
black also. No breed was more celebrated
than this in the old days, and it is much
to be regretted if it is allowed to disappear
from amongst us.

" The Henny is also another most useful
breed, being perhaps the best layer among Game
fowls, and certainly in the front rank for the
table. It is a very ancient breed of Game, and
perhaps has been kept more free from crossing

358

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

with other Game fowls than any other breed.
The cocks are feathered Hke the hens, hence its
name, and the more hen-Hke their plumage, that
is, the more rounded and free from sheen are
the hackle, saddle, and tail feathers, the more
are they entitled to claim purity of race. They
are chiefly bred in Cornwall and Devonshire,
though some celebrated birds have come from
Wales. In colour there are dark partridge,
red grouse, wheatens, greys, duns, blacks,
whites, and spangles. The partridge and
grouse coloured have generally pinkish white
legs ; these and the blacks are perhaps the most
beautiful varieties. They are perhaps the most
useful of all the breeds of Game. To some the
lack of gaudy and shining plumage on the cock
will make them appear plain, but there is a
certain ' gamey ' appearance about a good hen-
cock that renders him very pleasing to the
eye of one who understands Game fowls, and
appreciates them.

" There are very many other colours of
Game fowls, but until they are more generally
exhibited, a description of them is scarcely
necessary. There are also strains of birds
having peculiar marks, such as the ' Muffs,'
having a bunch of feathers growing beneath the
throat, and the 'Tassels,' having a tuft of
feathers behind the comb, which may be either
a few straight feathers in the cock and a small
tuft in the hen, or something very much larger,
as sometimes seen, and amounting to a large
topknot. These peculiarities are pleasing to
some people, and where they are followed by
good qualities, it is well to preserve them with
every care.

" The Old English Game Fowl Club's
Standard of points and colours seems to render
further description unnecessary ; but it may be
well to give the proper way to describe the
colour of a Game fowl. Experts always started
with the breast, as in cock-fighting times this
part was untrimmed and left intact ; thus a
black cock was described as a Raven-breasted
Black, black eyes, beak, and legs ; and a white
cock. Smock-breasted Smock, white legs, beak,
and eyes. 'HowAdzys, a. Black-bn-astcd Light Red
is often spoken of as a Black Red, a term at once
misleading and ridiculous, and might mean
anything, the black-breasted black red with
crow-wings being the only colour to which the
appellation black red applies ; light red would be
more intelligible. Usually the colour of some
wild bird was used in describing the breast
colour, as Raven-breasted, Throstle-breasted,
Robin-breasted, or Pheasant-breasted, etc.

" In rearing Old English Game chickens, it
is well to keep them as dry under foot as possible

at first. After a week or two they never grow
better than if allowed to wander with their
mother on a good range, and they will roost in
the trees the winter through ; but as it is not
always convenient to allow them to do this, it is at
least desirable to separate the cock chickens from
their sisters at about three months old, when if
put out of sight and hearing of any hen or pullet
and under the charge of an old cock, they will
usually run together peaceably, until they are
ready to be separated to go on to walks. At
five months old it is necessary to dub them.
Snip off the comb and each wattle, taking care
not to cut across the throat, and then take off
the ear-lobes. The operation will not take half
a minute, and the birds will eat directly after,
showing how little pain is caused by this slight
cutting, which saves the bird many a painful
time, and often his life, when he meets a strange
bird on his walk or gets out of his yard. The
dubbing of this bird requires merely the removal
of the comb, wattles, and ear-lobes for the bird's
good ; no severe cutting, trimming, or skinning is
resorted to for appearance' sake, as in some
modern breeds trimmed merely for appearance,
and to win prizes by unprincipled ' fakers.'

" Plenty of pure water is absolutely necessary
for Game fowls, and the evening meal should
always consist of good, sound English grain :
wheat, barley, and occasionally oats, and a few
peas ; maize is not at all a suitable food for
Game fowls, being too fattening, and often
producing ' scaly leg ' and stopping the produc-
tion of eggs.

" This breed requires but little preparation for
exhibition, as they never look better than when
straight from a good range. They do, however,
require to be tame, and should be placed in an
exhibition pen a few times, and given some
choice morsels to render them used to being
handled, etc., as no judge can see the points of
a bird if wild and crouching in his pen, or flying
wildly against the top of it. If in good con-
dition, just washing the feet, legs, and head
will be sufficient, or should any feathers stick
up each side of the cock's comb, they may
be removed.

" In judging Old English, the first thing to
be looked for is purity of race, gameness of
aspect, cleanness and soundness of
Judging ^^Ss ^nd feet, not to be thick toed,

Old English or with round fleshy shanks as are
Game. often seen, and his large fierce eye,

whether it be dark, red, or grey.
Then look to his shape, and then to his feather,
if it is sound and glossy, elastic, and full of
bloom, not soft, thick, or fluffy, as is often
seen in inferior birds Then take him out

JUDGING OLD ENGLISH GAME.

359

and handle him, and if firm in flesh and
feather, clever in hand, with strong neck, and
root to his tail, long and strong wings with
sound unbroken quill feathers, and straight in
legs, breast, and back, and of good carriage and
muscular, he will be fit to go into the prize list.
Shape is the great point, for a badly shaped bird
should stand no chance, and this cannot be told
except by handling the bird, so that no judge
will have done his duty until he has taken all
the likely birds in his hands. Even then a
person of experience is required to discriminate,
for we often see birds with alien blood winning
prizes at shows under incompetent judges.
Feathery, fluffy Dorking types, and crosses with
the modern Game, cannot be too carefully
shunned by the judges. The great fear is that
this grand breed may be again spoiled by
exhibitors in a few years, by breeding to purely
fancy points, until it becomes another edition of
modern Game, though bred on different lines.
Let us remember that while the exhibitors were
evolving from the same breed the modern Game,
the old cockers, by judicious in-breeding,
retained not only the Old English Game, but
all its fine table qualities, its laying properties,
and hardihood. They bred for purity of blood,
shape, activity, hardihood, strength, and game-
ness, and it will be a standing disgrace if
exhibitors allow themselves to lose all these
useful points in breeding for the exhibition pen,
and in seeking to improve upon a breed that
was in its perfection nearly a century ago, and
bred to a standard we can scarcely hope to
attain to nowadays."

We fear that whenever cock-fighting shall
entirely die out, it will be impossible to avoid
some change in the type of the Old English
Game fowl, which was only produced by severe
competitive selection. As the fowl is bred for
table use, for instance, size must tend somewhat
to increase ; and in the absence of test by com-
bat, power of wing must tend to decrease.
In 1872 we remember publishing the fact
that a cock of Coath's strain, about 4J lbs., flciv
from Lower Langdon to Higher Langdon
Farm (half a mile) and there killed the master
bird of that farm ; and the late Mr. John Harris
of Liskeard told us that years ago, when the
late Col. Trevor Dickens* came to see him, he
called over a hundred cockerels then running
under an old cock, from across the valley, and
they came flying over the trees like a flock of
rooks. We do not think many of the modern
birds weighing 5 lbs. to 6 lbs. would have either

* In the 'sixties this gentleman wrote largely upon this fowl
under the nom- de-plume of " Newmarket."

length or power of wing for such feats as these.
Such changes are inevitable, but care may at
least be taken to guard against departure from
main proportion, and to exhibit birds with firm
flesh and good feather and symmetry, and not
too fat, as we have been sorry to see on several
occasions.

It is also to be desired that there should be
no attempt to introduce into the judging of the
principal colours those artificial niceties of
colour and marking, which long ago necessitated
the "double-mating" system in the exhibition
varieties. All the colours in the Old English
Game fowl were true self-contained varieties,
recognised in the natural colour relation of the
two sexes, and breeding both alike true to
feather. Once this principle is departed from,
the seeds of future mischief are sown ; for
artificial shades of colour are given a promi-
nence that cannot be given without ruin to the
breed itself. Next to the care for true type,
nothing is more vital to the preservation of
this noble race of fowls than the maintenance
of such natural sex-relations in colour as is
implied by single-mating.

The Standard of Perfection for Old English
Game, framed upon that adopted by the Club,
and merely reduced by the Poultry Club to its
own form of expression, is in one or two points
perhaps open to exception ; for instance, it surely
cannot be right to allow red eyes in Black
Game. It is as follows : — •

STANDARD FOR OLD ENGLISH GAME

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

COCK

Head. — Skull : Medium length, and tapering.
Beak : Slightly curved and strong at base. Eyes 1
Large, bright, and prominent, full of expression,
and alike in colour. Comb : Single, small, upright,
of fine texture, and evenly serrated at its edge. Face :
Of fine texture. Ear-lobes and Wattles : Fine and
small to match the comb as nearly as possible.
(Note. — It is customary to exhibit Game cocks
after being dubbed — i.e. having their comb, ear-
lobes, and wattles removed, and lea\'ing the head
and lower jaw smooth and free from ridges.)

Neck. — Long, and very strong at the junction
with the body, furnished with long and wiry feathers
covering the shoulders.

Body. — Breast : Broad and weU developed. Back :
Short and fiat, tapering to the tail. Shoulders :
Broad. Wings : Long, full, and round, incUning to
meet under the tail, amply protecting the tliighs,
and furnished with hard quills.

Tail. — Sickle feathers abundant, broad, curved
main feathers with hard and strong quills, and
carried well up, but not of the " squirrel" type.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Thighs short, thick, and
muscular, well set and held wide apart ; shanks of
medium length, finely and evenly scaled, and round.

?6o

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

not fat on sWn, with the spur set low. Toes : Four
on each foot, long, clean, even, and spreading, the
back toe standing well backward and flat on the
ground.

Carriage. — Bold and sprighth', the movements
quick and graceful, as if ready for any emergency.

Weight.— 5 lb. to 6 lb.

Plumage. — Hard and glossy.

Handling. — Firm flesh, but corky and Hght, with
plenty of muscle and strong contraction of the hips
and legs.

HEN

With the exception that the Tail is inclined to
fan shape, the general characteristics of the hen
are similar to those of the cock, allowing for the
natural sexual differences.

Weight.— 4 lb. to 5 lb.

COLOUR

THE BL.\CK

Beak : Dark. Eyes. Comb, Face, Wattles, and
Ear-lobes : Red or dark. Legs : Sound self colour.
Plumage. — Glossy black throughout.

THE BR.^SSY-W'INGED

With the exception of a little dark lemon on
the shoulders of the cock, the variety is similar
to the Black-Breasted Red.

THE SILVER DUCKWING

Beak : In character with legs. Eyes : Red.
Comb. Face, Wattles, and Ear-lobes : Red. Legs and
Feet : Blue, olive, white, or yellow.

Plumage of the Cock. — Hackles, Back, and
Shoulders : Silver, free from dark streaks. Breast
and Thighs : Black. Wings : Bows, silver white ;
bar, steel blue ; secondaries, white on outer web,
black on inner web, the white alone showing when
the wings are closed ; primaries and ends, black.
Tail : Black.

Plumage of the Hen. — Hackle : Silver, striped with
black. Breast and Thighs : Pale fawn. Back and
Wings : Dark grey. Tail : Grey and black.

THE RED PILE

Beak : In character with legs. Eyes : Bright
red. Comb, Face, Wattles, and Ear-lobes : Brilliant
red. Legs and Feet : White, yellow, or willow.

Plumage of the Cock. — Hackles : Orange-red or
chestnut red. Back and Shoulders : Deep red.
Wings : Secondaries, bay on the outer web and white
on the inner web, the bay alone showing when the
wings are closed. Remainder of Plumage : White.

Plumage of the Hen. — Hackle : Light chestnut.
Breast and Thighs : Chestnut, with a hght shade
towards the thighs. Remainder of Plumage : White.

THE BL.\CK-BRE.\STED RED

Beak : In character with legs. Eyes

Red.

Comb, Face, Wattles, and Ear-lobes : Bright red.
Legs and Feet : Any sound self colour. (Note. —
In w-hite-legged birds, daw eyes, and white showing
in flights and tail, are not to be considered a dis-
qualification.j

Plumage of the Cock. — Hackles : Orange-red,
free from dark feathers. Back and shoulders : Deep

red. ]Vings : Deep red, with a rich dark blue bar
across ; secondaries, bay ; primaries, ends black. Re-
mainder of Plumage : Black, with lustrous green gloss.
Plumage of the Hen (Partridge}. — Hackle : Golden
red, streaked with black. Back and Wings : Par-
tridge. Breast and Thighs : Shaded salmon. Tail :
Black, shaded with brown.

THE BRIGHT OR GINGER RED

Beak, Eyes, Comb, Face, Wattles. Ear-lobes, Legs,
and Feet : See notes on the Black-Breasted Red.

Plumage of the Cock. — Hackles : Light golden
red, free from streaks. Back and Shoulders : Bright
red. Wings : As in the Black-Breasted Red. Re-
mainder of Plumage : Black, shaded with browm.

Plumage of the Hen. — Hackle : Golden red,
black streaks not to be considered a disqualification.
Breast and Thighs : Light wheaten. Back and
Wings : Dark wheaten. Tail : Black, with a shading
of brown.

THE BROWN RED

Beak : Dark horn. Eyes : Dark. Comb, Face,
Wattles, and Ear-lobes : Red. Legs and Feet : Dark.

Plumage of the Cock. — Hackles : Orange-red,
streaked with black. Back and Shoulders : Dark
red. Breast and Thighs : Black, marked with brown.
Wings : Dark brown or black. Tail : Black.

Plumage of the Hen. — Hackle : Black, striped or
shaded golden. Remainder of Plumage : Black, or
of a uniform brown mottle.

THE SP-i^NGLED

Beak : In character with legs. Eyes : Red or
daw. Comb, Face, Wattles, and Ear-lobes : Bright
red. Legs and Feet : Self colour or mottle.

Plumage. — Either black, blue, buff, or red, \\ith
white spangles, the marking to be as even as possible.
Tail : Black and white.

THE WHITE

Beak : Yellow. Eyes : Red or pearl. Comb,
Face, Wattles, and Ear-lobes : Scarlet red. Legs and
Feet : White or yellow.

Plumage. — Pure white throughout.

OTHER VARIETIES

Among other varieties recognised are Hennies,
Muffs, and Tassels in all colours ; Furnesses, Pole-
cats, Black-breasted Crow-winged Reds, Blue, Red,
and Yellow Duns, Blue and Yellow Piles, Yellow,
Brown, Streaky, and Marble-breasted Duckwings,
and Birchen Greys.

SCALE OF POINTS
Feet, 9 ; shanks, 6 ; thighs, 4 ; spurs, 2
Breast and body, 12 ; back, 8 ..
Eyes, 6 ; head, 4 ; beak, 4
Carriage
Colour . . . . . . . . . . . . S

Handhng . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Plumage . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Neck 6

Wings . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Serious defects : Crooked or humped back ; crooked
breast-bone ; wry tail ; flat shins ; duck feet ; bad
carriage ; rotten plumage ; or any unsoundness.

361

CHAPTER XXIII.

THE EXHIBITION GAME FOWL.

PRECEDING pages have already presented
many striking examples of the changes
which may be caused by judging, and
fashion, and breeding, in the form or type of
even the purest races of poultry ; but perhaps
there is no case in which such changes are so
conspicuously evident as in the subject of this
chapter. There is no doubt at all as to the
origin of the modern exhibition Game fowl.
When cock-fighting became illegal, and poultry
shows were in their early popularity, the very
same fowls that had been bred for fighting in
the pit, were placed in the exhibition pens. The
Old English Game fowl of the preceding chapter,
was also the e.xhibition Game fowl as known at
that day. The colours shown were the same
colours, and the fowls were the same fowls ; and
it was, in point of fact, not at all unusual for
the many who still occasionally practised
cocking on the quiet, to exhibit birds which
had fought, or to fight birds which had been
shown with success. And so long as exhibi-
tion was chiefly confined to the old school
of Game breeders, the birds continued to be
shown with but little change.

But as Game fowls began to be shown more
and more by persons who never fought them
nor dreamed of ever doing so, change inevitably
crept in, from causes fully e.xplained
Development in the earlier chapters of this work.
E^^ibftion Judging, as well as breeding, no
Game Fowl, longer remained in the hands of the
old cockers, and details of mere ap-
pearance began to be more studied, both in regard
to colour and form. In regard to both points,
change at first was very moderate, and it crept
in gradually, by insensible degrees. Exhibitors
and judges understood that the Game fowl was
different somehow from the breeds which were
often termed in comparison the " heavy cart
horse style" ; the tendency was natural to prefer
somewhat the taller and more reachy birds;
and to a certain extent the modified type did,
especially while confined to the earlier and
more moderate degree, appeal to even the
general public with a beauty of its own, and
was welcomed by many for the very reason

that it was somewhat distinct from the original
cock-fighting model. The following remarks,
written by the late Mr. John Douglas, who
exhibited many winners both for himself and
for the Duke of Newcastle, for the first edition
of The Ilbtstratcd Book of Poultry, are well
worth quoting as evidence of what had taken
place up to that time, and how far change
had then proceeded : —

I am very sorry to see every now and then some
novice or old antiquated breeder stating that the Game
fowl has deteriorated within this last fifteen or twenty
years. I myself have kept Game for about forty years ;
and when lawful to fight cocks have carried my Game
cock to school to fight, and many is the three days'
fighting I have seen in the town-hall, with magistrates
for the principals ; and I have even myself, when a
boy, had a cock-fight with the head magistrate's cock,
and won. Many is the main I have seen between one
end of the town and the other ; also town against
town, and two or three battles a week the whole winter
through. At night, after a hunt day, I have seen many
a battle for more money that I should like to name.
In those days we studied nothing but the blood. So
the cock was " game," we neither looked for symmetry
nor beauty of plumage ; but still, at the same time,
when we did happen to get a nice symmetrical bird,
we prided ourselves on him greatly, and seldom but he
turned out a "clipper" in the pit. The main point is
a firmness of flesh and great muscular power, with the
least lumber ; and many of our present exhibitors have
often heard remarked from those who still often see
birds in the pit, " What a nice, conmianding, 'reachy'
cock 1 — not one of the thick clumsy louts ; but nice and
springy, and fit to fight for his life ! " Those who keep
harping on the point that our Game fowls are not so
good as they were, should tell us in what points they
are not so good. They say they do not want them for
the pit, and never saw a fight, nor do they want to see
one ; what then do they want ?

For my own part I consider there has been more
improvement in the Game fowl than in any fowl we
have within the last thirty years, if we place perfection
in beauty, symmetry, purity of feather, more muscle,
less but stronger bone, and more hardness of flesh. I
consider we have discarded cumbersome flesh laid on
where not wanted, got more muscle, more symmetry,
purity of feather, and everything more pleasing to the
eye. I cannot understand what people want. There
is the " game " in them now, that will stand to be cut
up if wanted ; though sorry should I be to have to
witness a grand and beautiful bird disfigured for that
purpose. In the fields or yards, however, the Game
cock is just as vigilant and fearless as he was thirty
years ago ; and hens at the present day are just aa

362

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

demonstrative and careful of their broods. So where
do they see the " want of game " ? Those people, I am
sure, are unsuccessful exhibitors ; but if they would
follow the advice of those who are successful, there
would be none of this ridiculous nonsense about Game
deteriorating, when it is far otherwise.

But changes of this kind, when once fairly
initiated, could not stop at the point reached
when Mr. Douglas wrote the above in 1872.
So soon as fanciers and judges began to look
specially for height and reach and colour, it was
inevitable that they should seek to get more of
these points; and they did so. The process and
the gradual development by it of the present

English Game, as representing the original type,
and from an exhibition bird of the present day.
It will at once be seen that the Game fowl
of 1870, as here reproduced, was in a transitional
state of development in regard to other points
than height or reach. The powerful " boxing "
head and beak were already becoming longer
and thinner, though not so long and thin as they
have become since. The tail has become much
closer and more whipped together, though not
nearly so much so as afterwards, and still possess-
ing a singular beauty of proportion of its own,
especially in regard to the nicely " Venetianed "
arrangement of the sickles and side-feathers one

Fig. 1 1 5. ^Development of Exhibition Game.

Exhibition Game fowl are so interesting and

instructive, that we have asked Mr. Ludlow to

prepare in illustration of it the three sketches

shown in Fig. 115. The centre figure

Gradual represents the bird in its transition

Cnange , . 1 1 t

in Type. Stage, at the time when the above

sentences were written, the outline
being an exact reproduction on a reduced scale of
Mr. Douglas's Black-breasted Red cock, " The
Earl," winner of the cup at the Crystal Palace
in 1S70, which formed the frontispiece to the first
edition of The Illustrated Book of Poultry. This
bird was painted in oil by another artist, as well
as by Mr. Ludlow ; and having seen and com-
pared both paintings, we select it as an absolutely
authentic contemporary record of the tirne.
The other two outlines are sketched from Old

over the other. The neck has become more
slender, and the hackles shorter and more scanty,
though both these changes also arc carried much
further in the bird of 1900. It is needless to go
into more detail, but the diagrams themselves
will form an instructive and impressive object-
lesson concerning the profound changes which
fashion and breeding and judging can effect in
one of the oldest breeds of poultry.

The later stages of this transformation were
not effected by selection alone. Even in 1872
the Rev. A. G. Brooke, in writing upon Malays,
stated the fact of that breed being used as a
cross to increase the size and stature of Game
for exhibition, and that applications were made
to him for birds to serve that purpose. But
subsequently the Malay cross was used quite

BLACK-BREASTED RED GAME.

7,^2,

extensively by breeders in order to attain
greater length of limb, with shorter and harder
and more scanty feather. With this cross came
at first, of course, very bad heads ; but these
were very soon bred out, as were other promi-
nent Malay points : there has remained, how-
ever, a more sloping back as a rule, and more
prominent shoulder-butts than belonged to
the old English fowl : also a length of limb that
compares with, if it does not even exceed, that
of the Malay itself.

Change has not been confined to form
alone : it has affected colour also profoundly.
At first the birds had been exhibited in their
natural colours, in natural sex-relation. In
Black-breasted Reds, for instance, the darker
red cocks and the rich partridge hens appeared,
as they were bred from single-mating in the old
Derby and other strains ; but the brighter
colours were preferred, and very soon the
bright red cocks and light partridge hens were
found to breed brighter and better from double-
matings. So also the Brown-breasted Reds
began as really brown-breasted birds ; but
preference for bright colour and precise lacing
gradually produced a new colour containing
only black and lemon, with no brown in the
breast at all. It is, however, unnecessary to
discuss this phase of the matter further. As
has already been shown, the change has in the
end been so great as to create a reaction
in favour of the older breed, which has again
returned to popularity, now as an entirely dis-
tinct and different type. But it is remarkable
that while the general public unmistakably
recognise greater beauty in the old Game fowl,
the points of the modern show bird also possess
a peculiar fascination for those who can under-
stand them, and call forth in them an enthu-
siasm which is scarcely paralleled in any other
breed. Birds have frequently changed hands
for as much as ;^ioo, which can probably
not be said of any variety beside ; and the com-
petition at Birmingham Show, which in Game
fowls is the recognised great event of the year,
evokes a kind and degree of interest amongst
the circle of breeders, which in its way is unique.

The development of the exhibition type of
Game fowl has to all intents and purposes
excluded from this department of competition
many colours and markings formerly shown,
and which are still to be found in classes for the
Old English breed already treated of; and the
present recognised varieties are now compara-
tively few and well defined. The chief are those
known as Black-breasted Reds, Brown Reds,
Duckwings, and Piles ; of any others occasion-
ally shown, very brief mention will suffice.

The Black-breasted Red has always been
the acknowledged head and type of all Game
fowls. One reason for its prevalence, is no
doubt that the colour most
Black-breasted closely resembles that of the
Red Game. wild jungle-fowl [Galliis bankiva)

believed by most naturalists to
have been the original of either all or most
of the domestic breeds of poultry ; hence
when birds were bred with less reference to
shades of colour than now, it tended to pre-
vail. Originally, as briefly hinted above, the
natural sex-colours were exhibited ; cocks
being shown with darker hackles than now,
and hens of a rich partridge with shades of
red on the wings. But both judges and
breeders soon began to show marked prefer-
ence for the clearer and brighter shades
in both sexes, until practically only bright
and light-coloured specimens are shown with
success in first-class competition, though occa-
sionally a somewhat darker bird may win by
reason of very superior shape and condition
of feather.

The following description of the Black-
breasted Red Game as now demanded for
the show-pen, is kindly contributed by Mr.
F. C. Tomkins, of Brimfield Court, Hereford-
shire, well known as a breeder, exhibitor, and
judge ; and in regard to the first portion of
it, may serve also for other varieties, as a
description of the exhibition type of bird in
general : —

" In describing as requested the Black-
breasted Red Game fowl, the following is
my own ideal, and will be generally ac-
cepted by the fancy at large. The descrip-
tion may with advantage be divided under
two separate heads, viz. style, or shape and
make, and colour.

" We will take the style of the cock first.
The beak should be long, strong, and slightly
curved ; the head long and rather narrow ;
the eye bright red, prominent, bold, and fear-
less : in fact the head should bear a sort of
snaky expression. The neck to be long,
shoulders broad, back short and quite flat ,
wings carried well up and close to the body.
The tail to be short, carried rather low, with
short fine-pointed sickles. The legs should
be long, but by no means to have a stilty
appearance ; the thighs to be slightly curved,
and the shanks nicely rounded and fine at
the hock-joint ; the legs to be set well apart,
the feet flat, and the toes long ; the hind toe
to point straight backwards, and be as close
to the ground as possible : this last is a most
important point. A Game cock should be

3^4

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

a combination of quality and substance, in
fact be like a race-horse with plenty of
bone.

"The style of the hen is similar, her beak
also being long and strong and nicely
curved ; comb small, upright, and evenly
serrated ; head long and rather narrow, eye
bold, red, and prominent, with a keen snaky
expression. The neck should be long, thin,
and fine at the throat, shoulders broad, back
short and flat, tail close and carried rather
low, wings short and carried close to the
sides, legs long but in no way stilty, thighs
nicely carried, shanks smooth and well
rounded, feet and legs generally as in the
cock.

" We come now to the colour of the cock.
The beak should be dark horn. Head and
neck hackle a light orange red, free from
black stripes. Back, wing-bow, and saddle
a rich crimson, the saddle hackles always
running a shade lighter. Secondary flight
feathers a bright rich bay ; wing-bar a green
glossy black ; shoulders, breast, thighs, and
tail a sound black ; legs willow. When this
very bright top-colour as here described is
produced, there is a tendency for the breast,
hocks, and fluff" to become ticked or laced
with red. This is a very grave defect indeed,
and of the two evils I would much rather
tolerate a shade darker in top-colour, to have
the breast, hocks, and fluff absolutely black.
Of course the bright top-colour and a sound
black can be and are produced together, but
it requires great care in the mating, and a
thorough knowledge of the pedigree of the
birds mated.

" The colour of the hen is as follows :
Head a clear gold ; neck hackle gold, slightly
striped with black, but running to clear gold on
top of the head. The breast should be a rich
salmon, running off to an ashy colour on the
thighs. Back and wings a light partridge with
very small and fine markings, with a slight
golden tinge pervading the whole. This should
be quite even throughout, free from ruddiness or
shaftiness on the sides, and no large coarse
pencillings on the flight feathers of the wings.
The tail is black except the top feathers, which
should match the body colour.

" With respect to the mating of Black-Reds,
separate pens are required for cockerel- and
pullet-breeding. For cockerel-breeding a cock
such as above described should be used, and for
pullet-breeding hens of the standard colour must
be used. It is, in my opinion, useless to describe
the colour of hens to be used for cockerel-breed-
ing, or the colour of cocks required for pullet-

breeding, unless we know how they are bred, as
the produce might be quite different."

The following description, and notes on
mating for the production of this variety, are
by Mr. Samuel Matthew, of Haughley, near
Stowmarket. This gentleman was
Breeding ^ well-known breeder of Game for
Game * °^^'' sixty years, and rarely failed
to get near the top, until he had the
misfortune to lose nearly all his best birds by
foxes ; it will still be remembered how he bred
a cock claimed at the Palace in 1884 for i^ioo,
and which won the ;£^50 cup at the Birmingham
show following ; and that the following year
another bird, a half-brother to the one just
mentioned, was claimed at Birmingham for
a hundred guineas.

"The Black-breasted Red cock of the
present day should be as follows for the show-
pen, and for breeding exhibition birds the same
points should, of course, be looked for with
especiivl care : The head to be long, thin, and
bony, well set on the neck, with beak also well
set on, and in no way parrot-beaked. The eyes
large, full and bright, red or roach-eyed, and
whole face lean and thin, showing what is called
qualit}^ Neck to be long and slightly arched,
tapering neatly from head to shoulders ; hackle
short, close, and swinging back. The back flat,
broad at shoulders and tapering to the stern ;
body short, and well cut up behind ; wings
powerful ; neither carried on the back nor yet
low on the thigh. The thighs to be long and
muscular, standing clear out from the body:
shanks round, not flat, with very fine scales ; the
foot large and flat, with well-spread toes, back
toe to stand well out behind. The plumage all
over short ; on top a very bright or orange red,
especially the hackle and saddle, which must be
quite free from black stripe or pencilling ; breast,
body, and stern perfectly black ; tail lustrous
black, with narrow sickles, well pointed, about
eleven inches in length ; the lesser sickles or
side-feathers should be also narrow and well
pointed, about five in number on each side of
tail, each getting shorter as it approaches the
root of tail, all being well whipped together.
Legs and feet willow, carriage erect, alert, and
fearless, weight about 6h lbs.

" For breeding cocks of this description, such
a bird will of course be the sire : I will now
give the points of the hen to be mated with him.
Her general characteristics will be those of other
Game hens, the head being' long and bony, with
beak standing out well, face and eye red, also
comb, ear-lobes, and wattles. Attention should,
however, be given to the comb : it must be
small, fine, and well serrated, not becoming at

BREEDING BLACK-BREASTED RED GAME.

365

all lopped even when she is laying. The
hackles are nearly a lemon, pencilled in the
centre. Her breast should be a light salmon,
lighter towards the stern and down the thighs ;
the back somewhat of a stone-colour, the minute
black partridge marking being on a grey
ground with scarcely any brown in it ; wing-
coverts and secondaries of a light brown colour
and evenly pencilled ; shanks and feet willow.
Her tail should be carried low, and be somewhat
short and well whipped together, in order to
breed these points in the cockerels. It is
almost unnecessary to say that such a hen
should be of the same blood as exhibition
cockerels, reliance not being placed upon colour
alone if it can possibly be helped.

" We come next to the exhibition pullet. In
shape and general points she will resemble that
just described. Her head and neck hackle are
golden, as free from black as possible : the
breast salmon, running off to more ashy colour
on the thighs ; body a light partridge, not
coarsely pencilled on the wings nor at all mossy
in flights : the back and sides even in colour
throughout.

" Such birds being chosen as the mothers,
I will now describe the colour of the cock
required in order to breed pullets fit for the
show-pen ; in build and style he will, of course,
resemble the exhibition bird already described.
But his top-colour, that is especially his hackle
and saddle, is quite different, being quite a bright
lemon, so as to appear almost washy. Cockerels
of this colour, of course bred from pullet-
breeding strains, are now used by most of our
principal breeders to produce the pullets that
win at the leading shows ; but they are not
themselves good enough to win in high com-
petition. The pullets themselves also very
seldom produce a good cock, though you may
get one now and then by chance. Thus it will
be seen that for breeding Black-breasted Red
Game successfully, two pens, or what is called
double-mating, must now be used.

" Some breeders also employ for pullet-
breeding cocks that are marked with brown on
breast, wing-butts, and rump. By putting such
a bird to good pullets or hens, they often obtain
very good-coloured pullets for the show-pen ;
but not only are the cockerels useless for
showing, but hens or pullets bred in this way
prove most disappointing if it is attempted to
breed cockerels from them, as many amateurs
have proved to their cost. This mating also
produces more wasters than that first described.

" I do not believe in now crossing either of
the above colours in cocks with Wheaten hens,
having tried this mating with no good results.

But the first described, or exhibition cock, is
well adapted for breeding exhibition Pile cocks,
when crossed with a good yellow-legged, pale-
coloured Pile hen : the pullets will be useless, as
they will be willow-legged. And the second
colour described, the pullet-breeding cock, is
well adapted to cross for Duckwings ; if put to
a clear-winged good Duckwing hen, the produce
will generally be a well-marked Duckwing cock."

The matings here described, it will be
seen, represent established cockerel-breeding
and pullet-breeding strains. Other matings, as
described years ago by the late Mr. John
Douglas and Mr. W. F. Entwisle, are still
occasionally used by breeders with more or
less success. They depended on the use of
somewhat darker cocks, almost bay in the
hackle, with often a little black stripe in it,
and lighter shades of partridge hens, the lighter
of which in part resemble the cockerel-breeding
hen or pullet described above. At that time,
however, the exhibition colour of hens was a
perceptibly darker partridge than it is now.
Hence it was often found that a bright ex-
hibition cockerel mated with exhibition hens
produced good pullets of the rather darker
colour then shown, and such birds are still
successful occasionally by reason of excellence
in feather and style. The e.xhibition cockerel
was also mated with the lighter shades of
pullets to breed cockerels ; but the pullets
were rarely dark enough, and hence this
mating was already on the way to that
described by Mr. Matthew. The darker cocks
just mentioned were mated with medium or
rather light-coloured hens, often producing rich
partridge pullets ; and sometimes with a very
light hen, or a Wheaten, they would breed
bright rich cockerels. But the final preference
for bright colour in both sexes, has made these
old matings difficult and uncertain, though some
fine individual bird may occasionally make such
an experiment well worth while.

It is almost unnecessary to state that in
any of the matings here described, as in all
other poultry breeding for points of plumage,
an all-important matter is the pedigree of
the birds. Two pullets of apparently similar
plumage, but of different breeding, might pro-
duce very different progeny from the same
cockerel. To mate carefully by choice of
colours alone, is better than to mate carelessly,
and from necessity it may have to be done
sometimes, for want of other information about
some bird that promises too well to be passed
over. But the breeder's sheet-anchor is pedigree,
and the knowledge that the bird he has chosen
is of the proper cockerel-breeding or pullet-

366

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

breeding strain,
other varieties.

Tliis will apply to all the

The next principal colour in modern Game
shows perhaps the most remarkable transforma-
tion of any, in consequence of selective breeding
and judging. The division was once known as
Brown-breasted Red Game, and the
Brown-Red name was perfectly accurate, the
Game. breasts of the cocks being either

brown, or brown mingled with
black, or at least brown or bay streaks upon
the black, somewhat like the breast of a starling ;
while the top colour contained much red, ranging
from orange-red to crimson. The catalogue
of the Birmingham show now describes the
present colour as simply brown-red, omitting
all definite allusion to the breast, probably as
being absurd ; but in point of fact the colour can
now scarcely be said to be marked by either
brown or red anywhere, and, indeed, any con-
spicuous signs of either would be fatal to success.
The process of change can be pretty easily
traced. Up to the time when Mr. Douglas
wrote in 1872, the most popular colour in cocks
was streaky or starling-breasted, with a bay
streak to each feather, and red and crimson top-
colour ; but there was also already recognised as
a favourite colour, a black breast with narrow
lacings of bay, and top-colour of a lighter orange-
red and crimson, running off in places to rich
orange-lemon, and hens black all over except
striped golden hackles. This marking steadily
elbowed out the other ; and then as brighter
colour was preferred, the bay lacing was re-
placed by rich orange, and this by rich lemon,
and finally by bright light lemon, which extended
to the hen's breast also. Glossy green-black
was also demanded, until finally we have a
variety in which practically the only colours
deemed admissible are rich green-black and
lemon, though from old association and origin
still termed brown-red.

The following notes upon this beautiful
variety, and its breeding for exhibition, were
kindly contributed by Mr. Frederick Wardle
Smith, Kingston House, Carlton, near Work-
sop ; —

" To form a strain of Brown-breasted Red
Game, and to breed them with any hope of
success, takes several years of careful observa-
tion, selection, and management. Let no beginner
think he can purchase a few winning birds, how-
ever good they may be, and find himself in the
first flight the following show season. Brown-
Reds will not breed true to colour from what is
generally known as a single mating. For instance,
a perfect lemon exhibition cock mated with a

bright-hackled exhibition hen, will often throw
a large proportion of grey chickens, which are,
of course, worthless. But before dealing with
the breeding of Brown-Reds, I will describe
the correct type and colour of exhibition birds.

" In both sexes the head should be long and
lean, the beak strong and slightly curved, the
eye large, and free from the heavy overhanging
brow. The neck should be long and thin, and
well cleaned out at the throat ; the back short
and flat, broadest across the shoulders, and
tapering towards the tail. The shoulders should
be broad, prominent, carried well up, and slightly
away from the body ; the wings short, the
flights carried under the saddle feathers, and well
nipped into the body behind the thighs. The
breast should be broad and firm, and the breast-
bone short, and curved like the keel of a boat
There should be no lumber or heaviness in the
under part of body behind the thighs. There
the bird should be fine, and well cut off to the
root of the tail. The thighs should be long and
muscular, set well apart, and the shanks round
in front, smooth, and rather shorter than the
thighs ; the hocks neat and clean-jointed ; the
feet large and fine, toes well spread, and the
back toes set on low down and carried straight
back. The tail should be small, short, fine, and
straight, carried tight, and slightly above the
horizontal line. In cocks the sickles should be
slightly curved, narrow, and pointed, and a little
longer than the hen's tail. The secondaries and
tail coverts should also be fine and pointed.
The thighs should be set in the middle of the
body, so as to give the bird a firm, well-balanced
appearance. Nothing is more objectionable
than thighs set too far forward ; this always
makes the bird look stilty and ungainly. The
whole appearance of the bird should be tall,
bold, springy, and hard. The feather should be
short and hard, and in the hackle and saddle
of the cock, fine, wiry, and pointed.

" In both sexes the colour of the eyes should
be black ; the face and comb dark purple-black,
or as black as possible ; the beak and nails the
darkest horn colour or black (old birds, as a rule,
go light in the colour of the leg). The comb
of the hen should be small, fine, and evenly
serrated.

" The colour of the exhibition Brown-red
cock should be as follows : Head, hackle, back,
saddle, and wing-bow pure bright lemon ; the
hackle striped towards the bottom of the neck
with black, the back and saddle feathers being
black at the base, and sharply defined (Fig.
116). The rest of the body and tail black,
except the breast, which should have each
feather laced at the edge with short, round (not

B33S&

^s^- ^^ ■■ 1

f ^

I ,

^ll

BREEDING BROWN-RED GAME.

367

pointed) lemon lacing. The shaft of every
feather black. The lacing should extend from
the throat to the junction of the thigh with the
body. The sheen, a most important point, must
be a brilliant green. In the hen the hackle
should be pure bright lemon, with the centre
and shaft of each feather black, the lemon colour
running well on to the top of the head. The
breast laced similarly to the cock's. The rest
of the body and tail black, with a brilliant green
sheen.

" The chief faults to be avoided in Brown-
red cocks are long backs, bad eyes, thick necks,
and long feather. Cocks showing a darker
shade of colour on the wing-bow than on the
back should be carefully avoided. In hens the
most common faults are long backs, bad eyes,
soft feather, and coarse tails. Purple or bronze
sheen, or dull body colour, in either cocks or
hens, cannot be too strongly condemned.

shade of colour than a show cock. The cock
must be very sound and glossy in his black,
especially in his thighs and belly, and must not
be overdone with lacing. His hackle also must
be perfectly even in colour from the top of his
head to the bottom of his neck. An exhibition
cock mated with very glossy-bodied hens, with

Breast. Back. Saddle.

Fig. 1 16.— Feathers of Brown-red Cock.

Breeding

BrownEed

Game.

"To produce exhibition cock.s, a perfectly
coloured cock should be mated with hens rather
short of breast lacing, or with hens that show a
lot of black in the hackle. A
capped hen (that is, a hen with the
feathers on the head black instead of
lemon) will also often produce good
cockerels, but not pullets, when mated with an
exhibition cock. Good cockerels may also_ be
had by mating hens with too much breast lacing,
or with lacing on the back and sides, with a
cock rather darker in colour than an exhibition
cock, but he mu.st also have very little lacing,
and be short and hard in feather.

" Pullets for the show pen may be bred from
exhibition hens, and a cock of a rather darker

hackles rather too dark for the show pen, will
also produce good pullets, and occasionally a
good cockerel. This therefore is some approach
to a single mating.

" Of course many birds will be bred with
brownish bodies, bad eyes, crooked breasts, in-
knees, etc. These should be disposed of at once.
Avoid breeding from coarse sickled cocks, any
birds having flat shins, or possessing any other
deformity. Always choose cocks full of quality
and of a pure, sound, even colour, whether light
or dark in shade ; and never breed from a cock
having a pale washy-coloured back and a dark
wing bow. Above all things, never cross Brown-
reds with Birchens or Duckwings. Much has
been said about the beautiful Dure lemon colour

-,68

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

being produced by such a cross, but it is not the
case. A Brown-red cock produced by a Duck-
wing or Birchen cross, is always dull in body
colour, and has a washed-out look in the hackle,
back, saddle, and wing-bow. Other birds from
this cross come a reddish white in colour, where
they should be lemon. The hens also are dull
in body-colour, with dirty brownish hackles.
Always breed from the glossiest and purest-
coloured birds.

" The secret of breeding Brown-reds is to
thoroughly master the difference in the various
shades of colour, and to know the exact pedigree
of the breeding stock. No breed of Game fowl
requires such careful mating to produce show
birds as the Brown-breasted Reds. There is the
gipsy face and breast lacing, which breeders of
the other varieties (except Birchens) have not to
contend with ; but when an approximately per-
fect exhibition bird is produced, there is no
variety of fowl that can compare for brilliance
of colour and attractiveness with an exhibition
Brown-red cock."

Somewhat allied to the Brown-red is the
Birchen, a colour now recognised at important
shows. The foundation of this variety was an

old and now almost extinct breed
Birchen known as Silver Birchen Grey, and

Game. by some old breeders as Silver

Duckwing, though the latter name
properly belonged to another colour presently
described. In this the cocks were black-breasted
and white-hackled, the hens mostly a dull
black, with some indications of lacing on the
breast. By crossing this variety with the
lightest lemon Brown-reds, lacing was improved
and developed in both sexes, until the present
Birchens may be described as generally similar
to the Brown-reds, but with the lacing and
hackles silvery white instead of lemon. The
lacing in both sexes is, however, narrower and
sharper, and extends farther over and down the
breast, giving a very delicate and pleasing effect.
Birchens breed truer from one pen than most
varieties of Game, so that a fair proportion of
both sexes may often be produced from a single
mating, of good pedigree. As a rule, however,
better results are obtained by special matings,
putting with exhibition birds of the sex desired,
mates with a little deficiency in marking, or
rather — for this is what it really means — super-
abundance of black colour, on the general plan
described above for Brown-reds. There being
in this breed only perfection of marking in
clear white, less depends upon selection, and
more upon pedigree or breeding of the birds put
together, than in most other varieties.

The Duckwing Game is one of the most
beautiful varieties. The face should be bright
red, with the eye a sound ruby red. The cock's
head is creamy white, hackle creamy
Duckwing white or pale straw, the back and
Game. saddle orange or gold going off to

yellow, wing-bows the same ; wing-
bay a clear white, free from any red or rusti-
ness ; shoulder-butts and all under-parts deep
blue-black ; wing-bar black, with blue lustre ; a
blue lustre pervading all the black plumage.
The hen's head is silvery white or silvery grey,
and neck hackle silvery grey striped with black ;
her breast salmon, going off to ashy grey at the
thighs ; back and sides silvery grey minutely
pencilled with black or dark steel grey ; the
upper feathers of her tail should be about the
same, the lower feathers black. The hen's
plumage resembles that of the Silver-grey
Dorking, shown on page 382. This description
refers to what are known as Golden Duckwings,
which are a more or less compound variety, as
explained in the notes which follow. The
Silver Duckwings, which are a pure race and
can be bred true, very much resemble the
Goldens in regard to the hens, which are only
a little more pale and silvery, with lighter
salmon breasts: but the cocks differ in all the
light upper parts of the plumage, being silvery
white where the other is yellow. As will be
seen, the Silvers are the real foundation of the
Duckwings.

For the following notes on mating and
breeding Duckwings for exhibition we were
indebted to Mr. Arthur Binder, Ecclesfield
Common, near Sheffield : —

" The Duckwing is a cross-bred bird, if one
can be so named which is obtained by using
a Game strain of another colour — the Black-
Red. It will be apparent to all that this cross-
ing, with both cocks and hens, offers many
opportunities for experimental breeding ; and
the mating of pure Black-reds, Duckwing-bred
Black-reds, Duckwings, and Silver-bred Duck-
wings, gives rise to never-ending discussion
among fanciers. The mating of the various
birds here given is the system I usually follow,
and is founded on the experience gained during
the twenty years I have followed Duckwing
breeding in Game fowls.

" As to choice of stock generally, no new

advice can be given. In breeding anything

worth the trouble, one must get tlie

Breeding blood, and one usually has to pay

Duckwing ^j j^g f^j. jj g^jj ^j^g wideawake

Game. r , , ■ /- r ^

buyer spends his i,5 or i,io and gets
what will do him some good ; while the rash
novice may spend his ;^20 and more, to find he

^2^...

W '^

,/^*

>^

^>^^,

.r '3»

BREEDING DUCK-WINGED GAME.

369

has to begin again. The one will perhaps look
out for a late-hatched bird, which had not
finished growing when winter stopped him, and
whose colour, for the same reason, has still to
come ; will inquire his breeding, and if possible
see the parent birds, and will know that —
properly mated — he will throw as good stuff as
his more fortunate brothers, whose price is four
or five times as much. On the other hand, the
mere ' long-purse ' man, who buys chiefly from
exhibition winners, certainly gets something
for his money, but unless he is more clever
than most, his next year's birds will frequently
be no credit to their parents.

" Coming now to discuss the various matings
used in breeding Duckwings, we will consider
first one only employed for cock-breeding. This
mating is that of a Black-red cock with Ducktuing
hens.

" For this mating the cock should be a pure
bred Black-red, with no points specially differing
from the standard ; but note the following: His
hackle must be free from stripes, and all one
colour. If it is a little dark it is no detriment,
provided that the one colour be adhered to. He
must also be exceptionally good in his black ;
and in judging for this, especially notice the
shoulder points and fluff. If the black is not
sound, the shoulder points of the cockerels will
be ticked, and the fluff will have a brownish tint,
running to greyish in old birds. His feather
should be exceptionally short and hard ; because
the Duckwings he is to be mated with are inclined
to be feathery. His wing-bars should be shaded
of purple rather than green. The back colour
should be one shade across, of course ; but it
should certainly not be light, rather of a maho-
gany cast. Be sure not to have a white stripe
up the quill of the sickles, as this will come out
in the chickens.

" Now for the Duckwing hens to be mated
with the Black-red cock. Asa matter of theory,
none but sound-coloured hens should be selected ;
but all breeders know that very few such are to
be met with. One finds well-set-up birds with
coarse colour, and other defects, but with good
qualities that make one hesitate not to use them.
Hens, therefore, should be mated with the Black-
red cock that are either paler on breast than the
standard ; or not so pale on breast, but with
reddish sides and coarsish wing-ends ; or coarse-
tailed hens, otherwise good, should be used with
the Black-red cock rather than with a Duckwing,
because the Black-red will correct this defect
more surely than the Duckwing.

"In regard to the produce of this mating,
only Golden Duckwing cockerels will be fit for
exhibition. The pullets are all Black-red. and

being Duckwing-bred are useless for show pur-
poses. They are usually mated with a Duckwing
cock. Of the cockerels bred, a bird that is from
a coarse-coloured hen should never be mated up
again to breed pullets.

" Our next mating will be more or less
successful both for cock- and pullet-breeding,
and consists of a Duckwing cock with Duckwing
hen.':. For this mating the body shape, head,
legs (e.xcept for colour), tail, and style of the
cock should be as in all modern Game. But
see that his hackle is creamy without streaks,
short and straight ; his body-colour golden right
across back ; bars purple ; wing-ends a nice
white diamond, free from redness ; from saddle
to root of the tail the colour gradually going
from golden to creamy white, as in hackle ;
breast, shoulders, and fluff a good sound black ;
legs willow (may be olive green, but not blue) ;
eye and face red. This last is a great point,
because seven out of ten Duckwings have bad
eyes at the present time.

" The hens to mate with him, as with the
cock, will be similar to all modern Game except
for colour. The hackle should be black and
white mingled, a light shade preferable to dark
if not washy, but must be same shade over top
of head to face, capped birds being very objec-
tionable. The body-colour a steel-grey, free
from rust or redness, bars and wing-ends as
delicate as possible ; tail same shade as body,
but is generally found a little darker. The
breast salmon, free from smut ; head, legs, eye,
and face same as cock. N.B. — The darker
shaded hens should be mated up in this pen :
a sound colour of course preferred.

"In regard to the produce of this mating,
both cockerels and pullets being pure-bred, will
be fit to mate for breeding afterwards in any
pen according to colour, and of course for
e.xhibition according to their quality.

" Of matings for pullet-breeding there are
two, the first being that of a Duckwing cock with
Duckiving-brcd Black-red hens. Though this
mating is mainly for pullets, however, occasion-
ally a good cockerel may be thrown. The way the
hens are bred is described above. The advan-
tage to be expected from this mating is that the
pullets may come a shade lighter in colour, and
finer in feather and markings. In regard to
the produce, as a rule the cockerels should be
eaten, as they are good for neither show nor
stock, except for an occasional e.xception as
above. The Duckwing pullets may be mated
with either a pure Black-red or Golden Duck-
wing cock — Black-red for preference — their
colour being as a rule lighter and their breasts
paler than the standard.

37°

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

"The second mating for pullet-breeding
specially, is that of a Silver Diickwing cock, with
Duckwiiig or pure Black-red hens.

'• The Silver Duckwing cock should be silver
in' colour from head to root of tail ; his bars
purple ; a clear white diamond ; wing-ends, tail,
breast, shoulders and fluff all good sound black;
other points as the Golden Duckwing cock.

" The Duckwing hens to mate with him
should be very sound in colour — that is, one
shade throughout — but a darker cast is no draw-
back, and the darkest-coloured hens, if sound-
coloured, should be mated up in this pen ; their
breasts should be a deep salmon. No coarseness
in colour at all should be allowed in these birds,
and the darker shade is preferable.

" The same remarks hold good also for Black-
red hens to be mated with the Silver Duckwing
cock : the darker shades are preferable, with
deep salmon breast, always provided that there
is no coarseness or unsoundness in colour. These
latter hens will occasionally throw a good Golden
Duckwing cockerel, although the mating is
chiefly for pullets.

" In regard to the produce of such mating,
from the Duckwing hens the cockerels, of course,
will be Silver, and may be exhibited in Variety
classes. The pullets, if good, are the best of
all Duckwing pullets for exhibition purposes.
The markings are finer, the hackles cleaner and
without cap, and there is less rust and shaft
than from any other mating. They are in addition
valuable for mating with a pure Black-red
cock. From the pure Black-red hens, cock-
erels will be both Golden and Silver, but mostly
Silver. If the Golden cockerels thrown should
be good, they will exhibit, and will afterwards
mate with pullets from pure-bred Duckwing
stock. The pullets will come both Duckwing
and Black-red. The Black-reds will not
exhibit, but the Duckwings will, and both will
afterwards breed with the Golden Duckwing
cock."

The colour known as Wheaten is little seen
or used now in exhibition Game. The Red
Wheaten very much resembles the colour of
the skin of red wheat ; the Silver
Wheaten Wheaten a sort of silver cinnamon.

Game. much resembling the paler sort of

Sussex fowls described in earlier
chapters. Formerly Wheaten hens were a
great deal used to breed the brighter Black-
breasted Red cockerels ; Duckwing cocks were
also crossed with them to breed cockerels ;
and they were also used in breeding Piles.
But since the standard colours have been bred
more .systematically, these methods have been

practically discarded, and the Wheaten hen is
generally found too light in blood to breed well
with the strains of the present day. Another
objection found was that much Wheaten blood
led to softness of feather ; and condition of
plumage has so much to do with success in
modern Game, that this also led to the
colour being disliked. It has now almost dis-
appeared. On one or two occasions even lately,
however, we have heard of very bright Duck-
wing cockerels having been bred from a
Wheaten hen.

The Pile Game is a striking and beautiful
variety, which may be described in general
terms as a Black-breasted Red with the red and
coloured feathers left intact, but the
Pile black replaced by white all over

Game. the bodies of both sexes. Thus

the cock's wing-bar is white, while
the wing-bay is bay as usual, but with white
spots at the end of each secondary feather.
For the following notes upon Piles, and their
breeding for exhibition, we are indebted to Mr
Walter Firth, of Read, near Blackburn : —

" This is certainly one of the most handsome
of all the varieties of Game, and when properly
mated, has the merit of breeding true to colour
and type. The greatest difficulty is to obtain
in the male bird the pure white breast, com-
bined with a rich dark chestnut wing-bay ;
and in the pullets a rich salmon breast with per-
fectly clear wing.

" The Pile cock should be exactly similar to
the Black-breasted Red, with the exception that
where the Black-red cock is black, the Pile
should be a pure white. In harmony with this
the face, head, and throat should be a particularly
bright healthy red, the beak yellow, eye as rich
a ruby red as it is possible to obtain, and legs a
rich orange yellow, the deeper in. colour the
handsomer the bird. The hackleS are a clear
orange yellow, free from striping ; back and wing-
bows a rich orange-red inclined to crimson, the
saddle shading off to match the neck-hackle, or
clear orange yellow ; wing-bar and wing-butts a
pure white, breast and thighs ditto. The bird
must be tall, well up on the leg, with long fine
head and neck, and square prominent shoulders,
with shoulder-points well forward. The neck
hackle should fit closely and evenly, and not be
twisted as is very often the case. Other points
should, of course, be according to the general
features of exhibition Game, but any fault in
these is specially conspicuous in a Pile.

" The Pile hen will match the cock in make,
head, face, eye, and legs. Her body colour is
creamy white, as pure from any red markings on

BREEDING PILE GAME.

371

the wings as possible, although a little warm
colour, so as to give the bird a rosy appearance,
if not too much so, is no great fault : still, the
clearer the wing the better, provided the breast
is a good rich salmon colour, and not a pale
yellow, as is sometimes found. It is quite an
easy matter to breed clear-winged pullets with
pale breasts, but these should not find favour in
the show-pen ; better far allow a trifle for a little
colour on the wing and have a rich-coloured
breast, than give way to pale-breasted pullets
because of their clear wings.

" Piles may be bred true to colour for a year
or two, by breeding from Piles of both sexes.
For breeding cocks it is particularly desirable
that the hens should be well rosed
Breeding on the wings, and with good deep

Piles. breast colour, and be as tall and as

prominent in shoulder as possible.
Never breed from light-eyed birds, or from any
having a twisted breast-bone. The cock for
cock-breeding should be a good exhibition speci-
men as already described, with plenty of reach,
and a tail fine in feather, short, carried just
above the level of the back, and the sickles short,
fine, and well tapered at the ends. He should
also be broad in chest, and sound in eye-colour.
If size, reach, and stamina are required, never
use a breeding bird under twelve months old.

" For pullet-breeding, on the other hand, it is
necessary that the hens should be as free from
colour on the wing as possible, while good in
breast ; and the cock to mate with them should
be a darker shade of top-colour — more inclined
to a brickish red all through. If he is a bit
marbled on the breast it may be all the better,
providing his wing-ends and wing-butts are a
clear white, and his wing-bays sound.

" To breed true to colour it is necessary to
in-bre€d,and continue to do so until the produce
shows either signs of weakness, softness, or want
of size, or until the leg-colour and top-colour
become too pale. It is then advisable to intro-
duce a cross of Black-red blood, by mating a
Black-red cock to Pile hens. By doing this,
rich-coloured cocks will be obtained, and also
some good useful cock-breeding pullets for next
season's mating. This is for cock-breeding ;
but the pullet-breeding pen must be kept as
pure as possible, by retaining each year the
most likely breeders for future use, the Black-
red blood only coming in indirectly through
the cockerels bred from it."

In choosing a Black-breasted Red cock for
crossing with Piles, particular care should be
taken that he is a sound rich chestnut in his
wing-bays. The pullets that come from the
cross are generally willow-legged, but very

sound on the breast ; and several times we have
had reported to us good results from putting
a few of the best of such birds with a good
pullet-breeding cock whose father was also a
Pile. A very fine pullet was also represented
to have been bred from a quite pale-breasted
pullet mated with a Black-breasted Red cock-
erel, but with yellow legs, which had been bred
from Piles. Any breeder will recognise the
possibilities from crosses of this kind, and the
principle which underlies them.

Other colours are scarcely ever now seen
in exhibition Game, and may be dismissed
in a few words. We have in former years seen

at Birmingham large and fine
Other classes of Black and Brassy-winged,

Colours. the latter admitting the golden

feathers which are such a difficulty
in the males of most black fowls : there were
also good classes of Whites. Up to the time
we write there is still a refuge there for
both colours combined, but there are few entries,
and still fewer exhibitors. In the classes for
" Any Other Colour," the entries were Silver
Duckwings, referred to above. Blue Duns, and
Mottles. The fact is that all these colours
belonged to a time when the fowl was nearer
the old type ; and have their proper place now
in the Old English Game classes.

Though the long limbs of this breed look un-
sightly on the table, the flesh is still good, and
abundant on breast and wings. Many of the
present hens are also very good layers.. Hence
the exhibition Game is by no means an unprofit-
able fowl where there is room enough to keep it
to advantage, as the surplus can be eaten to
profit, while the hens and pullets will pay
their own way. The great length of limb,
as in all other cases, has however brought
with it considerable delicacy of constitution
in the shape of leg weakness. A great help

against this is Parrish's Chemical
Rearing Food, and care should also be taken

Game. not to attempt to push the chickens

on too fast, or to great size, as it
were, but to let them grow up on plain food,
with plenty of exercise, in a hardy manner.
Whatever may be the case with other breeds,
exhibition Game chickens, at least, get on
distinctly better when hatched and reared under
hens ; the individuality and activity suit them
better, especially when the hens can be allowed
a large amount of liberty. , For the following
remarks upon rearing and exhibiting we are
further indebted to Mr. Samuel Matthew : —
" The best way to rear and manage Game

372

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

chickens is to place a coop in a warm or sunny
situation, with plenty of dry earth below : this
being a good deodoriser, keeps the coop fresh
and clean with a little attention. It is necessary
for good rearing that the chickens should have
a good grass run. Where this cannot be given,
the best plan is to sow some oats and dig them
deep into the ground. The oats will soon sprout
and provide some fresh green food, which is so
necessary to keep them in good health and con-
dition. As to feeding, I find nothing better than
Spratt's chicken-food, mixed fresh each day as
follows : I break the contents of a fresh raw egg
over some of the food, then mi.x it further with
boiling water to such a consistency that it will
crumble in pieces when given to the chickens.
It must not be mixed too moist. After the
chickens are about a fortnight old, for a change,
a mixture of fine middlings and oatmeal may
be mixed in the same way. Be very careful
that any meal is quite sweet, not in the least
musty, or rancid, or sour, and avoid foreign meal,
which is often inferior. It is necessary always
to let them have a good supply of coarse sharp
sand, or dry road-scrapings, grit being necessary
to enable them to digest their food. If the
chickens seem at all ailing or sickening, bread
soaked in sweet milk is a good change of diet.
After a time, an occasional feed of wheat soaked
for some hours in water, may be given at night,
commencing in small quantities ; and later on
some good sound barley may be given for a
change. There will, of course, be refuse or waste
birds among the broods, breed them how you
may ; therefore, as soon as possible select the
most promising, and draft out the others for
table or other purposes, so that a larger run may
be left for the good birds.

" The necessary process of dubbing is best
performed with the bird in the hands of an
assistant, who understands the proper way of

handling a Game fowl. Using a
Dubbing pa.ir of surgical scissors, the operator

Game. cuts first from the back of the

wattles, taking that part between
the blades and cutting towards the beak, being
careful not to cut too deeply, or the jaw-bone
might be injured. Now that heads are desired
so fine, this is best done at si.x months old,
leaving the comb till nearer eight months old.
To take off the comb, the operator stands in
front of the bird, cutting from the beak to the
back of the skull, and keeping the scissors firmly
down to the head. If the operation is carefully
done the wound will heal in a few days, but care
must be taken to keep the birds from fighting,
as a few minutes' fighting before healing has
taken place, might probably cause disfigurement

for life. It is no us2 dubbing cockerels before
runs can be found for them, as those which have
agreed before will always fight after it : the
operation has so changed their appearance, that
they meet as strangers, and will no longer agree.

" Long training in pens is not good for
Game. The best way of training for exhibition
is to place a bird in a show-pen for two or
three days only at a time, with intervals of
three or four days between each time, training
them to take food from the hand. Then they
should be accustomed to feed from the hand
held high up in front of the pen, so as to induce
them to stand up, come well to the front, and
show off well. In general the bird should be
made as tame as possible, when he will not
mind being handled, and birds once thoroughly
trained never seem to forget it."

It is usual to trim the heads of Game cocks
a little before exhibition, removing with scissors
the line of little spiky feathers at the sides of the
amputated comb, close to the head, and also the
little feathers which project from the face. Some
draw out the latter, as is done in Spanish faces ;
but in this case they grow again.

Very few words will be sufficient for the
controversy which now and then arises about
the operation of dubbing Game. Almost with-
out exception the assumed humanitarians have
been totally ignorant of Game fowls ; and it is
gravely to be regretted that the names of some
persons in high position should, by the mistaken
representations of people of this kind, have been
dragged into a crusade of which they also have
not been competent to judge, since they have
had no knowledge of the facts and conditions.
All these good people forget that dubbing
originated when shows were unknown, as a
practical necessity, and merely because the
fighting cock, when undubbcd, was fatally
handicapped in his battle, and suffered continu-
ally during his life. The old cockers simply
found that a Game cock was saved a far greater
amount of suffering, and often death, by being
dubbed ; and they dubbed him for this and no
other reason : of exhibition they knew nothing
at all. Some oral and written evidence that has
been quoted from " veterinarians," professing
to " prove " that the comb of a fowl, " owing to
its profuse supply of nerves, is specially sen-
sitive," has on the contrary proved an ignorance
on their own part quite extraordinary. Exam-
ination under the microscope of sections from
a cock's comb, leads to an exactly opposite
conclusion ; not, of course, that there are no
nerves of sensation in the comb, but certainly
to the effect that the comb is anything but
a specially sensitive part of the body. The

JUDGING GAAfE.

373

same conclusion is suggested by phenomena
familiar at times to almost every poultry-keeper
with small runs, who will have seen a cock
standing while the hens pecked his comb into
a miserable state, with apparently entire uncon-
cern. Dubbing was not adopted to avoid injury
to the comb, but to leave no hold ; because a
Game cock strikes with his spur close to where
he holds by his . beak, and thus the face
might be terribly cut, or the eyes torn out,
if the comb was left on. We fear there
is a large class of people whose notions of
cruelty or humanity depend not so much upon
real pain or suffering — a matter always to be
taken into grave consideration — as upon the
presence or absence of visible wound, or of a
few drops of blood. At all events, we knew of
one lady who used very strong language in-
deed about dubbing Game, who regularly sent
a male kitten to be " made into a house cat,"
for the merest reasons of her own personal con-
venience ; and that sort of thing furnishes food
for reflection. Though we have had some share in
the active prevention of animal suffering, we never
were able to get up strong feeling about any
operation that only takes a minute or two, has
no pain of anticipation, and is apparently for-
gotten as soon as over ; and we have repeat-
edly seen a Game cock begin to feed as soon as
tossed down upon the ground. As, however,
we believe that some people have been deterred
keeping Game Bantams especially, from dreading
the supposed cruelty of this operation, it seems
worth while to point out that even a dentist's
nitrous oxide " gas" will cause anaesthesia quite
long enough to dub a bird ; or if that be incon-
venient, that a few whiffs of chloroform in a hand-
kerchief will equally prevent any pain whatever.

It is not much use attempting to breed
exhibition Game, any more than the Old
English, without plenty of room. The cockerels
may be kept together until grown, on a good
run, under an old cock, as in the case of the
older breed ; but there is " Game" in them still,
however modified, and as fast as they are
dubbed they must be provided for separately.
Moreover, space is required to rear the chickens
of what is now a rather delicate breed, in health
and condition. Finally, without range the birds
cannot be shown in the hard feather which is so
necessary to success. A few split peas daily for
two or three weeks before a show will help this
to some extent.

In judging Game, style and make and con-
dition are taken into consideration to a greater
extent than in any other breed except the
preceding, or in the corresponding breeds of
Bantams. Hence, keen as is the competition

in colour and marking now, it not unfre-
quently happens that a bird somewhat in-
ferior in these will pull off the honours by great

superiority in style and character
Judging of plumage : for instance, a some-

Game, what too dark cockerel, or a too

rich or a slightly foxy pullet, may
be so far superior in make or feather as to
win over better colour.""' The prize birds, or
those likely to be chosen at least, should
always be handled, the handling counting
for a great deal in Game. Handling is
also the only way to detect crooked breasts,
which of late have crept into this breed more
than formerly, so that occasionally, when the
apparently best bird in a class is left out, inquiry
will elicit the fact that it was on account of
a crooked breast.

The following is the Standard of Perfection
for Game, adopted by the Poultry Club in
consultation with the United Game Club: —

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

COCK

Head. — Shull : Long, fine, and narrow across the
eyes. Beak : Long and gracefully curved, and strong
at the base. Eyes : Prominent. Comb : Single,
small, upright, of fine texture, and evenly serrated
at its edge. Face : Smooth. Ear-lobes and Wattles :
Fine and small to match the comb as nearly as possible.
(Note. — It is customary to exhibit Game cocks
after being dubbed, having their comb, ear-lobes, and
wattles removed, and leaving the head and lower
jaw smooth and free from ridges.)

Neck. — Long and sUghtly arched, fitted with
" wiry " feathers, but thin at the setting on of the
body.

Body. — Short back, \vide front, and tapering
to the tail. Back : Flat, and shaped like a smooth-
ing iron. Wings : Short, strong, and powerful.
Shoulders : Prominent and carried well up.

Tail. — Short, fine, and closely wliipped together,
carried shghtly above the level of the body, with
the sickles fine and well pointed, and only sUghtly
curved.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Thighs strong and mus-
cular, shanks long and well rounded. Toes : Four
in number, long, fine and straight, the fourth or
hind toe carried straight out and flat on the ground,
not downwards against the ball of the foot, which,
known as " duck-footed," is most objectionable.

Carriage. — Upstanding and active.

Weight.— 7 lb. to 9 lb.

Plumage. — Short and hard.

HEN

The general characteristics of the hen are similar
to those of the cock, allowing for the natural sexual
differences.

Weight.— 5 lb. to 7 lb.

COLOUR

THE BIRCHEN

Beak : Dark horn. Eyes : Black. Comb, Face.

374

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Wattles, and Ear-lobes : Dark purple. Legs and
Feet : Black.

Plumage of the Cock. — Hackle. Back, Saddle,
Shoiilder-coverts , and Wing-bows : Silver-white, the
neck-hackle with narrow black striping. Remainder
of Plumage : A rich black, the breast having a
narrow silver margin round each feather, giving it
a regular laced appearance gradually diminishing to
perfect black thighs.

Plumage of the Hen. — Neck - hackle : Similar to
that of the cock. Remainder of Plumage : A rich
black, the breast very delicately laced as in the
cock.

THE BLACK-BREASTED RED

Beak : Dark green. Eyes, Comb, Face, Wattles,
and Ear-lobes : Bright red. Legs : Willow.

Plumage of the Cock. — Cap : Orange red. Neck-
hackle : Light orange, free from black stripe. Back
and Saddle : Rich crimson. Wings : Bow, orange ;
bar, green-black ; secondaries, rich bay on the outer
edge of feathers, black on the inner edge and tips,
only the rich bay showing when the wing is closed ;
primaries, black. Remainder of Plumage : Green-
black.

Plumage of the Hen. — Neck - hackle : Gold,
slightly striped with black, running to clear gold
on the cap. Breast and Thighs : Breast a rich
salmon, running to ash on thighs. Tail : Black,
except the top feathers, wliich should match the
body colour. Remainder of Plumage : A hght par-
tridge brown ground, very finely pencilled, and a
slight golden tinge pervading the whole, which
should be even throughout and free from any ruddi-
ness whatever, and with no trace of pencilUng on
the flight feathers.

THE BROWN-RED

Beak : Very dark horn, black preferred. Eyes,
Comb, Face, Wattles, Ear-lobes, Legs and Feet : Black.

Plumage of the Cock. — Hackles, Back, and Wing-
how : Bright lemon, the neck-hackle feathers striped
down the centre with green-black, not brown.
Remainder of Plumage : Green-black, the breast
feathers edged with pale lemon as low as the top
of the thighs.

Plumage of the Hen. — Neck-hackle : Light lemon
to the top of the head, the lower feathers being striped
with green-black. Remainder of Pluniage : Green-
black, the breast laced as in the cock, the shoulders
free from ticking and the back from lacing. (Note.
— There should be only two colours in Brown-Red
Game — viz. lemon and black. In the cock the
lemon should be very rich and bright, and in the
hen light ; the black in both sexes should have a
bright green gloss, known as beetle-green.)

THE GOLDEN DUCKWING

Beak : Dark horn. Eyes : Ruby red. Comb,
Face, Wattles, and Ear-lobes : Red. Legs and Feet :
Willow.

Plumage of the Cock. — Hackle : Cream white,

free from striping. Back and Saddle : Pale orange
or rich yellow. Wings : Bows, pale orange or rich
yellow ; bars and primaries, black with blue sheen ;
secondaries, pure white on the outer edge of the
feathers, black on the inner edge and tips, the pure
wiiite alone showing when the wings are closed.
Remainder of Plumage : Black, with blue sheen.

Plumage of the Hen. — -Hackle : Silver white,
finely striped with black. Breast and Thighs :
Salmon, diminisliing to ash grey on thighs. Tail .■
Black, except top feathers, which should match
the body colour. Remainder of Plumage : French
or steel grey, very sUghtly pencilled with black, and
even throughout.

THE SILVER DUCKWING

Beak, Eyes, Comb, Face, Wattles, Ear-lobes, Legs
and Feet : As in the golden variety.

Plumage of the Cock. — Hackle, Back, Saddle,
Shoulder-coverts , and Wing-bows : Silver wloite. Second-
aries, pure white on the outer edge of the feathers,
black on the inner edge and tips of bay, the pure
white alone showing when the wing is closed. Re-
maitider of Plumage : Lustrous blue-black.

Plumage of the Hen. — Hackle : Silver white finely
striped with black. Breast and Thighs : Breast a
pale salmon diminishing to pale ash grey on thighs.
Tail : Black, except top feathers, which should
match body colour. Remainder of Plumage : Light
French grey, with almost invisible black pencilling.

THE PILE

Beak : Yellow. Eyes : Bright cherry-red. Comb,
Face, Wattles, and Ear-lobes : Red. Legs and Feet :
Rich orange yellow.

Plumage of the Cock. — Hackles : Bright orange ;
dark or washy hackles are to be avoided. Back
and Saddle : Rich maroon. Wings : Bow, maroon ;
bar, white, free from splashes ; secondaries, dark
chestnut on the outer edge, and white on the inner
edge and tips, only the dark chestnut showing when
the wing is closed ; primaries, white. Remainder of
Plumage : Pure white.

Plumage of the Hen. — Neck - hackle : White,
tinged with gold. Breast : Rich salmon. Remainder
of Plumage : Pure white.

SCALE OF POINTS
Style and shape
Colour

Condition and shortness of feather
Eyes . .

Tail

Legs and Feet

Head . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Serious defects : Eyes other colour than standard ;
flat sliins ; crooked breast-bone ; twisted toes or
duck feet ; wry tail ; crooked back.

375

CHAPTER XXIV.

DORKINGS AND SUSSEX FOWLS.

WITH the much greater knowledge and
experience of poultry which has been
accumulated during half a century since
exhibitions have been held, it has become more
and more certain that the English Dorking, at
least, is one breed which we unmistakably owe
to the Roman conquest of Britain. It has been
already intimated, on Caesar's authority, that the
ancient Britons did not eat fowls at that date ;
but the Romans did, and had learnt to select
their table fowls with some care ; and the Roman
writer Columella describes as the best and most
esteemed, a bird with all the essential marks of
the Dorking race, which there can be no reason-
able doubt that the conquerors carried with!
them into Britain, unless they already found it
there, which is scarcely likely. Some objection
has been made on the score of the colours
mentioned by the Roman writer, but with no
real ground when it is remembered how variable
such a point is ; in fact, he implies that various
colours were known, and it is further to be re-
marked that one of the most ancient varieties
— the Red Dorking — closely resembles that to
which he gives most prominence, " red or tawny,
with black wings." He describes hens with
robust bodies, " square-framed, large and broad-
breasted," with large heads, and small upright
combs, adding that the " purest " breed are five-
clawed, which should be so placed that " no
cross spurs " arise — a well-known fault in early
exhibition days. The cock is to have the same
number of claws, breast broad and muscular,
" tail lofty," legs sturdy and not long, but
" armed as it were with dangerous spears,"
another allusion to the extra spurs once so
prevalent. All the real essentials of the Dorking
are to be found in these details ; and it is in-
teresting to see that the fifth toe, in particular,
which has been said to be cultivated as a mere
exhibition point by the " fanciers," has on the
contrary come down to us from the Romans, as
the mark of their " best" race of table fowls.

It is remarkable how closely the Dorking
we know to-day has preserved all the main
points stated by the old Roman writer. It is
still a fowl, or should be, with large broad

breast, square frame, short legs, and five claws.
With us it has become now divided into
several distinct varieties, known as the Dark or
Coloured, the Red, the Silver-grey, the White,
and the Cuckoo Dorking. Some of these pre-
sent points of interest in their history.

The origin of what may be termed the
" essence " of the Dorking race has been given
above ; but in regard to what has been called

successively the Grey, or Coloured,
°"|*" and more lately named the Dark

Dark Dorkings. Dorking, there has certainly been

a great deal of other blood, and
considerable transformation, in more recent
times. It is practically beyond controversy
that this fine race was formed by cross-
ing some real Dorking stock upon the large
four-toed Surrey fowl. In the earlier years
of the nineteenth century the pure (five-
toed) Dorking strain appears to have been
confined to, and centred in, the rose-combed
White Dorking, and perhaps also the single-
combed Red Dorking presently described, but
which was little known in comparison with the
other. In his first edition of 1815, Bonnington
Moubray describes the breed as "genuine
colour intire white ; chief distinctive mark, five
claws upon each foot," and spells the name
" Darking." He adds, however, how even at that
date claims were made that the true fowls were
raised in the Weald of Sussex, Horsham being
the chief market for them ; and how those who
made this claim maintained that the five claws
were " merely fortuitous, and in fact objection-
able, and that those so marked are deemed a
bastard breed." No evidence can be clearer than
that these were mainly the large four-toed
Sussex or Surrey fowl, more or less crossed with
the five-toed Dorking. In the earlier books
upon poultry, and especially in The Poultry Book
of Messrs. Wingfield and Johnson, published in
1853, it is stated that the Coloured Dorking
came with four toes and five toes, and even with
six toes ; and the cock figured in the coloured
plate, which had won many prizes, had three
back toes on one foot. The late Capt. Hornby

376

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

records in the same work, how from the same
stock he bred different colours, and about half
double or rose combs, though the parents were
single-combed birds ; while the late Mr. John
Baily also writes that in Coloured Dorkings
"almost every colour may be produced from the
same parents." It is also stated in the same
work that as many birds occurred without the
fifth claw, as with that distinctive member. All
the evidence, of many breeders, unites to show
that the Coloured Dorking was produced by
crossing a really five-toed Dorking race, prob-
ably the rose-combed White, but possibly in
some cases the single-combed Red, upon the
large dark Surrey or Sussex fowls. These earlier
birds were as a rule of a grey speckled colour,
from which the name Grey Dorking was derived.
But other crosses have since taken place. In
the tenth and enlarged edition of Moubray pub-
lished in 1854, Mr. Meall states that to his

personal knowledge many of the
Change in black-breasted Dorkings were pro-
Daxk duced by crossing with Spanish

Dorkings. fowls, both in Sussex and around

Wokingham, and which cross had
imparted the very large upright comb, and a
tendency to white ear-lobes, besides a somewhat
hollow or high-carried breast. There can be
little doubt that the immense combs now seen
on many cocks are due to this cross. Finally,
in 1857 the size of the breed was increased by at
least two pounds per bird, the colour modified,
and the constitution improved, by a cross made
by the late Mr. John Douglas, with a bird which
had come from India, and which has there-
fore been stated to have been of " Malay "
type, but quite erroneously. The bird in
question was neither long-legged, nor yellow-
legged, nor low-tailed : in fact, from the
description following, while he may have
had some grey Chittagong character about him,
it certainly contained far more of Dorking type
than usual, and some of these Chittagong birds
which we have seen evidently possessed a great
deal. The following is the account written for
us by Mr. Douglas himself, in 1872, of this now
historic cross, to which so much of the present
Dorking character is due : —

Dorkings in 1857 were considered of a good show
weight Lf the cooks attained nine pounds and a half and the
hens seven pounds and a half. The hens were then
either of a grey or brown ruddy colour, and the cocks
always showed a great deal of white in the tail, with
breasts inclined to be speckled of various colours ; not
any standard colour, as shown at the present day.

The first and only time I made a cross was with a
dark grey cock, which had come from India, weighing
thirteen pounds. This bird was a model single-
combed Dorking in aU but the fifth toe, which was

absent ; and it is quite wrong to say he was of the
Malayan type, for there was not the least type of Malay
about him : he had .white legs, and all the characters of
a Dorking, except, as before stated, the fifth toe. I
firmly believe he must have been a cross from a bird of
the Dorking tribe taken out before to India, with what
cross I could not say, but certainly not the Malay. I
put to this bird seven hens eighteen months old, and the
produce turned out far beyond my expectations — all
were decidedly of the Dorking type, and very few but
what had the Dorking toe. Some of the pullets when
seven months old weighed nine pounds, and the
cockerels ten pounds and a half ; while at eighteen
months several hens reached ten pounds and upwards,
cocks coming up to thirteen pounds ; and one bird in
particular, when two years and six months old, weighed
as much as fourteen pounds and a half, which was the
heaviest weight I ever obtained in the Dorking fowl.

So much for the first cross. The following season I
mated one of the cockerels thus produced to thirteen of
the old hens, and the imported cock to seven of his own
cross-bred pullets. From the cockerel with the hens I
chiefly obtained my uniformity of colour in the pullets,
and also my very dark cockerels ; but I also found I
had obtained a much stronger constitution. From this
year's breeding many yards obtained the new blood,
both by eggs and birds bought of me ; and from that
date (185S) we began to find at our shows a steadily in-
creasing number of the Dark Greys, and heavier weights
began to be shown.

After the second year I lost the imported cock, and
then had to work with the two yards I had formed, but
which I found no difficulty in doing. The stronger con-
stitution thus introduced continues to the present time,
breeding also up to this very day far more uniformity
in colour. Whole yards of Dorkings may now be found
which run as true to colour as Brahmas or Cochins ;
whereas before this time almost every hen was different
in colour, so much so that out of a hundred hens in a
yard it was a difficult matter to get three out of the lot
to match. We have also thus obtained longer bodies,
greater width in shoulders, more length of breast, and
greater depth in the keel or breastbone, where a pro-
portionately greater amount of flesh can of course be
put upon the birds ; in fact the fowl is now heavier-
fleshed all over, with no more addition of offal in
proportion.

There is yet a little to add before we can
consider complete even this briefest outline of
Dark Dorking history. The breed as Mr.
Douglas left it was darker than before, the
"speckle" being gone, and the cocks mostly
black-breasted. But fanciers and judges made
it by their selection darker still, until the feathers
over the hen's wings and back became practically
black, with only the shaft of the feather showing
white, more and more black coming into the
cock's hackles. With this extremely dark
colour came in, unfortunately, more or less of
sooty feet and legs. This blemish led at one
time to much railing against the cross which Mr.
Douglas had made, as being the cause of the
sooty feet ; but for this charge there was
no real foundation. The bird he had used
was quite white in the feet ; and for years
no dark feet had appeared in consequence. As

THE MODERN DARK DORKING.

377

we pointed out at the time, it was breeding the
birds nearly black that did the mischief, such
body colour always tending to sooty feet in
every race of poultry. The dark colour had
been liked, as looking larger in the pen, and
had been fashionable, and had brought dark
feet with it, as such colour always will. But
the fault caused some reaction ; and when such
very dark birds no longer ruled, the dark feet
soon disappeared.

The Dark or, as it was formerly called,
the Coloured Dorking until quite recent years
well maintained its position as an exhibition
fowl, and still, with the other colours, yields
to none in its splendid utility
The qualities. For the time it has been

Modem elbowed aside by newer varieties,

Dorking. some of which owe not a little to

the Dorking themselves ; but, in
common with all who remember the splendid
classes of Dorkings in the past at our classic
shows, we trust that they may yet enjoy their
own again.

The following notes on Dark Dorkings are
contributed by Mr. M. F. Smyth, The Lodge,
Coleraine, Ireland, who has probably bred
them longer than any other exhibitor of the pre-
sent day ; — " Dorkings are not a breed of fowls
suited for dwellers in towns, or for small runs,
•t is true ; but that they can only be kept satis-
factorily on very dry soils is quite a fallacy.
The soil here is a heavy clay, and lies low,
and our climate in the north of Ireland is one
of the wettest in the three kingdoms ; yet I
have bred Dorkings on it for over thirty years
with very considerable success.

" One of the great advantages of the Dark
Dorking is that it needs so little preparation for
exhibition: merely to have it well accustomed
to being penned, to wash its legs and feet
thoroughly with soap and water, giving the
comb and wattles a rub over with a damp
sponge before sending it off to a show. The
Dark Dorking has also ' the pull ' over its
lighter coloured brethren (Silvers or Whites) in
not requiring much shading from the sun, nor
can its legs lose their colour on any soil, as is,
I believe, often the case with some of the now
fashionable yellow-legged breeds. What, how-
ever, tends more than anything else to make it
so largely kept, is that a very wide range of
colour of plumage is now allowed, and birds
have not to be bred to a particular shade or
marking of feathers, as in so many other breeds.

" That the Dark Dorking of to-day has
changed its colour considerably from forty or
fifty years ago is undoubted ; and that no
alien blood has ever been introduced, save

the one dark Indian-bred cock mentioned by
the late Mr. John Douglas, I do not for a
moment believe. <The Dark Brahma, once all
the rage, was probably an outcross formerly
at times employed, as evinced in the
feathered legs and buff-tinted eggs, which I
am glad to say are now much less seen than
formerly. Of late years I cannot help think-
ing that the Indian Game, and possibly the
Langshan, may be accountable for the coarser
appearance, and still more for the erect car-
riage, sloping back, and the general want of
roundness of breast, as well as for what I
should myself describe as a want of quality.
When first I began exhibiting Dark Dorkings
it was only the very dark-feathered birds that
mostly caught the judge's eye ; but now a much
lighter colour of plumage, especially in the
cocks, is not only recognised, but by some pre-
ferred, this change to a lighter shade being
accompanied by whiter feet.

" The Dorking being essentially a table
fowl, size is naturally of much importance.
The old-fashioned Dorking was a short-legged,
compact, and active bird, and many of the
old breeders, like myself, think that in the
desire to get size, a coarser and less typical
bird has been produced, which just now finds
favour with many judges. In Dark, as in all
the other colours of Dorkings, the shape and
colour of the feet are most important, and the
legs, feet and toe-nails should be quite white.
The feet of a Dorking should be large, well
spread, and the toes perfectly straight, a
crooked middle toe being a by no means un-
common failing. The fourth and fifth toes
should stand out separately from the leg, the
former pointing slightly downwards, with the
fifth toe turning up towards the leg. I like
to see the fifth toe thin and hard, as coarse
drooping fifth toes are not only most un-
sightly, but are apt to strike against each
other when the bird is walking. The fifth
toe of the Dorking is in my opinion an
abnormal point, and is in consequence often
malformed. In some instances there is a
more or less distinct sixth toe, while in
others the fifth toe is entirely wanting, either
of which should certainly disqualify a bird,
no matter how good it may be in other
points. Another peculiarity also, I believe,
arising from the extra or fifth toe, is a double
toe-nail. These double nails are confined en-
tirely to the upper toes, sometimes on one
foot only. Often the double nail is a mere
split or division in the nail, but in any form
I greatly dislike it, as being not only most
hereditary, but likely to lead to all sorts of

378

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

monstrosities in the fifth toe, and I would
never myself breed from a Dorking with either
a double nail or a gouty foot or toe.

" The Dorking should be a long, low bird,
standing on short legs, and clean, hard feet,
with a full, round breast. The cock should
have a comb of medium size firmly set on
the head, and a fine, flowing tail ; the hen
with her comb well turned over to one side.
In both sexes I like to see the comb of a
nice, fine texture ; a cock with a big, coarse
comb lopping over being always to me an
eyesore.

cocks make the best stock-birds, while several
high-priced and noted winners that I have
bought, for a change of blood, have proved
quite useless for breeding, probably either from
over-forcing or over-exhibiting. Many prefer
breeding from an adult cock, especially with
pullets ; but I rarely ever use any but cockerels,
as I find them much more reliable in producing
stock early in the season. In any breed in
which size is of importance, in-breeding must
not be carried too far ; but at the same time
I do not consider a constant introduction of
fresh blood at all so necessary as many do.

Breast. Wing.

Fig. 117. — Feathers of Dark Dorking Hen.

" In breeding Dark Dorkings I like a big
cock, broad and flat in the back and full in
breast, with large masculine head and firmly
set comb, free from side sprigs. He should
stand well on his legs, and should be possessed
of a fair amount of bone, too fine a leg-bone
being often accompanied by a general want of
substance. My own fancy in a stock cock is
what the Scotch call 'a big, rough bird,' and
if possible one that has been but little exhibited.
I would much prefer to breed from a big, raw
cockerel, coming from a yard where winners
were bred, not bought, rather than from a crack
show bird. Strange as it may seem, I have
rarely ever myself found the most perfect show

A great point is to find out what particular
strain blends well with one's own, and when
getting fresh blood I always try to obtain
birds with a good amount of my own strain
in them.

" In breeding Dark Dorkings I never match
up separate pens to produce cockerels and pullets,
nor do I consider it necessary. My fancy in
cocks is the lighter shade of plumage, that is,
a whitish neck and saddle, ticked or striped with
black or grey, but I object to the very white
hackles that remind one of a badly coloured
Silver-grey. My reason for ^ preferring the
light-feathered cocks is that they are much
more likely to produce white-footed chickens ;

BREEDING DARK DORKINGS.

379

I also consider them generally more t}pical
Dorkings in shape. No one is probably less
particular than I am as regards colour of
plumage in Dark Dorkings, but I like to see the
breast and thighs in the cocks black, with little
or no white mottling appearing, and with a full
flowing black tail. The ear-lobes in the cocks
should certainly be red or nearly so, though
some of the older fanciers say that in old times
the ears were mostly white.

way of grain I use canary seed at first, and
afterwards groats. Meat or flesh of some kind
I often see recommended for moultnig fowls ;
and in cold weather, given in moderation, I
dare say it is at times useful, but used too
freely it is often the cause of those big, flabby,
soft-looking combs, which are constantly fall-
ing over or breaking out into canker in the
cocks, as well as of that \-ile habit one hears
so often of, the hens pecking the cocks' combs."

Wing. Wing-Covrrt.

Fig. I iS.— Feathers of Medium Dark Durking Hen.

" My birds are mated up about the beginning
of December, and are not afterwards exhibited
that season. To win at the early shows, you
must ha\'e your chickens hatched in January or
early in February, but for the big autumn
shows the ]\Iarch chickens are generally the
best. I never set a Dorking hen on eggs if I
can possibly avoid it, for though they sit well,
they are so heavy and clumsy that they often
crush the chickens when hatching.

" My chickens never get custard or chopped
eggs. At first I give oatmeal and Spratt made
into dough, with a little milk to drink. In the

The following remarks on the colour of
Dark Dorking hens or pullets are kindly added
by Mr. T. Coke Burnell, who was well known
both as an exhibitor and judge until health
compelled a sojourn for some years upon the
Continent, but who subsequently returned to
England, and was enabled to compare present
exhibits with what he was familiar with : —

" As to colour in Dorking hens, provided
the w'ings are not rusty, and the breast
feathers have not a very faded or washed-
out appearance, I should not be over ready
to condemn an otherwise good bird. The

3So

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

general tone of colour of the hen must be
dark ; a light-coloured hen would not match
a dark cock. The majority of prize hens
now exhibited have a striped neck hackle ;
but a black neck hackle and tail, the back
and wings being of a dark grey colour, and
each feather edged or spangled with black, is
very taking. The breast colour may be of any
tinge from salmon to dark chocolate. It may
thus be inferred that any particular shade of
colour — of course, excepting a solid black — is
not to be criticised too severely ; the great
points being the true Dorking shape, short
legs, white feet, five toes distinctly formed
and matching, comb falling over or folding —
I prefer the latter — with the long and deep
breast bone, and the horizontal carriage of
body that should be found in all good
Dorkings, and size. I have never used other
hens than Dorkings for sitting, but they should
be gently and firmly handled, and have plenty
of room."

The colours most often seen in Dark Dork-
ing hens are represented by Figs. 117 and 118.
Fig. 117 shows the nearly black plumage on the
back, with the wing-feathers bordered with black
round a greyish centre covered with marking, as
described in the Standard. At one time birds
were shown darker on the wings and cushion
than even this ; but that extreme has been dis-
carded as noted above. Fig. 1 1 8 shows the grey
marking carried more over the body, though
still margined with black, as described above by
Mr. Burnell, which is not only quite a permissible
colour, but certainly ought to be recognised as
such, though not mentioned in the Standard.
Some of the finest hens shown have been of this
colour, which is a better one for whiteness of
feet than the " nearly black " plumage.

The following notes on breeding and rear-
ing Dark Dorkings were contributed by Mr.
Rufus Goodfellow, for long poultry manager
to Mr. Herbert Reeves, of Emsworth, Hants,
a prominent and successful exhibitor until the
latter's retirement from the fancy in 1910: —

" I have now bred and exhibited Dark Dork-
ings for a good many years, and from my
experience they are one of the most valuable
breeds we have, being hardy and easy to rear if
well attended to. They are also very good
layers, especially in the winter months. For
some years past I have had a good supply of
eggs during autumn and in the winter, when
eggs are most valuable for breeding the early
chickens for the summer shows. I generally
allow my hens to sit as long as they like in the
summer for rest ; then they have an early moult,
which enables them to get strong before breed-

ing. If careful attention is given to the birds in
the summer months, looking out those that you
intend to breed from, and giving them a good
run — nothing suits the Dorking better than the
unlimited run of a farmyard — then when you
mate up in the autumn with a strong cockerel,
eggs will be plentiful and mostly fertile, and
hatch strong, vigorous chickens that will grow
rapidly.

" I always find the best results, as a rule, from
two-year-old hens mated with a one-year-old
cock, or with a cock of the same age ; but I
have also had some good results from pullets
mated with a cockerel. In the year 1897, for
instance, I bred my famous team of Silver-grey
Dorkings, which swept the deck at the Palace
that year, from a cockerel and pullets, thus
proving that Dorkings are not so delicate as
most people think. My Dorkings are kept on
enclosed or limited grass runs, but I always keep
them in good health, and hatch strong chickens.
I find that, as a rule, the January chickens
thrive much better than those hatched in March
or April, and have had cockerels put on half a
pound a week for six or seven weeks running,
and still keep well on their legs. I usually feed
my growing chickens in the main upon ground
oats and the best wheat, with a little cut fresh
bone once a day, and with this feeding I scarcely
ever have a chicken suffer from leg-weaknes.s.
That complaint used to be one of the greatest
difficulties in rearing Dorkings ; but if the
strongest and most active birds are bred from,
and careful attention given in feeding, I find
they scarcely ever suffer from this malady,
though my Dark Dorkings are as large and
heavy as those of most breeders. I have cocks
weighing twelve pounds and hens eleven pounds.

" The Dark Dorking is not so useful as an
exhibition fowl merely, as some other breeds.
Although hens will stand a lot of showing, the
cocks and cockerels will not : if shown week
after week it soon begins to tell on them. Not
only the excitement of the show, but the small
pens now provided goes against them. Cocks
are usually no use for showing after three years
old, although I once bred successfully from a
four-year-old bird. Hens will be useful till six
or seven years old, and still win at the summer
shows. I had two old hens, one of which was
the challenge-cup pullet at the Palace in 1894,
which did some winning in 1900, when it was
still in good health, which illustrates how well
they wear."

There can be no doubt that Dorkings of all
varieties are considerably hardier than formerly.
Part of the improvement may be traced to the
Asiatic cross introduced by Mr. Douglas, and

THE OLD RED DORKING.

3S1

perhaps by others since, as hinted at by Mr.
Smyth ; but much more is doubtless due to
wider acclimatisation over the country. When a
breed formerly almost confined to the dry and
chalky soil of the southern counties, was first
transplanted to colder and damper situations, it
was necessarily found delicate under such condi-
tions ; but gradually this has worn off, until the
Dorking has been found to thrive even on the
cold clays of Scotland. Much also depends
upon the amount of air and run ; and for many
years the Dorkings of the late Viscountess
Holmesdale, reared on the " natural" system, and
at perfect liberty in Linton Park, by Mr. John
Martin, were almost invincible at exhibitions,
their great weight and glossy plumage carrying
all before them. What Dorking chickens will
not stand is either bad air or over-crowding ;
the latter keeps them from thriving more than
almost any other breed. They are also, if
hatched under hens, unusually liable to suffer
from insect vermin. This is not from any
special weakness, but because they feather early
and quickly, and the profuse plumage gives the
enemy shelter, where the scantier and later
clothing of Cochins or Brahmas would afford
little or none. All quick-feathering breeds
which are also full of feather — and the Dorking
is both — are peculiarly subject to this plague in
chickenhood, and we have known many broods
die off when this matter has been overlooked
and neglected. Chickens hatched in incubators
should not give any trouble in this way ; but so
many Dorkings are hatched under hens that the
special caution is by no means unnecessary.

One of the very oldest varieties of coloured
Dorkings, but almost unknown out of the south-
eastern district of England, is the Red Dorking.

This is a perfectly pure race, never
Red amalgamated with the Dark as the

Dorkings. qIj greys and speckles have become,

and in our own opinion entirely
free from any cross with the White. They
are not so large as the Darks, are very small
boned for the size of the body, and the single
upright comb is much smaller, thinner, and
finer looking than those usual in the Dark or
Silver-grey breeds. As table fowls there can be
none better ; and we cannot but think that if
the few who possess them would systematically
exhibit them in such Dorking classes as arc
offered for " Any Other Colour," they would
gain more support. The cock is a black-
breasted red ; the hen more of a brown-red,
some of them laced. Taking the colour into
account, in connection with the smaller comb,
it can hardly fail to be noticed that this variety

comes the nearest of any tc the old description
of the " best " Roman birds, by Columella,
already referred to. There is perhaps just a
chance that some of the colour may be due to a
far-back cross with the black-breasted Red
Game once so diffused over England ; but if
such ever did happen, it must have been long
ago indeed. The following notes are by Mr.
Harry Hamlin, of Windsor, Berks, in whose
family the strain has been kept up through two
generations :—

"This little known variety of Dorking is one
of the most beautiful as well as the most useful
fowls we have. From what I can gather, they
appear to have been common throughout the
south-eastern counties before the exhibition
period began, but for some cause I could never
understand, to have been discarded by the early
fanciers. These very likely found the Grey
Dorkings easier to produce of a uniform colour,
as the older Reds were apt to produce white
feathers. Fortunately, our family have alwaj's
preserved the Red Dorkings, and with careful
selection and great care in breeding the plumage
has much improved. In these fowls it is partic-
ularly beautiful and close, being free from any
Asiatic taint, which, in my opinion, destroys the
high quality of the Dorking as a table fov\l.
Many of the present Dark Dorkings have to be
crossed with the Game in order to produce a
good table fowl, but a Red Dorking is a perfect
table fowl in itself, and requires no crossing.

" The distinguishing points of the cock are
his beautiful deep red hackles, his well-formed
single comb, which is somewhat smaller than the
present-day Dorking, and which with his face,
earlobes, and wattles are of a beautiful red ; his
breast and tail are black ; his legs are beautifully
white, and very short indeed, and he has five
well-developed toes on each foot. As regards
the shortness of the legs, I have just measured a
very good specimen cockerel, and I find that it
is three and a half inches from above the fifth
toe to the point of the hock. The bird weighs
ten pounds, and I think that for the weight this
is very short indeed. The hens have close-
fitting plumage of a brown-red colour, with low
and shapely bodies.

" Red Dorkings are very good layers of a
nearly white egg, good sitters, and excellent
mothers. For those who require beauty, utility,
and an excellent table fowl, there is nothing to
equal the Red Dorkings."

Personally, from a careful examination of the
very few birds we have seen, we should be dis-
posed to say that there was a faint trace of
yellow in the shanks, or perhaps more truly, of
red. We do not imply in the least what is

382

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

meant by a yellow-legged fowl, but a slight and
undefinable shade which many years' critical
observation have led us to associate with the
kind of black-red colour shown in the bird's
plumage, and which is generally, as in certain
strains of Game, associated with delicate and
tender flesh.

Another beautiful and well-marked variety
of Dorking is that known as Silver-grey, which

has separate classes at nearly all
Silver-grey important shows. In great measure
Dorkings. these birds were an offshoot of

the preceding, at a time when the
Coloured Dorking was often really a Grey breed,

Fig. 119. — Feathers of Silver-grey Dorking Hen

from which a lighter grey could be selected.
But in addition to this process of selection, it is
recorded in several quarters that the Silver-
greys thus selected from the Dorkings were also
crossed with Silver Duckwing Game of Lord
Hill's breed, in order to fix the beautiful colour
of the hens ; and the effects of this cross were
to be seen in a slimmer build and different
carriage of the shoulders. Another result of the
Duckwing cross was a somewhat too silvery
colour, leading to a great tendency to splashes
of white on the cock's breast and thighs. Both
these defects have long since been overcome, and
Silver-greys are often now amongst the most

typical of Dorkings, and very nearly if not quite
equal in weight to the Dark variety. ^

The head of the Silver-grey cock should be
silvery white, the neck-hackle of the same
colour, perfectly free from any tinge of straw-
colour, but may be (and generally is) streaked
with grey in the lower feathers falling on the
shoulders. The back and saddle silvery white,
shoulders and wing-bow also clear white ; wing-
bar green-black ; wing-bay white with a black
upper edge ; breast and under-parts and thighs
jet-black, without any mottling or grizzling,
except that a little on the thighs is tolerated in
old birds ; tail glossy black, with sound broad
sickles. The white parts should have no tinge
of straw, and there should
be no signs of brown or
chestnut bordering the
wing-bar or other margins
of the black plumage.

The hen's hackle is
also silvery white on the
head, but lower it be-
comes striped with black,
often with a little longi-
tudinal pencilling. The
breast is a rich robin-
red or salmon-red, shad-
ing off ashy colour on the
thighs. The body and
wings are a silvery grey
ground colour, minutely
pencilled over with dark
grey, free from black
splashes or reddish tinge,
and each feather showing
the white shaft, but not
obtrusively : tail rather
darker. The general
effect varies in different
birds from a bright silver-
grey to a softer duller
grey, but in any case
should be grey. The
silvery greys have usually lighter salmon
breasts, and are specially apt to breed cock-
erels with white spots or grizzling on the
breast. The feathers of a Silver-grey hen are
shown in Fig. 119.

Very few have bred one variety continuously
for so many years or with so much success as
Silver Grey Dorkings were bred by the late
Mr. Oswald E. Cresswell, J. P., of Morney
Cross, Hereford, who kindly contributed the
following notes : —

"It is considerably over a quarter of a cen-
tury since I wrote some notes on Silver Grey
Dorkings for the first edition of the Illustrated

SJLVER GREY DORKINGS.

383

Book of Poult)-}'. I had already then had some
experience in the variety, for I began while an
Eton boy in the sixties to breed Silver Greys,
not quite so distinctive in marking as they soon
afterwards became, but still with real difference
from the Coloured, or, as it was originally called,
the Grey Dorking. After all these years I still
possess a large, and, I hope, good stock of Silver
Greys ; and there has been no intervening year
in which I have not reared a considerable num-
ber, and exhibited some — generally successful — ■
representatives of my yards at some of our
greatest shows. This fact, I think, speaks well
for the breed, for no one would be so constant
to a race which was not useful, or the culture of
which was attended with any great difficulty.
At large Poultry Conferences held at Reading
in 1899 and 1907 I read by request papers on
the relation of exhibition poultry to the prac-
tical breeding of poultry as an industry. I
then stated, and repeat it now, that after an
experience of over thirty years in pure-bred
Dorkings, which I continuously exhibited,
though never to excess, I now possess families
of the race more beautiful, hardy, and produc-
tive than those with which I started.

" The origin of the Silver Grey variety I
believe to have been this, as I wrote in the
account of my earlier experiences. Both it and
the coloured or dark variety are descended from
the old ' Grey ' Dorking, many specimens of
which I can remember in my childhood as being
what we should now call bad Silver Grey. Some
fanciers bred for the lighter, some for the darker
shades. Exactly when the two varieties were
first classified as distinctive at shows, I cannot
trace, but I remember buying a celebrated win-
ner, a cock, at the Birmingham show of (I think)
1 88 5, which was described by its owner as a
' Silvery ' bird, though it competed with cocks
having much darker hackles. Silver Greys for
a while went by the name of Lord Hill's breed.'
Probably they had been carefully bred, and
possibly the type had been produced at Hawk-
stone, in the days of the second Lord Hill, a
great exhibitor of live stock. Strange to say I
could find no trace of them remaining there late
in the seventies, though a mixed lot of Dorkings
were still to be seen at the Home Farm.

"I think it was in 1S6S that I first had a
breeding pen of lighter, almost typical, Silver
Grey Dorkings. They did not then breed
nearly so true to markings as they have
done for the last twenty-five years, and
for various reasons I have always thought
that the blood of Silver Duckwing Game had
recently been used. Among other reasons for
this conclusion were, because then and for some

years afterwards it was difficult to get Silver
Greys of the massive form and on the short
legs which had always been characteristic of the
Dorkings ; because some hens laid eggs of a
pinkish hue, like those of game hens ; and espe-
cially because it was for a long while difficult to
get them with the really white feet which were
almost invariably found on pure-bred Dorkings.
I remember well a strain most perfect in the
desired shade of feathering, which was invariably
faulty in the colour of feet. But exactly how
and when the Silver Grey type was produced is
not now a very profitable inquiry.

" In Silver Greys which approach the desired
standard we have confessedly a lovely breed :
the hens are capital layers if only some amount
of liberty be given them, which
Qualities Dorking hens were not formerly ;

Silver Greys, they are a fairly robust race, if care
be taken to select not only the
handsomest but the strongest birds for breed-
ing, such as from chickenhood have never ailed ;
and as to size, though of course some Dark
Dorkings can be found which distance them, I
should never myself wish to see any -finer or
larger fowl upon the table than a well-grown
Silver Grey — cockerel or pullet. Abnormal size
is usually accompanied by coarseness of flesh
and bone ; and the latter fault is quite as
objectionable as the former. E.xperience in
poultry shows that big bones are weak bones.
Chickens which suffer from leg weakness will
almost invariably be found to be large in bone.
How perfectly unfit a chicken with this ailment
is, alike for the table and for stock, every expe-
rienced poultry-keeper knows. I have often
marvelled at the ignorance of purchasers of
Dorkings for stock, who must have birds 'with
plenty of bone.'

" That Silver Greys are in no true sense
a delicate race I have proof enough. For
twenty-one years I have reared many, with
little difficulty, on sticky soil (or more correctly
I should say on two sticky soils), usually
considered fatal to Dorkings. Troops of my
chickens often sleep in trees till Christmas,
and some occasionally do so with impunity
through the whole winter. Certainly I have
considerable acreage, and so change of ground ;
but though my place is on two soils, both
of them are tenacious : that of the hilly wood-
lands being somewhat slimy lime-stone, and
that of the lower, rich meadow lands in the
valley of the Wye, rich alluvial loam. Com-
mon sense teaches that chickens must be
treated differently on light and on heavy
soils. When long years ago I had Dorkings
on light ground and sand, all my coops were

384

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

fioorless ; now, through the earlier and damper
months, 1 coop all my Dorking chickens, and
indeed those of other breeds as well, in coops
with drawers at the bottom, covered daily
with fresh dry earth or sand. Some of them
have two drawers, usable alternately. These,
of course, are not necessary when the coops
are placed under the cover of dry sheds, which
in frost and snow I find a good plan. I
dislike small coops for Dorkings, and prefer
what vendors of poultry appliances call Bantam
houses. These when well ventilated serve as
comfortable and wholesome abodes for a brood
long after the mother has left them.

" As I wrote in the first edition of TJie
Illustrated Book of Poitltiy, the mating of Silver
Greys for breeding requires great care, and

knowledge of the pedigree of both
Breeding cocks and hens. In all sub-varieties

Silver Greys, purity of blood is only a question of

degree, and hence there is always
danger of ' breeding back ' to some points
distinguishing the common ancestor of more
than one stock. Never buy chance Silver Greys
for breeding, but select from a stock which has
long been bred with care. A cock to all
appearance correct in every point will often
produce pullets with red wings, or even sandy-
coloured all over ; while, on the other hand,
good-looking hens will breed cockerels with
speckled breasts and tails. For the most part,
it is true, both parents in these cases will pro-
duce birds of their own sex like themselves ; but
the penning of separate families for the produc-
tion of cockerels and pullets, now unfortunately
so general in the case of some varieties, is a
clumsy and disappointing method by no means
to be encouraged. I would select a cock as
silvery as possible, with pure black breast, and
mate him with hens of medium colour ; not too
pale, or many of the cockerels will have grizzled
breasts. But in any case scan verj.- critically the
birds of the opposite sex in the yards from
which your breeders come ; and if size has to be
dispensed with on one side, let it be on that of
the male bird. The experience of the interven-
ing quarter of a century and more does not
lead me materially to modify these views, and
these precautions in the selection of stock-
birds should secure a meritorious progeny."

It is not necessary at the present day to
mate up two pens for breeding Silver Grey
Dorkings. When the very pale and silvery hens
were in fashion, black-breasted cockerels were
rarely produced from them, and had to be
bred from darker females ; and at that date
it was therefore quite usual to breed cock-
erels from dark hens, while the pale Silver

Grey pullets were bred from silver females
and males more or less grizzled or speckled-
breasted. But since robin-red or rich salmon
breasts have been preferred, with the softer,
darker grey in the rest of the plumage, both
pullets and cockerels will come true to type
from the same mating, provided attention be
given to the pedigree or line of breeding.
This is of course always important ; in the
case of Silver Grey Dorkings too raw a cross,
even with birds that appear quite unexcep-
tionable in points, not unfrequently results
in pullets quite reddish on the wings. An-
other year's breeding back to either of the two
strains, however, will probably remedy this,
and sometimes even red-winged pullets will
come out quite clear at the second moult.

Some people consider the Silver Grey
Dorking superior to the Dark in quality of
flesh. There is no doubt that it is now far
hardier than thirty years ago, as well as more
beautiful, and at the Poultry Conferences of
1899 and 1907 Mr. Cresswell connected the
improvement in the two points together. In
good specimens, he said, the cock's hackles are
no longer affected by the sun's rays, or tanned,
as they used to be. This was brought about by
steady selection for pure silvery colour, free
from yellow ; but this latter tinge he had
found, both in this breed and the White, to
be a sign of liver weakness. Hence breeding
for colour was, in this case, really breeding for
health and constitution.

The White Dorking, as already intimated,
was in all probability the purest representative
of the original race, unless we except the Red,
at the time when Bonington
White Moubray wrote in 181 5. It alone

Dorkings. — again perhaps excepting the Red,
which was never mentioned in those
days — from the first always bred the fifth toe,
and there are observable certain differences in
carriage, and a greater elegance of form, which
is usually rather lighter, and without that
massive heaviness which probably came largely
from the Surrey fowl. There is little doubt that
at one time the breed also received a little
crossing with Game, and it is curious that some
strains to this day lay eggs of a delicate pinky
or French white shade ; but certainly no cross
has taken place for many years.

In this variety alone, a rose-comb is essen-
tial. This should stand up well, with a long
and straight leader behind, and be of good
shape generally. This is perhaps the most
difficult exhibition point, as a large breed like
the Dorking requires pushing on somewhat,

WHITE AND CUCKOO DORKINGS.

385

while on the other hand any meat forcing tends
to excess or deformity in the comb. Free
range gives the best all-round results ; and
on the whole, taking comb, and size, and
plumage into consideration, there is no variety
in which ample range is more important to
a really high exhibition standard.

In breeding White Dorkings the chief points
to keep in view are good combs and silvery-
white colour. To care for the latter point, Mr.
Cresswell again attributed the great
Breeding gain in hardiness which he also re-

Dorkings, ported in this breed. Really first-

class specimens of both sexes will
breed chickens of both from one pen ; but as
usual in white breeds, if such are not obtain-
able, siJvery-white hackle and neat comb, with
good style, is the principal essential in the cock,
especially for breeding cockerels, while size may
be a little sacrificed. Hens must be large and
roomy in any case ; and any peculiarity in style
or carriage of tail is likely to be more con-
spicuous in the cockerels. Mr. Cresswell added
the curious and remarkable experience that
many of his birds laid so incessantly that
they never grew broody at all, so that he
had to fall back on other hens as foster-
mothers. The breed was always known as
the best layer among the Dorkings ; but this
modern development is very interesting, and a
remarkable testimony. against breeding for ex-
hibition always spoiling the useful qualities of
poultry. The deep square body of the Dorking
in general should always be sought for in
mating up breeding stock.

The White Dorking was formerly inferior in
size to its Dark relatives. As Miss Fairhurst,
a very successful exhibitor forty years ago,
pointed out at that time, White birds often
appear smaller by the side of Dark ones when
they are not really so, and there is no doubt
that in mixed classes they often .suffer unjustly
from that cause ; but the White Dorking cock
of those days scarcely ever exceeded 8 lbs. to
10 lbs. Mr. John Martin, however, by a cross
with Dark Dorkings, effected a startling increase
in these weights. He put a large Dark cock,
the darkest he could find, to White hens, the
produce being cuckoo-colour. These birds were
crossed back to the White, from which came
many Whites, and after that all was easy.
The produce of this experiment was dispersed
soon after, on Lady Holmesdale's retirement,
and at her sale several very large birds were
brought to the hammer, one White cock weighing
over 12 lbs., and winning at nearly all the winter
shows following. Years afterwards, Mr. Martin
repeated the experim.ent, using his rose-combed

Palace winner as the sire, and among the
produce this time was a cockerel we knew
well, which weighed \o\ lbs. at eight months
old. The blood of some of these crosses is
to be found in many of the White Dorkings of
to-day, but the entire gain in size has not been
kept up, nor is it desirable that it should be, the
very huge birds being neither the best layers
nor the best table-fowls.

There is yet one more recognised variety,
known as the Cuckoo Dorking, this being the
old English word for the blue barred plumage
called by Americans Dominique,
Cuckoo and seen to its greatest perfection

Dorkings. in the Plymouth Rock. Cuckoo
Dorkings have scarcely been known
out of Surrey, and clearly originated in the
crossing for table poultry of dark and white
varieties, the colour always appearing when
much crossing of that kind takes place. The
birds, as we have seen them, have always been
somewhat small, but are generally reported as
hardier than the more orthodox types under
ordinary conditions, and are said also to be
more juicy in flesh. The variety has never been
a favourite, Meall writing of it even in 1854 that
"it is very little known and still less admired,"
and it is a good proof of what happens to a
breed when fanciers do not meddle with it :
instead of being better than the others, because
" unspoilt " by them, it is become practically
extinct. In 1871 and 1872 classes for Cuckoos
were offered at the Crystal Palace show ; but
there were not sufficient entries, and similar
attempts to encourage Cuckoos have been
made since with no better result.

One reason for this want of popularity is
probably that there is little real breed in this
colour at all. If there were, continual breeding
by only one or two breeders, must long since
have produced unusual delicacy of constitution ;
but all concerning which we have been able to
make inquiry, have proved of very recent origin,
though at an earlier period Mr. Elgar of
Reigate, and one or two others, did endeavour
for some years to breed them pure. The fact is
that the colour is continually springing up here
and there from crosses, and to this is owing its
hardihood. But such constantly re-made and
raw stock is peculiarly liable to red or gold or
black or white feathers, and gives so much work
to a breeder, that there is little inducement to
persevere. The few specimens to be seen now
and then usually appear at shows where, after
the Dark and perhaps another variety or
two, there are open classes for " Any Other
Colour."

386

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Merely as market poultry, the Cuckoo
Dorking is a good fowl enough, and its hardy
constitution, derived from recent crossing, en-
ables it to be kept in some situations where
the more recognised varieties would fail. If
it is ever bred, the same care will be needed
to exclude black, or red, or white feathers,
and to keep up a " balance " of colour, as in
the case of barred Rocks or any other barred
varieties. But many years of careful breeding
would be required before the plumage reached
this point, and the variety really is not worth
it, being in no respect superior to the Scotch
Grey.

As a table fowl it has been very freely as-
serted of late that the present Dark breed is by

Fig. 120. — Dorking Shape,

no means so gG»)d as fifty years ago. This is
partly truth and partly error, and there can be
no doubt that some care is required in selecting
the better types. The points that have most
needed attention during the last few years
have been width of back and length of breast ;
we have seen many dead chickens at exhibitions
of table poultry which were quite narrow in the
shoulders and short in the breast-bone. To a
great many novices such short-breasted birds,
as Mr. John Martin remarked many years ago,
may appear round and plump, but they are
not good Dorkings ; as described in the
Standard, the body should be of " iong rectangu-
lar shape viewed sideways," showing a long keel,
as delineated in Fig. 120. This imaginary
rectangle should always be looked for, and is
the key to the true form of this breed.

The quality of the flesh also needs attention,
being unmistakably "short and dry" in char-

acter in some strains, though white enough.
This want of quality, again, has been said to be
due to Asiatic crossing, which several writers
have alleged to have impaired it, and to have
destroyed the old " whiteness " of flesh. That
is an error, and indeed some of the evil has
arisen from looking too much to mere colour of
flesh, instead of real quality. We have already
seen that the best results in table fowl are
attained by grafting some amount of yellow
blood upon white-fleshed birds ; but few people
seem aware that the original and purest Dorkings,
many years before poultry shows were even
thought of, were not white in flesh. In the work
already referred to, published in 1815, Moubray
writes of the White Dorking of that day, the
only pure breed in his opinion, that " the white is
probably not so pure as that of certain of the
dunghill fowls, nor is the colour of the flesh,
that inclining to a yelloiv or ivory shade." This
" ivory shade " it was which gave tender juiciness
to the original fowl, exactly as we find it to-day.
Experienced Sussex breeders can tell by the
"touch " of a live fowl what the flesh is likely to
be ; and this test should be freely used in select-
ing stock for breeding Dorkings.

One great recommendation of the breed is
the early growth of the chickens. If a Dorking
and a Brahma are hatched in the same brood,
while probably both may make about the same
ultimate weight, the Dorking will simply run
away from the other during chickenhood, and
will also be a plump table fowl, whilst the other
is still the scrawny framework of one. It has
the property of imparting this quality in more
or less degree to all its crosses, which makes it so
valuable for crossing purposes. With the Brahma
it produces a very hardy chicken, that grows
fast and makes a fine carcase, slightly coarse-
looking perhaps, but juicy in flavour, and a great
favourite in Sussex. Other crosses are very
similar. That with the Houdan is not so
large, but very fine in flesh, and remarkable
for growth at the earlier ages. It will not fail to
be noticed that the latest table fowl produced in
France, and which has largely displaced older
breeds there — the FaveroUes — is a compound
of Brahma and Houdan with the English
Dorking. The cross with the Indian Game
has been already dwelt upon at great length
in former chapters of this book.

Considerable difi"erence of opinion has been
expressed in preceding notes as to the time for
hatching Dorkings ; but this in truth arises
mainly from a mixture of utility and exhibition
considerations. Considered as useful stock alone,
there is no doubt whatever that from the end of
March till the end of April, or even up to early

^ / . J+r^if i^ 1

FEET AND COMBS OF DORKINGS.

387

May, is the best period to get chicks out. By not
breeding earlier, constitution is kept up, and the
early growth of the chickens makes even iVIay
birds quite ready for the great shows of the
year. Chickens hatched at this season thrive
well and feather well, and when bred from
parents not fagged by too much showing or
exhausted by winter breeding, would not strike
anyone as more delicate than usual, and are
very often quite good layers. We men-
tion laying in this connection, because it is inti-
mately bound up with it, for the Dorking has an
undoubted weakness in regard to over-exhibition.
As already intimated by Mr. Goodfellow above,
the males will not stand much showing with im-
punity; beyond averyfew times seriously impairs
their breeding power. Mr. Smyth also, it will
be noticed, expresses his strong preference for
males that have been but little exhibited ; and
at the Poultry Conference of 1S99 Mr. Cress-
well, in reporting upon the great gain in hardi-
ness which he had found, laid stress upon the
fact that he was only an exhibitor at a few of
the great shows of the year. Such remarks
should be well considered.

It will have been gathered from this, that
Dorkings are not adapted for close confinement.
On the smallest runs which can be kept in grass,
they will do very well, but it is on free range
that their good qualities come out best. In
small suburban runs they often sicken and pine
away. A friend once reported to us that he
had kept them in health in quite a small run —
about 20 by 10 feet we think, with a shed along
one end — by perfect cleanliness and ample green
food. But his idea of cleanliness was very
different from that which satisfies nine people
out of ten in such circumstances, and to such
scrupulousness his success was probably due.

In one respect modern breeders have made
great improvement in the Dorking, and more
especially in the Dark variety. In the earlier
stages of the breed, the fifth toe was not only
very uncertain, but liable to all sorts of deform-
ities and gouty swellings, and " bumble-foot "
was but too well known as a constant trouble ;
we can remember seeing one or the other in
almost half of the pens. Breeders seem to have
thought that malformed and swelled toes and
bumble-foot were natural defects, which simply
had to be endured and made the best of With
more knowledge they have acted differently ;
and by penalising such birds more heavily in the
show-pen, and discarding them from the breed-
ing-pen, both evils have now been so nearly
eradicated that it has become rather rare to see
either malformed toes or a case of bumble-foot
at a first-class exhibition. The greatest care

should be taken to select for breeding none but
birds with sound and perfectly-formed feet, the
extra toe pointing well upwards.

In regard to combs, the rose or single comb
is optional in the Dark variety only, while rose
combs are demanded in Whites and Cuckoos,
and single combs in Silver Greys. During the
early days of exhibition one comb was as
common as the other in Darks, with a prefer-
ence on the whole for rose, as more like the
original White breed ; but a great many of the
rose-combed birds were very coarse about the
head, and single combs grew in favour, till in
1890-5 the rose-comb had practically disap-
peared. Since then there has been some revival
of this form of comb, Mr. A. C. Major having
exhibited some very fine specimens. It is to
be regretted that many single-combed cocks
have had such enormous, beefy, overgrown
combs as to be practically sterile, and requiring
to be dubbed before they are any use for breed-
ing. There can be little doubt that this
monstrosity was introduced by the Spanish
cross already referred to ; for the original
single-combed Dorking was by no means a
heavy-combed bird. It is to be hoped that
breeders and judges will set their faces against
such undue development, and strive for the
" moderately large " combs laid down in the
Standard. In a heavy breed like this such a
source of weakness is especially prejudicial.

In the earlier days of poultry exhibition the
Grey or Coloured Dorking was judged without
any reference to colour or plumage, except that
the three hens or pullets then
Dorkinfs shown together were expected to

make some fair match with each
other. This led to many specimens being
exhibited over-fat. With the introduction of
the very dark plumage by Mr. Douglas'
Asiatic cross, there came in more and more pre-
ference for that colour, birds so marked being
as a rule larger and finer than those of other
colours. At the present day reaction from the
older idea has gone so far, that the Standard
now only recognises the very dark, " almost
black " colour of plumage. This is distinctly
to be regretted, in the interest not only of white
feet, but of a somewhat more medium though
still dark colour, which is very often shown
with success, and certainly neither is nor ought
to be penalised by any deduction.

The shape or symmetry of the fowl should
be the same in all varieties. For many years
the White has been as a rule more tall and
reachy than the others ; but this has gradually
become modified, and Mr. Ludlow's ideal is

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

undoubtedly, as an ideal, correct. In classes
where all colours compete, it should be re-
membered that Whites of equal weight and
real size will generally appear a pound smaller
than darker colours, and this should be allowed
for. Good condition, or any appearance of
being jaded from over-showing, should receive
special attention.

THE SUSSEX

In the first impression of this work a hope
was expressed that before it was too late some
effort might be made to preserve
Sussex from extinction the genuine old

Surrey and Sussex fowl, which
for years had furnished the very best table
fowls to the London market, and which

is absolutely beyond doubt. The late Mr.
Harrison Weir took another view, but it is
based upon statements and personal memories
of men, each of whom thinks his own stock the
only true one ; whereas Bonington Moubray's
evidence in 1815, and Nolan's in 1850, is con-
temporary and conclusive. It was of many
colours, including speckles, browns, reds, and
lighter plumage. From these the Club has
selected for its standard colours a red,
speckled, and light ; the latter being marked
like the Light Brahma. There is also a Brown
Sussex Club, which supports that colour. The
Whites, first bred by Mr. Godfrey Shaw as
Albions, have been abandoned to the all-
devouring Orpington interest ; but it is a
pleasure to observe that the speckled (which
that interest also claims to appropriate) has

White Dorkings.

was really an ancient race, quite different from
the various mongrels now prevalent in the dis-
trict. We were glad to see that hope realised,
and in July, 1903, steps were taken to form the
" Sussex Poultry Club " for the breeding, exhi-
bition, and standardising of this super-excellent
old breed. By May, 191 1, the Club included
nearly 300 members. The birds were first
exhibited under their proper name at the Royal
Agricultural Society's Show in June, 1904, but,
as might have been expected, were at that early
date very irregular both in type and marking.
But later, at the Lewes Show in November,
1904, the entries reached 163, and excited
something like a mild sensation. The hon.
secretary of the Club is Mr. S. C. Sharpe,
Brookside, Ringmer, Sussex.

That this old four-toed Sussex breed was
one of the ancestors of the Coloured Dorking

been retained for the true type, and the count}'
of its origin.

As regards type, the most distinctive charac-
teristic of the Sussex fowl is the width and
flatness of shoulders and back, in which it
stands out from all other breeds. In shortness
of leg, length and depth of body, and fulness
of breast, it resembles the Dorking ; but in this
width and flatness of back it stands alone, and
this feature makes the body appear almost
short when viewed from above, though the
breast is really long. This character is laid
down in the Standard, and we are glad to ob-
serve that twenty points are allotted for true
type, and twenty-five for size, as the breed is
one for the table above all. The other main
points are short white legs with only four toes,
thin skin, and juiciness of flesh.

The Sussex fowl is hardy, both as a chick

JUDGING DORKINGS.

389

Light Sussex Cockerel.

and later on, and the hen a very good layer.
She is also a capital mother, and can shelter a
very large brood, twenty or more chicks being
often committed to one bird in its native county.
But the commanding merit of this old British
strain is as a table fowl, in which it surpasses
every other breed on earth, even the Uorking
itself. Both have white meat, and plenty of it ;
but the Sussex is by almost universal testimony
superior in tenderness and juiciness whenever
compared with the Dorking of to-day. Meall
in 1854 is evidence that it was so at that date,
when the race was plentiful ; and it is note-
worthy that since its remnants have been
gathered together, Mr. Haffenden has won al
Smithfield (December, 1904) first and cup in
the class for any variety, with a pair of dead
pullets of this breed. Many chickens will
fatten in three weeks.

Mr. Lewis Wright's observations in our last
edition we are now fortunately able to supple-
ment by the following notes from Mr. S. C.
Sharpe, hon. secretary of the Sussex Poultry
Club : —

" Specialist clubs should have ex'ery possible
support from all who are interested in the wel-
fare of poultry, for the progress of the Sussex
shows the eood work that such bodies can

accomplish, and yet only a few short years
ago this most useful breed was scarcely known
outside its own county, and not even there as
an exhibition bird.

"The Sussex Poultry Club, with which I
have been connected since its inception, now
has two sister clubs affiliated with the British
Club, one in Ouedlinburg, Germany, Herr
Heumann being the hon. secretary, and
another club in America, at Hackensack, New
[ersey, Mr. W. H. Bratt being the hon. secre-
tary. Both of these clubs are doing good
work, and at the shows held in their respective
countries some very good specimens may be
seen.

" Of the three varieties of Sussex, the Light
is my favourite — we have a standard for three
varieties, viz. Light, Red, and Speckled — and
there is no doubt whatever that these birds
have been bred in the county of Sussex for a
number of years before the Club was formed,
and bred true to colour and type, too, and now
that they are more widely known they have be-
come a very popular fowl both in the show
pen and as a useful utility bird.

" The Lights are capital winter layers ; in
fact for three consecutive years they have
proved themselves best out of fourteen breeds

Liqht Sussex Pullet.

390

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

which I keep at the Agricultural College
Training Farm, Uckfield. As mothers and
sitters they are hard to beat, bringing up large
broods of chickens at all times of the year,
and are used extensively in East Sussex for
rearing the early spring chicken ; and although
good sitters, they are not so continually
broody as some breeds I know.

" The chickens from the Lights are easy
to rear and can generally be brought up with-
out much trouble even in the depths of winter ;
but I have frequently heard people say that the
eggs laid by the Lights are ratlrer small. My
answer to this is, any breed which lays a large
number of eggs without becoming broody will
decrease in size of e%% as time goes on, and it
always speaks well for the egg-producing
powers of the bird when this happens. I
notice that in the early part of the season the
Lights lay a very nice-sized egg, but as the
season advances the egg becomes somewhat
smaller.

" In breeding the Lights it is difficult as yet
to get the cocks free from brassiness ; so many
which we see at the shows have a decided
yellow tinge, which is not noticeable in the
hens. The particular fault in colour of the
hens is generally insufficient neck hackle ; or,
if they have a good hackle, then the trouble
is dark under-colour. When, however, we are
fortunate enough as to breed them without
these minor faults, they will do well in the
show pen, and they are certainly very hand-
some birds.

" The Reds have not found quite so many
supporters, although they are a grand breed,
and when the colour is good — that is, a deep
red, with black in flights, tail, and neck hackle
— they look very smart. The red colouring
should be dark and deep, like our fine Sussex
cattle. The Reds are good layers and make
useful mothers, taking large broods and doing
them well. I am pleased to note that the Irish
members of our club, of whom we have a good
number, are taking up the Red variety, and I
am sure that they will find them excellent
from all points of view.

" The Speckled Sussex are perhaps the
oldest variety, and certainly are handsome in
appearance, but not easy to breed ; indeed,
where, in breeding a bird, three colours have
to be evenly intermingled, it is not possible to
get a heavy percentage of them winners. The
colours are dark brown, black and white, and
when these colours are produced evenly on a
massive, well shaped bird it is certainly some-
thing worth looking at and difficult to beat in
the way of poultry.

" I hope that the Sussex may still be taken
up by breeders in all parts of the world, and
I am sure that those who want a useful as well
as a show bird cannot do better than breed
them."

DORKINGS

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Skull : Large and broad. Beak : Stout,
well proportioned, and slightly curved. Eyes :
Full. Comb : Single or rose in Darks, single in
Reds and Silver-Greys, rose in Wliites and Cuckoos.
The single comb should be moderately large, broad
at the base, and firmly set on the head, of perfectly
upright carriage and evenly serrated, free from
thumb marks or any excrescent gro\\i:hs such as
side spikes. The rose comb should be moderately
broad and square fronted, and narrowing behind
to a distinct and shghtly upturned leader, covered
on top with small, coral-hke points of even height
and free from hoUows. Face : Smooth. Ear-lobes :
Moderately developed, hanging as nearly as possible
about one-tliird the depth of the wattles. Wattles :
Large and pendant, and free from any excrescent
growths.

Neck. — Rather short, and covered with abundant
hackle which should fall well over the back, gi\dng
the neck the appearance of being very broad where
it joins the body and tapering to the head.

Body. — Deep and massive, and as large as possible,
long, rectangular shajae when viewed sideways, and
tightly feathered. Breast : Broad and well rounded,
with long and straight breast-bone. Back : Broad
and moderately long, with full saddle, inchning
downwards to the tail. Wings : Large, carried well
up, and close to the sides.

Tail. — Full and sweeping, and carried well out
(a " squirrel " tail being objectionable), with broad and
well-curved sicldes and abundant side hangers.

Legs and Feet. — Legs ; Short and strong, the
thighs well developed, but almost hidden by the body
feathering, and the shanks stout and round (square
or sinewy bone being very objectionable), set well
apart, and free from any sign of shank feathers,
with the spurs set on the inner side and pointing
inwards. Toes : Five on each foot, round and
hard (" spongy " feet to be guarded against), the
front long, straight, and well spread, the fourth
distinctly apart from the fifth and inchning towards
the ground, the fifth coming away distinctly from
the shank and turned up the leg.

Carriage. — Stately, with the breast forward.

Weight. — From 12 lb. to 14 lb.; cockerel, from
9 lb. to 10 lb. The Red, 8 lb. ; cockerel, 6 lb.

Except that the single Comb should fall over one
side of the face, the general characteristics of the
hen are similar to those of the cock, allowing for
the natural sexual differences.

Weight. — From 9 lb. to 10 lb. ; pullet, from 7 lb.
to 8 lb. The Red, 7 lb. ; pullet, 5 lb.

JUDGING DORKINGS.

391

COLOUR

Beak : White or horn, dark horn permissible in
Darks. Eyes : Bright red or yellow iris, the former
preferred. Comb, Face, Wattles, and Ear-lobes :
Brilliant (or coral) red. Legs and Feet (including
toe-nails) : Dead (or snow) wlrite, the former free
from red or pink down the sides, and the toes free
from such colours in the webbing or any other part

THE CUCKOO

Plumage. — Light blue-grey ground, each feather
barred across with bands of dark grey or blue, the
markings to be uniform and the colours shading
into each other so that no distinct line or separation
of the colours is perceptible.

THE DARK (OR COLOURED)

Plumage of the Cock. — Hackle and Saddle : Wliite
or straw ground, more or less striped with black.
Back : Various shades of white, black and white
or grey, sometimes mixed with maroon (bronze
objectionable). Wings : Bow, wliite, or white mixed
wth black or grey ; coverts or bar, black, glossed
with green ; secondaries, white on outer web, black
on inner web. Breast and Under-parts : Jet black,
white mottling not permissible. Tail : Black, richly
glossed, a little white on primary sickles permissible,
but white hangers decidedly objectionable.

Plumage of the Hen. — Hackle : Wliite or pale
straw, striped with black or dark grey. Breast :
Salmon - red, each feather tipped with dark grey
verging to black. Tail : Nearly black, or rich copper
with, the outer feathers slightly pencilled. Re-
maindev of Phnnage : Nearly black, or approaching
a rich dark brown, the shaft showing a dull white,
and each feather slightly pale on the edges, except
on the wings, where the centre of the feather is a
brown-grey ground covered with a small rich mark-
ing, surrounded by a thick lacing of the black, and
free from red.

THE RED

Plumage of the Cock. — Hackle and Saddle :
Bright, glossy red. Back and IVing-bows : Dark
red. Remainder of Plumage : Jet black, glossed with
green.

Plumage of the Hen. — Hackle : Bright gold,
heavily striped with black. Tail and primaries :
Black or verj' dark brown. Remainder of Plumage :
Red-brown, the redder the better, each feather more
or less tipped or spangled with black, and having
a bright yellow or orange coloured shaft.

THE SILVER GREY

Plumage of the Cock. — Hackle : Pure silver white,
free from straw tinge or rustiness, a very narrow
stripe of grey in the lower feathers being permissible,
although not desirable. Back and Saddle : Pure
silver white, free from striping or yellow tints.
Wings : Coverts and bow, silver white ; bar, lustrous
black, glossed with green or blue ; secondaries, white
on outer web, black on inner web, with a black spot
at the end of each feather, and when the wing is
closed the corner appearing snow white with a
black upper edge ; primaries, black with a
white edge on outer web. Breast, Under-parts, and

Tail : Jet black, free from any white mottling or
grizzling, although in old cocks a sUght grizzling of
the thighs is not a fatal defect.

Plumage of the Hen. — Hackle : Silver white,
especially on the cap, the lower hackle striped with
a narrow line of black, a copper-coloured hackle not
allowable. Breast : Rich robin red or salmon red,
shading off to ash-grey on the thighs. Body : Clear
silver grey, finely pencilled with darker grey (the
pcnciUing following the outer line of the feather),
and free from any red or brown tinge, or any black
dappUngs. (The effect may vary from soft dull
grey to bright silver grey, an old-fashioned grey
slate best describing the colour.) Tail : Darker
grey, inside feathers black.

THE WHITE

Plumage. — As white as snow, and free from straw
tinge.

SC.4LE OF POINTS

Silver Grey

Cuckoo

Dark

or

or

Red

Willie

Size

. . 21

15

15

Symmetry

20

20

20

Colour

.. 18

24

15

Fifth toe . .

.. 15

15

15

Condition . .

10

10

10

Head

s

s

17

Feet ; condition of

s

8

8

Serious defects : Other than five toes ; legs other
than white or with any vestige of feathers ; spurs
outside the shank ; single combs in Whites or
Cuckoos, rose combs in Silver-Greys or Reds ; any
coloured feathers in ^A^lites ; very long legs ; crooked
or much swollen toes ; bumble feet ; distinct double
toe-nails ; round back, twisted breast-bone, wry
tail, or any other actual deformity.

SUSSEX
GENER-'VL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Skull : Of medium size. Beak : Short
and strong, and well curved. Eyes : Full and
bright. Comb : Single, of medium size, upright,
evenly serrated, and fitting closely to the head.
Face : Smooth. Ear-lobes and Wattles : Of medium
size.

Neck. — Of medium length, and furnished with
fairly full hackle.

Body. — Broad, deep, and fairly long. Breast :
Square, and carried well forward with long and
deep breast-bone. Shoulders : Wide. Back : Broad
and flat. Wings : Carried closely to the body.

Tail. — Of moderate size.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Short and rather wide
apart, the thighs stout and the shanks strong and
free from feathers. Toes : Four on each foot,
straiglit, long, and well spread.

Carriage. — Graceful and erect.

Weight.— 9 lb.

Plumage. — Close.

392

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

The general characteristics of the hen are similar
to those of the cock, allowing for the natural sexual
differences.

Weight.— 7 lb.

COLOUR

THE LIGHT

Beak : Wliite or horn. Eyes : Orange. Comb.
Face, Wattles; and Ear-lobes : Red. Legs and Feet :
White.

Plumage. — Pure white, with markings as follows :
Neck - hackle : Striped with black. Wings : Black
in flights. Tail : Black, the cock's coverts shghtly
tipped with black.

THE RED

Head points (except Eyes : Red or brown). Legs
and Feet : As in the Light.

Plumage. — Except that the colour is brown
(dark or chestnut), this variety is similar to tlie
former. In the cock there is a greater depth of
colour on the saddle and the wing-bow, which are
glossy.

THE SPECI'JLED

Head points (except Eyes : Orange or brown).
Legs and Feet : As in the Light.

Plumage of the Cock. — Rich red brown ground,
with black and white marldngs. Hackles: Striped,
with black and tipped with white. Wings : Bow,
red, or nearly so ; primaries, white, or nearly so.
Tail : Black and white. Remainder of Plumage :
Brown, white, and black, evenly distributed, and
giving a speckled effect.

Plumage of the Ken. — Wings : Bow, brown, white,
and black ; flights, white. Tail : Black, white, and
brown. Remainder of Plumage : Brown, wliite, and
black, evenly distributed and giving a speckled
effect.

Size . .

Type . .

Colour

Legs and feet

Head

Condition

SCALE OF POINTS

15

Serious defects : Rose comb ; feather on shanks ;
other than four toes j wry tail j any deformity.

Speckled Susse.\ Cockerel.

393

CHAPTER XXV.

SPANISH.

THIS fowl stands at the head of a group
which almost certainly did come to us
from the Spanish Peninsula, all the names
of the nearest kindred races testifying to the
same origin, whilst there is ample evidence that
fowls of the same type are still found in that
country. But the general type itself is found over
a much wider area. The smaller size and yellow
legs of the Leghorn family are minor differences,
as are various colours of plumage ; but all round
the Mediterranean — in Greece, and Asia Minor,
and Algiers, and Egypt, as well as in Italy and
Spain — are found fowls which, in their large
single combs, sprightly carriage, absence of the
incubating instinct, and generally more or less
white ear-lobes, evidently belong to one great
family.

This wide distribution around the Great Sea
of a race with such characteristics, and especially
with the peculiarity of not incubating, is remark-
able, since such a modification of instinct is
necessarily the fruit not only of long domestica-
tion, but of methodical selection for eggs as a
chief product. Some have traced the loss of the
instinct to centuries of artificial incubation in
Egypt, and this may have had some influence;
but we are disposed to attribute more effect to
the prevalence of the Roman Catholic religion,
which permits the use of eggs when flesh is for-
bidden, round the northern coasts of the Sea,
where the type has become most marked. We
find some corroboration of this idea in the fact
that in other parts of Catholic Europe races of
non-sitting layers have been developed, though
of a different character in other respects. It is,
however, needless to discuss these questions
further, and we may proceed to describe in this
chapter the oldest representative of this highly
useful family of fowls.

The white-faced black Spanish has been much
the longest known of these breeds, and it is
perfectly easy to understand how it probably
came to us direct from Spain. In the days of
Philip the intercourse between this country and
Spain was very great, so that Spanish and
Portuguese wines almost drove French vintages
for a time from the English market. It is

further to be observed that at a later period,
when Spanish were already known and bred in
England, to a somewhat rough or cauliflower

type of face, a second introduc-

History '^'°" °f birds with smaller and

of smoother faces came from Holland,

Spanish. precisely that district of Europe

which had been most over-run by
the Spanish armies under the Duke of Alva.
This crossing of strains considerably improved
the English birds in face, as well as giving
constitution ; and two perceptibly different
types of face remained till quite a late period,
tlie late Mr. Henry Lane, of Bristol, having
bred chiefly the heavier kind, and only com-
mencing a year or two before his death to
transform it into a smoother character, which he
saw to be more and more preferred by the
judges. Another change which has taken place
is in colour of the legs, which were many years
ago desired as light as possible, and occasionally
were brought nearly white, being put in poultices
before exhibition in order to improve their
colour ! Yet another transformation must be
recorded in the comb of the cock, which at
one time was expected to fall over on one side,
while now desired straight and upright.

The greatest change of all, unfortunately, is
recent, and to be seen in a decline of popularity
which has no parallel in any other breed. In
Tlie Poultry Chronicle of early exhibition days,
there were more advertisers of Spanish than of
any other variety ; no fowl was so well known ;
none had so good a reputation as a prolific
layer of large white eggs, especially in and
round London. Now the breed has a class to
itself at very few shows, is extremely delicate,
and we fear it must be confessed, but a poor
layer. The change has often been attributed to
breeding too much for white face ; but the facts
do not warrant such a conclusion. The real
reason has been lack of breeders, and in conse-
quence a lack of blood, and an amount of
in-breeding that has been ruinous. For a time,
the city of Bristol had a circle of Spanish
fanciers almost impossible to beat, headed and
founded by the late Mr Rake ; and we well

a94

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

remember, at the first revived Bristol show of
1867, where the chief of these did their best,
how four pens (trios) shown by Messrs. Lane,
Parsley, Roue, and Jones, were taken out and
placed in adjoining pens, and placarded by the
judges as " the four best pens of Spanish ever
seen together." It was difficult to say which
was really the best of these. We have nevei
seen better faces since, very seldom even so good,
and certainly never four exhibits so good ; yet
at that time the breed was still a good layer.
There were besides those just named, the late
Mr. Rodbard, and Mr. Hyde, and one or two
others. So long as these breeders could ex-
change, and so get blood, the breed did not
suffer in spite of the faces. But the phalanx
died off or were dispersed ; and when the stock
got into a very few hands, at wide distances, so
that they could not conveniently exchange blood,
and these used more artificial heat and began to
trust more and more to " exhibition arts " instead
of breeding skill, constitution failed, and the
breed went down. Another cause of failure was
the breeding of too large combs, remarked upon
by the late Mr. Teebay in 1872. To keep these
straight one of the Bristol breeders invented the
comb-guard, which removed one check there
had been upon size of comb ; and such combs
entailed more or less sterility, as mentioned in
a previous chapter. From this cause also con-
stitution suffered ; until now we see what can
only be described as absolute poverty of blood
clearly shown by the most certain of all its
signs, a legginess and weediness of build which
are considerably greater than formerly, and
are by no means shown at their worst in the
illustration.

Yet the late Mr. Teebay wrote in 1872 a most
interesting account of how he, a breeder and
successful exhibitor for more than twenty years,
had found Spanish a hardy breed. He hatched
them in April and May, put them out with the
hen, and never took them in after ; and as soon
as the birds were able to fly they perched in the
trees, right through the winter. They feathered
well, and grew well, and the cocks' combs kept
firm, and even stood frost far better than those
kept indoors. The old birds roosted in houses
built for single horses, with the doors wide open
except on very severe frosty nights. So kept,
they were not tender, moulted well, laid well,
and lasted well. Of course, young birds thus
kept required to be kept penned up in a rather
warm closed house before exhibition, and old
birds needed at least three weeks of this to
bleach the faces and soften the white ; but the
really good specimens readily responded to this
treatment, and Mr. Teebay exhibited in his day

some of the best Spanish ever seen. He always
preferred to breed from two or three year old
hens rather than pullets, the chickens feathering
more quickly; and his general methods might
be found worthy of repetition by some breeder
desirous of removing the present reproach of
this fine old race of poultry.

The Spanish cock should be tall on the leg,
though not so stilty as most of the present day.
The neck is long and gracefully arched, and the
head carried high, with breast pro-
Characteristics minent ; this proud carriage is apt
of to suffer from an overgrown comb,

Spanish. which is, however, less seen now in

Spanish than in Minorcas. The
shanks are slate colour or lead colour, but get
lighter in old birds — almost a pale lavender in
some cases. They are bred lighter now than some
years ago, owing, we believe, to the more arti-
ficial regimen already alluded to. The body
should narrow to the tail, somewhat like that
of a Game cock. The tail should be full but
not carried squirrel fashion. The plumage
all over a rich black, as lustrous as possible.
The chief points are, however, contained in
the head and face. The beak is large and of a
deep horn colour, and the head, as a whole,
large, being both long, broad, and very deep in
the side, with large eyes, v/hich should be free
and open in the midst of the face. The medium
single comb should be perfectly upright, firm,
and straight ; rather thin at the edge, but
thick at the base upon the broad skull ; fine
and smooth in surface, with a few broad serra-
tions, not many narrow ones ; and rising from
the beak between the nostrils. But the chief
feature of the bird is the white face. Both face
and ear-lobe should be pure white, and in
texture like the finest white kid ; smooth, or
free from ridges and folds, and leaving the eye
unobstructed. The white should reach well on
to the beak in front, rise over the eye close to
the base of the comb, and e.xtend well towards
the back of the head, the further over and behind
the ear the better, and sweeping in an unbroken
curve towards the back of the neck. The large
white ear-lobe should be long, open, and broad,
lying spread out flat or free from folds, and
not at all narrowing at the bottom, but keeping
up the width till rounded off; thence the line
comes up to join the wattles in front. These are
long, thin, and florid, the inside of their upper
parts and the skin of the throat between being
white.

The hen is very similar in most points except
that her comb falls entirely over one side of the
face. The face itself is, of course, smaller than
in the cock, but of the same general character ;

BREEDING WHITE FACED SPANISH.

395

and there should be no apparent line or division
between the face and the ear-lobe. The wattles
are rather smaller than might be expected, and
are preferred small and thin.

It is probable that the constitution of
Spanish might be yet revived by systematic
rational treatment, the total abandonment of
heat except in actual frost, and
Breeding seasonable breeding, which does not

Spanish. exhaust the stock in cold weather.

The breed is not one at all adapted
for early showing, and Spanish should not be
hatched till April or May ; if this be done, and
hens chiefly bred from, the chicks will feather
better and grow up much stronger. They do
well in brooders kept carefully from any excess
of heat, and the present delicate stock is often
helped a great deal by a little old ale and
shredded underdone meat once a day until
fledged. Care of the combs has already been
treated (pp. 200, 212-13).

In breeding for the main point of face, much
judgment is required. It is better, as a rule, to
mate smooth-faced cockerels, even if somewhat
smaller in face (as such birds often are) with
large and rougher-faced hens, than to employ
the contrary plan, the produce of a male at all
rough in face being very uncertain. Anything
at all like a raw cross, even of good blood, often
works apparent havoc in the faces ; but never-
theless we would use a good bird in this way, in
order to get, if possible, more constitution ; as
breeding back to " line" will make matters right
in another generation or two. The greatest
fault of the faces at present is not beingflatand
free from folds: so many are folded, wrinkled,
or doubled. Something can be done to avoid
this, as already indicated (p. 213), by taking
symptoms early, and treating by gentle exten-
sion at frequent intervals, but the root of the
mischief is in selecting stock too broad in face
on both sides. This tends to produce more face
than the surface can really carry, and hence it
folds or wrinkles up. Too thick or coarse a
face is not only ugly in itself, but as the bird
gets older very often grows so much as to
obstruct the sight. In such cases a little has
to be cut away with fine-pointed scissors. This
operation, as we have seen it done, did not
appear to cause much pain ; but it is very easy
to give a few whiffs of chloroform after missing
a feed, and it is pleasanter to know that the
bird really cannot feel. Fowls as a rule take
chloroform exceedingly well.

It is not easy to determine the ultimate
quality of the chickens while young, and we
have known great mistakes made even by skilled
breeders. The late Mr. Jones will be remem-

bered by many as one of the most successful :
on one occasion he had ordered a cockerel
for execution early in autumn. His " man,"
however, thought differently, and as the bird had
a particularly handsome comb, kept him on for a
bit to see what he would come to. He began to
make up hand over hand, and turned out the
champion bird of the year I Faces which show
red, or even any blush of it, at an early age may
of course be safely discarded. The best birds
usually look a curious sort of blue in the face
while young, steadily clearing to white as they
grow older. The difficulty comes more in judg-
ing the ultimate size of face, which sometimes
turns out much more and sometimes less than
might be expected.

In regard to treatment when grown, we knew
all the Bristol yards well, and from their experi-
ence, collated and compared, acquired the
decided conviction that Spanish did best of all
in rather small grass runs, with a pretty ample
shed boarded up two or three feet from the
ground, in which they could be confined during
windy or severe weather. When thus protected
from exposure and kept for most of the day
out of direct sun, they do not get very far out of
show condition ; but for ten days before a show
require to be kept in a rather dark
Exhibiting house or pen. Those at Bristol were
Spanish. mostly about 7 by 4 feet in floor

space, boarded up about four feet
from the floor, and netted above so as to be
well ventilated ; and they had enough of a sort
of twilight for the birds to see their food and fly
up to their perches. They would be let out for
half an hour a day, when it was dull and mild;
but not in the cold, or in the sun, whilst being
got up for show ; and heat was not used except
in the coldest weather. Such a period of con-
finement in semi-darkness has great effect upon
plumage as well as face, making it bright and
glossy. Some of the present exhibitors of
Spanish employ more heat and time and dark-
ness than here described ; but such was found
sufficient by the breeders of the best specimens
which the world has ever seen, and is much
less tax upon the birds. Moreover, too much
darkness bleaches the comb and wattles as well
as the faces, giving (^uite a sickly appearance,
as can be seen in exhibited Spanish to-day.
By allowing more daylight and a little more
time this can be avoided.

Previous to a show, the faces of Spanish
need special attention. As already intimated,
those of even good birds exposed to wind and
sun generally become more or less reddened
and harsh in texture ; so much being rectified
by confinement in semi-darkness, of from ten

396

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

days for young birds, to perhaps thrice as much
for old ones too long neglected. But the surface
of the skin, being a special development, is
always liable to eruptions and other surface
blemishes, especially after any high feeding, and
as a rule cooling diet as well as confinement is
found necessary to get them into order. By
almost universal consent all Spanish breeders
gradually settled down to bread and milk in the
morning. In the evening the Bristol men usually
gave barley meal mixed rather dry, with a little
whole corn ; but wheat was dear and little used
at that time, and since it has been cheap is
found to answer for the evening meal very well,
given in strict moderation : too much whole
grain of any kind is not good for the face.
Beside this, constant and ample green food must
be supplied, for which lettuces or water-cress
answer well ; and twice a week a good pinch of
sulphur may be given to each bird. This sort
of feeding should be commenced at least three
weeks before a show. Sometimes a good bird
which has been neglected and over-fed will
be found with an unsightly yellowish eruption
or scab over a great part of his face. Such
a face may need more time than can be given ;
but we cured a very bad case for a Bristol friend
in about three weeks by giving 20 grains of
Epsom salts twice a week, with 10 grains citrate
of potash and 5 grains iodide of potassium in
half a pint of water as drink, and gently spong-
ing the face every morning and evening with
sulphurous acid (B.P. strength*), carefully dry-
ing afterwards. Of course, a good Spanish fowl
should never be allowed to get into such a
condition as this, but have its diet reduced and
the system cooled by medicine or more green
food, before things have gone so far.

But the faces and lobes require more special
treatment than this before exhibition. A pair of
round-nosed steel tweezers or forceps must be
provided, and with this the entire
Preparation f^ce is carefully gone over, plucking
for out each individual hair or plumule

Exhibition. Qj- the fluff or small hairy feathers,

which will be found dotted over
it. This removes what were apparently black
specks, and leaves the face white and clear.
The amount of these hair-like feathers used to
differ a great deal in various strains, the largest-
faced birds usually having the most ; but the

* This prescription, since repeated by others, gave rise to a
printed charge by one of those "humanitarians" who are so
quick to think evil of others, of "atrocious cruelty" to which
Spanish were subjected by having their faces " prepared by
strong acids." Such as knew us, simply roared at this ; but it
may perhaps be as well to state that the "acid " is the solution
in water of the gas formed by burning sulphur, and was once in
vogue as a gargle for sore throat, for which it is still employed,
being when so used absolutely tasteless.

very coarse-faced ones have nearly disappeared.
In trimming the face a fringe of feathers must
be left between the top of the face and the base
of the comb, to separate the white and red : if
this is not done the bird is disqualified — not on
the ground of fraud, but because it violates an
understood convention, and looks ridiculous.
Otherwise, this "trimming" of Spanish faces has
long been accepted and allowed, though at one
time the subject of much heated debate and
vehement protest.

Most of such protests years ago against
trimming Spanish faces, came from people who
knew absolutely nothing practically about the
fowl ; but there was one notable exception.
For years after all other recognised breeders,
and all the judges, had admitted the practice,
Mr. Alfred Heath kept up his protest, and
refused to trim, and was always beaten in con-
sequence, though having notoriously some of
the very best birds, which constantly won so
soon as they went out of his own hands. At
length he publicly announced in several periodi-
cals that, having done his best, and seeing the
case was hopeless, he should henceforth do as
others did, on the clear understanding that
trimming was recognised, and not considered
fraudulent. An important show occurred
directly after this, and he came in an easy
winner, though in a rather odd manner. His
pen this time was in fact trimmed in such bare-
faced and extreme fashion as had hardly ever
been seen, and provoked much laughter among
other exhibitors, who " chaffed " him unmerci-
fully about being " determined to do it ' proper'
when he did set about it." One of the judges
told us afterwards that they had been almost
inclined to disqualify the pen on this account ;
not for fraud, but for its queer appearance : only
they had an idea whose it was, and under the
peculiar circumstances did not think it right to do
so. The simple fact was that the other amused
Spanish exhibitors were right, though not quite
as they meant it. Mr. Heath (as he showed
afterwards) knew quite enough to trim as artist-
ically as anyone ; but having said what he
would do, like the thorough gentleman he was,
he had carried it out purposely for this first
time in a way that should fasten attention upon
his pen, and so put the whole matter beyond
dispute. The chief significance of this example
and experience lies in what followed, and which
shows, as we have before hinted in a different
connection, that the real root of even much that
may be really questionable, lies rather in an
instinctive passion for perfection, than mere
desire to reap advantage. A few years after-
wards Mr. Heath wrote to us privately, stating

EXHIBITING SPANISH.

397

that since trying the practice of trimming Spanish
faces, he himself now preferred it : he had never,
he said, seen the full beauty of his own birds
before, and did not think it could be seen with-
out trimming. And he frankly admitted that the
present clear and open understanding upon the
point (partly due, as his modesty omitted to state,
to his own prominent action) had removed what-
ever objection he might formerly have entertained.

Besides the trimming process, however,
which is best deferred till a very few days before
exhibition, Spanish faces require daily attention
while penned up before a show, and some Bristol
fanciers used to give it regularly to their few
best specimens, and attached much importance
to such daily regimen. Providing a very soft
bit of sponge, a very soft towel, some mild soap,
and a powder-puff with some powdered oxide of
zinc (violet-powder will answer, but is not so
dry), every day the face is gently sponged over
with soap and lukewarfn water (neither hot nor
cold), going well into every crease. It is then
as carefully and gently dried with the towel,
again giving special attention to any creases,
and finally puffed with the zinc powder. This
is not, as some suppose, to leave white on the
face, and before sending off care should be
taken that no powder is left on ; it is merely in
order to thoroughly dry the skin. This treat-
ment will be found to make a rapid and wonder-
ful difference in the condition of the faces.

Convenience in regard to such constant
manipulation, deserves a little thought, and
different people manage in various ways.
Some of our friends used to tie the bird's legs
together with a piece of rag, and rest the body
on the lap, with its breast-bone between the
operator's thighs, and the legs hanging down
in the centre : after once or twice the fowl is
generally quiet thus. Others rested the bird in
the same way, but passed a handkerchief over
its back, tied underneath the thighs of the
washer ; this is a good plan, but as the latter
cannot move while the handkerchief is tied, he
must see that he has absolutely everything
within reach. Some preferred an assistant to
hold the bird, but Mr. Roue invented what he
called a cock-saddle. It was a piece of board
about two feet long and five inches wide, cut
out or narrowed from both sides at one place
for the bird's thighs to hang down. At one end
of this narrowed place a padded cushion was
arranged for the stern to rest against ; and at the
other end of it were two longitudinal cushions
side by side with a channel between, in which
the breast-bone rested : thus the bird was on
its breast between the two cushions in front, its
stem against the cushion behind, and the thighs

and legs hanging down in the places narrowed
or cut in for them. In this position it was
secured by two straps buckled over the back,
and braced together at a proper interval. The
whole arrangement he used to insert into the
drawer of a kitchen dresser, opened about three
inches, more or less, by which it was easily
adjusted at any slant required. He found the
birds perfectly quiet on this saddle, and they
soon received their daily treatment with the
most absolute indifference.

In cold weather Spanish require efficient
protection as regards the baskets in which they
travel. The exhibitors whom we knew most
of, used to line their baskets with flannel, which
was well shrunk before being used. This gave
ample ventilation, while it gives what the usual
linings do not — good protection from cold and
draught. As in all large-combed breeds, the
baskets for cocks should be rather high. Some
care should be taken in severe weather to select
trains that are likely not to be too long on the
road, for this breed undoubtedly suffers more
than most from severe cold. It feels keenly
also at the moulting season. At this time the
combs shrink and shrivel to a great degree, so
that even a good hen may appear to have an
upright or " prick " comb ; but on getting into
condition again the former size is restored.
Iron tonic is particularly beneficial at this time,
also a little old ale.

As in the case of all black fowls, there is
some little variation at times in the plumage of
Spanish. Age will often bring many feathers

tipped with white, sometimes all
Variations gg^ which gives a very curious

Spanish. appearance ; and now and then

actually white birds have sported,
as in other varieties. One or two fanciers have
bred these together, and produced a White
Spanish ; but the effect of white face upon
white plumage has always been felt unpleasing,
and in no case has the stock been kept up per-
manently, though we knew one yard in which it
was bred for several years. Red or reddish-gold
feathers are also liable to occur in the cock's
hackles, the birds so disfigured being, as the
late Mr. H. Lane pointed out to us, usually the
richest and most glossy in colour of all in the
yard. The fact is worth mention, because Mr.
Darwin has made in regard to it a curious mis-
take through over much dependence upon what
was told him, to the effect that " all who know
anything of the breeding of poultry will admit
that tens of thousands of pure Spanish . . .
have been reared without the appearance of a
red feather."* Of course, in one sense tens of

* Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication.

398

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

thousands have been so, being selected free
from them ; but in the whole of tens of
thousands bred, many red feathers would be
seen. Such should be rejected in breeding,
unless for some extraordinary quality in face ;
and by this selection coloured feathers ought
to be reduced to a mere percentage.

It is difficult at present to appraise the
economic value of Spanish. The- breed was
never very good for table ; the flesh and skin are

white, as in most black fowls, but
Qualities -^^^ former generally rather short

Spanish. ^-nd dry in character, and there is

seldom much upon the breast-
bone, which usually projects, with little meat
upon it. Its ancient fame was as a layer of
very large white eggs, many of which were
laid in winter, by young birds, when the breed
was kept fairly hardy. We had some old
returns of 150 to as much as i/O eggs in a
year; and even so lately as 1S70 the Bristol
breeders, or most of them, reckoned on an
average of 120 per annum, which was pretty
fair for days when feeding for eggs was not
understood as it is to-day. We fear no exhibi-
tion stock would reach such an average now,
and whether the economic value of the breed
can be recovered it is difficult to say. The one
great necessity, above all, is an increase of
breeders, to provide a variety of blood reared
upon different soils : next to that a certain
amount of return to more hardy methods of
treatment. With more care and some common-
sense in these respects, and more breeders, we
believe much might yet be done ; the field is
very open, in face of the small competition, for
any disposed to enter it ; and it is much to be
desired that a fowl which, take it all in all, is
certainly one of the most stately and hand-
some amongst all the breeds, should be rescued
from its present position. Among the poultry
breeders in Australia, as we write (191 1), there
is evidence of a marked revival of interest in
the breed.

In judging Spanish, the face is of course the
chief point. Its size, its quality, its shape, its
freedom or otherwise from folds and doubling,
all have to be considered. A broad face and
lobe rather short, if not too short, is better than
a long one too narrow. Comb is also important,
and these head-points make most of the bird.
But handsome carriage and proportion should
also be considered ; here especially many
present specimens fall short, being too tall and
weedy owing to their poverty of blood. The

following is the Standard of Perfection as
adopted by the Poultry Club : —

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Skull : Long, broad, and deep. Beak :
Long and stout. Eyes : Full and open. Comb .
Single, somewhat small, erect and straight, firmly
fixed at the base, rather thin at the edge, fitting
closely on the neck at the back, of very smooth
texture, and deeply and evenly serrated. Face :
Long and deep, as large as possible, of very smooth
texture, and free from wrinkles, rising well over the
eyes but not so as to interfere with the sight, and
joining the ear-lobes and wattles. Ear-lobes : Deep
and broad, well rounded at the bottom, extending
well below the wattles and meeting in front and
going well back on each side of the neck, of fine
texture and free from folds or creases. Wattles :
Very long, thin, and pendulous.

Neck. — Long and fine, wth abundant hackle
flowing well on to the shoulders.

Body. — Rather long, fairly broad in front, and
tapering to the rear. Breast : Full at the neck and
gradually decreasing towards the tliighs. Back :
Slanting downwards to the tail. Wings : Short, and
carried closely to the body.

Tail. — Full, not carried too high, and with the
sickles large and well curved.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Rather long and slim.
Toes : Four on each foot, slender, and straight.

Carriage. — Upright, with proud action.

Weight. — 7 lb.

Plumage. — Short and close.

Except that the Comb falls gracefully over to
either side of the face, the general characteristics
of the hen are similar to those of the cock, allowing
for the natural sexual differences.

Weight.— 6 lb.

COLOUR

Beak : Dark horn. Eyes : Black. Comb and '
Wattles : Bright red. Face and Ear-lobes : White.
Legs and Feet : Pale slate.

Plumage. — Black, with a beetle-green sheen, and
free of purple bars.

SCALE OF POINTS

Face and lobes

•• 35

Comb and Wattles . .

.. 15

Type

.. 15

Size . . . . ,..

.. 15

Plumage

10

Condition

10

Serious defects : Blue, pink, or red in face or
lobes ; coarse " cauliflower " face or lobes ; cock's
comb not erect ; side sprigs on comb ; lobes pointed
at the bottom ; wry or squirrel tail ; black or dark
coloured legs and feet.

399

CHAPTER XXVI.

THIS breed in all probability came to Eng-
land from the island whose name it bears,
and more than one importation appears to
have taken place. The late Mr. Leworthy of
Barnstaple, who had bred it since about 1830,
told us that several lots had come from Minorca,
and that a friend and townsman of his, a Mr.
Willis, had been familiar with similar birds in
the island itself The Rev. Thomas Cox, of
Castle Cary, was personally informed by Sir
Thomas Acland that his father, the previous
baronet, brought birds from Minorca direct in
1834 or 1835, from which a strain had been bred
at Holnicote for many years, and distributed
through the neighbourhood ; and the Acland
family believed that the introduction of the fowl
into the West of England was mainly due to this
importation. Many strains probably did descend
from the Holnicote blood ; but there is strong
general evidence that even before that Minorcas
had been known in the West of England, and
at the middle of the nineteenth century there
were obvious differences between certain strains
which bear out the supposition of several distinct
importations. Mr. Leworthy, for instance, gave as
his average weights 5I lbs. and 4i lbs., wliilst
other strains were considerably heavier even at
that time.

This fine race had been known and valued in
the West of England, from Cornwall up to as
high as Bristol, for very many years before it
attracted any attention amongst breeders
generally. For its localisation there, the only
reason that can be given is a somewhat special
intercourse with Spain which has also left other
traces here and there, and of which some slight
indication is given in Kingsley's Westward Ho !
The first brood of chicks we ever hatched, about
1850, were from Minorca eggs; and knowing
the fowls thus from childhood, and their qualities,
it was always a mystery to us that they should be
so long confined to one corner of Great Britain.
It is perhaps noteworthy that many of the people
who kept them at that early date, called them
" Black Spanish," and that throughout the West,
when the " Black Spanish " was spoken of, it was
generally the Minorca that was really meant.
Many of the finest we ever saw were in the

possession of poor men, who kept them for their
eggs, which they sold new-laid; and though
they never exhibited, were proud of their fowls,
and in some cases refused a guinea for a
favourite bird. In spite of this solid merit, and
its striking appearance, however, the breed was
very slow to make way out of its own corner.
Our persistent advocacy of its merits had little
effect for some years ; but all of a sudden it
began to " move," and since then its progress has
been rapid. In 1883, soon after the movement
had begun, there were at the Crystal Palace show
only two classes and thirty-two entries ; but in
1888 the newly formed Minorca Club held its
first show at that great gathering, when there
were, six classes and 140 entries; and in igii
the six classes contained 144 entries. There are
few shows now which do not give Minorca
classes.

Broadly speaking, the Minorca may be said
to resemble the Spanish fowl without its white
face, and with a much smaller white ear-lobe ;

but there are perceptible other
Characteristics differences in detail, the body being
Minorcas. more massive and compact, the legs

shorter, and the comb of different
texture. The head of the cock should be large
and broad, without which the comb cannot be
carried firmly ; beak dark horn-colour ; eye full
and dark ; comb single, upright, and straight ;
large, but not extending beyond front of the
beak, and falling well back behind, but not
touching the hackle ; it should have a few bold
serrations arranged in a nice arch, and is pre-
ferred rather rough in texture ; it must be a rich
bright red. The wattles are long and full, free
from folds, also rich red, as must be the face,
the latter having as few coarse hairs as possible,
and perfectly free from white. The ear-lobe
should be smooth and flat, almond in shape, and
of colour and texture like fine white kid. The
neck is rather long and curved, with full hackle ;
body compact and somewhat square, broad at
shoulders, with full rounded breast, and the back
broad and rather long ; tail full, and carried well
back, not upright. The legs and shanks are
medium in length, the latter a very dark slate
colour. The plumage is glossy black all over,

400

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

but especially in the hackles, where gloss should
be very great. In the hen the ear-lobe, though
still oblong in shape, is rather more rounded
than in the cock ; and the comb arches over on one
side of the face, but should do so in a manner
not to obstruct the sight, and not be so large as
to do this. The tail should be carried well back.
The carriage is sprightly and graceful in both
sexes : the average weights about 7 lbs. and
6 lbs. for adults, and 6 lbs. and 5 lbs. for
cockerels and pullets.

The followmg notes were contributed by
the late Mr. J. Harwood, of Tiverton, for
many years Secretary of the Minorca Club: —

"All past writers agree that this handsome
and useful fowl was eaiiy located in the West
of England, but how it came there can only be
surmised. Ports such as Bristol,
HiBtoiy Barnstaple, and Plymouth had them

of before inland towns. The writer

MinorcaB. j^^g reliable evidence from men
living before the nineteenth century,
that the Minorca was plentiful in Tiverton
at that time. During the Spanish and French
wars, prisoners were interned at this town for
years ; when peace was proclaimed some settled
there, and it is probable they had these fowls
over from the island of Minorca. In 1870 I
was at a Plymouth show, and had a chat with
a sailor who came from this island. He told me
they had them of three colours — white, black,
and blue ; that they were not so large as ours,
also not so good in head points, some of the
cocks having cleft combs hanging each side of
the head. We know how Messrs. Beard and
Leworthy in the 'thirties. Sir T. Acland and Mr.
Blackwell in the 'forties, Messrs. Williams, Ros-
corla, Physick, and Harwood in the 'seventies,
and Messrs. Pitts and Stafford later, have done
their best to show the world their grand all-
round qualities, and it is fitting that records
should be kept of how breeds maintain their
usefulness.

"About the year 1870 I wanted eggs for my
business, and made inquiries what fowl was
the best layer. Having some old fanciers living
here, all assured me none could come near
' them Spanierds,' a localism. One day my old
mentor brought me a real live prize cock. Now,
I knew Old English Game won cash by their
pluck and spurs, but did not know then any-
thing about shows. This caused the hen
fever, which has stuck to me ever since. The
Minorca I first knew was a thick-set, heavy fowl,
very high and full in tail, with small white lobe,
no signs, or even thoughts, of white in face, but
a hard red, also very heavy comb, this being
considered the proof of the best layer — no

signs of any broodiness. Having sent a cock to
a show, I made some outside friends, one of
whom, Mr. R. E. Roscorla, sent me a lot of
correspondence on the points which the Red-
faced Minorca should be judged by. We drew
up a scale of points, which later on was taken
up very largely as the Standard of the Minorca
Club.

" It is simply astonishing how this fowl
has since practically gone over the whole world.
The North of England took them up well, and
we have some breeders there who beat the
south in hens and pullets. This I attribute to
their colder climate, as our birds here start laying
before coming to any size, and this stops their
growth. Scotland, America, New Zealand, South
Africa, all say the same— that they are hardy,
handsome, and maintain their utility. This I
again attribute to the earnest manner in which
the large majority of our fanciers deal with the
Minorca as an exhibition bird. They are deter-
mined not to sacrifice its laying powers for any
fancy point. The fancier has made the Minorca
the most popular fowl in existence, improved
its shape and size, reduced the immense comb,
put a deal more flesh on its body, till it is now
far away the best table-bird of the non-sitters.
But on one point the fancier has made a serious
error ; he has created a large white lobe, which
has caused the grand characteristic red face
of the breed to become more or less white too ;
and what is still worse is that a decline all
round seems to set in with the white face :
whitish flights, light-coloured legs, very green
plumage, and a decidedly more delicate bird
— in fact, all on the downward road to a
mongrel Spanish. This is the rock the Min-
orca fancy has somewhat split upon. Some
four years ago we seemed to have reached high-
water mark in perfection, but have now receded,
being able to get but very few decent two-
year-old cocks. It is to be hoped that the firm
stand made by the Minorca Club in demanding
a perfect red face, coupled with the offer of more
prizes for old birds, will cause an improvement
jn the direction of having Minorcas to improve
up to their third year, as they used to do.

" Minorcas are grand layers of extra large
white eggs, small eaters, are of an active, indus-
trious, contented disposition, and will thrive in
a back yard ; hence their popularity. The
chickens if not ' coddled ' come away quickly,
are fully feathered in a month, and pullets
often lay at four and a half months old. Many
fanciers write against large combs ; this is due
to the place in which they are kept. In cold,
exposed places the comb development is re-
tarded ; in secluded, sheltered runs the combs

BREEDING BLACK MINORCAS.

401

are certain to be large, especially if of a good
laying strain.

" Many firmly believe some cross has been
of late imported into the Minorca ; I have
done my best to find out, and do not
believe it. I know La Fleche was tried, but
it was a rank failure. Black Cochin was used
by Mr. Roscorla forty years ago. I had
some of his hens, and among them tinted eggs
often cropped up. Black Game were bred here
sixty years ago and the Minorca used, and the
gipsy face and red iris in eye is still in some
of our present day Minorcas. This shows that
if Langshans had been used, as some think, we
should see signs of this vigorous blood in the
Minorca. No breed shows less of crossing ;
they are too plentiful to require any cross. The
broodiness that is prevalent is caused, in my
opinion, by over-showing the parents ; we get
a less vigorous progeny, and Nature steps in
with a rest. This is Nature's way of recup-
eration.

" The aim of most fanciers is to make their
birds pay. If you go in simply for eggs, all you
have to do is to select a pen of birds, and yearly
note and keep the best layers ; hatch your
chickens from March to May ; then if your place

is suitable for the Minorca, you can
Breeding depend upon having eggs all the

Mmorcas. year round. It is a real fact that a

selected Minorca hen, with good
food, warm shelter, care and cleanliness, is prac-
tically an egg-making machine. If your ambition
is the Club's challenge cups, it will tax all
your skill, means, and pluck to breed for them.
Here the best layer has often to stand out. I
prefer a cockerel of the previous season, mated
to five two or three year old hens. You can
depend upon this pen for fertile eggs, and the
chickens grow away at the start stronger than
from pullets. There is no doubt the progeny
from an old cock will last longer the strain
of exhibiting, so those who have room should
mate up both cocks and cockerels, and you
should at least have age on one side of the
sexes.

" The male bird influences the style, shape,
colour, structure of the comb, and the fancy
points ; the hen the size, colour of leg, and
especially the serration of the comb. The lobe
of the hen should be clear, and quite distinctly
away fiom the face, or you will get creased
or folded lobes in the cockerels. I do not hold
with separate pens for breeding cockerels and
pullets; it is all right so long as the breeder knows
his birds, but let another have them, and his
strain may be spoilt as regards the combs on the
cockerels. On the male side, after face, the most

El

important item is comb, especially its build and
formation. I do not mind an uneven serration
so long as the comb is firm on the head, simply
growing out of the skull, not fleshy or flabby.
Comb guards I detest, and they are not required
if the comb is as it should be. I like five good
wedge-shaped spikes, which should be the same
length as depth of blade. The head should be
fairly long, with a strong beak ; the face perfectly
red, back under the lobe to where the lobe
adheres ; the lobe fixed on quite distinct and
clear from the face, coming partly over the face,
fitting closely both sides. The legs, beak, and
toe-nails very dark horn colour ; our old breeders
demanded a dark horn toe-nail as showing the
real Minorca. The plumage a dense black,
showing in the sunlight a white gloss as on a
rich silk dress. Of late, the green-lustred plum-
age is much too prevalent. The hackle feather
is very fine and thick, the quill feather to the
stem is black as ebony, and very tough, very
different from the coarser, crisper feather of the
Spanish.

" The hen to breed cockerels should be
higher on leg ; a good, long, intelligent head, with
a neat, evenly serrated comb, which should
adhere closely right up on the point of the beak.
Many hens' combs do not adhere to the point of
the beak by an inch, and you get coarse, twisted-
combed cockerels from them ; also the comb
does not grow direct from the skull, but hangs
by a thin substance and falls dead over. I pre-
fer the comb to rise firmly from the skull at its
base, fall a little over one side, then fold over
gracefully the other side. The lobes on both
sexes must be good in texture, and the correct
'almond ' shape. For pullet-breeding you may
have hens coarser in head points, and it is not so
particular as to the comb adhering to the beak at
front, but what defect you have on one side must
be counteracted on the other. The birds to
avoid in the breeding pen are those showing the
least sign of white in face or eyelid, white in
flights, high or fan-tailed. A red feather in
hackle denotes strong, healthy vigour, and
generally rich plumage.

" The best time to hatch is February for
cockerels, but pullets hatched then generally
come on to lay a few eggs, then moult like hens.
March and April are the months, the chickens
then seem to grow right away. I much prefer
the foster mother, but no coddling ; take care
they do not crowd, but lay about by themselves ;
more chickens are killed by being kept too
warm than too cold. A sure sign you have
healthy chickens is when you cannot hear them
peep. Give them plenty of amusement ; those
who have a manure heap can make the chickens

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

as happy as the day in digging and scratching.
I boil all water given to chickens, but much
^jrefer skim milk, kept sweet and clean, and as
much as they will drink ; also daily raw rice, they
then can make their own custard ; in all else as
others advise, only see a change is constant, no
food lying about. As soon as they are the size
of blackbirds I commence to toast what I do not
mean to keep ; cockerels that have false spikes,
high tails, later on too forward in comb. Those
that are coming on too fast are only good to eat ;
those that are slim, backward and awkward, so
long as combs are nicely serrated, are the ones to
keep. It is better to have a dozen good promis-
ing cockerels, than forty duffers who take up each
others' room. The pullets you cannot decide on
much until they lay, but they do not require the
space, nor are they anything like the trouble
cockerels are to become Ai. In many breeds
maize is condemned as food ; I never knew
maize yet to injure Minorcas, in fact I know it is
very largely used by breeders ; I feed quite one
half on it. The only time is in the hottest part
of the summer or the latter part, when they start
moulting; then I stop giving them this cheap
food. Good laying Minorcas will not put on
too much fat : they are too industrious.

" Minorca cockerels want all the run and
exercise you can give them. They can be kept
together until their sickle feathers begin to bend.
Then the best should be put in separate runs, as
they are great tyrants, and damage each other's

plumage. They must be well
Exhibiting watched, as some will fret them-
Minorcas. selves, and once a cockerel goes

back he very probably is spoilt.
■Give him an old hen or pullet a few days ; this
gives him pluck, and makes a man, as it were, of
him. When about to show him, train well by
taking him off his perch of an evening and
placing him in a show pen, and using the judging
stick around him. Repeat this a few days, and
you will get him to stand up well and show
himself to the best advantage. Also place him
in a hamper a few times for an hour or so.
Many a prize has been lost and tails broken for
want of a little training before sending to a
«how. The best thing to clean combs and
wattles is soap, a stiff nail brush, and ice-cold
water. If this will not make them red and
healthy, keep them home. Pullets can be shut
up more closely, and shifted from run to run to
stay maturity. When they shoot their combs,
it is wise to place them in a well shaded, covered
run ; this brings out the colour of the plumage,
lobes, and bloom on the comb. The great
secret of success in the show pen is condition.
It is not the slightest use in severe competition

to send Minorcas unless they are at their very
best. Pullets look charming a few days before
laying. Cockerels often get so e.xcited at shows
that they never regain their appearance lost
whilst in the show pen. A great deal of adverse
criticism is from not realising that the bird may
have quite altered from one show to another.

" A great deal has of late been written on
lobes, but the Minorca Club's standard has been
adopted by the Poultry Club and by others. The
lobe in shape is as the Valencia almond. The
Standard states : ' Almond shaped, fairly
large.' This does not mean either too large or
too small. It is impossible to lay down the size
in every bird, but it should be a lobe that helps
make the bird well balanced in head points.
From measurements sent me by several noted
breeders I take a lobe of a full-grown cockerel to
be at the outside in depth 2\ inches ; in width at
the widest part, just below the top, \\ inches ; at
the base, f of an inch. The pullet: i^ inches in
depth, I inch at its widest part, tapering to cor-
respond with the cockerel. This on paper looks
large, yet on the bird is not so ; this very size has
been reported on by judges as 'could do with
more lobe,' and in the pullet as ' fair lobe.' The
main point at issue is really shape. Several well
known winners have round Hamburgh lobes.
Others, again, are wider at the bottom than at
the top ; either of these looks immense and out
of place.

" E.xhibitors and judges should understand
that the commercial value of a bird is about
3s. To be worth £^ to ;^30 they should bear
criticism from beak to tail. Exhibitors that are
real fanciers e.xpect judges to handle well, to see
that the face is really red and likely to remain
so, that the comb is upright, free from false
spikes or thumb marks. In hens or pullets,
especially note if combs are evenly serrated,
plumage is genuine to wing ends, and if good
body and carriage. The shape and condition
of the lobe is an important point, but a tinge of
red should not overthrow an otherwise good
bird. Some ridicule has been cast on the point
of white in face being a ' fatal defect,' and yet
prizes having been awarded to birds showing
this defect. No judge can always decide by the
standard, as in many classes none approach the
standard ; but all should be guided by it. A
bird showing this hated defect has a defect that
is fatal to any rank as a standard Minorca.
This to me is the common-sense meaning, and
was so meant when the scale of points was
drawn up. While this defect is really taken at
its real value, I have no fear of the red-faced
Minorca ever disgracing the old fanciers who
so manfully stood by it."

"^lA

DIFFERENT TYPES OF MINORCAS.

403

In reference to one point mentioned in the
above notes — the question of a Langshan cross
having been used upon the Minorca — we have

been obUged to come to a different
?'''* conchjbion from Mr. Harwood, except

Cross. ^\dX the cross was probably employed

at an earUerdate than he has had in
view. Having noticed and reported manifest
signs of it on previous occasions, in 1892 we
went with a friend carefully through the large
Minorca classes at the Palace, and both agreed
that there was undeniable evidence of Langshan
blood in rather more than half the pens. It
was to be seen in stature, in size of shank, in the
scaling of the shank, and in many cases there
was visible even the peculiar Langshan crimson
colour between the scales ; it was also visible in
some cases in the character of head and comb.
The cross was, in fact, admitted to us by one or
two individuals ; others no doubt were ignorant
of it, and had only imported it through supposed
pure-bred stock ; in one case the cross had been
made through the Black Orpington. There is
no doubt that the new blood has done good
on the whole, improving size, and flesh, and con-
stitution, while most of the signs we noticed in
1892 have since been bred out again : but at
that date the facts were obvious, and there is
little doubt that the cross was found advisable
owing to evil done previously by injudicious
breeding for exaggerated points.

The first tendency was to breed for exagger-
ated combs and wattles. The late Mr. Hewitt
once challenged our admiration of a pen as the

" best he had ever seen," because of
Exaggeration the immense size of the comb and

wattles, the latter measuring 6\ ins.

long. As indicated earlier in this
book, such enormous appendages are a severe
tax upon both muscular and nervous energy,
causing sterility or weak germs, and making
birds unable to stand severe weather, or to lay in
winter unless in warm shelter. That large ap-
pendages are connected with laying power to
some extent, no one doubts ; but that so much
development is ruinous in its results, has now
been proved by a mass of evidence which has
compelled fanciers to dub such birds before
breeding them, and it is to be hoped that excess
in this particular direction has now received
some check. The Standard of the Minorca
Club and Poultry Club now describes the comb
as " fairly large " ; that of the London Minorca
Club as "rather large," and that of the
Northern Minorca Club, now known as the
British Minorca Club, " size consistent with size
of bird." In the case of letters in the poultry
press complaining of the failure of the Minorca

of
Points.

as a winter layer on farms, we have traced the
cause to this matter of exaggerated comb, and it
is to be desired that the present standards should
be adhered to in this respect." It should be re-
membered that the large combs many of the old
breed undoubtedly possessed, before bred for
exhibition at all, were due naturally to the moist
and mild climate and rich pastures of Devon,
where they were far less injurious ; but that
when such combs were bred for, in drier and
colder regions, they became another matter
entirely.

The other chief fancy point about this breed
is the white ear-lobe, concerning which there
has been something like a cleavage of opinion

between the breeders in the north
Size of and south of England. At a very

Ear-lobes. early period after the fowl began to

be exhibited, a tendency was shown
to enlarge and broaden the ear-lobe, and among
judges to lay too much stress upon its size and
smoothness, to obtain which Spanish crosses
were avowedly employed in some cases, the
crossed blood rapidly spreading by means of sales.
The useful qualities of the breed were greatly
injured for a time by this course ; for either the
cross, or the increase of lobe in itself (even that
would be quite sufficient to account for it)
brought into the birds exhibited signs of white
face upon every side ; we are writing of what we
actually observed at that time, as a new
feature, from which the Minorca had been quite
free years before. In itself this white face
would have done no particularharm; but although
the white under the eye was tolerated for a
time, it soon had to be checked ; and then the
necessity for choosing birds with the large white
lobes, and yet without the frequent white face,
narrowed selection so closely, and involved so
much in-breeding, that once more followed a
decline in constitution and the number of eggs,
especially in winter.

As just indicated above, regarding this point
there was undoubtedly some difference of opinion
between northern and southern breeders of the
Minorca ; so much so that the body originally
known as the Northern Minorca Club was
mainly formed to embody views more favouring
a comparatively large lobe. There was a great
deal of discussion in 1900 and the early part
of 1901 about the ear-lobe, especially in connec-
tion with a bird that had taken high honours,
and been objected to by many West of England
breeders as having far too large and broad a
lobe ; in fact, an almost circular one. But when
this was over, and the disputants got down to
figures and description, the differences appeared
much less than had been supposed. It appeared

404

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

on the one hand, that Devonshire breeders had
not objected to the length of the lobe on the
bird which occasioned the debate, but to its
great width, which made it almost circular ;
and the standards of the Minorca and Poultry
Club and London Minorca Club alike describe
the lobe as fairly large and almond shaped.
On the other hand, the new standard of the
British (formerly Northern) Minorca Club now
also describes the lobes as " almond shaped,
hollowness and roundness to be disfavoured,
the size to harmonise with the rest of the
body." When it is added that in number of
points for lobe all the standards agfree, it will
be seen that substantial agreement has really
been arrived at, and only needs to be main-
tained. The chief real difference is that the
British Club only " severely penalises " white
in face, whilst the other clubs place this fault
amongst the fatal defects.

In two other points there is some difference
between ideas in the north and south of
England. In the north they like a perceptibly

bigger bird, the special northern
Differences standard going up as high as lO lbs.
in Ideas. ^^^ cocks and 9 lbs. in hens. Ihey

also like them appreciably higher
on the leg. the " British " standard formerly
defining the shanks as long, while the other
standards called them "medium length," and
we know from personal friends that northern
fanciers consider short-legged such birds as
are preferred by the Devonshire breeders.
ihe third point is colour of the plumage,
which by the northern standard is described
as "greenish glossy black," whereas the
others called it simply " glossy black," and
southern breeders, as a rule, objected to the
green. Of course, no law can be laid down
here, in any matter, as to preference to-day ;
but historically — we are writing about a fowl
which we have known from childhood, noting
every development in it during fifty years —
there is absolutely no doubt as to the original
Minorca type. Mr Leworthy's description, pub-
lished in 1S72, is alone sufficient to prove that
the original Devon Minorca was not over large,
was rather low on the leg and massive in body,
and of a " crow " black, not a green black. The
fowl being a Western fowl, in fact, is itself proof
that Western ideas represent the original type;
and there is no doubt that both the height on
leg and green lustre now permitted, are mainly
due to tlie Langshan cross above alluded to.
It may not be entirely so, because about Bristol
especially many birds were to be seen with more
length of limb, green lustre, and white in face:
these were clearly due to crossing with the

Spanish, for which that city was then famous,
and some of this blood may still survive. That
the original Minorca of Devon was a low-bodied,
crow-black bird, with moderate-sized ear-lobes,
is absolutely beyond dispute. But with the
simple statement of this fact we must leave
the question. That the plumage should be free
from any bars of colour, e.g. purple bars across
green feathers, as we have seen in many pens,
all breeders and judges would agree

There is very little to add to Mr. Harwood's
notes upon breeding and rearing. In regard to
breeding stock, the cock or cockerel may be
small, if good in points and fairly long in keel
proportionately ; but the hens or pullets must
be of good size, and particularly have the
desired length of body. If the male has a
very large comb, and appears at all distressed,
or even dull in consequence, he should be
dubbed before breeding, or else the eggs will
be either clear or weak in the germ. A large
number of Minorca males are now dubbed
fur breeding by the more experienced breeders,
and it is heartily to be wished that this might
become unnecessary by adopting a more
moderate development of comb, as in the
United States. In regard to age, in itself there
is nothing especial to say ; but it is worth men-
tioning that the dreaded fault of white face is
most apt to appear in the second season, and
therefore adults free from this blemish are
specially valuable as safe breeding stock.

Should the chickens be reared under a hen,
the cockerels ought, if possible, to be got away
from her at four weeks old, else the pressure and
heat upon their combs is but too
Rearing likely to ruin them. No breed

and Care of . 1 r ^1 j

Chickens. requires so much ot the care and

vigilance described in Chapter
XII. regarding the combs of the cockerels as this,
owing to their size and early growth. Cock-
erels are safest in rearers not of the " coverlet "
type, with no more heat than really necessary.
As they get older, the two sexes come to their
best under different treatment. Up to about
a month both may have good feeding, with
animal food as usual. After that, however, the
cockerels do best (if for exhibition) with plain
food of adequate nutritive ratio, as wide range
PS possible, and roosting in a house with the
door open up to say five months or so, after
which the ear-lobes may want more shelter.
But up to that time the object is to make frame
and size, while retarding development of comb
and head-points, and keeping the comb straight
and firm. In close houses and covered sheds
these are apt to grow too rapidly, and to become
.=oft and flabby ; it is chiefly birds so reared that

WHITE MINORCAS.

405

require the comb-guards described in a former
chapter. Pulicts, on the other hand, grow better
combs, and faUing more nicely over, if kept mor«'
under cover and in warmer quarters, but they
also do perfectly well on a good range.

At about five months old it is time to look
after the lobes ; and during all cold winds the
birds should be confined in runs sheltered for
at least 30 inches from the ground. This will
often entail confinement in a shed or enclosed
run ; and when this is the case the shanks
should be rubbed twice a week or so with a rag
and a mixture of oil and paraffin, rubbing it well
off again. For some time before exhibition the
birds should be kept out of bright light, as well
as cold wind, to bleach the lobes ; but it is not
advisable to shut them up like Spanish in warm
houses, or even in darkness for more than a
few days. The reason is that the larger
combs will not stand heat ; and vivid red in the
comb, wattles, and face is as important as white
in the lobe, and suffers from much darkness.
But the lobe should, if necessary, be washed,
dried, and attended to as in the case of the
preceding breed. A pullet's comb can be
easily worked over a little if necessary, work-
ing it gently every day between finger and
thumb.

There is no breed in which a vivid red is
so important about comb and face. To attain
this the birds must be in perfect health when
put up, and during the period of training they
should have a little shredded raw meat every
day, adequate green food, and a little of the
citrate of iron and potash in their water, not
forgetting grit in the pen. Some breeders
believe that a supply of chopped garden onions
(not Spanish) every day, with a special feed
of it the last thing, tends to brigliten both the
colour and the eyes. It can, at all events, do
no possible harm, if not pushed to the extent
of purging.

The Minorca must be classed amongst our
most valuable poultry. The flesh is not of the
first class, not being very tender or juicy, but is
far better than that of the Spanish,
Economic fairly plentiful on the breast when
Qualities. well fed, and white. It is as a layer,
however, that the breed is so
useful, laying not only many in number, but the
largest egg of any breeds known, very many
eggs weighing three ounces each. It is not a
distinctively winter layer, but April pullets may
generally be depended upon, and the yearly
average, when well bred, is high. Some years
ago we had the curiosity to get returns from
a few of the older breeders, and Mr. Hopkins,
counting four pens, made it 226 per annum ;

Mr. Physick (seven pens) 186 per annum ; Mr.
Amesbury 180 per annum, and a few of hi.s
birds 200. These were of the older Western
type, and there is no doubt that some of the
modern birds have fallen much below such
figures, and proved disappointing as a farmer's
fowl. But even these have rarely failed to lay
well in winter if kept in sheltered runs ; while
judicious selection will give good results on
free range, in all but the more severe winter
climates. For confined suburban runs the
Minorca is one of the very best fowls that
can be selected, being quiet and contented,
and having the curious property of cackling
much less before or after laying than any
breed we know.

The Minorca is also valuable as a cross.
With almost any breed, even the Cochin, and
much more with others, it produces a good
layer and hardy fowl ; and a cock or two turned
down on any farm with even ordinary scrub
fowls, will in two seasons produce a race that
lays large numbers of eggs. Crossed with the
Langshan.-the produce is one of the hardiest and
most prolific fowls known, which has been tried
all over England and never found wanting.

Within recent years the Rosecomb variety
of the Black Minorca, although not recognised
by the Poultry Club, has attracted many

admirers, more especially among
Eosecomb utility poultry keepers, since it is
Hinorcas. recognised that it possesses many

useful properties. Its first appear-
ance in the show pen in this country was in
1906, when Mr. R. W. Webster, of Maiden-
head, who "manufactured" the British type,
staged three specimens at the Crystal Palace ;
but for some years previously the variety had
been bred and exhibited in the United States.
The Rosecomb Minorca, which should be an
ordinary Black Minorca in every respect but
comb, met with much opposition on its intro-
duction to the poultry-keeping public, but the
formation, in 1910, of a club specially to
foster its interests has done much to give it
something of a vogue in Great Britain. It
may be added that the type of Rosecomb
required in e.xhibition specimens is one that
is full in front, with the leader following the
curve of the neck, while at the same time the
whole fits neatly and closely to the head.

Minorca chickens have often a number of
white feathers, and as a rule those with the
most turn out the best colour ultimately. But
occasionally there have been all-white sports ;
and from such, bred together, a White variety
of Minorcas has been produced. These

4o6

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

should be exactly the same as the Black in all
but colour of the plumage, which is desired
as glossy a white as possible ; of course, more
glossy in the cock than the hen.
White The White Minorca is really a

Minoroas. good-looking fowl, the brilliant red
face giving more contrast than
the white face of the Spanish, which looks
ghastly and unpleasant upon a white bird.

It is rather curious that the earlier White
Minorcas known were described as more
delicate than the black parent variety ; that
character was given them by Mr. Leworthy,
whose experience went back to 1834. On the
other , hand, some who breed the fowl now
have reported upon them as perceptibly hardier
in cold situations, while fully equal, if not
superior, as layers, to neighbours of the Black
persuasion. The reason may probably be
delicacy in the Blacks from causes already
adverted to.; while the Whites, having less
contrast of colour in the lobes, have been less
rigorously selected for these, and having also
usually rather smaller combs, have in consti-
tution proved superior. Nothing need be
added respecting the breeding of the white
plumage to what has been said under other
breeds.

Black Minorcas are bred in America with
smaller combs and ear-lobes than in England,
with somewhat less massive bodies ; and in a
much more severe clmiate than that of England,
greater hardihood and more prolificacy (on the
average) have resulted from such differences.

The following is the Poultry Club's Stand-
ard of Perfection :

GENER.A.L CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Skull : Long and broad, so as to provide
a substantial foundation for the comb. Beak ;
Strong and of moderate length. Eyes : Full and
bright. Comb : Single, fairly large (consistent with
the size of the bird), upright and straight, free from
any twist, thumb marks, or side sprigs, not extend-
ing over the beak, and reaching well to the back
of the head and following the line of but not touch-
ing the neck-hackle, of moderately rough texture,
and with five to seven wedge-shaped spikes. Face :
Smooth, of fine texture, and as free as possible from

feathers or hairs. Ear-lobes : Almond shape, fairly
large Tto harmonise with other points of the head),
of kid-like texture, flat but of thick substance, and
fitting closely to the head. Wattles : Broad and long,
and well rounded at the ends.

Neck. — Long and covered with flowing hackle.

Body. — Long, broad shoulders, giving the back
a somewhat flat appearance, gradually tapering and
sloping to the tail. Breast : Full. Wings : Moder-
ately long, fitting closely to the sides.

Tail. — Full, abundantly furnished with feather,
with broad, long, and well - curved sickles, and
carried nicely back.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Strong and moderately
long. Toes : Four on each foot, long, and well
spread.

Carriage. — Upright and graceful.

Weight.— 7 lb.

HEN

E.xcept that the Comb droops over to one side
of the face and is carried so as not to obstruct the
sight, the general characteristics of the hen. are
similar to those of the cock, allowing for the natural
sexual differences.

Weight.— 6 lb.

COLOUR.

THE BL.\CK

Beak : Dark horn. Eyes : Dark. Comb, Face,
and Wattles : Dark "blood red. Ear-lobes : White.
Legs and Feet : Black in cockerels and pullets,
dark slate in cocks and hens.

Plumage. — Glossy green-black.

THE WHITE

Beak : White. JSycs : Red. Comb, Face, and
Wattles : Blood red. Ear-lobes : White. Legs and
Feet : Pink-white.

Plumage. — White.

SCALE OF POINTS
Head : face, 15 ; comb, 15 ; lobes, 10 . . .. 40

Colour : plumage, 10 ; legs, eyes, antl beak, S . . 18
Size . .
Condition
Shape . .

Breast-bone . .

Serious dejects : White in face ; wry or squirrel
tail ; feathers on shanks or toes ; other than single
comb ; plumage other than black or white in the
several varieties ; other than four toes ; legs other
than black or slate in Blacks or white in Whites.

CHAPTER XXVII.

ANDALUSIANS.

RESPECTING the modern or present-day
fowl known by this name, nothing very
certain or definite can be said ; except
that it must be regarded as being more or less
distinct from the breed so known many years
ago. Many of those earlier birds were traced
to the late Mr. Coles, of Farnham, who in his
turn purchased them from a Mr. Richardson, of
Portsmouth, who got them from a Spanish
trader in 1S51. The late Mr. Leworthy and
others received this blood from Mr. Coles, but
Mr. Taylor, of Shepherd's Bush, also imported
direct. These earlier birds are known to have
been afterwards crossed with Spanish, chiefly in
order to get rid, if possible, of a fault very
common in them, of a small upright comb in
the hens, much like a Game hen's comb. The
colour of many was a sort of dove-colour, with
hardly any lacing at all ; but others were more
blue, with fair black lacing. None of them
were quite so reachy and Game-like in form
as the Andalusians of the present day. Most,
if not all, of this early blood is believed
to have been lost or bred out, but Miss May
Arnold imported further specimens, and both
these and what was left of the older strain
were no doubt crossed with the Minorca, partly
to enlarge the combs, and partly to deepen the
lacing and top colour. The existing stock
conies of this undefinable mi.xture of blood.
To the Minorca cross has often been attributed
the constant appearance of black and even
white chickens, but this is an error : the colour
itself, as stated before in several places, is
essentially a mingling of white and black blood,
and would sport black and white with no further
cross at all : the two foundation colours will
always contend for the mastery in any breed of
this kind. What we think is to be regretted, is
the loss of the old Andalusian comb, which was
very characteristic, even when not too small ;
being lower, but long behind, and with a more
numerous serration that was very typical. The
comb now is of more Minorca style, not perhaps
quite so high in proportion as that breed, and
not coming down so low over the neck behind,
but of similar stamp : Mr. Ludlow has depicted
one of the best types in the plate, which can be

compared with the Minorca, showing some differ-
ence, but not a great deal as formerly.

Rather remarkably, in spite of the crossing
that has undoubtedly taken place, the present
Andalusian still retains a great deal of
individuality ; no doubt partly due to selective
breeding, but in part remaining from original
distinct Andalusian blood. To breeding is
probably due the fact that it is more Game-like
and reachy in general build than any other of
the great Mediterranean tribe ; higher on the
leg, more slender in body, and more alert in gait
and habits. But to " blood " must be due its
very strong vital characteristics, especially the
extreme precocity of the chickens. We have
seen and heard cockerels of the old stock crow-
ing at seven weeks old ; and though that would
scarcely be equalled now, unusual precocity and
sexual vigour do still remain. It is to be hoped
it may not be lost by encouraging exaggerated
combs ; but we have known already of several
birds having to be dubbed before breeding was
satisfactory. The older stocks were also, when
in confinement, rather specially prone to the
vice of feather-eating, owing, we believe, to their
restless energy ; and several recent breeders
have confessed to the same fault, but others have
denied it. There are probably differences from
strain and management in regard to this, but it
will be seen that the race is one of marked in-
dividuality still, in spite of crossing and some
amount of breeding to other types.

For the followmg article on the Andalusian
as bred to-day, we are indebted to the late
Mr. Robert Little, Rokeby Cottage, Glossop,
who will be remembered as a very successful
breeder and exhibitor in his own name, and
equally so as manager for Mr. W. H. Bourne,
of Chester, whose successes will be in the re-
collection of most fanciers.

" The modern Andalusian, one of the Span-
ish varieties of fowls, has made rapid strides
towards perfection during the last ten years, the
size, ground colour, and lacing being now almost
perfection, and a great contrast to the light-
coloured, slaty, or drab fowl without lacing it
used to be. To-day I am also glad to say that
the Minorca type is fast dying out, giving place

4o8

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

to the upright, Gamey type which is the proper
characteristic of the breed. It is one of the most
beautiful and proh'fic fowls that we possess in
this country, and at the time of writing this
article is fast gaining ground, scores of new
fanciers having recently gone in for the breed.
This is not surprising, for the Andalusian suits
alike lord and lady, to adorn the lawn ; the
exhibition pen, for the fancier; the farmyard, for
the farmer (where its cackle never ceases) ; also
the back-yard, for the townsman ; in fact, with
good attention it is scarcely possible to put it in
the wrong place, for it is hardy and will thrive
either in north, south, east, or west. I also
believe that it has the honour to be the only fowl
that represents the Union Jack of Old England,
being red, white, and blue. So it can easily be
styled a national fowl.

" Andalusians are of the non-sitting variety;
very seldom does the Andalusian hen want to
sit. The cock should have a head large and
deep skulled ; beak rather long, stout, and of
dark horn colour ; comb red, of
Characteristics moderate size, evenly serrated, spikes
of wedge-shape and deeply cut ; the

Andalusians. back shot straight out from the head,
not curved down or following the
neck like Leghorns or Minorcas. This spoils
the appearance and takes away the alertness of
the bird. I do not, however, on the other hand,
like to see a comb cocked up at the back of the
head, or pointing upwards. The wattles should
be long and thin, both comb and wattles to be of
finer texture than cither of the above-mentioned
breeds. Eyes large, brownish orange or red, full
of fire ; ear-lobes almond-shaped, not too large,
fitting close to head without folds, and of good
substance ; face red, free from white spots ; neck
long and arched ; hackles very long and flowing,
colour of hackle jet black, free from rusty or
ticked feathers, which is a very great fault,
especially when found in a bird wanted for stock
purposes. Hackle, saddle and sickle feathers in
cock all should match, the colour a rich velvety
black ; breast a nice medium slaty blue, clear
right up to the throat if possible (which is very
hard to get), each feather laced with black lacing,
fine and sharply cut. The straight or primary
tail feathers in cock should match his breast in
grcund colour. General shape and appearance
active, broad at shoulders, narrowing towards
the tail. In size the larger the better, legs and
shanks long, giving the bird a reachy appearance.
Colour of legs dark leaden hue, toes same colour
to match, and should be long and thin. The tail
should be carried sprightly but not too high ;
carriage upright or Gamey. The weight 7 lbs.
to 8 lbs.

" In hens the ground colour varies consider-
ably, there being the light, medium, and dark
shades of blue. It is the happy medium fanciers
want to breed to, with the ground colour as clear
and distinct as it possibly can be got. All body
feathers to be of the one shade, well laced, or
with heavy black lacing sharply cut, not blurred
or double-laced. The hackle should be jet black,
free from brown or white feathers ; tail the same
shade of blue as the body. Type Gamey, very
stylish, upright, when standing the breast carried
well forward. Head large, with good fiery eye
similar to cock ; comb evenly serrated, not too
large, but gracefully laid over to one side ; large
meaty combs to be avoided, as it entirely spoils
the alert appearance of the fowl. Legs and feet
very dark leaden colour, almost black in the
pullets. Lobes almond-shape and of pure white,
with plenty of substance, not too large ; face red.
Disqualifications : yellow, red, or white feathers
anywhere; legs any other colour than blue.

" In regard to the utility of Andalusians as
egg producers, I have bred and kept this variety
of fowls for a great many years, and find
them excellent layers of large white
Merits eggs, six or seven of which will

Andalusians. weigh a pound. The number of
eggs each fowl will lay in a year will
reach close on 200. The eggs are very rich,
with a very delicate flavour. Taking quan-
tity of eggs, size, and flavour, I question if
the Blue Andalusian fowl can be equalled by
any other breed. The pullets are very preco-
cious, and often begin to lay at the early age
of five months. I once had a pullet that laid
at seventeen weeks of age, and once I won the
cup at the Crystal Palace show with a cockerel
twenty-seven weeks old, thus proving how fast
they mature. During this last fifteen years I
have kept most of the other breeds, but as egg
producers none of them have come up to the
Andalusian.

"As a table fowl they are of fair average size,
cockerels from 7 lbs. to 8 lbs. and pullets up to
6 lbs. weight. Their flesh is white, very juicy,
and of a delicate flavour; they dress up plump
and look well on the table. With two such
e.xcellent qualities combined, the Andalusian
can lay fair claim to be classed as one of the
very best and most useful fowls amongst our
domestic poultry.

"As a fancy or exhibition fowl they need,
very little preparing for show. When kept on
good grass runs they can be taken off the same
into the show pen, if tamed by handling pre-
viously. All the preparing necessary is the
washing of comb, face, lobe, and legs. When
shown from the run in this way they look a.

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BREEDING ANDALUSIANS.

409

picture of health ; that is, if fully matured and
in full plumage.

" Proper mating is a very important ques-
tion : to be able to put two and two together
to produce our ideal specimen. Perhaps my

experience may be of some use to
Breeding the readers of this book. There are

Andaiusians. two ways in which the Andalusian

can be successfully mated. Select
in the first place a tall, dark blue cockerel with
jet black hackles, black saddle, and sickles very
heavily laced, and put him with liglit blue,
evenly shaded hens, two years old. The hens
should, of course, have good head points, and be
well laced. From such a pen, if the whole pen
be the same strain (this is important), good
exhibition birds may be expected.

" A second way to mate up is to take a
good, tall, light blue, two year old cock, well
laced ; then select five or six pullets twelve
months old, of the very dark shade of blue, well
and heavily laced, and good head points of
course. From this second mating also, really
good show birds will be produced, provided, as I
said before, the strain is the same. Of course,
the cock bird must not be too nearly related to
the hens, but a distant relative. The greatest
mistake young or amateur fanciers make is to
use cocks or cockerels unrelated. The first
cross is always disappointing in this or any
other coloured breed. What I have written I
practise. For example, I am just going in for
White Leghorns. I purchased a two year old
cock, one 1 liked much, so as to get the strain.
I also purchased at a big figure his daughter,
with three others, probably half cousins, and I
shall breed from above pen just as mentioned,
and confidently expect good results. Returning
to our text on Andaiusians, as a rule their eggs
are very fertile, and the chicks hatch out strong.
They are easy to rear and grow very fast ;
often the cocks are crowing at four months
of age.

" There is one drawback to the breeding
of Andaiusians. The chickens come three
colours : blue, black, and white. To-day we
get upon an average from 70 to 75 per
cent, of blues. The question is often asked,
' Can all blues be bred .' ' I answer this

question by saying, Yes, but not to
Question advantage, for we cannot very well

Off-colours. spare either the black or the white

chicks. We want the white in the
breed to keep our ground colour clear ; and the
black for our grand black hackles and saddles.
So I for one am perfectly content to allow them
to remain. There is always a ready sale for
them to the egg producer ; and comparing

them with other fowls, I am of opinion that
out of 50 Andalusian eggs set, as many show
specimens can be bred as from most other
coloured breeds."

Very little indeed can be added to these
notes. It snould be remarked that the almond-
shaped ear-lobes are desired narrower than in
Minorcas, and it is to be hoped that the
distinction will be preserved : the special
alertness of the fowl is really bound up with
this and a moderate comb, and all real dis-
tinctive characters in a breed should be watched
over. The texture of the comb should also be
finer and smoother than in the Minorca, and the
edge of it thinner : it and the lobe must be
cared for as in the preceding varieties, but if the
lobe is not too large it will need little bleaching.
And there will then also be little trouble from
white in face. The thinness of comb and
wattles compared with those of Minorcas makes
the bird a little more subject to frost-bite in
winter : if this should occur, and has not been
remedied quickly, the bird should be dubbed at
once, or it will suffer much and be no use for
breeding.

The chickens are very hardy, but differ
much in fledging ; some feathering quickly,
others very slowly. Their precocity has been
already remarked upon. Black and white ones
can be weeded out almost at once : two or three
months later birds absolutely too light, or dark
and smoky, can be selected, and a little later,
those with bad combs. Many writers, as hinted
already, have supposed that mis-colour comes
from crossing with black, and that by long
breeding together only blues, blue alone will be
achieved. As already pointed out, this can
never be the case.

The Andalusian stands very high as a utility
fowl. In number of eggs it ranks as high as
any of the family to which it belongs ; and when
not bred to excess in comb or lobes, it will yield
its eggs on wide range, or under exposure,
where the Minorca fails in comparison. In con-
finement also it keeps up its character m this
respect ; many years ago, being applied to for
fowls to stock quite a small run at a children's
hospital, to supply the little patients with
eggs, after some thought we decided upon
Andaiusians ; and for the few years during
which we could watch the results and see to the
renewal of birds at the proper dates, they kept
up their character as most reliable layers.
These did not take to feather-eating, though
closely confined ; but we knew others which did,
and this point is perhaps the most doubtful
about them as regards confined runs. In flesh
they are the best of the Mediterranean family.

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

As a cross the Andalusian gives broadl}- about
the same results as the Minorca, with less
tendency to large combs, and rather more juicy
flesh ; but its dual character of colour makes
the produce much more uncertain in that
respect, and it is in comparison very little used.

The greatest mistakes that have occurred
in judging Andalusians have arisen from con-
founding it with the Minorca type. Many-
judges have done this, and in these days of
many varieties it is very important to maintain
all such legitimate and real distinctions as
exist. About colour and marking there is little
or no dispute: the bright blue ground-colour,
and dense black uniform lacing are now pretty
well understood by all. If in addition to
these there be kept in view the characteristic
rather slim and reachv form, moderated and
rather oblong comb, fine in quality, and rather
narrower lobes, there will be little to complain
of. The following is the Standard for this
breed :

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Skull : ^Moderately long and deep, and in-
clined to width. Beak : Stout and of medium length.
Eves : Full. Comb : Single, medium size, upright,
with deep serrations (broad at their base), the back
portion following the curve of the skull but not
touching the neck, free from excrescences (or thumb
marks or side spikes). Face : Smooth and free from
feathers. Ear-lobes : Of fair size, almond-shaped, of
kid-like texture, free from wrinkles, and fitting
closely to the face. Wattles : Long and broad, and
of fine texture.

Neck. — Rather long in proportion to the size of
the body, and well covered with hackle feathers.

Body. — Large ; broad shoulders and narrow
saddle ; slightly rounded back sloping towards the
tail : full and round breast ; long wings, carried
well up, and close to the body, and the ends well
covered by the saddle hackles.

Tail. — Large and flowing, carried moderately high,
though not approaching " squirrel" fashion, and with
long and well-arched sickles.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Rather long, the shanks
quite free from feathers. Toes : Four, straight and thin.

Carriage. — Very upright and active.

Weight.— From 7 lb. to 8 lb.

With the exception of the Comb, which falls
over one side of the face, preferably in a single
fold, and covering one eye, the general character-
istics are similar to those of the cock, allowing for
the natural sexual differences.

Weight. — From 5 lb. to 6 lb

COLOUR

Beak : Dark slate or horn. Eyes : Dark red or
red-brov\Ti. Comb, Face, and Wattles : Bright red.
Ear-lobes : Pure white. Legs : Dark slate or lead
blue.

Plumage. — Ground, clear silver blue, with dis-
tinct black lacing on each feather, except that the
cock's hackles, back, shoulders, zaiiigbows, sickles, and
tail coverts are black or purple-black, with a rich gloss,
and the hen's neck-hackle is rich lustrous black,
showing broad lacing on the tips of the feathers at
the base.

SCALE OF POINTS
Colour of plumage
Lacing

Size and shape
Condition
Comb . .
Lobes . .
Face . .

Serious Defects : In cocks, much white in face or
red in lobes ; drab or rusty saddle or hackle ; any
other colour of legs and feet than light to dark
slate ; squirrel or wry tail ; comb much O'.-er ;
crooked toes ; feathered shanks or feet. In hens,
erect comb, and any of the above defects which
apply.

CHAPTER XXVIII.

LEGHORNS AND ANCONAS.

BRITISH breeders are indebted to Ainerica
for their first knowledge of Leghorn fowls;
but that they really originated in Italy
there is not the slightest question. The first
White Leghorns were sent to Mr. Tegetmeier in
1870, the birds having taken first prize at the
previous New York show of 1868. A second
lot of Whites were soon afterwards sent to us by
Mr. W. Simpson, and the first pen of Brown
Leghorns seen in England were received by us
in June, 1872, being sent over by Mr. A. M.
Halsted. Other importations of Brown Leg-
horns were soon made by the Rev. A. Kitchin,
from whose stock some at least of the present
strains are descended. The Brown variety seems
to have been the longest known in America, Mr.
F. J. Kinney having stated that he purchased a
trio which had come from Italy, in Boston har-
bour, in 1853 ; but these birds were brown rather
than black - breasted. Some other American
writers trace them back to 1835. For many
years the White and Brown alone were bred to
any extent : of other varieties since. Blacks
and Cuckoos and Mottles have undoubtedly
been imported, but Piles and Duckwings were
made by English breeders. Buffs came to us
from Denmark ; but it is worthy of remark that
for many years birds of Leghorn type have been
known in that country and Holland and Belgium
under the name of Italiens, so that the Buff is
probably of more or less Italian origin.

The Leghorn family constitute a group of
one of our very best and most profitable laying
fowls, though unfortunately some changes that
have taken place since their intro-
Points and duction have by no means tended
Leghoms. ^° increase their value in this respect.
They have the large single comb of
the Mediterranean group, straight and upright
in the cocks and falling over in the hens, almond-
shaped white ear-lobes, with red faces, and the
general type of the class. Their chief charac-
teristic differences are their bright yellow legs,
rather smaller size, sprightliness and activity,
and greater liardiness. When first imported,
the tails were carried very upright, or even
squirrel-tailed, which had been the fashion in
America ; but as we predicted and advocated
from the first, that fashion has never been

approved in this country, and is now abandoned
in America also. Another change is more re-
grettable. The original Leghorn comb, though
of the family type, was moderate in size, and
thin and fine in quality : there has been too
much tendency towards a large and beefy comb,
which has been deplored by every practical
writer upon the breed without exception, and
has necessitated wholesale dubbing of breeding
stock. American breeders have fortunately
never adopted this fashion, which has gravely
affected the egg-average of some strains : and it
is to be hoped that some little reaction lately
observable may continue, and the more moderate
American and Italian comb again prevail.
Breeding for size has also, in some cases, been
carried too far, the largest birds by no means
laying the largest eggs, and being inferior in
activity and hardiness to those of more typical
size.

Leghorn chickens are very hardy, and feather
easily. Some of the cockerels weigh 6 lbs., and
few are under 5 lbs., and the flesh is by no means
bad eating, being more juicy than that of the
Minorca. The great usefulness of this group is
however as exceedingly hardy, non-sitting, lay-
ing fowls, whose eggs are large for the size of
the bird, even small Leghorns rarely laying eggs
less than 2 ozs. in weight, and many decidedly
heavier, though (as just observed) the largest by
no means lay the best ones. Both Mr. Teget-
meier and ourselves reported upon the first
specimens received as amongst the very best
layers we had met with ; and except in some
strains which have been injured by crossing for
show points, this character has been preserved,
and is always easily bred up to. The White
Leghorn is renowned in the United States and
Australia as a breed which, bred for laying and
adequately fed, is easily got up to an average
of close upon 200 eggs per annum, while these
eggs are of a good marketable size ; it has the
current name there of being " the business hen,"
and divides with the Wyandotte and Plymouth
Rock nine-tenths of American poultry-farming.
It has the further valuable property of maturing
early, and at a very uniform age, so that if
adequately fed pullets may be depended upon
to lay before six months old. They can be

412

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

forced much earlier, but this is not advisable,
and it is far better to date the time of hatching
accordingh'.

The breed is not much used as a cross ; but
that with the Houdan is known as an excellent
layer and fair table-fowl and it is worthy of
notice that the produce of a White Leghorn
cock with a Barred Rock hens has produced the
only actual record known in England of an
average of 152 eggs per annum from an entire
flock of as many as fifty hens.

Before proceeding to the individual varieties
of Leghorns, it may be well to remark that
there is one natural difficulty in breeding them
all. This consists in the natural antagonism
between bright yellow legs and pure white ear-
lobes. For some years attempt was made to get
recognised cream or ivory (not yellow) shade in
the ear-lobes, but it was ineffectual ; and there
is little doubt that a cross with the Minorca,
which is known to have taken place, was intro-
duced partly with a view to whiten the lobes.
By this cross was introduced more coarseness,
with some loss of the original sprightly type.
The real difficulty now is in regard to the
yellow of the shanks. There was also an at-
tempt, many years ago, to tolerate straw plu-
mage in Whites, as natural to yellow-legged
breeds ; but that also was ineffectual, and this
particular difficulty has undoubtedly been
somewhat lessened by the whitening of the
lobes. It is certain, at all events, that with the
establishment of white ear-lobes the plumage
of White birds has improved in colour.

Of all the varieties of Leghorns, the White
has been longest known in England. It has
become much larger than when first imported
— many think too large — and it has
White suffered as much as any from large

Leghoms. overgrown combs, which bow down
the necks of the poor birds in too
many pens ; but we have said enough on this
point. Mr. F. Tootill, so long associated years
ago with the late Mrs. Webster's successful
stud of White Leghorns at Hors forth, and
later as founder of the present successful stud
owned and exhibited by his firm, Messrs.
Whitaker and Tootill, of Pool, Yorkshire, has
kindly supplied the following notes on this
variety : —

" It is with pleasure that I consent to supply
a few notes respecting the leading and most
popular variety of Leghorn. In doing so my
desire is to assist the amateur and breeder, and
to further the interests of the breed ; and with
this end in view any little knowledge I possess
IS most freely given, and I am in hopes that

from the perusal of these notes those for which
they are intended may derive benefit.

■' During the past few years the White Leg-
horn has been much improved, to such an ex-
tent that at present shows it is no uncommon
thing to find specimens staged which are equal,
both in size and head-points, to our best Black
Minorcas. In fact, this has been carried so far
that it has been questioned, and has been the
cause of long and heated controversy, whether
breeders were not now losing that beautiful
stately carriage of the typical Leghorn in their
desire to obtain size. Size is difficult to secure,
and, when once obtained, a breeder has reason
to be pleased with the result of his exertions ;
but we must have type in conjunction with it.
Experience tells us, however, that it is little
use nowadays to exhibit the small ' pretty '
whites, our judges signifying their require-
ments by their invariable decisions in favour of
size, sometimes in preference to head-pomts
and general quality. This applies more par-
ticularly to the all round judge, and is to be
regretted, as type and quality should always
have prominent consideration. Only on one
occasion, in my experience, has any specialist
judge been so infatuated with mere size as to
have given the preference to a huge body and
ungainly carriage against a perfect head, with
good shape, on a smaller body ; but as this
was at one of the most important shows of the
season, such a decision may have a consider-
able effect on breeders. The position of judge
is as important as the task is an unthankful
one, and specialist judges at our principal
shows should not lose sight of the fact that
they have, to a certain extent, the destiny of
the breeds on which they adjudicate in their
hands. In White Leghorns, some years ago,
there was some foundation for the view that in
consequence of the tendency above noted we
were threatened with loss of type, the all-im-
portant feature. I am glad to say now, how-
ever, that breeders are paying much more
attention to shape than formerly.

" Although it is a characteristic most diffi-
cult to put down on paper, the shape of a
Leghorn is totally distinct from that of a
Minorca, just as the Andalusian is. In breed-
ing I make this feature as important as purity
of colour. I place 'vital importance on type
and colour, because a Leghorn ceases to be a
Leghorn when it is not typical, just as it ceases
to be a WJiite Leghorn when the colour is
impure. It has been suggested that, to secure
the size of present White Leghorns, foreign
blood has been introduced, such as that of the
White Rock, White Malay, etc., etc. ; but this

BREEDING WHITE LEGHORNS

413

theory loses weight when we look at the perfect
head-points which have been shown simultane-
ously with increased size. I consider the im-
provement to be seen to-day in the White Leg-
horn— and it will be readily conceded that the
breed was never nearer perfect, the Champion
Trophy offered by the Poultry Club at the
Crystal Palace for the best male being won at
the 1 9 10 show by a White Leghorn — is evi-
dence of the breeder's art, and a result of what
has been done by careful selection and careful
breeding.

" The time is long past, too, for one to be
able to w'in in anything like decent competition
with Leghorns of the straw-coloured variety,
pure colour being demanded by every judge.
This can only be obtained by breeding, dis-
carding all inferior-coloured specimens (no
matter what other good points they possess)
when selecting one's breeding stock. If any
degree of success is desired, this, as I said be-
fore, is specially important, as when a Leghorn
is not a pure white it is not a White Leghorn.

" The White Leghorn has seen improvement
in more characteristics than size and head-
pcSnts. We now have the cocks much more
heavily clothed in feather than in former }'ears.
Few are exhibited to-day with scanty hackles,
and close whip tails with narrow sickles. A
White Leghorn requires to be furnished with
long, flowing sickles and secondaries to be a
thing of beauty. Scant feather looks particu-
larly amiss on the larger specimens, and
strange to say these are generally the ones
that are deficient.

"To breed White Leghorns a large financial
outlay is not needful. What is principally
required is sound common-sense in the selection
of stock. It is a breed that is
Breeding hardy, and will flourish under
Leghorns. ordinary conditions. Apart from
being a show bird, it has utility
advantages, the Leghorn being a recognised
egg-manufacturer. And good birds sell well.
During the past few years the prices for good
specimens have gone up a great deal. Where
;£'5 was originally considered a high price, we
have now £10, ;^I5, and £20 paid for single
specimens, whilst on one occasion I sold a well-
known hen for £<,0 ; and if this latter figure
may be a record, £20 is not considered now to
be a very exceptional price for a pair of ex-
hibition birds.

" From the novice's point of view the White
Leghorn has an advantage over most other
breeds, and even over other varieties of this
breed, inasmuch as exhibition cockerels and
pullets can be produced from one pen. Pure

white being desired in both sexes, no special
blending of colours is required, as in Browns or
Piles. Some breeders have two distinct strains
for cockerel and pullet breeding, and if a
breeder only uses one pen, it may generally be
noted that he is more successful with one sex
than the other. On many occasions, however, I
have produced several winners of both sexes
from one pen, but where there is convenience
the breeder's object may be more speedily at-
tained by mating up separate ones. The most
important features are colour, shape, head-
points, and size. For producing cockerels, I
would advise mating an e.xtra smart-headed
cock, with a firm, upright comb, carrying
plenty of feather, with correct shape, and
stylish, to large hens, the head-points of the
latter — beyond a small, neatly serrated comb
and a tight fitting lobe — not being nearly so
important as in the cock. Although I like size
in a cockerel-breeding male bird also, I find
that it is not so necessary as in the hens, but he
must be well furnished with feather. It should
be stated here, too, that in cock breeding,
quality must be the watchword, and young,
vigorous birds should only be used in the
breeding pen. Old stock is generally respons-
ible for coarse progeny. In selecting a male
bird for pullet breeding, I look for size in con-
junction with colour, a fair length of limb,
and plenty of head-points. When I say this I
do not mean an overabundance of comb in
particular, but one of fair size, with a good,
strong, thick lobe and a fair length of wattle.
It is immaterial whether the comb is carried
upright or over, so far as pullets only are con-
cerned, but it must be well serrated. Abun-
dance of feather is not so necessary as when
breeding for cockerels. The hens should be
big and shapely, with heavier head-points than
the cockerel-breeders, paying particular atten-
tion to lobe, as I think that the pullets, speak-
ing generally, at the present time, are wanting
more in this respect than any other, while the
cockerels are far superior in this point. I like
to see a good lobe on either a White Leghorn
or Black Minorca, together with a sound face.
It is, however, difficult to get as yet, though
improvement is perceptible every year.

" I prefer dubbing my male birds, and
breeding from second season birds of both
sexes, as, by following this practice, I get the
best results. To fix a strain, I advise judicious
in-breeding, as oftentimes the introduction of
new blood has disastrous effects, and when a
breeder has laboured hard for many years it is
very disheartening to have his work undone by
a single season's breeding.

414

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

"In the necessary washing of White Leg-
horns for show, the first wash often brings out
a distasteful yellow tinge known as 'sap,' that
should wear off with a few good baths ; but, if
not, the bird may be discarded as useless."

The colour of the Brown Leghorn as first
bred in America was very uncertain, some of
the first imported specimens having a great deal
of brown in the breasts of the cocks.
Brown This was however gradually bred

Leghorns. out in favour of the black breast ;
and for many years the accepted
colour has been what may generally be de-
scribed as that of the black-breasted red Game,
with the exception that the cock's hackles are
somewhat darker, or orange-red, and should
have a little black striping near the shoulders.
This colour resembles that of the Game cocks
before these were bred quite so bright, and there
is no doubt that several crosses with black-
breasted red Game were employed at different
times, to improve and fix the colour and mark-
ing. The effects of this crossing are still seen
occasionally in pullets with dark legs and feet
(from the willow legs of the Game), and as this
fault is especially obstinate, specimens which
exhibit it should be carefully avoided in breed-
ing. It is less comtnon now than a few
years ago.

For the following article on Broun Leghorns
and their breeding, we are indebted to Mr. L. C.
Verrey, The Warren, Oxshott, Surrey, whose
connection with the fowl is probably longer than
that of any other living breeder : —

"The Brown Leghorns, like their brethren
the Whites, are of pure Italian origin, but like
them, did not come to us from their native
country, but from America, where they had
been bred for many years before being imported
into England. They were at first there called
'Red Leghorns.' Their prolific egg-producing
qualities soon brought them such a reputation
that they were eagerly sought after, and con-
stant im.portations from Italy had to be made
to supply the demand. Since the first Brown
Leghorns in England arrived from America
during the year 1872, they have been culti-
vated with ever-increasing energy.

" Though their general characteristics and
prolificacy have been fully maintained, the
type of the fowls has been greatly changed in
England, so that, at the present time, the
English and American types differ to a large
degree ; the latter being more sprightly and of
slighter build. The English idea seems to have
been to make them more of the Dorking than
the Game type, and consequently the modern

English Brown Leghorn is much heavier in
build than the original. Unfortunately, Game
and also Minorca blood was introduced into the
Brown Leghorn some few years ago, with a
view to improve colour of plumage, size of lobe,
and size of body ; but this infusion of foreign
blood has done more harm than good, and much
of the existing darkness in feet and toes and
white in face is attributable to these causes.

" The colour of the present-day Brown
Leghorn has also suffered by the use of very
light-coloured hackle cocks for stud purposes,
so that the thick black stripes which
Points of fQjp^ swzh pleasing contrast to the
Leghorns. ground colour of golden bay have
been almost lost, and it is rare to
see a really well-striped hackle. This striping
in the neck and saddle hackles, more especially
in the former, is one of the points that Ameri-
can breeders have been most careful to maintain,
so that a Brown Leghorn cock with a plain
hackle is considered of little worth across the
Atlantic. The large over-developed combs of
both sexes that are now prevalent are also
totally at variance with the combs of the
original type, which were, though large, quite in
proportion to the head. These are some of
the points wherein the ancient and modern
types differ, and are set forth to illustrate what
the art of the fancier can do by studied selec-
tion of the breeding stock, combined with the
infusion of alien blood.

" We now come to the colour-points of the
cock. The head should be fairly deep, whilst
the beak should be rather long and straight, of
a yellow colour, though horn-colour, or a stripe
of horn-colour running down the centre of the
yellow, is quite permissible, and will be found
in nine instances out of ten. The comb is
single, fine in texture, large in size, deeply and
evenly serrated. There is no definite rule as to
the exact number of serrations, but the most
symmetrical comb is that which has six. The
comb should be firmly set on, and extend well
over the back of the head. Unfortunately, the
desire to have pullets with the largest possible
combs has had a harmful effect on the combs of
the cocks, for not only has it made them too
heavy, but has caused them to become bulgy,
and thus create a hollow near the front, which is
commonly called a ' thumb mark.' The face
should be bright red, quite free from wrinkles
and white specks or spots. The eyes red,
bright, and sparkling. VVattles rather long and
thin, fine in texture, and without folds. In the
colour of the ear lobes we have gone away from
the original, for now it is decreed that they must
be pure white, while in the pure Italian Leghorn

EROIVN LEGHORNS.

415

they are yellowish white, or cream colour, which
certainly is in greater harmony with the bright
yellow legs. The lobes should be rather of the
almond shape, that is, pendent, smooth, and
resembling a piece of white kid. The breeding
for tremendous lobes has been the cause of that
unsightly blemish, ' white in face.'

" Coming to the plumage, the neck should
be well furnished with hackle feathers, which
fall gracefully on to the back, the colour of
these being golden bay, each feather having
a fairly broad stripe of black running down the
centre, though the shorter feathers near the
head and round the throat are without any
striping. The feathers on the back are a deep
red, almost crimson, this same colour running
over the shoulder coverts and wing bows. The
wing coverts are a beautiful bluish violet tint,
and form a broad, even band across the wing,
commonly called the wing-bar. The primary
wing feathers are brown, the secondaries being
a very deep bay on the outer and black on the
inner web, the bay being the only colour seen
when the wing is closed. The saddle feathers
are a very deep orange-red, some of them hav-
ing the black stripe down the centre as in the
neck hackle. The breast and thighs a rich
glossy black with a slightly greenish hue. This
same colour pervades the underparts, though
(getting of a less glossy nature near the tail.
The tail, which should be carried well up,
though not squirrel fashion, is of a rich greenish
black all through, being surrounded at the base
with grey fluffy feathers, whilst the tail coverts
are black edged with brown. Legs long and
slender, of a brilliant yellow.

" The foregoing are the plumage colours
of a typical Brown Leghorn adult cock, but
these feathers will not be found in young cock-
erels when just feathering. The first feathers
are nearly always brown, splashed with more
or less black, the breast being especially so, and
not infrequently the little tail feathers will be mar-
gined with grey. As the young birds go through
their first change of feathers, the breast and tail
assume the metallic black of the adult. Should
there be any considerable g,mount of white in
the wing, however, the bird may be considered
a ' weed ' and not worth keeping, for in nine
cases out of ten this white will increase as the
bird grows, and is a fault that should not be
tolerated.

" Perhaps there is no more graceful and soft-
coloured hen to be found than the Brown Leg-
horn ; its elegant, symmetrical outline, covered
with the most delicate coloured plumage, the
tones of which blend with each other in the
most perfect harmony, cannot fail to attract

admiration from even those who care little
for the beauties of nature. To describe the
colour points of the hen is somewhat difficult,
for the pen cannot really do full justice to
the beautiful soft tints that e.xist in the plumage
of a typical specimen.

" The comb of the hen should be large,
of fine texture, and evenly serrated. It should
rise straight up for a short distance from the
head, and then bend gracefully over to one
side. The beak should be yellow or horn-
colour ; the eyes bright and sparkling ; the
lobes white and as large as possible, but fitting
more closely to the head than in the case of
the cock. The wattles of fine texture, free
from folds and nicely rounded.

" The neck is well arched and abundantly
furnished with hackle feathers, the co.our being
of a rich yellow or golden tint, with a sharp
black stripe running down the centre of each
feather. Though the stripe should be fairly broad,
the yellow or golden colour should predominate.
The tendency of late has been to breed hens
with light hackles, and consequently much of
the sharp definition of the black has been lost.
The colour of the breast should be a salmon-red,
the feathers on the throat being of a deeper
tint, but these graduate in tone until they
mingle with the salmon-red of the breast.
The feathers on the under-parts and on the
thighs are an ashy grey. The body colour
is a soft light brown, clearly and beautifully
pencilled with fine black lines, resembling the
markings of the partridge. The wings are of
the same delicate colour when closed, but when
open the inner web is black. The great dififi-
culty is to get the wing solid in colour, for
many otherwise good hens are disfigured by
deep brown-red patches, which arc commonly
termed ' rust on wing.' The wing is the
home of the chief faults that are to be found
in the Brown Leghorn hen, for not only is the
rust apparent on the outside, but very often
many of the flights will be found to have
more or less white on the inner web. A pullet
w-ith white in flights may be considered a
weed, for in hardly any instance will this
diminish with age, but will rather increase with
each successive moult. The tail should be
carried at a very slight angle, almost upright,
the feathers black, some of them being pencilled
with light brown, or having a light brown
edging on one side. The legs and feet aie
bright yellow, free from black spots or scales.

" To produce Brown Leghorns of standard
colours, it is necessary to mate two pens of
stock birds, the one for cockerel and the
other for pullet breeding, as it is not possible

4i6

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

to produce both of equal merit from one mat-
ing. For producing the most typical cockerels
it is necessary that great attention be paid
to every detail when mating up the
Breeding pgn. The stock cock should be

Leghorns. '" ^'^ main points an exhibition
specimen, with an evenly serrated
comb, good open lobes, and a perfectly sound
face, and no white in face should be tolerated
in a one-year-old bird. His hackle should be
bright in colour, with the black striping sharply
defined, but not heavy. The breast should be
solid in colour and perfectly free from white
splashes. Such a cock should be mated with
large hens (size being very important), of the
light brown colour, with fine though distinct
pencilling. A shade of warmth or rust on
their wings will not matter ; in fact, it is pre-
ferable, as it helps to give a warm tinge to
the colour of the progeny. The combs of the
hens should be firmly set on their heads, only
medium in size, and well and evenly serrated.
Combs that fall half to one side and then
double over and fall in the opposite direction
should be avoided for cockerel breeding, as
they often cause malformed combs in the
cockerels. The hen's ear-lobes should be large
and smooth. The carriage of the tail is an
important point, for a high-tailed hen W\\\
most likely produce squirrel-tailed cockerels,
so that hens should be selected which carry
their tails rather low.

" For pullet-breeding, the stock cock should be
of a more sombre colour, the hackle being deeper
in the golden bay, and more heavily striped
with black. The breast may be slightly splashed
or ticked with brown, and this will even be
found an advantage, by the production of
deeper colour on the breasts of his offspring.
Such a cock should be mated with rather light
but perfectly sound partridge-coloured hens,
which should be absolutely free from any rust
or warm tinge on the wings. Their combs
should be large and gracefully carried, the lobes
as large as possible, and the legs bright yellow,
entirely free from dark spots or scales. This
mating will produce even-coloured pullets, but
the cockerels, with scarcely an exception, will
be of no use except to be retained as pullet-
breeding stock birds.

" If a two-year-old stock cock be used, it
is well to mate him with one-year-old hens,
and, in the case of a cockerel, his mates should
be two years old."

Pile Leghorns should probably come next in
date, having been produced by crossing Whites
with Browns, in the same way as were first

produced Pile Ganse; It was in 1881 that
Mr. G. Payne mated up his first pen of White
and Brown ; but it was not until January, 18S6,
that he was able to exhibit two
Pile pullets and a cockerel, the latter

Leghorns. being poor, but the pullets good. At
the Dairy Show of that year, how-
ever, he produced two pairs of Piles which left
little to be desired, and took first and third
prizes m a mi.xed class ; and for a time the
colour was fairly popular. Other crosses
have been introduced by various breeders at
one time or another. The article below speaks
of a Game cross, and its effects on the type
of the strain ; and perhaps one of the most
remarkable " flukes " in the history of poultry-
breeding was the colour and success of some
Pile Leghorns exhibited in "the nineties,"
which the breeder himself stated to be bred
from a cross-bred bird deriving parentage
from the Light Brahma ! This cross probably
accounts for the feathered legs seen on a
cockerel at the Palace Show in 1894; but we
have a vivid recollection of the colour shown
by this exhibitor for one or two seasons, which
was marvellous. There can be no real occasion
for crossing any further.

The notes which follow on this variety
were supplied in 1900 by Messrs. H. and A. P.
Simpson, of Ilkeston, whose success in breed-
ing and exhibiting will be remembered:

" Pile Leghorns have made rapid strides in
prblic fa\'our during the past few years. They
were first originated by Mr. G. Payne, about
1886, being the result of several years' crossing
between the older established varieties of White
and Brown Leghorns. For several years they
moved very slowly in the estimation of the
public, probably owing to the difficulty of pro-
ducing a good percentage of birds true to type
and colour ; but as the result of careful breed-
ing and untiring attention by a few fanciers who
have not failed to recognise the merits of the
variety, they appear to be now well established,
and the number of mis-marked chickens con-
siderably diminished.

" It may be interesting to record that oui
particular strain of Pile Leghorns were pro-
duced from a Pile hen which we bought from
Mr. A. C. Bradbury, in 1891, undoubtedly across
between his White Leghorns and Pile Game ;
but we never ascertained in what manner the
cross was made. This hen was mated to a
Brown Leghorn cockerel, with the result that we
were fortunate enough to breed prize-winners
from her during the first season. We continued
to mate her and the pullets bred from her with
Brown cockerels, until we obtained a fixity

PILE AND DUCKWING LEGHORNS.

417

of colouring, and more of the Leghorn style
and carriage. There is no doubt that this
cross-bred Game hen has transmitted to her
progeny a certain raciness of character, for
which they have always been noted.

" From the year 1894 we bred Piles and Piles
together, and have been successful in producing
good cockerels and pullets from the same pen.
We have occasional recourse to a
Breeding Brown cockerel for change of blood,

Leghorns. ^.nd when this has been necessary
we have made up a pen of speci-
ally selected pullets, the offspring from which
have been carefully kept apart from the other
stock, and during the following season the cock-
erels have been mated with Pile-bred hens, and
the pullets to Pile-bred males. The result from
this system of introducing new blood has been
generally satisfactory. Some fanciers prefer
to use a Brown hen for this purpose, but we
have not tried it, as the method described above
has always been attended with good results.

" So far as the breeding pen is concerned,
it is only necessary to say, Let its occupants,
males and females, be as perfect of their kind as
it is possible to get them. We rarely mate up
any birds that are not fit for the show pen, the
exception, perhaps, being in the case of a bird
possessing some strongly developed essential
characteristics, which it is desirable to perpetu-
ate ; and even then it is better to allow a
separate mating, so that the results may be
more carefully noted. A few good birds, judici-
ously chosen, will give far better results than
a larger number.

" The beautiful combination of colour in
Pile Leghorns will always commend them to
fanciers, while from the utility point of view it
is difficult to surpass them. They are strong
and hardy, and thrive well in close confine-
ment ; they lay an abundance of good-sized
eggs, and, of course, are non-sitters like all
the other varieties."

The chief difficulty in breeding Pile Leg-
horns, we understand, is to get the pure white
breast and tail in the cocks, and clear wings in
the pullets. While seeking for these points
specially, equal care should be taken to select
a male bird whose back is as dark as possible.
A few mate up different pens, choosing dark-
breasted rose-winged hens by preference for
cockerel-breeding, and lighter hens for pullet-
breeding. It is when richness of colour seems
quite to have run out, that resort must be had to
a cross from the Brown, as in Pile Gam.e.

Duckwing Leghorns were also produced by
Mr. G. Payne. It is true that a cockerel of this

colour was shown at the Palace in 1886 by Mr.
Terrot ; but this bird was acknowledged to
be an almost solitary cull from a cross between
Silver Grey Dorking and Duckwing
Duckwing Game, and no other results from that
Leghoms. experiment were ever seen ; whereas
Mr. Payne's birds brought out the
following season, quite differently bred, were
but the forerunners of a number more, which
took hold as a popular variety. They were
stated to have been first originated from some of
the wasters bred in producing Piles from Whites
and Brown Leghorns, which had come with salmon
breasts, and a brownish blue all over the body,
with brassy hackles and ashy grey under-parts.
After exhibiting the birds thus bred for a
season or two, Mr. Payne visited Antwerp in
January 1889 with a collection of his birds (his
Duckwings taking first and medal there), and
obtained at the Zoological Gardens a cock for
crossing of the long-tailed Japanese Phoenix or
Yokohama breed, of silver-grey colour. This
cross effected very great improvement in colour,
but its effects were seen for several seasons in
sickles which swept the ground, and which were
only gradually bred out again. From the
produce of this cross was selected the bird
which won at the Dairy Show that same year,
and was purchased by the late Mr. Hinson, to
whom and to Mr. Gerahty the further breed-
ing of this beautiful variety is mainly due.

The colour of Duckwing Leghorns is in all
but one point practically the same as in the
corresponding varieties of Duckwing Game.
That point is the striping of the hackle : as the
Brown Leghorn is a striped breed, so the Duck-
winged varieties have the longer feathers of the
hackle somewhat striped also. Mr. Payne had
made no attempt to breed Golden and Silver
strains, but as the variety was bred more
generally this became inevitable. A good gold-
coloured cockerel almost always bred pullets
red or rusty on the wings ; hence pullets had to
be bred from lighter or more silvery cocks. And
conversely, good-coloured Gold cocks could only
be produced from more or less rusty females.
Both classes are now recognised by the Standard,
and are necessary for breeding, but at the
majority of shows, where there is one "Duck-
wing" class only, the winners are usually Golden-
Duckwing cocks, with almost silvery hens.

Silver Duckwings, so iMr. Hinson wrote us,
are usually bred from one pen, the same mating

producing both sexes good if the
Breeding strain is well bred, and the colour
Leghorns^ and markings sound on both sides.

Where this is not so, somewhat in-
ferior colour in either, or in both, often breeds

4i8

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

very fair pullets, though failing in cockerels.
Pure silvery white in the hackles of both sexes
is the great criterion. The best mating of all is
that of a silvery-hackled cock with a rather
dark grey but absolutely pure-coloured hen.

To breed Golden Duckwings, two pens are
practically requisite, though not so much so as
before the rich golden wing-bows now sought in
the cock, had replaced the deep maroon or
crimson once fashionable. For cockerel breed-
ing it is best to select a typical Golden exhibition
bird, sound in all his colours, and put to him
hens with rich salmon breasts, and which may
with no detriment have a little warmth or rust
on the wing. For breeding pullets, the cock
should be bred from Golden pullets, very sound
in his black all over, but rather light on
shoulder, and is none the worse if rather broken
in colour there : if his hackle also tends to being
silvery it is all the better. His mates should be
pure in colour, as near as possible to ideal
exhibition hens. If at any time too much
colour comes in the hackles of either sex, or the
bodies of the hens, a cross of Silver Duckwing
blood is desirable.

The first record of Buff Leghorns is at the
Copenhagen Show of 1885, and the first hen
exhibited in England, at the Palace Show of
1888, also came from Denmark ; but
Buff these birds were known in that

Leghorns. country as yellow Italiens, and there
is no doubt of their Italian origin.
The Palace hen was purchased by Mr. L. C.
Verrey, who subsequently procured other stock,
and bred them in England : Mr. Penfold Field
also had early Danish stock. After a year or
two nearly all the good Buff's came into the
hands of one breeder, who however refused
to dispose of either eggs or birds in England,
though exporting to America ; and this course
retarded any progress in England considerably.
Subsequently Miss Pulford (the late Mrs. R. 1".
Thornton) succeeded in procuring a good strain,
and Messrs. Bateman and others also imported
from America, where the variety had been well
taken up ; and with this extension of Buff blood
amongst a wider circle, improvement became
more rapid, aided in point of colour by one or
two out-crosses from Asiatic sources.

Buff appears to suit the Leghorn type
especially well, and in no variety is the colour
more singularly attractive, the close but not
short plumage giving a soft silkiness of texture
which is not seen in some other breeds. For the
following notes on Buff Leghorns we are again
indebted to Mr. L. C. Verrey, who was, as stated
above, the earliest to breed them in this country.

" Of all the sub-varieties of Leghorns, none
has been taken up with so much zeal as the
Buff, nor has any of the varieties been so
much improved by the infusion of alien
blood ; for the first Buffs imported into
England were different from those seen at
the present time. The art of the breeder has
produced a solidity of colour which did not
exist in the original specimens ; and it is very
interesting to note how this uniformity of buflf
has been obtained. It was in 1888 that the
first Buff Leghorn was seen in England, and
this was a hen exhibited by an enterprising
Danish fancier at the Crj-stal Palace show.
The bird was full of true Leghorn character-
istics, and of a very nice even lemon-buff colour.
She was claimed at the show ; and the ex-
hibitor was applied to for a cock and more
hens of the same description ; and in due
time a consignment was received. The cock
possessed excellent shape and size, but was
very deep orange, or nearly red on the back
and rather light in the hackle, whilst his
tail was white, with each feather having a
line of buff running round it. The whole
plumage was striking in contrast, but it could
hardly be considered a pure 'buff' in the
sense that we now use the word. More birds of
this variety were procured from the same
source by other fanciers, and every effort
was made to improve and intensify the colour
by crossing with other buff breeds. So far as
the colour alone was concerned, these methods
answered well ; but the Leghorn shape was
lost for a time, and red-lobed, feathered-
legged chickens were of very frequent occur-
rence. By judicious breeding and inbreeding
these faults were gradually diminished, and
now we have birds of both sexes even in colour,
and possessing true Leghorn characteristics.

" The Buff Leghorn cock should have the
same kind of comb and colour of beak and
legs as the Brown or White varieties, whilst
his plumage colour should be either a lemon
or orange buff, the breast feathers being a
little richer in tone than the back, but
certainly not in any great degree such as to
form a decided contrast. The whole plumage,
whether of the lemon or orange shade, should
be quite even and free from mealiness, and
the tail should be solid in colour, perhaps a
little deeper in tone, but free from white or
black, or partly white or black feathers.

"The Buff Leghorn hen should possess
the same characteristics as to head points,
style, shape and colour of beak, lobes, and
legs as the Brown hen, whilst her plumage
should be an even shade of buff all through,

BVFF AND BLACK LEGHORNS.

419

without variation in any part, though in many
specimens the hackle will be found to be a
shade or two deeper in tone than the body,

" Undoubtedly the infusion of the foreign
blood already mentioned will make itself
apparent now and again, and the reappearance
of slight feathering on the legs, red in lobes,
and white in flights and tail, are to be ex-
pected ; but by very careful mating up of the
breeding pen and persistent weeding out of
the faulty specimens these evils will be
overcome, and the certain production of solid
coloured Buff Leghorns will be established.

" In selecting Buff Leghorns for breeding,
great attention should be given to the head
points of both the male and female, for up
to now these have been com-
iuff^°^ paratively neglected, the chief aim

Leghorns. having been to produce uniformity
of colour. Now that this has been
established, the improvement of comb and
lobes, especially the latter, requires earnest
consideration. The stock cock may be a little
deeper in colour than the hens that he is to be
mated with, but he should not be too dark,
particularly if the hens are inclined to be a
light buff, for the extremes of shade never
amalgamate well, and the progeny are apt
to become mottled when they assume their
adult plumage. Whether the birds be lemon
or orange buff, they should all be about the
same shade, excepting as stated above, that
the plumage of the cock may be a little richer
in tint. Hens that show any amount of
mealiness should be discarded, as should also
those that have decided black ticks at the ends
of the hackle feathers, or on the tail feathers.
Too much stress cannot be laid on the under-
colour, and every stock bird should be closely
examined to see that the buff extends well
into the under plumage ; for very often though
the surface may be all that is desired, the
fluff will be found to be quite white. Should
the buff extend almost to the skin, there is
but little fear but that the progeny will come
sound in colour throughout. The tail of the
cock will probably prove the greatest difficulty,
this being especially the home of white and black
feathers. Though both are faults, yet the
former is the greater, and likely to be re-
produced in a larger degree than the latter.
Still, as really sound coloured tails are even
yet the exception, choice should be made of
the bird that has the least white in the
main feathers of his tail."

Black Leghorns are generally believed to be
pure Italian blood, importations having been

traced direct to Italy, and also to Belgium
and Germany, which both import Italian fowls.
As a rule, they are a rather wild race, great
flyers, and very hardy, in raany
Black respects resembling the Ancona, as

Leghorns. also in their quality as layers. The
great difficulty is to get the pullets
with yellow legs ; with cockerels there is not the
same difficulty, as remarked in the following
notes upon this variety kindly furnished by
Mr. Nelson King, Chorley House, Clitheroe.

" The Black Leghorn as a variety ought to
be better known for its qualities than it is at
the present time by the majority of poultry
fanciers. It is an exceptionally hardy bird to
rear, and bears confinement well, and is a splen-
did all-round layer. I have had pullets, hatched
in April, commence to lay at four months old,
laying a good saleable white-shelled egg, and
continuing to do so through the winter months.
Frost and snow seem to have no effect, the
birds being out both day and night all through.
I have had young cockerels to crow at 39 days
old. They are very active, and the birds at
liberty are splendid foragers and small eaters.
Fifty pullets or hens in a field make a splendid
sight to see, with their jet black bodies and
bright yellow legs. They always seem to be on
the alert, and will take wing at times for fifty or
seventy yards. They are rather of a wild nature
when at liberty, and scarcely approachable. I
firmly believe that a hundred and fifty Black
Leghorns will equal two hundred of any cross-
bred birds brought to compete against them ;
that is, for egg production. I have also had
cockerels weigh '■^\ lbs. at five months old, and
the flesh is white and juicy.

" The chickens are easy to rear, and free
from disease. They are generally dark, with
white underparts when hatched, the majority
then having dark legs, but becoming yellow as
time goes on, more so with the cockerels than
with the pullets. The chief difficulty in the
cockerels is that they are subject to white in
their tails ; but this is greatly improving. I
have possessed birds with sound black tails, but
they have been wrong in other things, such as
being inclined to show red feathers, or bronzy
looking on the back. I always try to breed
from a cock bird that has the least white in tail,
but still having a good sound rich black body
colour and good yellow legs. The bigger the
lobe is the better, as we are still wanting in this
particular point, especially in pullets, but the
birds are as a rule quite sound in face.

" In mating a pen of Black Leghorns to-
gether, I should advise to get a big sound-
coloured bird, with good face, ^ar lobes, and

420

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

leg, and as little white in tail as possible. A
cock of this description mated to six pullets
with good sound black bodies and good yellow
legs, and good lobes and nice folding combs,
will breed birds for prizes in the show pen.

" As to the Standard for Black Leghorns,
the plumage should be a rich glossy black, free
from feathers of any other colour ; the more

.v'-'i4(;Ui /4

Cuckoo
Leghorns,

^- J

Fig. 121. — American Brown Leghorn Cockerel,

sheen the better. Legs and feet yellow ; eyes
bright red ; beak and toe-nails yellow or horn-
colour ; comb, face, and wattles a bright red.
Size as large as possible."

Cuckoo-coloured or blue-barred Leghorns
are occasionally seen, but are not popular.
They appear to have come chiefly from the
Continent, and to have occurred naturally
from mixture of black and white, as so many
other similarly-coloured races have done.
There is no doubt that they are just as good

in qualities as other Leghorns, but the colour
does not seem in this variety to be attractive,
and, there being no adequate support for it in
classes, it is little cultivated. It
is a difficult colour to produce ni
this breed, white and other foul
feathers constantly occurring.
This difficulty is not now found to the same ex-
tent in the barred Rock, which
has been bred for colour and
marking through many genera-
tions, and in large numbers ; but
in a variety so little bred as the
Cuckoo Leghorn it is felt
severely. With such stock as is
obtainable, we should advise
selecting two-year-old birds (that
age often showing up faults not
seen in the chickens), weeding
out severely for any foul
feathers, and selecting the
medium colour and barring in
both sexes. Strains are not fixed
enough to breed by the same
rules as barred Rocks, and this
course will be found on the
whole most successful.

Mottled Leghorns are also
rarely seen, but are likely to be
displaced by the Ancona, if not
practically the same bird.

The Leghorn is- bred and
kept in America and also Aus-
tralia to an extent quite un-
known in England ;
American but the birds there
Leghorns. generally are different
from the English
style, far nearer the original
type, and, as a rule, more pro-
lific. In one respect English
type has prevailed. All the
first birds sent to England
were very high in tail but we
from the first advisedly op-
posed tliat style, as sure to be fatal to the
fowl if adhered to, and the result has fully
justified our action, which happily proved
decisive at a time when the question hung in
suspense. On both sides of the Atlantic the
flowing tail is long since fully recognised.
But the American Leghorn differs in other
respects. It remains considerably smaller
than the Minorca, and is also rather higher
on the leg than the English, of rather more
slender form and sprightly carriage, and
with the much more moderate comb of the

STANDARDS FCR LEGHORNS.

original bird. These differences are well
shown in the drawing by ViX. Franklane
Sewell of an American Brown Leghorn
cockerel, iirst prize at Boston in I goo, for
which we are indebted to The beat her ed
World.

There are also some differences in colour.
Buffs in America, at the time we write, are
one or two shades lighter than the orange buff
popular in England ; and Browns are liked
somewhat darker in the cock's hackles, and a
darker partridge in the hens.

Little need be said about judging Leg-
horns. All real breeders, without exception,
agree that many judges have laid too much
stress upon mere size, and that
Judging there is urgent need for more atten-

Leghorns. tion to the distinctive Leghorn
type, which is not so heavy as
that of many birds exhibited. Many also have
expressed regret that so much favour has been
shown to large combs. There was a time when
breeders themselves favoured these ; but the
fatal sterility thus caused, and widespread
experience of the necessity for dubbing in con-
sequence, has opened their eyes. Our opinion
has been indicated ; beyond that we cannot
pronounce.

The Standards of the Poultry Club for
Leghorns are as follow:

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — ■Skull : Fine. Beak : Stout, the point
clear of the front of the comb. Comb : (a) Single,
or, in Blacks only, (6) rose ; (a) of fine texture, large
but not overgrown, perfectly straight and erect,
deeply and evenly serrated, the spikes broadening
at the base ; extending well beyond the back of
the head and following, without touching, the line
of the haxkle ; free from thumb marks and side
sprigs ; (b) moderately large, firm, not overgrown
so as to obstruct the sight, the leader extending
straight out from the head, and not following the
line of the hackle. Face : Smooth and of fine
texture, and free from wrinkles or folds. Wattles :
Long,^ thin, and of fine texture. Ear-lobes : Well
developed and rather pendant, equally matched in
size and shape, smooth, open, and free from folds.

Neck. — • Long, and well furnished with haclde
feathers.

Body. — Wedge-shaped, \\'idc at the shoulders,
and narrowing to the root of the tail. Breast :
Round and prominent, the breast-bone straight.
Back : Shghtly rounded and sloping to the tail.
Wings : Large, but tightly carried.

Tail. — Moderately full, carried at an angle of
40 to 45 degrees.

Legs and Feet. — -Legs : Fairly long, the shanks

Toes : Four, long, straight, and

free from feathers
well spread.

Carriage. — Verv alert and sprightly,

Weight.— 6 lb.' to 8 lb.

With the exception that the Comb in the single-
combed varieties falls gracefully over to either side
of the face, and the Tail is carried closely and not
at such a high angle as the cock's, the general
characteristics of the hen are similar to those of
the cock, allowing for the natural sexual differences.

Weight.— 5 lb. to 7 lb.

COLOUR

THE BLACK

Beak : Yellow or horn. Eyes : Red. Comb,
Face, and Wattles : Bright red. Ear-lobes : White
or cream, the former preferred. Legs and Feet :
Yellow or orange ; toe-nails, yellow.

Plumage. — Rich blue-black, perfectly free from
feathers of any other colour.

Note. — The Rose-combed Black is the same
colour as the single-combed variety in all sections.

THE BLUE

Head points, Legs and Feet : As in the Black.

Plumage. — One even medium shade of blue from
head to tail, a little darker blue allowed in the
hackles and saddle of the cock, but the more even
the colour the better.

THE BROWN

Beak, Eyes, Comb, Face, and Wattles : As in
the Black. Ear-lobes : Pure opaque white, re-
sembling white Idd. Legs and Feet : BrilUant yellow,
toe-nails to match beak.

Plumage of the Cock. — Neck-hackle : Rich orange
red, striped with black, crimson red at the front of
the hackle below the wattles. Back and Shoulder-
coverts : Deep crimson red or maroon. Wings :
Bow, same as back ; coverts, steel blue, with green
reflections forming a broad bar across the wing ;
primaries, brown ; secondaries, deep bay on the
outer web, which is all that appears when the wing
is closed, and black on the inner web. Saddle : Rich
orange red, with or without a few black stripes.
Breast and Under-parts : Glossy black, quite free
from brown splashes. Tail : Black, glossed with
green ; any white in tail is very objectionable. Tail-
coverts : Black, edged with brown.

Plumage of the Hen. — Hackle : Rich golden
yellow, broadly striped with black. Breast : Salmon
red, running into maroon around the head and
wattles, and ash grey at the thighs. Body colour :
Rich brown, very closely and evenly pencilled with
black, the feathers free from light shafts, and the
wings free from any red tinge. Tail : Blacky outer
feathers pencilled with brown.

THE BUFF

Head Points and Legs : As in the Black. Toe-
nails : White.

Plumage. — Any shade of bufif from lemon to
dark, at the one extreme avoiding washiness and

422

IHE BOOK OF lOULTKY.

at the other a red tinge, the colour to be perfectly
uniform, allowing for greater lustre on the hackle
and saddle feathers, and of the wing-bow in the
case of the cock only.

THE CUCKOO

Head points. Legs and Feel : As in the Brown.

Plumage. — Light blue-grey ground, each feather
barred across with bands of dark grey or blue, the
markings to be uniform, and the colours shading
into each other so that no distinct line or separation
of the colours is peixeptible.

THE DUCKWING

Head points, Legs and Feet : As in the Brown.

Plumage of the Gold Cock. — Neck - hackle : A
rather light yellow or straw colour, a few shades
deeper at the front below the wattles, the longer
feathers striped with black. Back : Deep rich gold.
Saddle and Saddle-hackle : Deep gold, shading in
hackle to pale gold. Shoulder-coverts : Bright gold
or orange, solid colour (an admixture of lighter
feathers is very objectionable). Wings : Bow, the
same as the shoulder-coverts ; coverts, metallic blue
(blue violet), forming an even bar across the wing,
which should be sharp, cleanly cut, and not too
broad ; primaries, black, with white edging on the
outer web ; secondaries, white outer web, which is
all that is seen when the wing is closed, forming the
wing-bay, black inner web and end of feather. Breast :
Black, with green lustre. Under-parts : Black. Tail :
Black, richly glossed with green, grey fluff at the
base.

Plumage of the Gold Hen. — Head: Grey (a
brown cap very objectionable). Hackle : White,
each feather sharply striped with black or dark
grey (a slight tinge of yellow in the ground colour
admitted). Breast and Under-colour : Bright salmon
red (this point is very important), darker on throat
and shaded off to ash grey or fawn colour on the
under-parts. Back, Wings, Sides, and Saddle : Dark
slate grey, finely pencilled with darker grey or black
Tail : Grey, sUghtly darker than the body colour
inside feathers a dull black or dark grey.

Plumage of the Silver Cock. — Neck - hackle
Silver white, the long feathers striped with black.
Back, Saddle, and Hackle : Silver white. Shoulders
and Wing-bom : Silver white, as solid as possible
(any admixture of red or rusty feathers very objection-
able). Wings : Coverts, metallic blue (blue violet),
forming an even bar across the wing, which should
be sharp, clearly cut, and not too broad ; primaries,
black with white edging on outer part ; secondaries
white outer edge, which is all that is visible when
the wing is closed, forming the wdng-bay, black inner
web and end of feathers. Thighs and Under-parts :
Black. Tail : Black, richly glossed with green, grey
fluff at the base.

Plumage of the Silver Hen. — Head : Silver white.
Hackle : Silver white, each feather sharply striped
with black or dark grey. Breast and Under-parts :
Light salmon or fawn, darker on throat and shaded
off to ash grey on the under-parts. Back, Wings,
Sides, and Saddle : Clear delicate silver grey or
French grey, without any shade of red or brown,
finely pencilled with dark grey or black (purity of

colour very important). Tail : Grey, shghtly darker
than the body colour, with the inside feathers a dull
black or dark grey.

THE PILE

Head points : As in the Brown. Legs, Feet, and
Toe-nails : Yellow.

Plumage of the Cock. — Neck - hackle : Bright
orange. Back and Saddle : Rich maroon. Shoulders :
Dark red. Wings : Bows, dark red ; secondaries,
dark chestnut outer web, which is all that is seen
when the wing is closed, and white inner web.
Remainder of Plumage : White.

Plumage of the Hen. — Neck - hackle : White,
tinged with gold. Breast : Deep salmon red shading
into white thighs. Remainder of Plumage : White.

THE WHITE

Head points. Legs and Feet : As in the Black.
Plumage. — Pure white, straw tinge to be avoided.

SCALE OF POINTS

25

Colour
Ear-lobes
Size . .
Shape
Comb. .
Condition
Legs . .

Serious defects : Cock's comb twisted or falUng
to either side, or hen's erect ; red ear-lobes ; any
white in face ; legs other than yellow or orange ;
any bodily dcformit\- ; and in Rose-combed Blacks,
comb other than rose, or such as to obstruct the
sight.

ANCONAS

One of the most popular additions to this
group of fowls is known as the Ancona ; but
there can be no doubt at all that it should be

classed with the Leghorns, and is a
Anoonaa. variety of that family. The only

distinction which could possibly be
drawn, would lie in the characteristic activity
and wildness of the original breed but that is
shared fully by the Black Leghorn, which in
all probability is one of the Ancona's ances-
tors, and all the " points " are in conformity
with the Leghorn type. It is curious that
from time to time several fowls have appeared
under this name, but all showing a mixture of
black and white blood. The earliest we re-
member (about 1864) were cuckoo-coloured,
and dusky or leaden in the shanks. Un-
acquainted with the Leghorns, which arrived
years later, we naturally put these birds down
to probable crossing of black and white
Minorcas, in harmony with what we knew of
colour production : but there can be little doubt

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

now that they were really Cuckoo Leghorns or
Anconas. They were at all events then called
Anconas ; and ten years or so later, we several
times saw birds of the same type and called
by the same name, but mottled or splashed
with black and white like Houdans, instead of
blue-barred — in fact like the present Anconas.
In the light of these simple facts, few as they
are, but which are within our personal know-
ledge, it seems clear that in the neighbourhood
of Ancona there has been a general mixture —
probably without any definite attempt at cross-
ing— of a black Leghorn with white or light
colours of the same family, whose results both
in blue-barred and mottled plumage* have
been so marked as to be given the local name.
Should this be so, the extreme wildness of
the Black Leghorn, noticed above, w^ould
account for the same characteristic in Anconas,
and the Black Leghorn must be regarded as
the real ancestor of this variety.

To such mixed ancestry may probably be
attributed the extreme hardiness and pro-
lificacy which distinguished the Ancona when
first really taken up in this country. As a
layer it was almost without a rival, quite a
number of breeders reporting 200 eggs per
annum ; and its remarkable hardiness in
regard to anything except foul air, or tainted
ground, or extreme w'et, was also soon ob-
served. The breed at that time might be
described as a Leghorn with plumage like that
of a Houdan, or a rather irregular mottle of
black and white in about equal quantities, and
with black spots amongst the yellow of the
shanks. A great many birds had coloured
feathers here and there, but such feathers were
gradually bred out.

This kind of bird is still bred by many on
account of its laying qualities, under the name
of the "old style" Ancona. For breeding it,
all that is necessary, if the birds are of pure
original Ancona strain, is to select a cockerel
rather dark for exhibition and with dark
under-fluff, and mate him with hens also
rather dark, or not lighter than medium colour,
by which is meant black and white in nearly
equal proportions. The black in both sexes
must be a glossy beetle-green black, and the
black spots on the yellow of the shanks should
be decided : head-points and ear-lobes must be
selected as in other varieties. The following
notes upon the character and qualities of this
type of Ancona were kindly furnished by Mrs.
Constance Bourlay, of Frankley Rectory, Bir-

* It is highly probable that search in the fame neighbourhood
wonld discover blue-dun fowls, the other usual result of such mix-
ture of colour.

mingham, one of the earliest and largest
breeders of the fowl, and who was largely
instrumental in making its merits known in
England.

" For many years we kept a few fowls after
the usual fashion of ignorant people. The
birds were expected to eat up house scraps, to
lay a few eggs, and occasionally to appear at
table. They often died ; and no eggs were
even hoped for in winter. Then we awoke
to a sense of our own stupidity, and began to
do better: but very early were obliged to
recognise the impor^^ance of climatic condi-
tions, and how much they were against us.
Living on the top of a hill, 740 feet above the
sea, exposed to every wdnd, particularly the
north and east, with a heavy clay soil, which
held all moisture, and winters that begin early
and end late, one breed after another failed.
Then by chance we bought a sitting of
Anconas. They hatched well, grew wonder-
fully fast, and when winter came seemed
indifferent to soil and climate, and laid eggs
with the ground covered deeply vvith snow,
and the thermometer far below freezing-point.
At last we had found the right breed, and
have never kept any others since.

" Light of weight, quick and very active,
the Ancona is always on the move. If at
liberty, they forage largely for themselves,
ranging fields and the hedgerows from morn-
ing till evening, and keeping themselves warm
with constant exercise. They do not sit about
in corners, shivering in a north-east wind, but
always seem busy and happy ; and on many
a winter day, with snow lying thickly on
the ground, little paths have been swept for
them to outlying manure-heaps in the fields,
along which they scuttle with outspread wings
and cheerful clucks, to spend hours in scratch-
ing, and then going back to their houses to
lay, and returning in single file through the
snow.

" They need to be kept dry, and should
not be let out of their shelters in wet weather ;
but dry cold does not hurt them. The sleeping
places should be very well ventilated, though
free from draughts, and the birds should
always breathe pure air, however cold the
weather. This is very important to their
health, and a stuffy, ill-ventilated house will
soon produce roup and kindred diseases.
Anconas need no coddling, and are far better
without it. Fresh air day and night, good but
moderate feeding, and protection from wet, is
all they require ; and with these they will lay
steadily through the winter.

" A peculiar trait of the breed, and it must

ANCONAS

425

be acknowledged, a defect, is their extreme
shyness and wildness. They are as wild as
pheasants, and ' rocket ' just like them ; and it
is also worth noticing that they have a distinct
though delicate game flavour at table. If
allowed, they will roost in trees as soon as they
can fly, and in more than one instance have
been only reached with a gun. They will,
however, follow the person who feeds them,
and last season I had a pullet that would pull
my dress to be taken up, and always expected
to eat her supper out of the feeding bowl as
I went round the pens, but if I appeared in
a different dress, or if a stranger was present,
she would fly in terror. While being prepared
for exhibition in training pens, they become
perfectly tame, but a few days in the open
makes them as wild as ever. It is not easy
to account for this shyness, but it is a very
marked characteristic of the real Ancona.
They are also great flyers, and with some par-
ticularly timid strains it is well to cut a wing,
or cover in the top of a run, when it is desired
to keep them apart. The cocks are great
fighters, and will continue their battles at every
opportunity, till one gives in or is killed. They
are also extremely polite to the hens, and at
meals spend so much of their time in calling
them and pointing out the daintiest morsels,
that they very often get very little for them-
selves, and it is desirable during the breeding
season to give them a good meal apart, to
ensue their keeping in good condition.

" Ancona chickens grow with great rapidity,
and are remarkably forward as compared with
other breeds. They are hungry little birds,
and require frequent feeding, but their inde-
pendent habits make them very suitable for
bringing up in foster-mothers. At seven weeks
old the cockerels should be separated from
the pullets. The latter frequently begin to lay
at four months or five months old, but it is
well to keep them back if possible until six
months, when they settle down to steady egg-
production until the moult in the following
year. The moult is not a very serious busi-
ness ; sometimes, save for the freshness of the
plumage, they show very little sign of what is
going on ; in other cases they will be very bare
for awhile. It is to be noticed that they moult
from dark to light, the feathers being lighter
in the second year, and the brilliant yellow of
the legs tending to fade in colour as they
advance in age.

" As to when Anconas first appeared in
England, we have no certain knowledge.
Many of our best informed authorities remem-
ber birds of the name in the early 'fifties, and

there is a theory that they were a cross between
black and white Minorcas. If so, they could
not have been of the present type, either as
regards leg colour, shape, or hardiness of con-
stitution. There is little doubt in my mind that
they are a cross between the black Valdano of
North Italy and the common barn-door fowl
of that country, and an advertisement appeared
in the Cottage Gardener of 1854 offering" for
sale a pen of Anconas which had won a prize
at Birmingham, and had been imported direct
from Italy. Though the black and white are
the only variety known in this country, they
may be found white, yellow and red in Italy,
and golden-red feathers sometimes still appear
in the hackles and tail coverts of the cockerels.
The permanence of type is very marked, it
being quite easy to trace the descendants of a
particular hen through five or six generations,
and among the many hundreds of chickens
hatched we have never had ' a sport.' "

Writing in IQII, Mr. Thos. Layberry,
hon. secretary of the Ancona Club, thus speaks
of the breed:

" Many people, especially those who have
only a casual acquaintance with Anconas, have
said that the present standard has led to a
great deal of crossing, in order to get size
and the small tips on each feather which have
taken the place of the ugly white splashes of
the older birds. Much of this talk is purely
imaginary. Reform of any kind is objection-
able to certain people who call themselves
fanciers, and, in order to try and stop any
difference being made, charges are brought
which cannot be substantiated. There may
have been a few fanciers who resorted to cross-
ing in order to obtain the desired result
quickly, but to say that many adopted these
tactics is most unjust to the Ancona fancy
generally, and such statements have been one
of the chief reasons for the cloud which has
been over one of the best and most beautiful
breeds of poultry for some years. It is only
recently that they have emerged from this
cloud, for it is well known if a lot of mud is
thrown, some at any rate will stick.

"The merits of the Ancona are too many,
however, to be permanently hidden, and the
breed is once more becoming popular. In
May, 191 1, Mr. Warren, of Clondalkin, contri-
buted to The Feathered World an analysis of
the recent laying competitions, which plainly
shows the Ancona to be as good as the best at
winter laying. Why, then, do these croakers
keep on saying that the breed has been spoilt ?

" The only difference between the old and

42b

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

new Anconas is purely a matter of plumage
and leg colour. Anyone who has access to
poultry yards where the so-called
New Type old type Anconas are bred may see,
Anconas amongst the soot and whitewash

brigade, I a few birds much darker
than the rest. It was just these darker birds
which caused the change. A few fanciers who
were lovers of the beautiful saw at once what
an improvement in appearance it would be if
the dark birds could be obtained with the end
of each feather tipped with white ; so the very
darkest (some few were quite black) were bred
from until the desired result was obtained.
The dark under-colour, ' so important in the
exhibition bird,' caused a corresponding dark-
ness in leg colour ; but in some cases the legs
were beautifully spotted with black, and these
birds were again selected for breeding pur-
poses. Another change also became popular,
viz., the beetle-green sheen on the feathers.
Most of the older birds had a purple sheen,
but this was gradually eliminated, until to-day
we have one of the most beautiful birds it is
possible to wish for, and at no expense in the
matter of type and size from the original
Ancona.

" And now about the laying qualities !
Some of the grumblers said it would be
impossible to retain the utility qualities if so
much was made of the colour question. Yet
we have White Wyandottes, Leghorns, Rocks,
Orpingtons, etc., and we also have the same
varieties in blacks, each and every one of
which, if we get the right strains, are good
layers, so that there is plain proof that colour
has nothing to do with utility qualities at all.

"The real points to be observed for utility
qualities are type and strain. We have not
altered the type at all, as will be seen from the
standard ; and as to strain, the average modern
Ancona will lay from 150 to 190 eggs yearly,
which is, to say the least, as good as any other
breed. Most of the egg averages of twenty
years ago were mere guess-work ; to-day we
use trap nests."

The following notes on the exhibition type
of Ancona are furnished by Messrs. Heap
Brothers, of Worsthorne, near Burnley, well
known as successful exhibitors.

" This breed, it is generally conceded, was
imported into this country from Ancona in
Italy, where it has been kept in large numbers
by the farmers of that district for its utilitarian
properties. Certainly it ranks as one of, if not
the very best layers extant. We have fre-
quently heard Anconas decried as layers of
small eggs, but as with most breeds, we con-

sider this to be more a matter of strain. The
strain that we keep lay eggs which average over
2 OZ3. in weight, which we consider quite up to,
if not above the average. As we have said
before, they were imported into this country for
their exceptional laying qualities, and the re-
ception they met with has scarcely been
equalled by that of any breed in recent years.
They are indeed very profitable fowls from a
utility point of view, as they mature very
quickly, pullets very often commencing to lay
when about eighteen weeks old. The cockerels
are also very precocious youngsters, crowing
frequently at five or six weeks old. As table
fowls they can scarcely be recommended on
account of their smallness, but their flesh is
excellent in flavour.

" It was not long before they made their
appearance in the exhibition pen. About the
year 1898 a difference of opinion arose amongst
Ancona breeders as to the type of bird which
should constitute the standard, and at a meet-
ing held at the Dairy Show in 1S99, which was
well attended by the principal breeders, a
standard was drawn up and passed as a guid-
ance to breeders what to breed for. This
standard met with much opposition at the time,
and was the subject of much controversy in the
poultry papers. The question finally resolved
itself into how large or how small the tipping
at the end of each feather should be, also the
way the feathers should be tipped. We
favoured, as we do still, the small V-shaped
tip. Were they tipped or mottle'd — call it
what you like — to the extent of three-eighths of
an inch, as some breeders contended, on each
feather, the bird would present almost the ap-
pearance of a white one, as the ground-colour
would be covered by the feathers overlapping
each other. The Anconas often seen at exhibi-
tions a few years ago were frequently held up
to ridicule for their mongrel appearance, and
it was with a sincere desire to improve this
splendid utility fowl from an artistic or exhibi-
tion standpoint, and to breed them more uni-
form in colour and shape, that the present
standard was evolved.

" We know of no breed that has made more
rapid strides in the time towards attaining that
end than have Anconas. When we consider
the progress made in breeding since the present
standard was made, the success achieved has
been remarkable, though certainly there is still
much room for improvement. In cocks, a few
years ago one scarcely saw anything but white
tails, tipped with black, which were certainly
not uniform with the body colour. Our aim is
to breed them with a good beetle-green ground-

NEIF TYPE OF AN CON AS

427

colour, v;ith each feather tipped with white,
throughout the entire bird.

" In mating Anconas to produce exhibition
birds; one needs to be very careful in the
selection of stock birds. Examine each bird
carefully, and discard any that have white
under-colour. This is a very common fault,
and one that breeders should take pains to
exterminate. Another evil to be avoided is
lacing, by which we mean a white edging round
the feather. Choose those with (as nearly as
you have them) the V-shaped tip, with the
white clearly distinct from the ground-colour,

Ancona Cockerel.

which gives the bird a slaty appearance. Select
for the male bird one with firm erect comb,
evenly serrated, serrations deeply cut, face a
brilliant red, white face in Anconas being a
disqualification and not merely a defect ; lobes
medium in size, almond shape, and white ;
body colour as nearly to the exhibition stan-
dard as possible ; legs deep yellow with black
mottling evenly distributed. Be careful about
the tail. Examine the bird and see that the
feathers are black from the skin ; many begin
white, then are black in the middle of the
feather, then white tip at the end. In hens,
again, be careful about selecting those with

sound under-colour, and in colour we like them
rather on the dark side : we mean darker in
appearance than required for exhibition. A
frequent fault in Anconas is that they carry
their tails too high, squirrel fashion ; try by all
means to breed this out by selecting only those
with low tail carriage.

" It may seem that there are many points
to avoid, and so there are ; but if one wishes to
produce really good exhibition specimens, it is
much better to breed from two hens and a cock
which have the qualifications to breed standard
birds, than a field full of so-called Anconas of
the old, ' splashed-anywhere-you-like birds,'
which gave one the impression that they had
been splashed with a white-washer's brush.

" Another point in favour of the new
standard is that cockerels and pullets may be
bred from the same pen, as the colour of both
is identical in every respect, with the usual
sexual differences. This is much in its favour.
We think the reason for the apparent decline in
many breeds, such as the Hamburghs, is mainly
that two pens are required, one for breeding
cockerels and another for pullets, many
working-men fanciers not having accommoda-
tion for what becomes practically two breeds.
Of course, there are birds naturally better
adapted for cockerel or pullet breeding, such
as a hen with an erect comb, which (had
she other requirements) might be valuable
as a stock bird, though not for exhibition pur-
poses."

The two photographs herewith of Mr.
Eadson's winning igio cockerel and Mr. Whit-
taker's pullet show the progress made in exhi-
bition specimens.

About 1902 a Rosecomb Ancona came upon
the scene, but, owing to the difficulty of breed-
ing birds of Ancona type with helmet combs,
they have not made that headway
Rosecomb which they were expected to do.
Anconas. Still, there are several fanciers who
still stick to Rosecombs, and the
Club Show of 191 1 will, we think, mark a
distinct advance in this variety. Many of the
Rosecomb pullets lay quite a brown &g^.

The Standard of the Poultry Club for
Anconas is as follows : —

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

COCK

Head. — Skull : Moderately long and deep, and
inclined to width. Beak : Of medium length and
with a moderate curve. Eyes : Prominent. Comb :
(a) Single or (6) rose ; (a) of medium size, upright,
with deep serrations (broad at their base}, and five

42S

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

to seven spikes, the outline forming a regular convex
curve, carried well back, and following the line of
the head, free from excrescences (or thumb marks
or side spikes) ; {V) of medium size, low and square
at front, and tapering towards the leader (which
should follow the curve of the neck), the top free
from hollows and covered with small coral-hke
points of even height. Face : Smooth. Ear-lobes :
Of medium size, incUned to almond shape, and of
kid-hke texture. Wattles : Size in keeping with the
comb, long, and of fine texture.

Neck. — Long and well covered with hackle
feathers.

Body. — Of medium length ; broad shoulders and
narrow saddle ; full and rounded breast carried
upwards ; large wings well tucked up.

Tail. — Large and carried well out.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Of medium length, set well
apart, the thighs almost hidden b\' the body feather-
ing, and the shanks and feet quite free from feathers.
Toes ; Four, rather thin, and well spread.

Carriage. — Active.

Weight. — From 6 lb. to 7 lb.

COLOUR

Beak : Yellow, with dark or horn shadings, but
preferably not wholly yellow. Eyes : Iris, orange
red ; pupil, hazel. Comb, Face, and Wattles :
Bright red. Ear-lobes : White. Legs and Feet : Yel-
low, mottled.

Plumage. — \\'Tiite markings (free from ticks) on
beetle-green ground, the more evenly V- mottled
with white the better, but mottled and not laced.
Tail : Black to the roots and tipped with white.
Wing Flights : Black tipped with white. Under-
colour : Black.

SCALE OP POINTS

Beetle-green ground colour, dark to skin ., 25

Purity of white, quality and evenness of mottling 25

Tail . .

Comb. .

Legs and beak

Eyes . . . . 5

Lobes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

With the exception of the single Comb, which
falls over one side of the face, preferably in a single
fold, and partly hiding the face, the general charac-
teristics are similar to those of the cock, allowing
for the natural sexual differences.

Weight. — From 5 lb. to 6 lb.

Serious defects : White in face ; plumage other
than black and white ; white or light under-colour ;
other than four toes ; wrj' tail or other deformity.

Ancoua Pullet. (The property of Mr. Thos. Whittaker, a frequent winner.)

CHAPTER XXIX.

HAMBURGHS AND REDCAPS.

UNDER the general name of Hamburghs
are now grouped a class of fowls which
formerly were known under different
names, but which share the common character-
istics of rather small size, rose-combs, more or
less white and round ear-lobes, slender, dark,
clean legs, absence of the incubating instinct,
and full sweeping tails. Looking at all that is
really known of their origin, that of the spotted
or Spangled, and of the barred or Pencilled
varieties, appears quite distinct ; the Pencilled
Hamburghs having undoubtedly reached Eng-
land from Holland under the name of Dutch
Everyday Layers, and being also known as
Chittiprats and Creels ; while the Spangled
Hamburghs emerged from Yorkshire and Lan-
cashire, where they had been bred for years,
from what stock no man knows, under the
names of Mooneys and Pheasant fowls ; the
former from the round moon-like spangles, and
the latter from the resemblance to pheasant-
marking of their more crescentic spangles.

Yet while the Pencilled and the Spangled
have thus been distinct to many generations of
breeders, no one can look at them even to-day
without being struck by the idea of some com-
mon origin ; and for such a belief there is strong
evidence in chickens and old birds. Spangled
chickens are often, and used to be always,
pencilledm their chicken feathers; and when old,
the black spangles are very frequently sur-
mounted by a light tip beyond them, thus
returning slightly to a somewhat pencilled
character. On the other hand, if Pencilled
Hamburghs are bred too dark, the final bar
often becomes too wide, thus approaching in
some degree the character of a spangle ; and in
1853 The Poultry Book makes the significant
statement respecting Pencilled Hamburghs, that
" Spangled feathers mixed with the pencilled
are very objectionable." We have, therefore,
in Hamburghs several real breeds and not mere
varieties of fowls, of long distinct breeding, yet
probably of some one more remote single origin,
of which they still bear traces. What that
remote origin may have been, it is not so easy
to say. The old writer Aldrovandus figures a
fowl with a fairly strong general resemblance to
the Pencilled Hamburgh, and calls it Gallina

Turcica, or the Turkish fowl ; and the apparently
westward drift of all original breeds may suggest
as possible that some such original race may
have thence come to Holland, and so on to
England ; but such speculations cannot be
further entered into here.

In their different varieties of barring, pencil-
ling, and spangling, the gorgeous lustre of the
Blacks, and the matchless symmetry of all
varieties, Hamburghs are confessedly the most
beautiful of poultry. The " fancier " of any other
breed has also his " points," about which he is,
of course, quite as enthusiastic, but which the
man in the street very often cannot understand
or admire : no eye needs any education to rest
with delight upon the subjects of this chapter.
In beauty, seen and understood of all, none
dispute their place.

In suitable circumstances they are also most
profitable fowls, being quite small eaters, but
most prolific layers, except perhaps the Golden
Spangled, which vary much : the
Qualities cock-breeding strains of these also

Hamburghs. ^""^ often good layers, but the pullet-
breeders or Golden Mooneys are
usually very poor indeed. The Silver Spangled,
Pencilled breeds, and Blacks, have often been
recorded as laying 200 to 220 eggs in a year,
those of the Pencils being, however, decidedly
small. These good qualities come out best upon,
a free range, where Hamburghs will to a large
extent keep themselves, foraging all over the
ground early in the morning for worms and in-
sects, on which they depend largely for their great
productiveness. They are as a rule non-sitters ;
but the rule is not universal, as all the varieties
have been known, when at liberty, to occa-
sionally steal a nest and hatch chickens, though
we never heard of a case when kept in confine-
ment. Such occurrences are no sign at all of
impurity of blood. Finally, the flesh is tender
and delicate, though the birds are small — Silver
Mooney cockerels are not so very small — and
hence always acceptable upon the table.

When free lange is thus at command, these
birds do best on the natural open-air plan,
roosting at night in sheds entirely open, or
even in trees, which hardens them just as Mr.
Teebay found with his Spanish. Thus treated,

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

when once past chickenhood they will be
found hardy : the Pencilled breeds being most
delicate, and specially subject to roup if
cooped up in small runs and houses,
General fo"" which they are not adapted.

Management. Black and Silver-spangled Ham-
burghs have, however, been kept
with success in moderate-sized and even small
runs, provided they are kept scrupulously clean,
and roost in the open kind of houses described on
page 1 8 of this work. When so kept, of
course, their laying qualities must be main-
tained by animal food, in lieu of the insects
they would procure in the fields.

The eggs of full-feathered Hamburghs are
very fertile as a rule, and the chickens active
and easy to rear, if reasonably cared for. Owing
to their small size, they should at first have
small seeds like millet and canary in good
proportion, which also help them to feather
well ; and their crops being small, unless at
large they should be fed little and often.
Nearly all Hamburgh breeders, especially of
Pencils, would like their birds bigger if they
could get them so without loss of quality ;
and we know from results with other small
fowls, that much more might be done towards
this than is generally supposed, by the use
of ground oats and finely-cut bone, diminishing
the latter as the combs grow. They must be
kept clean, and dry underfoot ; and if with
hens, require great watchfulness against insect
vermin ; not that they are specially liable to
this, but that they suffer from it in proportion
to their smaller size. They come to maturity
pretty early, and will often lay at five months
old. Pencils usually being the earliest, and
Golden Spangles the last. If space is in the
least limited, weeding out of obvious wasters,
and of surplus birds of the wrong sex, should
be done at the earliest possible time, to make
room, the purest possible air and ground
being all-important.

Hamburghs are seldom used for crossing
purposes ; but it is worth mentioning that the
cross between a Silver-spangled cock and Light
Brahma hens often produces chickens of great
beauty, fairly well spangled. In these days,
when lacing has been extended from Sebright
and Polish to the larger-sized Wyandottes, and
these spangled breeds themselves have been
already Bantamised, it might be found worth
while to extend such beautiful marking to a
larger race.

Till the exhibition era, knowledge of the
Spangled and Black Hamburghs was practi-
cally confined to Lancashire and Yorkshire,
but the Pencilled were known as Everlasting

Layers, in London and elsewhere, from quite an
early date. When the Spangles first became
more widely known they excited great admira-
tion ; but owing to the system of breeding not
being understood — double-mating was generally
unknown then, being in fact almost confined to
this breed — the produce of purchased stock was
so disheartening, and it was so impossible to win
against the northern breeders, that many gave
them up again in despair. A similar system
has since been extended to the Pencilled
breeds ; and while the perfection to which it
has been brought has resulted in a beauty and
accuracy of marking not previously attained,
and unequalled in any other breed of poultry,
there is probably no other example so impressive
of the depressing effect of a rigid double-mating
system upon the general prevalence and popu-
larity of a fowl, whose singular beauty and
productiveness would otherwise have certainly
marked it out for very wide cultivation.

The breeding of Hamburghs for exhibition
altered even within Mr. Wright's recollection.
That recollection extended perfectly (with the
aid of notes respecting fresh developments) for
thirty years, and in less degree for forty years.
Even the full account written by the late Mr.
Henry Beldon for the first edition of The Illus-
trated Book of Poultry, required considerable
revision by himself for subsequent editions ;
and further changes in breeding have since
taken place. He had left us a few memoranda
regarding some of these ; but his death some
years ago — keenly regretted by all true lovers
of the Hamburgh — had made it impossible that
the following articles should proceed directly
from his pen. In these circumstances the late
Mr. Henry Pickles, of Earby, Colne, came to
Mr. Wright's assistance, but expressly desiring
not to interfere more than necessary with the
views of his late friend, and one so highly
respected among all Hamburgh breeders. He
therefore made detailed notes and additions
where necessary, answered many queries arising
out of these, and supplied feathers to illustrate
modern changes. Mr. William Roberts, of
Ingol, Preston, also kindly gave some occa-
sional aid in both these ways. While express
quotation is impossible, the greater part being
necessarily collated and put into shape by
Mr. Wright, it will therefore be understood
that the articles on breeding the Spangled
and Pencilled varieties of Hamburghs are in
substance due to the late Mr. Beldon ; where
necessary, corrected or added to by Mr. H.
Pickles, with occasional aid also from Mr.
W. Roberts, and the whole finally revised by
both these eminent breeders,

FO/NTS OF SILVER.SFANGLED HAMBURGHS.

431

The comb of an exhibition Silver-spangled

cock should be even, firmly set on the head,

long, and moderately broad, full of " work " or

points, free from hollow in the

Silver centre, and ending in a long spike

Spangled ,. ,J . ^. & , => '„,

Hamburghs. slightly pointing upwards. 1 he

beak should be horn colour, ear-
lobes a clear white, smooth, and as nearly round
as possible ; face red, quite free from white ;

Fig. 122. — Hackles of Silver-spangled Cock.

and eyes a dark hazel or red ; legs a slaty blue.
The neck should be nicely arched, with very full
hackle falling well on to the shoulders ; the
breast full, broad, and prominent ; back a
moderate length, broad and level across, not
round or up at one side ; tail full, the sickles
long and gracefully carried. Formerly the
tail was liked rather high, though not squirrel-
fashion, but is now preferred carried well back,
as are all Hamburghs. The whole carriage
should be graceful, jaunty, and cheerful. In
regard to the plumage, the ground-colour should

be pure silvery-white, quite free from straw or
yellow, though at the end of the season, if
exposed to the weather and sun, many good
birds will turn rather yellowish. The head and
hackle were formerly white ; but the hackles and
saddle feathers are now bred with black tips,
the centres of which are dagger-shaped, while
the fringe of the hackle extends the spot almost
into a diamond. The saddle-hackles are the
same, more heavily tipped, and the back is
more heavily spotted still. Fig. 122 represents
a saddle and hackle feather properly ticked.
Sometimes birds otherwise good will have
hackles and shoulders a little rusty or yellow :
this is a great fault, of a worse kind than the
slight tendency to straw which may be appa-
rent in a good bird that has run long at large
in the sun. The breast and thighs should be
evenly spangled with round spangles, of a rich,
satiny green-black, as large as possible so that
they show the white ; white throat or black
thighs are the most usual faults here. The
spangles which form the wing-bars must be
especially even and distinct, as also those on
the ends of the secondaries, which form the so-
called " steppings " of the wings. Shoulders
and wing-bows have dagger-shaped spots
somewhat like the saddle-feathers, but shorter
and broader. Each feather of the true tail
and also of the sickles and side feathers,
should be white with a large spangle at the
end, those of the true tail being more of a
half- moon shape.

Ideally the hen should correspond with the
cock, with head-points in proportion, and white
ear-lobes ; but this is still an ideal, the combina-
tion of good lobes and perfect spangling being
still an achievement for the breeders of the future.
The spangles should be of an extremely rich and
satiny green-black, looking almost as if raised
or embossed, and the back should be rather
broad, so as to give room for them to show
well. The breast must be spangled from the
throat right round to the fluff, good distinct bars
on the wings, and the tail clear, with a spangle
at end of each feather. The spangles should be
as large as possible, so long as there is white
enough to distinguish them. The marking on
head and neck has gone through a series of
remarkable changes, owing to which the most
successful winners of the present day are
neither as formerly, nor as described in the
Standard. When Mr. Beldon wrote in 1870,
the neck of a good exhibition hen was really
spangled from top to bottom, as in Fig. 123,
exactly drawn from feathers of a noted cup
winner ; even close to the head, it will be seen,
there were very fair spangles. The Standard

43*

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

in I goo described the hackles as "tipped from
the head with dagger-shaped tips, becoming
spangles at the shoulders." Except at the
shoulders they are neither of these in the

■ Head. Half-way.

Fig. 123. — Hackles of Silver-sp

majority of cases, Fig. 124 representing feathers
in the same places as those shown above from
Mr. Beldon's cup hen, from cup-winners belong-
ing to both Mr. Pickles and Mr. Roberts. Up to
about half-way down, it will be seen, these
feathers are striped, the full half-way feather
beginning, however, to show the stripe coming
to an end near the base, and with a tendency for
the white ground also to break into the feather
more towards the tip. This change to striping
is a consequence of the changes in breeding to
be described.

The Silver-spangled Hamburgh owes every-
thing to the counties of Lancashire and York-
shire. In Lancashire hens had been brought

to a very high standard years
Breeding before ever poultry-shows were

Bpangles. thought of, and as regards feather,

all our modern skill has been
unable to improve upon this old breed ; indeed,
some of the old Mooneys, as they were called,
were absolute perfection in this point of feather;
the spangling, so large, round, and rich in colour,
was really something to be wondered at. This
careful and extreme breeding for feather in the
old Lancashire Mooney fowls, resulted in pro-
ducing hen-feathered cocks — that is, cocks
marked very similarly to the hens, heavily ticked
on the neck, with spangling on the back, sides,

etc., and with a square or hen tail. It was to
this variety that all the prizes were given at the
beginning of the poultry-showing era ; but after
they had enjoyed a year or two's popularity, the
judges at Birmingham announced that the hen-
feathering of Mooney cocks was not the " correct
thing," and that such birds were unfertile. In
this latter charge there was much truth in regard
to many, though some are prolific enough ; but
the hen-tailed cocks were thrown out, and their
reign as show birds was over.

In Yorkshire, on the other hand, was another
Silver-spangled breed known as the Yorkshire
Pheasant, which had the desired cock-feathering,
the cock being a fine full-plumaged bird ; but the
spangling was much inferior to that of the Lan-
cashire variety, lacking not only in size, but the
roundness and glossy greenness of the spangles ;
but being decidedly smarter in appearance, and
possessing whiter ear-lobes. The hen-feathered
Lancashire Mooney had coarse, red ear-lobes, and
even the older Yorkshire Pheasants had not
much to boast of in this respect ; still they were
whitish, and a few years' careful breeding soon
brought this point to perfection. The Yorkshire

Near Head. Half-way. At Shoulder.

Fig. 124.— Hackles ol Silver-spangled Hen, 1900.

cocks had, moreover, nice clear tails, while the
hen-feathered cocks of that day often had smutty
tails ; but the Yorkshire birds lacked colour on
the back and wings. Still, at first these York-
shire cocks were shown with Lancashire

BREEDING SILVER-SPANGLED HAMBURGHS

433

Mooney hens, and of course the two varieties
had to be kept and bred separately.

Each variety however possessed great defects:
in the Mooney hens the combs were coarse and
the ear-lobes red ; while in the Yorkshire cocks
the neck, back, saddle-hackles, and shoulders
were almost white, and the breast-marking very
poor in comparison. The next step was to
cross Mooney cocks with Yorkshire hens, which
produced cockerels with fairly clear spangled
tails, smarter combs, and white ear-lobes, yet
with better spangling. This system lasted many
years, but by degrees the repeated crossing pro-
duced a great deal of really amalgamated blood,
and the pure old Yorkshire Pheasant practically
disappeared, while a considerable portion of
Yorkshire blood crept into many, if not most,
of the Mooney strains. When Mr. Beldon wrote
in 1870, this had gone so far, that the system he
himself practised and recommended was to select
an exhibition cockerel with as much marking on
back and saddle as possible (never found in the
old Yorkshire Pheasant pure) and put him with
hens heavily spangled, but with good combs and
ear-lobes. Blood was so mixed at that period,
that much mating was very speculative : the
male show bird, as deep in colour as possible,
was to be mated with the best hens obtainable,
and the result awaited. If good, the breeder
kept that pen as long as it would breed : if dis-
appointing, he tried another cock. A pen would
often breed good cockerels but only middling
pullets : because although good marking had
been obtained on the back and saddle of
the exhibition cock, superseding the white of the
old Yorkshire, his neck-hackle was still de-
manded white, which was bad for pullet-breeding;
hence, hens were in practice bred chiefly from
pens containing more Mooney blood, though
their breeding was perhaps not exactly known.

Mr. Beldon's opinion at that time, often ex-
pressed to us, was that the amalgamation was
likely to go further still, and produce yet deeper
colour in the cocks, until only one male would
be generally required, which might however
probably breed the best pullets from the females
with most Mooney blood. One of these antici-
pations was fulfilled ; the exhibition cock having
now finer and better spangles, the hackle being
well ticked, and the saddle more heavily than
before, so far making the bird a better pullet-
breeder. Yet curiously enough, the practice of
breeding Mooneys from the hen-tailed cocks
for pullets, has not only held its ground (the
oldest breeders never having abandoned it), but
the supposed pure Mooney is more bred than
ever. The breeder now seeks for his cockerel-
breeding pen an exhibition bird of pure white

colour, heavily ticked in hackles, and well
spangled, and with special regard to good comb
and ear-lobes ; and mates him with hens bred
from the same cock-breeding strain, and so
heavily spangled (i.e. in their natural state) as
to be almost black-breasted. These hens are
specially selected in regard to neat heads and
good ear-lobes. For pullets, on the other hand,
Mooneys, or the birds so-called, are chosen on
both sides. Both se.xes in these Mooneys are
very large, much larger than the cock-breeding
strains, but coarse in heads and combs, and
more or less red in ear-lobes : these faults are
tolerated for the sake of the spangling, which
is glossy green. The hen is naturally very
much darker than she is exhibited (see
page 235) and as a rule the darker ones breed
the best stock : they must be spangled up to
the throat and not go off white just under it.

This is the present and general method of
breeding, but not quite universal, and Mr.
C. Holt * advised mating a heavily-marked
exhibition cock with two cock-breeding and two
Mooney hens, with a view to breeding both
sexes. He was a great deal criticised for this
advice, and it was not altogether a valid reply
to state that with a pullet produced by such a
cock and a crack Mooney hen he had beaten
all the old Hamburgh breeders at Silsden,
since that was in 1884, and breeding has
perceptibly changed even since then : still the
coincidence of the advice and experience with
Mr. Beldon's should have some weight.

The question is not really so simple as some
suppose, and will be best considered in connection
with that of the spangling itself The old Lan-
cashire breeders sought as large and
Hamburgh as round spangles as possible, and
Spangling. got them so large at last that the
birds literally could not be shown
without extensive thinning out, as was under-
stood by all, and never then objected to. There
has been some little reaction against that, and
the present Standard qualifies it by the words,
" never so large as to overlap," but this is more
nominal than real, and birds have to be thinned
out still. There is, however, some perceptible
change, as will be seen by comparing A in Fig.
125, drawn from one of Mr. Beldon's feathers
(from the back) in 1870, with B, from the same
part of one of the "crack" hens of 1900. The
spangle is perceptibly smaller, though probably
(owing to greater proportion of Mooney blood)
from a larger bird. Nothing has therefore been
gained, as many suppose, in size of spangling by
going back more to the Mooney, while the ear-
lobes have lost considerably. Asalready observed,

* " Hamburghs Up-to-date " : Feathered World Office.

434

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

really good spangling had also been obtained
in the hen's hackle in 1870 (Fig. 123), while
the Mooney revival has brought back mere
striping more than half-way down (Fig. 123),
which is a mark of the old Mooney breed, but
as regards spangling is retrograde.

But more than these points are involved.
First from the fancier's point of view, must be
mentioned grce7iness of the spangles : in this the
old Mooney was far superior, and probably its
matchless green lustre had most to do with the
revival. In the second place, Mooneys are far

perhaps slightly smaller spangles, and probably
even had some effect in preference for the bigger
bird, which gives more space to spread them over,
but led to a desire for shorter spangles. For-
merly, though approximately round, these came
nearly to a point at the bottom (A, Fig. 125),
though often rounded there, as in the modern
feather B. But there has been lately a tendency
to cut off more and more of this bottom corner,
either as in C by a roughly straight line, or by
contracting the approximate circle into an
approximate oval, as in D. Each of these

.MHHPi

"mm

Fig. 125. — Feathers of Silver-spangled Hamburghs.

larger, and lay much larger eggs than the cock-
breeding strain. The birds will average \\ lbs.
to 2 lbs. heavier, and the eggs weigh about
eight to the pound. These points affect the
Hamburgh closely as a useful farmer's fowl,
small size of eggs being a great drawback from
a utility point of view. It was no doubt these
points which captivated Hamburgh breeders :
size of spangles had nothing to do with it,
since in that nothing has been gained, while
some points have been appreciably lost.

• There are also some differences in regard to
the shape of the spangles. The desire to get
spangling more clearly apart on the bird without
thinning, or with less of it, has not only led to

feathers is from a cup-winner, and it will be
seen that such shortening of the spangle enables
a larger spot to appear distinct, than when it is
a full circle, or fully pointed. So marked is this
movement that some of the best breeders rather
seek for what they call a " half-moon " spangle,
i.e. one with a flat or straight base. A distinctly
flattened base from a very well-known hen is
shown in E, Fig. 126 ; and in F is almost a half-
moon, the nearest which Mr. Pickles could find.
This is from the stepping of the wing : but he
writes that he would delight to see a bird with
every feather more or less like it. But here too
opinion is not unanimous. Some still prefer the
pointed spangle, and the extreme of such a

THE SPANGLING OF HAMBURGHS.

435

tendency is seen in the " pear-shaped " spangle
(G, Fig. 126). The pointed kind of spangle is
at present the favourite in America, and a great
many English birds are selected to go to
America for this reason, both hemispheres being
thus suited. In America the spangling is how-
ever mostly smaller than in England, and the
effect of the pear-shape in making the bird look
much blacker for the size of spangle, can be

slightest touch of Mooney in his birds " ; and of
any modern crossing this was no doubt correct.
But every spot in the hackle and saddle and
back, and the roundness of every spangle, in
every one of his winners, came from the Mooney
alone ; as did every trace of black fluff at the
base of any of the feathers. Conversely, the
same may be said of the supposed " pure "
Mooney. We never bred any Hamburghs,
except once Gold Pencils ; but we had the very
unusual advantage of studying actual specimens
of the old pure Mooneys and Pheasants, under
the guidance of Mr. Beldon, and they were

#
^C^

Fig. 126. — Feathers of Silver-spangled Hamburghs.

seen at a glance. Before leaving the subject
of spangles it will be interesting also to give
(h. Fig. 126) a feather of the more crescentic
spangling which formerly marked the old York-
shire Pheasant, but is now rarely to be found,
that old breed having practically disappeared.

This leads finally to a k\v words about the
amount of distinctness between cock-breeding
strains and the " pure " Mooneys as now bred.
Distinctness of strain there is ; of breed there is
not so much as many suppose. A well-known
exhibitor and judge wrote in 1S9S that he had
bred cocks for years, and " never had the

different from the present,
he wrote to us as follows :

In the year 1873

Nearly all the so-called pure Mooneys now have
white ear-lobes, showing they have been modified by
breeding. Hen-feathering is no sign of absolutely pure
blood, being very easily produced. In Yorkshire also,
though I live there, I should have some difficulty now
in finding a pure-bred Pheasant, our Mooney hens
having a dash of the Pheasant, and our so-called
Pheasants a lot of the Mooney. At the last Birming-
ham Show (i8;z) there was not one absolutely pure
Mooney hen, though there were some splendid birds.
Some ten or twelve years ago I came into possession of
a lot of Silver Mooney hens, the really pure old stamp,
picked up from all parts of Lancashire by old Jack

4?6

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Andrews. These hens were much larger than those we
have at present, and were certainly coarse ; but for
spangling — it was perfection ! Still, I think among the
amalgamated strains we have as good, and that moult
as true. I inquired of old Jack, a very short time ago,
if he thought any of this "old sort" could be found
still ; he said he had looked the whole county through,
but could find none.

The old breed was not so extinct as Mr.
Beldon supposed, and has undoubtedly rome
more largely again into the pullet strains of
to-day, as shown by the coarser ear-lobes and
greater size. But still there are differences.
The old Mooney hens had striped hackles ; and
while this has partly come back, the spangled
shoulder-hackle still remains from the mixed
blood (Figs. 123 and 124). Pullets ^till often
appear with white ear-lobes, though considered
" pure " ; the old Mooney never bred such a
lobe, which is another sign of " amalgamated "
blood. Thirdly, the intense black fluff of the
old Mooney hens is by no means so dark
now. Fourthly, the old Mooney cock was much
smaller in proportion to the hen, than to-day.
And finally, the old Mooneys had dark tail-
feathers, especially on the inside ; and these in
most winners are much clearer now.

On the whole, in the interests of this noble
breed it is to be wished that some movement
should be made, quite apart from any question
of single mating. The Mooney blood (as it is
now) possesses size, and magnificent colour, and
moults true year after year ; while the heads
and lobes, though still coarse, are less so than
formerly. It seems a pity there cannot be
revived classes for Mooney cocks : with these
also to breed for exhibition, as remarked some
years ago by Mr. J. Roberts, head-points would
soon improve. Or on the other hand, much
more could easily be done in amalgamation, by
careful line-breeding. That process was aban-
doned too soon, because of too much breeding
back to the Pheasant, which lost size and colour:
by breeding back more to the Mooney, size and
colour could be retained. With the greater
skill breeders have now acquired, it would be
easy to throw in enough of the cock-breeding
blood (already at least half Mooney) to produce
practically a large full-tailed Mooney cock with
clear tail and good lobes, still retaining the
colour. There was once a real sub-variety of
Mooney cocks with verj^ dark, full tails, but it
died out through selection for the hen-cocks;
and the restoration of full tails while keeping
up the colour, which could easily be accom-
plished, would do much for the breed, as so
many hen-tailed cocks are sterile.

At present any novice should put himself
in the hands of a breeder, who if applied to

will generally supply birds with the necessary
relationship, and properly mated, one sex in each
pen being, of course, according to exhibition type.
As was justly pointed out by the Rev. C. D.
Farrar in a series of interesting letters,* Ham-
burgh breeders naturally get rid early of all
chickens of the " wrong " sex which they are
not likely to want ; therefore application should
be made early for young stock before it is gone ;
or else endeavour should be made to purchase
a breeding-pen, when breeding is over for the
season. Many then desire to make room, and
such a pen can therefore be sometimes procured
below its real value.

The Gold-spangled Hamburgh is broadly
similar to the Silver, substituting a rich golden-
bay ground-colour for the white ; but there are
differences in the neck and in the

S°it*1 d '•^''- "^^^ ^'"^'^ °^ ^'^'^ '^^"' ^""^ ^^^"^

Hamburghs. ^he true tail and the sickles and
coverts of the cock, instead of being
a clear ground-colour with spangles at the tips,
are of a rich and glossy solid green-black. And
the hackles of both sexes, and saddle and back
of the cock, instead of being spangled or tipped,
or as near this as possible, are golden bay striped
with glossy green-black ; even the hen's tail-
coverts being more a large black centre laced
round with bay, than really spangled. The
cock's wing-bow also, while now desired and
standardised as deep bay with dagger-shaped
tips to the feathers, as in the Silver, is still very
commonly almost a self-colour, with little spot-
ting at all ; but this point is improving. The
head points and body marking are as in Silvers,
but the birds as a rule are much smaller. It is
remarkable that the striped hackles and black
tails in this colour, represent a marking almost
similar to the old and now extinct full-tailed
Silver Mooney breed, referred to above, and
was evidently one of the very oldest types of
Spangled Hamburghs, and out of which the
hen-tailed Silver Mooney was perfected.

There were and still are similar distinctions
in the strains of these birds, to those already
described in the case of Silvers ; but with the
curious difference that in the Golden it was the
Mooney that was the smallest breed, the cocks
especially, and that these were full-feathered ;
while the hen-feathered cocks which occurred
were in the larger and coarser Yorkshire breed.
These were fine large birds, and at one time the
hen-feathered birds were all the fashion, so that,
although there did not lack full-plumaged birds
of the same variety, only the hen-feathered were
retained. These Yorkshire Pheasants were gener-
* Feathered World, 1901.

GOLDEN-SPANGLED HAMBURGHS.

437

ally hardy, and capital layers. The spangling
was bold and of a glossy green-black, but of a
cresccntic rather than round form (H, Fig. 126)
and the ground-colour was of a light dull bay,
and generally there was a good deal of pepperi-
ness in the ground-colour,* so that the spangling
was often not clear and sharp-looking, especially
in the tail-coverts. As a rule this variety had
whitish ear-lobes. In Lancashire there was
another variety, cultivated chiefly by the weavers
and colliers. This was called the Golden
Mooney ; it was a much smaller bird, but for
colour and marking threw the Yorkshire
Pheasant entirely into the shade. The ground-
colour of the plumage in these fowls was of the
very richest bay, the spangling very bold and
clear, and of a green satin-looking black ; in
fact, the plumage was so rich and glossy that
the full beauty of it could not be seen except in
the sunshine, but when thus seen formed a pic-
ture never to be forgotten. This applied to the
hen ; the plumage of the cocks was also of the
very richest description, but their great draw-
back was their red ear-lobes and black breasts
— in fact, they had no ear-lobes at all to speak
of, but merely a bit of red skin like a Game
cock. These cocks were never shown, but
merely kept for breeding purposes. Shows were
held in many of the village public-houses in
Lancashire, the competitors being mostly colliers
and weavers of the district, to whom is entirely
due the credit of bringing the celebrated Mooney
marking to such perfection. At these shows
hens only were shown, of both Golden and
Silver Mooneys and Black Pheasants, but far
the most usually it would be one of the Mooney
breeds. The birds were judged by a scale of
points agreed on by members of these village
clubs, the first definite points ever drawn up ;
and the points were so well understood by all
that any disagreement about the judging
scarcely ever took place. One of the foremost
men at these village clubs was old Jack
Andrews, or, as they called him in Lancashire,
" The Ould Poo't," meaning " The Old Pullet."
Another fine old fancier and breeder was Nathan
Marlor ; and breeders and fanciers of both
the Spangled varieties are much indebted to
these two men, who have been greatly instru-
mental in bringing the Mooney to such a state
of excellence.

Both the breeds thus described being in
existence at the early time we have been speak-
ing of, the Lancashire Mooney hens were first
shown with the Yorkshire hen - feathered

* This was probably the reason why in some of the old books
on Poultry, "Copper Moss" is given as another local synonym
for the Golden-spangled Hamburgh.

cocks ; but when the judges set their faces
against the hen-feathered birds (and their reign
was very short), the Yorkshire Pheasant's career,
as an exhibition bird, was over.
Golden"^ After that the cocks shown with the

Spangles. Mooney hens were at first of the full-

feathered Yorkshire breed ; but
neither pure variety possessed the points of
excellence required. The Yorkshire Pheasant
was dull in ground-colour and not distinct in the
spangling; while the Mooneys, especially the
cocks, had almost black breasts and red ear-
lobes, and if anything (especially in a room)
were almost too deep and rich in the ground-
colour. The necessary change began first with
the cocks. In the first place the Yorkshire
cock was put to the Mooney hens, and by care-
ful and judicious crossing a bird was produced
having somewhat of the richness in plumage of
the Mooney, at the same time retaining the
spangled breast and whitish ear-lobes of the
Pheasant. These were the cocks for some time
shown with Mooney hens. After a time, how-
ever, as the competition became keener, and
richness of plumage became the chief point
requisite to success, a little more of the Mooney
blood was introduced ; and at the present day
cocks are bred which leave little to be desired
either in that point or in ear-lobes, which have
been by careful breeding brought to a perfection
neither breed originally had. The hens also
were operated upon, the red ears of the pure
Mooney being found an eyesore. To remedy
tlis a dash of the Yorkshire Pheasant blood was
introduced, which also had the good effect of
giving a very slightly lighter tint to the ground-
colour ; and by this crossing, and judicious
selection, hens also have been produced that
combine all the richness of the Mooney with a
slightly lighter ground-colour and a somewhat
whiter ear-lobe. As in the preceding variety
breeding from the pure Yorkshire Pheasant is
now quite discarded.

For breeding pullets the beginner should
get the very best hens from an exhibition point
of view that he can lay his hands upon ; there
is not much need to inquire about the strain, as
in a hen this will speak for itself; but if better
heads and ear-lobes than usual can be secured
all the better, and also what is possible in the
way of size. Then let him get a cock from
some good breeder out of a well-known pullet
strain, and if possible somewhat related to the
hens or pullets he is breeding from ; for birds
bred thus akin produce by far the most perfect
specimens. Then if these birds produce first-
class chickens, keep them together and breed
from them as long as possible, and do not

43?

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

attempt to improve them by a cross, or they
may be improved the wrong way. If the pro-
duce is not satisfactory, try again ; but this
simple method of selection will rarely fail, and
is about the only one which can be given at
the present day.

For cockerels pursue a similar plan. Get
the very best exhibition cock procurable, and
put him to a hen or hens obtained from some
good breeder, also of the cock-breeding strain ;
but in choosing them select birds with the
necessary points, viz. with smart, even combs,
and pure white, well-shaped ear-lobes. It is
often difficult to get a cock with really well-
spangled breast, but either lacing or too much
black should be avoided if possible, and also
light brown or yellow hackles, richness of ground
being another rather difficult point. Then, as
before, if the produce is good stick to it so long
as the pen will breed ; but if not successful at
first, try a change of mating until the produce
is satisfactory. While pedigree is the sheet-
anchor, as in other cases, it is by this experi-
mental method the best breeders make up
their Hamburgh pens until they have a strain
of their own, when of course they know its
qualities, and can mate up their breeders with
something like certainty.

Except in the hackles and tails, the spangling
of this variety is so similar to the preceding
breed, that the representations of the feathers
will equally suffice for them, the crescentic form
of the old Yorkshire Pheasant spangling being
shown in Fig. 126, n. The latter old breed is
now practically extinct in an uncrossed form,
being superseded by a stock more or less crossed
with Mooney ; but its traces are still seen in
much tendency to light ground and yellow
hackles, and breasts laced or crescentic in
marking, or almost black near the throat. To
correct these faults, so much Mooney blood has
been used, that several winning pullets have been
known to be produced by what were known as
cock-breeding strains. ■» The Golden Mooneys,
on the other hand, often now have so much
better heads and ear-lobes than formerly as
to show much Yorkshire blood ; and although
most of the best breeders still employ separate
pens of what they consider " pure" strains, there
is a smaller school aiming at a greater degree of
amalgamation, which can also boast of some
success. The existence of these two schools has
led at times to debate whether the dark or light
— or as it was called in one discussion which we
remember, the red or the golden — ground-colour
was correct ; and perhaps the truth lies entirely
on neither side. As already remarked, the very
rich ground requires open-air and sun to do the

plumage justice ; while rattier lighter colour
shows more contrast in the show-pen, and was
sought by some exhibitors for that reason. But
opinion has upon the whole settled down in
favour of the rich ground, almost mahogany ;
and though further blending may possibly go on
in order to improve the hens in size and ear-
lobes, it is essential to success in such a course
that there be kept in view as the main points,
the rich ground and green satin spangling of
the old Lancashire Mooney. No breeding that
preserves this in the hens, can go far wrong ; and
there is in this variety one motive which does
not exist in the case of Silvers (the Mooney in
Silvers being much the largest bird) for some
further crossing, in the small size and poorer
laying of the uncrossed Mooney strain. The
Standard itself now lays down that the colour
of the cocks is rich bright bay or mahogany,
and the wing-bows ticked ; and these points,
with the better spangling on breast which is still
badly needed, can only be arrived at by either a
little more Mooney blood, or breeding up to it :
while the white ear-lobes now laid down for the
hens, equally require a little more Yorkshire in
that strain, and more selection for lobe and head.
Could these points be improved, and size and
laying increased, without losing colour, and with
such further unification of blood, though more
or less double mating would still probably be
necessary, this variety of Hamburgh might
probably become one of the most popular,
instead of perhaps the least kept of any.

Some of the chickens when hatched are dark
brown, striped with black, others very light,
almost yellow, depending doubtless on more

Lancashire or Yorkshire blood. The
^°''^®° first feathering also differs a great

Chickens. deal, some being much lighter than

others ; and many are pencilled on
the wings, but this is not so in all. There is
however little or no true spangling in the first
plumage, and on an average the darker chickens
prove the best ; but as this rule is not universal,
if the blood is known to be good, it is best to
await the adult plumage. Usually the bars of
cockerels are not sufficiently heavy in spangling
compared with the rest, or may appear semi-
laced. In that case it is usual to pull these
feathers gently out, beginning at the bottom of
the lower bar, and taking out two or three on
each side every day : the second bar in the same
way, till all have been withdrawn. The bars
usually come again much better spangled.

Most of the early poultry books describe
amongst the varieties of Hamburghs a breed
known as the Redcap, which is undoubtedly

THE DERBYSHIRE REDCAPS.

439

closely allied to one of those described under
the preceding head. These Redcaps have
also been known as " Manchesters," Moss

Pheasants, and some other syn-
Redcaps. onyms besides those mentioned

below. Many years ago, as Red-
caps, they used to have classes at the Sheffield
shows, but subsequently dropped out, until
more recently revived. They always had a
very high reputation amongst those who

Edensor, Bakewell, who has been largely instru-
mental in promoting the interests of the variety,
and bred them for many years :

" The Redcap is one of our oldest breeds of
fowls. It has been kept for a great many years
in the counties of Derbyshire and Yorkshire,
where it has always been most highly thought
of, especially for its laying qualities. Recently,
however, it has become better known, and it is
now largely kept in the United States, Aus-

Derbyshire Redcaps.

knew them, as useful fowls, and the late Mr.
Hewitt wrote highly of them as such in the
first edition of 77^!^ Illustrated Book of Poultry.
He mentioned in particular the much better
carcase, cocks reaching 'j\ lbs. to 9 lbs., while
the meat was tender and delicate ; and the
fact that if equal weights of eggs from Spanish
and Redcaps were used in custard making, the
Redcap eggs went nearly a third further than
the others.

The following short account of Redcaps is
kindly supplied by Mr. Albert E. Wragg, of

tralia, New Zealand, France, Germany, and
Belgium. It is generally supposed to have
originated in Yorkshire, and is probably a near
relation to the Golden-spangled Hamburgh,
having been bred more for size and the large
comb. Game blood undoubtedly enters into
its composition, as the breed is a very pugna-
cious one, and a dubbed Redcap cock might
almost be taken for an Old English Game
cock. It has been known by many different
names, such as Pheasant Fowls, Crammers, Cop-
per Fowls, Yorkshire and Derbyshire Redcaps.

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

" The Redcap cock is a fine-bodied bird
of noble appearance. Nothing could be more
ornamental than his large, symmetrically-shaped
comb, full of a great number of fine long
spikes, with leader behind. It should be well
carried, firm and straight, and standing well
off the eyes. For years Redcaps were bred
with very ugly combs — and some are yet to
be seen winning prizes — and to this fact may
be attributed much of the unpopularity of the
breed in many parts of this country. The
comb should be as large as can be comfortably
carried by the bird. In size it should not greatly
exceed five and a half inches in length and three
and three-quarter inches in breadth. Birds with
ugly combs should not be used for breeding.
Frost seldom injures the large combs of Red-
caps, for I have had birds roosting in plantations
with 26° of frost, and not one has suffered in the
slightest degree. The hen is a shapely bird,
very active, and a good forager, and as a layer
is second to none. She will generally lay from
150 to 200 eggs per year. Redcaps are long-
lived birds, and very hardy, and hens three and
four years old will frequently lay as many eggs
as a pullet. The eggs are white, or slightly
tinted, very rich, and of a beautifully delicate
flavour, and of good size, weighing about 2 ozs.
The hens rarely go broody.

" The chickens are not at all difficult to rear.
To produce strong healthy chickens that will
give no trouble in rearing, the breeding-pen
should consist of a strong active cockerel,
mated with large healthy hens of two, three, or
four years old. They should have a free range,
on grass if possible, and after being mated up,
should not be disturbed, either by sending to
shows, changing the cockerel, or putting in fresh
hens. They breed remarkably true to colour,
but will throw some single-combed chickens,
especially when the cock is of a different strain
from the hens. For breeding exhibition birds it
is best to keep to one strain.

" March and April are the best months for
hatching. The chickens feather quickly, and
should be carefully watched for insect pests in
the hot weather, for these often play great havoc
with them. Good plain food such as biscuit
meal, sharps, barley meal, wheat, barley and
maize (occasionally) will be found the best foods
for them. Overcrowding is bad for them, and
confined runs are the causes of many failures in
rearing them. Pullets hatched in March will
begin to lay about September and October, but
they are not first-rate winter layers except when
well sheltered and warmly housed. They are
very good for table if reared on large runs ;
their flesh is white and of delicious flavour, very

nearly approaching the Game fowl. They make
a splendid bird for crossing with almost any of
the other breeds."

The main characteristic of the Redcap is its
immense rose comb, standing high as well as
wide on the head, and covered on the top
all over by unusually long spikes. The
wattles are long, and the ear-lobes are red, not
white as in other Hamburghs. The cock's
hackles and saddle feathers are rich red striped
with black ; breast and tail black ; back red,
spangled with half-mooned or crescentic black
spangles. The hen's tail is also black, hackles
red striped with black, body plumage reddish
brown spangled with black crescentic spangles.
It cannot fail to be noticed how closely the large
size and crescentic spangling resemble the old
Yorkshire Pheasant, the largest parent-breed of
the Golden-spangled Hamburghs already treated
of ; and if that old breed were, as supposed by
Mr. Wragg, crossed with Game, the further gain
in size and richness of the egg is exactly what
might have been expected.

There can be no question that the Redcap is
a most valuable fowl from an economic point of
view. It has a really good-sized carcase of good
quality ; and in regard to laying, stands almost
alone in the degree to which prolificacy extends
late in life, even to three or four years old. This
is probably connected with the curious fact that
the pullets are not as a rule early layers, but
generally seven months old before they com-
mence. A farmer once told us that he had a
hen which laid nearly as well as ever up to eight
years old, but this was exceptional. They are
hardy in rearing, and a first-class farmer's fowl.

Breeding Redcaps requires some care ; but
that care should not be given to wrong objects.
There has been effort to get " neat " combs ; and
we have seen it stated that the
Breeding spangling of a hen was " as good as

Redcaps. a Hamburgh." It has no business

to be as good as, or in fact at all
like that of a Hamburgh, and any such ideas
will only destroy the Redcap, without making a
decent Hamburgh of it after all. Its proper
spangling is crescentic, not round ; the spangles
should be as black and dense as possible, but
have not the Mooney gloss ; the ground-colour
is red or reddish-brown ; the cock's breast is
black ; the comb must be very large : whenever
that point is lost, the bird will be a Redcap no
longer. Size of body in itself must never be over-
looked, and it must not be forgotten that the
ear-lobes are red. We have seen already birds
which in their whitish ear-lobes, smaller size,
and too great approach to Hamburgh ground
and spangling, gave regrettable evidence of an

SIL VER- PENCILLED HA MB URGHS.

441

endeavour to breed them to Hamburgh lines.
Yellow hackles should be particularly avoided,
breeding dull and washy chickens ; neither
should the black striping be too heavy. Hens
not rich enough in ground-colour, or with
spangling too much like lacing, should also be
discarded : such birds appear to be of the same
stamp as the yellow-hackled cockerels. If these
points are kept in mind, the Redcap, being
originally a coarse breed of natural sex-colours,
will be found to breed fairly true, and both
sexes from one mating.

Pencilled Hamburghs are smaller and lighter
in make than the Spangled, and the Silvers and
Golds were formerly known in Lancashire as

Bolton Greys and Bolton Bays re-
l'''^" spectively, while the Silvers were,

Hamburghs. ^""^ ^•^''^ ^""^ sometimes, called Chit-

tiprats. They are very obviously
closely allied to the somewhat larger but single-
combed breeds described in a subsequent
chapter as Campines and Braekels ; indeed, a
rose-combed Campine would be almost exactly
a Pencilled Hamburgh of fifty years ago, but
long breeding has reduced the size of that bird,
and refined the pencilling of the hens, and
altered that of the cocks, till the appearance of
both has been considerably changed. The cock
depicted in the early poultry books is however
evidently pencilled on the body, very much
as the Continental breeds just mentioned are
at this day.

The head-points of the Silver-pencilled
Hamburgh cock resemble those of other
varieties, except in greater neatness and delicacy
of appearance, the comb being somewhat smaller.
The head, hackle, back, saddle, breast, and
under-parts should be a clear silvery white, free
from straw-colour. The true tail feathers are
black, the sickles and side feathers rich glossy
green-black up the centre, only edged with a
fine white lacing, as sharply defined as possible.
The marbling and splashing or grizzling with
white which once were common, is impossible
now for a successful bird. The wing-coverts or
bar-feathers are generally more or less coarsely
pencilled on the upper or invisible web, the tips
sometimes showing a slight line of black across
the wing ; this slight bar was once cultivated,
and is still allowed, but a white wing is now
preferred. The secondaries are also usually
black or coarsely pencilled on inside web, but
this is invisible. Formerly these feathers were
black on the outer web also for a narrow band
next the quill, but this dark colour is now
discouraged. The fluff on the thighs is also
now preferred as white as possible, whereas

some pencilling used to be bred for there also.
All these changes have been in the direction
of breeding a whiter cock than formerly.

The pullet's hackle also should be silvery
white and clear, but near the bottom is hardly
ever so now. The rest of the body should have
each feather distinctly pencilled across with
narrow bars of black, as distinct and clear as
possible upon the white ground (or in the case of
Golden Pencils, golden ground), and as straight
across the feather as possible. The pencillings
should show a rich green gloss, and range as
much as possible into lines round the body, as
in what are termed " ringlets " in Plymouth
Rocks. The finer the pencilling, and therefore
more numerous the bars, the better ; and the
marking should extend from under the throat
to the end of the tail. On the breast the
pencillings will be fewer, and under the throat
is a particularly weak place, very apt to come
merely spotted, or with horse-shoe markings :
but some birds are well marked even in this
region, though not so well as elsewhere, and
though the best ones are generally most marked
on the hackle. The fact is that breeding for
pencilling alone always tends to produce pencilled
hackle also, as we have seen already in Partridge
Cochins and Brahmas. The tail should be well
pencilled straight across, and this is not so very
rare in the two top feathers of the tail itself;
but it is curious that some pullets properly
pencilled there will fail in the longer tail-coverts,
and vice vcrsd, so that a fine all-round complete
tail is rather rare.

It is in the pencilling of the pullets that most
change has taken place since 1870, as will be
seen from Figs. 127 and i.?8, the former being
photographed exactly the size of
Breeding nature from winners of the present

PencHs ^^Y, whilst Fig. 128 exactly repre-

sents, also of the natural size,
feathers supplied by Mr. Beldon in 1870. It
will be seen that the bars are much more
numerous, finer, and straighter than those of
thirty years before. Most writers state that the
black bars should only equal the light spaces in
width, and feathers are often drawn so : but it is
to be observed that such feathers are draivn,
never photographed, and have not been really seen
yet, while our photographs are taken from two
of the best cup-winners of the year 1900.*
This change has partly caused, and partly been
caused by, a considerable change in the method

* Mr. Pickles had kindly supplied a full set, in duplicate ;
but one of the most important feathers being too much damaged
in transit, and such feathers being too precious at that season to
be plucked freely, Mr. \V. Roberts kindly supplied a substitute.
Except for the damage to the first, the second could scarcely
be distinguished.

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

of breeding. When Mr. Beldon wrote in 1870,
cockerels were selected by breeders and accepted
by the judges with distinct bar upon the wing,
and dark secondary feathers, and such cockerels
would produce pullets of the pencilling then
deemed satisfactory. But purer white bodies
were desired for the cockerels, along with finer
pencilling for the pullets ; and the two were
incompatible. Some good breeders had always
bred from two pens, and these found that their

pullets will sometimes be nearly white, but more
often coarsely and rather lightly marked over
with a coarse marking somewhat like the breast-
feather of Fig. 128.

With pullets another course is pursued. The
cockerels from the best specimens were found to
have the most of the coarse pencilling on the
inside web of the wing-coverts. By selecting
for this, cockerels were soon produced con-
siderably pencilled on the wing, and with

Fig. 127. — Feathers of Pencilled Pullets, igcxj.

best cockerels bred pullets with more white
ground, and coarse marking : in fact pullets
could only be bred at all from the same pen as
cockerels, while the coarser marking of Fig. 128
was accepted as the standard. Sometimes
pullets almost white came from these pens, and
these often bred good cockerels if black in tail.
Cockerels are now therefore bred always in that
way ; an exhibition bird naturally good in comb
and ear-lobes, and silvery in colour, being mated
with pullets or hens of the same strain, the blood
being the main thing, as without it birds which
look just like them may be worthless. These

touches of pencilling on the body, with almost
black tails. Still breeding for finer pencilling
alone, cockerels were bred, exactly as in the
spangled breeds, with hen-feathered tails, and
pencilled all over exactly like the pullets, from
the top of the breast to the tip of the tail. It is
rather curious also, that in thus following up
marking alone, the ear-lobes often came reddish
and the heads coarse, precisely as in the Lan-
cashire Mooneys. Pullets are now always bred
in this way, mating the best that can be got,
with fine pencilling, and a cock or cockerel bred
from the same strain. If he be of the hen-

BREEDING SILVER-PENCILLED HAMBURGHS.

4-13

feathered pullet-marked type, he will speak for
himself: the pencilling will show what he may
be expected to do. If he is of the full-tailed and
black-tailed type, the fineness of the wing-
pencilling is still some guide, but one's real
dependence, if purchasing, must be upon the
breeder. After a while, of course, the fancier
will have matters in his own hands.

This change in Silver-pencilled Hamburghs
and their breeding has not been without injury,
and the variety is not without some drawbacks.
The persistent breeding for fine pencilling has
very perceptibly diminished the size of the fowl
from what it once was, and increased its delicacy.

career is over, and they are valueless except for
breeding. A very small proportion preserve
their fineness of marking ; and such are particu-
larly valuable as breeding stock. It would very
much increase their popularity if they could be
made to last ; and it is probable that this might
be effected if opinion would only tolerate a
slightly coarser pencilling, but still finer than

Wing. Cushion.

Fig. 128.— Feathers of Silver-pencilled Pullet, 1870.

The feathers in Fig. 128 are not only coarser in
marking than the others, but it will be seen that
they are considerably larger, which means that
they came from a larger bird. Such dwarfing
means also a smaller egg, and a weaker consti-
tution, the Pencils being notoriously subject to
roup. The best antidote to this is the free
open-air system. One reason for it is, that
finer pencilling is generally bred from pullets
than from hens ; and in the long run such
breeding, from small birds, always produces
weakness.

This is connected with what is perhaps the
greatest drawback of all in Pencilled Hamburghs.
As a rule the pullets, especially Silvers, can only
be shown as such : after the first moult the
pencilling usually becomes coarse, and their

that of years ago, and with the greater straight-
ness now attained. The ear-lobes turn coarse
also, but in a hen this is tolerated if the pencil-
ling remains good : as in the Mooneys, it must
be put up with if perfect marking alone is to
be considered.

Pencilled Hamburghs have one rather
curious characteristic, quite apart from their
markings. If taken up, or roughly disturbed,
or terrified, especially at night, they scream in
a very peculiar way, and with a persistency
(unless let go) that makes a very effectual
alarm in the case of poultry-thieves.

The Golden-pencilled Hamburgh is in every
respect save ground-colour similar to the Silver-
pencilled breed. The ground-colour in the

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

pullets should be about the colour of gold, as rich
and bright as possible ; the pencilling being ex-
actly like that of the preceding variety, as distinct
and yet as fine as can be got ; that is,
P°^''u? d ^^ many bars as possible across each

Hamburghs. feather, provided they are distinct,
straight, and of a good rich black
colour. The neck-hackle, like the Silver birds',
should be clear. The cock is of a deeper tint, his
colour being somewhat between that of his own
hens and of a Red Game cock ; it is described in
the Standard as a red bay, while the pullets are
termed golden bay ; it must be neither too red
nor too pale, but what might be called very rich
in effect. His proper tail-feathers are black ;
the sickles and side hangers rich black edged
with bronze or gold, the edging being usually
rather wider than in the Silver-pencilled bird,
but a fine narrow edging is much the best for a
breeding bird, though not so showy in the pen.
Sickles all black, or bronzed all over, with
scarcely any black in them, are now out of the
question, though at one time they were tolerated.
Besides the quality of the black pencilling, one
of the points in this variety is the evenness and
richness of the ground-colour. Some pullets,
otherwise good, are uneven in this point, the
ends of the feathers being a lighter colour than
the other parts. As summer advances most
birds fade in colour from the effects of the sun ;
but some pullets of a good rich ground retain
this much better than others, which is, of course,
a great point in their favour. In the cocks the
same fault is commonly seen, appearing in the
shape of a lighter shade on the tips of the feathers
on the breast and under-parts. This fault is to
be particularly avoided.

The breedingof Golden-pencilled Hamburghs
is much the same as for Silver Pencils, putting
a cock or cockerel of exhibition type, of as good
a colour as possible, with neat head.
Breeding comb, and lobes, and sharp narroiv

PenciUed edging to his sickles,with hens of

Hamburghs. the same Strain. Patches of dull
brown or clay-colour are especially
to be avoided in a brood cock. The hens will be
of a reddish gold, and usually pencilled coarsely all
over ; but the known pedigree, or relationship to
good exhibition birds, is the chief thing. Pullets
are almost always bred from cockerels or cocks
more resembling the full-tailed Silver-pencilled
pullet-breeders mentioned above ; in fact we
have heard of very few hen-tailed pullet-marked
cockerels appearing in this variety ; and when
they did there was much suspicion of a Silver
cross. They are usually full-tailed, with very
dull and dirty lacing on the sickles instead of the
bright bay of exhibition birds, but have a good

deal of pencilling on the wing, and often touches
on the rest of the body : the ground-colour
(except lacing of the tail) is generally very dark,
almost maroon. Again pedigree is the main
point with the breeder ; next to this he looks to
the fineness of the pencilling on the cock's wing.
As to the pullets, they speak for themselves.

Golden-pencilled Hamburghs last better than
the Silvers, good moulted hens being seen
occasionally, and such being especially valuable.
There have been curious variations at times in
the ground-colour of the pullets, from very deep
indeed, almost pale mahogany, to quite pale
yellow. In some of the latter birds we have
seen patches of almost white, and suspect a cross
with Silvers. The Standard description of
golden bay, generally understood to denote the
colour of a new sovereign, should terminate such
variations, and this moderately rich ground-
colour is usually pencilled with the richest green-
black. In the full summer sun this colour will
fade somewhat, especially at the tips of the
feathers, and must be watched over if deemed
necessary, as in buff fowls. But this is at a
cost, since the best stock can only be bred
in the open. A piece of wood or shrubbery
on light soil answers all purposes.

Under the name of Black Pheasants, the
Black Hamburgh was known and exhibited a
hundred years ago at the Lancashire village

shows already alluded to. In those
Black days it was of unmixed Hamburgh

Hamburghs. blood, and the opinion of the late

Mr. Teebay and some other olo
breeders was, that it was originally bred from
the full-tailed Silver Mooney, many chickens of
the latter coming almost black. The birds of
that day were shorter in the leg than now,
and of the same shorter formation generally
as the older Mooneys, and with ear-Sobes much
smaller and coarser than now. This old breed
was undoubtedly crossed with the Spanish, in
order to improve the size and quality of the
ear-lobes ; and the size of the fowl and of its
egg were both improved at the same time, while
it likewise became more suitable in disposition
for small runs. Unfortunately, the cross also
introduced a considerable tendency to white in
face, and some coarseness about the head, which
have required a great deal of breeding out ; the
form of the bird also became somewhat taller,
though anything like the stilty carriage of the
Spanish is most objectionable, and the usual
Hamburgh carriage should be sought as far
as possible.

The Black Hamburgh of the present day
is a most striking bird, the combination of

BLACK HAMBURGHS.

445

bright carmine head and face and comb, smooth
white kid ear-lobe, and lustrous green plumage,
making a most beautiful whole. The ear-lobe
is considerably larger now than even twenty
years ago, that of the cock being about the s-'ze
of a florin ; it should be round in shape and
smooth all over, perfectly free from folds or
lines or creases. Such a lobe is, of course, very
apt to be accompanied by more or less white in
face, especially under the eye, a fault much
more common in Blacks than in any other
varieties of Hamburgh. Very few old birds are
indeed free from it, but in young ones it is a
serious fault. A gipsy tint sometimes seen is
also disliked, a cherry red being the desired
colour. In combs also there has been a percep-
tible change in fashion, in the direction of a
longer spike or " leader " at the back, especially
in the cock. Both sexes are of rather larger
size than other Hamburghs, except perhaps
some of the larger Silver Mooneys, and the cock
is of somewhat more commanding carriage, and
should be particularly long and full in feather
about the saddle and tail, the sickles and side-
feathers being broad, but as sound and close
in web as those of a Game cock. The shanks
should be dark leaden blue, and are very often
nearly black up to a year old, but after that
usually get lighter with age.

But the great point in both sexes is "colour,"
which should be of the glossiest green lustre
which it is possible to get, as distinct from either

a purple or mazarine gloss, or a
Breeding mere raven black. The bird should

Hamburghs. be a green bird, rather than a black

one, though of course the colour
is scarcely this about the fluff". It is hard to get
really green tails, but the ends even of the true
tail feathers ought to be green, and the side-
feathers conspicuously so. The neck hackle
also is often more black than green ; and when
really bright is too apt to have red feathers
interspersed among the others. Then also
the purple or the mazarine is cropping up every
now and then.* Altogether, breeding Black
Hamburghs for exhibition is not easier than
breeding other varieties, and requires much care
to get the desired " colour " in combination
with other points.

These other points have been increased in
difficulty by the changes above noted, which are
much to be regretted, and have, as is well
known, actually driven several eminent amateurs
out of the fancy. The long spikes or " leaders "

* Bars of purple or mazarine, something hlie those of a Pen-
cilled Hamburgh, will often occur from even a change of diet.
or any slight illness, while the feather is growing. Even marked
changes in the weather at that time, appear to leave such traces
occasionally.

to the comb now desired, are almost impossible
to keep up naturally, and nearly every comb
now exhibited shows marks of treatment, as
may be seen in those "glossy "-looking portions
already referred to on page 234. The exagger-
ated lobes are often rather too long or mis-
shaped, and trimmed up to the necessary
roundness. On cocks as now exhibited, these
large lobes have become almost as liable to
scab and blister as the faces of Spanish, and
require constant care of the same sort ; and
those of the pullets and hens, though much
smaller in actual measurement, are now preferred
larger in proportion than those of the cocks.
To obtain these it is necessary to select cocks
or cockerels for puUet-breeding with abnormally
large ears, which are almost useless for cockerel-
breeding, and the male progeny from these is
only valuable for the same purpose again. The
size of the ear-lobes makes it especially neces-
sary to be very careful in selecting a smooth
unbroken surface, free from creases, to which
many are liable.

Colour is now bred in two ways. One way,
no doubt the better if it can be followed, is to
mate up the greenest and most glossy birds
on both sides, carefully avoiding any purple
or mazarine shade. If the male bird can be
found bright enough, and the females are also
good in colour, the pullets produced will in
colour be all that can be desired, as well as the
cockerels. But it is not at all easy to obtain such
birds ; and it will be found that many of the
male produce from the very best-coloured hens
or pullets, have a great many red hackles
amongst their neck and saddle feathers. Such
a red-hackled bird, bred from very lustrous
hens, or from the same stock as a good exhi-
bition strain of females, is therefore often mated
with such hens or pullets to keep up the colour,
and will often produce good green pullets even
from hens by no means specially good in colour,
if of the same breeding.

The other points already mentioned tend
further to develop this double-mating system.
It is obvious that for cock-breeding we must
have a male as perfect as possible in comb, with
ear-lobe not larger than desired, smooth, and
well-shaped, a red face with no trace of white,
and plumage entirely free from red feathers or
purple gloss ; while the hens must be as glossy
as possible, but will be all the better for smaller
ear-lobes than are desired for the show-pen.
For pullet-breeding, on the other hand, we must
have in all the hens the full-sized ear-lobes
desired, and a male with extra large lobes as
above, and brilliant colour ; he may, however,
have a considerable amount cf red in hackle.

446

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

and need not be so perfect in comb. It is
greatly to be desired that a return to the more
moderate combs and ear-lobes of the older Black
Hamburgh should moderate these tendencies
towards a double strain of birds, which have
already perceptibly diminished the spread and
popularity of the breed.

The Black Hamburgh is one of the most
generally useful of all the varieties. It is of fair
size, enough to make a decent though not large
fowl upon the table, while the meat is of most
excellent quality. The egg also surpasses those
of other varieties, except perhaps of some Silver
Mooneys ; most of them will average two ounces
each, or eight to the pound, and some are more ;
and these are laid quite freely, many pullets
beginning early in November. Finally, the
variety is hardy, and appears to thrive best of
all the Hamburghs in confinement, having been
known to do well even in a covered run. This
merit is probably due to the Spanish cross, and
is the one benefit which that cross really has
conferred upon the breed. Black Hamburghs
are also little trouble for exhibition, though
more so than formerly, owing to the ear-lobes.
These need attention of the same kind as those
of Minorcas, if the birds have been exposed to
the weather ; and they should be either kept or
got into soft, kid-like condition, by washing and
the powder-puff, in the same way. As a rule,
shelter rather than darkness is required, though
a subdued light has good effect upon the lustre
of the plumage, as well as upon the white kid,
and a week in a dark pen is often necessary.

Black Hamburgh chickens are, when hatched,
white on all the under-parts, the back and upper
parts black, sometimes with a shade of brown.
They are not always black all over, even in their
first chicken feathers, but become so with the
adult plumage. If disturbed or seized at night.
Blacks have the same screaming propensities as
we have already noticed in the Pencilled breeds.

These notes were put together for our last
edition from a former article by the Rev. W.
Serjeantson, of Acton Burnell, Shrewsbury,
some subsequent notes and comments by him,
and one or two notes by Mr. Pickles ; and
still hold good.

White Hamburghs were bred many years
ago in Lancashire — we can remember them
back to about 1866 — but afterwards died out.
They belong to the Pencilled
Various family, and were no doubt pro-

Off-Colours, duced by breeding together the
lightest of these. About 1900 they
were seen again, plainly owing their revival to
the development of very white cock-breeding

pullets, and for a time found a place in the
Standard. They lacked contrast for the white
ear-lobe, and are now apparently defunct as
exhibition birds. In breeding them, select
cocks with glossy and silvery white top-colour,
and neat heads.

In our notes, collected durmg many years,
we find also mention of a Silver laced Ham-
burgh ; a Black Hamburgh laced with white on
the breast ; and a Buff or Gold-pencilled with
white instead of black. This latter could no
doubt be produced by crossing White with
Gold-pencilled : those seen were never liked,
however, the effect in this marking being dis-
agreeable. Mr. Beldon himself possessed at
one time a breed of Cuckoo or blue-barred
Hamburghs, which bred very true, and may
have resulted from crossing White with Black ;
but these also found no favour.

The Buff Hamburgh has not gained a foot-
ing, for it lacks marking and lustre. Mr.
Beldon mentioned Buffs long ago, but we be-
lieve all known before 1870 had died out. Of
some since seen, little disguise was made of the
fact that they had been either made, or at least
improved by a cross with the Buff Leghorn, of
which a rose-combed variety has been several
times attempted. Another strain is stated to
have originated from a cross between a Gold-
spangled cock and a very light cock-breeding
Silver-pencilled hen. The dark legs will always
be a difficulty to keep up when combined with
clear buff plumage free from dark markings,
and such a colour seems to have nothing but
novelty to recommend it.

The purest strains of all Hamburghs will
every now and then produce chickens with single
combs, the more especially when small and neat
combs are bred together. Such an occurrence
is no proof whatever of any cross in the strain,
as some have thought ; it is more probably a
reversion to the ancient progenitor of the
family. In this connection it is interesting to
note that the Turkish fowl of Aldrovandus
already referred to, appears to have had a single
comb, and that such a single-combed Pencilled
fowl exists to-day in the Braekel or Campine.

Hamburghs have some drawbacks as exhibi-
tion fowls ; never looking so well in all points
after the first year. The Pencilled breeds in

most cases lose the fineness of their
Exhibiting pencilling, and in all varieties the
Judging. ear-lobe generally loses much of its

smoothness, and often becomes
tinged with red after that time, especially if
the birds are allowed to run at large. The
late Mr. Beldon was generally acknowledged to

TRIMMING IN HAMBURGHS.

447

bring out his old birds in better condition than
most of his competitors, and this was greatly
due to his system of keeping them under cover.
He had an old disused cotton-mill at his com-
mand, the spacious floors of which were parti-
tioned off into pens from 6 feet to lo feet
square, littered with gravel and straw, and well
lighted by windows. Here the birds could be
kept quite out of wind and sun, yet with plenty
of' light, and were in perfect health under the
sedulous care of the late Mr. Job Rawnsley.
Not many can have the advantage of such space
for penning ; but the lively disposition of Ham-
burghs makes it very advisable that any necessary
confinement for reasons of lobe and colour should
be in as large pens as possible. They need, of
course, a little training in exhibition pens as
well, and cocks will stand a week or two of this ;
but Hamburgh hens and pullets often go back
in condition if kept any length of time in small
pens, and are better only thus treated at short
intervals, with more liberty in between. Even
thus the pens should be larger than usual, say
about 3 feet square.

But the real difficulties of exhibiting
Hamburghs have been more serious than these.
They consisted, first of all, in that complicated
system of double-breeding — for it was more
really that, than what is expressed merely by
double-mating, as now ordinarily understood —
already described. Such a system necessarily
kept the breeds to which it was applied in the
hands of a select circle who understood it ;
nearly all new-comers who were attracted by the
beauty of the fowls and their wonderful laying,
being one after the other disheartened by their
inability to produce progeny like those which
they so admired. But worse followed. The
ideals pursued, and the smallness and wonderful
skill of the coterie which pursued them, have led
to an amount of trimming in Hamburghs as yet
unknown in any other breed. Such combs as
are now required camiot be shown honestly save
in some rare case out of scores, and the vast
majority are cut and carved into shape, as any-
one can see from the glossy scars ; while again
and again needles and pins and wires and
threads have been extracted from them, having
been used to get or to keep them in shape.
A certain number may be bred in the first place ;
but the long spike now demanded soon begins
to drag down by its own weight ; or if not, the
heat of a show soon causes it to droop, and then
it has to be " set up," which in any way is a
most cruel operation. False sickles have re-
peatedly been found fastened in, in such an
ingenious way that even opponents who have
" bowled them out " have expressed their free

and ungrudging admiration, and with entire
good feeling — ^we speak of what we have heard
and seen. As to "thinning out" spangles, we
have already shown that this must be done if
the large spots now bred are to be seen. The
broad practical result has been to make of
Hamburgh-breeding for exhibition a somewhat
peculiar cult, whose followers form almost a
circle of themselves, with their own accepted
methods and ideas of what is fitting. On the
other hand, we have heard it said again and
again by outsiders who have tried it and given
it up again, after finding out what had to be
done, that " no gentleman could show Ham-
burghs," and we know such an impression to be
very widespread indeed. That is exaggeration,
perhaps, though we do think that (with the
exception perhaps of the Pencilled varieties) no
lady could do so without aid from her " man "
of which she was happily ignorant, and that few
gentlemen would wish to, while the present
system is connived at and encouraged by the
judges. And there are certainly some signs of
matters mending. We have gladly chronicled
already some reaction against excessive size of
spangling, which may possibly go further ;
indeed, will have to go further if " thinning " is
to be avoided, and could certainly go further,
with the result of still further increasing the
beauty of the fowl to ordinary eyes.* Comb-
trimming also is beginning to receive more
steady protest than formerly. But there has
been too much ground for the feeling ; and any
such impression on the one hand, combined with
practical restriction to a small circle on the
other, while it produces specimens almost match-
less from a certain point of view, and may even
increase the price of a few such specimens in
their own peculiar market, is ruinous to a
breed as regards general classes, or any wide
popularity or usefulness.

Judging Hamburghs very largely resolves
itself into vigilance in regard to the matters just
referred to, or at least should do so ; the main
" points " being well understood, and seldom in
much doubt. Up to the present we have never
heard of any judge penalising "thinning" — in
other words, wholesale plucking of spangled
feathers — since the days of the late Mr. Teebay,
who did " pass " a few cases for reasons which
he showed us ; nor does such penalty appear
expected or demanded in Hamburgh circles.

* As a proof, see the drawings of Spangled Hamburghs, by
all artists without exception. All birds thus represented show
the "spotting " all over, and are much smaller in spangles than
Mooneys as bred even in 1900. This is perhaps the only case
in which the " ideal " of all artists has rebelled, from sheer
necessity, against the ideal in one point (size of spangle) of the
fancier.

44S

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

This being so, the question arises whether such
thinning should not be legalised, in the same
way as trimming Spanish faces. It should, we
think, be one thing or the other. The fact is,
and it ought to be known, that the judges —
and one now deceased judge in particular, who
persistently encouraged combs that could not
be honest, while he deliberately winked at the
methods by which they were " made " — ha\e
been mainly responsible for the present state
of things. Comb-trimming, at least, is not at
all difficult of detection ; and its bare-faced
toleration has done more to deter the genuine
amateurs from attempting to exhibit Ham-
burghs than anything else.

The Standards of the Poultry Club for
Hamburghs and Redcaps are as follow: —

HAMBURGHS

GENERAL CHAR.\CTERISTICS

COCK

Head. — Skull : Fine. Beak : Short. Eyes : Full.
Comb : Rose, firmly and evenly set on the head,
square fronted, gradually tapering towards the back
and narrowing into a long, finely-ended spike or
leader pointing in a straight line with the surface of
the comb, and without any downward tendency, the
top level and covered wdth small coral-like points of
even height, and free from hollows. Face : Smooth,
free from coarse skin and stubby hairs. Ear-lobes :
Smooth, round, and thick, varying in size according
to sex and variety. Wattles : Smooth, round, and thin.

Neck. — Of inedium length, and covered with full
and long hackle feathers coming well over the
shoulders.

Body. — Of medium length, wedge shaped, fairly
full at the shoulders and narrowing to the root of
the tail ; well rounded breast, and large and neatly
tucked wings.

Tail. — Long and sweeping, carried well up but
avoiding " squirrel " carriage, the sicldes and second-
aries broad and plentiful.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Of medium length, the
thighs slender and the shanks fine and round. Toes :
Four on each foot, slender, and well spread.

Carriage. — Graceful.

Weight. — Pencilled, about j lb. ; other varieties,
heavier.

Plumage. — Very profuse.

HEN

The general characteristics of the hen are similar
to those of the cock, allowing for the natural se.xual
differences.

Weight. — Pencilled, about 4 lb. ; other varieties,
heavier.

COLOUR

THE BL.\CK

Beak : Black or horn. Eyes, Comb, Face, and
Wattles : Red. Ear-lobes : White. Legs and Feet :
Black.

Plumage. — .\ rich black, wdth a distinct green
sheen from head to tail, and especially on the sickle
feathers and tail-coverts, any approach to bronze
or purple tinge or barring to be avoided.

THE GOLD PENCILLED

Beak : Horn. Eyes, Comb, Face, and Wattles :
Red. Ear-lobes : White. Legs : Lead blue.

Plumage of the Cock. — A bright red bay or bright
golden chestnut, except the Tail, which is black,
the Sickle feathers and Coverts being laced all round
with a narrow strip of gold.

Plumage of the Hen. — The ground colour similar
to the general colour of the cock, and except on the
hackle (which should be clear of all marking, if
possible), each feather distinctly and evenly pencilled
straight across wdth fine parallel lines of a rich green
black, the pencilling and the intervening colour to
be the same wddth, and the finer and the more
numerous on each feather the better.

THE SILVER PENCILLED

Except that the ground colour, and in the cock
the tail lacings, are silver, this variety is similar to
the former.

THE GOLD SP.\NGLED

Beak, Eyes, Comb, Face, Wattles, Ear-lobes,
Legs, and Feet : As in the Pencilled varieties.

Plumage of the Cock. — Ground colour rich bright
bay or mahogany ; stidping, spangUng, tipping, and
tail rich green black. Hackles and Back : Each
feather striped down the centre. Wings : Bows,
dagger-shaped tips at the end of each feather ;
bars (two), rows of large spangles, running parallel
across each wdng with a gentle curve, each bar
distinct and separate ; secondaries tipped wdth
large round spangles, forming the " steppings."
Breast and Under-parts : Each feather tipped with
a round spot or spangle, small near the throat and
incixasing in size towards the thighs, but never so
large as to overlap.

Plumage of the Hen. — The ground colour and
spangling are similar to those of the cock. Hackle,
Wing-bars, and " Steppings " : As in the cock.
Tail-coverts : Biack, wth a sharp lacing or edging
of gold on each feather. Remainder of Plumage :
Each feather tipped \\dth a spangle, as round as
possible, and never so large as to overlap, the
tpangling commencing high up the throat.

THE SILVER SP.^NGLED

Beak, Eyes, Comb, Face, Wattles, Ear-lobes,
Legs, and Feet : As in the Pencilled varieties.

Plumage of the Cock. — Ground colour, pure silver ;
spangling and tipping rich green black. Hackles,
Shoulders, and Back : Each feather marked with
small, dagger-like tips. Wings : Bows, dagger-
shaped tips, increasing in size until they merge
into what is known as the third bar ; bars (two)
and secondaries, also Breast and Under-parts simi-
larly marked to those of the Gold Spangled variety.
Tail : Ending with bold half-moon shaped spangles ;
sickles, with large round spangles at the end of
each feather ; coverts, similar, though spangles not
so big.

yfao//i^ ^ipr ^iM.n /,'//

HAMBURGHS AND REDCAPS

45°

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Plumage of the Hen. — The colours of the ground
and spangling ai-e similar to those of the cock.
Hackle : Jlarked from the iiead with dagger-shaped
tips, which gradually increase in width until they
merge into spangles at the bottom. Wings : Second-
aries, as in the cock ; bars similar to those of the
Gold Spangled hen. Tail : Each feather with a
half-moon shaped spangle at the end ; coverts,
reaching half-way up the true tail feathers, form
a row across the tail (each side) of round spangles.
Remainder of Plumage : Marked as in the Gold
hen.

SCALE OF POINTS

THE BLACK
COCK

Head: comb, 15 ; face, 15 ; ear-lobes, 15 .. 45

Colour . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Tail 15

Shape, style, and condition .. .. .. 15

HEN

Head : comb, 15 ; face, 15 ; ear-lobes, 15

Colour

Shape, style, and condition

Tail .. '

THE PENCILLED
COCK

Tail

Colour

Head : comb, 10 ; ear-lobes, 10 ; face.

Shape, style, and condition

Markings

Head : comb, 10 ; ear-lobes, 5 ; face, 5

Colour

Shape, style, and condition

THE SP.\N'GLED

The points for this variety (both colours and
either se.x) are the same as those for the Pencilled
hen, given above.

Serious dejects : White face ; single comb ; red ear-
lobes ; "squirrel " or wry tail ; or any other deformity.
(Note. — If a Hamburgh has the power to rest its
tail on either side at will, bringing the tail over
from one side to the other, it shall not be accounted
wry-tailed. This is according to the standard of
the Hamburgh Club.— W. W. B.)

symmetrical shape, with straight leader, full of fme
work or spikes, free from hollow in centre, set straight
on the head, not hanging too much in front, and
carried well off the eyes ; size about 5 inches by
4 inches. Face : Smooth. Ear-lobes : Of medium
size. Wattles : Long and well rounded.

Neck. — Of moderate length, and well furnished
with hackle.

Body. — Breast : Full and rounded. Back : Fairly
broad and long. Wings : Moderately long, fitting
closely to the sides.

Tail. — Full, and carried almost upright, the
sickles being broad and long and well arched.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Short thighs, moderately
long and strong shanks. Toes : Four on each foot,
and well spread.

Carriage. — Active and graceful.

Weight.— About yi; lb.

Except that the Tail is carried somewhat low,
the general characteristics of the hen are similar
to those of the cock, allowing for the natural sexual
differences.

Weight.— From sh lb. to 6-5- lb.

COLOUR

Beak : Horn. Eyes : Red. Comb, Face, Wattles,
and Ear-lobes : Bright red. Legs and Feet : Slate.

Plumage of the Cock. — Head : Red. Hackle and
Saddle : Red, each leather marked down the centre
with a stripe of black. Back : Red, spangled with
black. Witigs : Bow, rich red ; coverts, rich red,
each feather ending with a black spangle forming a
black bar across the wing ; primaries and secondaries,
red, heavily tipped (at the ends) with black. Breast,
Under-pai'ts, Tail, and Hangers : Black.

Plumage of the Hen. — Head and Hackle : As in
the cock. Back and Breast : Ground, deep red-
brown, free from smuttiness, each feather tipped
with a half-moon black spangle, the markings on
the breast, back, and wings to be as uniform as
possible. Wings : Primaries and secondaries as in
the cock ; coverts evenly spangled. Tail : Black.

SCALE OF POINTS

Head : comb, 20 ; ear-lobes and wattles, 10 ;

skull, 5 35

Colour and markings

Size . .

Condition

Type

Tail

Legs and feet

REDCAPS

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Skull : Long and broad. Beak : Short
and small. Eyes : Full. Comb : Rose, large, of

Serious defects : Comb over to either side of the
head ; white ear-lobes ; round back ; squirrel or
wry tail ; feathers on shanks or toes ; other than
slate coloured legs ; other than four toes on each
foot.

45 »

CHAPTER XXX.

POLISH fowls were formerly called Polands,
but the latter name was gradually super-
seded from a conviction that the birds
had no real connection with Poland, and that
this was a mere colloquial corruption of their
" polled " or crested character. This is still the
most probable hypothesis ; though the recent
discovery of races of fowls with crests and
beards and whiskers throughout South Russia,
has perhaps added somewhat more plausibility
to a possible geographical origin of the name,
than existed some years ago.

The chief outward characteristic of all Polish
fowls is the crest ; but this is connected with
a craniological peculiarity still more remarkable
and distinct, though not so evident to mere
observation. It consists of a spherical pro-
tuberance at the top of the skull, generally
pierced by apertures which are only covered by
skin, and whose size is in proportion to that of
the crest, so that the best crested birds can be
known as soon as hatched, from the size of this
protuberance alone. Excess in one part being
often connected with defect in some other, as
Mr. Darwin pointed out, the skulls with this
peculiarity usually show a chasm in the inter-
maxillary bones, which in other fowls support
the roof of the nostrils ; owing to which defi-
ciency in bony support the nostrils of all heavily
crested fowls appear flattened and depressed,
and yet cavernous in character. Fig. 129 is
drawn from the skull of a Polish fowl in the
Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, and
shows clearly both the bony protuberance of the
skull, pierced by apertures, and the chasm in the
bone over the nostrils. These peculiarities
were misunderstood by the older naturalists ;
Blumenbach believing that they were rarely
found in the cocks, while Pallas attributed them
either to disease or a cross with the Guinea
fowl ; and even the late Professor Owen (in the
catalogue of the Museum just mentioned) in-
clining to the idea of disease. The true nature
of this peculiar structure, and its connection
with the size of crest, were first clearly pointed
out by the late Dr. Horner, in Wlngfield and
Johnson's Poultry Book of 1853.

Besides the crest, the majority of the Polish
varieties now bred are furnished with abundant
beards, and side-muffs or whiskers covering the
cheeks, while in such birds the wattles have
entirely or almost disappeared. These features
have however been subject to changes of fashion
and breeding in the history of the fowl. Not
only is the present white-crested Black variety
still wattled and beardless, but before the era of
poultry-shows the Spangled breeds in England

Fig. 129.— Skull of Polish Fowl.

were the same, and the late Mr. John Baily has
left it on record that the first bearded specimens,
then called by him and other dealers "Muffeties,"
were not regarded as true. The late Mr. Baker
is believed to have been the first importer of
bearded specimens, and supported them ; and
this type finally prevailed in all but the white-
crested breed. There is one more peculiarity of
the race, in a two-horned or double character of
the comb. This is sought as small as possible,
and is in most specimens almost invisible ; but
however rudimentary it may be, the double
character can be discerned ; and in allied breeds
like Creves and Houdans the double develop-
ment becomes very marked. This general
tendency to development of bifurcation in comb,
protuberance in skull, beards, and whiskers, in
combination with large crest, is remarkable as
the type of a race which has profoundly
impressed the poultry of France, Holland,
Germany, and Russia.

452

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Polish fowls may be regarded generally as
non-sitters, but exceptions are rather more
numerous than with some other non-incubating
breeds. They are good layers of
Qualities large white eggs ; but the bulk of
and these are usually laid between

Management. February and the moult, and they
are not as a rule good winter
layers, though they have proved so if given
proper diet, with adequate care and shelter.
The flesh is tender and juicy. Most strains
must be pronounced delicate, and specially sus-
ceptible to colds if allowed out in the wet with
the crests in natural condition, as these retain
the moisture. Some breeders however report
differently in this respect, and by treatment of
the crests this difficulty may be overcome. There
is however, owing no doubt to the scarcity of
breeders, some undoubted weakness of consti-
tution, in addition to this, leading to a special
frequency of crooked backs and wry tails, which
are more common in Polish than in any other
breeds. The chickens are very apt to droop at
a month to six weeks old, while fledging, and at
such times require special support and a little
coddling, which is more effective than meat or
stimulants, though these are useful in modera-
tion, especially a little chopped cheese and
sunflower-seed. On the whole, Polish are best
suited for limited grass-runs, with ample shed-
room in which they can be confined. In such
circumstances they thrive well if properly
attended to, and quickly become exceedingly
affectionate and tame.

One or two points of practical management
require attention. The birds should if possible
be always driven in out of the rain, or at least of
any heavy rain, though this is not quite so
necessary when they are treated as presently
mentioned. Even then, however, this remains
the most vulnerable point in regard to health.
The fountain should have a very small opening,
in which the bottom of the crest cannot get wet.
When moult approaches, care should be taken
that the birds do not peck each other's crests,
which they are very apt to do in the young quill
stage, especially that of the cock, who will stand
still as if he enjoyed it, while his hens pick every
quill out. It is much the safest and best to put
him in a compartment by himself till his crest be
grown. Both at the moult, and as the bird
grows the crest in chickenhood, the horny
sheaths of these feathers should be attended to.
Fowls preen the rest of their plumage them-
selves, thus removing the dry sheaths at the
proper time, and leaving the feather free to
expand ; but the crest they cannot reach,
and it is necessary at the right time (not too

soon) to remove the dry sheaths of the crest
feathers with the thumb-nail.

Polish should not be hatched very early, or
late. April is a good month, and at this period
the chickens usually thrive well if on dry soil.
Early-hatched ones often perish, and late-
hatched ones hardly ever grow good crests.
The latter are only found on birds that have
thriven from infancy, and are generally last of
all to moult out perfect The size of the
crest, if it grows favourably, can be seen from
that of the little downy poll.

Polish are not practically used for crossing ;
but almost the whole range of French poultry
proves their value in this respect, the Houdan
and Creve and many other breeds being mainly
of Polish blood. We happen to know that a
direct cross with the Dorking produces a fowl
with delicious flesh, which is a good layer, and
is also hardy, but very variable in appearance.

Proceeding now to treat of Polish as exhibi-
tion fowls, it is deeply to be regretted that
this handsome race should have declined in
popularity to an extent only paralleled by the
case of the Spanish. Very rarely at shows
are any classes at all now provided for
them, whereas from 1850 to about 1865 the
Polish classes were amongst the best filled, and
most of the known varieties were occasionally
met with. At the Birmingham show of 1855,
Gold and Silver Spangled and Laced, Buff
Laced, Lead-coloured (blue or Andalusian),
White-crested Whites, Black-crested Blacks,
Yellows, and Greys were represented, many of
which are now forgotten. Unfortunately the
present scarcity of breeders tends to perpetuate
some of the evils already mentioned, and has
caused some obvious deterioration in several
respects : in fact many specimens show the
obvious need of fresh blood. This can readily
be procured from the Continent ; and Polish
are also popular and well supported in both the
United States and Canada ; several breeders at
London, Ontario, in particular, exhibiting speci-
mens in the United States as well as their own
country, which have challenged admiration.

This popularity in a severe climate is
remarkable, and we think it probable that the
maintenance of Polish under such circumstances
may be due to management of the crests. Years
ago these were simply left on, not only with
consequences and difficulties to which we have
alluded, but to the great detriment of fertility
as well, which may have partly caused the great
decline of Polish fowls in England. The trouble
of keeping the crests clean is considerable, and
the birds being often unable to see, are some-

WHITE-CRESTED BLACK POLISH.

453

times so startled that they may even die from
shock, while many eggs prove barren. The
more skilled fanciers of to-day adopt expedients
to prevent this ; and in England it has been the
custom to cut off the crests of both sexes after
exhibition is over, in the case of laying and
breeding stock. The American plan is more
usually to tie up the crest, which is also often
done if required to get it into better shape, or
more perfect symmetry; as, for e.xample, if it
tends to grow one-sided, or open in the centre.
Sometimes two or three small india-rubber
bands will keep the crest together and out of
the eyes : sometimes it may be quite bandaged
up in narrow tape : more usually threads are
passed round and through as required, by the
help of a needle — not of course through the
quills. The crests are often tied up even for
a railway journey. In one or other of these
ways, unfertile eggs and irregularity of feeding
may be avoided.

The varieties of Polish generally recognised
at present are white-crested Blacks, Gold and
Silver Spangled, and Chamois or Buff Laced.
Others can only receive mention.

The White-crested Black Polish is tolerably
uniform in size, the finer specimens usually
reaching about 6 lbs. in the cock and 5 lbs.
in the hen. Our own opinion is
that it is usually the most delicate
of the varieties ; but Mr. Peter
Unsworth, who bred it many
years, reported it as hardy even in a wet and
damp situation. The body is neat and compact,
with fine bones and a flowing tail in the cock ;
and the carriage, as in all Polish, may be best
described as suggestive of foppishness in the
cock, and inquisitiveness in the hen. The
plumage of the body is glossy black, of the
crest pure white, except that there are always
a few black feathers, the fewer the better, in the
front over the nostrils, which it is a pity are not
mentioned in the Standard, as they are always
there unless trimmed away. The face is smooth
and red, wattles rather long and red, ear-lobes
small, round, and white, beak dark, legs dark
blue or nearly black. The comb should be
practically absent, but on close inspection two
very small horns can generally be discerned.

In breeding this variety, the chief point is
to get birds with as good crests as possible
on both sides, as regards both size, shape, and
colour, in which is included snowiness of the
white, and the fewest black feathers. If some
choice has to be made of defect, a good large
crest in the cock is of more importance than
in the hen. A single mating will breed both

Wliite-crested

Black

Polish.

sexes alike good, if the parents are satisfactory;
though of course if a good-crested cock is
mated with hens not so good, more well-crested
cockerels than pullets are likely to be produced.
The same remarks apply to the White-
crested Blue Polish.

Spangled Polish are bred in two colours,
Silver and Golden, in which alone their differ-
ence consists. The Gold would appear the
oldest and strongest strain, as a
Gold aud Silver g^eat many instances are recorded
Polish. of Silvers breeding Golden speci-

mens, while we can remember
hardly any case of Golds breeding Silvers.
Golds and Silvers have been crossed by many

Cock Hen Hen

(Young). (First Year). (Second Year).

Fig. 130. — Crest Feathers, Spangled Polish.

breeders at different times, the produce being
almost always distinct Gold or Silver, without
weakening of either colour. Notwithstanding
this evident community of blood, the Silvers
exhibited have as a rule been larger than the
Golden, though some very large and fine
Golden Polish have been exhibited by the late
Mr. Joseph Partington * on various occasions ;

* Mr. Partington had kindly undertaken the article on
Polish for this work ; but his death in the summer of 1901,
deeply regretted by many for other reasons, suddenly deprived
us of his valuable aid in that manner. This article is written
partly from details gathered from him at different times ; partly
from some notes kindly sent by the Rev. Godfrey J. Horner ol
York, son of the late Dr. Horner ; and partly from a few notes
or comments made on his former articles by the late Mr. Henry
Beldon.

4S4

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

even these, however, were scarcely equal in size
to the largest of his Silvers. Some of the
latter we know to have reached as much as
8^ lbs. in cocks and 6i lbs. in hens.

The crests of both Spangled varieties are
relatively larger than in the White-crested
Black, and that of the cock generally spreads
more open ; but it is desired as free from any
hollowness or " pancake " formation, and as full
and round on top, as possible, rising well up

round as a ball, and also <:hanges with her age.
The first year it is black in the centre and
edged with white, the width of this edging
differing with the heaviness of marking else-
where ; but after moult the centre becomes
white, with a heavy lacing of black (Fig. 130),
and later this may be edged with white, the
crest getting lighter, with perhaps some quite
white feathers, as the bird gets older.

In regard to the rest of the plumage there

Breast. Shoulder. Wing-bar.

Fig. 131. — Feathers of Silver Spangled Polish Code.

in front, and falling down towards sides and
back with no split or division. It has already
been intimated that beardless Spangles were
first known in England, and these were more on
a par with the Blacks in point of crest ; but
with the bearded race came great improvement
in this respect Taking the Silver for example,
and simply substituting a golden ground for
silver in the other breed, the crest-feathers of
the cock somewhat resemble hackles in struc-
ture, and are black at the base, white in the
middle part, and tipped with black at the ends
(F'g- 130). the white however increasing with
age. That of the hen should be filled up as

have been considerable changes. The birds
first shown were spangled with round spangles
all over, except on the wings, which were always
more or less laced ; the remains of this marking
being seen in the hackles to-day. But this
spangling was never so perfect as in Hamburghs,
and the superior beauty of laced marking soon
brought it to the front, where it has remained
the accepted standard ever since. The beard of
the cock should be thickly laced, or very dark :
his hackles and saddle feathers tipped with
black ; the shoulders more heavily spotted, but
with a notch showing some little approach to
lacing ; the feathers of the wing-bars almost

Vi^\ ^%-

THE SPANGLING OF POLISH.

455

perfectly laced, and the breast a broader lacing
of more crescentic character, but still going
round the feather. The cock feathers are shown
in Fig. 131.* His secondary quills should also
be well laced round with black. The true tail-
feathers are supposed to be white, edged with
black, but are more usually a bit peppered or
grey, with more tipping at the ends than
lacing at the sides ; the sickles also should be
edged with black with a thicker end or
splash, or sort of spangle, and these also
are usually more or less grey inside the

secondaries are very evenly laced, and the tail-
feathers should be well edged, with a thicker
crescentic spangle at the tip, and as clear as
possible, though here also there is generally
a little pepper or grey. The hen's feathers are
shown in Fig. 132.

The ground-colour of Silvers should of
course be as silvery as possible, and demands
the same careful selection in breeding, and care
to preserve it, as other white breeds. In Golds
the colour of the cocks is a deep golden bay
on the breast, and more reddish bay above*;

Hackle.

Wing-bow.

Wing-bar.

Fig. 132. — Feathers of Silver Spangled Polish lien.

lacing. These darker-tailed cocks make the
best breeders.

The beard of the hen should be full, and
well marked with black, but is not so very dark
as in the cock. The neck-hackle should be well
tipped with black, the tipping being a kind of
semi-lacing : the breast heavily laced, thicker at
the tips of the feathers, but less crescentic in
character than in the cock ; the wing-bow, bars,
and tail-coverts rather heavily but more evenly
laced, though the marking is almost always
rather wider at the tips of the feathers. Her

* These figureshavebeen reproduced from Mr. Beldon's feathers
of 1872, for the simple reason that we have been unable to find
any even so good at the present day. The reasons for this
deterioration have partly appeared already, and are further
discussed in the remarks following.

that of the hen a golden bay. The legs of
both varieties are a dark or slaty blue, and
the beaks dark horn or dirty blue.

In regard to the breeding of Spangled
Polish, we have to consider the probable causes
of the change or deterioration in marking —
whichever it be termed — which has
undoubtedly taken place during the
last fifteen years. At show after
show which we have visited, we
have found the Spangled Polish (when there
were any at all) very fine in crest, except for
too much openness of centre in the cocks, but
with obvious return to very poor spangling on
the breast, instead of the true lacing which is

* We think the Standard deficient, in not describing or
recognising this more reddish top-colour.

Breeding
Spangled
Polish.

4S6

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

recognised as the correct type. We could under-
stand deliberate preference for really good
round spangling ; but the marking here referred
to has not been that ; it has been very poor,
irregular, imperfect tipping of the feathers, not
even a regular crescentic spangling, and every
breeder whom we have asked, has admitted it
as a fault. No doubt this has partly been due
to lack of breeders, and consequently of blood,
and of any encouragement at poultry shows.
But the reason is far more to be found in the
too great disregard of marking, and practically
matching birds together solely for crest. This
may have been a necessity, since crest has been
the chief point in judging. But good lacing
is never an easy marking to breed ; and if it be
really neglected in competition with some other
point, it must inevitably suffer, as it has done
here. The need of care, and the evil which
may follow any return to a bad spangling, is
curiously illustrated by an experience related in
a letter to us from the Rev. G. J. Horner. The
Golden Polish that came to him from his father,
the late Dr. Horner, were spangled. Dr. Horner
preferring that style. These birds soon gave
him offspring devoid of all marking, so that
he had some difficulty in breeding the stock up
again. Such a result shows clearly the necessity
for keeping up a really good and correctly
laced marking.

Good crests must of course be selected,
especially in the cocks, and crest may also be
cultivated to some extent by breeding only from
old birds on both sides, a plan pursued by
the late Mr. Sylvester. But if Spangled Polish
are ever to reach again even the standard of
marking formerly attained, more care nmst be
bestowed upon lacing in comparison with crest ;
the standard of perfection being the Chamois
variety next mentioned, which in accuracy and
beauty of marking is far superior. Birds must
be selected whose lacing is sharp and cleanly
cut, and as even as possible all round the
feather; and in particular, cocks whose breast-
feathers do not run out of lacing up the sides.
Slightly dark markings are generally to be
preferred, as in other cases, except that birds
with the narrowest tipping in proportion to the
lacing at the sides of the feather, should be
specially valued. As a rule a cock with rather
grey or peppered tail, breeds better laced
chickens than a white-tailed one. There is
no necessity for mating up two pens. While
old birds on both sides generally breed the
largest crests, a cockerel very often breeds the
largest and most vigorous chickens.

Newly hatched chickens of the Spangled
breeds are a smudgy grey or smudgy brown

respectively, the darker ones being usually the
best marked when moulted out. The first or
chicken feathers are very indistinct and patchy,
and it is only in the full plumage that the
character and beauty of the marking can be
seen. Except in the gradual appearance of
more white in the crests, the plumage generally
improves with age for at least several years.

Another most beautiful variety, obviously
allied to the Golden in the same way as
Piles are allied to Black-breasted Red Game,

and probably produced originally,
Chuoois or though generations ago, by crossing
Polish. Golden Spangled with White, is

known as the Chamois or Buff
Laced Polish, in which the black lacing is re-
placed by white, but of much greater sharpness
and perfection. In regard to the points and
breeding of this variety we need add nothing to
the following article, kindly contributed by
Mr. R. Gordon, Cheviot Cottage, Leven, N.B.,
but we would call special attention to what is
there stated regarding its hardiness. This is
a striking proof of the difference between
strong foreign blood, nourished by stock widely
prevalent, and some present worn-out strains
of Polish. The beauty and perfection of
the lacing is also a proof that care for all the
points, instead of breeding for crest alone,
produces the best result in the end, even from
a fancier's point of view.

" All varieties of Polish are beautiful, but
the Buff-laces are truly visions of loveliness.
Imagine the cock, a noble upstanding bird,
crowned with a voluminous but symmetrical
crest, and with ample muffling on cheeks and
throat ; a well-curved neck clad with lustrous
plumage of orange-buff hue ; back and wing-bow
a shade deeper in colour, and saddle matching
the hackles of the neck. Side hangers and
tail rich buff, each feather sharply margined
with white. Breast, wing-bars, and fluffy feathers
at side of thigh all rich buff, every feather
narrowly but most distinctly laced with pure
white. The whole plumage of the hen is one
uniform shade of orange-buff, every feather from
crest to tail being laced with white. In the cock
the crest is solid buff, but in the hen is fully
laced, and is always at its best the first year.
Comb and wattles are almost rudimentary in
both sexes. Legs are clear blue, and beaks of a
light skin colour. Add to this a sprightly gaiety
of movement which seems to characterise these
fowls when at liberty, and it can well be imagined
that when disporting themselves on a green-
sward a picture of surpassing lovelicess is pre-
sented to the beholder.

WHITE-CRESTED BLACK

SILVER SPANGLED POLISH

458

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

" When I first took up the breed a year or
two ago, I had to go to Holland for stock, being
unable to find the names of any breeders of the
variety in this country. A prominent Dutch
fancier selected the best pair at the Amsterdam
Show for me, and afterwards I was fortunate in
getting some birds of a strain which had been
imported into England from Hanover. Breeding
carefully and on scientific lines from these two
distinct stocks, I am able to confidently offer
the following remarks on the propagation of the
breed.

" First of all, as to the shade of buff If we
select a light buff, then there is not sufficient
contrast between the lacing and the ground-
colour, and much of the beauty is lost. If we
encourage a very dark buff, then the white lacing
takes on a brown tinge, and again much of the
beauty is lost. The latter class of hen also
throws cocks with an almost red top-colour.
The true shade to be sought after is undoubtedly
a rich orange-buff, which takes and maintains
the white lacing in undimmed purity.

" As to the lacing, we must adhere to a
sharp, narrow, but very distinct character, par-
taking somewhat of the Sebright type. If the
white lacing is too broad, then the feathers of
the breast and elsewhere, which overlap each
other, will show little else than masses of almost
unbroken white, especially on breast and cushion.
But on the other hand, if we keep to the clear,
narrow type, the balance of ground-colour and
lacing is maintained in most harmonious pro-
portions, and all the beauty of a rich contrast is
visible under every condition.

" It is not necessary to breed the se.xes from
different pens ; one mating is sufficient. The
male bird should conform to the colour and type
previously described, but if he is just a trifle on
the deep side as to colour, so much the better.
It is imperative that he should have been bred
from a sound-coloured, well-laced hen ; a male
bird bred from a pale-coloured, washy-looking
hen, although of good colour himself, will throw
nothing but inferior stock. The hens selected
for breeding purposes should be of good, sound,
medium colour, all very clearly laced. The
crests of the females should be as large and
globular-shaped as possible, and that of the cock
should not be straggling, and especially not
falling over the front of his face. The length
and weight of some of the feathers in very large
crests inclines them to a drooping condition, but
the general tendency is a clear rise up from the
front, and a graceful backward sweep.

" When mating up a breeding pen, it is most
desirable to cut the crests completely off the
whole of the birds, as well as some of the

muffling round the eyes. They can then see to
feed and forage properly, and the hens are not
startled by the sudden attentions of the male
bird. The result is very few, if any, unfertile
eggs ; but should this precaution be neglected,
the opposite may be the case.

" After the first year both sexes throw a few
whole white feathers in crests. This is charac-
teristic of the breed, and, I am of opinion, can
never be greatly modified ; but indeed it is no
drawback to the appearance of the birds. It is
merely Nature's intimation that the fowls are
over a year old.

"While the tails of the females are generally
sound-coloured, those of the males are some-
times not quite so good. The white lacing is
inclined to run occasionally into the web of the
sickles and lose its sharpnes.s of character, and
especially is this so with males of over one year
old. Careful mating will, however, go far to
control this.

" The Buff-laces are of true Polish blood, and
breed to type and colour with almost unfailing
fidelity. I have only known one bird which
threw a chicken not a buff-laced, and that was a
hen which occasionally threw a golden-spangled
sport. I dispensed with both her and her
progeny, although it was no sign of impurity,
but merely the flickering acknowledgment of
the influence of a long-distant Golden Polish
ancestor. It is well known that a cross of two
entirely unrelated strains of almost any breed of
poultry, generally throws chickens of anything
but standard quality. But when I crossed such
widely different strains as the Dutch and
German ones previously mentioned, I got
scarcely a single weed as the result. The
majority were finer in size, colour, lacing, and
vigour than either parent. This undoubtedly
goes to prove that so firmly fixed in the Buff-
laces is the true old prepotent Polish blood, that
the law of reversion is practically inoperative,
when stocks of untainted purity and long descent
are selected. At the great Paris Show there
are always to be found many lovely specimens
of the Polish bieads, and conspicuous among
these is the large proportion of Buff-laced birds
usually shown. At the 1897 show especially
the Buff-laces were very numerous. They were
the admired of countless observers, and it is
doubtful if the cock which took premier honours,
the property of the Comte de Lainsecq, could
be surpassed. Everything was there : size,
carriage, shape, crest, colour, and lacing ; he
stood a king among his peers.

" With regard to utility qualities, the hens
are good layers of white-shelled eggs from about
the beginning of February to the middle of

OTHER VARIETIES OF POLISH.

459

September. The eggs are not only large for the
size of the fowls, but they are really large eggs
when produced by birds over one year old. I
have not found the hens to be very good winter
layers, but I never put them on special diet
for that purpose, and have no doubt that if they
were specially treated for egg-production at that
season, they would yield a fair return. As table
fowls they are of fair size, fine shape, and carry
a goodly quantity of breast meat of most excel-
lent flavour and quality.

" I have sometimes read that Polish fowls
are delicate. I suppose some people must
have found them so, but surely the Buff-laces
are not included in this category. My whole
experience of them is in the contrary direction.
I bred Silver Wyandottes and Indian Game
for many years, and when I say that my Buff-
laces have proved hardier than either of these,
I state no more than the bare truth, and need
say nothing further on this subject."

Many other varieties of Polish have been
seen at different times, and some of them may
still be found on the Continent. The White —

all white — variety is a large and
Other fine bearded race of fowls, but we

Varieties. have seen none in England since

about 1880. The Black - crested
White was said to be even larger, and probably
the largest of all ; this was also bearded and
heavily crested, but is believed to be now extinct
everj-where, as many inquiries on the Continent
have failed to bring to light any survivors. The
colour has been approached by several manufac-
turers, but the fowls thus produced were far
beneath the size and character reported of the
old breed. Black Polish have been shown in
England years ago, and a few years since were
reported at a Paris show : these were beardless,
and rather small. The White-crested Blue is a
recent Continental importation, though it was
bred in England forty years ago, and is obviously
connected with the Black variety. Cuckoos have
been shown several times, but are not pleasing :
abroad they are somewhat more often seen.
The French have a variety they call Ermine,
whicli is a white picked out with black very
much after the colour of a Light Brahma : this
colour ought to look very attractive when in
good condition. Buff is another Continental
variety not particularly rare. The original
Poultry Book of 1853 ^^^o mentions a black and
white speckled breed, and a grey or grizzled
variety with heavy crests and beards, and in
plumage resembling that of Silver-pencilled
Hamburghs, but rather less clear than in the
latter — probably very like that of the Campine.

Neither of these last has been seen by English
eyes for many years.

In judging Polish, fulness and good shape of
the crest should be reckoned of as much im-
portance as the size of it, and the present
greater prevalence of the " pancake "
Judging style in cocks, is owing to neglect of

Polish. this consideration. Any of those

malformations of body which are
so frequently found in this breed, should be
vigilantly looked for, and if found, of course
entail passing over. In regard to colour and
marking, the Standard no doubt lays enough
nominal stress upon these points, though we fail
to understand how colour can be valued at 30 in
Blacks, and colour and markings together only
25 points in Spangles, wherein these points
are so much more important. But it is quite
certain that in the Spangled varieties, more
stress in practice needs to be laid upon the
quality of the lacing than has for many years
been the case, and that a more uniform width,
as in the Chamois or Buff Laced, should be
required.

There is little danger of trimming except
in the white crests of the Black variety, and m
the combs, which if so large as to be very
evident, are often amputated.

The Standard of Perfection, as drawn up
by the Poultry Club, is as follows :

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Skull : Large, with a decidedly pro-
nounced protuberance on top, and crested. Crest :
Large and full, circular on top, and free from any
split or parting, high and smooth front, compact
in the centre, falling evenly with long, untwisted
or reverse-faced feathers far down the nape of the
neck, and composed of feathers similar to those
of the hackles. Beak : Of medium length, and
having large nostrils rising above the curved Une
of the beak. Eyes : Large and full. Comb : If any
(preference should be given to Pohsh, minus a comb),
of the horn type, and very small. Face : Smooth,
and without muffling in the White-crested varieties,
and completely covered by muffling in the others.
Muffling : Large, full, and compact, fitting around
to the back of the eyes and almost hiding the face.
Ear-lobes : Very small and round, but quite in-
visible in the muffled varieties. Wattles : Rather
large and long in the Wliite-crested varieties ; the
others are minus wattles.

Neck. — Long, and with abundant hackle coming
well down on the shoulders.

Body. — Breast : FuU and round. Back : Fairly long
and flat, tapering to tail. Flanks : Deep. Shoulders :
Wide. IVhigs : Large, closely carried.

Tail. — Full and neatly spread, and carried some-

460

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

what low. not perpendicularly, the sickles and
coverts abundant and well curved.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Slender and fairly long,
and the shanks free from feathers. Toes : Four on
each foot, slender, and well spread.

Carriage. — Sprightly and erect.

Weight.— 6i lb.

HEN

With the exception that the Crest is of globular
shape, the general characteristics of the hen are
similar to those of the cock, allowing for the natural
sexual differences.

Weight.— 5 lb.

COLOUR

THE CHAMOIS OR WHITE-L.\CED BUFF

Beak : Dark blue or horn. Eyes : Red. Comb
and Face : Red. Ear-lobes : Blue-white. Legs and
Feet : Dark blue.

Plumage of the Cock. — Buff ground with white
markings. Crest : Wliite at the roots and the tips,
and as free as possible from whole white feathers.
Muffling : Mottled or laced, not solid bufi. Hackle :
Tipped. Wings : Bar and secondaries laced, and
primaries tipped. Tail, Sickles, and Coverts : Laced.

Plumage of the Hen. — Except that the wng
primaries are tipped, the colours and marldngs,
including the crest, are buff ground and white
lacing.

THE SIL\'ER

Head points. Legs and Feet : As in the Chamois.
Plumage.— As in the Gold, substituting silver as
the ground.

THE WHITE

Beak : Dark blue. Eyes, Comb, and Face : Red.
Ear-lobes : White. Legs and Feet : Dark blue.
Plumage. — Pure white.

THE W'HITE-CRESTED BLACK

Head points : As in the White. Legs and Feet :
Dark blue or almost black.

Plumage. — Crest : Snow white.
Plumage : Rich metallic black.

Remainder of

THE WHITE-CRESTED BLUE

Head points. Legs and Feet : As in the White-
Crested Black.

Plumage. — Crest : Snow white. Remainder of
Plumage : SoUd dark blue.

SCALE OF POIXTS

WHITE-CRESTED VARIETIES

Head: crest, 30; comb and wattles, 13 ..45

Colour . . . . . . . . , . • ■ 30

Condition

Type

Size . .

THE GOLD

Head points. Legs and Feet : As in the Chamois.

Plumage of the Cock. — Golden bay ground, with
black markings. Crest : Black at the roots and the
tips, and as free as possible from whole white feathers.
Muffling : Mottled or laced, not sohd black. Hackle :
Tipped. Back and Saddle : Distinctly laced, or
spangled at the tips. Breast, Thighs, Shoulders, and
Wings : Laced, except primaries, which are tipped.
Tail : Laced, the ends of the sickles being well
splashed.

Plumage of the Hen. — Golden bay ground with
black lacing, each feather being distinctly marked,
and as free as possible from splashes.

OTHER V.\RIETIE3

Head : crest, 30 ; muffling, 10 ; comb and

wattles. 5
Colour and markings

Type

Size . .
Condition

Serious defects : Split or twisted crest ; other
than horn comb ; absence of muffling in Chamois,
Gold, Silver, and White varieties ; foul-coloured
plumage ; legs other than blue or slate ; other
than four toes on each foot ; wry tail ; any deformity.

461

CHAPTER XXXI.

FRENCH BREEDS OF POULTRY.

FRENCH breeds of poultry were at one
time supposed to be the chief cause of
the large exportation of French eggs, and
the fine quality of French table fowls ; and
under the influence of this idea Mr. Gej'elin and
the disastrous National Poultry Company which
he originated, made great efforts to introduce
French breeds into England. The error of these
opinions was speedily discovered ; but after
setting all such exaggerated hopes aside, several
French races have been found distinctly valu-
able, and are valued in England at this day.
Some are of pretty old standing ; others are
almost of yesterday's manufacture ; and the
remarkable fact about nearly all of them is, that
except a few of the more recent, which have
owed their origin to stock imported from Eng-
land, and even including one or two of these,
the greater part show by their crests, or muffling,
or bifurcated combs, more or less of a common
parentage in the Polish race, and appear to owe
their thin skin and delicate flesh mainly to this
ancestry.

The best known in this country of the French
breeds is the Houdan, which was briefly men-
tioned by Messrs. Wingfield and Johnson in The
Poultry Book of 1853, as the Nor-
Houdans. mandy fowl, and fully described by Mr.
Geyelin in 1865. The econom.ic value
of this breed is very great, as it is very hardy,
a quick grower in chickenhood, when well bred
a first-class layer of good-sized eggs, and of
very delicate flesh, with a tendency to fatten
well. The male birds are also unusually vigor-
ous and fertile, many of them requiring more
hens than would be usual with other birds of
the same size.

The Houdan cock should be as large as
possible, the adult being 8 lbs. or 9 lbs. or more.
He has a good-sized crest rather inclining
backward, and a peculiar comb, resembling the
open leaves of a book with a sort of mulberry in
the centre, or a butterfly with open wings. This
is large in the cock, but rather small in the hens.
The wattles are moderate and rounded, beard
and whiskers rather full. The neck-hackle is

full and thick, the body very long and deep in
keel, carried in a very sturdy manner, the tail
full in sickles. The legs are clean, pinky white
mottled with black in colour, and five-toed ; the
plumage black and white mixed, of no exact
pattern, but about equally broken in colour
when adult, and rather more black than white
when young; usually more or less approaching
a crescentic white marking on beetle-green
centre, over the breast and body. The hen has
a fuller, globular, and very Polish crest, with
much smaller comb, her weight 6 lbs. or 7 lbs.

For the following remarks upon breeding and
exhibiting Houdans, their progress in England,
and present qualities, we were indebted to Mr.
S. W. Thomas, Glasfryn, Forest Each, Swan-
sea, whose long connection with the breed, and
success as an exhibitor, are well known.

" I had my first Houdans in 1874, ^"^ from
then till now I have bred them regularly
and in large numbers. One or two of those I
first had were imported birds, that had done
some winning in France, but these were too old
to be prolific. My unvarying experience during
the many years I have kept and bred them —
and I have always bred for exhibition — is that
Houdans are very good layers of very large
eggs, and as table fowls are not to be beaten.
Of course I have always selected the finest and
the healthiest stock-birds. Indeed, otherwise it
would be quite impossible to breed up to the
necessary size for exhibition.

"Since 1874 there have been some changes
of the fashion in colour of Houdans. Mr. Dixon
(then, and till he retired, the favourite and best
judge of Houdans) rather favoured the lighter-
coloured birds, about the years 1874 and 1875,
I think. A couple of years or so previously,
very dark birds were in fashion. Probably Mr.
Dixon's action in favouring the lighter ones
was to modify the tendency to the very dark
birds then so frequently shown. At any rate, if
that was the case, he succeeded, because very
dark birds have never been in fashion since.
Breeders began at once to aim at a medium,
well mottled, or broken colour, and at the
present time they have succeeded, because now

462

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

a bad-coloured bird in the show-pen is quite the
exception. Twelve or fifteen years ago very
light and very dark birds were not infrequently
to be seen in the same prize list at the big
shows.

" In comb and crest we have made great
strides, and now a bird with inferior head points
is seldom exhibited. The spiral crest is gone,
and so is the Creve comb. Twenty years ago a
leaf comb was quite the exception, and a smooth
well-formed crest rarely seen. In size we have
hardly increased on the very finest birds of years
ago, but I think we have a far better average,
and probably the best young Houdans this last
year or two were larger than any of similar age
shown in past years. No breed develops more
in size and furnishing with the first adult moult.
This also applies to Creves. I say no breed ;
by that, of course, I mean no breed with which
I have had experience, though I may say that
at one time or other I have kept most sorts.

" Houdans develop quickly, and cockerels at
six to seven months are usually in full feather;
pullets at from five to six months, at which time
they generally commence to lay. They fatten
very quickly, and if over-fed about this age it
retard.s their laying. They stand confinement
capitally ; indeed, exhibition birds do better if
confined during the show season than if allowed
to run out.

" In breeding Houdans, I may at once
remark that both sexes of the highest excellence
can be bred from the one pen. No need, in
Houdans at any rate, of one pen for
Points cockerel-breeding and another for

Breeding puUet-breeding. In breeding for ex-

Houdans. hibition birds, nice medium-coloured

birds should be selected, the black
a good solid green-black, nicely broken. They
should have full crests, as smooth — especially in
front — as possible, and neat, even combs of
butterfly pattern. The comb may vary in size
and shape, just as the wings of different sorts of
butterflies do, but the shape and pattern of the
comb must be the butterfly, with the wings
open, or nearly so. They should have light or
whitish legs and feet, mottled with blue or
blackish blue. If the white is a pinkish white,
all the better. If a pen of birds of this descrip-
tion, with good deep square bodies and of a
good strain, be bred from, they are pretty sure
to produce a good proportion of chickens fit to
show. Some chickens come with very dark or
nearly black legs. These usually are very dark
in plumage, but not invariably so. These black
or dark legs always change with age to blue or
bluish mottled colour, and though the black or
very dark leg is much against a bird in the

show-pen, the blue or bluish mottled colour is
very little detriment indeed to it, and such birds
frequently win the highest honours. Those who
happen to have dark birds or light birds of much
e.xcellence in Houdan character and points, and
who wish to breed from them, must select light
hens for a dark cock, or, which I much prefer, a
light cock for dark hens. Mated in this way, a
fair proportion of good coloured chickens will
be the result. Any foot deformity in the stock
birds is very likely to be perpetuated, and
whether these be dark, light, or medium colour,
let me repeat that the black in the plumage
must be a good sound green black.

" Two-year-old birds are best to breed from,
as the produce have greater robustness and
usually attain greater size ; but year old cocks
mated with two and three year old hens give
excellent results. Singular to say, the largest
hen I ever bred was from a pen of pullets mated
with a two-year-old cock ; but I should not
expect this result to be repeated. Houdans are
long lived. I have several times shown cocks up
to five years, and hens up to six and seven
years, and on one occasion I bred from a cock
five years old, and he bred freely and well in
March, and this, too, after a fairly long show
career.

" As regards the economic value of Houdans,
it might be supposed that the larger-crested
birds were less prolific than the smaller-crested
birds. I have not found this so. The best
laying Houdan I ever had — and she really was
a wonderful layer — was a very large bird with
an enormous crest, and with an almost imper-
ceptible comb even when laying. She was,
besides, a magnificent Houdan in most points,
and won first and cup at the Palace on two
occasions. She was a bird of splendid constitu-
tion, and I showed her till her seventh year.
Th.e birds with smaller crests have the larger
combs, which always shoot out and look fresher
when laying, but I don't think the large comb
in itself indicates much, and I would quite as
soon take my chance for eggs with the large-
crested birds as with the large-combed ones.

" In rearing and preparing Houdans for the
show-pen, I always coop my chickens out on
the grass after the first day or two. At two
months I draft them off into runs, separating
the sexes. The cockerels can always be dis-
tinguished at this age. The pullets need
nothing further than the clean grass run until
they get developed and old enough to exhibit,
but the grass runs must be clean, and no mud
about. Old hens also require nothing but clean
grass runs to moult out into proper exhibition
form. Cockerels and cocks require more care

HOUDANS FOR EXHIBITION AND PROFIT.

463

and separate attention. Cockerels may run
together till four months old, but those intended
for show must then be separated and put into
small, dry houses, each bird having a house to
himself These houses should be weather-proof
and shaded from the sun ; otherwise the crests
and saddles get tanned, which spoils the appear-
ance of the bird. Indeed, it is almost impossible
to moult a Houdan cock so that he shall be in
really tip-top feather and condition, unless he
has the accommodation I have stated. When
moulting the hens, I never give them anything
other than the ordinary food, except a cabbage
or two to peck at now and again. But I always
give the cockerels and cocks a little animal food
— the cockerels twice a week, the cocks three or
four times in the same period.

" Great care should be taken not to allow
too many chickens to crowd together when they
get up to about two months old. This they are
very apt to do when the hens are taken away,
the chickens from two coops crowding into one.
If this is allowed to last, roup is almost sure to
break out, and Houdans are very susceptible to
this complaint if once allowed to crowd together.
But they can stand wet and cold as well as any
fowls. I have cooped chickens a few days old
out in bitterly cold weather early in March, and
they have stood snow and wet without my losing
a chicken ; but they were kept scrupulously clean,
and their coops perfectly dry. It is only with
neglect that mischief is done. Half a dozen
half-grown chickens sleeping together in a dirty
coop, and allowed to run out, will almost certainly
contract roup."

The following article, contributed by Mr.
T. Henry Thornber, Brookside Farm, Cheadle,
refers more especially to the breeding of Hou-
dans for purposes of utility, and to the results
when so bred, while not necessarily losing sight
of exhibition properties. It will be observed
that, when a really high average of eggs is
in view — and the averages stated below are
so high as to excite surprise — Mr. Thornber's
opinion is somewhat different from that of Mr.
Thomas in regard to the connection between
egg production and the size of the hen's comb.

" There can be no question of the value of
this breed as layers, and as table birds. A
properly reared and properly fed Houdan of a
good laying strain, hatched in March
Qualities of or April, should commence to lay in
Houdans. October, and should be la}-ing three
eggs per week by the end of
November. From my experience, I find that
they soon run up to four eggs per week, generally
about the latter end of January or middle of
February. After this, according to my egg-

recording books, there seems to be no increase
in the number per week until about the middle
of April, when there has been an increase for
most of my pullets to five eggs per bird per
week, which high rate has lasted till about the
middle of June. Towards the latter end of June
there has been a diminution to three per week,
and by the end of July I have been having only
two per week per bird. After this latter month
the laying quickly ceases and the birds go into
moult, which, with a little care and the use of
Douglas mixture, should not last more than
about five weeks. They come on to lay again
very quickly after the completion of the moult,
and, according to the behaviour of my birds,
there seems to be practically no shrinkage in
their laying powers during their second year of
laying, although they start laying rather later
and continue until a later part of the year. The
succeeding moult, after the second year's laying,
appears more prolonged and more exhausting,
and I find a very considerable reduction in the
number of eggs afterwards. My laying stock
average per annum has varied from 160 to iSg
eggs. I get a number of eggs of quite a tinted
appearance, rather deeper than cream colour,
amongst the rest, the majority of which are snow
white ; yet the birds are all bred the same, and
have been so for some years. I have never been
able to account for it.

" Selected birds have done much better than
the above. My breeding stock are kept in pens,
each comprising seven pullets or hens and a
cock, in pretty large runs. There are five of
these breeding-pens, which are also fed a little
differently from the general flock. These 35
birds, selected to breed from as good layers, have
averaged as follows, during the last four years,
counting from November i to November i : —

Year.

Per Bird.

Stock.

iSg6-7

207

All from pullets.

1897-8

203

About 20 per cent, hens, the
rest pullets.

1S98-9

208

About 25 per cent, hens, the
rest pullets.

i8gg-o

226

All from pullets.

I consider a Houdan worthy of the name of
a layer when she lays 200 eggs between the
beginning of the November after her being
hatched, and the beginning of the following
November.

" As a table fowl, the Houdan is very hard
to beat, carrying a large proportion of its meat
upon the breast, having a nice white flesh and
white skin, being fine in the bone, and of excel-
lent flavour. I find the cockerels to grow very
quickly indeed, and have killed birds which I

464

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

considered faulty at seven months old weighing
from 6\ lbs. to 7J lbs., plucked but not drawn.
These birds had never had a day's confined or
forced feeding in their lives, and they carried
very little fat, but a nice quantity of good,
white meat.

" One may breed the Houdan, as also other
breeds, for either utility or exhibition, and not
have any great difficulty ; but, when you come
to breed for utility and exhibition,
Breeding the difficulties are far greater. How-

Houdans. ever, by great care these points may

be combined to such an extent as to
satisfy the most exacting critic. Personally, I
am inclined to think that the male bird has not
such a marked influence upon the laying powers
of his daughters as many people are inclined to
think, but that he is more responsible for the
outside qualities, colour, size of crest, beard,
tail carriage, colour of legs, and so on. I look
to the hen to produce the laying qualities, and
also to influence the size, although it is always
advisable to breed from a male bird of some
pretensions to a laying strain, if possible, and as
large as possible. From my experience, a neat,
compact, sprightly pullet, of medium colour,
weighing about 6 lbs., with a nice moderate-
sized crest, beard, and muff, mottled or dark
legs, not light coloured legs, carrying her wings
well tucked up and her tail fairly high, will
breed a good utility bird and a good exhibition
bird in one, if mated with a large, dark two-year-
old cock, carrying his crest well back, and as
large a crest as possible, provided always that it
is of a true ' fall back ' type of crest, and not the
wild ' all over the place' style which has of late
appeared so often in the show-pen. I object
most strongly to the use of a bird of either sex
which has a ' wild ' crest, or which carries its tail
low, as it appears to me that you can get no
good results from such birds, either as show
birds or as layers.

" The very finest laying strains of Houdans
in this country are not birds of excessive size,
nor are they birds carrying an extraordinary
crest, but are more cobby in build, more lively
in movement, and more developed in their
combs ; in fact they have considerably larger
combs than the first-rate exhibition specimens.
Therefore, in mating to combine the qualities, I
would emphasise the desirability of breeding
from pullets answering this description, and
mating with a cock which possesses the show
points in a marked degree. Perhaps it is not
requisite for me to warn breeders against the
haphazard introduction of new blood, when once
a laying strain has been built up. It takes years
to produce a laying strain of high repute, but

one season's careless introduction of male birds
from another strain, however good show birds,
may, and probably will, spoil it. I always pick
a cock with a very small, neat comb, as other-
wise one would breed birds with combs which
would be too large and ugly, it being usual for a
good strain of layers to carry a slightly larger
comb than the show-pen requires. Therefore
use small-combed cocks to reduce the combs of
their successors to a proper size for exhibition.
Bumble-foot, which the five-toed breeds are
prone to develop, has never yet made its appear-
ance amongst my stock.

" As a layer, I can see no use in crossing so
good a bird as the Houdan ; but, as table fowls,
I think that the Houdan cock crossed with Buff
Orpington pullets, or Indian Game cock crossed
on to Houdan pullets, will be found more profit-
able birds than the vaunted Indian Game-
Dorking. It matures more quickly, is ready for
table sooner and at less expense, and there is
less mortality amongst the chickens, whilst it
certainly will run to within i lb. or 1^ lbs. of
Indian Game-Dorking weight.

" Their food is, a hot breakfast of one part
barley meal, one part sharps, and one part
Indian meal mixed with boiling liquor off meat
and bones. For evening feed, generally best
English wheat. Only two feeds per day. They
are on grass runs of large extent, and have at
hand flint grit and oyster shell. They are kepi
in dry houses, well ventilated, with very large
windows admitting splendid light, two windows
to each house. The land is rather heavy and
clayish, in e.xposed position, with rather heavy
rainfall. Water supplied fresh daily, very
cold, from a deep well, very hard water indeed.
I have found my birds always great foragers,
always on the move and most hardy, winter
frosts and snow not making any difference to
their laying. I never knew one to go broody.
As the crests retain much moisture in wet
weather, I am particular about the houses
having extremely good ventilation to carry off
the humid atmosphere when the birds are roost
ing, but no draughts."

The type of Houdan bred in America differs
somewhat from the English. From all the
descriptions we have seen, the comb appears to
be preferred of a two-horned rather than leaf
character, and the plumage darker than in
England. These birds appear, in fact, to have
perpetuated that darker and two-horned type,
well known at the time to be due to crossing
with the Creve, which was very prevalent in
England about 1872, but has since been super-
seded here by the more evenly broken plumage
and leaf comb of the original breed.

QUALITIES OF CREVECCEURS.

465

The Houdan is a valuable fowl for crossing.
With the Brahma it makes a large and hardy
table-fowl of medium quality, much like the
Dorking-Brahma, but with rather finer bone and
somewhat more tender flesh. The Faverolles
presently mentioned is a further development of
such crossing. Crossed with the White Leg-
horn, the produce is generally a white fowl with
very small crest, an admirable layer (though not
surpassing the pure breeds), but of better flesh
than the Leghorn, and without that tendency to
roup in some circumstances which has been re-
ferred to in connection with the Houdan. One
or two poultry-farmers of our ac-
quaintance have expressed special
approval of this cross. That with
the Minorca is somewhat similar, but
more irregular in colour.

The Crevecceur is another of the
oldest of the French breeds, having
been described by the late Mr. Vivian
in The Poultry Book of
Crtvecoeurs. 1853. At that time he
possessed two varieties,
one all black except that the cock's
hackles and saddle feathers were
often mingled with gold or red ; the
other a mixture or mottle of black
and white. Blues and Whites have
also been exhibited at one time or
another, as is so usual with all black
breeds ; but we have not now seen
any but black Creves for many years.
The Crevecoeur much resembles the
Houdan in general type of body, but
is of more massive make, with heavier
fluff and stern. Originally the crest
and muffling were heavier, but the
Houdan crest has now been bred
up to about as much, in all probability
by a Creve cross, as nearly black
Houdans with two-horned combs were
at one time very prevalent. The Creve comb
consists of two large coral-red horns, meeting
at the base like a letter V. Except in this point,
its large size, and the heavier build, the Creve
might almost be described as a large black
Polish fowl. The heavy stern and rather ample
fluff have often disposed us to believe there
has been at some time a Cochin cross, and
this is to some extent corroborated by the
large appetite, for which the Creve is remark-
able among French breeds.

Economically this breed has changed a great
deal since its introduction into England. It
always laid a very large white egg ; but in the
early days these were laid rather sparingly,

of
Crtvecoeurs.

and the birds were found very delicate and
subject to roup, and difficult to rear. But some-
where about 1870 a change took place, either
from the stock already in England
Qualities becomingbetteracclimatised,or from

some other and hardier stock
being imported. Mr. R. B. Wood
reported them in 1872 to be nearly as hardy as
Houdans, and good layers ; and from that date
their reputation in both respects has steadily
improved, so that Creves must now be pro-
nounced excellent layers, equally good table-
birds, and hardy fowls. It is the more difficult

to understand the great diminution for years
past in the number of those who keep them, and
why specimens are so rarely seen at ordinary
shows. They are distinctly profitable fowls, not
difficult to breed to exhibition points, and easily
kept within bounds.

Mr. S. W. Thomas, Forest Fach, Swansea,
kindly contributes the following article on Cr^ve-
coeurs as bred at the present day :

" This breed, I think, is older than the
Houdan, and I have come to this conclusion
after noting the results of various crosses be-
tween the Houdan and other varieties. The
crosses come mostly black, or nearly so, clearly
reverting to the Creve, and that of the Houdan

466

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

and Silver Poland produces fowl almost indis-
tinguishable from a Creve, except for the presence
of the fifth toe on some of them.

" Why Craves are not more popular than
they are is most surprising to me. They are
amongst the very finest and handsomest and
best of fowls. I believe, for a large fowl, they
are the quickest of all in growth, and so prolific
are they that I had pullets this summer laying
rather under five months old. They breed very
true, and there is no variety in which a breeder
can get so quickly to the front if he so minds.
I have kept them about fifteen or si.xteen
years. Shortly after I started keeping them I
had the great good fortune to secure the whole
of Mr. R. B. Wood's stock, the choicest strain
in the country, when he gave up the variety.
I never found them delicate, but they are an
excitable fowl, and when overfed very subject
to apoplexy. They are even quicker in growth
than the Houdan, and though there is not the
difference in the average size of the two varieties
that there was at one time, the very finest
Creves even now attain greater size than the
largest Houdans.

" Combs and crests are better than they used
to be. We have large, full, evenly shaped
crests, and good even combs, for the most part
of the correct V shape ; and in colour we have
distinctly improved. We have more of the rich
green black, and less of the rusty purple black
than formerly. There is one disadvantage, how-
ever, in the green black. Birds of this colour
have a strong tendency to white in crest, much
more so, I find, than the duller black ; and
the cocks and cockerels frequently get coloured
feathers in both hackle and saddle.

" In body type Creves should be similar to
Houdans, viz. square, thick-set bodies, long in
the keel and broad in the breast, legs black
or blue, crests full and smooth in front, and
a two-horned comb, with no side sprigs, shaped
something like the lecter V. In breeding for
exhibition, if good constitutioned young birds
of good green black colour, with the necessary
quality in head-points, be selected to breed from,
the produce will be so uniformly good as to sur-
prise the breeder not acquainted with this variety.

" To revert again to their supposed delicacy,
I would remark that my runs are very exposed,
on heavy, damp clay soil. Yet my Creves do
well, and, if not overfed, will lay with the best
— and such eggs! — the largest, I should say,
laid by any variety of poultry. I have had
pullets laying in frost and snow, when not even
my Brahmas gave me an egg. Like Houdans,
they are magnificent table fowls. But they are
great eaters, and fatten very quickly.

" Neither Houdans nor Creves look well or
do well in dirty, muddy runs, but if given dry
and clean houses to sleep in, and good, clean
grass runs in which to get about, nothing can
beat them for table and laying purposes com-
bined. As regards feeding, I feed my Creves
and Houdans in the same way : Spratt, oatmeal,
and sharps for morning feed ; green food mid-
day ; heavy white oats or best wheat in the
evening ; and occasionally a little small, round
maize in the winter.

" Houdans and Creves make capital crosses
with either Brahmas or Plymouth Rocks.
Either cross is extremely hardy, very large,
wonderful layers, and very meaty fowls for the
table. I can strongly recommend either cross."

We only add to the above remarks, that it is
advisable for stock birds to have the crest either
tied up, or cut off in the same manner as Polish,
when not required for exhibition purposes, and
for similar reasons. Such procedure will do
much to prevent the excitability mentioned
above, which used also to be a well-known
difficulty amongst Polish breeders.

The La Fleche fowl has never been so
popular in England as either of the preceding,
chiefly owing to first importations being some-
what delicate, a defect since reme-
La Fleche. died ; partly also, perhaps, because
there was not sufficient of distinct-
ness in its characteristics. The Polish blood
in its veins is shown by the two-horned comb,
the small crest in many specimens, and the
nostrils ; but the carriage, and white ear-lobes,
and green-black plumage, evidently show a
cross with the Spanish fowl, as another pro-
genitor. This breed formerly supplied many
of the best fowls for the Paris markets ; but
both it and the Houdan and Creve have lately
been greatly displaced by more recent creations
of the Erench breeders.

In general appearance the La Fleche is a
tall, Spanish-looking fowl, though not now bred
quite so tall and upright as formerly. The size
is larger than Spanish, fatted specimens often
reaching 1 1 lbs., and usual weights being 8 lbs.
for cocks and 6 lbs. for hens when shown alive.
The bird has little apparent Polish "character"
about it, being high on leg, with rather long
back and flowing tail. The head is smooth-
faced and rather long, the comb consisting of
two rather small horns of the V character, but
standing nearly upright, behind which is often a
very small crest of a few short feathers slanting
backward ; but specimens are preferred without
any, and much crest is penalised. The wattles
are long and pendulous, the ear-lobes round, of

ORIGIN OF FAVEROLLES.

467

medium size, smooth and pure white. The
back should slope somewhat towards the tail,
and the keel be long and straight. The plumage
is close, of a glossy green-black, the legs dark
slate to almost black. In breeding, the combs,
absence or almost absence of crest, and good
ear-lobes chiefly need attention, the plumage
and general shape being usually very uniform.
This fowl lays large white eggs, which are
produced pretty freely and tolerably early
under favourable circumstances. On dry, suit-
able soils La Fleche chickens fledge rapidly,
and, with good and nourishing food and free-
dom from damp, are quite hardy.

One of the most popular French breeds at
present — the Faverolles * — is of later creation.
Although the outcome of rather complicated

crossing, it quickly took strong
Faverolles. hold upon English breeders, owing

to its superb table qualities com-
bined with hardiness and quick growth, and
was not long in securing the support of a
Club and a place in the Standard. The follow-
ing article upon the points, qualities, and
breeding of the Faverolles was contributed by
the late Mr. J. P. W. Marx, Nottingham, well
known as having taken a leading part in
popularising and standardising the fowl.

" Faverolles have for some time been common
in the northern part of France, where they were
regarded as simply useful fowls. They are the
result of crosses to produce good layers, par-
ticularly in winter, whose chickens are strong,
hardy, and quick-growing, with thin, white skin
and fine bone, abundantly covered with meat,
and lending themselves readily, if need be,
to artificial fattening. Brahmas or Cochins,
Dorkings, and Houdans were used to pro-
duce Faverolles ; and as the different varieties
of those breeds were used indiscriminately, the
Faverolles are met with of various colours, yet
with well-defined characteristics of habit, shape,
and quality. The salmon, and the white or
ermine varieties, gradually became most numer-
ous on account of their better laying and table
qualities A few seem to have been kept in
England about 1892 or 1S93, but little was
heard of them till 1896; since then they have
become scattered all over the country.

" Whatever the colour of the Faverolles, the
general characteristics are the same. In both
sexes the comb is single, upright, medium in
size, with neat serrations and free from coarse-

* Faverolles is the name of a place, and should properly be
always spelt with the terminal s. Such a word as FaveroUe is
a barbarism ; but it seems creeping in as the English form, and
perhaps cannot be helped. The effort should however be
made, to which end we make this direct mention of the matter.

ness. This is a difficult point, since of the breeds
which were selected to make up the Faverolles,
the Dorking alone has a single comb which
falls over in the hen. The peculiar combs of the
Brahma and Houdan are strongly hereditary,
and thus all kinds of combs crop up in the
Faverolles, and most careful selection is required
to get and retain the correct type. The beard
and muffling should be very abundant, the
beard thick and full rather than long and thin.
These, again, being only found in one of
the original breeds — the Houdan— are difficult
to breed ; indeed, the head of the Faverolles is
one of its most characteristic and important
features. The head itself is broad and short,
with small, thin wattles and stout, short beak.
The head should be free from crest, which is
nearly bred out ; still there remain traces, par-
ticularly in the cocks, in the shape of a few
short, upright feathers either side of the comb,
which would only be noticed by a breeder who
has had experience in eradicating crested blood.
The short, stout neck is thickly covered with
rather close-fitting hackles. The body is broad,
deep, and wide ; the back very broad and flat ;
the breast is also broad, with the keel-bone
deep and prominent ; the whole giving a sturdy,
massive look to the fowl. Greater length of
keel and back is seen in the hen. The wings
show boldly in front, yet are distinctly small.
The thighs are short and set wide apart, with the
knees quite straight. The shanks are of medium
length. A dumpy, short-legged fowl is not
wanted, and the excessive shortness of leg
detracted very much from an otherwise capital
hen which was most successfully shown in 1900.
The leg should be fairly stout in bone without
being coarse, and be slightly feathered on the
outside down to the end of the outer toe. The
leg feather should be soft in texture, with no
sign of the vulture-hock too frequently met with.
The toes are five in number, and the extra or
fifth toe, as in the Dorking, should be clear and
distinct. The tail feathers and sickles are full
and broad ; the sickles incline, however, to be
short in length, and are carried rather upright,
as in the Brahma ; a large tail with long sickles
carried low or straight is not in keeping with the
build of the bird. The tail of the hen is fan-
shaped, and carried rather high.

"Cocks should weigh 7 lbs. to 8i lbs. ; hens,
6 lbs. to 7 lbs. ; cockerels, 6i lbs. to jl lbs. ; and
pullets, 5 lbs. to 6i lbs. These weights are not
excessive, and are often exceeded, though gener-
ally at the expense of quality.

" The colour of the Salmon Faverolles cock
is quite different from that of the hen. Some
are a mixture of black and silvery white, like

468

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

the Silver Dorking ; others, which have the
preference, are warmer in colour, like the dark
Dorking. In the exhibition salmon cock the
beak, legs, and feet are white ; any pink colour
on the leg should be dealt with severely if it is
too prevalent, and should be eradicated. The
skin also is white and very fine ; a coarse, red
skin is a distinct fault. The face, lobes, and
wattles are red, nearly concealed by the muffling
and beard, which is black, not ticked with white.
Neck and saddle-hackles are straw colour, quite
free from any stripe, although many cocks still
retain the Brahma hackle, and probably will do
so for some time yet. The breast is black;
very few are sound in breast colour; the majority
show white mottling, particularly towards the
bottom, others even have feathers tipped with
bronze or red. More latitude is allowed with
the back and shoulders, which may be a mixture
of black, white, and brown. The wing-bow is
straw colour, the wing-bar black, and the outside
of the secondaries white. The tail, under colour,
and thighs are black ; the tail coverts may be
brown. Some cocks with much less black in
them have the breast mottled with red and
white, and the back and shoulders a rich red
brown ; these are very handsome, but not in
accord with the present standard.

" The Salmon hen is much like a Wheaten
Game. The head and neck are a wheaten brown,
broadly striped with a darker brown. Beard
and muffling (both are much heavier than in the
cock) are a creamy white. Back, shoulders, and
wings wheaten brown, the colour running lighter
on the sides until it meets the cream colour of
the breast, thighs, and under-colour. Primaries,
secondaries, and tail are wheaten brown ; these
at present are very imperfect, for a great deal of
black or white, or both, is to be found in most
hens. Face, wattles, legs, and feet are the same
as in the cocks. The definition of the colour as
'wheaten brown' is not a happy one ; it may mean
the warm brown of red wheat or the much lighter
shade of white wheat, and the latter seems to be
the colour which is required. The fashionable
Salmon hen is a warm cream colour with a pale
brown colour on her neck, back, and tail ; a
delicate pink or salmon shade in these colours is
preferable to a faded, washed-out white colour.
Any trace of buff, gold, or hard brassy colour
should be discarded.

" There is a very handsome strain of what
may be called red wheaten brown hens ; the
back and sides are blotched with a deep chestnut
brown, which runs on to the tail, and the hackles
are broadly striped with the same colour; they
have a rough, hardy look, but are too dark and
red for the colouring of the standard.

" The Ermine or Light Faverolles are
marked like light Brahmas, and, remembering
their origin, it will be found quite as difficult
to obtain the clear, densely striped hackles with
pure white body colour free from ticking. The
suggestions before given for breeding light
Brahmas should be closely followed in mating.

" In mating Salmon Faverolles, comb, width
of back and between the thighs should be
attended to in both sexes. The comb should be
free from side sprigs, and, if possible, of fine
quality in the hen, and upright. The best
combs procurable should be used, for faults here
are sure to appear in the chickens. A cock with
heavy beard and muffling is valuable as a
breeder. His neck and saddle hackles should
be a yellow straw shade in preference to white
for cockerel breeding ; a slight stripe or ticking
of brown or brownish grey may be tolerated in
a pullet breeder. Hens with any black in the
hackle, even at the tip, should be cautiously bred
from, unless it is known their mother was better
than they in hackle colour. The feather itself
should be rather short, but broad, to give room
for the darker centre. The breast of the cock
should be a solid black from throat to thigh ;
many are ticked with white, and a few have a
mottling of red or brown, and these are likely to
breed better coloured chickens than those ticked
with white. The sounder the black of the thigh
and under-colour the better ; cocks showing
much white, breed cockerels lighter than them-
selves, and pullets too weak, almost white in
under-colour. The tail coverts should be a dark
chestnut brown in a pullet-breeding cock, and
the rest of the tail black. The sheen on the
black throughout the cock should be a rich
metallic bronze, not a beetle green shade. The
hens should be as near the standard colour
as can be obtained ; the weak points are wings
and tail, where black and white are sure to be
found. Hens with much white in wing should
be mated with a bird sound in wing, with very
little white on the outside of the secondaries,
plenty of bronze on the shoulders, and very little
white ticking in his under-colour. The brown
colour of the tail may be improved by selecting
a cock with abundance of coppery brown lustre
and brown tail coverts ; if the tails of his
daughters show an improvement, he may be
mated up next year with the best of them in
that respect. The shaft and down of the feather
quite to the skin should be a creamy or wheaten
brown ; hens with black or ashen grey down
throw a number of pullets with black in wing
and tail.

" Faverolles chickens are very hardy and
easy to rear, either artificially or naturally,

QUALITIES OF FAVEROLLES.

469

providing that they are given as much liberty
as possible, for after the first week they are
keen foragers on their own account without
being wild, and prefer food of their own find-
ing if it can be obtained. They are always in
good flesh, and consequently are very suitable
to rear for supplying peiits foussins ; this
object was kept prominently in mind at their
inception. The framers of the Standard also
appear to have drawn it up from a meat-
producing point of view ; perhaps rightly so,
for the breed has found much favour with the
fatters, some of whom declare it to be the
nearest approach to the old Sussex breed they
have met with for some time. The chickens
are white when hatched, and their nest feathers
are also white ; with each subsequent growth
more colour appears, but only in the final
change do the cockerels acquire a solid black
breast, so the weeding-out process must not be
too hastily conducted. They grow and mature
very quickly until the final change into adult
plumage, when, like Brahmas and Dorkings,
the feathers come rather slowly.

" The claims of the Faverolles as a table
fowl seem to have obscured its excellent laying
qualities. Helped by its early maturing
quality, however, the Faverolles is also a good
winter and spring layer, not easily checked by
climatic changes. The eggs vary in colour
from white to deep brown ; most usually they
are a pale brown. Pullets' eggs are deficient in
size, but those from mature birds are above the
average. The hens are slow to come on broody,
though exemplary sitters and mothers, and if
checked from broodiness soon recommence
laying.

" i'he breed when sufficiently established
should make the cocks suitable for crossing ;
the hens have been freely and successfully used
with Dorking and Indian Game cocks to pro-
duce table poultry. The early and continued
laying of the Faverolles hens, and the hardy
nature and rapid growth of their chickens,
make them superior to the Dorking for mating
with the Indian Game cocks."

Although this breed has passed what may
be called a nascent or forming stage, it is not
uninteresting here to recall the remarks of Mr.
Lewis Wright with especial reference to the
Standard. Commenting on this, he said: "In
regard even to the value of the points, in such
a fowl as this 20 points for muffling and 25 for
colour seem to us injudiciously high compared
with 20 for s\'mmetry. But more especially we
are afraid that the colour laid down for the
two sexes of Salmon Faverolles will be found
incompatible, unless males and females are to

be bred from different strains. The mainly
black and white of the cocks is not a com-
patible colour with the wheaten brown (free
from black) of the hens. The latter colour is
nearly the same as the pale-breasted wheaten
Sussex hens, and the match for this is a Black-
red cock : on the other other hand, such a colour
in cocks requires a tail in the hens edged with
black on the top. Rather more red in the
cock's top-colour and wings, and some black
in the top edge of the hen's tail, would make
all compatible.

Although in the Poultry Club Standards
no cognisance is taken of any variety of the
Faverolles but the Salmon, this popular French
breed may now be seen in other colours, since
blacks, bufts, blues and whites have been on
exhibition during the past few years. The
white is the latest addition to the list, and will
apparently become much esteemed as a useful
and charming variety in the very near future.

A number of other races of poultry are
known in different parts of France, and are
worthy of mention here. For the following
notes on these we are indebted to Mr. Edward
Brown, F.L.S., Secretary of the National
Poultry Organisation Society. It will be seen
that one breed mentioned is expressly ascribed
to the Langshan ; the Barbezieux has been
pronounced by many fanciers who have seen
it in France to be evidently a Minorca cross ;
and we have seen fowls produced by crossing a
Light Brahma cock with Houdan hens which
precisely resembled in all but their variable
combs both the description of the Bourbourg
fowl and the only specimen of the fowl itself
which we have ever seen.

" Amongst the varieties of French poultry,
the La Bresse fowl occupies the premier posi-
tion in respect to its table qualities, if the
prices obtained for the best specimens may be
taken as evidence. The district
La Bresse where these fowls are bred com-
Fowls. prises part of the Department of

Ain and Seine-et-Loire, that is, to
the south of the old province of Burgundy,
and in that district the poultry industry is a
very important branch of agriculture. For a
long period of time Bresse poulardes and
capons have had a great reputation for the
quality and delicacy of their flesh. It is stated
that so far back as the years 1 81 5 to 18 18,
when the city of Bourg was occupied by the
Allied Armies, the quality of the poultry was
so appreciated that the fame of these birds was
carried into other countries.

" In shape the La Bresse fowls are distinctly

470

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Mediterranean, and were It not for the colour of
the legs many would think they were Leghorns,
though they are somewhat longer in body. Few
would imagine that they were so fine for table
qualities, and from the appearance it might be
assumed that they would be distinctly better
as layers. The cock is elegant in carriage,
shapely, and active ; the head is medium in size,
and fine in its lines ; the beak is strong and of a
horn colour ; the eyes are lively and bright ; the
comb is single, and of the largest size, though
not nearly so large as in the English Leghorn ;
the comb is upright and well cut ; the wattles
are long ; the ear-lobes white and well defined ;
the neck is medium in length, inclining rather to
be long, and is well covered with hackles; the
back slopes gently towards the tail ; the breast
is round, rather prominent, and the thighs some-
what strong, but the legs and feet are fine in
bone, indicative of slightness of frame through-
out, which is one of the features of this breed ;
the legs and feet are of a slate grey colour, with
black nails ; the tail is well furnished, though
the sickles are not very long. In the hens the
comb falls to one side.

" There are three varieties of this race —
Black, called La Bresse de Loitlians ; Grey, called
La Bresse de Bourg ; and White, called La Bresse
de Beny-Marboz. In the Bresse district the
Blacks are usually regarded as the better layers,
but the Whites are preferred for table purposes.
The black variety is very pretty, showing those
metallic reflections which always add to the
beauty of birds of this colour. In the grey
variety the plumage is white pencilled with
grey, the neck hackle being almost entirely
white, except that the points are grey. In this
case the beak is blue and the legs clear grey.
In the white variety the plumage is, of course,
self-coloured and the legs dark grey. Whites
and blacks are more numerous than the greys.

" In Paris, as well as other parts of France,
in Italy and Switzerland, at the best hotels
Ponies de la Bresse arc found on the menus. The
prices of these birds for table purposes are very
high. I have been asked as much as twenty
francs for a fat poularde in the Bourg market,
and they command still higher figures in Paris.
Part of their value arises, however, from the
system of fattening which is carried out in these
districts, and there can be no question that for
delicacy of flesh they have no superior. The
lightness of bone is, of course, a very great recom-
mendation, and the breed is specially remarkable
for the great increase of weight as a result of
fattening. But they are valued for their quality
rather than for their size, which is not great,
being less than some of the largest English

Leghorns ; few of the males when in working
condition scale at more than 6 lbs.

" As egg-producers they hold a very import-
ant place in France, and I have frequently been
told in the La Bresse country that there is no
breed which touches them in this respect. This
to a large extent confirms my own observations,
as I kept white La Bresse for several years,
and found them amongst the best layers of
any breed. They are not, however, exceptionally
good in the winter, and this might be anticipated
from their appearance. The eggs are white and
of good size, as a rule weighing upwards of 2 ozs.

" The Du Mans fowl is bred to a considerable
extent in the Department of La Sarthe, but it is
entirely kept for its economic qualities. It has

never attained to any great popu-
Du Mans. larity in France, other than in the

district of South Normandy which
gives it a name, where it is met with largely,
and whence quantities of these birds are sent
up to the Paris markets. In appearance it is
very similar in many respects to the La Fleche,
except that it has a less upright appearance, and
the head is different. Instead of the horned
comb which is so characteristic of the La Fleche,
it has a rose comb, and I have seen this comb
rather coarse. It is entirely black in plumage,
except that the small ear-feathers are frequently
white or almost white ; the ear-lobes are white
like the La Fleche. Even at the great Paris
exhibitions this breed is not much in evidence,
and probably owes its popularity more to the
skill of the fatteners in the valley of La Sarthe
than to its own qualities. It is, however, a quick
grower, and when fully grown the weight of bone
and offal is small as compared with the total
size of body. Some years ago when at Le Mans,
I learnt that large numbers of this breed are
sent to countries as far away as Russia, and
command high prices. It has fine, delicate flesh,
and fattens easily, and is an abundant layer.

" The Courtes-Pattes is not unknown in this
country, though it has never become popular,
and the appearance is distinctly against it. It

would appear to be in some way
Courtes- related to the La Fleche and the

Pattea. j)u Mans varieties, emanating from

the same district of France, but it is
smaller in body, and the legs are very short
indeed. Except in exhibitions, I have very
seldom seen specimens of this breed in France,
and visits to the La Sarthe district revealed to
me that it was more in the hands of dealers and
amateurs than bred as an economic fowl. It is
entirely black in plumage, with metallic reflec-

MINOR FRENCH BREEDS.

tions, and heavily feathered. The body is wide
and long ; the comb thick, single, and upright in
the male bird, falling over in the hen, regularly
indented and substantial at the base. Like
many of the other French breeds, it has a beard,
and the ear-feathers are white and rather long ;
ear-lobes are broad and white. The legs are
thick, and grey in colour, the tail being fully
furnished and carried rather high. Doubtless
there are a goodly number of these birds pro-
duced, and at certain seasons of the year they
are made into a dish called Poidets a la Reine,
which can be obtained in the Paris restaurants
and cafes by gourmets. It is said to be an
abundant layer of large eggs, and a good sitter,
but seldom becoming broody.

" In France, as in our own country, certain
varieties of poultry have been produced by the
efforts of individual breeders, and in some cases
have been named by them without
Du Mantes. much regard to other considerations.
The Du Mantes was introduced
by M. Voitellier, a great breeder of and
dealer in poultry, who lived near the town of
Mantes, between Paris and Rouen. It in some
respects resembles the Faverolles, but is lighter
in body. The origin of this breed is uncertain.
In appearance it would seem that the Houdan
was used in its production, but this is denied by
M. Voitellier, who says that it has four toes
instead of five as in the Houdan, and in place
of an enormous crest it has none, and that instead
of the leaf or strawberry comb it has a single
comb, standing upright in the male and falling
over in the female. The Mantes fowl is also
lighter in the body than the Houdan, and par-
takes more of the Mediterranean type. It is a
sitting variety, and in this respect also differs
from the Houdan, to which its chief resemblance
is that the plumage is marked in the same way,
that is, black and white. So far as I have been
able to trace it, this variety has not been widely
distributed, and is generally met with in the
Seine-et-Oise district, around the town of
Mantes.

" The size of this fowl is about equal to that
of the Houdan, and the plumage like that breed,
splashed black and white, neither very white
nor very black. The carriage is active and
proud ; the comb is single, well developed and
serrated, upright in the male and falling over in
the hen ; ear-lobes hidden under a thick cravat
of feathers ; wattles short, and also hidden by
the whiskers, which are large ; the legs and
feet are short and stout, marbled red, grey, and
black, without any trace of feathers. As a layer
the Mantes fowl is said to equal the best

varieties, and it is a good sitter, without any
excessive tendency that way.

" The Barbezieux fowl has been called the
Minorca of France, and in appearance it is
more like the English Minorca than any other

French breed. It is rather longer on
Barbezieux the leg than most of our Minorcas,

and both fine and coarse legs
appear to be admissible. It is said to be a
good sitter, and in this respect differs distinctly
from the Minorca. I have no evidence as to its
laying qualities, but it can be made into a good
table fowl, as in some of the south-western
districts of France birds of this type are met
with regularly in the poulterers' shops. It is
very erect, with sprightly carriage, breast well
forward. The comb is single, well developed,
with serrations well cut, upright in the cock,
falling upon one side in the hen. The ear-lobes
are white and large ; wattles red and very broad.
The plumage is tight, entirely black, with green
and violet reflections in the cock, dull black in
the hen. The cock's tail has large sickles. The
legs and feet are clean and leaden grey, with
four toes. It is a prolific layer of large eggs,
with fine flesh, and a good fatter, and is con-
sidered hardy.

"The Gournay fowl is one of the smallest
races of French poultry, but is spoken of as a
good layer of eggs which are rather above the

average in weight. The breed is
Gournay not very true to type, but they have

Fowls. been characterised as strongly built,

single-combed, non-crested birds of
Houdan plumage, with only four toes, from
which it appears that they may have some
relationship with the Mantes fowl.

" Some medium-sized black fowls are known
under the name of Cossacks, but are very little
met with. They have large whiskers. I have
only occasionally seen specimens of
Cossacks. this breed in the French shows.
Birds of this type are said to
be met with in South Russia and on the
borders of the Black Sea, whilst one French
writer states that they are to be seen in abund-
ance in the neighbourhood of Scutari. The
comb is single, standing upright in both the
sexes, with a few indentations. The beard has
small, curled feathers right up to the ear-lobes,
which are red. The tail of the cock is carried
well up, and has two large sickle feathers ; the
body is well developed, with prominent breast ;
the legs and feet are grey in colour and clean ;
the beard is less developed in the hen than in

472

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

the cock. They are said to be good layers of
large-sized white eggs, seldom found to sit,
and to have good quality of flesh.

In several Continental countries fowls with
what is known as cuckoo plumage are to be
found. France owns one such breed, mainly

in Brittany, where it is highly
French esteemed. Of it there are two

Cuckoo. varieties, namely, the Coucou de

France or de Bretagne, and the
Coucou de Rennes, the former of which is
found in Northern Brittany and the latter in
the district adjacent to the city of Rennes. The
main difference is that the former has a rose
comb, spiked like that of the Hamburgh, and
the latter a single comb. These are birds of
medium size, not exceeding 7 lbs. for cocks
and 5^2 lbs. for hens, when fully grown, with
short, cobby appearance, as the head and neck
are short and thick, and the legs short and
strong. The beak is pale in colour and the
legs and feet pinkish-white, whilst the some-
what small ear-lobes are white splashed with
red. In colour of plumage this breed has a
base of steel grey, evenly barred with blue-
black. As is usual in French poultry, con-
siderable attention is paid to the flesh qualities,
which are excellent, and the flesh and skin are
pure white. As layers they are very good
indeed, but they are unreliable in maternal
qualities. One great point in their favour with
the Bretons is that they are very hardy, and
cost little to feed owing to their being good
foragers.

" In the part of Northern France commonly
known as the Pas de Calais, lying between
Calais and the Belgian border, a variety is now
being bred to which the name of
Bourbourg. Bourbourg has been given. They
are chiefly produced for their table
qualities. Nearly all the fat fowls consumed
in the Department du Nord, from Dunkirk to
Lille, are of this variety, the position being
taken by reason of their early laying and
hatching. They are above the medium in size,
and are said to be very hardy, precocious, fine
in the quality of their flesh, and fair as layers.

" The Bourbourg cock is a handsome, vigor-
ous bird, thick-set and short in leg. The head
is large and rather short ; beak short and
strong, white, streaked with horn ; eyes orange-
red ; comb single, upright, regularly serrated
with large spikes, and rather large ; wattle
medium sized ; ear-lobes little developed and
red. There is a beard, formed of white
feathers, growing upwards, and the cheeks,

red, are slightly covered with small white
feathers. The head is white ; the neck well
arched, covered with an abundance of neck
hackle, is white striped with black ; back,
saddle, and body white ; tail black, the coverts
edged with white. The body is large, rather
sloping in front ; thighs stout, covered with an
abundance of feathers, but no hock feathers ;
legs strong and long, very slightly feathered ;
legs and feet reddish-white, with white toe-
nails. Weight, 7 lbs. to 9 lbs. The colour is
that of the Light Brahma, or what the French
call Ermine. The Bourbourg hen is very
pretty, large at the shoulders, with back flat
and long, and also of a pretty ermine colour.
Her laying is very good, and her salmon-tinted
eggs are good in flavour. She sits early and
well, is a good mother, but does not sit often,
twice in the year at most Her conformation
corresponds with that of the cock, and her
weight is from 6 lbs. to 7 lbs. It will be seen
that the breed corresponds closely with the
ermine-coloured Faverolles ; and it has, indeed,
been termed by the French themselves the
Faverolles of the North.

" In the north-eastern district of France the
Bourbourg fowl has now a rival, which is
called the fowl of Estaires. It would appear

that this is a half-bred Langshan,
Fowl of that breed having been largely

Estaires. used in its production ; but at the

same time it is distinctly different
from the Langshan, although it retains some
of its features. The plumage is entirely black.
The comb is single and large, standing upright
in the male bird, but falling over in the hen ;
the eye is yellow-orange, and the ear-lobes red.
The body is carried well forward ; the breast
large ; the tail very short, and terminating in
a point. The legs and feet are dark and
slightly feathered. It has been suggested that
this breed is due to a cross between the Lang-
shan and the Game fowl, and it is noteworthy
as showing how the French have introduced
the Langshan as well as the Brahma into their
races of table poultry."

The predominating impression left from a
survey of the French breeds of poultry must
be, in the flrst place, the great value of the
Polish race as a source from which may be
derived quality of flesh of the highest character,
and prolific egg-production ; and secondarily,
the extraordinary variety of the results attain-
able from one such source. We may have
crest and muffling fully maintained, as in
Crevcs and Houdans, or all but banished, as
in La Fleche and others : and with form and

STANDARDS FOR HOUDANS AND CREVECCEURS

473

carriage as various as the latter compared with
the Faverolles.

The following are the Standards adopted
by the Poultry Club for the popularly recog-
nised French breeds :

HOUDANS

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Skull : Fairly large, and with a decidedly
pronounced protuberance on top, and crested.
Crest : Large, full, and compact, round on top and
not divided or ■' split," composed of feathers similar
to those of the hackle, inclining slightly backward
to fully expose the comb. Beak : Rather short and
stout, well curved, and with wide nostrils. Eyes :
Bold. Comb : Leaf type (somewhat resembling a
butterfly placed at the base of the beak), fairly
small, well defined, and each side level. Face :
Muffled. Mufping : Large, full, and compact, fit-
ting around to the back of the eyes and almost
hiding the face. Ear-lobes : Small, entirely con-
cealed by muffling. Wattles : Small and well
rounded, almost concealed by beard.

Neck. — Of medium length, and with abundant
hackle coming well down on the back.

Body. — Broad, deep, and lengthy, as in the
Dorking.

Tail. — Full, with the sickles long and well
arched.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Short and stout, well
apart, and free from feathers. Toes : Five in
number, and similar to those of the Dorking.

Carriage. — Bold and lively.

Weight. — 9 lb. ; cockerel, 7 lb.

With the exception that the Crest is of globular
shape, the general characteristics of the hen are
similar to those of the cock, allowing for the natural
sexual differences.

Weight. — 7 lb. ; pullet, 6 lb.

COLOUR

Beak : Horn. Eyes : Red. Comb, Face, and
Wattles : Bright red. Ear-lobes : White or tinged
with pink. Legs and Feet : White mottled with
lead-blue or black.

Plumage. — Glossy green black ground with pure
white mottles, the mottling to be as evenly dis-
tributed as possible, except on the flights and
secondaries, and in the male bird the sickles and
tail-coverts which are irregularly edged with white.
The black generally preponderates to a great extent
in young Houdans, but what mottling there is should
be even and clean.

SCALE OP POINTS

THE COCK

Shape

Legs and feet

Condition

Muffling

THE HEN

Size . ,

..

20

Colour

• 15

Crest . .

. 15

Muffling

12

Shape

. 10

Legs and

feet

10

Condition

10

Comb . .

. 8

Size . ,
Comb . ,
Colour
Crest . ,
60

Serious defects : Red or straw-coloured feathers ;
spur outside the shank ; feathers on shanks or
toes ; other than five toes on each foot ; any
deformity.

CREVECCEURS

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Skull : Large, and with a decidedly pro-
nounced protuberance on top. Beak : Strong and
well curved. Eyes : Full. Comb : Of the horn
type, V-shaped, of moderate size, upright and
against the crest, each branch smooth and tapering
to a point and free from tynes. Face : Muffled.
Ear-lobes : Small, but not exposed. Wattles : Moder-
ately long. Crest : Large and full and rounded
on top, rising in front so as to show the comb,
composed of feathers similar to those of the
hackle, and the ends almost touching the neck.
Muffling : Full and deep, extending to the back of
the eyes, hiding the lobes and the face.

Neck. — Long and graceful, and thickly furnished
with hackle.

Body. — Large, broad, and practically square.
Breast : Well rounded. Back : Flat. Wings : Large,
v/ell folded.

Tail. — Full and carried moderately high.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Wide apart, short, and
the shanks free from feathers. Toes : Four, straight
and long.

Carriage. — Bold and elegant.

Weight. — 9 lb. ; cockerel, 7 lb.

With the exception of the Crest, which must
be of globular shape and almost conceal the comb,
the general characteristics are similar to those of
the cock, allowing for the natural sexual differ-
ences.

Weight.— 7 lb. ; pullet, 6 lb.

COLOUR

Beak : Dark horn. Eyes : Bright red, although
black is admissible. Comb, Face, Wattles, and
Ear-lobes : Bright red. Legs and Feet : Black or
slate-blue.

Plumage. — Very lustrous green-black. No other

474

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

colour is admissible, except a few white feathers
in the crests of adults, which, however, are not
desirable.

SCALE OF POINTS

Crest and mufiSing . . . . . . . . . . 30

Size . .
Comb. .
Colour
Symmetry
Condition

Serious defects : Coloured feathers ; any deformity.

LA FLECHE

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Skull : Rather long and thin. Beak :
Long and strong, with nostrils elevated. Eyes :
Bold. Comb : Of the horn type, V-shaped, of
medium size, free from side branches, smooth, and
erect. Face : Smooth, and free rom feathers. Ear-
lobes : Of medium size and fine texture, round and
free from folds. Wattles : Long, pendulous, and well
rounded.

Neck. — Long, with well developed hackle.

Body. — Long. Back : Sloping slightly, and taper-
ing towards tail. Breast : Fairly deep, and wide
front. Wings : Large, carried well up, but by no
means on the back.

Tail. — Long and full, and carried somewhat low.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Long, and shanks free from
feathers. Toes : Four on each foot, long and straight.

Carriage. — Graceful.

Weight. — 8 lb. ; cockerel, 6 lb.

Plumage. — Close.

Except that the Tail is rather erect, the general
characteristics of the hen are similar to those of
the cock, allowing for the natural sexual differences.

Weight. — 6 Ib^ ; pullet, 5 lb.

COLOUR

Beak : Dark horn. Eyes : Bright red, black
admissible. Comb, Face, and Wattles : Red. Ear-
lobes : Pure white. Legs and Feet : Black or dark
slate.

Plumage. — Black, with brilliant green gloss.

SCALE OF POINTS

Head : comb, 10 ; face, 10 ; ear-lobes, 10

Size . .

Colour

Shape

Condition

Serious defects : Feathers other than black ; red

ear-lobes ; presence of crest ; shanks other than
black or dark lead ; any deformity.

FAVEROLLES

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Skull : Broad, flat, and short. Beak :
Stout and short. Comb : Single, of medium size
and upright carriage, with four to six serrations,
and of smooth surface. Face : MufSed. Beard and
Mitffting : Full, wide, and short. Ear-lobes and
Wattles : Small, and partially concealed by the
muffles.

Neck. — Short and thick, and well let into the
body.

Body. — Tliick and deep and " cloddy." Breast :
Broad, with a deep keel bone coming well forward
but not too rounded. Back : Flat and square, very
broad across the shoulders and saddle. Wings :
Small, carried closely to the body.

Tail. — Of medium length, and carried rather
upright, the feathers being broad. Long, thin, and
flowing tail feathers, carried either low- or straight,
are very objectionable.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Thighs short and wide
apart, shanks of medium length, stout and straight,
and carried well apart (narrowmess, or any tendency
to be in-kneed, is very objectionable), and sparsely
feathered down to the outer toe. Toes : Five on
each foot, the fifth being divided from the fourth,
and the outer toe sparsely feathered.

Carriage. — Active and alert.

Weight. — 7 lb. to 8J- lb. ; cockerel, 6J lb. to
7i lb.

HEN

With the exception that the Comb is much
smaller in proportion, and that the Tail is fan-
shaped, the general characteristics are similar to
those of the cock, allowing for the natural sexual
differences.

Weight. — 6 lb. to 7 lb. ; pullet, 5 lb. to 6V lb.

COLOUR

Beak : Horn or white. Eyes : Grey or hazel.
Comb, Face, Wattles, and Ear-lobes : Red. Legs and
Feet : White.

Plumage of the Cock. — Beard and Muffling .-
Solid blacl';. Hackles : Stravv'. Back and Shoulders :
A mixture of black, white, and brown. Breast,
Thighs, and Under-fiuff , Tail, and Shank feathering :
Black. Wings : Bow, straw ; bar, black ; second-
aries, pure white on the outer edge of the feathers,
and black on the inner edge and at the tips ; primaries,
black.

Plumage of the Hen. — Beard and Muffling. Breast,
Thighs, and Fluff : Cream. Remainder of Plumage :
Wheaten brown, the neck-hackle being striped with
a dark shade of the same colour (but free from
black), and the wings being of a light shade.

SCALE OF POINTS

Colour
Symmetry

25

STANDARB FOR LA BRESSE.

475

Muffling
Size . .
Condition
Comb . .

Serious defects : Skin and legs other than white ;
absence of beard and muffs ; featherless shanks and
outer toes ; other than five toes on each foot ; hollow
breast ; any bodily deformity.

LA BRESSE

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Skull : Rather thin, and of medium
length. Beak : Strong and fairly long. Eyes ; Bold.
Comb : Single, of medium size, straight, and erect,
the back part following the curve of the neck, deeply
and evenh" serrated, of fine texture, and free from
thumb-marks and side sprigs. Face : Smooth and
free from feathers. Ear-lobes : Well developed and
rather pendent. Watlles : Of medium length, and
rounded at the ends.

Neck. — P'airly short, but covered with long
hackles.

Body. — Fairly broad, square, and compact.
Breast : Well rounded. Back : Moderately short,
broad at shoulders, and tapered to the tail. Wings :
Of moderate length, and carried close to the body.

Tail. — Of medium length, and carried well back.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Of medium length, the
shanks fine and free from feathering. Toes : Four
on each foot, straight, and well spread.

Carriage. — Active and graceful.

Weight.— 6 lb.

Except that the Comb falls gracefully over to
cither side of the face, the general characteristics of
the hen are similar to those of the cock, allowing
lor the natural sexual differences.

Weight.— 5 lb.

COLOUR

THE BLACK

Beak : Dark blue or dark slate, the former
preferred. Eyes : Black, or as dark as possible.
Comb and Wattles : Bright red. Face : Sooty,
especially dark around the eyes. Lobes : White, or
white sanded with red, the former preferred. Legs
and Feet : The same as the beak.

Plumage. — Black, wdth a bright green lustre.

THE WHITE

Head points : As in the Black. Legs and Feet :
Dark blue.

Plumage. — Pure white, straw tinge objection-
able.

SCALE OF POINTS

Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Head : lobes, 10 ; eyes, 10 ; comb, 5 . . . . 25

Colour . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Legs and feet . . . . . . . . . . i ;

Serious defects : Comb too hea\-y or with side
sprigs ; red eyes ; black, white, or yellow shanks and
toes ; straw-coloured or other than black or white
feathers; high tail carriage; any deformity. (Note.
-Red lobes, although objectionable, cannot be con-
sidered as serious defects at present. — W. W. B.)

476

CHAPTER XXXII

OTHER CONTINENTAL BREEDS

BESIDES the breeds generally recognised as
French, and described in the last chapter,
there are several known in other parts of
Europe which are distinct enough to be worth
description. We are only able to give details of
those originating in Belgium, Holland, and
Southern Russia, of which the Belgian breeds
are longest and best known in this country.
One of these, the Campine or Brackel fowl—
for there can be no doubt that both form essen-
tially one breed — has only lately attracted con-
siderable attention, and acquired considerable
popularity ; it will be convenient therefore to
describe it and other Belgian or Dutch breeds
first, and afterwards the most distinctive
Russian fowls.

The fowls known as Campines are un-
doubtedly of great antiquity ; and it is in fact
quite evident, now we have them over here, that
they exactly answer to the G.
Campines. turcica or Turkish fowl of old

Aldrovandus, which has been
already alluded to in treating of Pencilled
Hamburghs, and which is pictured as a single-
combed breed, with pencilling like a Ham-
burgh's, and the cock's body pencilled like the
hen's. Further, there are found both single and
Tose-combed Campines in Belgium, though
single combs are adopted in England to keep
the breed as distinct as possible ; and we have
said already that single combs still appear in
Hamburghs, and that old representations of
these also depict pencilled cocks as well as
hens. All the evidence is convergent, and
points to the breed here mentioned as being
the original of the old Chittiprat or Everyday
Layer, before the latter had been refined in
head and pencilling, at the expense of some
loss in size, hardihood, and prolificacy. It is
as a hardy fowl and prolific layer that the old
breed has been re-introduced into this country.

The following notes upon Campines were
contributed to our last edition by Mr. Thomas
B. Bracken, Slyne Road, Lancaster, one of the
earliest exhibitors of the breed in this country.

" I myself remember my parents keeping the

old Chittiprat, and although I cannot remember
the points, I recognise a similarity to the present
day Campines. Isly poultry runs adjom the
great North Road, at a point where a rise in
the ground makes it convenient for pedestrians
who are no longer young, or who carrj- too
much adipose tissue, to take a view of the sur-
rounding scenery ; and in the summer time I
hear very many expressions of admiration for
my birds, the older generation calling them
Chittiprats, Bolton Greys, etc. etc. Frequently
I am asked what breed they are ; I reply
Campines (pronounced Kampeens), and it is
very amusing to hear the result : Campions and
Champions being the most familiar repetition,
Campies with the long i, occasionally but very
rarely indeed is it correctly repeated.

" I was led to take up Campines by reading
an account of a tour through Belgium in .June,
1897, by Mr. Edward Brown and Mr. A. F.
Hunter (of Farm Poultry, Boston, U.S.A.), in
which the wonderful laying qualities of the
breed were referred to. Shortly afterwards I
imported eggs and birds from the late M.
Moons de Coen, Calmpthout, Antwerp, who
was, I believe, the leading Belgian breeder of
this variety.

" The Campine, as is now generally known,
is a Belgian breed, and derives its name from a
large district in Belgium, extending from Ant-
werp to Hasselt in Limbourg. The breed is
undoubtedly a very old one ; indeed, the people
of the Campine district go so far as to say that
when Julius Cassar left their country, he took
back to Rome a number of these fowls, which
the Roman epicures pronounced ' food for the
gods.' Be this as it may, when chickens six to
seven weeks old, Campines are as plump as
partridges, and remarkably good eating. The
Belgians have, however, bred them chiefly with
a view to quantity and size of eggs, and not for
feather. The result is a remarkable layer of
good-sized white eggs. I regret I have not
been able to keep an exact record of quantity,
but a friend of mine in the hilly district of
north-west Westmorland wrote me in April,
igoo, as follows: 'I have four pullets hatched

CAMPINES

All

middle of June, which commenced laying early
in November, and have laid ever since ; been
getting three and four eggs daily, sometimes
four per day five days in succession.'

" They are what I call a ' homely ' breed, and
with decent treatment readily oat out of the
attendant's hand ; and although when
thoroughly alarmed they can fly a great height,
I hnd in practice that 6-fcct netting keeps them
within bounds. They are non-sitters and re-
markable foragers, so that on a free run they
require very little assistance in the matter of
food.

I have had them successfully reared on a stiff
clay, with an excess of moisture for weeks
together. In a fairly extensive experience, they
are the most precocious youngsters I have ever
come across. When hatched in fine weather, I
have had the cockerels crowing under five
weeks. The colour, when hatched, of both
Golds and Silvers, is dark brown, the Golds
being a shade richer.

" In order to avoid that bane of so many
otherwise good breeds, double mating, the
Campine Club very wisely revised their
standard, and made the plumage of cocks

Silver Campines as exhibited in igoo.
(From a drawing kindly !ent by Mr. T. B. Bracken.)

" The plumage of the hens is very similar to
our Pencilled Hamburghs, but the pencilling is
broader. In cocks the breast and wing-bar are
pencilled like the hens, the back and saddle in
most specmiens being at present white. The
main tail is black, and the sickles in the best
specimens are edged with white or mackerel
markings. The combs are single, erect in the
cocks, and falling over in hens like a Leg-
horn's. After the plumage and smart, grace-
ful carriage, the most striking characteristic is
the dark, apparently black, full, prominent
eye ; when closely observed, however, it is
found that the pupil only is black, the iris
being a very dark brown.

" The chicks are hardy, and feather quickly.

identical with that of hens ; and, with a view
to discourage the introduction of Hamburgh
blood, have also made red eyes a disqualifi-
cation. The question of broad versus narrow
pencilling has not been discussed, but my own
idea is to go for the broad markings. In this
respect my second prize Palace cockerel excels
my cup winner, the latter having narrow
markings, though bred from the same pen.

" In regard to the two colours. Silvers and
Golds, at present the Golden are a trifle smaller
than the Silvers, but, generally speaking, they
have whiter lobes. I find, however, that both
my Golds and Silvers are increasing in size as
well as improving in markings."

Writing in igii, the Rev. E. Lewis Tones,

478

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

of Heyope, Knighton, Radnorshire, hon. sec.
of the Campine Club, kindly furnishes the fol-
lowing additional notes. The bird portrayed
on this page is from his yards, that on p. 479
being the property of Mr. R. Edwards.

Origin. — Monsieur L. Vander-Snickt, the
greatest Belgian authority on poultry, tells us
that " these two breeds (Braekels and Cam-,
pines) have been famous since the time of
Charles V. for producing delicious milk
chickens in winter, and in summer for the enor-
mous number of cockerels {poulcis de grains)

Silver Campine Cockerel {Front View),
(Selected to illustrate marking and type.)

which must be killed or caponiscd before they
are four months old." Of their origin prior
to that period we do riot know anything with
certainty, but Monsieur Vander-Snickt hnds a
resemblance in them to the G. turcica of Aldro-
vandus. How they were introduced into
Belgium we do not know. Undoubtedly the
Braekel and the Campine of Belgium origin-
ated from the same stock, but have now been
modified by (a) environment and (b) the infu-
sion of blood of the fowls that were there be-
fore. These two causes are, to my mind,
sufficient to account for the differences and
have been operative to produce them.

History. — Undoubtedly Campines have

been known in England since the beginning of
the last century, and I have Mr. Edward
Brown's authority for saying that " it is reason-
able to assume that the original pencilled Ham-
burghs introduced were Campines." The first
introduction then led to pencilled Hamburghs,
the second introduction took place, as a result
of Mr. Edward Brown's letters to the Press,
between 1897 and 1899; the Campine Club was
formed on Nov. 15, 1899, for "the purpose of
bringing the wonderful economic properties of
the Campine fowls prominently before the
British poultrymen and to forward the interests
of the breed generally." The early history was
a brief popularity, so brief that in 1905 the
breed and the club were practically dead.

In connection with this it is interesting to
note that in the 'eighties Campines were intro-
duced into America as Belgian Braekels, and
that they had a place in the American
standard, but the lareed failed to become
popular, and is no longer included in that
standard. The revival in England coincides
with the introduction of male birds marked
like the females, and all signs point to the fact
that the introduction of the English type of
Campine cockerel will produce a revival in the
States.

Description. — As originally imported the
males had flowing white neck hackle, a white
patch on the wing bow, white or slightly ticked
saddle hackle and a black tail, the rest of the
)ody being barred. The hen had white neck
1 tackle, the rest of the body being very imper-
fectly barred, the greatest fault being " mossi-
ness." It was clear that such a male could
never breed pullets anything but "mossy," and
so the club was faced with the problem of (a)
cither double mating, one pen to produce exhi-
ition cockerels, and another to produce exhi-
bition" pullets, or (b) to make the male conform
in body markings to the female. The club de-
cided upon the latter course, and this decision
led to the practical breaking up of the club.
However, the production of the desired male
and the breeding of exquisite females has put
the club on its legs again.

The policy of the club for the last six years
has been so to draw up its standard as to pre-
vent crossing and thus keep the breed pure ; it
has also been the policy to discourage increase
of size or the abnormal production of any point
which would interfere with the wonderful
economic qualities of the breed. In this we
have succeeded, for our Campines are as hardy
as ever, they lay as many, if not more, eggs in
the year, and the size of the egg has been more
than fully maintained.

CAMPINES

479

The English type of Campine inckides both
Brackcl and Campine of Belgium, ignoring
their differences. It might be more accurate to
say we are producing a composite bird out of
these two, and in America they intend to do the
same, modifying our type slightly.

The cockerel has a medium sized, even comb
with about five serrations, and the tip slightly
following but standing clear of the nape of the
neck. It should be fine, even, and upright
without a thumb-mark in front, wide enough to
be well set, and yet not so beefy as to appear
ugly or to interfere with the comfort of th,
bird. The wattles are medium-sized and ol
fine texture. The earlobe satin white, smooth,
not wrinkled, of moderate size ; the beak
should be horn colour and the eye black
(though the iris is often dark brown). The neck
hackle is silvery white, and should be as full
and flowing as possible. The rest of the boch'
is barred ; the black bar should be about three
times at least as wide as the white ground
colour, the latter being wide enough to be seen
at a distance, and not a cobweblike markiiiL:
visible only when handled. The black should
be pure black, free from grey and covered with
a beautiful green sheen, which makes the bird
(of a naturally gay carriage) look resplendent
in the sunshine. The idea is that the markings
should suggest rings round the body, the geo-
metrical regularity being broken by the
rounded white bar at the end of the feather.
In the hen the comb may fall over, but
should not be so large as to interfere with the
bird's comfort. At the base of the comb of the
female there is often a bluish zone. This is
due to a pigment termed "negresse," and which
is responsible for the delicate flavour of the
Campine. The colour of the legs is leaden
blue with horn toenails.

In England we have only the Silver and
Gold Campines, but in Belgium they have some
other varieties. The description of the Silver
applies to the Gold, substituting gold ground
colour for white.

Qualities. — The Campine is primarily a pro-
lific layer of a large white egg, and it is more
an " all the year round " layer than one who
lays heavily at a certain season. As a table
bird it is excellent in quality, and it has the
merit of carrying the greater part of its flesh
on the breast. It is small in bone, and conse-
quently the ratio of flesh to offal is higher than
in any other breed. Judged by weight only,
it is not big enough for a table bird ; but weight
should not be the only consideration, as two
Campine cockerels weighing 8 lbs. would feed
more people and more satisfactorily than an

8 lb. cockerel, as weight means bone, which is
expensive to build and useless on the table.

Campine cockerels are useful for crossing,
as they improve the number and size of eggs,
the quality of the flesh and the amount of
meat on the breast. They also improve the
hardiness of the progeny and the quickness
with which they mature for market.

The weight of the c%'g is not less than 2
ozs., and ranges between 2 ozs. and 2 J ozs.
The colour is pure white and the flavour is
delicate. Mr. Edward Brown in his " Report

Silver Campine Hen.

on the Poultry Industry in Belgium," says (on
page 38), " The claim is made, however, that
eighteen Braekel eggs give equal results in
cake-making to twenty-two from any other
breed."

Campines are non-sitters. They are excel-
lent foragers and find a great deal of their
living on a free range. They are small eaters.
They are tame birds, not at all shy or wild,
they crowd round the attendant and impede his
progress ; if frightened they certainly can fly,
but don't do so as a rule.

The chickens hatch out strong and are easily
reared and feather quickly. They are very
active. Care should be taken not to allow them

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

to get into long grass when it rains, otherwise
the mortality is heavy, as they go right into
the mi3dle of it to search for food and get
wet to the skin, and wet is the worst enemy of
all young life. They are very precocious. I
have seen cockerels four to five weeks old at-
tempting to crow. From the fifth week on-
wards they present a matured appearance, and
those unacquainted with them think they are
bantams, so grown up they look. The pullets
also mature quickly and begin to lay from four
to four and a half months old.

The breed is hardy, but it requires to be
well-housed in a well-ventilated house. It
does not flourish when the sleeping accommo-
dation is not sufficient. Those that have flour-
ished best with me have roosted in the apple
trees.

In type I prefer to see a wedge-shaped bird
with a well-rounded breast, the bird presenting
a gay and fine appearance and devoid of j.11
coarseness. The tail should be well furnished,
the two long sickle feathers standing out at
an angle of forty-five degrees from the body.
There should also be a full supply of saddle
hackle.

Exhibition. — There is no difficulty in exhi-
bitingthem, as they are always in condition and
rarely want washing. Three days in the pen
is sufficient to get them trained for show.
Cockerels and pullets can be bred from the
same pen. The first cockerel and first pullet
at both Dairy and Palace, 1 908, were brother
and sister. The birds do not look so striking
in the show pen as they do on a green run or
even in the hand.

The difficulty in breeding exhibition speci-
mens is to combine in one and the same bird (a)
good neck hackle, (b) good breast, and (c) good
markings on the upper part of the body. It
is easy to get any two, but very difficult to get
all three.

K great advance has been made in the last
four years, but there are still a great many
difficulties to overcome, and the Campine offers
a fair field to those who love breeding. In a
finished breed the novice stands no chance
against the experienced breeder, but with the
breed in its present state luck may come in and
help the novice and put him on equal terms
with the most expert breeders ; this I have seen
happen many a time.

Mating. — Advice on mating must always re-
main a difficult matter as long as there is m.ore
than one way of obtaining the same result.
I can only just give a few hints as to how to
proceed. First select the male ; it is the easiest
(if not the only) way to determine first on the

head of the pen. See he has the right head
points. Foremost see he is pure in colour,
black being black and white white, with as
much green lustre as possible. Let there be no
glaring fault, as red eye, for instance. Find
out his weak points, and see the hens are strong
in these points. Get well developed hens and
get them as regularly marked as possible, and
get those that are most free from mossiness and
have the best barred tips to their feathers.
Working on these lines, the novice will not go
far wrong, and in a few years should be able
to pick out his breeders instinctively.

The following is the Poultry Club Standard
for Campines : —

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Skull : Moderately long ana aeep. and
incUned to width. Beak : Rather short. Eyes :
Prominent. Comb .■ Single, of medium size, up-
right, evenly serrated, free from excrescences, the
back carried well out but clear of the neck. Face :
Smooth. Ear-lobes : Of medium size, inclined to al-
mond shape, and free from wrinkles. Wattles : Fairly
long in proportion to the comb, and of fine texture.

Neck. — Of medium length, and well furnished
with hackle.

Body. — Broad, narrowing to the tail, close and
compact, rather long back, full and round breast,
large and neatly tucked wings.

Tail. — Of good length, carried well out from the
bodv, and with broad and plentiful sickles and
secondaries.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Of medium length, and
shanks free of feathers. Toes : Four on each foot,
slender and well spread.

Carriage. — Alert and graceful.

Weight.— 7 lb.

HEN

With the exception of the Comb, which falls over
one side of the face, the general characteristics are
similar to those of the cock, allowing for the natural
sexual differences.

Weight.— 5 lb.

COLOUR

Beak : Horn. Eyes : Iris, dark brown ; pupil,
black. Comb, Face, and Wattles : Bright red. Ear-
lobes : White. Legs and Feet : Leaden blue ; toe-
nails, horn.

THE SILVER

Plumage. — Head and Neck-hackle .■ Pure white.
Remainder of Plumage : Ground colour pure white,
and barring pure black with rich beetle-green sheen,
every feather being barred in a transverse direction
with the end white, the bars clear and with well
defined edges, running across the feather so as to
form, as near as possible, rings around the body,
and three times the width of the ground (white)
colour. On the breast and under-parts of the body
the barrings should be straight or shghtly curved,
but on the back, the shoulders, the saddle hackle,
and the tail of a V-shapcd pattern. The cock

BREDAS AND MALINES.

48 1

should be furnished with properly developed saddle
hackles.

THE GOLD

Plumage. — Head and. Neck-hackle : Rich gold,
and not washed-out yellow. Remainder of Plumage :
Ground colour rich gold, and barring pure black
with rich beetle-green sheen, and markings as in the
Silver.

SCALE OP POINTS
Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Colour : neck-hackle, 12 ; sheen, 10

Size . .

Condition

Tail (development and carriage) . . . . . . 8

Comb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Eyes 5

Lobes . .

Legs and feet . . ...

Serious defects : Even barring ; pencilled ground
colour ; sprigs on comb ; legs other than leaden
blue ; wliite in face ; red eyes ; feather or fluff on
shanks.

A breed known as Gueldres or Bredas, the
former name being given to the Cuckoo variety,
has long been known in Belgium, the Nether-
lands, and some parts of northern
Bredas France. It was much praised by

, M. Jacque and other early French

writers, and was introduced into
England by Mr. Geyelin and Mr. Schroder, in
tlie days of the disastrous National Poultry
Company. It was also at one time considerably

Fig. 133. — Head of Breda Cock.

bred in the United States ; but appears to have
lost ground of late years everywhere, being
elbowed out, on the Continent as well as here,
by more recent favourites. The breed has a
small crest, and slightly feathered rather short

61

legs, but its chief peculiarity is an entire ab-
sence of comb, there being instead a depression
in the red skin just over the cavernous nostrils,
and behind the barest little ridge of flesh.
Fig. 133 shows this formation, and the entire
head of a Breda fowl, as drawn by M. Jacque
so far back as 1864. The breed is reported
as hardy, good in flesh, and a fairly good
layer, but not much of a sitter. (See also p. 483.)
We are indebted to Mr. Edward Brown,
F.L.S., who has travelled much upon the
Continent, for the following notes and de-
scriptions of the following other breeds in
Belgium and Russia.

" The leading variety of Belgian fowls for
table purposes is the Coucou de Malines, which
is bred extensively in Brabant, to the north of
the city of Malines, and fatted in
Coucou the villages to the west of Malines,

de chiefly in the district around Merch-

Maiines. tem and Opwyck, in Flanders.

These fowls when dead are known
under the name of Poules des Bruxelles. It may
be explained that the fattening is not restricted
to the district where the birds are chiefly
reared, the breeders and fatteners meeting at
a large market which has been established at
Londerzeel. In many respects the Coucou de
Malines resembles the Plymouth Rock. It is
generally of the Asiatic t\'pe — that is, heav)- in
build, substantial in bone, upright in carriage,
and with a small tail, though this is not so
small as that of the Brahma and Cochin. The
males weigh about 9 lbs. unfatted. The legs
are stout and rather long, the latter being flesh-
coloured or rose-white, and ornamented on the
outer side with small feathers ; the tail is short
and thick ; the head stout, surmounted by a
single comb, small in size and upright in both
sexes, with clear indentations ; the wattles and
earlobes are red ; the neck is thick and short,
the body massive, thick-set, and the breast
prominent. There are two colours, namely,
what is known as cuckoo and the white ; the
former are chiefly met with, and the whites ap-
pear to be a sport therefrom. Comparatively
few of the latter are bred, but they are in-
creasing in favour. The hen is a fair layer,
but the eggs — as is usual in the case of birds of
the Asiatic type — are rather small as compared
with the size of the birds from which they are
produced. The eggs are well tinted, and are
usually short in comparison with their size.
The hens are excellent sitters, and make very
good mothers, although they are somewhat
heavy.

" The Malines fowl is quiet in temperament,

4>ii

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

and a very good fattener. The flesh is excellent
in quality, but the birds, by reason of their
weight of bone, are not very rapid growers, and
I do not think they are equal to the best French
and English so far as flesh properties are con-
cerned. From such evidence as can be obtained,
it would appear that this breed owes its origin
to the Brahma engrafted upon the common
fowl of the country, though such a statement
scarcely affords an explanation as to the origin
of the cuckoo plumage, and it is probable that
some other influence has been at work in this
direction. As cuckoo plumage is practically
a mixture of black and white, frequently ap-
pearing in other breeds, it may be that the re-
sult was accidental in the first place, and the
fixing of the t\'pe due to careful selection. The
breed is well suited to the district in which it is
kept, and meets that demand for large birds
w-ith good flesh qualities which is found in
nearly all countries. My experience has been
that the Coucou de Malines does very well in
other places. I have had specimens over some
time, and they have succeeded very satis-
factorily.

The Poultry Club Standard for JMalines is
as follows: —

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

COCK

Head. — Skull : Strong, but not thick. Beak :
Strong and stout, and of medium length. Eyes :
Full and inteUigent. Comb : Single, of medium size,
straight and upright, with about five serrations.
Face : Smooth. Ear-lobes : Rather long. Wattles :
Of medium length.

Neck. — Strong, not too short, rather thick, and
profusely covered with rather short hackly feathers.

Body. — Breast : Deep and broad. Back : Long,
broad, and fiat, carried horizontally and not sloping.
Wings : Rather short and well tucked up.

TeuI. — Short, and carried half horizontally.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Fairly long, strong, the
shanks and feet feathered to the outer toe, but
not heavily feathered. Toes : Four on each foot,
fairly long, strong, straight, and well spread.

Carriage. — Upright, but not with a sloping back.

Weight. — 9 lb. to lo lb.

HEX

Except that the Legs are rather short, the general
characteristics of the hen are similar to those of
the cock, allowing for the natural sexual differences.

Weight.— 7 lb. to S lb.

COLOUR

THE CUCKOO

Beak : White or horn. Eyes : Red or bright
orange. Comb, Face, Wattles, and Ear-lobes : Red.
Legs and Feet : \Miite.

Plumage. — Blue-white ground, each feather barred
across with bands of blue-black, the blue reflection
disappearing the second year.

OTHER VARIETIES

Among other varieties recognised are Black,
Ermine, Gilded Black, Gilded Cuckoo, Silvered
Black, and WTiite, and the " Turkey-headed "
(triple comb) in all colours ; but they are not ex-
hibited in sufficient numbers in this country to
warrant description.

SCALE OF POINTS
T>-pe . .

Size and weight
Colour and marking
Carriage

Breast and back
Comb, ear-lobes, and wattles
Beak and neck
Legs and feet

Serious defects : Lack of size and weight ; back
sloping or not flat ; squirrel tail ; overhanging
comb ; white ear-lobes ; jellow egs ; bronze
feathers.

" The breed known as the Bruges fowl is
frequently called the Combattant du Xord, and
it is met with to a moderate extent in Belgium

and the French-speaking districts
Bruges. of Flanders. It is in appearance

distinctly of the Game type, and
in some cases it is used for fighting purposes.
The appearance, however, is more like the
Indian Game or the Malay, in that it is much
heavier in build than the majority of our Game
fowls. The comb is single and very small,
the colour being deep red, as is that of the
wattles and earlobes ; the tail is horizontal,
the legs and feet are lead colour. In size, car-
riage, shape, and comb, the breed distinctly
follows the Malay, whilst by its activity, the
colour of the plumage, and general instincts, it
is more nearly allied to the English Game. It
is a very hardy breed, easily reared ; it is a
poor layer and uncertain as a sitter. Like
most of the Game fowls, the rapidity of growth
and quality of flesh are striking!}' in its favour,
and the breed is used to a considerable extent
for table purposes.

ARDENNES
The southern sections of Belgium, that is
the Ardenne region, which consists of a high
hilly country, has a breed known under this
name, light in bod\-, very active and hardy,
and thus able to meet the conditions there pre-
vailing, which require a bird well able to find
a large part of its nutrition. They are gamey
in appearance, flat in front, have large wings
and full tail. The legs are of medium length,
blue-grey in colour, and with five toes on each

DUTCH FOWLS.

foot. The plumage is similar to that of Black-
red Game in the cocks, but very dark in hens.
The head is strong, with a small single comb,
e}-e red, and face covered with fine feathers.
Although these birds are small-medium in size,
they are said to have excellent flesh qualities,
but the meat is hard and the birds require to be
well hung after they are killed. As egg pro-
ducers the hens are moderate so far as number
is concerned, but these are of a fair size and
said to be excellent in flavour. The Ardenne
fowls are wild in temperament, and demand
freedom of range.

BRAB.\NTS

Throughout the Netherlands, that is Hol-
land and Belgium, this type of fowl is found
to a considerable extent, but it is only within
recent years that it has received special atten-
tion. Without being heavy in bone the body
is large and roomy, showing considerable
posterior development with medium length of
neck and legs, and indicative of good laying
quality. The Brabanconne is a crested race,
which crest is often more developed in cocks
than in hens. The crest, however, is not globu-
lar as in other breeds with which we are
familiar, but somewhat flat, and the beard or
muffs are also small. The comb is small and
single. The majority of these fowls are black
in plumage, though in some an admixture of
red is found. The legs and feet are slate
blue. The main quality is egg production,
these being large in size and white in shell,
and the hens are non-sitters. They are largely
found in the Walloon districts of southern
Belgium.

Other Belgian races are the Herve, a small
active breed found on the high tableland of
that name, and excellent la}-ers ; the Huttegem,
a heavy fowl used much for hatching duck-
lings, as they are early and determined sitters ;
and the Antwerp Brahma, evidently due to a
cross with the Shanghai or native races. Bantams
are also largely kept in Belgium both for
their ornamental and practical qualities.

DUTCH FOWLS
In Holland several breeds of fowls exist
which have, with one exception, been unknown
to breeders in other countries, and even in the
Netherlands have not received much attention
until recent years. The exception is that to
which the name is applied in England of the
White-crested Black Polish, though it is not a
variety of the Polish or Poland fowl. The name
given to it upon the Continent is Hollandais,
which correctly reveals the country of origin.

483

That breed is dealt with elsewhere. Further,
it is of interest to note tliat the Pencilled Ham-
burghs undoubtedly first came from North
Holland, where there is a breed called Fries-
land, which is identical as to comb and plumage
with the Hamburgh, but larger in size of body.
With that it is unnecessary to do more than
make this mention, as later observations have
shown its relationship to the Pencilled Ham-
burgh. Probably the original spangled Ham-
burghs were due to an earlier importation from
Holland. The chief breeds other than those
mentioned are briefly referred to below.

BREDA

At one period this breed, which takes its
name from a Dutch town, was widely distri-
buted in south Holland. A large fowl, full
in breast, somewhat long in leg, and on broad
lines, it has considerable affinity with Asiatic
types. There are four varieties, namely,
Cuckoo, Black, White and Blue. The pecu-
liar features are that it has a small almost
rudimentary comb, behind which is a small
crest of short leathers falling backwards,
white earlobes, and full hackles. The legs
and feet are slaty blue, and the flesh white. It
is very hardy and suitable for lowlying lands ;
the hens are prolific layers of large eggs, poor
sitters and mothers, and being slow growers
are found useful for winter birds, as they
fatten well. They can be kept successfully in
confinement, and are further referred to on
p. 481.

OWL-BEARDED

The native name is Uilebaard. It would
appear that this race is closely allied to a Ger-
man breed known as the Bearded Thuringian,
kept in the Hartz Mountains. They are small
in size of bod}', which is full and round, with
short back and full tail. The comb is small
and horned, and the wattles are also small.
The cheeks and throat are covered with a
thick, full black beard. The legs are medium
in length, and the beak and toenails white.
A good forager, it is a capital layer, and
carries a fair amount of white flesh. There
are several varieties, namely, Black, White,
Gold-laced, and Silver-laced.

DRENTE
Only one other breed need be named, the
Drentishe fowl, found in the Dutch sandy pro-
vince of that name. It is small in size, but
very long in body, an excellent layer, and by
its foraging qualities eminently suited to a poor
country. There are several varieties, but these
are unfixed and uncertain.

484

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

RUSSIAN FOWLS
" Very little has been known as to the fowls
chiefly met with in Russia. From time to time
reference has been made in various books to
fowls which were called ' Russian,' having
certain special characteristics, but until the
Poultry Exhibition held at St. Petersburg in
1899 I never met with any of these birds.

-' In an interesting paper which was read at
the Congress held in the Russian capital, it was
stated that of the breeds of Russian fowls the
first place must be accorded to
Orloffs. those called Orloff. The best speci-

mens of this race are all of a very
large size, in general the adult cock weighing
about 10 lbs., but in some cases they reach
12 lbs. and more, the hens being about 2 lbs.
less. The head of these birds is large, nearly
round, without the slightest sign of crest, but
with heavy whiskers and beard. The hackles
swell out below the head into almost a spherical
protuberance, but at the base of the neck the
feathers lie close, so that the neck appears thin-
ner at the shoulders than above. In body it is
large, closely feathered, and very deceptive in
the actual weight ; in appearance it is not unlike
the Indian Game in some respects, although it
is not quite so wide in body or heavy in bone,
and has a distinct appearance of being deeper
in breast, though this is partially due to the fact
that the breast is longer and more prominent in
front than in the case of the Indian Game.
Still it follows that type very largely, and with
the exception of the muffs, the head has a
similar appearance. Good specimens are rather
difficult to obtain. Various suggestions have
been made as to the origin of the breed, which
is not widely distributed. It has been suggested
that it was due to the crossing of the Malay
upon the Faverolles or Mantes fowl ; but this is
denied, and the fact that birds of the Orloff
type have been met with for a longer period of
time than the Faverolles or Mantes fowls ap-
pear to have been known, would indicate that
this could not be the origin. As one Russian
writer says, the difference between the Orloff
and all other species is chiefly in the conforma-
tion of the head, which is round and large, the
frontal bone being particularly prominent. The
conformation of the beak is equally remark-
able, no other species having the beak curled
as sharply, and which is very evident even in
the chickens. The following quotation from a
paper read at the St. Petersburg Congress by
M. Houdekoff affords all the information ob-
tainable at present.

" ' The Orloff fowl has received this name
from the fact that it is supposed to have been

introduced by Count Orloff-Tschesmensky.
This is not, however, very probable, because
it was well known by Russians before the time
of Count Orloff. We find a description in the
work of an unknown writer published in 1774,
where it is named " Chlianskaia." Breeders
knew the race under the latter denomination
until a much later period. Now, without any
reason, it is customary to call them the Orloff.
The more probable supposition is that they
were brought prominently forward by the cele-
brated horse-breeder. Count Orloff-Tschesmen-
skv, and principally in the province of Ghilan.
But he did not give them the name. We may
ask whether there are not a few races of
domestic fowls, yet unknown, in the centre of
Asia ? That country has been explored in
many parts to a small extent, and it is not im-
possible that it contains many surprises. It
may be that this race of poultry had its origin
there, and was not produced in Russia. But
we have made it known first to Europe and
America.'

" My own observations are that the Orloff is
not widely distributed, and it was with con-
siderable difficulty that I secured a trio. Un-
fortunately both the hens died before they bred,
and I have not yet succeeded in securing other
specimens. Hence I have no experience as to
their qualities, but they would appear to me
to be moderate layers, but good in table
properties. There are three colours: 1st, dark
mahogany ; 2nd, speckled ; 3rd, white. The
first named is the most wonderful in sheen and
colour of any fowls I have seen.

" A very interesting class of fowl is that
called the Pavloff, and so far as I can learn it is
really the progenitor of what we now call the
Polish. There were quite a number
Pavloff. of these birds exhibited at the .St.

Petersburg show, both by Russians
and Germans, and they are evidently found
in the border sections of these two countries.
They differ, however, very distinctly from
the Western European Polish, but some of the
same characteristics are present, though in a
less degree. These birds are much smaller than
our Polish, and have feathers upon the legs, in
some cases being very thickly feathered, but
they are also crested, though the crests are
small and differ distinctly from the Polish in
shape. As is well known, the crest of the
Polish fowls is large and round, whereas these
are small. In some cases the crest feathers
stand almost erect upon the head ; in others
there is a transverse line on the top of the
Iiead, part of the feathers falling back and the

PAVLOFR

485

others to the front ; a third form was that the
larger number of the feathers fall forward over
the face like a fringe, with only a few stand-
ing up behind, and a fourth had the majority
falling behind like a lady's veil thrown back,
with a few in front. In no case do the
feathers cover the eyes, as is the case with our
Polish fowl, and not only can we trace to this
breed the Polish, but it is also more than prob-
able that the Sultans, which came to us from
Turkey, are sports thereform. The beards and
whiskers are very thick, quite covering the
ear-lobes.

" In respect to this breed M. Houdekoff
sa}-s : ' There are in Russia some crested and
muffled fowls which are known under the name
of Pavloff. These fowls are original, and have
definite characters which distinguish them.
They have received the name " Pavloff, be-
cause they are bred principally at Pavlovsk in
the Government of Nijni-Novgorod, where, it
is said, they were introduced by the Empress
Catherine II. There are two varieties — the
Gold and the Silver. Another breed is called
the Russian Dutch, and this is similar to the
White-crested Black Polish, but has not so
large crest, and has a great deal of red in the
plumage. The plumage of the others is as in
golden and silver Spangled Hamburghs, the
ground-colour being golden-bay or silver-
white, the feathers ending in both cases with a
round, black spangle. The legs and feet are
slaty blue.' "

Russian statements respecting the antiquity
of the above breeds may perhaps be received
with some scepticism. The photographs which
we have seen of Orloffs irresistibly suggest a
cross of Indiati Game ; and all known of the

spread of breeds of poultry, makes it far more
probable that the great Polish race should have
spread from south to north than from north to
south. Mr. Brown also forwards Standards
published by the Russian Poultry Society of
four other breeds, of which he has no personal
knowledge, and which did not appear at the
St. Petersburg Exhibition of 1899. They are
named as Ushanki, Russian Crested, Siberian
Feather-footed, and Rose-combed. Except
that the Feather-footed seems in many
points to resemble the Sultan, it is difficult
to gather any definite ideas from these descrip-
tions beyond the general prevalence (except
in the Rose-combed) of crest and whiskers
among Russian fowls.

We believe that there are one or two breeds
with some character in Germany, but only the
Lakenvelder presently described has found any
recognition in England. A very curious but
quite minor breed known in Austria is men-
tioned in the next chapter. The tendency in
Scandinavia is more and more to import from
southern Europe, and on the Continent gener-
ally to cross with stock from England ; in fact,
all the recent history of Continental poultry
goes to show the increasing value set there upon
that stock of English breeders, which some
writers have persisted in representing as so in-
ferior to French and Belgian races. Perhaps
the most likely source of anything really new
in the poultry world is now the southern and
eastern continent of Africa, and it is by no
means improbable that the opening up of that
country may ere long introduce something
in the way of novelty and at the same time
really characteristic.

486

CHAPTER XXXIII.

UNCLASSED BREEDS OF POULTRY.

THERE are several fairly old and well-
known breeds which can hardly be
classed under any definite heading ; and
others less known, which it is also desirable
to gather together in such a chapter as this.
Most exhibitions have, besides classes for the
usual breeds, one for "Any Other Variety,"
which has in its time done yeoman service to
the poultry world. Brahmas and French fowls
made their earlier appearances in it, till strong
enough to claim classes of their own ; it is to
be regretted that the converse is now the case,
and that such old and once popular breeds as
Spanish and Polish too often lately have found
their only chance of a prize in this refuge for
the destitute.

Such facts suggest that the " Any Other
Variety" class ought to have more careful
attention than it often receives. And especially
it is desirable, now that really old standard
breeds so often invade it, to provide prizes for
a greater number of varieties in the class. To
add to prizes is the obvious remedy ; but where
funds forbid that, we can but repeat an old
suggestion, that in this one case it is desirable
to depart from the single-bird system, and in
place of three prizes each for males and females,
to offer two firsts, two seconds, and two thirds
ioT pairs. More breeds would then have chance
of recognition.

In the paragraphs which follow we have
placed earlier varieties or breeds most worthy of
consideration alphabetically, tlien the recently
introduced Lakenvelders and Sumatras, and col-
lected those of minor interest together at the close.

ALBIONS.
This useful variety of fowls was originated
in the county of Sussex, Mr. Godfrey Shaw,
of Scaynes Hill, near Haywards Heath, having,
we believe, bred the first pen of them about
the year 1S97. They were produced, as stated
in a former chapter, by selecting and breed-
ing together the whitest of the Sussex farm-
yard stock, and, of course, much false colour
had to be bred out of the earlier produce.
Classes were provided for them at several
shows, and some of the birds which appeared

in them showed traces of the White Plymouth
Rock, in a coarser and somewhat flat head,
and coarser skin. This might possibly come
from Rock blood already absorbed in local
stock ; but if real attempt be made to cultivate
such a breed, it is highly desirable that the blood
should be confined to that Susse.x type which
has proved so well adapted for useful purposes.

The Albion may be described briefly as an
all-white fowl, excepting the head points. It
should have white beak, white legs, clear white
plumage. A great point is and should be,
smallness of bone, and some closeness of
feather, no apparent size being lost in fluff. In
weight it is about the same as Rocks and
Orpingtons, all the really market breeds tending
to nearly the same average weight. The shape
should be rather long, somewhat resembling the
Dorking, or American type of Rock. The bird
might be described as equivalent to a small-
boned white Dorking, without the fifth toe or
the difficulty of a rose comb, but it is doubtful
if it becomes popular as a fancier's fowl — few
white breeds are, for obvious reasons.

Both Mr. Shaw and Mr. Richardson, who
has also shown Albions, report the birds as good
layers of fair-sized tinted eggs, hardy, maturing
fast as chickens, and easily reared in any
weather, even on clay land. At ten to fourteen
weeks they are ready to go in the fattening pens,
and the white plumage makes the carcase speci-
ally attractive at the season when pin-feather
abounds on the skin, whilst the feathers are also
worth much more per lb. to sell to manufacturers.

As stated on pp. 298-g, the powerful
Orpington interest quickly appropriated this
breed as white Orpmgtons, and this note is
now of historical interest only.

FRIZZLED FOWLS
The characteristic of these birds is that each
feather is curled back, as if they had been
stroked the wrong way, leaving the curl perma-
nent. The tail feathers cannot, of course, be
thus curled, but the webs are also peculiarly
fashioned, in a way difficult to describe. The
whole appearance is very grotesque and quaint ;
people differ as to whether it is attractive.

JAVAS

487

Other points vary at times, but most usually
the birds have rose-combs, and rather short
dark legs, the plumage being of all colours.
Years ago the most common colour was white ;
we have also seen all black: at present the
majority appear brown or partridge. Tem-
minck says that the breed was in his time found
throughout Southern Asia and the Eastern
Archipelago ; it is well known in Ceylon and
is very common in the Mauritius. That fowls
so widely spread should have so much in
common is remarkable.

Frizzled Fowls.

Contrary to the common belief, every
breeder who has had real experience with the
Frizzled Fowl, that we have yet met with, pro-
nounces it distinctly hardy. Mrs. Taylor, of
Ardgillan Castle, in Ireland, reported to us in
1872 that her Frizzles were the first to moult
(often featherless by the middle of June) and
the first to lay in the autumn. She found them
excellent mothers, and more tender for the
table than any other poultry she had experi-
ence of, even two-year-old birds being good,
and white in flesh. They are very small in
bone also. Though good mothers when they
did sit, this was very seldom. She found the
chicks hardy and easily reared, but slow in
feathering, and requiring in consequence long
brooding ; but the plumage did not harbour
vermin nearly so much as that of other fowls.
The weights were then about 5 lbs. for cocks
and 4 lbs. for the hens. Lately there has been
a tendency to breed them small, till they at last
found their way among the Bantams, and will
be found again under that section of this work.

In breeding Frizzles for exhibition, almost
the only point to look to (besides colour, if the
latter be a self -colour) is perfectioa throughout

the bird of the curled or frizzled character.
Any tendency to ordinary or natural character,
in any part of the body, should be discarded.
Some birds also seem to " show " the frizzle
better than others, and tliese are to be pre-
ferred, since judging of this variety, wherever
it has a chance, is very much a matter of first
impression.

JAVAS

The Black Java has been described in Dr.
Bennett's and several other American poultry
books from 1850 onwards, and some eighteen
or twenty years later, it undoubtedly shared in
the production of the Plymouth Rock ; but we
cannot hear of any being imported into Eng-
land before 1885, when pens were obtained by
Mr. Joseph Pettipher and several other
fanciers. The variety seemed likely at one time
to meet the views of those who wanted a large
black fowl, but did not care for tlie v-ery
scanty leg-feathering of the Langshan. The
clean-legged Orpington or Langshan, however,
ultimately took that place, and interfered with
any such prospects.

Yet it is a handsome and " distinctive "
fowl. It is of the large type, the cocks reach-
ing 10 lbs. and the hens 8 lbs., but average
weights in England have been a pound less
than this. The plumage is close, of a very
glossy black all over, with green reflections.
The legs are black also, with generally a
yellow shade under the feet, and a tendency to
get rather willow with age ; but black through-
out is to be preferred, and is often found. The
ear-lobes are red, and there are distinctive
points about both the eye and the comb ; in
our own opinion these are the most truly char-
acteristic points of the fowl. The latter is
single, rather small, but somewhat thick at the
base, and in the main evenly serrated ; but the
serrations commence farther behind the beak
than usual, having a kind of smooth edge first.
This should be recognised as the typical and
proper " Java comb," and carefully preserved.
The eye stands alone, so far as we have ob-
served, except in a few Langshans. It is
brown, very large and full, and of a pecu-
liarly soft and yet spri'ghtly expression., diffi-
cult to describe. The body of the fowl should
be full and deep, the legs only medium in
length, the cock's tail rather full and flowing,
but not squirrel-fashion.

Economically, the Java is very hardy, and
a good layer, the eggs being coloured. The
meat is very white and juicy, exactly resem-
bling that of the Langshan, with which breed
there is an obvious similarity. The hens are
clever sitters and good mothers.

THE BOOK OF POULTRY

Like all other black fowls, the Java
" sports " occasionally into white. From some
of these sports a white Java has been produced
in the United States ; and from others, or by
crossing these whites with the black, a mottled
colour, much resembling- that of the Houdan.

THE RHODE ISLAND RED.
It would appear, from available data, that
this distinctly useful and beautiful fowl had
its origin some half a century ago in a cross
between the old Shanghai, the Chittagong, and
the Red Malay, the males of those old breeds
being mated with the female fowls already
existing at Little Compton, Rhode Island, the

Rhode Island Red Cock.
(The property of Mrs. F. Cooper, Brailsford, Derby.)

most extensive of the group of isles situated
in the famous Narragansett Bay, the foreign
poultry having been undoubtedly brought to
Rhode by the vessels plying to the island.

The American Standard expresses the
belief that the Rhode Island Red "originated
from crosses of the Asiatics, Mediterraneans,
and Games," and it is stated on good authority
that the brown Leghorn entered largely into
the composition of later types. Be that as it
may, the present-day Rhode Island Red is the
result of fifty years of out-crossing, hence the

difficulty still experienced to breed the fowl
true to colour. That the object of the old
farmers of Rhode Island was, from the com-
mencement, to produce a fowl conforming to
specified pure-breed characteristics may be dis-
missed as being highly improbable, since they
apparently simply strove for the elimination of
feathered legs, and the producton of a bird
having a " carcass " that found a ready sale in
the Boston and other markets ; and it was not
until the fancier turned his attention to the
fowl that it took on some resemblance of
definite form.

Originally the Rhode Island Red rejoiced
in the cognomen of the " Billy Tripp " and
" John Macomber " fowl, a fact that was
alluded to in a report issued by the Rhode
Island Experiment Station in 1901. Writing
in that publication. Captain B. E. Tripp, son
of the original William Tripp, says : " To begin
with, as far back as 1854 John Macomber, of
Westport (living near what is now called
Central Village, but then called Westport
townhouse), and my father, William Tripp,
both of them, ran teams to New Bedford as
marketmen. They took the matter in hand to
see if they could not, by crossing different
strains of fowls, get better layers than the
fowls in the surrounding country, and also
better looking poultry for the market. The
result of their trials was the production of the
so-called Rhode Island Reds of to-day. Pre-
vious to that they were called the ' John
Macomber ' or the ' Tripp ' fowls." It will,
therefore, be gathered that the Rhode Island
Red was a local race of poultry found ex-
clusively in Rhode Island, produced by the
farmers themselves without any definite breed-
ing, and from uncertain and probably various
materials. Some of the birds were smooth-
legged, some slightly feathered, a few more
heavily feathered ; and single, rose, and pea-
combs were found. This local stock was very
hardy, very prolific, and good for table accord-
ing to American ideas; and in 1879 or 1880
a Mr. Jenny seems to have exhibited them
under their present name at a show in Southern
Massachusetts. Subsequently they w^ere written
of as " Reds " and as " Golden Buffs " Dr.
Aldrich staging them under the latter name at
the show of the Rhode Island Poultry Asso-
ciation in 1 891 ; the old and previous name of
Rhode Island Reds only re-appearing at an-
other show held in the island in 1895, when
a Mr. Browning, of Natick, exhibited speci-
mens under that name.

Although the Rhode Island Red has for
many years flourished in America as an ex-

SCOTCH DUMPIES.

489

hibition fowl, where a club was formed for
it in 1898, and an attempt was made to popu-
larise it in this country in igoi-2, it was not
until 1904 that the single-comb variety was
recognised by the American Poultry Associa-
tion, and 1906 that the rose-comb variety was
admitted to the same association's Standard
of Perfection. In August, 1909, the British
Rhode Island Red Club was established ; and
since that date the breed in whose interests it
exist has increased in popular esteem with
wonderful rapidity. The club in 1910 con-
sisted of 116 members, and at its second
annual show, held in Sheffield in December,
1 910, there were no less than 136 entries in the
six classes provided for the birds ; and it is
not too much to remark that the breed has by
no means attained to the zenith of its vogue in
the British Isles.

By the Standard of the Club, both rose
combs and single combs are allowed. Colour
was formerly the most important consideration,
but at the general meeting held in Sheffield
at the end of 1910 it was decided to allot 30
points for shape and 25 points for colour.
Thu body should be long, broad, and deep
(especially being long in keel), and therefore
oblong in appearance ; neck of medium length
and carried slightly forward — it is covered with
a full hackle which comes over the shoulders,
but is not too loosely feathered ; the thighs
and shanks are of medium length, the former
being large and the latter well rounded and
smooth. The body is longer and wider than
the accepted Rock style, and much longer in
keel and carried less upright than the Wyan-
dotte type. The beak is reddish horn or
yellow, the eyes red, wattles and earlobes
medium size and red. The standard for
colour is purposely so drawn as to recognise
darker colour in the cocks and avoid double
matings for securing similar colours. The
cock's colour is rich, brilliant red, with back
and wing bows darker red ; tail black, which is
also allowed in the concealed feathers of the
wing ; the under-colour lighter red or rich
salmon, free from slate or grey. The hen is
lighter, of golden red surface colour, with
black tail, and the lower end of the hackle
tipped with black, under-colour as in the cock.
The shanks are clean, and rich yellow or red
horn colour. The standard weights are 8i^ lbs.
for cocks and j\ lbs. for cockerels, 6J lbs.
for hens, and 5 lbs. for pullets. The dis-
qualifications in show birds are feathers or
down on the shanks, plucked legs, white
feathers in outer plumage, ear-lobe showing
more than one-half the surface permanently

white. This does not mean the pale ear-lobe,
but the enamelled white, sprigs or bad lop in
single combs, shanks or feet other than yellow
or red-horn colour, and more or less than
four toes on either foot, entire absence of main
tail feathers, two absolutely white (so-called
.wall or fish) eyes, wry or squirrel tails, and
deformities or " missing " feathers, while a
pendulous crop shall be cut hard. Faults to
be avoided are fluffy or Cochin plumage, or
Cochin cushions on females, light yellow bills
or black in bill, pearl eyes, long spike to rose
combs, high or upright tails, tendency to green
in shanks. The Standard further directs atten-
tion to the fact that apparent vigour is to be
regarded with the consideration of shape. This
being a utility breed, hardiness is of vital im-
portance.

That the Rhode Island Red is a good and
useful fowl there is no doubt ; and it is in-
teresting to know that it has been found pos-
sible to cultivate and exhibit it upon utility
lines, and to keep it distinct, in a form that
could be recognised by the American Poultry
Association. The latest edition of the Poultry
Club Standards does not include a scale of
points for the Rhode Island Red, but it may be
mentioned that the British Club has adopted
the standard affected by the American Rhode
Island Club, so that it may be possible to
breed the fowls in both countries on similar
lines. So far the American product appears to
be more uniform and brilliant in colour, and
larger, than the British variety. A typical
Rhode Island Red cock is shown in the photo-
graph of " Fearless " on p. 488.*

SCOTCH DUMPIES.

These fowls are of considerable antiquity
in Scotland, of how great it is impossible to
discover ; and they have been known in Eng-
land since 1852, when the late Mr. John Fairlie
introduced them into his yards near New-
market. They were also called Bakies, Go-
laighs, and by other synonyms. About 1870
they appeared nearly extinct, and Mr. Thomas
Raines, of Stirling, wrote to us that he knew of
only one or two people that still had them ; but
national feeling has recently made commend-
able efforts to resuscitate a breed which cer-
tainly has commendable qualities, and with
such result that it has found a place in the
Standard.

As a rule Dumpies have a rather large,
single comb, fair-sized wattles, and red ear-
lobes. The real characteristics lie in a long and
large and deep body, carried upon extremely

* For the Rhode Island White see p. 506

49°

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

short shanks, rarely exceeding" \\ inches in
length. In all the lighter colours the shanks
are white ; in blacks they may be dark. The
plumage is found of all colours ; and while
single combs are most common, rose-combs are
also allowed. These variations denote con-
siderable mixture in breeding.

The Dumpy cock attains to 7 lbs. or 8 lbs.
weight, the hen a pound less. The bird is a
very good layer, and the flesh exceedingly
tender and juicy, surpassing that of Dorkings
in the opinion of some who have compared the
two directly. They are admirable sitters,
covering more eggs than their size would ap-
pear to warrant, and make good and assiduous
mothers, who have the quality of generally
taking readily to the chicks of other fowls.
Taking it all in all, the fowl is one well worth
more cultivation on both sides of the Border.
The Standard will be found at the end of
this chapter.

SCOTCH GREYS.

This is a most useful breed, v^'hich we have
often wondered has not been more popular in
England. It has long been known and valued
in Scotland, but about thirty-live years ago
seemed losing ground even there ; more re-
cently, however, it has been taken up with
energy, and at many Scottish shows there are
now large and good classes. It has been called
the Scotch Dorking, but is entirely different in
carriage and shape from that fowl, being more
sprightly in form, with something of the Old
English Game style about it. The comb is
single and moderate in size, upright in the
cock, usually falling over in the hen, the ear-
lobe red, wattles medium in size, legs white or
white mottled with black. The plumage in
general resembles that of the barred Rock, but
has a tendency to finer marking, and the more
pronounced black and white of American Rock
breeders. Compared with birds we saw at the
Scottish shows in 1869-75, those of the present
day have gamed considerably in size, typical
shape, and absence of white, black, or rust in
the plumage. We do not remember at that
time the " mouse-colour " mentioned below,
which has probably been more apparent since
the banishment of distinct white and black.

The Scotch Grey is a very moderate eater
and good forager, and an especially hardy
fowl, especially in cold or damp situations.
The flesh is as a rule more juicy than that of
the Dorking, partaking more of the Houdan
character. The breed was not formerly known
as a very good layer in comparison with some
others ; but it has been found that this quality.

as in other breeds, can be easily developed,
and good laying strains formed. We know it
to be making progress both on the Continent
and in the United States. The fowl does not
appear, however, well adapted for confinement
in sheds or very small runs, being too restless
or active, and (like other breeds of that dis-
position) rather .apt in such circumstances to
start feather-eating.

The following article upon this valuable
breed is kindly supplied by Mr. John Carswell,
Falkirk, N.B., Secretary of the Scotch Grey
Club :—

" The Scotch Grey, or ' Chick Marley,' as
old Scotch country people used to call it, is
one of our good all-round breeds of poultry.
They are very good layers, and lay a fairly
large egg of a pale cream colour. They are
not good broody hens, sitting often ten or
twelve days and then deserting the nest, and
at a meeting of the Scotch Grey Club some
}'ears ago in Perth it was agreed, after some
discussion, to class them as non-sitters. They
are grand table fowls, being finely covered
with flesh, of a very close texture and fine
flavour, and pale cream in colour. They are
also very prolific fowls, and you may cross
them with any breed, and have a fine cross,
showing distinctive traces in size, shape, or
colour of the Scotch Grey parent.

" There has recently been a great demand
from America, and even more so from
Germany, for our good old breed, and a
' Scotch Grey Club ' has been started in both
countries, and is doing well. I have myself
quite recently sent three lots of birds to German
fanciers, who speak highly of the Scotch Grey
as producing large eggs, and also of their very
excellent qualities as a table fowl.

" When mating birds for breeding, one has
to be very careful about the strains, or you
may have a large percentage of both black and
very light chickens. Strange to say, nearly all
the blacks are pullets, and the very light-
coloured ones are cocks.* Select a good
shaped, fairly large, well and evenly marked
cock, being sure that his colour is good and
free from all rustiness in back and wings, and
from mousey colour in body. Put him to hens
equally well bred, evenly marked, and of
specially good colour, with dark necks, and
darker all over than the cock ; such mating will
produce the best birds, and give you more
satisfaction than breeding from a dark cock
and lighter coloured hens. A great evil, too,
is breeding from either cocks or hens with white
in tail, especially in sickle feathers. I never

* It is the same in Barred Rocl<s.

SILKIES.

491

would breed a cock with a lot of white in tail,
though all his other qualities were nearly per-
fect ; you simply can't get rid of white tails
if you once get them. There are, of course,
a lot more things to avoid, such as wry tail,
squirrel tail, etc. ; but as colour and marking
are the two things most difficult to get, I deal
more with them here.

"We have a very good Club in Scotland,
first formed in December, 1885. It holds its
annual show at different places throughout the
country, where it offers good prizes. There has
been great improvement worked in the Scotch
Grey by the Club ; small markings and pure
colour, viz. hard black and clean white, being
now the accepted standard. This is hard to
breed, but still we are coming nearer the ideal.
Cocks have still often a nasty brown on the
saddle, and a mousey colour over the back and
wings ; but to have a good Scotch Grey we
must get rid of all rustiness. I should prefer
an opener marked bird, if clean in colour, than
some of our small marked birds with the rusty
backs ; but some of our oldest breeders have
still that strain, and it is hard to get them to
come out of this evil, which quite spoils the
general appearance. What we really want is
only black and white ; the black glossy and
with a metallic lustre. The hens again ought
to be fine and even in markings, clean colour
and distinct, like shepherd tartan.

" The young birds grow up quickly, and
thrive well in almost any climate, being ex-
tremely hardy. I favour high, dry, and rather
cold soil for bringing up show birds, however,
as the colour is always better, harder, and of a
more glossy black and clean white."

The Standard will be found at the end of
the chapter.

SILKIES.
These peculiar fowls are described by
several of the oldest naturalists, " hair like
cats " being one of the expressions employed
regarding their plumage. Hence they must
have been known from an early date ; but it is
remarkable that some later authors, such as
Willoughby and Ray, write of these accounts
as fanciful and unworthy of belief. The soft
and flossy plumage is not the only distinguish-
ing characteristic, however. The skin is of a
deep violet colour, almost black, and the perio-
steum, or covering of the bones, is of the same
colour: hence the fowl, though really excellent
eating, is rather repellent to ordinary notions
upon a dish. There is a moderate crest, stand-
ing well up, and in the cock rather backward.
The comb, face, and wattles are of a deep

mulberry colour ; the ear-lobes should be a
bright or turquoise blue, though often tending
to the same purplish tinge ; the legs also are
of a deep bluish black. The strong dark blood
obviously runs through the whole fowl. The
legs are slightly feathered, and have five toes.
The general shape, in some respects, resembles
that of the Cochin, with ample cushion or
saddle, and short tail, but without any of the
latter breed's heaviness of carriage. The size
has varied considerably : formerly cocks scaled
4 lbs. and hens 3 lbs. ; but of recent years they
seem to have become smaller, and the name
itself is spelt " .Silkie " by true believers.

The most obvious point is, of course, the
peculiarity of plumage. In fowls generally the

Fig. 134. — Feather from Silkie Hen.

stem of the feather is strong, and from it pro-
ceed fibres which are stiff and elastic, and
furnished with fibrils differently arranged on
the forward and backward sides, so as to inter-
lock and form the " vane " of the feather. In
the Silkie fowl's plumage the stem is thin and
weak, and the fibres weak and non-elastic, with
rudimentary hair-like fibrils which have no
holding power and no locking arrangement.
The result is the loose and flossy character
shown in Fig. 134, which is a body feather from
a Silkie hen. Ordinary Cochin plumage is what
one might almost call half-way towards this
silky character ; and it is not surprising, there-
fore, that the Silkie should present much

492

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Cochin type, and that the Emu Cochin should
be the one breed which should sometimes
present the silky type of plumage.

No one has probably known and bred
Silkies so long as the Rev. R. S. Woodgate,
of Pembury Hall, Kent, who in 1900 con-
tributed the following notes, and who was a
prominent exhibitor even before the first edition
of the Illustraled Book of Poultry was pub-
lished.

" I cannot but remark how pleased I am to
write these notes, as I did in the original

{Exhibited by Mr

Silkie Hen and Cock.
. Campbell, First and Challenge Cup. Crystal Palace, 1909. Photograph
by Hardee, Chislehurst.)

edition long ago of Mr. Wright's Illustrated
Book of Poidtry. I have been acquainted with
this most interesting breed for forty years. A
Captain Finch brought home a pair about
i860, which, to my juvenile recollection, were
3S beautiful as any now on view. I have since
endeavoured to find out where they came from,
as the captain's widow still lives here (aged
ninety-two), but could only glean that it was
believed that China was their home. Again
in i86g I was introduced to a Miss Hawker,
an old lady, whose garden was filled with
Silkies, bad, good, and indifferent. She told

me that an eminent officer in the Navy (lier
brother) had brought them home for her, but
again she did not know where from: she
thought Japan. I obtained some half a dozen
birds from her, and with them made a strain
which has held its own until the present day.
With much trouble a great fancier of this
variety has been trying to find if the Silkies
are found in Japan. He sent photographs of
birds to see if they could be traced, but no
one seemed to know the variety. I have quite
recently had here, however, a gentleman who
had spent twenty-seven years
in Japan, and who told me
that he had seen there fowls
similar to those in my runs ;
and upon his sending photo-
graphs which I gave him to
another friend who had lived
some years there, the latter
wrote : ' I have seen the fowls
you mention in Yokohama and
neighbourhood, but do not re-
collect them at Kobe or Naga-
saki.' It seems therefore
provable that the popular name
of ' Japanese Silkies ' is fairly
justified.

" It is surprising to notice
the small difference that there
is in the Silkie of thirty years
ago and that of the present
day. Perhaps the head-points
are not now quite as good as
they were then, for I remember
them three decades ago as
being most exquisite, with the
turquoise lobes, the perfect
crests, and small mulberry
combs, with an indentation in
them which, to my mind, the
male bird certainly should
possess ; but the present-day
birds are rather shorter in the
legs and have more silk on the
wings, which I look upon as a great improve-
ment so far as it goes. We must not, however,
forget that Silkies should have tails. I am
afraid that many are now sliding into a pure
Cochin or Pekin Bantam-shaped bird. This
should not be. The tips of the tail feathers,
as silky as possible, should protrude beyond
as dense a mass of silk as is possible. The
colour in cocks I do not think on the whole
has improved. I know, naturally, how all
white birds go to yellow, more or less "in the
summer, but there does not seem the purity
all round that there was some years ago. It

SILKIES.

493

is hardly necessary to say that Silkies should
be exhibited as white as possible, and this is
not a difficult breed to produce pure-coloured
stock when the birds are properly mated. But
beware of the drip from trees. So many put
their birds in an enclosed run round an oak
or a beech, or so on. Whether winter or
summer, the rain brings something from the
leaves or bare boughs which discolours the
birds. I have noticed the same with Sultans
enclosed under forest trees ; so now, and oddly
enough, my dark-coloured birds have very
leafy roosts, and the white ones the sunshine,
with temporary shelter, when enclosed, of
sacks or shutters.

" Some express difficulty in obtaining the
beautiful blue ear-lobe and the deep-coloured
mulberry comb in small birds. I have found
the same. Nevertheless, it can be done, as my
own experience knows. I grant that the coarser
birds come with charming head-points and
generally with excellent feet, while the feet
and beaks are both blue, but the birds are too
big. We have, therefore, to cross these birds
with the smallest hens that we can find, and
then, discarding all but the true in ear and
comb, cross again once more these with the
grand-parent or his brother. I have thus ob-
tained a regular strain of beautifully headed
birds. Some specimens have been winning
■during the past season with either lead-coloured
ears or ears of no colour at all. I think that
the points of the head should be most certainly
taken into consideration as well as the silk.

" The next question is that of green beaks
and legs. The former are not so aggressive if
they are only slightly tinged ; yet they should
be as blue as the beak of a cock Budgerigar.
I have known a greenish beak in time grow
blue ; in fact, quite frequently so. But I have
never known a green leg turn blue, not even a
greenish one. Green legs show decidedly some
mesalliance between strains. Green-legged
birds I always recommend to be killed in their
babyhood : it saves trouble, expense, and the
dawn of hope which never comes to fruition.

" These attractive fowls are good layers of
small, cream-coloured [or white — Ed.] eggs all
the year round. The hens will lay with cack-
ling delight through the deepest snowstorm,
and seem as hard as bricks. They are very
bright and contented, and a trio or two on a
lawn, when they can have a small roosting-
house in a neighbouring shrubbery, are not
only most beautiful and attractive, but they
decidedly pay their way. The pullets lay
early, and continue to do so until they have
laid some number of eggs, but the hens will

only lay from seven to ten eggs before desiring
to sit upon them.

" It is unfortunate that so many Silkie
chickens turn out to be cockerels. I am told
the same story all round in regard to this.
And sometimes it is a difficulty to keep the
legs of this variety clean ; they so often suffer
from the insect disease known as elephantiasis.
This can easily be warded off by a rubbing
on the feet and legs of some compound sulphur
ointment once a fortnight."

Mrs. Campbell, of Uley, Gloucestershire,
very kindly contributes the following notes on
the Silkie, and the improvements in the breed
during the ten years prior to 191 1 : —

" There is no doubt that careful mating and
breeding, and the extended classification and
competition in shows of recent years, has much
improved type and quality of plumage in these
birds. It is now quite the usual thing to see
.Silkie cocks with ragged wings and tails with-
out hard feathers or sickles, whereas it used to
be the exception. The hens, too, have much
improved in wing — the hen I won the cup at
the Palace nine years ago would not have a
chance in the show pen to-day — and cocks also
used to be of a much coarser type, hard
feathers not only in wings and tail, but also
in the legs and feet. It is not my experience
that the hens or pullets lay so few eggs before
getting broody ; I generally have from twenty
to twenty-four eggs at least before they sit.
Also, my strain has always laid a white egg,
not tinted, as other breeders state.

"As the Silkie is not a Bantam, I am
greatly averse to reduction in weight of these
birds ; if quality and size can be kept, the
better it will be. In my own strain I notice
that small specimens show also other signs of
degeneration, and if such be chosen to breed
from, this degeneration must increase. Many
are considerably lighter in weight than the
approximate weights suggested in the Silkie
Club Standard, though looking large when
they carry a great amount of silk. I have had
hens with the " silk " three inches long ; this,
standing out, increases the apparent size.

" There is no doubt that the purity of colour
has greatly improved. A canary-coloured cock
won at the Dairy some few years ago ;
such would not have a chance now. As to
other colours, the blacks are the only ones
shown with any attempt at purity of colour
and silkiness. I have a very fair pen of blacks
now, but the difficulty is still with the male
birds' hackle. In France there is quite a
number of coloured varieties. ' Rosy-skinned '
seem to be the most esteemed, but up to date

494

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

we have not seen such birds in England, and
there seems to be no inquiry for such here.
In breeding for blacks I have obtained from
time to time a considerable number of
partridge-coloured pullets perfectly silky in
plumage, markings blurred, of course, but
very attractive ; but there has never been a
male bird of this cross hatched! I call them
' Brownies.' They are very useful as sitters
and mothers, and may in time form a coloured
species, similar to one of the French varieties
now exhibited on the Continent.

" I do not find a disproportion in the
number of each sex hatched such as Mr.
Woodgate describes. As to the natural habitat
of the Silkie, Dr. Campbell has made search
in Japan for Silkies, and has come to the
conclusion that these birds were imported from
South-Eastern Asia, and are not strictly
Japanese."

Besides the usual white Silkies mentioned
above, we have seen on several occasions speci-
mens quite black, and of most singular beauty
they were. Crosses between the Silkie and
other breeds usually lose the peculiar plumage,
but the black skin and bone persist for genera-
tions. Such crosses have found mention by
some older writers as " Negro fowls," but have
no merit. "Cross-bred birds often possess,
however, the sitting propensities and qualities
of the Silkie- parent.

This strong incubating instinct of the Silkie
makes it a most valuable fowl for those persons
who need sitters to hatch pheasant or Bantam
eggs. We cannot say that the general reports
we receive quite bear out Mr. Woodgatc's re-
marks about the laying of the pullets : most of
our friends state that even these rarely lay
more than fourteen or filteen eggs, and many
less, before desiring to incubate ; though they
are easily dissuaded if necessary, and soon lay
again. As they lay early and with certainty
if hatched in time, and incubation can be
hastened if desired by leaving eggs in the nest.
Silkies and their crosses may be a most valu-
able portion of the poultry plant, being
splendid mothers for small birds, and going
rather long with their charges. The one objec-
tion to them in this respect is the really extra-
ordinary tendency of the breed to scaly leg,
which will in turn be transmitted to the
chickens if an affected bird be employed as a
mother. The remedy is, of course, to watch
and guard against the complaint from the first,
though we think an occasional greasing with
oil containing some kerosene better as a mere
precaution than the sulphur ointment mentioned
above. When Silkies are kept for this purpose.

the larger specimens should be bred from,
being much more useful.

White Silkies require care in washing for
exhibition, else a bird well feathered in shanks
as it entered the bath may be found nearly
denuded when finished. The legs should not
be washed in hot water, but only lukewarm at
most. The water for the rest must only be
comfortably warm ; and if the bird faints, as
it is rather apt to do if too hot water is used, it
should be plunged at once into a tub of cold
kept handy. In any case this should never be
omitted at the end. This treatment will tend
to prevent the shank-feathering coming out.

The Standard of Poultry Clubs is given
at the end of the chapter.

SULTANS.

These birds belong to the great Polish
family. Those now bred are from fowls sent
to Miss E. Watts from Constantinople in
1854; but very similar birds appear to be
mentioned in several old writers, and to be
known in South Russia. Only one or two-
specimens have been imported since Miss
Watts' originals, and breeders have never been
numerous. Yet it is a pretty fowl, with very
pretty ways and habits, and a disposition to
accept and return petting, and a mixture of
tameness and sprightliness, which arc very
attractive.

The crest of the Sultan is full and globular,
the comb two tiny horns, beard and whiskers
very full, and wattles scarcely visible. So far
they are simply smallish white Polish fowls ;
but have five toes on each foot, the shanks
being well feathered, and the thighs heavily
hocked. The plumage is entirely white.

The following notes on the characteristics
of Sultans are by the Rev. R. S. S. Wood-
gate, of Pembury Hall, Kent: —

" Although I have but of recent date taken
to keep this beautiful variety, still I have
followed the breed for some thirty years with
keen interest. It is a very charming fowl, with
an immense deal of character. I have found
them impatient if disturbed — in fact, they will
fly out of their homes like birds, and alight on
any adjacent tree or wall, only in two or three
minutes to fly down again, and to be as
domesticated as is possible. They do well in
confinement, and are layers of large white
eggs, and these in goodly numbers. It would
hardly be credited how large is the size of the
^Sg from even a pullet of this variety, con-
sidering its size. The eggs also appear to be
peculiarly fertile ; anyhow, this has been my
experience. I have found the Sultans to be

YOKOHAMAS.

495

most hardy, almost equalling the Silkie in
this respect, while the chickens soon fledge and
wander about over the dew-coloured grass with
pleasure and impunity.

" It appears to me a pity that this pleasing
variety should not have more admirers, for the
habits of the birds, whether in confinement or
otherwise, are interesting in the extreme. I
think, however, whether from in-breeding or
otherwise, that the Sultan is hardly as massive
or shapely as it was some
twenty-five years ago. Any-
how, it will be a sad pity fcr
the breed to be allowed to pass
away, and a class or two at our
big shows, at least, ought to
show us what we still have in
specimens of this beautiful and
at the same time useful
variety."

The spurs of the cocks of
this breed are especially apt to
grow very long as the bird gets
old, curling upwards so that
the point enters the leg if left
alone. Now and then we have
seen a white Cochin cock in the
same condition, but not so
often as in the Sultans. When
this occurs the spur should be
partially sawn off and the point
rounded.

Fowls resembling Sultans
in being all white, crested,
muffed and bearded, feather-
legged and vulture-hocked,
but differing in being distinctly
high on the leg, were exhibited
many years ago under the name
of Ptarmigans, but have long
been extinct. They were prob-
ably descendants of some
former importation, the effect
of long in-breeding in pro-
ducing weediness of build
being well known.

Sultans have been given a Standard, which
will be found at the close of the present
chapter.

YOKOHAMAS.

About the year 1878 there appeared in
Germany, and a year or two later in England,
fowls imported from Japan, whose principal
peculiarity consisted in length of tail and im-
mense development of the cock's sickles and
saddle feathers. Some were exhibited as Yoko-
hamas, others as " Phoenix " fowls ; but careful
comparison of the representations published,

and of photographs and drawings which
reached us direct from the Contment, failed to
show any distinction beyond greater or less
development of the peculiar plumage. The
long plumage was, however, unique, and a fair
idea of it may be gathered from our illustra-
tions. In a drawing of a pair of German
birds in our last edition one of the cock's
feet has five claws, a proof of the crossing'
which had undoubtedly taken place.

Sultans.

Correspondence brought out the fact that
such birds had been occasionally exhibited as
"Japanese Game" so far back as about 1872.
It further appeared that in the Japanese Great
National Museum at Tokio there were pre-
served two specimens of the race, in which the
sickle-feathers measure 13^ feet and 17 feet
respectively ! and a feather has been actually
sent to France which measured 2 metres 85
centimetres in length. In 1884, Mr. Gerald
Waller, of Twywell, imported a pen of these
still more extraordinary birds ; and from his

496

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

statements it appears that they are known in
Japan as Shinowaratao, Shirifuzi, or Saka-
watao fowls, and by other various names. The
very long-tailed ones are kept in high, narrow
cages, always sitting on a perch covered with
straw rope, with no room to turn or get down,
but with a food and water tin at each end of
the perch. Three times daily they are lifted
down for a few minutes' exercise, their tails
being carefully rolled up and enclosed in paper
cases to keep them from injury. The Japanese
state that a tail has been measured 2^ feet in
length, and that the birds only moult the tail

Duckwing Yokohama Cock " Mikado."

The property of Mrs. S. R. Masters. First and Medal, Crystal

Palace, 1910,

once in three years. This last fact is highly
interesting. It is obvious that if a tail 23 feet
long were grown in one year, it must be at
the rate of nearly three-quarters of an inch
per day ; and though Madame Bodinus states
that she could " see the tails grow daily," it is
difficult to realise this.

Tails exceeding 6 feet in length have, how-
ever, never reached Europe, the saddle-hackles
of Mr. Waller's birds having been about
16 inches ; and in Japan itself tails over 6 feet
are exceedingly rare. But the stock has had

to be further crossed to prevent extinction.
Nearly all that on the Continent was indubit-
ably crossed with English Game, and from this
the present known stock has been derived. By
this somewhat has been lost in mere length of
feather, but much has been gained in hardiness
and real beauty.

Many names, have been proposed. The
Germans were mainly answerable for
"Phoenix," which has no meaning; and
" Japanese Long-tails " was too general. Some
attempt was macle to get Shinowaratao recog-
nised, but to the appellation of " Yokohamas "
the breed has now fairly settled down. We
are indebted for the following notes upon it
to Mr. Frank E. Rice, of Sudbury, Suffolk,
who has kept and bred it for some years: —

" To speak or write adequately on the
beauty of Yokohamas (sometimes called Long-
tailed Phoenix or Japanese Long-tails) is
beyond the power of tongue or pen. They
rank above all otlier breeds of poultry in their
highly graceful character, and the beautiful
formation of the tail, which is their special
characteristic. The long sickle-feathers grow
about 2 feet the hrst year, and each moult they
come out longer, till the tails reach 5 feet and
sometimes 6 feet in length. It is not altogether
the length, but also the sprightly way in
which they carry their tails : not in a droop-
ing, dangling fashion, but in a most graceful
curve from the formation which carries the
weight, which adds perfect symmetry to an
evenly balanced tail.

" The feathers should be broad and strong,
except the hangers, whicli are soft and flowing,
the saddle feathers hanging to the ground in
great abundance. The wings, which are very
long, are carried close up. The head should
be neat and small, with evenly set pea comb,
and the neck should have a great abundance
of hackle feathers. Legs are medium length,
of a bluish willow colour, and should have
only four toes. In all respects the Yokohama
should be a long-made bird, with long neck,
long body, and long tail.

" There are several colours ; those best
known are the Duckwing colour and pure
white, the former being the most attractive.
At present all are exceedingly rare. The
sickle feathers are used as plumes in officers'
helmets and ladies' headgear, as in the former
coloured birds they are of a most beautiful
lustrous black.

" Notwithstanding their beauty, Yokohamas
are very hardy and easy to rear. Chickens
should be hatched in March, April, May, and
June, to grow to maturity, as I have found

YOKOHAMAS.

497

very late hatched birds never grow much tail,
which is such an important feature in the fowl.
As layers it would be hard to beat them : wet
or dry, snow or wind, they continue quite un-
concerned. Their eggs are very rich, and
although small, contain the same amount of
nutriment as a full-sized one. The birds them-
selves are a dainty dish. Being exceedingly
active, their eggs are wonderfully fertile. I
very rarely have a clear egg, and find chickens
hatch out very strong."

The birds that we have most admired have
not been those with most length of sickle. Of
this five to six feet can be got, as above
described, but specimens of less age, and not
exceeding three feet, have more
impressed us. A young pair of
birds appeared at the Crystal
Palace show of 1900, of which
the cockerel scarcely reached
that, but for pure and simple
beauty in fowls we never saw
anything to surpass them.
Long as the male's plumes
were, he had actually reached
the inside of an exhibition pen
with every sickle and hanger
absolutely smooth, sound, and
unbroken ! The sound smooth-
ness of every feather seen in
this case should, we think, be
taken more account of than any
mere length of feather which
cannot be kept in order ; but so
long as such condition can be
maintained, doubtless the
longer the better. To attain it,
good range and "hard" fecd-
mg are obvious means ; also
mature age, hatching in good
time, and an occasional pinch
of sulphur in tlie food.

Suice these notes were written for our last
edition a specialist club has been founded for
the Yokohama, and as a result classes have
been given for the breed at many leading
shows, with gratifying results in entries.
Writing in The Feathered World Year Book
for 191 1, Mr. E. H. Turrell, of Ide, Seven-
oaks, thus speaks of the Yokohama: — •

"Of the many fine breeds notable for their
excellence, yet in danger of being overlooked
for some newer product of the breeder's skill,
none, perhaps, is more deserving than the
Yokohama.

" Having many points of excellence in
common, the entire Yokohama family have
established a very good reputation for their

laying qualities. Although not a very large
egg, the quality is generally acknowledged to
be the very best for invalids. I claim attention
also for the other merits of this exceedingly
handsome, useful, and valuable fowl.

" In the first place, contrary to a popular
impression, the Yokohama is very hardy and
vigorous from the start. The chicks are active
and lively as soon as they hatch, and are not
nearly so likely, as are the heavier birds, to
meet with accidents at the outset. The chicks
feather out early, and are thus enabled to
withstand cold or rain much better than the
heavier breeds that are slow in feathering.
Furthermore, Yokohamas make most excellent

(Erod and

Black-red Yokohama Cockerel.
Exhibited by Mr. E. H. Turrell. First Crystal Palace, igio.)

mothers ; they are light, and therefore do not
break nearly so many eggs in the nest as do
the heavier fowls. They will hunt and scratch
for their young in a most industrious way, and,
if need be, will fight for them, almost like a
Game hen.

" Again, the Yokohama has the reputation
of being wild and nervous. Let me say that
this depends very largely upon the treatment.
In keeping them in small flocks, particularly
if one is gentle and careful, they may be made
almost as tame and tractable as fowls of the
larger breeds. I have no difficulty whatever in
training them to be lifted from the nest at
pleasure.

" The Yokohama is a great ranger, and this,

49=

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

together with her excellent laying qualities,
makes her a very useful fowl to have on a
farm. After repeated trials, I am convinced
that for the average man there is much better
profit in eggs than in chickens. On many a
farm a flock of Yokohamas would pick up half
their living, during a considerable portion of
the }'ear, from what would otherwise be
wasted, and if given half a chance, they will
produce a great number of eggs in the winter
months, especially the Blue or Black-reds."

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Skull : Small, but inclined to be long
and tapering. Beak : Strong and curved. Eyes :
Bright and full. Comb : Single or pea, small and
even. Face : Of fine texture. Ear-lobes : Small,
oval or almond shape, and fitting closely. Wattles :
Round and small, in keeping wth the comb and
ear-lobes.

Neck. — Long, and furnished with long, flowing
hackle.

Body. — Breast : Full and round. Back : Long
and tapering towards the tail. Wings : Long, and
carried rather low but close to the sides.

Tail. — As long and flowing as possible, with a
great abundance of side hangers, the sickle and
coverts narrow and hard, and the whole tail forming
a graceful curve and carried somewhat low.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Of medium length, and
the shanks fine. Toes : Four on each foot.

Carriage. — Stvlish and pheasant-hke.

Weight.— 4* ib.

HEN

The general characteristics of the hen are similar
to those of the cock, allo-\ving for the natural sexual
differences. (Note. — To emphasise two of the chief
points of the breed it may be said that the hen's
back must be long and tapering to the tail and
furnished with long saddle-hackles, and that the
tail must be very long and carried horizontally, the
two top feathers gracefully curved, and the coverts
sickle-Uke.)

Weight.— 2 1 lb.

COLOUR

THE DUCKWINGS (GOLD AND SILVER)

The colour of these two varieties is the same
as in typical Modern Game fowls of those colours,
but all black feathers must have a beetle - green
sheen.

THE SP.^NGLED

Beak : Horn. Eyes : Ruby red. Comb, Face,
Wattles, and Ear-lobes : Bright red. Legs and Feet :
Slate or willow.

Plumage of the Cock. — Black and white. Neck-
hackle : White, each feather at its base having a
narrow black stripe down the centre. Breast, Thighs,
and Fluff : Black, each feather being tipped with a
crescent of white. Back : White. Saddle-hackle :
White next to the wing, then slightly striped with
black, the stripes gradually becoming heavy as they

near the tail. Wings : Bow, white ; bar, black,
with a white lacing ; secondaries, white, and black
on the inner web, which is seen only when the wings
are opened. Tail : Black, the lower coverts having
a distinct white lacing.

Plumage of the Hen. — Hackle : White striped
with black. Breast and Thighs : White. Back :
White, shghtly pencilled or laced with black. Tail :
Black, coverts evenly laced all round with white.

THE WHITE

Beak : White or yellow. Eyes, Comb, Face,
Wattles, and Ear-lobes : Bright red. Legs and Feet :
White or yellow.

Plumage. — Pure snow white, free from any straw
tinge.

OTHER VARIETIES

Note. — The foregoing are the principal varieties,
and others are not sufiiciently numerous to warrant
description. The above colours and marldngs are
ideal, but in Yokohamas not so much value is
attached to these points as to general type and
the quaUty and length of tail and hackles.

SCALE OP POINTS

Type and condition .. .. .. ..25

Tail : quaUty and length . . . . . . . . 25

Hackles : quality and length . . . . . . 20

Colour . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Head 10

Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S

Legs and feet . . . . . . . . . . S

Serious defects : More or less than four toes on
each foot ; wry tail ; humped back ; crooked
breast.

The Lakenvelder fowl has only been
known in England since 1901, but appears to
be of considerable antiquity in both Holland

and northern Germany. There was
Lakenvelders. a curious legend that it hailed from

Jerusalem, but the best informed
German fanciers have never doubted that the
breed originated in the same stock as the
Campine or Braekel. There has been some
discussion whether the name should be spelt
as above, or Lakenfelder, which is the German
spelling. The pronunciation should be the
same in either case, as /, and the v may lead
to some mistake ; but on the other hand it
is to be noted that English stock was imported
from Holland, and English fanciers Rave
adopted the Dutch standard of a black saddle
in the cocks, whereas the Germans prefer white
or striped ; hence the Dutch spelling helps to
keep the true standard definite and clear.

While at a first glance the Lakenvelder
gives one the idea of Leghorn type, closer
scrutiny soon makes it clear that it truly

LAKENVELDERS.

499

belongs to the Braekel or Hamburgh family.
Its smaller size, its dark legs, and its carriage
resemble that class of fowl ; and its small eggs
and unsuitableness for close confinement show
the same relationship.

Mr. Percy W. Thorniley, one of the earliest
breeders of these birds in England, kindly
sends us the following notes: —

" Since Lakenvelders made their appearance
in England in igoi, being exhibited for the
first time at Shrewsbury Show in June of 1902,

birds imported, however, came from Holland,
and we in this country follow the Dutch
standard of a black saddle hackle in the cocks,
whereas the Germans favoured a white hackle,
but a striped or ticked hackle not disqualify-
ing. The hens when first imported were white,
with grey necks and tails, and little else can
be said for them, as I have not found any
reliable Continental standard for the females,
and so hens for the first year or so in this
country won simply through the pureness of

Lakenvelders.

there has been a marked improvement of the
breed ; and all fanciers visiting the Dutch and
Belgian shows state that we have better exhi-
bition birds in England than any shown
abroad. The reason for this is not hard to
find. The Lakenvelder Club may not be a
very strong society, but it has done one good
thing by issuing a standard, and the members
all striving to breed up to it.

" Lakenvelders are by no means a new
variety, for they can be traced back to the first
half of last century in Germany. Most of the

the white. Now we strive for a neck-hackle as
dense black as possible, and a solid black tail,
with the rest of the plumage a pure white. A
hen of this type is really a pretty bird. Not
one hen in fifty that came over, however,
possessed a black tail, and consequently it is
really harder to find a good hen than a good
cock.

" The main points to breed for in the cocks
are a black neck-hackle, with no grey feathers
about the head ; a black saddle-hackle, and
a good black tail, nicelv carried, with the

500

rest of the plumage
under-colour is more

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

pure white,
less grey ii

The

both

" The mating of Lakenvelders to produce
birds to the standard from one pen is, of
course, more or less uncertain work, and if we
had more good birds to choose from, perhaps
not to be recommended ; but it can be done,
as the challenge cup cockerel and the first prize
pullet at the International Show of 1904 were

position as a fancy variety. Even as layers,
though not laying much before February comes
in, they do very well to keep with some of the
heavier breeds ; for when these latter begin to
go broody the Lakenvelders take their place
in Q^g production, and lay right on to the
moult."

When really good, with jet-black hackles
and tail on a clear white body, the colour of

Black Sumatras.

both produced from one mating. As there is
such a difficulty in procuring good hens, it is
not a bad plan to run first a good exhibition
cock, and then change him for a cock much
lighter in saddle, trusting to get from the last
mating a better body colour in the pullets.
But do not breed from those nice white hens
that have absolutely nothing else to recommend
them.

" I think it will have to be admitted that
Lakenvelders are not going to oust some of our
older-established breeds as regards winter
layers, but they certainly can retain their

Lakenvelders is very attractive ; but they are
exceedingly difficult to breed. The best guide
will be found in a pioper balance of tone in
the grey under-colour. An occasional speck
on the body is better than washy grey hackles.

The Lakenvelder requires a good range to
thrive well, and the wider the better. In such
circumstances it is fairly hardy ; but it can
hardly be termed so otherwise, and the chickens
also require care. The wider it can forage,
the hardier and more profitable it is found
to be. c

The Standard is as follows: —

SUMATJiAS.

5°i

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Skull : Short and fine. Beak : Strong
and well curved. Eyes : Large and bright. Comb :
Single, of moderate size, ex'ect, following the contour
of the skull, and evenly serrated. Face : Of fine
texture, and smooth. Ear-lobes : Almond shape.
Wattles : Medium length, well rounded at base.

Neck. — Of medium length, finely tapered, and
furnished with long hackle flowing well on to the
shoulders.

Body. — Long, and tapering to the tail. Breast :
Broad and full, and carried upward. Back : Broad
and short. ]Viiigs : Of medium length, carried well
up, the bows and tips covered by the neck-hackle
and saddle feathers.

Tail. — Full, the sickle feathers long and carried
at an angle of 45 degrees.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Of medium length, the
shanks free from feathers. Toes : Four on each
loot, strong, and well spread.

Carriage. — Sprightly.

Weight.— 6 lb.

HEN

The general characteristics of the hen are similar
to those of the cock, allowing for the natural sexual
differences. (Note. — The comb is carried erect, and
not drooping.)

Weight.— 4i lb.

COLOUR

Beak : Dark horn. Eyes : Red or bright chest-
nut. Comb, Face, and Wattles : Bright red. Ear-
lobes : White. Legs and Feet : Blue slate.

Plumage. — Black and white. Hackle (and in the
cock the saddle hackle) and Tail : Solid black, free
from stripes or spots. Remainder of Plumage :
Pure white.

SCALE OP POINTS

45

Colour
Size .J,
Head
Type . .
Condition
Legs and feet

Serious defects : Comb other than single ; feathers
on shanks ; wry tails ; any other deformity.

In the first edition of this work brief
reference was made to this breed, as still kept
and valued for its exceeding beauty in the

United States, and possibly worth
Sumatras. introducing to this country. As

already indicated (p. 340), we have
seen similar birds between the years 1870 and
1S77 under the name of Pheasant Malays, and
believe them to have been at that time used
for crossing with the Cornish Indian Game ;
but they appear then to have quite disappeared,
and not to have been known since, until Mr.
Frederic R. Eaton, of Cleveland House,

Eaton, Norwich, imported in igo2 some speci-
mens which had won at the 1901 Pan-American
E.xposition, and another pen the following
year. From these importations the stock has
already spread considerably, and a Club has
been formed to promote the interests of the
breed. Mr. Eaton, formerly honorary secretary
of the Club, has kindly furnished the follow-
ing notes, the accompanying illustration being
also drawn from some of his birds: —

" The earliest mention of the breed that I
have been able to find is in Miners Domestic
Poultry Book, published in America in the
year 1S53. They are described by Miner as of
indomitable perseverance and courage, and
noted for a beautiful green metallic lustre
upon their plumage. He further gives notes
by Dr. John C. Bennett, who stated that a trio
of birds (probably the first specimens) were im-
ported to Boston direct from Angers Point,
Sumatra, in April, 1847, by Mr. J. A. C.
Butters. Dr. Bennett describes the birds then
as having a small head, powerful beak, eyes
lustrous, quick, and fiery, a pea-comb (though
single combs sometimes appeared), small
wattles with a very small dew-lap, hackles long
and brilliant, tail long and drooping or
horizontal (in the case of the cock with abund-
ant ' plume '-feathers sweeping the ground ;
fan-shaped in the case of the hen), body slim
and very symmetrical, legs sinewy, with a
powerful and muscular thigh ; colour of
plumage variable, though he himself preferred
black. The fowl was not known in England
at this date.

"As to breeding, Black Sumatras are not
of large size, but it would appear that the birds
do not now equal in size those of years ago.
This, however, can no doubt soon be remedied
by care and selection, but we must be careful
not to obtain size at the expense of type. Both
male and females in the breeding pen should,
as far as possible, be perfect in this respect.
The cock should have very long and flowing
tail and hackles, while if the tail feathers of
the hens are very long and nicely curved, all
the better. With regard to the head-points of
most cocks there is room for great improve-
ment, and care should be taken that not only
does each of the hens have a strong beak, red
eyes, neat comb and gipsy face, but that the
cock has these points as far as possible also,
though up to the present I have never seen a
cock with the true gipsy face, and have been
informed that this has not yet been obtained
even in America.

" The colour of the plumage being a rich
beetle green, as in Black Hamburghs (though

502

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

in the case of Siimatras the sheen is ver\- much
greater), the notes on breeding for colour con-
tained in the chapter on Haraburghs will
apply, and need not be here repeated.

" I have found that the variety breeds won-
derfully true, the proportion of ' wasters ' being
very small, while the cocks and hens being so
alike in characteristics, exhibition males and
females can easily be bred from the same pen.
Up to the present time all the birds I have bred
have had the pea-comb, except three or four
chickens bred from a pen headed by a cock
having a specially small comb. The serrations
to these single combs were not like those seen
upon an ordinary single comb, but quite small,
and very similar to the serrations upon the
comb of Sonnerat's Jungle Fowl.

" The chicks are hardy and easy to rear,
and, provided the stock birds are in good con-
dition and not overfed, the percentage of un-
fertile eggs is small. The hens have proved
themselves very good layers of white-shelled
eggs, though the eggs are not large, but by
selection the size could no doubt be increased.
They are also excellent sitters and mothers,
decidedly beyond the average, and, being
careful and light in their movements, are par-
ticularly valuable for hatching Bantam eggs.

" Although not large, the breed is useful as
a table fowl, being plump, and the meat juicy
and of a delicious flavour."

Regarding the question of type mentioned
above, some tendency is already perceptible in
certain quarters to seek approach to the type
of the Aseel, as regards especially a more up-
standing or sloping carriage, and the broader
eyebrow. It is much to be hoped this may be
resisted. The head should be fine and the back
horizontal, and to lose these points is to lose
real characteristics of the breed. The Standard
is as follows : —

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Shull : Small, rather short, and some-
what rounded. Beak : Strong, of medium length,
and shghtly curved. Eyes : Large and verj' bright,
with a quick and fearless expression. Comb : Pea,
lo in front fitting closely to the head, the smaller
the better. Face : Smooth and of fine texture.
Ear-lobes and Watties : As small as possible, and
fitting very closely.

Neck. — Rather long, and covered with very long
and flowing haclde.

Body. — Breast : Broad, full, and rounded, \vith
straight breast-bone. Back : Of medium length,
broad at the shoulders, and very shghtly tapering
to tail ; saddle hackle very long and flowing. Sleru :
Narrower than shoulders, but firm and compact.
Wings : Strong, long, and large, carried \vith the

fronts shghtly raised, the feathers folded very closely
together, not carried drooping nor over the back.

Tail. — Long and drooping, with a large quantitj'
of sickles and coverts, rising shghtly above the stern
and falUng streaming behind, nearl}- to the ground,
and the sickle and covert feathers not too broad.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Of strictly medium length,
strong, and set w-ell apart, the thighs thick and
muscular, the shanks straight and covered wdth
smooth, even scales, not flat nor thin. Toes : Four
on each foot, long and straight, well spread, the
back toe standing w-ell out and flat on the ground,
and the nails strong. (Note. — There is no objection
to two or more spurs on each shank, it being a
pecuUarity of the breed for this to occur.)

Carriage. — Pheasant-hke, straight and upright in
front, and with a proud and stately action.

Weight.— 5 lb. to 6 lb.

Plumage. — \'ery full and flowing, but neither soft
nor flufty.

Handling. — Very firm and muscular.

The general characteristics of the hen are similar
to those of the cock, allowing for the natural sexual
differences.

Weight.— 4 lb. to 5 lb,

COLOUR

Beak : Dark ohve or black, olive preferred.
Eyes : Very dark red, dark brown, or black, dark
red preferred. Comb, Face, Wattles, and Ear-lobes :
Black or very dark red, " gipsy " face preferred.
Legs and Feet : The same as the beak.

Plumage. — Black, with a beetle-green sheen.

SCALE OF POINTS
Type and carriage . . . . . . . . . . 20

Head : comb, face, lobes, and wattles, 10 ; beak,

S ; eyes, 5

Colour . . . . . . . . . . • • 15

Feather, quantity of .. .. .. • • 15

Condition
Legs and feet
Neck . .

Serious defects : Other than four toes ; single or
rose comb ; dubbing ; any deformity.

A few brief paragraphs will suffice for
certain fowls only seen on very rare occasions,
which can hardly be said to be systematically
bred, and which have no qualities likely to
bring tliem into greater popularity, though one
or two of those produced in America have
shown good points, and might have attained
greater recognition but for the appearance of
other types with more to appeal to popular
favour.

A very strongly marked race without tails,
known as Rumpless fowls, has been known
for centuries, and is spoken of as such by

VARIOUS MINOR BREEDS.

5°3

Temminck, Linnasus, and other naturalists,
besides old Aldrovandus. It was known in
India and China ; and perhaps the most re-
markable statement on record is
Rumpless that of the Rev. J. Clayton, so far
Fowls. back as 1693,* to the effect that

he had observed in Virginia how-
most of the cocks and hens there were without
tails, adding that he was assured English stock
also after a time lost their "rumps." Buff on
adopted this latter statement ; but it is obvious
that the effect was simply the result of crossing
with the Rumpless stock, which perpetuates the
feature with very great persistence. A West
Indian gentleman informed us personally, in
1872, that the greater number of fowls in his
own neighbourhood had no tails ; and this
prevalence of such a feature in certain localities
is a curious parallel to the Frizzled fowls of
the Mauritius, the tail-less race of cats in the
Isle of Man, and other instances.

Rumpless fowls are destitute of the caudal
appendage sometimes termed the " parson's
nose," from which the tail grows, and the
spine itself is — at least it is usually — minus
the final vertebrje. By long descent this
characteristic is so fixed that a Rumpless fowl,
crossed with any other, generally produces a
large majority of Rumpless birds ; hence a
Rumpless breed can be readily produced of
any colour and character desired. Thus it is
that we see Polish, and Bantams of all colours
and breeds, thus distinguished. Careful
selection is, however, necessary with these
cross-bred birds. Those shown other than in
Bantam classes generally average about 5 lbs.
and 4 lbs., and always attract attention, but
rarely any prizes, being regarded more as
curiosities than anything else.

As a rule, Rumpless fowls are very hardy
and prolific, those qualities being kept up by
the frequent crosses they receive. The saddle
and cushion feathers are curled down over the
stern, from which cause the eggs of birds in
their natural state are often sterile ; but if the
hen's saddle be plucked to the requisite extent
this drawback is removed, and the produce
will be found as fertile as usual.

Under the name of Naked Necks is now
and then seen a very curious variety, with
perhaps the most extraordinary characteristic

known in any race of poultry.
Naked Necks. The first specimens we ever saw,

and we believe the first to be seen
in England, were exhibited by Mr. John C.
Eraser in 1874. These birds were imported

* Phil. Transactions, 1693, p. 992.

from Austria, their place of origin being
Transylvania, whence several other specimens
have since been imported, the last exhibition
of them which we can remember being a pen
shown by Lord Deerhurst at the Dairy Show
of 1900.

The heads of these birds are feathered as
usual, but the entire neck is absolutely bare of
feathers down to the shoulders, as much so as.
if plucked, and the skin being of a red colour,
almost like that of a healed wound. This red
colour is considered in Austria a point of the
breed. There is a curious tradition that their
origin was in a bird severely scalded on the
neck, so as to lose all the plumage, the feature
being afterwards transmitted ; but that this is
a mere fancy is shown by the extraordinary
tenacity of the point, which is imparted to its
crosses with all other breeds of fowl. From
such crosses has arisen much variation in colour
and other minor points. Black plumage is said
to be the most typical. Both single and rose
combs are recognised in Austria, but rose
combs are preferred. Both faces and ear-lobes
should be red. At the shoulder, or bottom of
the neck, there is a sort of frill, adorned in
front by a tuft of feathers. A writer in
Poultry states that in Austria considerable
importance is attached to this tuft of feathers,
as without it the contrast between the bare skin
and the plumage becomes rather unsightly,
and the bird is therefore reckoned of less
value.

The same authority states that the economic
merits of this curious fowl are considerable. It
is said to be very hardy, a moderate eater,
and a good layer, the eggs being of consider-
able size. It is also a very satisfactory table
fowl. The young chicks are said to be par-
ticularly hardy as regards thriving in inclement
weather, their ancestors having been reared on
the rugged slopes of the Carpathian mountains.
With such a character, those who desire quaint
novelty in combination with really useful
qualities might do worse than try this singular
breed.

The Jersey Blue, chiefly found in the State
of New Jersey, is little cultivated in America,
but managed to get into the Standard in 1888,
and is still bred, so that it has at least survived
for thirty years since we first mentioned it. The
Jersey and colour is that of the Andalusian,
Rosecomb the beak dark, and the eyes dark
Blues. ij^y . (-i^g shanks dark or slaty-

blue, as usual with this plumage. From all
the descriptions we have read, and one or two
directly received, it appears to resemble the

504

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Plymouth Rock in t)-pe, with perhaps a rather
larger neck and shorter tail, and being a shade
larger in size. It also resembles the Rock in
general qualities, both as regards laying and
table. It appears to have failed in popularity,
in comparison with that, owing to the dark
shanks and white skin, which in the United
States have been less valued than yellow.

Another large blue variety may be men-
tioned as often exhibited at northern and
Midland shows iit England, under the curious
name of "Likeliest Hen for La\ing Purposes."
The class thus described was probably meant
simply enough in the first place ; but the com-
petition seems to have settled down to large
birds of Andalusian colour, and generally
rose combs, which probably owe their size to
Blue Langshan. A hen of this breed was
recently sold fc: twelve guineas. The rose
comb differentiates the bird from Langshans
and Jersey Blues ; otherwise all these large
blue birds have much in common. Possibly
the breed — for it really approaches that charac-
ter— whici- originated in this singular way,
may be cuUn-atcd presently under some other
name.

Under the name of Shervvoods a fowl has
found considerable favour amongst many prac-
tical American breeders, though it has never
been admitted to the Standard,
Sherwoods. probably as not being distinctive
enough. The birds themselves have
been known for forty years or more, and are
spoken of as exceedingly hardy, very tender
in flesh, and good layers of large brown eggs.
The cocks weigh 9 lbs. to lO lbs., the hens
7 lbs. to 8 lbs. They are believed to have
been first advertised under the present name in
i8go. The plumage is all white, the beaks
yellow, combs single and straight, ear-lobes
red, shanks yellow, lightly feathered to the
outside toe. The slight ' feathering, rather
larger size, and the larger eggs appear the
chief distinctions between these birds and
white Plymouth Rocks. Very similar birds,
but with rose combs, have been advertised as
" White Wonders," and seem to have much the
same relationship to the white Wyandotte. It
is obvious that almost innumerable varieties
might be produced with such small distinctions
as some of those here mentioned can claim ; but
" breeds " of such a character can have little
of real interest or value for the poultry
breeder.

Of the fowls here described, beside the
Lakenvelder and Sumatra, only Dumpies,
Scotch Greys, Silkies, and Sultans have as

}-et been standardised by the Pouitty Club.
The Standards for these are as follow: —

SCOTCH GREYS.

GENERAI, CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Skull : Long and fine. Beah : Strong and
well curved. Eyes: Large and clear. Comb: Single,
of medium size and fine texture, straight and up-
right, the back following the hne of the skull, and
with well-defined serrations. Face : Of fine tex-
ture. Ear-lobes : Of medium size and fine texture.
Wattles : Of medium length, and well rounded at
the bottom.

Neck. — Moderately long, finely tapered, and with
profuse hackle flowdng on the shoulders and back.

Body. — Of mediuni length, and compact. Breast :
Deep and fuU, carried forward and upwards. Back:
Broad and comparatively short. Wings : Medium
sized, well tucked, and with the bow and tip covered
by the neck-hackle and saddle feathers.

Tail. — Of medium length, carried well up (but
not squirrel fashion), and with flowing sickles.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Thighs long and strong
and wide apart, but not quite so prominent as those
of the Game fowl ; shanks strong and rather long.
Toes : Four on each foot, stout and strong, straight,
and well spread.

Carriage. — Erect and hvelv.

Weight.—; lb. to 8 lb.

Handling. — Firm, and almost similar to that of
the Game fowl.

HEN

Except that the Comb may fall sUghtly over,
the general characteristics of the hen are similar
to those of the cock, allowing for the natural sexual
differences.

Weight.— 5|- lb. to 6^ lb.

COLOUR

Beak : White, or white streaked with black.
Eyes : Red. Comb, Face, Wattles, and Ear-lobes :
Bright red. Legs and Feet : White, or white mottled
with black, but not sooty.

Plumage of the Cock. — Cuckoo feathered ; ground
colour of body, tliighs, and wing feathers blue-white,
and that of the neck-hackle, saddle, and tail feathers
varjdng from blue-white to light grey ; barring,
black, with a metaUic lustre. The marking of the
body, thighs, and \\-ing feathers should be straight
across, but that of the neck-hackle, saddle, and tail
may be sUghtly an.gjed or V-shaped. The alternating
bands of black and white should be of equal widtli,
and proporrioned to the size of the feather. The
bird should " read " •throughout — i.e. the shade
should be the same from head to tail. The plumage
should be free from red, black, white, or yellow
feathers, and the hackle, saddle, and tail should be
distinctly and evenly barred, while the markings all
over should be rather small, even, and sharply defined.

Plumage of the Hen. — This should be almost
similar to that of the cock, tlie only difference being
that the markings are rather larger, and produce an
appearance somewhat resembhng shepherd's tartan.

VARIOUS STANDARDS.

5CS

SCALE OF POINTS

Colour and markings : of hackle, :

lo ; tail, 10 ; wings and across shoulde
lo ; breast and thighs, lo . .

Size . .

Type

Head

Condition

Legs and feet

Serious defects : Any bodily deformity ; any
distinct characteristic of any other breed not appli-
cable to the Scotch Grey.

SCOTCH DUMPIES.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Serious dejects : White ear-lobes ; yellow or

back, feathered shanks or feet ; other than four toes on

each foot ; long legs ; any deformity.

CO (NorE, — In former editions of the " Poultry

15 Club Standards " there is a special note to the

JO effect tliat " shortness of leg alone should not con-

jo stitute their claim to notice ; they must have large,

JO low, heavy bodies, and other points of excellence."

J Most judges and fanciers will agree, however, that

, unless Dumpies have very short legs, giving them

[00 the dumpy appearance, they can scarcely merit
their name. — W. W. B.)

SILKIES.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

HeaA.— Skull : Fine. Beak : Strong and well
curved. Eyes : Large and clear. Comb : (a) Single
or (b) rose, the former preferred ; (a) of medium
size, upright and straight, free from side sprigs,
and the back following the Une of the skull, evenly
serrated on top ; (6) of medium size, straight and
firmly set on the head, full of fine work or spikes,
level on top, and narrowing behind to a distinct
peak following the line of the skull and not sticking
up. Face : Smooth. Ear-lobes : Small and lying
closely to the neck. Wattles : Of medium size.

Neck. — Of fair length, in keeping with the size
of the body, and covered with flowing hackle.

Body. — Square. Breast : Deep. Back : Broad
and flat. Wings : Medium sized, neatly carried.

Tail. — Full and flowing, the sickles well arched.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Very short, shanks not
exceeding iS inches. Toes : Four on each foot,
and well spread.

Carriage. — Heavy, with a waddling gait, the
extreme shortness of its legs giving the bird the
appearance of " swimming on dry land."

Weight.— 7S- lb.

HEN

The general characteristics of the hen are similar
to those of the cock, allowing for the natural sexual
differences.

Weight.— 6 lb.

COLOUR

Beak : To match the legs. Eyes : Red. Comb,
Face, Wattles, and Ear-lobes : Bright red. Legs and
Feet : White, except in the Black variety, black or
slate, and in the Cuckoo variety mottled.

Plumage. — There is no fixed colour, but the
v^arieties chiefly exhibited are Blacks, Cuckoos,
Darks, and Silver-Greys, the last three being similar
to those varieties of the Dorking.

SCALE OP POINTS

Type ..
Size . .
Head
Condition
Colour

Head. — Skull : Short and neat, and crested.
Crjst : As upright as the comb will permit, soft
and full, and not showing any hard feathers, having
half a dozen soft, silky feathers streaming gracefully
backward from the lower and back part of the
crest to a length of about i^ inches. Beak : Short,
and stout at the base. Eyes : Brilliant, and not
too prominent. Comb : An almost circular cushion
of flesh, with a number of very small prominences
over it, and having a slight indentation or furrow
transversely across the middle. Face : Smooth.
Ear-lobes : More oval than round. Wattles : Nearly
semicircular, not long nor pendent, and concave.

Neck. — Short or of medium length, broad and full
at the base, and with abundant and flowing hackle.

Body. — Stout-loolving. Breast : Broad and full.
Shoulders : Stout and square, and fairly covered
with the neck-hackle. Back : Short, with the saddle
rising to the tail. Stern : Broad, and abundantly
covered with fine fluff. Wings : Soft and fluffy at
the butts, the ends of the flights ragged and fairly
covered with the soft saddle -hackle.

Tail. — Short, very ragged at tlie ends of the
harder feathers of the true tail, and sickles (allow-
able) if to be seen, not too noticeable nor too hard.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Short, the thighs set wide
apart, covered with very abundant fluff", and stand-
ing out prominently ; the shanks smooth and free
from scaUness, and with sUght feathering on the
outer sides. Toes : Five on each foot, the fourth
and fifth diverging from one another preferably,
and the middle and outer toes feathered, but these
feathers, like those on the slianks, not too hard.
There should not be vulture hocks, but soft, silky
hocks are permissible.

Carriage. — Stvlish.

Weight.— 3 lb.

Plumage. — Very silky and fluffy, with a profusion
of hair-Uke feathers.

Head. — Crest : Similar to a powder puff, stand-
ing up and out, not inchned backward, nor hanging
40 over the eyes nor spUt by the comb, and devoid
20 of hard feathers. Comb : Small, and hardly notice-
15 able under the front of the crest. Wattles : Either
15 absent or very small and of oval shape.
10 Neck. — Short.

— Body. — Saddle broad, and well cusliioned with

100 the silkiest of plumage.

5c6

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Tail. — Small, nearly smothered by the cushion,
(he ragged ends alone protruding, and inclined to
be of the Cochin type.

Legs. — Especially short, and the under fluff ^nd
thigh fluff almost meeting the ground.

In other respects the general characteristics of
the hen are similar to those of the cock.

Weight.—.; lb.

COLOUR

Beak : Slate blue. Eyes : Black. Comh, Face,
and Wattles : Purple black. Ear-lobes : Preferably
turquoise blue, the next best colour being purple-
black, similar to the comb, face, and wattles. Legs
and Feet : Lead, with the toe-nails blue-white.
Skin : Deep violet.

Plumage. — Snow white.

SCALE OF POIXTS
Head : comb, lo ; face, lo ; eyes and
Plumage, te.xture of

Type

Saddle and hackle . .

Neck

Legs . .

obes, lo 30

The general characteristics of the hen are similar
to those of the cock, allowing for the natural sexual
differences.

Weight.— 4! lb.

COLOUR

Beak : Pale blue or white. Eyes : Red. Comb,
Wattles, and Ear-lobes : Bright red. Legs and Feet :
Pale blue.

Plumage. — Snow white.

SCALE OV

POIN

TS

Crest . .

• 15

Muffling

• 15

Colour

• 15

Leg and foo

feathering

13

Condition

15

Type . .

. 12

Size . .

8

Comb. .

5

Serious defects : Coloured plumage ; other than
five toes ; wry tail or any other deformity.

Serious defects : Hard vulture hocks ; green beak
or legs ; green tip to beak ; ruddy comb or face ;
other than black eyes ; incorrect colour of plumage
or skin ; plumage not silky ; want of crest ; Polish,
or split crest ; single comb ; long back ; want of
fluff ; scaly legs ; four toes ; featherless shanks, and
feet ; green soles to feet.

SULTANS

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Sk}i!l : Of medium size, with a decidedly
pronounced protuberance on top, and crested.
Crest : Large, globular, and compact, and composed
of feathers similar to those of the hackles. Beak :
Short and curved, and having large nostrils rising
above the curved line of the beak. Eyes : Bright.
Comb : Of the horn type, V-shaped, very small
and almost hidden by the crest. Face : Covered
with thick muffling. Mufjling : Very full, the beard
and whiskers joining, running into the crest. Ear-
lobes : Small and round. Wattles : Very small and
hardly perceptible.

Neck. — Somewhat short, carried well back, and
covered with abundant hackle.

Body. — Squeire and deep. Breast : Prominent.
Back : Short, straight, and broad, and drooping to the
tail. Wings : Large, long, and carried low.

Tail. — Long and fine, and carried open, the sickles
very long, with abundant hangers and coverts.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Short, the thighs stout
and furnished with heavy vulture hocks to cover
the joints, and the shanks heavily feathered in.side
and out. Toes : Five on each foot, of moderate
length, and completely covered with feather.

Carriage. — Very sprightly.

Weight.— 6 lb.

Plumage. — Long, abundant and fairly soft.

RHODE ISLAND WHITES

The success which followed upon the intro-
duction of the Rhode Island Red to this
country from America doubtless had much to
do with the appearance at the Crystal Palace
show of 1913 of a class for Rhode Island
Whites. Twelve exhibits were entered, and
showed fair evidence of possessing good utility
qualities. Opinions, however, difter as to their
right to the title of "Rhode Islands," and the
well-known American poultry writer, ]\Ir. J. H.
Drevenstedt, protested strongly in T/ie
American Fancier against their usurpation of
the name, and drew attention to the confusion
likely to arise from having four varieties —
white Rocks and single-comb Rhode Island
Whites ; white Wyandottes and rosecomb
Rhode Island Whites — in which the only dis-
tinguishing feature would be shape.

The following notes upon the breed are
from the pen of Miss C. A. Reid-Powell, of
St. Ives, Ringwood, Hants:

" This breed owes its origin to the follow-
ing crosses : A Cochin hen was mated to a
white Wyandotte cock ; the pullets from this,
cross were mated to a Cochin cock, the off-
spring of which were one-fourth white Wyan-
dotte and three-fourths Cochin. The pullets
were then mated to a rosecomb white Leg-
horn, the result of which is the subject of this
sketch.

" The Rhode Island Whites inherit from
the Cochin family their beauty and plump-'
ness, from the white W^yandotte their docility
and phenomenal egg-laying qualities, especi-

RHODE ISLAND WHITES AND SICILIAN BUTTERCUPS.

ally during the winter months, and from the
Leghorn their excellent laying powers during
the summer. These qualities, together with
the fact of being a first-class table bird,
indicate the general all-round utility of the
breed. In addition to the foregoing, the
Rhode Island Whites have obtained their
activity from the Wyandotte and Leghorn
families, and their quick maturity from the
Leghorn, although the Wyandotte is to a
certain extent responsible for this also. As
one American breeder puts it, ' Now, what is
lacking ''. Here we have meat, eggs, and
beauty ; a superabundance of each. What
more could we ask for in a fowl ' '

" The principal point to remember in breed-
ing Rhode Island W'hites is the cultivation of
a long-backed bird, for no matter how good
■otherwise, the long-backed birds have always
shown themselves to be the better egg pro-
ducers."

Rhode Island Whites, like the Reds, are
to be found with both single-combs and rose-
combs, the former of those first exhibited
here perhaps showing the better type. The
shape, carriage and size of the Whites arc
similar to the Reds, to which also the standard
of the Rhode Island White Club of America
closely approximates.

The plumage throughout should be pure
white to the web fluff and quill ; the beak,
shanks and toes are rich yellow : eye, reddish
bay ; comb, face, ear-lobes and wattles, bright
red. Disqualifications in exhibition birds are
feathers other than white, ear-lobes which are
more than one-half positive white, feathers on
shanks and toes, and these latter any colour
but yellow.

The standard weights are the same as for
the Reds, viz. : Cock, 8i lbs. ; cockerel, /i
lbs. ; hen, b\ lbs., and pullet 5 lbs. As
essentially a utility fowl, the standard lays
down that the breast of both male and female
shall be broad, deep, and well rounded, with
a broad, long back carried in a horizontal
position. The legs should be set well apart,
and be of medium length. The general
appearance of the Rhode Island White is a
long-bodied, active fowl, with straight, hori-
zontal back, and with the tail in the cock
carried at an angle of 40 degrees, and in the
hen of 35 degrees, this impression of length
of body is increased. It is too early yet (1914)
to say what the future of the Whites will be
in this country, but if bred for the object for
which they were originated — good layers and
table birds — their utility qualities should
secure them a favourable reception.

THE SICILIAN BUTTERCUP

This fowl, though, like the Leghorn, of
Mediterranean origin, reached England via
the United States. It was imported here in
igi2 by a few enthusiastic fanciers who
had heard of its merits, and a club was
formed in July, 191 3, and at the first club
show, held at the Crystal Palace in the same
year, eighty-one birds were exhibited in three
classes.

Upon the origin of the breed we are in-
debted for the following notes to Wx. f. C.

The American Club's Ideal Rhode Island White Hen.

Chambers, of Elstree House, Redhill, Surrey,
who writes :

" The Buttercups were first introduced into
America by Captain Dawes, who used to trade
between the island of Sicily and Boston,
U..S.A., on the barque Fruiterer. On one of
his voyages home, and previous to sailing, he
went into the market and bought a coop of
fowls for the purpose of having fresh meat
(there were no refrigerators in those days) while
on his journey. Shortly after the ship sailed
the fowls began to lay eggs of a rich and
delicate flavour. They laid so continuously,
and eggs being as much of a luxury as fresh
meat. Captain Dawes determined not to kill
them, and finding, amongst their other good
qualities, that they were of a very gentle and

:o6^

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

quiet disposition, iie decided to take them
home to his father's farm.

" From this source Mr. C. Carol Lonng, an
American breeder, secured his stock, and gave
them the name of Buttercups, from the pecu-
liar shape of the conib, which is neither rose,
pea nor single, but is formed like a cup on
the top of the head, with spikes or points
standing upright in a circle, somewhat resem-
bling a flower. Mr. Loring bred them for
many years, and improved their plumage and
general appearance, so as to make them a more
finished breed ; but they gradually dropped
out of favour in the States, through no one
caring to advertise or boom them in any way,
and also owing to inferior importations, some
coming with yellow legs instead of green,
combs of irregular shape, and every descrip-
tion of bad pencilling.

" Some time afterwards better specimens of
the type, with good markings, were imported
to America, and carefully mated to the choicest
of the stock then there, and gradually the im-
perfections were eliminated, and from about
1909 onwards the popularity of the Buttercup
in America steadily increased, and capital
classes were exhibited at tlie great New York
and Boston shows."

Mr. Chambers has imported stock both
from America and Sicily, and advises that
anyone taking up Buttercups must remember
tliat they are difficult birds to breed true to
type or colour, and to produce a perfect comb,
and it must not be expected that a large per-
centage of stock raised will come yet up to
the exhibition standard ; for Sicilian Butter-
cups belong par excellence to the utility class,
and will not be a finished show bird for some
years to come, as, indeed, the continued
alterations in the standard serve to indicate.
He adds: "Their utility qualities are beyond
question, as they have been bred for many
generations in Sicily, and over fifty years, on
and off, in America. Their eggs are generally
white; occasionally some may show a slight
tint. They are small eaters, and great foragers
if they have a free run, and are practically
non-sitters. They mature very early (from
three to five months), are extremely vigorous
and hardy, small-boned, easily fattened, un-
surpassed as broilers, and their meat is of the
highest quality. The standard weights are:
Hen, from 4 to 5 lbs. ; cock, 5 to 6 lbs. ; but
these weights have been exceeded by as much
as two or three pounds respectively in
America."

Upon the antiquity of the Buttercup, with
its distinctive comb, Mrs. A. X. Dumaresq

contributes an interesting note to the Ameri-
can Buttercup Club's 1914 Year-Book. She
writes :

" It may interest readers to learn that this
busy little fowl has held court for centuries in
their native country, as well as in France. You
will find, among the many pictures of different
breeds of fowls, the Sicilian (or Buttercup) as
the most conspicuous. The Ancona is also
seen, and many other breeds, painted by artists
of note. For instance, in the Borghese Gallery
(the most important next to the Vatican) you
will find Anconas and Sicilians (or Butter-
cups) ; in the Vatican Gallery the same, dating
back to the sixteenth century, painted by a
noted Spanish artist named Spinello, if I
remember correctly. In Paris you will find a
fine oil painting of them. In the National Art
Gallery in Florence you will find them also."

A marked characteristic of the Sicilian
Buttercup is its docility, due, doubtless, to its
long and close association with the Sicilian
peasants, in whose homes it wanders in and out
as free as ever did the " gentleman who paid
the rent " in Irish cabins. This docility is
useful, and should be encouraged, for many
excellent breeds have lost popularity through
their wildness ; and that it is present the
Editor of this work had an illustration of
whilst writing these notes, in the shape of a
cock and a pullet brought up for him to see
by Mr. Wm. Toozes, junr., the Secretary of
the British Sicilian Buttercup Club. These
birds, picked up from a free range that morn-
ing, brought fifty miles on a motor-car, and
penned on our office table, were as unconcerned
at their novel surroundings as any veteran
show-goers could well have been.

It appears necessary, however, if real pro-
gress is to be made with the Buttercup, that
a permanent standard should soon be arrived
at, and particularly as regards the females ;
and the point is well put by Mrs. H. J. Carr,
in the American Club's Year-Book, who writes :

" Changes in the standard from year to
year are hard on the careful breeder and a
detriment to progress. For this reason, it
seems to me, the quicker all necessary changes
in the standard are made, and the quicker the
standard is made to embody all the requisites
of the ideal Buttercup — as it will be, say, in ten
years from now — the quicker will we learn how
to breed good Buttercups, and the more
rapidly will the breed improve.

" Our standard calls for females having
plain buff breasts and necks, with spangled
feathers on back. This is very desirable, but
birds showing the beautifully spangled

SICILIAN BUTTERCUPS.

=;o6i:

feathers, so much to be desired, with good
wing and shoulder marking, do not show the
clear breasts ; while clear-breasted birds are
quite likely to be deficient in wing markings,

Sicilian Buttercup Cock.

ist Wolverhampton and Guildford and 4tti Palace ; the

property of Mr. J. C. Chambers.

and show both laced and spangled, or all laced
feathers on back.

" This might, perhaps, with care, be over-
come, and I for one am quite willing to try
to do so, but if marked breasts are ever to be
allowed, which many seem to think probable,
why not now ? I much prefer the nice clean
breasts myself, if it can be obtained in connec-
tion with good markings.

"If we wish to breed females having the
spangled feathers, care must be taken in selec-
tion of male birds. I have bred Buttercups
exclusively for several years, and caring for
them myself and being with them every day in
the year, I have studied them a good deal. I
have not been able to find that males bred from
hens showing spangled feathers have any
marking to distinguish them from those bred
from laced females. The pencilled saddle on
male may indicate lacing on female. It is,
then, quite necessary, if we wish to improve our
birds, to know the parentage of the male bird
used in our breeding pen, for many a good-
looking bird, well up to the standard, is
hatched from a female very poorl\- marked
indeed.

" Our nicest females mated with a male bird
hatched from a poorly marked female, will
give us a large percentage of poorly marked
stock."

Another American breeder, Mr. E. E. Rey-

nolds (faced by the difficulty alluded to by
Mrs. Carr of securing good, sharp markings
on top in the hens with clear breast colour
beneath), practises double-mating, which, i(
really necessary to get standard points, will
seriously affect the lasting popularity of the
breed. The partly white and red ear-lobe he
found another difficulty, and writes:

"Nearly all the Sicilian chicks will show a
greater part of ear-lobe white while young, say
four months. After that they will begin to
change and become almost red, or only show-
ing a little white. I have found by breeding
from a male whose ear-lobe is a mixture of
half of each will give much better results both
in males and females, and will not as a rule
show any white in their offspring.

" Breeding for males and females, I have
found it impossible to produce the proper
colour and markings from one mating. There-
fore, I have used double-matings for four
years.

" For cockerel breeding I use a cock with
rich, even, dark red all over ; clean breast with
plenty of black between shoulders, with black
wing flights and tail and spangled on fluff with
undercolour dark slaty, but never use a male
for cockerel breeding with black in breast or in
wings nor one showing any greenish bars on
outer surface of wings. The females I use for
this mating are two-year-old birds of partridge

mm

wmm

Sicilian Buttercup Hen.

1st {cock and hen class) Palace and ist Wolverhampton ; the
property of Mr. J. C. Chambers.

marked backs with some lacing in hackle, and
dark in sides of breast and fluff.

" For pullet breeding I use a cock bird of a
light red, even surface colour all over, hackle
back and saddle with light salmon breast,
solid colour (no black), undercolour about half

^obJ

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

slate and buff, with black wing flights and tail,
and one showing distinct black spangling be-
tween shoulders and on fluff. The more of this
the better the results. I use one- and two-year-
old females for this mating with clean, clear
hackle and breast and of medium barring on
backs and some spangle under wings and on
fluff, with as dark wings and tail as you can
find. I use females that show the blackest
barring and spangling with a clear surface or
buff between these barrings.

" The cockerels produced by this mating are
the majority much too light in colour, some of
them showing hackle of cream colour, almost
white, and undercolour being very light buff
with no dark or slaty colour, and are practi-
cally of no use as breeders."

Against this experience we have not yet
had time to test whether the standard cannot
be attained by the better method of single-
mating, and for the sake of the breed, if this
is not feasible, we should suggest its altera-
tion rather than the adoption of the fatal
policy of double-mating in a utility breed.

Seen together, the Buttercup cock and his
mate are strangely dissimilar in colour, and,
as Mr. Toozes puts it, at first sight the male
might be taken for a light type of Rhode
Island Red, except, of course, for his dis-
tinctive headgear.

The Buttercup cock's surface colour should
be rich deep red or bay ; the main tail feathers
and sickles are black with greenish sheen ; tail
coverts black, becoming red as they approach
the saddle ; wing flights, black and reddish
brown. The American Club's standard from
which the British was adopted, adds : " Un-
dercolour clouded on back and sides with
shades of grey. Butterish sheen on neck and
saddle. Spangles in under base of hackle,
and in fluff at end of wing."

In both sexes the beak should be yellow
and black ; eyes reddish bay ; comb, face and
wattles, bright red ; ear-lobes red and white,
in the hen red to be the predominating colour,
not more than two-thirds white permitted ;
shanks and toes, willowy green.

The plumage of the Buttercup hen is very

unlike that of the cock, being generally a
golden buff mottled on the back with well-
defined black spots. The breast is a paler
shade of golden buff free from markings run-
ning lighter m the fluff, and the tail and wing
flights are black and reddish brown.

Disqualifications in the English standard
are " shanks other than green, feathers on
shanks or toes, all white in ear-lobes.'.' To
these the American standard adds : " Centre
sprigs in comb and white feathers (all indica-
tions of white)."

The comb, that distinctive feature of the
Buttercup, is thus described : " Single as it
leaves the beak, single not to exceed three-
quarters of an inch, then spreading into a low
circle surmounted with numerous spikes. The
general form to be cup-shape, size moderate,
and serrations even and well defined." The
Americans state that the two spikes at rear of
comb should be broader than the rest. The
comb of the hen is very similar to the cock, but
of more modest dimensions.

In carriage Buttercups are sprightly and
active as bespeaking good foragers, and the
long body and back sloping down from the
shoulders with tail of medium size carried at
an angle of 45 degrees, broad, well-rounded
breast, and well-set legs of moderate length
denote a useful fowl for general purposes,
suited either to free or confined range.

The males, so far, appear nearer the
standard than the females, and for breeding
the latter Mr. W. J. Toozes gives the following
advice : " The first parts I look for in picking
out the future breeders of winning Sicilian
Buttercups are as follows: Starting with the
comb, I select birds possessing those with
smooth centres and free from sprigs, and —
most important — see that the breast colour
is quite clear without any markings. The
main tail feathers should be black with
greenish sheen, the legs and toes willowy
green, the ear-lobes red and white (not one
colour), and as a point to anticipate the future
English standard, the hen's back should be
a clear buff with clear black elongated
spangles."

so?

CHAPTER XXXIV.

BANTAM BREEDING. GAME BANTAMS.

AT no period in the history of the Poultry
Fancy have Bantams reached such a
^ popularity, or carried with them such a
monetary value, as they do at the present time,
so that show promoters in certain places
are giving them exhibitions to themselves.
Bantam breeders comprise, however, a fancy
and world of their own, for which reason we
have thought it better for this section to be
treated throughout by some single special
authority. Though not, as in other cases, dis-
tmguished by quotation marks, owing to their
length, this' and the following chapter upon
Bantams are therefore written throughout by
Mr. P. Proud, of Birkdale, Southport. Mr.
Proud is so well known to every Bantam
breeder, not only as an exhibitor, but as a
popular judge, a critic, and writer upon this
subject, that nothing further need be added
beyond our gratification that he has found it
possible to render us and our readers his valu-
able assistance.

The reasons for the great advance in popu-
larity of Bantams are perhaps likely to increase
rather than diminish. They can be kept as
pets by ladies, young people, and others who
would never trouble with larger breeds. They
can be reared in hundreds, where medium-sized
fowls can only be kept in dozens. They stand
a town life well, and a few can be kept success-
fully in a small garden, or backyard, or, on a
pinch, in pens in an attic. They are small con-
sumers, and lay profitably for what little they
eat. They are well catered for at all the best
shows, and the returns from prizes won are,
fro rata with the expenses of carriage incurred
to and from exhibitions, greatly in excess of
what could be expected from heavier breeds.
Take for instance a consignment of six or
eight Bantams, each in separate sections of a
properly divided hamper ; it costs only about
3d- or 4d. per bird in carriage from the north
of England to London and back. At a show-
like the Dairy or Palace, the exhibitor, for
about the same carriage as he would have to
pay for one Rock or Orpington cockerel, can
compete for six or eight prizes. Finally. Ban-

tams are now kept so much by ladies and
gentlemen of rank, with Queen Alexandra at
their head, that this also~has been no small
factor in popularising these beautiful and in-
teresting birds.

In some respects Bantams require rather
special management, and there are some special
difficulties in hatching and rearing Bantam
Hat h- chicks. The selection of a suitable

Bantam^ t)''°°d>' ,'^^'1 ^^ highly important,
Eggs. unless the Fancier wishes to go in

for a small reliable incubator, for
such are now to be obtained from some of the
best incubator makers ; but an inferior machine
is no possible use for hatching Bantam eggs,
and the temperature for same must not exceed
102°. For years I was greatly troubled by my
hens breaking two or three eggs in every sit-
ting, and crushing chicks when on the point of
hatching, simply because they were too heavy
and clumsy for Bantam eggs. At last I hit
upon that cross between the Silkie and Pekin
described in the next chapter. These pullets
proved excellent sitters and mothers, and for
hatching and rearing Bantam chicks are worth
their weight in gold. They rarely lay more
than a dozen eggs before becoming broody,
and then they will sit till further orders ;
although it is not wise to let them hatch more
than two broods at one sitting. As to the nests,
where possible it is far the best to have a
separate house for sitting hens, where the in-
mates can be left perfectly quiet. For nests I
use orange boxes, which can generally be pur-
chased for twopence or threepence. These I
lay down on their sides, and nail a strip of
wood along the front at the bottom. I then put
in a plentiful supply of fine soil or sand, and
on the top of this clean soft hay, the more the
better, making the nest the shape of a shallow
basin. In the early months — January, Feb-
ruary, and March — never give the hen too many
eggs ; rather put down too few than one too
many. Later on you may safely put down
fourteen or fifteen. During the time the hen is
sitting her food should consist of Indian corn,
and she should be moved from the nest every

■;o8

THE BOOK OF POULTRY

day for ten or fifteen minutes. Before setting
the hen give her a good dusting with insect
powder, and again two or three days before
she is due to hatch ; by so doing you will save
many a chick from being infested with lice. In
the sitting-house have a large shallow box filled
with cinder ashes for the hens to dust in. After
five or six days the eggs should be tested by
a candle in a dark room. Hold the &^§, be-
tween the first finger and thumb of each hand
about an inch from a lighted candle. If the
egg is unfertile it will appear quite clear,
whilst if it contains the germ this will be found
to float and show the veins quite plainly. At
the end of nineteen days, if the eggs are fresh,
they will commence to hatch, and at this time
the hen should be left alone ; do not bother her
more than you can avoid. W'hen possible
always use fresh eggs for hatching ; and never
more than eight or ten days old, if you would
have strong chicks. Never set very small eggs,
or thin-shelled eggs, for even should they
hatch the chicks will be fragile little mites that
it is impossible to rear.

The ne.xt important point is the feeding of
Bantam chicks. For the first twelve hours after
hatching the chick does not require any food ;

in fact, they are better without for
Rearing twenty-f Our hours ; let them remain

Chicks perfectly quiet. At the end of that

time give them their first feed of
hard-boiled t^^ chopped fine and mixed with
stale breadcrumbs and coarse oatmeal, or what
is termed "pin-head oatmeal." This should be
their staple food for the first two days, given
every two hours. On the third day substitute
Biscuit Chicken-meal for the egg food. The
food must be free from condiments or spices,
which are harmful to Bantam chicks, however
good they may or may not be for stronger
chicks. In cold weather it is best to give the
food warm, mixing it with boiling water ; but
in warm weather I find it keeps sweeter when
mixed with cold water. Feed every two hours
until ten days old, then four or five times a day
until they are ten weeks old ; then three times
a day will suffice. When the chicks are three
weeks old let the last feed of the day be broken
groats, millet-seed, and canary-seed mixed.
At noon a little lean meat cut fine, or a few
maggots, should be given. This once a da\' ;
but do not give too much : and above all feed
your chicks regularly at a given hour each da}'.
If the chicks have free range on grass, water is
not necessary. I am not a believer in water
for chicks, except what they can get off the
grass after a heavy dew or shower. The less
water you give chicks the less diarrhoea and

gapes you will have amongst them. If you
never give them water, they never require it ;
but once you start to do so you must go on to
the end of the chapter. Although the little
chick does not require water, however, the hen
must not be forgotten. It is best to fasten an
ordinary zinc drinking tin for her inside the
coop, about 6 or 8 inches from the ground.
And, of course, when the chick attains the age
of three or four months, when its food will be
principally hard corn, then water is necessar}'.
At this age the chickens should be separated,
the cockerels from the pullets. When feeding
the chicks in the early morning give the hen
a good feed of maize, otherwise she will eat
all the food away from the chicks.

Keep the coops scrupulously clean, and
lime-washed ever\' five or six weeks, and re-
move to fresh ground every two or three days.
Examine the chicks at intervals for lice, etc.,
and whenever infested, dust well with insect
powder. Following these instructions, the
rearing of Bantam chicks will become quite an
easy and pleasurable task.

I am often asked what size of house Ban-
tams require. For a pen of half a dozen, the
house should measure 4 by 3 feet. From the

floor to the eaves should be 2 feet.
Houses and ^^^ ,3 ^^ g j^^^j^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^j^^ ^.-^g^

of the roof. Under the floor have a
shelter reaching 15 or iS inches from
the ground, and boarded all round except the
front. This shelter will be very useful in bad
weather, and should have a plentiful suppl_\- of
moss litter or dry sea sand ; this will keep
them dry, and prevent colds when the weather
is bad. The run attached to the house should
measure 9 feet by 3 feet, 5 feet high, boarded
18 to 24 inches from the ground at the front,
the remainder of the front wire netting ; back,
end, and roof boarded. On the floor of the
run, also floor of house, use dry sea sand, and
rake over every alternate day, so as to keep it
clean and sweet. Use round perches for Game
Bantams, about the thickness of an ordinar_\-
broom-handle ; but for feather-legged varieties
flat perches are best, and the perches should be
so constructed that they can readily be taken
down and cleaned. Houses and runs such as
described can be put up for 25s. to 35s. each.
See that the houses are well ventilated near to
the roof ; this is highly important for the
health of the birds.

Many a good bird is spoiled for the want of
proper training, which is half the battle in the
exhibition pen. Take a cockerel direct from his
run and place him in an exhibition pen, put
your stick inside, and endeavour to touch him,

Runs for
Bantams.

EXHIBITING BANTAMS.

509

Training

for

Exhibition.

and the chances are tiiat he will dash madly
against the sides and top of the pen in his
endeavour to get away. A little
care and trouble at the right time
obviates all this, and when once
properly done, it is done for the
bird's lifetime.

In the first place get an ordinary 18-inch
exhibition pen, which will cost about 2s., and
fix this pen, or your set of pens, on a bench
about 4 feet from the ground. Take the bird
at night-time and place him in the pen, letting
him remain quiet all night to get used to the
pen. Next morning approach the pen gently,
and feed him through the wires, tempting him
with a little bread-and-milk sop, which all
birds are passionately fond of. He will be very
shy at first, but by degrees will come boldly up.
Feed him again at noon in the same way, and
at night, when it is dark, take a candle and go
and stroke him gently from the top of his
shoulders to the tail with your hand, speaking
kindly to him all the time. It is surprising how
much tamer a bird is by candle-light than he is
in day-light. When you have succeeded in get-
ting the bird to stand perfectly still while
stroking him down the back, commence strok-
ing him down the breast from the throat. Do
this as gently and slowly as possible. When
he has got accustomed to this too, instead of
the hand use a small cane or stick, but always
gently and quietly. Should the bird be in-
clined to carry his tail too high, by stroking
him down with the stick to the end of his tail,
the tail-carriage can be greatly improved.
When a bird is well trained, he will lower his
tail immediately the stick touches his back.
They acquire a habit of slightly walking away
from the stick, and naturally lovv'cr the tail to
be free from it. Should the bird droop his
wings, which is often the case, then I touch
him with the stick under the wings, at the same
time lifting them up, and induce him to tighten
himself up into proper shape before I leave
off. These faults can easily be remedied if the
training is persevered with for a few minutes
two or three times daily. Should the bird be
wanting in style, a few gentle taps on the back
of the legs and toes will quickly make him
step out like a well-drilled soldier. To give
" reach " to Game Bantams, get a little tit-bit
of meat, or bread and milk, and hold it high up
in front of the pen to induce the bird to reach
up. He will perhaps not come at once, but a
little patience will gain the day, and he will
come boldly up whenever you approach the
pen. Some birds take much more time than
others When they have been well handled in

chickenhood, they require very little training ;
and again, the more highly-bred the easier the
training.

The next step towards perfecting Bantams
for the exhibition pen is washing. All birds
do not require actual washing; those of dark
plumage need only be sponged over
Washing with tepid water prior to packing

Bantams. them off. Moisten a sponge well,
and thoroughly sponge the bird
over, and afterwards dry thoroughly by a brisk
stroking in one direction with a silk pocket-
handkerchief. It is surprising what a " polish "
can thus be put on the feathers of any dark
birds such as Black Rosecombs, Black- or
Brown-red Game, etc., which look quite fifty
per cent, better.

Whites and all light-coloured varieties re-
quire to be thoroughly washed, a process so
fully described in a former chapter that few
words are needed here. Three separate bowls
of water are required ; the first to contain soft
water as hot as you can comfortably bear the
back of the hand in ; the second slightly
cooler ; and the third just tepid. Place the
bird in the first with his head just clear of the
water, and soak him thoroughly ; then soap him
well with Sunlight or white-curd soap until you
get a good lather, and freely rub it into the
feather ; then sponge well with the hot water,
and repeat this operation until all trace of dirt
has disappeared. Then in the second bowl
sponge him well with the clean water until
all the soap is removed ; and finally transfer
him to the finishing bowl containing the tepid
water, and rinse him well from head to tail,
sponging him all the while. After absorbing
all the water out of the feathers that you ■■~an
with the sponge, dry the bird v/ith a soft towel,
then place him in an open wicker basket or wire
pen containing clean hay, placed about 3 feet
from a good bright fire, and allow him to
remain there until dry. It is as well to place
a cover round the back of the hamper or pen
to protect him from draughts. In hard-
feathered varieties it is a good plan, when the
bird is nearly dry, to take him out and give
him a good rubbing with a silk handkerchief
to get the desired polish, which would not be
obtained if left to dry by itself. It is best to
wash the birds at least two clear days before
they are required to be sent to the show, to give
the feather time for webbing out again.

In despatching birds to a show, see that the
basket is clean and weather-proof, in winter
using good I hick lining: this is very important
for Bantams. Just before a bird is sent off,
give him a good feed of warm bread and milk,

510

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

and the same as soon as he returns. On his
return, keep him isolated for two or three days
as a precaution against the spread of any
disease he may possibly bring back, though
you hope not. But one never can tell what
disease a bird may have contracted at a show,
and the introduction of roup or diphtheria in
this way might be ruinous to a yard.

Apart from outside infection. Bantams
being in-bred to a great extent, are weaker,
and more liable to certain diseases than their
bigger brethren. The most common ailments
from which they suffer are colds and roup, the
latter being nothing more in its milder form
than a neglected cold. When a bird is noticed
to have a cold, or running at the nostrils, the
best remedy is a dose of Roup Powder in the
drinking water daily for three or four days,
which will be quite sufficient to stop the cold.
This treatment will generally cure a cold in a
few days if the bird is kept free from
draughts. Keep houses well ventilated and
cleaned out regularly each week. Twice a
year the interior should be lime-washed.
Birds suffering from roup should be iso-
lated from any others to prevent the disease
spreading.

The most serious trouble the Bantam fancier
has to contend with during the breeding season
is egg-bound. This generally occurs in finely-
bred, small, and extra neat Game Bantam
pullets. The sooner it is noticed the better,
if the pullet is noticed to go to nest frequently
in one day, it may be assumed that she is find-
ing difficulty in passing her first egg, and it is
by far the best to take her in hand before she
has exhausted her strength in her own en-
deavours. In ordinary cases all that is required
is to place the hen up to her thighs in hot water,
as hot as you can bear your hand in, and let
her remain for ten minutes ; then dry her with
a towel, and grease the vent well with vaseline.
If the <t^^ is in view, a little gentle pressure
from behind outside with the thumb and
fingers will generally eject it, but very great
care should be exercised not to break the &g%,
or the result will prove fatal in nine cases out
of ten.

In concluding these general hints and in-
structions, let me add a few "Don'ts," which
Bantam fanciers will do well to note.

Don't commence by buying several first-prize
winners from here, there, and everywhere, with
the idea that as the parents are all first-prize
winners the produce v.ill be tlie same. You
cannot make a graver mistake. Start v.'ith some
reliable strain, and stick to that strain alone,
and in-breed so long as your chicks are fairly

health}- and vigorous. By so doing \-ou are
keeping the blood pure and buildmg up a
strain of your own at the same time.

Don't think that you are going to rear
strong healthy chicks, bred from birds that
have been doing the rounds of shows all the
season. You cannot do it. Don't exhibit your
breeding birds at all ; then you will have
healthy chicks and fertile eggs.

Don't put more than five hens to a cock,
especially during the first two or three months
of the breeding season, and don't mate up the
cock to the hens until January. Keep them
apart.

Don't overcrowd and don't pamper \our
chicks ; give them plain wholesome food, and
feed regularly.

Don't neglect to dust your chicks frequently
with insect powder during the summer months.
Alany thousands of Bantam chicks, even in
greater proportion than the large ones, are lost
annually through being infested with lice.

No one will dispute the fact that of all
Bantams the Game varieties must take pre-
cedence. Of all the different kinds bred, none

seems to secure the popular vote
Game like these. Fanciers may drift into

Bantams. other varieties, but as a rule they

begin with Game. Fearless little
creatures they are, with a pluck and courage
all their own. No wonder they stand first
favourites! The colours allow a liberal margin
for the exercise of individual taste, though
Black-reds, Duckwings, Brown-reds, and Piles
have so far made the greatest advance towards
perfection, followed by Birchens and Whites.
As a rule Black-reds and Piles give the
heaviest returns for the capital and labour ex-
pended upon them.

In judging Game Bantams, shape and style
come first. In both male and female we want
somewhat of the laundry flat-iron type, i.e. a
wedge shape, with no great keel, and tapering
from a square prominent front sharply to the
tail. The shoulders should stand out squarely,
the wings short and rounded and tucked well
in to the sides, not flat-sided. If the wings are
carried on the back, the bird is said to be
goose-winged, which is a serious fault in the
show-pen. The back should be as short as
possible and flat. A round back is an eyesore,
and practically a disqualification. The thigiis
must be round as well as long. A flat-shinned
bird comes of delicate parentage, and will
breed flat-shinned ones. The thighs should be
set on well apart, as this affects greatly the
Game-like look of the movements of tlie bird.

BLACK.RED GAME BANTAMS.

511

The shanks must be long, fine, and round in
bone, clear and smooth, and terminated in long
straight toes with good claws. The hind toe
should be planted firmly on the ground in a
straight line with the centre front toe, an}-
screwing about to right or left, or inwards, is
termed duck-footed, and is a certain disquali-
fication in the show-pen. Sometimes in very
reachy birds the back toe proves a trifle short,
but this is a minor fault compared with the
other. The tail is a special feature. It should
rise to a little above the horizontal, and the
twelve feathers of which the tail proper is com-
posed should be whipped together as closely as
possible. The whole feathering from head to
tail should be of the shortest, narrowest, and
scantiest ; and in the body and tail feathers as
strong in quill and as wiry to the touch as
possible. The sickles and hangers have been
bred to a surprising narrowness, and very short,
so that the former only protrude beyond the
tail proper about a couple of mches. The head
should be long, lean, and snaky, with a long,
strong, slightly curved beak, and a full, defiant,
eagle-like eye, placed just under the top of the
skull. Look for a long and fine neck, with
bright, narrow, short hackles, and very upright
or perpendicular carriage.

Colour is a great desideratum, and should
come ne.xt. A rich colour, giving wide contrast,
greatly enhances the appearance of a bird. In
the males there should be no rustiness, espe-
cially about the shoulders, wing-bars, or hocks.
The standard colours of the different varieties
will be described as we proceed.

Size, or want of it, is a very important
point, but diminutiveness may be overdone.
All other points being equal, the smallest bird
would undoubtedly win in the show-pen, and
for this reason small birds are much in request,
and command excellent prices. But very small
pullets are by no means desirable in the breed-
ing-pen. Three possibilities may arise. The
first is they may never lay at all ; the second is
that their first egg may prove their death ; and,
lastly, should they produce a few eggs, the
chicks resulting will in all probability turn out
such stunted little specimens as to be worthless.
Breed from small cocks and fair-sized hens or
pullets, feed judiciously, and you will secure
chicks small enough for keenest competition.

The colour of Black-reds may thus be de-
scribed. The face, head, lobes, and wattles in
both sexes should be of a bright healthy red,
with legs, feet, and beak of a rich olive or
willow. Any tendency to slatiness shows
Duckwing blood. The neck -hackle of the cock

should be a bright golden orange, free from
striping, and the saddle-hackle follows suit,
only as a rule in the best specmiens the saddle-
hackle runs a trifle lighter, clearer,
Black-red and richer golden hue than the
Bantams. neck. The back and wing-bow are
a bright solid crimson ; wing-butts
black ; wing-bars a glossy steel blue, free from
rusty ticking ; the secondaries of the wings a
clear bright chestnut, which should run through
to the end of the feather ; breast, thighs, and
tail a rich black, free from ticking, rustiness
about hocks, or chestnut shaftiness in sickles,
which generally denotes a pullet strain, and
will tell slightly against an exhibition
specimen.

The Black-red pullet should have a pale
golden-coloured hackle, some shades lighter
than that of the cock, each feather being very
narrowly striped with black down either side
of the shaft. The main body colour is some-
what difficult to describe. It resembles the
medium brown drab shade of a partridge. If
each feather be examined carefully, it will be
found to be almost imperceptibly pencilled
through with the finest black, yet so exqui-
sitely fine as to produce one even soft shade
of colour all over back and wings. Imperfect
specimens often get this pencilling too much
in evidence. Such are termed " coarse." Even
in some of the best specimens there are two
or three feathers, usually the top flight feathers
of the wing, that show the undesirable blotch-
ing a little round the edge of the feather ; but
this is considered rather a serious fault in ex-
hibition pullets. The breast may be described
as a rich deep broken salmon, shading into
lighter colour towards throat and thighs. The
two top outer feathers of the tail correspond
exactly with the colour- of the body, otherwise
the tail is black.

Now for the mating. See that the birds

are sound in health : it is folly to hatch

diseased chickens, because it is money and

time thrown away. Do not crowd

mack-rfd "P ^^"^ P^'^ "^'^ ^ '°* °^ pullets
„ ^ under the mistaken notion that you

Bantams. . , , . ■'.,

are gomg to produce a majority

of pullets ; or vice versa if you have but few
females to the male. This rule works far too
inconstantly to justify confidence in it, and
it is better to breed from three or four first-
rate pullets rather than from a host of in-
different ones. By all means, if the breeder
has funds and accommodation, let him mate
up two pens, one for cockerel- and the other
for pullet-breeding ; although exhibition speci-
mens of both sexes have been produced from

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

one pen — e.g. the Crystal Palace Show of 1900,
where the ist prize Black-red cockerel and ist
prize pullet of Mr. Hugo Ainscough were from
the same (pullet-breeding) pen. Such a mating
is not a wise proceeding, and this is strongly
borne out in the fact that the nice soft even
shade of colour so much in evidence fifteen to
twenty years ago has been lost, and nine out of
every ten breeders of Black-red Game Ban-
tams will tell you the same. We have certainly
brightened the colour in cockerels, but at the
expense of the loss of that beautiful soft shade
in pullets.

The cockerel pen should contain as bright-
coloured a male, cockerel preferred, as it is
possible to command, with all exhibition points
of shape and style, and especially neither duck-
footed nor slip-winged, the latter being a rather
common weakness. Place with him three tall
reachy pullets or hens, extra stylish if pos-
sible, pullets preferred, prominent in shoulders
and light in hackle to the crown of the head.
Those foxy-coloured on wings, and a nice
golden edge round the feathers of back and
wings, are to be preferred. Some breeders
use Wheatens to secure bright top-colour,
which acts satisfactorily. Only, let the breeder
beware that he never by any chance lets the
produce get mixed up with that of the pullet-
breeding pen, or there will be ruin, which
years of care will hardly suffice to eradicate.
If the chicks have to run together, see that
they are marked from the first with dye, and
afterwards, when old enough, rung. Person-
ally, I prefer to use Black-reds only, finding
that the produce is quite as satisfactory, and
no irremediable result occurs should one or twcj
break out of bounds and get mixed. The next
year the best pullets from this pen could be
mated to the sire, giving the older hens to the
most suitable cockerel. In this way you main-
tain much more vigour than from mating
brother and sister, and are gradually breeding
back to the parents on both sides, whilst mak-
ing a selection of the best each time from a
show point of view. A strain may thus be
built up and carried on for years without re-
course to new blood. At any time the two
lines are crossed the produce will contain
exactly half and half of the blood of the
original birds, as shown in detail in Chapter
VI. Should the vigour of your stock decline
from any reason, then it would be well to
introduce a dash of fresh blood by going to
some breeder who had originally the same
strain as you started from. Otherwise you
may find yourself at a point of delicacy beyond
which it is impossible successfully to go. The

one great and onl\- drawback to breeding
Black-reds is that they are so difficult to rear.
The breeding of them as far as the very best
goes has fallen to one breeder, who has in-bred
so much that it is only with the utmost care that
Black-red chicks can be reared. This experi-
ence is borne out b\' nearly every breeder of
Black-reds.

The pullet-breeding pen should be put to-
gether on quite different lines. Each pullet or
hen should be sound in colour, free from the
objectionable coarseness on wing, deep in
breast colour, and really as perfect types of
show birds as it is possible to get. As a mate
to these seek out a tall, stylish cockerel, but of
a brickish top-colour, and of one even shade
throughout from hackle to tail. He should be
of a pure pullet strain, otherwise he is no good,
and should possess all the requisites of a first-
class show bird save colour. Both cockerel and
pullets should be short in back, good in neck
and limb, fine in tail, with good shoulder
points, and a raven black wing-bar in the
cockerel, free from any trace of lacing. The
breast in cocks may show a little lacing, and
such birds arc often a little short in their bays,
i.e. the bay does not go quite through to the
end of the feather, a good sign if the bird be
from true pullet-breeding blood. Do not put
more than three or four pullets to an adult,
especially earl)- in the season, say February, or
clear eggs will probably result. A cockerel may
safely be trusted with twice that number.

Though it is advisable for a young be-
ginner, if he can, to have two pens, it is proved
by actual experience to be easily possible to
breed winners, both cockerels and pullets, from
the same pen, though perhaps not so large a
percentage as from two different pens. I have
done it again and again. ]My plan is to select
a cockerel as near to an ideal pullet-breeder
as possible, only, in this case, of a brighter
top-colour, and mate with him two first-class
cockerel-breeding pullets and two good show
pullets. Such a pen will yield capital results,
and answer the purpose well for those who are
cramped for accommodation.

Piles are treated of next because of their
striking appearance, though amateurs will find
them more difficult to breed than Black-reds

or Duckwings. The Piles are also
Pile the counterpart of Black-reds, if we

Bantams. substitute white in the cockerels for

black in the Black-reds, and a clear
white in pullets for the partridge-brown of the
Black-red pullets. They can for a certain
length of time be bred solely from Piles ; but it

BREEDING PILE BANTAMS.

S13

is found in practice that the colour " breeds
out " after some five or six seasons, and it is
necessary to resort to Black-red blood after a
time. The exhibition standard is met in
cockerels by a top-colour identical with that of
the best coloured exhibition Black-red cock-
erels. Some judges prefer a deep claret back
and saddle shading down to a golden orange ;
but I much prefer the former. The breast and
bays are two very important features in the
cockerels. There should be no lacing, or tick-
ing, or smokiness in the former ; whilst the
bays should run right through the secondaries
to the end, leaving no white or paleness, but
one deep, rich chestnut. The eye should be
kept as bright a red as possible — a more diffi-
cult task than in Black-reds. The pullets re-
quire to be free from foxiness on the wing, but,
at the same time, the breast should be a rich
salmon, and to get the two points in conjunc-
tion tries the utmost resources of the breeder.
With the deep breast, as a rule, you get more or
less rosmess or foxiness on wings, and with ?
paler breast you are more likely to secure clear
colour on wing. Still, in these days of keen
competition, a high-class bird, to be successful
at our best shows, must excel in both points,
and they can be obtained by patience and
careful mating of pure pullet strains. Legs
other than a rich orange are a most serious
blemish. Years ago willow-legged Piles were
successful in the prize lists, but those days are
over, however good the bird may be in all
other points. A rich deep orange leg is some-
what difficult to obtain, especially in certain
parts of the country. x\fter repeated experi-
ments, I have fully satisfied myself that the
maintenance of rich leg colour, when once
obtained in a chick, is dependent in no small
measure on the nature of the soil. Clay, good
loam, and sand arc helpful ; limestone seems to
fade and bleach the colouring matter consider-
ably. A good, rich leg colour is indicative of a
recent cross of Black-red blood, and when leg
colouring begins to fail in any young chicks it
is a sure proof that a cross is required.

Now let us see what can be bred respectively
from the pure Piles, and also by a cross. In
pure Pile breeding — i.e. where both parents are
Piles — I will take cockerel produc-
tion first. Your male bird must be
A I, of the bright orange top-colour
type. He will have some weakness,
no doubt, but, above and beyond all else, do
not let it be weakness of bays, or wing-ends, as
they are sometimes termed. If these are faulty,
pale in colour, and not carried one sound, rich
chestnut from wing-bar to end of wing, you

Breeding

Pile

Bantams.

will never breed a good one ; and, indeed, the
bird may be considered almost a waster, both
for exhibition and stock purposes, as he will
not do for pullet-breeding either. Have no
lacing or smokiness on breast or wing-bar if
you can possibly avoid it, and if the eye is a
bright ruby red, all the better. Now with this
bird you want three or four tall, stylish pullets,
short in back, good in limb, fine in tail, and
with shoulder points well forward. If rosed
on the wing all the better. Such a pen will
give you plenty of rosy-winged, cockerel-
breeding pullets, and rich, sound coloured,
smart, reachy cockerels. Take every care of
these pullets, as they are invaluable for
cockerel-breeding, mated back to their sire.

In pullet-breeding the great difficulty will
be to find the pullets. Rich, deep breast we
want, but above all clear wings, not wings that
have had a few rosy feathers faked out of them
for exhibition purposes — a trick practised by
some, but easy of detection. The cock must be
sound upon wing ends. Insistence upon this is
as necessary as in cockerel breeding. Top
colour is preferred quite uniform, of the dark
type, a brick-red colour. Naturally the cock-
erels will be too light in colour for exhibition,
but if pure in their white, and above all pure in
their bays, they should be reserved for another
season's breeding.

We next turn to Black-red-crossed Piles.
For the cockerel pen secure a really sound
coloured Black-red cockerel, tall and good in
shape, and as perfect in colour as possible. See
that he is sound in his black both on breast,
bars, and fluff ; he must show no trace of lacing
whatever. Mate him to two or three lemon
Piles, fairly clear on wing, seeing that they
excel in shape and reach — this is most im-
portant— and have rich, deep orange-yellow
legs. The cockerels will come yellow-legged,
but three or four out of every half-dozen of the
pullets will be willow-legged. The latter are
generally the clearest in body colour and the
hardest feathered, and more stylish than the
orange-legged ones ; but having dark legs are
almost useless in the exhibition-pen. If judici-
ously mated to pure Pile pullet-breeding blood,
they will often produce good coloured pullets.
Some of the cockerels will be yellow-legged
Black-reds. If sound in wing-bars and wing-
butts, with a good, rather light, even top-
colour throughout, such a one will, even though
he be a bit laced on 'breast, tend to correct
washiness in breasts of pullets.

But every one has not the space available
for double mating. In this case a single pen
can be made to answer ver}' well. The Pile

SM

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

cock or cockerel should approach the ideal
exhibition standard in every respect, and be of
the light, bright kind of top-colour, but per-
fectly sound in wing-ends. Mate with him two
rosy-winged pullets excelling in style and
reach, with good prominent shoulder-points, and
short in back. Also select two perfect-coloured
pullets, with sound salmon breasts and clear on
wing, with other points identical, the same as
the other two. As stated for Black-reds, the
percentage of -first-rate ones, either cockerels or
pullets, would probably be smaller; but there
would be several available for successful
second-rate competition. At the same time the
breeder cannot expect, either way, to produce
first- or even second-raters at the percentage he
can in Black-reds. He will do very well if one
in every half-dozen proves available for show
purposes. This naturally forces up the price of
a really first-class Pile, and ere this ^,'50 has
been obtained for a cockerel at one of the
Liverpool exhibitions, and also at Kendal.

Piles have one great drawback. They want
washing so frequently, especially if kept in a
smoky district, and washing, if long persisted
in, deteriorates the quality of the feather.
There is, however, no alternative.

Duckwings next demand attention. They
are lovely coloured birds, more easily bred than
Piles, and command fair sales at good prices.
Up to the present only the Golden
Duckwing variety is tolerated in the show-pen
Bantams. in this country. The male is easily
described. In ev'ery respect save top-
colour and wing secondaries, which are white,
he is coloured as a Black-red. He must have
the same cherry-red face and appendages, in-
cluding the most important factor — a red ear
(not one trimmed up with scissors). In shape,
style, reach, eye, and quality of feathering, he
must be identical with the Black-red. Then for
bright crimson on shoulders and back, sub-
stitute a deep straw colour, more or less shaded
with maroon, which gives a very bright brassy
look right across the back of the bird down to
the tail, shading off to a creamy white on
saddle, matched by the same colour on neck.
The hackle feather both on neck and saddle
should be as free from dark striping as pos-
sible. The secondaries of wings should be a
clear white running right through to end of
feather, and free from chocolate marking on
the outer edge of the top feathers. A great
many otherwise good birds fail here.

The pullet for exhibition is distinguished
from the Black-red by the substitution of a
lovely pale slate or steel-grey colour ; this is

exquisitely and finely pencilled over in the best
specimens, but coarseness will show itself in in-
differently bred birds, and the fatal blotchiness
will in such also appear on wing-ends. Some
strains will show a tendency to shaftiness of
feather, which is also a defect. The back and
wings should show a delightful softness and
evenness of marking all over. The legs, as in
the cock, should be willow. One of the most
difficult points to secure in her is the deep
salmon breast, with a soft, even body-colour of
the lighter shade. With a light body-colour
the breast is apt to run pale. If very pale, then
it militates greatly against a show bird, but a
fairly deep breast is no serious drawback.

With regard to mating, cockerels are in-
variably produced from the Black-red cross,
whilst pullets may be either pure Duckwing-
brcd, or, like the cockerels, be the
Breeding result of a cross. To produce
Duckwings. cockerels you require a typical
Black-red cockerel, similar in every
respect to the one described for Black-red
cockerel production. He should be mated to
smart, reachy, good-shouldered and short-
bodied, pure Duckwing-bred pullets, with nice
silvery-white hackles. These should produce
excellent coloured Duckwing cockerels, but the
majorit}' of the pullets from this cross would
be Black-reds, and these must not be allowed
to mix with the pure Black-red pullets, or the
result the following year to the Black-red
pullet pen will be disastrous.

If these Duckwing-bred Black-red pullets are
sound and even in colour, they can be mated
back the following season to a silver Duck-
wing cockerel, with a view to the production of
hrst-class exhibition pullets. The other way to
breed pullets would be to mate up perfectly-
coloured show pullets to a light-coloured
Duckwing cockerel — pure Duckwing-bred on
both sides. The silver Duckwing cockerel,
useful as he is as a pullet breeder, is entirely
at a discount in the show-pen.

Duckwing cockerels can also be produced
from a deep rich top-coloured cockerel mated
to Duckwing pullets ; if the}' are a little ruddy
and shafty on sides all the better. In mating
up your pens, always look for shape in your
pullets and colour in the cockerels.

The Brown-red is a very taking variety,
but is not making much progress, and has
never found so much favour as the three pre-
ceding. These birds are in too few hands,
and suffer considerably by reason of their
want of distribution. Pullets seem in advance
of cockerels, and I have seen some lately

BREEDING BROWN-KEDS.

51S

which, for both type and style, could credit-
ably show the best Black-red pullets the way.
The chief fault at present is too much feather
and a certain softness of feather.
Brown-red which seems incidental to the pale
Bantams. lemon colour. The little Brown-red
lends itself very accommodatingly
to the requirements of those who live in smoky
and dusty places, and can be kept where a
Pile would be smoked out. They are also
easier to breed good than either Piles or
Duckwings, and with a little management
could easily be bred from one pen.

Both sexes should have dark, mulberry -
coloured faces, " gipsy " as it is termed, and
the eye should be as dark as it is possible to
get it. A light e)'e is indicative of a cross,
as is also a red face, both serious faults in
the show-pen. The legs and feet should be
almost black. The neck and saddle hackle
of the cock should be a light lemon colour,
not orange, but more of a mustard colour,
with the back and saddle a richer, deeper
lemon ; breast a black ground-colour, with a
pale lemon lacing (sharp and well defined)
round each feather, and extending well down
to the thighs ; wing-bars and secondaries black,
free from all lacing, rust, etc., shoulder points
black and free from lacing, tail green black.
As a rule the feathering is neither so fme nor
so short as in Black-reds, these points havnig
been sacrificed to obtain the light top-colour-
ing, which a few years ago was more of an
orange tint than a deep lemon. Such a bird
now would have no chance, even if harder in
feather, so much does the lemon craze rule
everything. In type, shape, and size, the
Black-red ideal should be sought, though as
yet some of the best Brown-reds are rather too
large.

The exhibition hen should have a pale
lemon neck hackle, with a very narrow stripe
of black running down each side of the shaft.
A most important item is that she should not
be coppery capped. It is one of the great
difficulties that engage the breeder's attention
to secure the pale lemon lacing from crown
of head downwards, as such birds are apt to be
also laced on shoulders and back. The breast,
as in the cock, should be exquisitely laced with
pale lemon from the throat right down to the
top of her thighs. The body, wing, and tail
should be a glossy black ; style, shape, and
size as in Black-reds.

In mating up for cockerel-breeding, a
first-class exhibition bird must be chosen as
lord of the harem, with sharp, clear breast
lacing, a beautiful lemon top and hackle, but

free from lacing on his shoulder butts, which
should be black ; with a black eye and dark
mulberry face, two very important items, and
the style, shape, and size of an
Breeding ideal Black-red. If mated to proper
Brown-reds, cockerel-breeding pullets, fine in
breast-lacing, as pale as possible
in neck hackle, with clear lemon caps, and
the requisite points of limb, style, and shape,
he is bound to produce good, bright lemon
cockerels. Never mind if these mates are a
bit laced on back and wings, all the better,
even down to thighs and saddle. These are
invaluable for the purpose in hand, and the
best should again be chosen from the produce
for ne.xt year's breeding. They are often such
as money cannot buy, though in the show-
pen they are useless.

To produce exhibition pullets you want a
cockerel more of the orange shade of colour,
a sort of second-rate show bird. He should be
sharply defined in breast lacing right down to
the thighs, but free from it elsewhere. There
should be no patchiness of lacing on breast,
and eye and face should be sound in colour.
The pullets to go with him exactly follow the
show type ideal, the lacing on breast being a
pale lemon, sharp and well cut, taken well
down to the thighs, and the neck hackle a
pale lemon striped narrowly with black, and
pure lemon capped, not coppery. The remain-
ing colour should be a glossy black, free from
lacing, rust, and shaftiness.

I am not much in favour of crossing with
Birchen blood ; but it has been done again
and again to secure the pale lemon colour, as
a Birchen is a cross between a Brown-red and
a Duckwing. It must, however, always be at
some expense of the mulberry face and dark
eye. Where the top-colour is running too dark,
and lighter birds are out of reach, the only-
remedy appears to be to use a Birchen, with
as silvery white top-colour as possible, and
put him to three or four well-laced pullets,
in this case not necessarily so pale in their
lacing as those required for cockerel-breeding
with a Brown-red. In all these arrangements,
if a cock be used, put with him pullets, and
if a cockerel put hens. Grand light lemon-
coloured exhibition cockerels should result, if
you can keep the dark gipsy face and black
eye. One of these cockerels should be mated
up with the same hens the next season, whilst
another might be put to the best-coloured and
tallest pullets, with darkest faces and eyes.
You would still retain the desired colour, and
at the same time be getting depth of colour
in face and eye. There would be some

5i6

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Birchens among the produce of the first cross,
which could be returned to the father for pure
Birchen breeding, as it would be unwise to use
him again with his Brown-red progeny, cr
next season more Birchens than Brown-reds
would result.

Birchens to-day are more popular than
they ever were, but still not more so than I
should like to see, for really there is no
prettier or more taking bird than a
Birchen good Birchen pullet. As already

Bantams. Stated, they came originalh- by
crossing Duckwings with Brown-
reds, but now it would seem preferable to
breed them as much as possible inter se, so as
to get the proper mulberry face and deeply
coloured eye emphasised as much as possible.
The male bird is easily described, as he
resembles the Brown-red in every point save
top-colour and lacing on breast, which should
in both cases be a pure silvery white. As
there is Duckwing blood, the greatest care
should be exercised to eliminate the tendency
to red face and eye resulting from a cross
with a " red-faced " variety. The pullet also
resembles the Brown-red in every point, if we
substitute white lacing of the breast and neck
hackh; for the pale lemon of the Brown-red.
Naturally there will be some tendency to lemon
hue in the neck. This should be rigorously
suppressed, and is more in evidence in cross-
bred than in pure-bred birds. Another serious
fault with many pullets is a dark cap instead
of a uniform silvery white from crown to end
of hackle ; and even some of the most typical
birds hitherto have failed in sparsity of lacing
on breast. The difficulty is, when the breeder
has secured the lacing from throat to top of
thighs, to prevent it appearing elsewhere, as
on back and wing, with shafty feathering,
which would condemn a bird much more than
the want of enough lacing on breast, thoug';
such birds would prove gems in the cockerei-
breeding pen. Of course the eye will give
trouble ; it is only to be expected. Red eyes
should be rigorously eliminated ; though wo
often see birds with this defect winning, it
ouglit not to be so. A deep brown or black
eye is the correct thing, thoug!) it seems next
to impossible to get them as coal black as in
Brown-reds, owing to the Duckwing cross in
them.

The mating up presents no difficulty. The
same lines should be followed as with Brown-
reds. It is preferable to breed from pure
Birchens, but if unable to procure these, one
must begin at the beginning, and procure two

White
Game
Bantams,

or three typical Brown-red bens or pullets
heavily laced on breast, and mate them to a
Silver Duckwing cockerel of good quality.
Birds of the right stamp can be easily com-
passed for about a sovereign or under from
any reliable Duckwing breeder, as they are of
no use in the show-pen.

Whites, I think, will never secure the
popularity in this country that they do in the
States. They are mostly sports from Brown-
reds, though doubtless some are
bred from lemon Piles, and for
some time will show traces of their
origin in the sulphury hue of the
neck hackle. Pile breeders look upon lemon
Piles as rank wasters, although in America
classes are provided for them. Therefore it is
an easy matter to pick up birds at from 5s. to
lOs. each about August or September, so that
anyone who fancies this pretty variety — for
they are pretty — could set up very decently
for a matter of 30s. or so, and some day the
popular taste might change. The Pile-bred
Whites have the advantage over the Brown-red
sports in that the latter are often willow-
legged. A good White should have either
rich orange-yellow legs or white legs to set
him off to the best advantage, and be a pure
paper-white all over in both sexes, with bril-
liant cherry-coloured faces and ear-lobes ; eyes
red. Do not attempt this pretty variety unless
you can give them a country atmosphere, free
from smoke and dust, and where they can
have a free grass run. Otherwise disappoint-
ment will ensue.

OLD ENGLISH GAME BANTAMS.
After lying for years in a dormant state
the fancy for Old English Game Bantams
suddenly leaped at a bound into amazing

activity. The breed was as old as
Old English the hills, but had been much over-
Game looked since poultry shows came
Bantams. into fashion. I remember having

a fine pair when I was a boy of
some ten summers, over forty years ago. They
were of the "spangled," or, as it was then
termed, the "speckled " variety, and handsome
birds they were, though perhaps a little larger
than those which would nowadays grace a
show-pen. But they were by no means new
then, for my grandfather kept them in his
day, and the probability is that his forefathers
some generations back had them too. Latterly
they have come with a rush again, and no com-
mittee need fear that their classes will not be
filled with this breed. And as to prices, what

OLD ENGLISH GAME BANTAMS.

517

might have been purchased a little while ago
for a shilling, and picked up in a backyard,
compasses now a couple of i^S notes.

The varieties of Old English Bantams, like
those of Old English Game, are legion, but in
my estimation the palm for beauty must go to
the Spangles, followed by the Black-reds. In
no way are the dwarfs inferior in pluck and
defiant attitude. I feel sure that they will
live long and see good days, which they well
deserve. They are extremely hardy and
healthy, easy to rear as chicks, and may be
kept in exposed situations where the IModern
Game Bantam would perish, whilst to-day, in
igii, they are certainly more popular than
Modern Game Bantams.

I will now try to describe what in my
opinion an ideal Old English Game Bantam
should be. Head medium length, but thicker
than the Modern Game Bantam ; face bright
red, with a red, fiery, defiant eye, strong,
slightly curved beak, comb small, of fine tex-
ture and single, wattles and ear-lobes a bright
healthy red, the latter without a trace of white.
Neck-hackle plentiful, coming down well on
to the shoulders, and covering a fairly long
neck, set well between a pair of broad, promi-
nent shoulders, and above a full, broad, deep
chest. Back broad and short, stern fine, giving
the body a wedge-like look, wings short, well
tucked into the side, but full, so as to avoid
any appearance of being " flat-sided," which is
a serious defect. Legs short and thighs
muscular, well set apart, shanks medium
length and round in front, not flat. The legs
should be white or yellow in the before-
mentioned Spangled variety, but white for
preference, toes long, straight, and muscular,
with no signs of being duck-footed. Carriage
bold, sprightly, defiant and independent. The
tail should be the complete antithesis of that
of a Modern Game. The square, or hen tail
as it is sometimes termed, is longer and
broader in webbing, whilst the sickles are
broad, a good length and nicely bowed, with
four or five good side hangers on either side
placed so as to well clothe the tail proper. The
bird when in hand should feel corky and yet
hard.

The points of colour in Black-reds are
exactly those of a good Modern Black-red,
with beak to match the legs. The tail, and
also flight feathers, sometimes runs into white,
which is to some extent a defect, but only a
slight one, in the exhibition-pen. The pullet
is either of the partridge or wheaten type,
broad in front, short in back, with short,
muscular legs and a full tail. The partridge

colour has been fully described already, under
the Modern Black-red Bantam hens. The
Wheaten is a beautiful bird, with a bright
golden hackle, with narrow dark striping down
each side of the shaft. Her breast and thighs
are a pale fawn colour, whilst the top colour,
together with the two top outer feathers of her
tail, is that of red wheat, hence the name. The
tail proper is black.

The colour in Spangles is very beautiful,
both sexes in this respect being identical.
Heads cherry red, as in Black-reds, plumage
throughout black, red, or blue, ev'enly spangled
all over with white, tail black and white, legs
white or yellow.

The cocks run from 14 ozs. to 20 ozs.,
whilst hens are from 12 ozs. to 18 ozs.

Black-red cocks may be Wheaten-bred or
pure. If from Wheatens, the colour is not so
bright, strange to say, as from partridge, if
the cock be partridge-bred too. The
Breeding brightest golden-coloured cocks.
Old English partridge-bred, are much brighter
Game than the brightest from Wheatens,

Bantams. and are generally a sounder black
on breast. The partridge hens
must, of course, be bred from pure partridge-
bred birds on both sides, with no admi.xture
of Wheaten blood whatever, and the same
lines should be followed exactly as recom-
mended for the production of the Modern
Black-red. To successfully breed Wheatens
we want Wheaten blood on both sides, a
Black-red Wheaten-bred cock with Wheaten
hens or pullets, and this cock should be much
darker in top colour than the exhibition cock,
and be pure Wheaten-bred.

The best Spangles seem to be produced
from parents evenly spangled on both sides.
Should the produce, however, run too light,
use a partridge hen, as producing a rather
more pleasing shade than a Wheaten, and
harder quality of feather. My choice, how-
ever, would be to breed from evenly spangled
birds rather than resort to this cross.

Blue Duns require a word or two, though
no very precise lines can be taken for their
production, as they may come from Black-red
cocks and blue hens, or a blue-red cock and a
Wheaten hen, all being very sound in colour
to begin with. Probably a good blue hen
could be bred from the latter, as well as from
pure blues on both sides. The fact is they
can be bred many ways, and it hardly matters
how, as, if proper type, shape, and size be
secured, colour in an Old English Game fowl
of any kind is quite a secondary consideration,
with the exception of Black-reds. What must

S'

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

not be, is any attempt to foist upon the judge
a thick heavy waster of the Modern type, as
an Old English Game Bantam. It has been
tried, and in some cases with success, but new
century requirements are much ahead of the
last couple of years of the last century, and
as there are now hundreds of the genuine
thing in the land, there is really no necessity
to try such deception, which would be now
instantly detected by a good judge.

The following are the Standards for judg-
ing Modern and Old English Game Bantams.
Their colours and other characteristics being
the same as in the larger breeds, it has only
been found necessary to give the proper
weights and scales of points :

MODERN GAME BANTAMS.

Weight. — As a cockerel not more than i8 ozs., nor
20 ozs. as a cock. Hen, i8 ozs. Pullet, i6 ozs.

VALUE OP POINTS.

Defects.

Defects in head and neck
Bad eyes

Deduct

Deduc

up to

7

Defects.

Defects in body and wings
,, legs and feet
„ tail

Want of symmetry
„ condition

Bad colour of feather ...

Too much feather

Defects in size

A perfect bird to count loo

OLD ENGLISH GAME BANTAMS.

Cock, i8 ozs. to 22 ozs. Hen, i5 ozs. to
VALUE OF POINTS.

Weight.

20 OZS.

Defects.

Defects in head and neck
„ eyes

„ body and wings
„ legs and feet
„ tail

Want of symmetry ...
„ condition

Defects in colour

Too much feather

Defects in size ...

A perfect bird to count

Old English Game Bantam.

SI9

CHAPTER XXXV.

THE "variety" bantams.

WE now come to another section of the Ban-
tam fancy, and there can be little ques-
tion what breed should stand at its head.
So long as it lasts Game Bantams will probably
reign supreme, but the beautiful Rosecombs must,
I think, come next, standing as they do without a
rival amongst "variety" Bantams. This being so,
I must, at the outset, regretfully warn my readers,
even at the risk of offending some of them, that
this breed lends itself but too freely to the arts
of faking, inheriting this defect from its ancestors
the Hamburghs, than which there are no birds
living more " manufactured " for the show-pen.
Giant strides have been made in really breeding
up to the ideal standards ; but nevertheless it
will not be overstepping the mark if I say
that 25 per cent, of the Rosecombs exhibited
at present are manufactured rather than bred.
This is a large percentage, and I admit it in the
hope that the reprehensible practice may be
stopped, and both exhibitors and judges be put
upon their guard against a real danger. For
nothing kills a breed sooner than this kind of
thing. If the novice or real amateur is the
back-bone of the fancy, then to get the upper
hand of him constantly through proficiency in
art, and not in science, is to smother his enthu-
siasm, as well as trample on his exchequer, and
it is earnestly to be desired that the Variety
Bantam Club, or the Poultry Club, or both,
will use all their influence to put down this
pernicious evil.

Black Rosecombs are fairly hardy if not

too greatly in-bred. The chicks, however,

often require special care for the first few

weeks of their lives, after which

_" . they forge ahead, and are able to
Rosecomb 4. 1 j ^ I r 1 1 ■

Bantams stand a decent share 01 knockmg
about at shows, and indifferent
weather. They are capital layers, but a cold,
heavy, clayey soil is against them. A dry,
sandy, and somewhat shady locality is the best.
We want a rose comb fitting close to the
head, fine in points, full of work, bright coral in
colour, and finished off with a long, fine, round
leader or spike behind. See that the comb is
square and full up in front, with no valley down
the centre, or leafy in front, both bad defects.

The face must be a bright cherry red, entirely
free from white, which often shows its approach
by a tiny white speck under the eye or round
and under the white deaf-car. This deaf-ear or
lobe must be round, thick, large, and white, of
smooth, kid-glove-like te.xture. The wattles are
bright red and well rounded ; eyes dark and
full ; head short and fairly broad, with dark
beak, slightly curved ; neck short and thick, and
heavy in feather, spreading well over shoulders ;
back short and broad ; wings not too long, but
fairly large, and carried rather low ; tail as full
of broad feather as possible, both in the tail
proper and in the hangers and sickles, which
cannot well be too long or too broad, or too
many in number. The bird throughout requires
the most ample flow of feather, and the carriage
is jaunty and important. Legs and toes black,
short, and fine, with either white or black nail.s.
Breast broad and prominent, carried somewhat
Fantail fashion, with head well thrown back. In
adult and old birds the legs will often be found
slate or pale coloured. The total weight should
be from 140ZS. to i8ozs, and in Blacks the green
sheen should be one of the characteristic beauties
of the bird.

The hen should have the same red face,
comb, and wattles as the cock, only the two
latter should be much smaller than in the male.
See that the comb is not flabby, loose, and
coarse. The ear-lobes must be rather large,
with beautiful texture. The breast is full,
broad, and prominent, as in the cock. The
back should be extra short ; tail full, and car-
ried rather gaily; whilst legs are short and dark.
The whole carriage of the hen is strutty and
important. The wings may be fairly long and
drooping as in the cock, and as much sheen on
her raven feathers as possible should be secured.

In the breeding of Rosecombs, the first great
care to be taken is to get a good, reliable strain ;
and when it has been got, stick to it. Do not
go chopping about here and there, and mixing
up everybody's strain with your own, or you
will greatly regret it some day in the extra size
and coarse quality obtained by such a thought-
less system of breeding. Keep therefore your
own blood, as pure as possible, watching the

520

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

health of your chicks, and letting that regulate
your actions. You cannot, of course, go on for
ever without some new blood, but when you are
driven to get a little extra stamina into your
stock, see that you go to the right place ; that is,
to the same yard whence yours originally came,
or mainly derived from it. If this cannot be
done, then get hold of a bird or two with at
least a dash of the same blood as your own.
Then you will be able to keep size down, whilst
maintaining a fair amount of constitution.

Select the cock as near to the ideal as pos-
sible. Do not be tempted to use a coarse, clumsy-
headed bird, or one scant of feather, as it is only
time and money thrown away. As your stock
birds are, so will the produce be. Mate him to a
few short backed, neat headed, clear lobed, coral
faced, jaunty hens. Get them as good a colour
as you can, not too big, free from any trace of
white in face, dark in eye, and full in tail. If
the two top feathers of the tail be broad, and
curved a little, all the better. From such a pen
you should get some cockerels worth looking at.
It is quite possible to breed really good birds of
both sexes from one pen, but if you have room,
time, and purse long enough, set up another pen
for pullets, as the male bird is better if he
possesses some red or bronze feathers in back
and saddle. It is a singular thing that nowhere
do we see a quantity of any colour without
what is called its complementary colour. That
to beetle green is red, and as we want as much
deep beetle green as possible in the pullets, the
more red there is in the plumage of the sire,
somehow the more green there will be in the
plumage of the daughters. In all other ways
the breeding-pen for pullets should resemble
that for cocks, provided always that the pullets
are the best procurable, exhibition birds, and
approaching the Standard as closely as they
possibly can. Then you need have no fear.
Only take care in the rearing. Remember that
soft food, as a rule, produces feather, whilst
grain is conducive to hard and scanty plumage.

Now for Whites. They are hardly what they
once were, and improvement during the past
few years has been very slight indeed, and yet
they are extremely handsome birds.
White They are doubtless less popular

Rosecombs. because of the ablutions necessary
before exhibition, for it is folly to
expect an unwashed bird of any white variety to
win. Again, beautiful as they are, they require
protection from sun and weather. The plumage
should be a pure white, free from all lemon or
straw tinge, and this is not easy to maintain
where there is not adequate shelter. Still it can
be done almost everywhere, with a little pains

and forethought ; and as the breed makes a
most lovely exhibit at the shows, it is well worth
taking up and persevering with.

Beyond the colour, it is identical with its
black brethren. It can either be bred pure, or
from Black cock and White hens. The produce
will come self-coloured throughout, black or
white ; no mottles, cuckoos, greys, etc., but
either Black Rosecombs or White. If a Black
cock be used, his legs must be a shade or two
paler or more slaty than for breeding Blacks.
The White chickens will in all probability show
a little duskiness in the legs and feet the first
season, but a little judicious selection the follow-
ing year would remedy this, and a good plan to
follow is to put the White pullets to a good,
long-feathered White cock, and the old White
hens to the best of the White cockerels. By
doing this you will greatly improve the lobe and
length of feather.

In the Sebright or Laced Bantam we have
another most beautiful variety. If the ladies
cannot take to the Sebrights I shall lose all
faith in them (the ladies I mean,
Sebright "ot the Sebrights). The birds are
Bantams. prime favourites at shows, and in-
variably attract a lot of attention,
both from their style and carriage, and also
their beautiful lacing, which in good specimens
is almost perfect. This breed is no new
manufacture, dating from the days of Sir John
Sebright, who worked with it indefatigably,
and got together a host of enthusiastic friends
who took it up, and had special delight in
competing with one another in their frequent
exhibitions. It matters little how it was derived,
but it probably was of Polish descent, differing
from the larger laced fowl in absence of crest,
and of sickles in tail.

There are two varieties, Silvers and Golds,
but at the present time Silvers are by far the
more popular, probably from the fact that the
contrast is greater in them, and in consequence
more catching to the eye, and also that they
are much easier to breed true to colour. In
both varieties it is not so much the lacing
that is difficult to get, as the quality of it.
We often see it a dusky, rusty colour, instead
of a good beetle black, and especially so in
the Golds. It requires much care in this case
to get a good rich ground colour, combined with
the necessary quality of glossy black, at the
same time maintaining an absolutely clear as
well as rich ground. Often the Golds run far
too pale in ground-colour, which again is a
serious fault. This can however to a certain
extent be remedied by colour feeding.

SEBRIGHT BANTAMS.

52'

Sebrights require some management to secure
fertility in the eggs. The evil of infertility is
one which cannot be remedied quite so easily
in their case as in Pekins and Booted, since it is
the natural result of breeding from hen-feathered
cocks. Still much can be done by absolute rest
from exhibition during the breeding season, and
by choosing those male birds which actually do
chance to come sickled, or have at least an inch
or two of sickles projecting beyond the tail
proper. There is nearly always an abundance
of eggs from a well kept and housed pen of
Sebrights, so this helps the breeder. But the
little chicks are delicate, especially during the
first few weeks of their lives, and require quite
professional care to rear them. They should
have dry, very dry sheltered runs, and be
absolutely cut off from cold east winds and
beating rain, with access to as much green food
as possible. Some breeders from long experi-
ence are very successful. Their percentage of
clear eggs is small, their run of luck with chicks
good, and their fortune in the show-pen excellent.
But such breeders are observant. They do not
overtax their breeding-pen in any way, they
shelter it and look well after it, and the young
broods have their individual attention. Others,
on the contrary, make very little out of a pen.
They cannot be convinced till it is too late, that
care and thought are necessary. They have
perhaps reared Brahmas, Cochins, Orpingtons,
and the like ; they " know all about it," they
say, and failure after failure does not make
them much wiser.

In describing what a typical Sebright should
be, I will take Silvers first. I like to see in the
cocks a short square back, perfectly flat, breast
full and prominent, wings carried somewhat low,
and tail somewhat up, giving to the little fellow
a very proud, strutting, jaunty air. The comb
should be helmet-shaped, fairly broad in front,
full of work, and with fine leader curved to-
wards the neck. The face should be inclined
to mulberry. The cockerels can never be got as
deep a colour in face as the pullets ; still, the
deeper the better. They should always have
a certain amount of dusky crimson about the
eye. The ear-lobes should be free from white,
but a little purple or blue is an advantage.
The eyes are very dark, beak horn colour, short
and stout, wattles fair size and nicely rounded,
not folded or creased. They should be clean
legged, of a slaty-blue colour. The tail should
be fairly large, and well spread, quite hen-
feathered, with no sickles or side-hangers as in
other rosecombs. Occasionally a sickled bird
will come, and such if good in all other points
will make a capital breeder, as a much larger

percentage of chicks will be produced from such
a bird, than from the somewhat unprolific hen-
tails. Head and tail should nearly meet in a
bird of excellent carriage. The plumage should
be a clear silvery white in the ground, with
a clear, sharp, beetle-green black, but fine lacing.
Some lacing fails by reason of it being a sort of
brownish-black, or in some strains grey-edged
round the black. In others the lacing may fail
by reason of its disappearance at the extreme
end of the feather, whilst some again is spoilt
by reason of the increased width of the lacing
at the end of the feather, which is doubtless
a tendency after the Polish or spangled form
of marking. This defect is principally seen in
the larger feathers of the tail. See that the
secondaries of the wing are well laced right
down to the lowest feather. Often two or three
feathers here fail. The tail coverts should also
be well examined. They should be numerous,
and well and sharply laced. There should be no
spotting or smuts, or dusky appearance in the
root of the large tail feathers. Such feathers
are said to be cloudy or peppery, and are a
most serious blemish. This fault however can
be found in at least 50 per cent, of Silvers. It
will doubtless be bred out with time and
patience, and so the greatest care should be
taken that foul-feathered birds are not admitted
into the breeding pen. The Silver hen is
identical in ground-colour and lacing with the
cock, also in shape. She is however much
darker in face than her mate, and of course she
is smaller all through, and with a neater and
finer head. Long-backed pullets are a mistake.
See that your birds excel in short square backs,
as well as in colour, marking, and carriage.

The only difference between the Golds and
Silvers lies in the ground-colour. The former
should be a bright rich deep golden-bay or
chestnut, not the pale golden we often find in
the present day exhibits ; which get unfor-
tunately lighter and lighter, till eventually they
will probably approach a pale buff. Such birds,
too, generally have that rusty-black lacing, than
which nothing can be more objectionable.
They are also liable to fail altogether in the
lacing of the flight or secondary wing-feathers,
and such are in these days of keen competition
worthless in the show-pen.

In breeding Sebrights a little discretion is
necessary. It is invariably found that a heavily
laced bird bred to a lightly laced one, will pro-
duce a greater percentage, and a better quality
of lacing, than if two good quality medium-laced
were mated together. But yet another rule
obtains, that the heavily-laced bird should be of
the same sex as you wish to produce

522

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

specimens of. You wish to breed cocks, say.
Put your pen together thus: heavily-marked
cockerel, beetle-green laced, good dark face and
orderly comb ; and to him two or three good
shaped, but lightly laced pullets. Be sure and
have shape in the hens, and perfect colour
and markings in the cock. In pullet-breeding
use a lightly laced cockerel, with pullets a trifle
too heavily laced for the show-pen. See that
every bird in both pens is laced to the wing-end.
Have no failures there, or on breast or tail
coverts, and use no rusty lacing in the pro-
duction of your stock. See that every feather
is clean from smut, splash, or other "ground"
defect. As a pullet-breeder, a cock with sickles
or any tendency thereto is much to be preferred,
by reason of his greater fertility. In pullet-
breeding you want a good amount of heavy
lacing down the thighs, tail coverts, and tail.
This is very important. For both cockerel and
pullet pens invariably select a small cock rather
than small hens. I say hens, for they are always
preferable in a Sebright pen to pullets, by reason
of the delicacy of the chicks. A pullet has not
come to maturity, and hence has not gained her
full strength ; though if she be very forward and
well grown and in good health generally, there
is no reason why such a one should not be tried
with the hens.

In concluding the consideration of Sebrights,
I must yet once again urge the necessity
for in-breeding, and also keeping to one strain.
It plays havoc with all breeding to go mixing
strains promiscuously. If you want to do
well, then purchase a first-rate breeding pen
from some well-known and established breeding
strain. Get the birds as above described with
a specific object in view, and stick to that strain,
certainly until you have reached the limit of its
breeding powers, and never be driven, so long as
you can rear chicks fairly easily, to go in for new
blood. A time does come when a change must
be made, but it is a time of crisis with the
breeder, and he may undo more in a single
season, by an injudicious cross, than he may
be able to set right again possibly in the next
ten years. Go for new blood to as near your
own as you possibly can. Get a cock that has
come from the same strain as jour own, and
you will be able to go on again as success-
fully as before.

No breed of Bantams has made more pro-
gress of late than the Pekins, named
Pekin from the city whence came the first

Bantams. pair of Buffs in iS6o, small birds cer-
tainly, but wanting in many of the
show points of to-day. At the present time the

subdivisions of the variety are legion. We have
now Buffs, Blacks, Whites, Cuckoos, Partridges,
and Mottles ; a grand array with many admirers,
a Club to themselves, and presenting no trifling
competition to breeders or exhibitors of other
varieties. So great is their excellence, that if
we except the very best specimens of Bufif
Cochins, the Pekins excel all other varieties of
their larger congeners. As a proof of their
immense popularity, at Liverpool show in 1899
there were exhibited in one class thirty-eight
specimens of Buff Pekins, whereas the Rose-
combs, with two classes, only mustered thirty-
nine entries ; and while the cup for the best
variety Bantam cock was taken by a Black
Rosecomb, a fine fellow too, that for the best
variety hen fell to a Black Pekin, which, like
the Rosecomb cockerel, was deemed as near
perfection as it was possible to attain.

Pekins can be kept almost anywhere, if they
can be liberally supplied with fine sand, chaff, or
peat moss dust to keep the foot-feather un-
broken and in good order. Use this liberally
both in pen, and in the sleeping quarters : it is
the only way to preserve the foot-feather in decent
trim, and this feathering is so important in the
show-pen, that too much care cannot be exer-
cised. They are capital layers of tinted eggs,
and they come on to lay early in the year,
so that by the time the breeding-season is over,
there is generally a good supply of eggs, both
for incubating and for sale. The chicks are very
easily reared, and thrive under circumstances
trying to other varieties. As with all other
feathered-legged breeds, a little scheming is
necessary for the production of fertile eggs ; but
if the feathers on the feet of the cock be cut
short, and also those around the vent of the
hens,' no difificulty is found on this score.
It will therefore be seen that one ought not
to use exhibition birds as stock birds, and the
great breeders and exhibitors employ proper
stock-birds apart from their show specimens. It
is a wise precaution, and procures stamina and
health in the offspring. The Pekin hen is a
capital sitter and mother. Though she will lay
a decent number of eggs in ar season, yet she
will have an incubating turn after every dozen
eggs or so. This fact, added to the feathered
feet, constitute the only two real difficulties
in keeping Pekins. if the Pekin hen be
crossed with a Silky cock, they produce the
very best sitters for Bantams that can be
produced, which cannot be equalled either as
sitters and mothers for Bantam chicks. No
wonder Pekins are such favourites, when wasters
in pullets will readily fetch 4s. to 5s. each from
January to April as broody hens.

BREEDING PEKIN BANTAMS.

523

Pekins do not lend themselves to the faker's
art to anything like the same extent as Rose-
combs ; still the tail very often attracts his
attention, and goes into a premature moult. It
is time that this kind of thing was wholly and
entirely rooted out. It is nothing less than
fraud, and it is probable that before long,
exhibitors will be found so determined to put
down faking as to bring a criminal action for
attempt to obtain money by false pretences.
The Pekin faker has often been let off by judges
who would, in regard to Game Bantams, never
dream of abetting fraudulent practices, and
they ought to be consistent.

In describing the general characteristics of
the Pekin, we must remember that he is intended
to be an ideal Cochin in miniature, in everything
except size. Commencing with the head, we
want a comb single, finely serrated, and as small
as possible, although it is almost an impossibility
to breed it in Pekins so small as the full-sized
Cochin ; red eyes, red ears, face, and wattles,
with short curved beak, and the face as smooth
as possible, free from all coarseness, the neck
short and thick, chest broad and carried well
forward, back short and broad, with nicely
rounded full cushion, and abundant feathering
on short legs, right down to the end of the
middle toe. The cock's tail should be composed
of soft feathers, softer than those of any other
breed of Bantam. The feathers of the tail
proper are twelve in number, and the hangers are
abundant, corresponding in colour with that
of the body. There are no long sickles, the
tail rising gradually from the back. The body
is extremely low on the ground, almost touching
it in fact, and though abundant feather is
required on the legs, yet it is a great defect
in Pekins if they are " vulture-hocked." The
colour of the legs in all varieties should be a
rich yellow, the richer the better. It was no
easy matter getting this colour in Blacks, but it
has been done ; and willow or green legs should
count heavily against a bird. The bete-noir of
Pekins is scaly legs ; but where proper care
is taken, and an abundance of sand provided
in the pens, it rarely occurs.

Buffs and Blacks formerly took the lead,
but the former have certainly lost in popu-
larity owing to the introduction of colour
feeding by some exhibitors; and in 191 1 the
most popular is the White. The
Buff exhibition Buff cock should be a

Pekins. rich, even, dark orange yellow, not

red, one uniform shade throughout,
the word " throughout " including the tail,
and the extended wing, when primaries and
secondaries are opened out. Many a bird

looks well in the pen till we come to the secrets
hidden under the external side of the wing,
or probe down amongst the bunch of soft tail
feathers. Then the solid bufif is often found to
have given place to white, or dusky colour,
or perhaps feathers are wanting where these
defects are usually found. Any bird whose
colour is thus unsound, ought under no circum-
stances to be bred from, as such a fault has
a tendency to perpetuate itself in the progeny.
The hen to match should be a rich golden
buff, just a shade lighter than the cock. The
happy medium will be found between being
too pale or too deep, if she match the breast
colour of the cock.

In mating Buffs, see that the hen is very
even throughout, a rich level buff everywhere,
free from all smutty, white, or peppery feathers,
and a perfect little Cochin all through. If she
be as she should be, you may with confidence
turn up the feathers on her anywhere with the
hand, and you will find them buff right down to
the skin, and if you spread out her wing, or
examine her tail, she will be sound. See
that she has no tendency to mealiness, i.e. to
run lighter in the centre or edge than the rest
of the feather. This is an important point,
and one that is keenly looked after by breeders
and judges. The colour cannot be pronounced
perfect unless she is one same rich even tone
of colour all through, from head to tail. She
should be mated to a cock of the darker shade ;
not of course to one of the deep red, or
cinnamon colour, but one with distinctly pro-
nounced golden buff, strong in colour, without
in consequence suffering from greater depth of
tone. Under no circumstances must he be on
the light side, nor yet have smutty or white
under-fluff It is only the rich coloured birds,
solid in the buff down to the skin, that can
be confidently relied upon to produce really
first-class stock, as in all other varieties of
Buff fowls. For this reason it is absolutely
necessary that in judging Buffs every bird should
be handled before the verdict is given.

For a breeding-pen we generally like from
four to six hens to a cock, and not more.
Hatching can be carried on with advantage
down to the end of July, but no Pekin arrives
at perfection until about twelve months old, in
which point they differ from most other breeds
of Bantams. This has its advantages, as well as
its disadvantages. By late hatching size can be
kept down, and length of leg reduced, both
important features in Pekins ; and though length
of foot-feather may possibly be a little curtailed,
still I think the advantages of late breeding
outweigh the disadvantages.

524

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Now we will proceed to Blacks. Most
readers will be familiar with the rich beetle
green of the Black Hamburgh plumage. I
cannot say that such has yet been obtained in

all its lustre, but that is what we
Black want to aim at. This colour in

Pekins. Blacks is a great desideratum, and

when obtained, counts very heavily
in their favour. The fluff should also be black
right through down to the skin. Much oftener
we find it a grizzly grey, or. almost white,
arising no doubt from crossing of the Black
variety with Whites for the sake of stamina, and
obtaining length of feather ; but all the same
this defective fluff is a great blemish, and every
care should be taken to eradicate it. Breed as
long as you can from Blacks pure and simple,
only crossing with White under compulsion.

Blacks can be bred from one pen, though
we prefer two, for the simple reason that the
rich beetle green of the pullets is best got
from a cock showing a tendency to ruddiness
or bronze, which would never do, of course, in
cock-breeding. The cock for that must be the
best coloured exhibition specimen obtainable,
rich and lustrous, but red feathers would be
fatal to him in the prize pen. But such red-
feathered cocks are just what you want for
pullet-breeding, i.e. birds with a tinge of red in
the saddle and back. Select in both breeding-
pens, birds as short in back as possible, low on
the leg, good in feather, and with as small and
neat combs as possible, and then you will not go
far wrong. See that the middle toe especially is
clothed with feather to the nail, and that there
is no admixture of white in foot-feather, tail,
or under wing feathers. Do not have hens
tinged with any foreign colour, in either cockerel
or pullet-breeding pens. They should be quite
pure, very sheeny, and as near exhibition
specimens as can be obtained. Discard grey or
white in fluff or lobe.

White Pekins are a charming variety, only
they must be white quite free from any straw
tinge, and very rich in orange leg- colour. They

are not quite so easy to keep as
White some of the other varieties for these

Pekins. reasons. They must have a grass

run, partly eovered and boarded up
at sides ; in fact as much protection from wind,
sun, and rain as can well be given them,
compatible with their health. They do well on
a dry sandy run by the seaside, and are all the
better so far as leg colouring goes, if kept out of
a limestone neighbourhood. They are extremely
beautiful in the show pen, and are abundantly
feathered in the best specimens. Of course they
have to go through the tub, like all white birds,

before exhibition, but they soon get used to it,
and are unusually tame under the operation,
after they once understand it. Small woods or
orchards are capital places for them ; but never
try them in a backyard, or smoky place ; or
where there is much grit and coarse matter to
injure the foot-feather. They are very easy
to breed true to colour, if you get the right
blood for a start. Any tendency to a rich
creamy colour is against them.

They may be crossed with Black occasionally
to keep up their strength. The produce will be
black or white. The Blacks will show the cross
by grey under-colour, and possibly in chicken-
hood a few white feathers in theit feet, but these
generally disappear before they are fit to show.
It is not advisable to breed from the Blacks, even
should they be perfectly sound in colour. The
Whites from the cross are usually very pure,
and altogether the cross is beneficial to them,
only that perhaps a little shorter feather is
produced thereby, and they may not be quite so
rich in leg colour, as if bred from Whites on
both sides. Crossing the two varieties seems to
multiply the quantity of feather upon them,
though as before, it may shorten it a bit in the
Whites.

Cuckoo Pekins are not so often met now
(igi i) as they were years ago, and do not seem
likely ever to become so popular as Blacks
or Whites. Seeing that the colour
Cuckoo is identical with that of the popular

Pekins. Plymouth Rock, or Scotch Grey

Bantam, this is rather to be wondered
at. We seldom or never see a really first-rate
specimen at a provincial show. One drawback
to the breed is the difficulty of getting the birds
true to colour. Like the two varieties just
named, there is much variation in the several
strains extant, in ground-colour, but the colour
should be very uniform all over the bird : a soft
pale shade of blue, with sharp clear definite
barring upon each feather, black or as near black
as possible, and the barring extending down the
feather right through the fluff to the skin. This
is an extremely important point. Many a bird
looks all right, and in the hands of some judges
will win, from mere outside colour, when there
is no fluff barring at all ; but such birds ought
to be rejected both by breeder and exhibitor, as
they are not what is required in a first-class
stock or exhibition bird. Again, never select a
bird with any great amount of white in the tail
or flights when opened out. It only leads to
disappointment.

In mating up the breeding-pens it would be
well to use two separate pens where space
allows, for cockerel- and pullet-breeding. For

PARTRIDGE PEKINS.

525

cocks, choose a sire of the darker shade, with
good level ground-colour, no white in tail or
flight, tail well barred down to the root of
each feather, fluff barred down to the skin,
although this is difficult to get in cocks. Mate
him to three or four pullets or hens of the
medium shade, equally good in all points just
named. Reject birds having white tail, but a
little black does not matter at all.

In the pullet pen I should use a lighter
shade of cock, but quite free from any signs
of brassy feathers on back, which is a grievous
fault. See that the breast is clear and finely
barred, not blurred and indistinct ; this is most
important in pullet-breeding. As in the cock
pen, reject those with white in tail. Mate him
to clearly barred hens or pullets as near the
show ideal as you can get them, nice and clear
in ground-colour, specially sound black in the
barring, and as fine as possible. The cockerels
from this pen will be found usefid if mated back
the following year to the hens again, as well as
mating cockerels and pullets together. Should
any of the pullets come black from either pen,
you may mate these to a distinctly barred light
shade of cock, with excellent results ; and the
pullets from this cross, apart from being good
exhibition birds, are very useful pullet-breeders
if mated to a pullet-bred cock.

The next and last variety of Pekins, the
Partridge, is one of the latest additions. These
arc somewhat behind the other varieties, except
Cuckoos, both in popularity and
Partridge quality. They are of course diminu-
Pekins. tives of the Partridge Cochin, and

should resemble their bigger con-
freres in colour and general shape ; but — in the
pullets especially — great difficulty is experienced
in getting the ideal in correct colour and mark-
ings, combined with length of foot-feather and
small size. A little reflection will show the
reader that these points cannot be very well
borrowed from Blacks, Whites, or Cuckoos :
they must be got by constant in-breeding,
and time and patience are the great essentials,
in fact the only means.

The colour of the Partridge Pekin cock
is easily described to those who are familiar
with the brilliant orange and black markings of
a first-class exhibition Black-red Game cockerel.
The neck and saddle are more heavily striped
with black, but in other respects both top-
and under-colour are identical. This striping
should be extremely sharp and clear, not a
woolly blurred attempt at striping. Look at
the striping of a first-rate Partridge Wyandotte
cockerel, and you have at once what is required
in the Partridge Pekin cock. The neck hackle

feathers are however sometimes a shade more
coppery towards the head, running down to a
pale golden on the shoulders, than we see in the
best Black-red Game. The breast, thighs, and
fluff should be a sound black, the greener the
better, with no coppery lacing or rust, and
the feet should be well furnished with long
black feathers to the end of the middle toe,
as free from white as it is possible to get it.
The hen to match should be a deep brown
partridge colour, having a sort of golden cast
about it when seen in certain lights, and should
be richly, sharply, and finely pencilled with
narrow black, not running straight across the
feather, as in Hamburghs, but in parallel zigzag
courses, and following the round-ended form
of the feather. The hackles should be a pale
golden. The ground colour and the pencilling
constitute two of the greatest difficulties in
breeding good pullets of this variety.

It will be readily seen that it is all but
imperative that two separate pens should be
used for the production of Partridge cockerels
and pullets. The cock pen must have the lord
of the harem as perfect a show bird as can be
got, specially bright in top colour, and equally
in his other parts free from all trace of rust and
grizzled foot-feather. The pullets or hens to go
with him should be the best specimens that can
be produced, save in colour and markings. The
sine qua non is bright neck hackling, in fact as
pale as you can get it. The foot-feathering
should be very ample, especially on the middle
toe ; legs and back short, and size generally
as small as possible. For breeding the best
exhibition pullets you want a cock a shade
darker than the above, and if he have an abund-
ance of rust about him he is not to be discarded.
He must be correct in form, size, and in every-
way up to Standard save and except in colour.
He will probably be broad in stripe, and have
rusty patches on breast and fluff. These are
sure indications that he is what we want, viz.
a typical pullet-breeder. To him mate ideal
exhibition hens, sound in ground colour, sharp
and defined in pencilling, with abundance of
feather, and possessing as many more show
points as it is possible to compass. In mating
up both pens keep the general characters well
in your eye. Let every bird, so far as possible,
be broad in chest, short in back, and low on leg,
neat in head and with ample feathering, and
do not forget the middle toe feathering, as 50
per cent, fail in this respect Strive for colour
and shape first, then you may proceed satis-
factorily to the other points by in-breeding, but
if your colour be indifferent your birds are
comparatively worthless.

5-'6

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Booted Bantams are an ancient breed whose
popularity has revived, but do not make the
progress one would Hke to see, although classes

are often provided for them at the
Booted chief shows, and as a rule are fairly

Bantams. well supported. There are several

varieties of them, but the most popu-
lar are Whites and Blacks. Whites are lovely
birds, but there is the usual extra trouble with
them : they are more difficult to keep from sun
tan, and foot-feather stain. Where however this
can be satisfactorily done, and the breeder does
not mind the trouble incurred, Whites are a
most taking, and I think will also prove a very
profitable variety.

Booted Bantams at present resemble the
Pekin rather too much. They are, or ought to
be, quite distinct in some respects, especially
" carriage." The Pekin has its wings tucked in
tightly, like the Cochin, but the Booted should
have them longer, and drooping almost per-
pendicularly ; the tail elevated, though not too
near the head, that of the cock with good length
of sickles and side hangers. He is longer in leg
too, though the common fault is to have them
too long ; and with length of leg there is often
too much size. In-breeding and late-breeding
are the panacea for this evil. If these two
methods are pursued, size must come down.
Also by in-breeding the foot-feather, and hock-
feather, would be easily maintained. The
variety is single-combed, and should be red
lobed. Lobes splashed with white are not
infrequent, but it is a serious defect. The face
and wattles are cherry red, the latter not too
large, and well rounded. The back should
be very short, the neck short and curved, the
breast prominent. This makes the carriage
much more erect than that of the Pekin. The
hock should be "vulture," that is, contain stiff
and long feathers, the legs and feet should have
an abundance of feather, and especially the
middle toe, right down to the nail.

In mating up a pen, which will breed both
cockerels and pullets of show calibre, see that
you have your birds extra short-backed, with
any amount of shank, hock, and foot-feather.
See that the lobes are a good coral, and the
comb a medium size, well pointed. In Blacks
the under colour or fluff should in first-class
specimens be dark right down to the skin.
Reject white fluffed birds ; it is a mistake breed-
ing from these. A cross of Blacks and Whites
is useful for the remedy of any straw or creamy
tinge in the white birds, but any Blacks that
come from the cross will have white fluff, and it
is not advisable to keep them. The Whites
may have a bluish tinge on the leg from the

cross, but this can easily be bred out the follow-
ing season by keeping exclusively to Whites,
and recrossing the half-bred with a whole-bred
White. Mark the White-bred Blacks when you
can, or you may have some trouble with them.
If you bred from them too much it is probable
you would get white in foot-feather and tail,
and the objectionable grey in fluff, which is
a serious failing.

There is a sub-variety whiskered or muffled.
Many people would not care for these. Some-
how a muffled fowl to many carries a kind of
mongrel appearance with it. Splashed and
spangled Booted are occasionally seen, but they
do not make progress. One can well imagine
that if almost perfect specimens could be bred,
they might be extremely beautiful, and might
catch on. So far they are under a cloud.

Hatch out Booted Bantams from April to end
of June or July; they will then do very well.
They thrive as chickens with ordinary care,
and are hardy, but of course the more you
in-breed to reduce size, the more delicate the
produce becomes. A little difficulty may
possibly arise in the matter of obtaining fertile
eggs, but this need not arise if proper pre-
cautions be taken, and the physical disability
from the long foot-feather of the cock be
removed. Nothing need be done to the hens,
but most of the foot-feather of the male should
be removed with a pair of scissors. This of
course ruins the bird for that season's exhibitions,
but one cannot both breed successfully and show
at the same time. If you persist in exhibiting
at the breeding season, you will have to reap the
fruits in delicate chicks or no chicks at all.
Three hens will be sufficient for each cock.

In keeping Booted, as in Pekins and Brahmas,
some extra provision must be made in the runs
and houses by way of preserving intact the
foot-feather. The runs should be covered
wholly or in part. It would never do to let
the birds tramp about on wet sticky soil, and
the way to avoid this is by a roof to the runs.
Then the run should' be boarded, say about
1 8 inches from the ground. This will shield
the birds from inclement weather, high winds,
etc., and be productive of more fertility and
earlier eggs. The bottom of the run should
contain fine sea sand, or river sand, to the
depth of four or five inches, or in lieu of this
some soft material such as oat husks, or what
is known by the name of " seeds " or chaff,
wherewith to make a soft footing. The oat
husks referred to can generally be procured
from a miller at about 3d. or 4d. per sack.
The inside of the house should be treated just
the same as the run. There need be no perches.

SCOTCH GREY BAi\7AAJS.

527

as the birds will roost on the ground, but the
houses ought to be raked out every day, else
they are virtually spending the night sleeping
on an accumulation of dung. Now and again
replace the old with fresh clean stuff. The
fancier will be well repaid for a little extra
trouble over these matters by having the foot-
feathering always in exhibition form, which is
half the battle when the bird comes to the
show-pen. Damp runs, foul houses, and
general carelessness spell failure with Booted
or other feathered-legged Bantams.

The Scotch Grey, or, as it is sometimes
called, the Cuckoo Bantam, is one of the oldest
and most interesting of all the varieties of
Bantams, but is naturally more
Scotch Grey popular in Scotland than in Eng-
Bantams. land. The hen is very docile, a
capital layer, and the chicks are
fairly hardy and easy to rear. The colour is
almost the same as that of the most popular of
large breeds — viz. Barred Rocks, so that I have
often wondered that the variety has not been
even more extensively bred than it has. It
reproduces well to type, and requires no great
experience to keep up a bird to average form,
though if an amateur wants to keep in front of
the hottest battle at Sydenham and Bingley
Hall, he must be prepared to devote much
thought and attention to them. He must also
be prepared heroically to suffer chagrin at the
way some " reporters " dismiss really good
specimens by simply announcing some little
fault they have. Good as they are to breed,
too, nevertheless white feathers will come in
wings, sickle feathers, and other places, and
some cockerels have quite a provoking way of
throwing these white, and even brown, feathers
at the very last moment, when the breeder has
just begun to congratulate himself that he has
got them into their exhibition suit without.
Black or white sickles ; brown saddles ; white
flights ! — " there is many a slip 'twixt the cup
and lip."

The ground colour of the Scotch Grey
Bantam calls for a remark. Most of the Scotch
birds I have seen are too dark, and the barring
somewhat indistinct, whereas many English
specimens have the reverse fault, and run too
light in ground colour, which gives a faded,
washed-out look. The happy mean between
the two seems to be the desideratum. The
ground should be a clear distinct stecl-grcy
colour, with close narrow distinct bliick barring ;
and this black should extend itself clean across
the feather, whereas, in many specimens, we find
it more or less as a blot in the centre. In other

words, the principle of the marking should be
pencilling, rather than any tendency to mooning ;
a modification of the former, rather than that
of the latter. A bird with the latter tendency
often does not present much difference from
one having the correct marking when in the
show pen ; still it is easily distinguishable when
the bird is handled, and is wrong. Breeders
should therefore be very careful on this point,
and choose only such birds for the breeding pen
as are correctly marked. They may develop
white in tail the second year. In fact, it is
rarely we see a two-year cock's tail sound in this
respect. Still, if his barring is good, take him in
preference to a blotchy-barred bird, whose
second year tail may be all right.

The legs should be fine in bone, and white,
free from feathers. Yellow and dark legs should
not be tolerated, though spotted legs I do not
greatly object to. The deaf-ears will give some
trouble to keep up to a good coral red, like
comb and face. It is a difficult point, and must
be carefully attended to, for Nature in some
strains seems determined to assert herself, and
let in a certain amount of the objectionable
white. It is a curious thing that the black
chicks produced from the Greys are more prone
to contaminated lobes than the barred ones.
Do not be alarmed by a batch of black " Greys,"
and rush into complaints that you have got
cross-breds. We do not want the majority
black ; but a fair sprinkling is indicative of good
chances for those that are barred : and when no
" sweeps " are to be seen in a brood, the Greys
are generally too pale and washed-out in colour.
Not only will you find that you have black
chicks amongst your broods, but they will often
come with quite bronzy neck hackles. At
present the majority of Scotch Greys are too
big and coarse, and want fining down a lot in
both size and bone. They also want improving
in style and carriage. Sometimes we see the
results of attempts to improve these points in
birds of a distinct gamey type, short and narrow
in feather, and too long in leg. Then there is a
type of bird much too long and narrow in back,
and, worse still, with squirrel tails. What we
want is a short, broad-backed, full-chested, and
full-feathered bird, more like the Black Rose-
comb ; head erect, and tail flowing and well
thrown back.

Year by year it becomes more evident that
the best cockerels and pullets on exhibition
have been produced from the same pen. Here
is a very great incentive to the breeder of this
variety. Every bird from a rightly-mated pen
has the same chance, and he can rear double
the number of birds on the same ground likely

5=8

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

to turn out winners, than he could do of those
breeds which require double pens. One thing
he must take very great care about, as it is
especially a law of breeding when only one pen
is used. Never fix a fault. Never, under any
circumstances, use stock birds that are both of
them white in ears, or that have their feathers
tipped with white. If the birds show a tendency
to light ears, use every means possible to stamp
out this grave defect, by using a cock thoroughly
sound in his lobes, and which has been bred
from sound-lobed birds. The following year
use only the best of his produce, mating the
sound-coloured pullets back to the sire. Examine
also the quality of the barring. See that it is
sound, and goes right across the feather. Reject
any bird with a tendency to spangling, or that
is too light or too dark in colour, though if your
mate be too light or too dark, you may with
profit put to him hens erring in the opposite
direction. And have no white in tail or flights
in the breeding-pen.

Keep to one strain only. Procure the best
birds at the outset that the purse w'ill allow from
some successful breeder. Get the right thing to
begin with, and keep to it wholly and solely
so long as you can rear the chickens, keeping
a strict account of the pedigree of each bird.
How this can be done without losing stamina
has been shown in an early chapter of this work.
In the attempt to improve them, there should
on no account be any raw importation of the
blood of another variety. If the pedigree of
each is strictly kept the breeder has a plain
course before him ; knowing exactly how such
and such a bird is bred, notwithstanding some
glaring fault it may have, he is still able to use
it, often with more advantage than if it were
an exhibition bird ; but when no record is kept
he is completely at sea. By keeping a pedigree
list many a bird becomes worth pounds, when,
without it, it would hardly be worth as many
shillings.

Breeding should be done on the principle of
in-mating. Breed late also ; by so doing you
will reduce size. Strive after the style and
shape of the Sebright or Rosecomb, and go
dead against long leg, white or black feathers,
splashed lobes, long narrow backs, squirrel tails,
spangled feathers, and all colours of legs other
than white or mottled. Aim for the medium
shade in colour. Get the barring glossy black,
and as sharp as possible ; the feather broad and
flowing, comb evenly serrated and a nice medium
size. Then the judges will not forget you, and you
will have produced something which they can
honestly and honourably reward as a triumph
of science ; but — no art, please !

Nankin Bantams are another ancient and
really distinctive breed, but seem to have fallen
on evil days, and become "beautifully less"
almost to the point of extinction.
Nankin I had them some thirty years ago.

Bantams. and had I kept them to the present
could have exhibited them, I think,
as Buff Orpington Bantams: they were a great
deal nearer the mark than the present-day
apology for a Buff Orpington Bantam. I never
saw such a mixed lot of Bantams collected
under one common name before as the so-called
Buff Orpington Bantams at Carlisle in 1899.
Barring the name, there was nothing buff about
them at all. The old Nankin, in point of colour,
would have had quite a walk over. During the
past year, however, at close upon three score
and ten shows, I do not remember seeing more
than a couple of pens of genuine Nankins.

These birds are single-combed, cherry-faced,
blue-legged, red-eyed. In colour the cock is
a deep cinnamon or reddish buff, often with
black in his tail ; but, as in all buff breeds, the
less of this, or of white, either in the tail or flights,
the better. The pullet is a lighter shade of buff
all through. She should be very even in her
colouring, with no patchiness as if she had got
about half-way through her moult, and the old
feathers were contrasting with the new. Neither
must the bird show any mealiness, or lacing of the
feathers with a lighter shade of buff or white
This is often seen in buff birds of any variety ;
it appears on the wing-bow and bar as well
but if any set themselves to persevere with the
Nankin, they should look out for these defects
as they arise, and eradicate them at once, so
far as they can. They can learn a lot by
examining buff" birds generally at shows, and
fixing in their minds wherein the superlative
excellences of the best specimens lie, and trying
to import the same elements into their Nankin
proteges. Perhaps we may never reach this
ideal, for even at the Crystal Palace shows
classes are not provided for Nankins, nor have
they any place in the Standard. But who can
tell.'' Look at the Old English Game Bantam a
very few years ago ; and it may be that, owing
to some breeder or other of good position and
powers of pushing, the old Nankin may yet
jump into fame. Buff has always been a
popular colour with the fancy, and so to any
breeder of the Nankin we would say. Nil
dcsperandum. Meanwhile breed from one pen
only, and mostly for colour. When that point
is once got, as it ought to be, sound, rich, good
buff" to the skin, free from black or white in
tail and flights, and no mealiness about it, then,
even if the Nankin fails to " take on " of itself,

JAPANESE, SILKIES, FRIZZLES, AND RUMPLESS.

529

it will nevertheless form a splendid basis, say
for Buff Orpington or Buff Rock Bantams. In
the former one would require white legs, and in
the latter yellow legs. The former when perfected
would probably soon become popular, and well
repay the time and trouble of production.

The charming Japanese Bantams are also
amongst the oldest and most distinct varieties,
and are included in the Poultry Club Stan-
dards of igio. They were brought
Japanese very prominently forward by the

Bantams. late Mrs. Ricketts, who in her day
advanced the breed very much.
How they will fare in the future remains to be
seen. Nevertheless they are very attractive
little birds, and so very different in shape and
style to any other Bantam extant. No wonder
Knighton Vicarage made them a great hobby,
and liberally patronised any shows where
classes were provided for them.

Japanese are very short in thigh and leg,
in fact so much so that their bodies are only just
clear of the ground ; the lower they are the
better. Their wings being somewhat drooping
and long, actually touch the ground, whilst the
tails assume a directly perpendicular position,
almost touching the head. The Whites are most
popular with the fancy ; but Blacks, Greys, and
Buffs are also successfully shown.

In Whites the body is white, whilst the sickles
and hangers, or tail-coverts, are black, with a
very sharp and distinct, but narrow lacing of
white round every feather. The primaries and
secondaries of the wings have the inner web
black. Altogether the tout ensemble is very
charming, aided, as it is, by the piquant style
of the little bird. The comb is single, face and
ears red, legs and beak yellow, the feet with
four toes.

The Blacks are the same shape and style as
the Whites, but a sound black throughout. In
consequence they are not quite so taking as the
Whites, though they have many admirers.

The Grey cock should be a silvery white on
back, wing-bow and hackles, on a black ground.
The hen is finely laced with silver, the lacing to
be clear and distinct. Wattles, comb, ears, and
face are a clear cherry-red, eyes red, legs and
beak yellow.

Buffs should be what their name implies, a
good sound buff throughout, including the tail
and the flights.

Japanese, as a rule, are not difficult to breed
and rear, providing the ground is dry, and the
runs fairly well sheltered. They are, however,
hardly adapted to cold, exposed situations, nor
to places with strong, cold, clayey, retentive

3oil. They breed true to colour and type. No
doubt this arises from the fact that they were
probably bred for generations before being
brought into this country. The older a breed is
the purer it breeds ; the nearer it is to its origin,
the more difficult becomes the task. I can
recommend Japs strongly to ladies. They are
taking little birds, look well on a lawn, and do
very little damage in a garden, as by reason of
the fact that their legs are so very short, they
cannot compass much scratching.

A group of Bantams whose distinctive points
lie in the formation or character of the plumage,
is represented by Silkies, Frizzles, and Rump-
less, all of which have Bantam
Frizzles representatives, but usually have ta

and^*°' ^^"^^ refuge in a mixed class. The

Eumpless. popularity of the Silkie fowl has
already been alluded to, and its
points described. It was Bantamised many
years ago, and specimens exhibited of white,
black, and brown plumage ; but the crosses by
which the diminutive size had been attained
were too evident in red faces, and occasionally
almost single combs. In this edition (191 1) it
is necessary to state that under present condi-
tions Silkies are not recognised as Bantams, and
are not therefore eligible to compete in Bantam
classes. Despite this decision the Silkie merits
mention here by reason of its indirect con-
nection with the Bantam fancy, and great
usefulness to Bantam breeders. Not only are
Silkies good layers, and their eggs wonderfully
fertile, but, if bred at the right time, they are
sure winter layers, and provide very early sitters
for early Bantam eggs. Not only will they sit
anywhere and for any length of time, but when
broody they will often " mother " newly-hatched
chicks without having actually gone to the nest
for a single day. Twice, having noticed them
walking about quietly clucking, and showing
other signs of a broody fit coming on, I have
taken them straight to the youngsters already
hatched out by a hen too big, but the only one
available when the eggs needed to be set ; and
the Silkie has at once relieved the other bird of
any further responsibility for the brood. This
is often a very useful trait in their character.
But still further, cross them with Pekins, and
you have, as already remarked, the very best
sitter and rearer possible for Bantam eggs, so
much so, that I often wonder why some people
do not make a speciality of breeding these
crosses. Once, after mentioning their merits in
an article, I was simply inundated during the
next breeding season for specimens of it, far in
excess of any I could supply, having fifty or

530

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

sixty applicants after I had none to spare. At
the early part of the breeding season such birds
will fetch from four shillings to six shillings
each when broody, for they are invaluable
upon small, thin-shelled eggs, owing to their
extreme lightness, and to the very great care
they take both of eggs and chicks. They will
sit for six weeks with the greatest composure,
and even longer, if required ; but by the time
they have brought off a second brood they are
so poor in flesh as to have little heat left in
their bodies, and it is advisable to give them
their second chicks, and let them go their way.

The Frizzles which are shown as Bantams,
are believed by some to have come from Japan,
and it is not unlikely that a dwarf race should
do so. They have been shown with all sorts of
combs, clean and feathered legs, four and five
toes. The Standard allows single or rose
combs, but demands clean legs and four toes,
the shanks being exceedingly short. They
are very pretty when small enough, and many
have been shown very small indeed. They
require great care in wet weather.

Rumpless Bantams have been shown in all
colours, and both clean-legged and booted, but
after what was said of the parent race, mention
is sufficient. They are hardy, but the same
precaution is required to ensure fertile eggs as
in the case of the larger variety. Their colours
and marking are obviously derived from the
Bantam breeds with which they have been
crossed.

We come finally to a large family of Ban-
tams of modern origin, reproducing in miniature
almost all the known breeds of larger fowls, and
produced in most cases by mating the smallest
specimens procurable with the nearest or most
suitable Bantam breed available, and in-breeding
the produce. The large Asiatics were amongst
the first to be thus bred down, Pekin and Booted
being mostly used to cross with Brahmas and
grey Aseel to produce the Brahmas, and Game
Bantams to reduce the size of the smooth-legged
Asiatic breeds.

Brahma Bantams are of quite modern make,
and, being in few hands, outside the two or three
largest shows very few classes are provided for

them. They are a taking variety,
Brahma ^i^d very hardy, yet it is doubtful if

Bantams. they ever rival the Pekin or Booted

in popularity, being difficult to keep
down in size, and also to breed true to colour.
The foot-feathering, also, is not easy to obtain
in the length and amplitude we should like to
see it, quite 50 per cent, of the present Brahma
Bantams failing in this respect. There are two

varieties, as in the Dark and Light Brahmas.
It has been no light task to get these massive
birds down even to the present size, and still the
Brahma Bantam is too large. The Lights are
most in favour, from the greater ease with
which they can be bred true to colour, but the
Darks also are very handsome birds indeed,
in fact a most taking variety. Chicks from
both varieties are fairly hardy, and easier to
rear than either Sebrights or Rosecombs, and
the hens are good layers of tinted eggs.

In shape they are not unlike the Pekin.
The cock is a trifle longer on the leg, and the
hens are longer in back and tail than Pekins.
The cock in both varieties should have a triple
or pea comb, face, wattles, and ear-lobes red.
The Light cock should have a silver hackle,
with sharp dark striping towards the bottom ;
back, wings, shoulder, breast, and thighs white ;
the tail black, with the two top outer feathers
slightly but sharply edged with white ; legs
yellow, heavily feathered with white feathers to
end of middle toe, the freer from black the
better ; beak yellow, to match the legs ; and
eyes yellow or red. The hen is similar to the
cock in colour ; the hackle is white, distinctly
striped with black towards the shoulders, the
rest of her quite white, save the tail, which, like
that of the cock, is black slightly edged with
white, her legs, beak, and eyes yellow (latter
sometimes red), and she must be abundantly
feathered on legs and toes with white feathers.
The tout ensemble is pleasing in the extreme.

The Dark Brahma cock is identical in colour
with that of the cock in the giant variety, and
must have all the properties described for the
Lights in perfection. His hackle is silvery
(not creamy) white, heavily striped with black,
the striping increasing in width as it falls more
upon the shoulders. The neck should be short,
and the hackle abundant. The breast, fluff, and
foot-feathering must be a sound, intense black,
as sheeny on the for^ner as you can get it ; tail,
shoulders, wing-butts, and wing-bar a good
sound black too ; whilst the back, shoulders,
and wing-bow are a clear, silvery white, without
any admixture of coppery or chocolate feathers.
The saddle hackle resembles the neck hackle,
tail a rich green glossy black, like the wing-bar ;
leg and toe feathering to be as black as possible,
abundant and lengthy. White feathers will
sometimes appear in the foot-feathering; the less
of it the better, although white will show now
and again in the foot-feathering of the best
Darks, and also black in that of some of the
best Lights. We do not meet with these
troubles much in the hens ; it is generally the
cocks that are prone to be thus mis-marked.

BRAHMA AND MALAY BANTAMS.

531

The Dark hen should be a broken bkiish gre)',
what is called a steel grey ground-colour, dis-
tinctly and sharply pencilled with black, down
from the throat and extending over the fluff as
much as possible, the ground-colour and pencil-
ling being the chief points, together with abund-
ance of feather especially on feet and toes.

In breeding Dark Brahma Bantams, the best
course to pursue is to use two pens ; in fact,
wherever the colouring of the male bird in any
breed differs materially from that of
Breeding the female, the double system of

B^S!s. mating is preferable, and in some
cases imperative. For cockerel mat-
ing, I should require the soundest coloured exhi-
bition specimen I could compass, no tips of
white or lacing on the black parts, but the
colours sharp and decided, with no intermingling
of straw, brassy, or bronze coloured feathers any-
where. The pullets or hens to go with him need
not be up to exhibition standard in colour.
Size, or rather the want of it, extra silvery
hackle, abundance of feather, and correct shape
are the desiderata. If your hens are a little
washed out, either in ground or pencilling, it
hardly matters, as they will produce good
cockerels, i.e. if they are of a reliable strain.
Remember that in all your breeding " strain "
has most to do with success or failure. Now
and again birds apparently fulfilling all demands
for the breeding-pen come to hand, and some
are tempted to use them, judging purely by
appearance only ; but the produce often clearly
indicates that they have been bred anyhow, and
were altogether worthless.

In pullet-breeding the order must be reversed.
The cock should have all the qualifications
described before, except that if he shows a little
lacing on breast, and fluff, and even on the
wing-bar, all the better ; it is indicative that he
has come of a pullet-breeding strain. But the
pullets to go with him should have no such flaws
in colour. They should be extra good in ground-
colour and pencilling all over the body, breast,
back, and even fluff as far as possible. From
the produce it would be advisable to save three
of the best coloured and marked pullets, and
also a couple of the best cockerels, and if these
are mated together another season you will
thus establish for yourself a thoroughly reliable
pullet-breeding strain, whilst you are improv-
ing ground-colour and pencilling, and also
reducing the size considerably.

Lights hardly require the dual system, the
feathering of cock and hen being similar in
colour. A cock with a medium shade of hackle
should be used, by which I mean the striping
should not be too heavy, nor \ct the hackle

altogether too silvery, but about even quantity
of both. Let what there is of the striping be
sharp and dense, not washed out nor mealy.
He should be a good colour throughout, have
plenty of feather, and be a good shape, and his
head should be Ai as to comb and wattle, lobe
and eye. To such a bird should be mated four
pullets, not more. Two I should select fine in
striping, and sharply but not too densely striped
in saddle and neck hackles. Two others should
be as sound in white on back and wings as can
be procured, and white in under-fluff, but the
pullet-breeders will require to be as broad in
hackle striping as possible, dense, and well
defined. From such a pen as this, both good
cockerels and pullets should result. Of course,
two separate strains could soon be established,
the one for cockerel- and the other pullet-breed-
ing, but where such can be avoided it gives the
breeder a chance of raising more chickens that
are likely to turn out winners ; for by the other
plan all the cockerels on one side, and all the
pullets on the other, though invaluable from a
breeding point of view, would be unfit for the
exhibition pen where the competition was good.
Brahma Bantams require the same kind of
accommodation as Booted and Pekin Bantams.
The main thing in their upbringing is to find
them a run where the foot-feather can be pre-
served intact, no small consideration with all
foot-feathered breeds.

The Malay is, or ought to be, wholly different
in points from our English Game, and in the
big breeds it undoubtedly is so ; but I regret to
say that in Bantamising these birds
Malay a great deal of Game Bantam blood

Bantams. seems to have been introduced, and
in consequence there are many birds
passing under the nomenclature of Malay Ban-
tams which do not bear as they should do the
principal characteristics of the larger fowl, of
which they purport to be dwarfs. Therefore, in
judging Malays great care is required, and
adjudicators should go as much as possible for
Malay type, rigorously rejecting all that show
strong traces of the " base " origin. A Malay
Bantam should first show type, shape, and car-
riage ; then head points, size, and colour. The
latter is only a secondary consideration, for no
matter how small, and of what colour, if type,
carriage, and general character be wanting the
bird is not a true Malay. Malay Bantams are,
as a rule, too large, hence the temptation to
dwarf them by crossing with the Game Bantam.
Still, good true-typed small specimens are to be
found here and there at some of the best shows,
and when so found, as Captain Cuttle says,

532

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

"should be made a note of." What fanciers
should do is this : They should first get the
true characteristics, and then in-breed and late-
breed from this true type. They will never get
the desired effect the way some of them seem to
be going about it.

There are four varieties of Malay Bantams,
Reds, Whites, Piles, and Blacks. The two
former are those chiefly figuring at our shows ;
very seldom do the others put in an appearance,
though they are bred in some parts. Of the
Reds and Whites one good thing can be said :
they are not all in the hands of one or two
breeders. Their many admirers are widely
spread, and this augurs well for the future
prosperity of the breed.

In conformation, colour, style, etc., the Malay
Bantam should be a perfect miniature of the
larger fowl. The beak should be strong and
curved, horn colour or yellow, latter preferred,
expression fierce, owing to the overhanging eye-
brows and cruel look of the eyes, which are
deeply sunk in the head, and may be either
daw or yellow. A walnut comb well set on the
front of the head, face, lobes, and wattles red,
give a toitt ensemble by no means alluring to
other birds of their own size. The neck is long
and snaky, hackle short and fine, back slopes
at some length towards the tail, which in the
cock should be drooping, medium length, narrow
in feather and sickles, which should be slightly
curved. The shoulders are prominent, broad,
and carried well forward, and when the bird is
in high condition have the appearance of stand-
ing out apart from the body, thus adding much
to the bold appearance. The hen's tail should
be short and square, and carried a little above
the horizontal. The breast in both sexes is
broad, deep, and almost naked of feathers, thighs
long and powerful, but again with plenty of
naked skin on view, and set wide apart. The
yellow or orange shanks should be long and
fine, round in front, toes long and straight, back
toe set on low, resting firmly on the ground.
The general feathering throughout should be
tight and glossy, what is commonly called " hard
as nails."

Of the Reds there are two legitimate shades
— the dark, and the bright orange. Either is
in agreement with the Standard ; the latter is
identical with the colour of a pullet-breeding
Black-red Game cock. A partridge hen should
be mated to a cock of this sort. If she be sound
in colour she should produce both good cock-
erels and pullets, for it is one of the virtues of
Malays that they come very true to colour.
Then we have the dark maroon cock, and with
him should go the cinnamon or wheaten hen.

The breast, wing-bar, thighs, flights, and
shoulder points are a lustrous black, with green
black tail. The neck hackle, secondaries, or
wing-ends are a deep chestnut. The feathering
on the deeper shaded bird is generally shorter
and harder than on the brighter coloured cocks.

Whites are a very handsome variety. The
only difficulty with them is one common to all
white birds, viz. that of getting them a good
" blue " white, free from any trace of lemon or
straw tinge. There is only one way to secure
this : breed from it, and not from the tinged
birds. See you have the true Malay character-
istics, and stick to in-breeding and late-breeding.
One pen will suffice for cocks and hens. Dis-
card any appearance of willow leg. " Go " for
orange and orange only, and if the right birds
as described are secured, you will have no
difficulty with this variety.

Piles naturally give more trouble. The
proper colour in the male is hard to get, and
when got, difficult to keep up ; but if the direc-
tions for breeding Pile Game Bantams be .strictly
followed, namely to secure rich, deep colour,
sound bars, wing-ends, and back, with no trace
of rustiness, and you mate this Red cock to good
type White hens, success is assured ; there is
bound to come a fair percentage of good birds.
The following year the same lines may be
pursued, if the result of the previous attempt
turned out as anticipated, but another pen
might well be set up by mating together for
cocks brothers and sisters. Never use a Pile
cock that is weak on his bay ends. It is simply
courting disaster, for such birds are veritable
wasters, either for exhibition or stock purposes.
When my friends hear me say this, the common
complaint is, " Don't ; you are telling secrets too
fast." My aim, however, and that of this work,
is to tell beginners how they should act, and I
leave no stone unturned to let them have the
whole sum and sub^ance of information gained
in much experimental work. My object is not
to hide, but to reveal what is really known about
breeding exhibition birds, and if I bring to the
knowledge of any some things they did not
know before, all the better. I wish all true
Bantam fanciers well, and my object is to further
their interests if I can. The best specimens of
Bantams are yet to breed, the highest prices yet
to realise ; and every fancier who gets the right
knowledge, and will skilfully apply it, should
have an even chance with the best of us.

Indian Game Bantams are a probable cross
between the larger Cornish Indian Game and
the Aseel. It was no light task to reduce such
giants as the Cornish Indian to Bantam size,

INDIAN GAME BANTAMS.

553

and, as a matter of fact, there is often yet
more of the individual specimen than there
should be ; but time and patience will work this
out, if in-breeding and breeding late
Indian Game be followed up rigorously. What
Bantams. should not be done, is to again im-
port into any strain foreign blood, for
the simple sake of securing diminutiveness. To
do so is to destroy in great part type and
character ; and just as in the Malay, these two
qualities should be first, over such considerations
as smallness or colour. The latter have their
value, but they occupy a secondary place by the
side of true type and character. Anyone can
breed a small bird, if they have a mind to choose
small parents and in-breed ; but the result is not
the proper type of Indian Game Bantam at all.
Where the bird is of true blood, even though it
may be a little larger, yet all the same it is the
true breed we seek, and in the generality of cases,
the patience, labour, time, and expense of procur-
ing it thus pure, far exceeds that of the smaller
cross-bred. The latter is unworthy of a place by
the side of the former, and certainly should
never be in front of it. The policy of crossing
is pursued, no doubt, in the hope that reduced
size will catch the judge's eye, and the fact of
the cross remain undetected.

Indian Game Bantams have many admirers,
for the miniature, after all, is a very noble and
captivating little creature, and its popularity has
got it so far a considerable share of attention
from committees of the more important shows,
who have provided classes for it somewhat
freely. The Indian Game Club also, by ad-
mitting Bantam breeders within its membership,
have accelerated the freer and wider classifica-
tion extended to it. Altogether breeders and
admirers have ample reason to be satisfied with
the progress of the breed so far, and the future
rests with themselves. If they rigorously keep
to themselves all the choicest specimens, and,
like the man who argued that money was made
flat that it might pile, are only bent on piling
up in their own yards the cream of the fancy,
they must expect things to stagnate, as the
breeding of Brown-red Game Bantams has done.
If, on the contrary, they rather think that money
was made roimd that it might " circulate," and
allow others to get of the best and be in the
swim, the Indian Game Bantam will not look
back, but may be a thing of beauty for ever.

From these remarks it will be gathered
that I am not wholly satisfied with the Indian
Game Bantam as it is. It savours too much
of the Malay. There is too much leg, too great
length of back, and other indications of Malay
blood. The sooner breeders of the variety

recognise this, the better it will be for the welfare
of their birds. They must stick to Indian Game,
and not breed a conglomeration of any kind
of Game, Malay, etc. Therefore, as said
before, type must come first, and if the neces-
sary shape and built be absent, the bird is
better in the kitchen, than either the exhibition
or breeding-pen.

The cock's head is rather long and thick,
the skull broad, and the eyes (though not so
much so as in the Malay) are somewhat arched,
and the face " beetle browed." A moderately
long neck with a strong curved beak gives the
bird a powerful expression. He is pea-combed,
with a red face of fine te.xture and fairly smooth.
Pale red eyes are preferred, full and prominent.
The general shape is thick and compact, back
short and flat, and as broad as possible, tapering
towards the tail, but not having flat sides. The
breast should be deep and wide, but well rounded,
with a straight breast-bone. The wings should
be short and tucked in tightly to the sides, but
be prominent at the shoulder points. The thighs
should be much shorter than in Malays, the
shanks a medium length, short, well rounded,
with close fitting scales, a deep rich yellow colour.
The feet should be well spread, toes straight,
long, and the back toe firmly down on the
ground. The tail is beetle green, medium
length, slightly drooping, and with a few narrow
glossy hangers at the sides. Sickles short and
narrow.

The general plumage is hard and glossy ;
appearance sprightly and vigorous, with a bold
upright carriage, the back sloping towards the
tail, the flesh hard and firm in handling. In
colour the cock's feathering is a lustrous green
black save on the back, which like the lower
part of the neck hackle is broken with a rich
bay. He is also bay or chestnut on wing-ends
or secondaries. The coloured feathers of the
neck hackle should be almost lost in the body
feathers, and the wing-bow, though black, should
have the shafts bay. The tail coverts or hangers
particularly should be a rich glossy beetle green,
the wing-bar a rich black. Lustre is one of
the great features of this bird. There must be
no flat shins, twisted toes, or crooked breast-
bones. Rusty hackles, white in hackle, heavy
feather, and long limbs are all serious defects.

The hen is similar to the cock in shape and
build, head points, neck, and legs. In colouring
she is wholly dissimilar. The ground colour is
a rich dark chestnut, but each feather should be
double-laced with sharp dark lacing. There
should be an outer edge of sharp black, not too
deep, but sufficiently distinct, and then on the
clear ground of the feather there should run

534

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

another sharp lacing. The chestnut ground en-
closed by the two lacings should be quite free
from smut, spots, or other foul marks, and be
one uniform shade of chestnut. The defects in
the hen, otherwise than in colour, are identical
with those of the cock.

Two pens ought to be set up ; it is next to
impossible to manage with one. For cockerel-
breeding, choose a typical show specimen. There
must be no rust on him, and he must be sound
in wing-ends. Then look to his breast, that it
is broad, his shoulders prominent, no flat sides,
not too leggy, short in hackle and back, tight
and hard to handle. The hens to go with him
should have all these qualifications too. Colour
is not so material; shape, style^ and type come
first. Then choose them for preference of a
rich deep mahogany or chestnut, and from such
a pen you may expect good results. The
following season the pullets might be put back
to the sire, and the best shaped cockerels to the
hens. It is a splendid plan for keeping down
size. Moreover you are making your own
strain, and in a season or two will be able to
predict with almost certainty the kind of stock
you will get. In the pullet pen things will be
different. You want here correct colour and
lacing, and so you had better select your cock
with more or less indications of a propensity to
achieve these results. If he be slighty laced on
breast, or a bit red in hackle, all the better. Do
not sacrifice style, type, and character for a
moment, but having secured these, see that the
others exist also if possible. To him mate
clear chestnut ground, well-laced, typical shaped
hens or pullets. The lacing should be as sharp
and dark as possible, with a beautiful green
gloss upon it. See that they are low on leg,
broad at shoulder, and short in back, in fact as
ideal specimens as you can compass. From this
pen retain a couple of cockerels for next season's
breeding, in addition to the pick of the pullets.
The more the cockerels are laced the better ;
you are sure they are half-blood of the ideal
hens, and if they show it in their external
appearance, there is all the more chance they
will prove excellent pullet-breeders. When this
process has been going on for a few seasons, and
especially if cockerels have been put back to
their mothers, a large percentage of their blood
is pure pullet, and of the richest quality. In
fact a reliable pullet strain will have been set up,
and must go unmixed until such time as failure
to rear the chicks is evidence that a little fresh
blood should be introduced. It is, however,
possible to so conduct matters, by keeping two
lines going from the first, that after many
generations stamina is maintained.

Aseel Bantams are occasionally seen, and
should of course possess all the points of their
parent race, without the very heavy eyebrows of
the Malay. Those exhibited generally have
been fairly true to points, but the breed seems
too nearly allied to the two preceding to obtain
any great measure of popularity.

Black Spanish Bantams, although most
handsome, do not appear to make headway,
although single specimens exhibited by Mr.

Thompson, of Kendal, and others,
Spanish have been as typical as the best of

Bantams. their bigger brethren. They are a

very taking breed, and when ex-
hibited find such a host of admirers, that I have
often wondered why they were not more popu-
lar. How they are produced I am not certain,
but should imagine that a small Spanish cock
put to a big-lobed Black Rosecomb hen, and
the produce bred back and in-bred, would pro-
duce the desired results. I should prefer a
rather large Rosecomb hen, with preference to
one showing white in face. Of course you
would get several Rosecombs from this cross,
and a few with the desired single comb. I
should breed as late as possible in the season,
in order to reduce the size. The best of he
pullets I should put back to the sire, and
afterwards in-breed as long as the chicks were
healthy and fairly easy to rear. The birds
should resemble their bigger brethren in 'every
point except size.

Hamburgh Bantams appear to be at a
standstill , and were it not for Mi. Farnrworth
of Lincolnshire, it is more than probable the
variety would sink into jblivion.
Hamburgh The prettiest of them are t!ie Silver
Bantams. Spangles, evidently a cross oetween
the Haniburgh and Silver Sebright
Bantam, or White Rosecombs, either of which
would give the desired result, although a big
percentage of wasters would be produced from
either cross. Still, with patience and perse-
verance the ideal could be reached in time, and
once perfected they would be certain to become
popular on account of their beautiful colour
and length of feather. There is a good open-
ing in this variety for any fancier who is
prepared to devote time and patience to a very
pleasurable hobby.

This is one of the latest recruits to Bantam
circles, and one that appears to find many
supporters, though in point of type and mark-
ings it does not make the headway we should
have liked to have seen. In both colour and

STANDARDS FOR BANTAMS

535

type it should be as near the Barred Rock as it
is possible to get them — in fact, to be Barred

Rocks in miniature with the barring
Barred Rock finely and sharply defined on a
Bantams. steel-grey ground colour, cobby in

shape, yellow legs and beak. At
the present time the barring appears to be ver}-
" smudgy " and indistinct. There is a good
opening for \-oung fanciers to take this variety
up in earnest and by judicious mating to bring
out the desired clear, sharp, black barring so
necessary in the breed. Once this has been
accomplished, there is no reason why Barred
Rock Bantams should not become popular.

As already intimated, almost every other
of the larger breeds of poultry has also been
more or less perfectly reproduced in Bantam

size, and the very few left are
minor probably in process of being so.

Varieties. AH have been produced by the

same general methods, crossing the
smallest specimens obtainable with the most
appropriate Bantam stock, and in-breeding
back to the desired points ; the useful oftspring
at first obtained being very few, but gradually
increasing with time and skill in breeding.
The success of any such new variety is very
uncertain, popularity being most capricious in
these matters, and a variety class affording
very little and uncertain reward meanwhile ;
but the number of breeders who find pleasure
in these experiments appears increasing.

[Judging Bantams is an art in itself, and we
have noticed that it is rarely performed well
by those judges who principally do their
work amongst the large breeds of
Judging poultry. It seems to require a

Bantams. "different eye," and it is pretty
easy to see that the difficulty arises
from the much greater proportionate value of
carriage in the case of small birds.

All Bantams cannot be equally small. It
is not reasonable that the dwarf of a Brahma
should be as small as that of a Game fowl.
The late Mr. W. F. Entwisle originated the
useful general rule, that about one-fifth of the
standard weight of the breed reduced should
be taken as its Bantam standard ; and while a
little smaller would be so far on the right side,
it is better to have the real points well brought
out on this scale than to partially lose these
in a smaller bird. At the same time, it is
pretty obvious that smallness must be worth
more in the scale of points for a Bantam than
size in the large breed. — L. W.]

The Poultry Club Standards are here given,

together with the prefatory note to the 1910
edition contributed by its Editor, Mr. W. \V.
Broomhead.

BANTAMS

In most varieties of Bantams the general ctiaracter-
istics are similar to those of the large breeds which
they represent in a diminutive form. Hence it is
only necessary to mention weights. Where standards
have been drawn up and recognised by specialist
clubs they are given. — W. W. B.

Ancoxa. — Cock : 18 oz. to 22 oz. Hen : 16 oz.
to 20 oz.

Andalusiax. — Cock : iS oz. to 22 oz. Hen t
16 oz. to 20 oz.

AsEEL. — Cock : 20 oz. Hen : iS oz.

Booted. — See full standard on pages 535-6.

Brahma. — Cock : 3S oz. Hen : 32 oz.

Cochin. — Cock : 32 oz. Hen : 28 oz.

Frizzle. — See fuU standard on page 536.

Game, ^Iodern. — Cock : 22 oz. Hen : 20 oz.

G.\ME, Old English. — Cock : 18 oz. to 22 oz.
Hen : 16 oz. to 20 oz.

Hamburgh. — Cock : 16 oz. to 20 oz. Hen :
14 oz. to 17 oz.

Indian G.\me. — Cock, 48 oz. Hen : 40 oz.

(Note. — This standard of weight is suggested
by the secretary of the Indian Game Club,
after discussing the question with some of
the Bantam fanciers.)

Japanese. — See full standard on page 536.

Leghorn. — Cock : 18 oz. to 22 oz. Hen : 16 oz.
to 22 oz.

Malay. — See standard for varieties, etc., on
page 537.

A1inorc.\. — Cock : 18 oz. to 22 oz. Hen : 16 oz.
to 20 oz.

Pekin. — See Cochin.

Plymouth Rock. — Cock : 24 oz. Hen : 20 oz.

Polish. — Cock : 17 oz. to 22 oz. Hen : 14 oz.
to iS oz.

RosEcoMB. — See full standard on page 537.

Scotch Grey. — Cock : 18 oz. to 22 oz. Hen j
14 oz. to 18 oz.

Sebright. — See full standard on page 53S.

Spanish. — Cock : iS oz. to 22 oz. Hen : 16 02.
to 20 oz.

Sultan. — Cock : 16 oz. to 20 oz. Hen : 12 oz.
to 14 oz.

Wy.\ndotte. — Cock : 24 oz. Hen : 20 oz.

YoKOHAM.\. — Cock : 16 oz. Hen : 12 oz.

Among other breeds of Bantams which have
been exhibited in this country are Burmese, Creve
Coeur, Dorking, Houdan, Nankin, and Rumpless or
Tail-less, also known as Manx, consisting chiefly of
Game.— W. W. B.

THE BOOTED BANTAM

GEXERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Head. — Skull : SmaU. Beak : Rather stout and
of medium length. Eyes : Bright and prominent.
Comb : Single, small, firm, and perfectly straight,
and well serrated. Face : (a) Of fine texture, and
free from hairs ; (6) mufHed (known as " whiskered ")
as in large breeds, of fowls so adorned. Ear-lobes 1

536

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Smali and flat. Wattles : Small, fine, and well
rounded.

Neck. — Rather short, and furnished with full
hackle.

Body. — Short and compact. Breast : Full and
prominent. Back : Short, the cock's furnished
with long and abundant saddle feathers. Wings :
Large and long, and carried in a drooping fashion.

Tail. — Large, full, and upright, the cock's sickles
a little longer than the true feathers, and slightly
curved, and coverts long, abundant, and nicely curved.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Thighs short and well
feathered at the hocks ; shanks fairly short, and
heavily feathered on the outer sides with long and
rather stiff feathers, those growing from the hocks
almost touching the ground. Toes : Four on each
foot, straight, and well spread, the outer and middle
toes being very heavily feathered.

Carriage. — Erect and strutting.

Weight. — Cock : 24 oz. Hen : 20 oz.

Plumage. — Long and abundant.

COLOUR

THE BLACK

Beak : Black or horn. Eyes : Dark red or very
dark brown. Comb, Face, Wattles, and Ear-lobes :
Bright red. Legs and Feet : Black.

Plumage. — Black, as lustrous as possible.

THE WHITE

Beak : White. Eyes : Red. Comb, Face, Wattles,
and Ear-lobes : Bright red. Legs and Feet : White.
Plumage. — Pure snow white.

SCALE OF POINTS
of plumage, 20 ; legs and beak, 10

Colour

Leg and foot feathering

Type . .

Head

Size . .

Condition

Serious defects : Other than single comb ; other
than four toes on each foot ; wry tail ; any bodily
deformity.

THE FRIZZLED BANTAM

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Skull : Small. Beak .- Short and strong.
Eyes : Full and bright. Comb : Single, medium
in the cock and very small in the hen. Face : Of
fine te.xture and smooth. Ear-lobes : Of moderate
size. Wattles : Pendulous.

Neck. — Short, that of the cock being abundantly
frizzled.

Body. — Back : Broad and short. Breast : Full
and round. Wings : Long and drooping.

Tail. — Rather large, erect, very full but loose,
the cock having good sickles and plenty of side
hangers.

Legs and Feet.— Legs .- Very short, and the shanks
quite free from feathers. Toes : Four on each foot,
and well spread.

Carriage. — Erect and strutting.

Weight. — Cock : 20 oz. to 24 oz. Hen : 14 oz.
to 17 oz.

Plumage. — Moderately long, hard, and wiry, each
feather curled towards the head, and the frizzling
as close and abundant as possible.

COLOUR

Beak : Yellow or horn in Whites and Buffs ;
dark willow or black in dark varieties. Eyes :
BriUiant red. Comb, Face, Wattles, and Ear-lobes :
Bright red. Legs and Feet : Yellow in Whites and
Buffs ; dark willow in dark varieties.

Varieties.— Black, Black-Red, Blue, Buff, Duck-
wings, and White, the colour in each to be the same
as that mentioned for large fowls of those varieties.

SCALE OP POINTS
Curl . . . . . . . . . . . . . • 25

Colour
Feather

Type

Condition

Weight

Head

Legs and feet

15

Serious defects : Many feathers
deformity of any kind.

100

not curled ;

THE JAPANESE BANTAM

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Skull : Rather large and broad. Beak :
Strong, and well curved. Eyes : Large. Comb 1
Single, large, erect and straight, and evenly serrated.
Face : Smooth. Ear-lobes : Of medium size, and
smooth. Wattles : Of medium size and pendent.

Neck. — Rather short, curving prominently back-
wards, with abundant hackle flowing well over the
shoulders.

Body. — Short, deep, and compact. Breast : Very
full, round, and carried prominently forward. Back :
Very short, the cock's furnished with abundant
saddle-hackle. Wings : Large and long, carried with
the points almost under the stern and touching the
ground.

Tail. — Very large, somewhat expanded, carried
upright so as to some almost in lontact with the
back of the comb, the cock's " sickles " (the longest
feathers are reaUy not sickle-shaped) very long and
only slightly curved.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Very short, the shanks
smooth and free from feathers. Toes : Four on
each foot, straight, and well spread.

Carriage. — Very upright, the breast forward and
the head and tail almost touching each other.

Weight. — Cock : 26 oz. Hen : 22 oz.

COLOUR

THE BLACK

Beak : Yellow, or yellow shaded with black.
Eyes : Dark red. Comb, Face, Wattles, and Ear-
lobes : Bright red. Legs and Feet : Corresponding
with the beak.

Plumage. — Lustrous black.

THE BLACK-TAILED WHITE

Beak : Yellow. Eyes, Comb, Face, Wattles, and
Ear-lobes : Bright red. Legs and Feet : Yellow.
Plumage of the Cock. — White, with black mark-

STANDARDS FOR BANTAMS.

537

ings. Wings : Primaries, dark slate or black, edged
with white ; secondaries, dark slate or black, with
wide edging of white ; the wing, when closed, shows
white only. Tail : Black, the sickles and coverts
edged with white. Remainder of Plumage : White.
Plumage of the Hen. — Wings : As in the cock.
Tail : Black, with white coverts. Remainder of
Plumage : White.

THE WHITE

Head points, Legs and Feet : As in the Black-
Tailed White.

Plumage. — Pure white.

OTHER VARIETIES

Other varieties are the Buff (in colour similar
to buff fowls), the Cuckoo (in colour and markings
similar to the Scotch Grey), the Grey (black ground
colour, the cock's back, hackles, and wing-bows
silver, the hen being laced throughout with silver
and the neck-hackle heavily marked), and the
Speckled (black and white with even marldngs).

SCALE OP POINTS

Type . .

Colour

Weight

Condition

Head

Legs and feet

Serious defects : Comb other than single ; shanks
other than yellow (or in Blacks yellow shaded with
black) ; pure white in any part of the plumage of
Biicks ; other than white plumage in Whites ; long
legs ; low tail carriage.

THE MALAY BANTAM

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
The general characteristics are similar to those
of the Malay fowl.

Weight. — Cock : Under 56 oz. Hen : Under
48 oz.

Size. — As small as is compatible with the pre-
servation of Malay type.

COLOUR

The following colours are recognised by the
Malay Bantam Club as show colours — viz. Black,
Black Mottle, Duckwing, Pile, Red, Spangle, and
White.

Beak : In Blacks and Black Mottles, yellow or
somewhat black, yellow preferred ; in Duckwings,
Reds, and Spangles, yellow or somewhat brown,
yellow preferred : in Piles and Wliites, yellow.
Eyes : Pearl white, daw (with a green shade) or
yellow, but the Ughter the colour the better, a red
or " foxy " tinge being very objectionable. Comb,
Face, Throat, Wattles, and Ear-lobes : BrilUant red.
Legs and Feet : Very rich yellow, except that in
Blacks and Black Mottles a slight duskiness may
be overlooked.

THE BLACK

Plumage. — Glossy black, with brilliant green and
purple lustres, the green predominant, free from
any brassy or wliitc feathers

THE BLACK MOTTLE

Plumage. — -Ground colour as in the Black, but
evenly mottled all over with white.

THE DUCKWING

Plumage of the Gold Cock. — Hackle : Pale straw.
Back and Saddle : Orange. Wings : Bow, orange ;
secondaries, white on outer edge. Remainder of
Plumage : Black.

Plumage of the Gold Hen. — Hackle : Silver-white,
finely striped with black. Breast : Salmon shading
off to ash-grey at thighs. Tail : Lower feathers,
black. Remainder of Plumage : Steel-grey, finely
pencilled with black or dark steel-grey.

Plumage of the Silver. — Similar to the Gold, but
the cock's hackle, saddle, and wing-bow, silver-
white, and the hen of a Ughter shade all through.

WHEATEN HENS

The Wheaten Pile resembles the wheatcn-red
hen in every respect, except that instead of black
flight and tail feathers the colour of these parts is
cream-white. The Wheaten Spangle resembles the
wheaten-red hen with the addition of a plentiful
powdering of white spangles. These wheaten hens
are not very attractive in the show pen, but they
produce the most briUiantly coloured cocks.

OTHER VARIETIES

The plumage and markings of the Pile, the Red,
the Spangle, and the White are described in con-
nection with Malay fowls.

(Note. — The above colours and markings are
ideal, but in Malay Bantams not so much value is
attached to these adornments as to type and quaUty.)

SCALE OF POINTS
Head : eyes, 9 ; comb and other points, 16
Curves and carriage
Reach and stiltiness
Feather (short, narrow, and hard)
Legs and feet
Gloss and vigour . .
Shoulders

Tail

Colour

Serious defects : Excessive size ; and other points
as mentioned in connection with Malay fowls.

THE ROSEGOMB BANTAM

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Head. — Skull : Broad and short. Beak : Stout
at the base and rather short. Eyes : Full and
bright. Comb : Neat, long, square, and well filled
in front, set firmly on the skull, tapering off in width
to the setting on of the leader ; the top perfectly
level and full of " work " (crowded with httle round
spikes) ; the leader set on with a stout base, firm,
long, perfectly straight, and tapering to a point ;
the comb rises shghtly from the front to the back,
the leader rises also, and at the same angle as the
rest of the comb. Face : Of fine texture. Ear-
lobes : Absolutely round, having nicely rounded
edges, of uniform thickness all over (not hollow
nor " dished "), firmly set on the face, of kid-hke
texture, smooth, proportioned in size to the bird.

53S

THE BOOK OF POULTRY,

the cock's not smaller than a sixpence nor larger than
a shilling, the hen's not larger than a three-penny
piece. Wattles : Round, neat, and of fine texture.

Neck. — Rather short, covered with wide hackle
feathers, and having a well-defined curve at the
back, the cock's hackle falling gracefully and plenti-
fully over his shoulders and wing-bows and reaching
out almost to his tail.

Body. — Breast : Broad and carried well forward
and upward, showing a bold curve from wing-bow
to wing-bow. Back : Short, broad, and flat.
Shoulders : Broad and flat. Wing Flights : Wide
(each feather rounded off with a broad end, not
too long, but in keeping with the bird's type),
carried rather low, the cock's showing only
the front half of the thighs, the hen's hardly so low,
but by no means carried tightly to the body ; the
Stern flat, broad, and thick — i.e. not " running ofi
to nothing " at the setting on of the tail, and having
an abundance of saddle feathers, the cock's saddle
hackle hanging down on either side like a fringe,
and extending from liis tail to the middle of his back.

Tail. — Carried well back, consisting of broad
feathers overlapping one another neatly ; the cock's
sickles long, broad from base to end, well circled
with a bold sweep {the inner tail feathers not pro-
truding beyond the sickles), the furnishing feathers
broad from base to end and uniformly circled with
the sickles, tips level, and hanging somewhat shorter
than the sickles, the side hangers broad and long,
and, together with the saddle hackles, hanging grace-
fully, and filUng the space between the stern and
the wing ends.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Thighs short, set well
apart, stout at the setting on and tapering to the
hocks, the shanks rather short, round, and small.
Toes : Four on each foot.

Carriage. — Thick-set or cobby (not dumpy).

Weight. — Cock : 20 oz. Hen : 16 oz.

COLOUR

THE BLACK

Beak : Black. Eyes : Hazel or brown. Comb,
Face, and Wattles : Brilliant cherry red. Ear-lobes :
Spotless white, especially near wattles. Legs and
Feet : Black.

Plumage. — Black, with as bright a green sheen
as possible from the throat to the sickle ends, the
wing bar (of broad feathers) of extra bright green ;
a point of rare quahty is for the tail feathers to have
a brilliant green sheen.

THE WHITE

Head points (except Beak : White, and Eyes :
Red) : As in the Black. Legs and Feet : White.
Plumage. — Snow white, free from straw tinge.

SCALE OF POINTS

Comb. .

Ear-lobes

Tail . .

Type . .

Condition

Colour

Legs and fee

Serious defects : Stiltiness ; narrow chest ; narrow
back ; hollow-fronted comb ; coarse bone ; light
legs ; tightly carried wings ; purple sheen ; purple
barring; brown or grizzled flights ; coloured feathers ;
" narrow-feathered ; " white in face ; blushed lobes.

THE SEBRIGHT BANTAM

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Skull : Small. Beak : Shghtly curved,
and rather short. Eyes : Full. Comb : Rose, firmly
and evenly set on the skull, square fronted, free
from hollows, covered on top with coral-Uke points,
narrowing behind to a distinct slightly upturned
spike. Face : Smooth and of fine texture. Ear-
lobes : Flat and free from folds. Wattles : WeU
rounded.

Neck. — Tapering ; the cock's well arched and
carried very far back ; the hen's upright.

Body. — Compact. Breast : Broad and prominent.
Back : Very short. Wings .■ Carried very low.

Tail. — Square, well spread, and carried high.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Short, the shanks slender
and free from feathering. Toes : Four on each
foot, straight, and well spread.

Carriage. — Strutting and tremulous, on tiptoe, and
somewhat resembling a Fantail pigeon.

Weight. — Cock : 22 oz. Hen : iS oz.

Plumage. — Short and tight, the feathers not too
wide, out never pointed. (Note. — The Sebright
Bantam cock is hen-feathered — i.e. liis neck is devoid
of true hackle feathers, he has not a saddle -hackle,
and liis tail is free from sickles.)

COLOUR

THE GOLD

Beak : Dark horn. Eyes : Black, or as dark
as possible. Comb, Face, Wattles, and Ear-lobes :
Dark purple or dull red. Legs and Feet : Slate
blue.

Plumage. — Uniform golden bay ground, with
glossy green-black lacing, and dark grey under-
colour, each feather being evenly and sharply laced
all round its edg^ with a narrow margin of black.

THE SILVER

Head points (except Beak : Dark blue or horn).
Legs and Feet : As in the Gold.

Plumage. — Similar to the Gold, substituting
silver-white ground for golden bay.

SCALE OF POINTS
Lacing . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Ground colour .. .. .. .. •• 15

Comb . .

Face and ear-lobes .

Tail . .

Weight

Type . .

Condition

100

Serious defects : Single comb ; hackles or sickle
feathers in the cock ; feathers on shanks ; legs
other than slate blue ; other than four toes on each
foot ; wry tail or any other deformity

339

CHAPTER XXXVI.

GUINEA FOWL. PEA FOWL.

A LL the domestic varieties of turkeys are
/-\ undoubtedly descended from the wild
■^ -*^ race of North America. This no one
questions now ; and the obstinate incredulity
of some naturalists respecting the fact is one
of the most curious phenomena in the history
of science. It was stated that the wild turkey
could not be domesticated, and refused to cross
with the domestic race ; both statements having
no atom of foundation, so far as we have ever
been able to learn. On the contrary, the fine
strain known as American Bronze owes its size
and lustre to possessing about three-fourths
of wild blood, some specimens being indeed
almost pure wild in strain, though bred for some
generations in captivity ; and Audubon had
long ago stated as of his own personal knowledge,
that the wild turkeys frequently fed, bred, and
associated with the domestic stock, and were
tempted in every possible way to do so by the
owners of the latter, as the half-bred birds were
finer in size and hardier in constitution.

The varieties of the wild turkey are usually
reckoned as three, viz. the wild breed of more
northern America and Canada, known as

Mcleagris Americana, whose colours
Wild are confined to iridescent dark-

Turkeys, colours and bronzes ; an equally

fine race found in Mexico and the
southern States, and hence called by some natu-
ralists il/. Mexicana, which is somewhat shorter
in leg, and has the tail and other feathers
tipped with white ; and a still more southern
variety found in Honduras and Central America,
known as M. occllata, distinguished by absence
of breast-tuft, differences in carunculation, and
the iridescent splendour of its plumage. The
ground-colour of this last is usually described
as a beautiful bronze green, banded with
gold bronze, blue, and red, with some bands
of brilliant black ; and it is much to be desired
that so magnificent a variety should be added
to domestic stock ; but all attempts hitherto
have been unsuccessful, the birds dying when
removed to a colder climate. They breed freely,
however, and several times hybrids have been
produced ; and we cannot help thinking, as the
bird is readily domesticated, that by breeding

back the hardier hybrids to wild stock, the
glorious plumage might perhaps be perpetuated :
moreover the rearing of turkeys and tropical
breeds is better understood now, than at the date
of the latest attempts we ever heard of (about
1872) to domesticate the Honduras turkey.

Much useless argument has been expended
upon the relation of the wild races to domestic
stock, about which there is practically no doubt
at all. It is quite certain that turkeys were
first introduced to Europe by the Spaniards,
who of course would get hold of the more
southern, or Mexican bird ; and hence no doubt
the general prevalence of more or less white
marking in all the older European varieties.
But there is no real line of division between the
northern and more southern birds, which breed
freely together, and merge into each other on
the great Continent ; and there seems no reason
for the difference in colour between those at
the two extremes of latitude, except warmer
climate and more plentiful food. These causes
almost always produce some variation in colour
or marking in birds, and hence the more northern
turkey has itself been several times recorded
to have produced white marking in the third
generation of domestic rearing and feeding.
The greater delicacy of the Honduras variety
has undoubtedly been caused solely by tropical
conditions, and it is rather remarkable that
in India also turkeys are found to degenerate
in size, thus showing sensitiveness to tropical
heat in another way. All the varieties inter--
breed with perfect freedom, thus showing that
they are but local varieties of one great race.

As no one ever supposed that these birds
came from Turkey, or from anywhere except
North America — not one single old writer can
be quoted for any such mistake — the origin
of the name is a very curious question. Some
have suggested that it came from a supposed
resemblance of the red carunculations to the
old Turkish costume of a red fez coming down
to the ears, with a dark flowing robe beneath.
Another guess is that the word is corrupted
from turquoise, supposed to be applied to the
bluish carunculations about the head. Others
point out that the name of "a Turk" is often

540

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

applied in popular language to any one remark-
able for domineering and pompous disposition,
or appearance, and thus became attached to
the turkey cock, and gradually modified.
The reader can take his choice.

The original wild turkey is of necessity
disappearing fast from the United States, as
settlement extends and population increases ;
and, unless preserved in wood coverts as a
game bird before it is too late, the time cannot
be distant when it will be extinct except in its
descendants. It is a fowl that can only live in
its original condition upon ample ranges of forest
or woodland, where the ground is quite untainted,
and it can find sufficient subsistence in its
own wild way. Domestication has not improved,
but actually decreased its size, for wild gobblers
have occasionally been shot weighing 60 lbs.,
whilst the heaviest American Bronze which we
have record of, fed up for exhibition, only reached
46 lbs., and very few exceed or even reach 40
lbs. Domestication has also reduced hardihood
in regard to weather or exposure, whilst increasing
It in regard to domestic conditions. Thus the
turkeys long bred in Norfolk and Cambridge
have become very much smaller than the wild
breed, and would perish under exposure which
the wild race would brave with impunity ; but
on the other hand they can be reared with
success in large numbers, where the wild race
would die from disease, in conformity to the
law explained in the first chapter of this book.

The domestic varieties of turkeys have under-
gone considerable transformation during the
last generation. About 1865 those kept in
England consisted mainly of the
Domestic black Norfolk breed, which largely

Varieties. supplied the Christmas market,
seldom then exceeding about 22
lbs. for full-grown cocks and say 14 lbs. for
hens, and of which there were pure white and
solid fawn-coloured varieties of about the same
size ; and the larger Cambridge turkeys, weigh-
ing about 24 lbs. and 16 lbs., of a beautiful
bronze and black and white plumage, known
as variegated. The birds exhibited were gener-
ally of this latter type, but of course larger, the
old gobbler in the first prize pen at Birmingham
in 1865 weighing 30 lbs., and the hen 17 lbs.,
which may be taken as about the heaviest weights
obtainable in England at that time. About the
same period birds of much the same stamp as
these last, but somewhat finer because occasional
crosses of the larger wild bird had always more or
less taken place, began to be more systematically
crossed and bred in that way in America,
resulting in the magnificent American Bronze
breed, in which white marking was much

diminished, whilst colour and gloss were
improved, and the size was so increased that
individual specimens of full-sized old gobblers
reached as much as 40 lbs. Some of these birds
were imported • by English breeders, and crossed
upon the Cambridge, impro~ving them both in
colour and. in size. A Turkey Club was also
formed, which further stimulated the breeding
of these fine birds. Finally the American
Bronze ideal was fully accepted for this, the
largest and finest race of birds, and the standard
for adult gobblers raised to 34 lbs. ; and so
much American blood was bred into them,
that English and American Bronze turkeys
may now be regarded as practically the same.
Meanwhile American breeders had not been
idle, but introduced more and more of the fast-
vanishing wild blood, breeding and rearing
with such success that gobblers of 45 and 46
lbs. have occasionally been seen in exhibition
pens.

The older and smaller domestic varieties
notwithstanding hold their ground, for the
obvious reason that there is no general market
demand for birds beyond a certain size. Let
any one ask himself how he could manage with
a turkey weighing 40 lbs., from a table point
of view, and he will at once understand why
black or white turkeys whose top figure is only
about 20 lbs., are still so largely bred in England
and Normandy. It is the really marketable
kind of bird, 10 lbs. to 15 lbs. being the weights
most in demand ; and moreover a great many
people consider (with real foundation in our
opinion)that the Black and White whole-coloured
birds are somewhat superior to the Bronze in
juiciness of flesh and delicacy of skin, both of
which points have money value. At exhibitions
where only o»e class is provided for turkeys,
it is of course almost useless for any to compete
except the immense and magnificently-coloured
Bronze breed ; but at Birmingham extra classes
are still offered for other varieties, and these
are still occupied by the older sorts. Such
classes rarely have many entries of the Black
Norfolk birds, whose dark plumage makes them
suffer by more direct comparison with the
immense Bronze exhibits, with which they
cannot compete : still very fine specimens of
these sometimes appear, the plumage being
all black except a few touches of white occasion-
ally, the less the better. The beaks of these
are dark horn-colour to black, and the legs
slaty black or lead-colour.

The entries in such extra classes chiefly
now consist as a rule of Whites and Fawns,
both very old breeds, as already mentioned.
The Whites are often entered or described as

VARIETIES OF TURKEYS.

54'

" Austrian " Whites, why we do not know, as
they can be traced back in England for over
a hundred years, and there were little imports
of any kind from Austria at that time. These
birds should have flesh-coloured or pink beaks,
and white or pale pink shanks and toes, the
eyes being of the same dark hazel as the Blacks,
from which they were no doubt sports. The
plumage must be pure and clean white all
over except the " beard " or tuft of hair on the
breast, which is black, deep, and ungrizzled.
They are beautiful birds, and very widely spread
over the country, though seldom in flocks of
any size. We found many small lots about
Sussex, where they are rather liked for their
white feathers, and are stated by the Susse.x
farmers (who should be as good judges of table
quality as any) to be very fine in skin and
flesh, and rather long, though not large, in
body. They have been said to be delicate, but
those who really kept them did not seem to
consider them any more so than others.

The Fawns are much less common than
Whites, and may be described as pale buff.
The tails of those we have seen appeared a
little long in comparison with other colours,
and the bodies a little more slender. The shanks
and toes are flesh-colour in such as have come
under our notice. There have usually been
one or two of each sex at Birmingham, but they
are certainly less seen than we can remember
some years ago, are not standardised, and
appear to be gradually dying out in this country.
We have not seen enough of them dressed for
table, to judge how they compare with others
in this respect.

Besides the beautiful Bronze breed, which
is sufficiently described in the Standard at the
end of this chapter, these are all the varieties
bred in England. They are also
American recognised in the United States
Turkeys. g^j^^j Canada, where the fawn-colour

is known as Buff, and the Norfolk
breed as Black, while it is singular that Whites,
instead of being termed White " Austrian " as
in England, are known as White " Holland "
turkeys. Besides these, Americans have three
varieties not known in England. One of them
is standardised as Slate, the colour being an
ashy-blue resembling Andalusian colour of
the dull cast, but without lacing, and which is
often rather peppered with black. This does
not appear much thought of ; but another breed,
known as the Narragansett, is next to the
Bronze the largest turkey in America. The
beak is light horn, the shanks salmon-colour
or brown or pinky-brown. The plumage is
mainly black, but most of the feathers have

a band or bar of light grey or steel grey near
the tip, the tip itself being a jet-black band
beyond the grey, and the wing feathers barred
with grey. Only in the tail feathers and inner
webs of the primaries some brown is found,
and the tail feathers terminate in a broad black
band edged with light grey. The third variety
is that known as the Bourbon Red, which came
from Bourbon County, Kentucky, and had its
origin in what was once known in America as
the wild Yellow Turkey. The predominant
colour of this variety may be described as
brownish red, since that tint should be seen on
the neck, back, wing-bows (deep), breast, body
(deep), fluff and thighs ; the tail, primaries and
secondaries are white, and the shanks and
feet reddish pink. Adult gobblers should
weigh 30 lbs., and hens 18 lbs.

We may now proceed to practical considera-
tions. Whether turkey-breeding is profitable
or not depends very much upon circumstances,

and of course still more upon
Breeding management. In regard to circum-

Turkeys. stances, they thrive best upon rather

high and dry land, such as grows
rather poor grass, and are not well adapted as
a rule for low-lying rich pastures. On a holding
where there is much variety in these respects,
it often happens that turkeys will thrive in one
field, and not in any other part ; and this in
spite of the general rule that they do best on
fresh ground, other things being equal. On the
whole they are better avoided by such as farm
heavy land. Another important point is, not
to rear turkeys and other poultry together.
This is often seen as regards small lots ; and
with only a brood or two, the evil may not be
apparent if there is good range ; but it does
not answer, and with larger numbers would be
ruinous, the turkey needing ground as sweet as
can be managed, and the poultry suffering
somewhat also. On any given portion of a
holding there may be one or the other, but
should not be both.

This is the more important because a turkey-
house should never be enclosed. Even through
the winters of North America, houses open at
the front are found best, and many breeders
prefer to let the grown birds roost in trees, on
the sheltered side of some large building.
Any ordinary fowl-house is poison to them,
and even if the birds have a high and roomy
house to themselves, but closed in, unless the
ventilation be very much more free than it is
at all easy to give, they will be seen to hurry
out in the morning, pining for fresher air. A
high and open cart-shed may do, or a high shed
open in front, and preferably with the highest

542

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

part of the roof to the front, though it may of
course be wired in if necessary. More shelter
than is afforded by the sides and back wall, is
never needed even in the most severe weather,
and merely does harm.

In regard to the selection of breeding stock,
it might be supposed from what was said above
as to the marketable value of the different

varieties, that the exhibitor and the
Selection market breeder have quite different

Breeding Stock, ends to serve in selecting their stock

and rearing its produce. To some
extent this is no doubt true ; but it is only so
to some extent, and size in the stock really is
of great importance to the breeder for market
also. Supposing the exhibition weight of a
fully-grown gobbler of one of the English
breeds to be 30 lbs., a full average weight for
cockerels would only be about 18 lbs., and of
course many only reared for market would be
less than this. Thus, the lessons in breeding
which the exhibitor has learnt by experience,
are of the greatest importance to the breeder
for market also ; though in his case they bear
chiefly upon the question of weight at a cost,
and not, as in the exhibitor's case, of getting
the utmost weight at any price. The same law
holds good for both, that the finest youn^j stock
is bred from fully-matured old birds of full
size, two and three years old ; and especially is
this true in the case of the male parent. The
turkey cock is really not matured for breeding
till two years old, though hens are very good
at twelve months ; but they will be better the
next year, and quite as good if not better the
year after that. Amongst many experiments
which have been made on this point, the
following may suffice. An unusually fine
gobbler bred the preceding season, and weighing
25 lbs., was mated with year-old hens, and
produced a really fine flock, some of the pairs
weighing 35 lbs. by Christmas. Next year the
cock weighed when mated 30 lbs., and the hens
18 lbs. : and the young stock that year averaged
fully 5 lbs. per pair more, and were hardier, and
reared with less trouble and loss. It need
hardly be pointed out that it is the young birds
which, with only the saine feeding and care,
make extra weight, that are reared at the least
cost per pound.

To this general rule respecting the value of
matured stock there are no exceptions whatever,
and there is little doubt that some Norfolk
breeders have been in some degree handicapped
against those of Normandy and other parts of
France, by trusting too much to their young
stock, whilst the French breeders, though
sending only moderate-sized birds to the

London market, have produced these at less
cost, by breeding from older birds. It may be
urged that large old gobblers are often too
heavy for the hens ; but this can always be
avoided, as it is the custom in America to do
with the heavy Bronze birds, by shutting the
gobblers up a while before breeding, and feeding
rather sparingly, but on nitrogenous food, so as
to reduce their weight, making thern lean and
active. This precaution is important, and should
not be forgotten.

We place this rule of selecting fine and
mature stock first and by itself, because it is of
such wide and far-reaching importance in turkey
breeding, and because the fact that immense
birds are not desired for market, rather tends to
obscure it. Yet the very largest birds are by
no means to be preferred. Even the largest
exhibition turkeys are not often bred from the
largest specimens, but from vigorous medium-
sized representatives of stock whose average size
is great. A change of blood every three years or
so, is advisable. Particular care must be taken
not to over-feed the breeding birds, or make
them fat : such plump stock may look very fine,
but eggs will be small, and often infertile. This
especially applies to the gobblers, and most of
all if they are very large in frame ; but it is
applicable to the hens also. Perhaps the most
important point of all in individual selection, is
to get birds with a long breast-bone. If the dead
turkeys are examined at any Christmas display,
whether at shops or exhibitions, this point will
be found to differ to an extraordinary extent,
some birds having breast-bones very nearly
twice (in proportion) as long as others. This
feature alone makes a great difference in the
price, and is entirely hereditary and within
control : the numerous short-breasted turkeys
seen at Leadenhall every winter, show that it
has not received from many breeders nearly
the attention it requires.

It has been proved beyond doubt that one
visit to a turkey gobbler is sufficient to fecundate
all the eggs laid in one batch by the hen. Some
farmers who only keep a few hens and do not
rear many, send their birds to stud to a neigh-
bour in this way, and others have argued that
the number of hens to one gobbler may be almost
unlimited. It does not prove so in practice,
again showing what has already been mentioned,
that mere fecundation is not the only factor in
breeding. When too many hens are mated to
one torn, the produce is never the same in size
and vigour, and general experience has settled
upon about ten hens in a pen, as a limit that
can rarely be exceeded, or at least much ex-
ceeded, with good results.

MANAGEMENT OF TURKEY HENS.

543

Domestication has greatly modified the lay-
ing and prolificacy of turkey hens. About half-
a-century ago the hen usually laid twelve or
thirteen tggs, in March, April, or May,
more than eighteen being seldom
g recorded, and such second sittings as

were occasionally produced being too
late to be profitably reared. Two or three years
ago we heard of a poult laying her first egg on
December 22nd, and batches of twenty up to
twenty-five are not at all uncommon, so that
many birds have laid fifty eggs in one year, even
a hundred having been occasionally recorded.
The second batch is now often early enough
to rear to profit in favourable seasons. It is
very usual to set some of the earlier eggs under
common hens, giving the last fifteen to the
turkey herself, and adding those from the hen
to the turkey's own brood.

There are different ways of managing the
breeding stock, according to national custom,
number kept, and range at command. One
of the most successful American raisers — a lady,
vfho rears 95 per cent, of all she hatches —
usually keeps three pens of breeding birds,
one tom and ten hens in each, and each pen
having a run of one to three acres fenced in
for them, and secluded nests arranged about
the runs for the hens, easily kept under observa-
tion. Though these pens are used later for
young birds also, such a plan requires room,
and supposes that turkeys are the chief object
of the ground thus occupied. This number
of hens to one gobbler is found a good average
everywhere ; but on many farms on'y a pen
of four to six birds may be kept, allowed to range
at liberty, which answers very well for a few
breeders, provided they are not shut in at night,
and not overfed. But in such a case there
must be a close watch kept upon the laying
and sitting, for it is often very difficult to get
hens which are left at large to lay in a house,
the older breeds being in this respect better
domesticated than the more wild-bred Bronzes.
When about to lay, which may be known by
the hens poking about in corners, they may
be shut in till mid-day ; then if their shed is
dark on the floor, and the nests are contrived
and so arranged that they look secluded, they
will be induced to lay there, and once they
have laid a few eggs, will continue in the same
place, if not disturbed by unwise interference.
Or a number of barrels and other contrivances
may be arranged about the grounds outside,
in secluded corners, well concealed, and watched
to see if any of the birds resort to them. Now
and then one will steal a nest right away, and
generally does well in such a case, but there

is great risk from weasels, foxes, and other
vermin. When Bronze turkeys are kept " wild "
in wooded parks, they are best left entirely to
themselves ; while on the other hand some of
the older and more domesticated breeds will
lay in a house as sedately as a Dorking hen.

The laying nest will very often settle the
question of the sitting nest ; but turkeys are
such close and attentive sitters that there is
no difficulty in setting them in any sitting house
if more convenient. As they are very shy,
none but the one regular and well-known at-
tendant should visit them during incubation ;
nothing interferes so much with a good hatch
as the hen being startled in any way, and failure
of the eggs rarely occurs from any other cause.
But the regular attendant can do anything in
reason with all except the wilder birds. If a
broody bird be set on a {&\v nest-eggs at night,
and an attractive-looking nest be prepared close
by and filled with eggs, she will generally take
possession of it next day, and in another day
the real eggs may be given her ; but if she does
not, she can be placed on and shut in, and taken
off daily, providing food (for which Indian corn
answers very well) and water and dry earth
close at hand. Plenty of grit should also be
within reach. As already mentioned in a pre-
vious chapter, many turkeys could even be kept
hatching for months continually, as in France,
removing them daily to feed and to clean the
nests. Some Bronze hens, however, could not
be so treated, and the individual character of
the stock may have to be studied, in the manner
here indicated. On the whole it is generally
least troublesome, when feasible, if the turkey
hen sits in the nest which she has chosen
herself, and where she has laid.

Insect vermin must be carefully guarded
against. While dusting material should be
provided, many hens rarely if ever make use
of it. With outside nests on a free range this
will matter little ; but when set indoors, both
nest and hen should be thoroughly dressed with
insect powder : or the nest may be well painted
over inside with one of the volatile liquid
vermin-killers so popular in America (see final
chapter), and the hen confined in such another
nest before being placed in the permanent one.
Insect powder may also be dusted on the nest
when the hen is off, or even on the hen herself,
when she is tame and knows the attendant well.
A very large consensus of American experience
agrees that success in rearing the poults after
hatching depends as much upon these pre-
cautions, or more strictly, upon a vermin-free
condition of the hen at the date of hatching,
as upon any factor whatever, and that many

544

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

cases of drooping and death formerly attributed
to other causes, were really due to insect
vermin.

Where turkey-rearing is a business, it is best
to provide each hen with about twenty-five
chicks; and as she can only properly cover
fifteen to seventeen eggs herself, it was formerly
the custom to put six or seven at the same
time under a common hen, giving the whole
when hatched to the turkey. This plan is still
often followed, but many now prefer to place
the surplus eggs in an incubator, which hatches
perfectly well, though brooders do not answer
for rearing so well as with chickens. The
turkey often lays several eggs after she has
begun to sit, and the eggs should therefore
always be marked. The time for incubation is
normally twenty-eight days, but it is not unusual
to hatch either a day sooner or a day later. The
day but one before hatching is expected, it is
well to give the nest a good cleaning from any
excrement and feathers, and both nest and hen
another dusting with insect powder. She should
not again be disturbed, though food and water
may be left within reach. It may also be well
to mention that the turkey cock should not be
allowed access to the sitting-house unless he is
known to be harmless ; as the wild bird seeks
to destroy the eggs or young chicks, and some
of the domestic race retain the same strange
instinct : others, however, are quite free from
it, and walk about proudly with the chicks
which some would, if allowed, trample to reath.
All experienced breeders agree that the hen
should be left with her chicks quite undisturbed
for twenty-four hours after they begin to hatch,

after which they must of course be
Turkey put out. At this stage there are

Chicks. three requisites to be considered,

viz. shelter from wet, fresh clean
ground, and plenty of air. In an uncertain
climate like that of England, a very good plan
is to put the mother under a large crate in a
cart-shed, or any other shed entirely open in
the front, taking care that there is fresh dry
earth underneath, and keeping it clean by
diligent attention. Some breeders do very well
with a large covered coop, moved every day on
to fresh ground, as turkeys should not be
hatched till there is likely to be fine weather.
If the chicks themselves should get wet, a
proportion generally perish ; and while the
weather is treacherous, therefore, there should
always be shelter at hand under which the
mother and brood can be driven when a shower
threatens. Yet in dry weather, on fairly dry
soil, there is no doubt that young birds thrive
much better with free range after they are a

week or ten days old, and have got strong upon
their legs. This can often be afforded in favour-
able seasons, and there is no prettier sight than
the stately march of a turkey hen with her
brood, across an ample run where they can
in great degree forage for themselves.

These cardinal requisites of shelter from wet

while young, while yet securing fresh air and

ground, with ample exercise, lead to great

differences in even successful turkey

Rearing rearinsf. Mr. Tegetmeier did useful

Young . ° =» ...

Turkeys. service some years ago m drawmg

attention to the success obtained
by some breeders in America, on the plan of
leaving the young broods with their mothers
entirely in the open, with no artificial shelter
and very little feeding. Such facts have their
lessons for all breeders; but conclusions have
been drawn from them which are entirely un-
warranted, and which fail to take into account
the wide difference in American circumstances.
When, for instance, it is said that the American
climate is " more severe than the British," the
only reply possible is that, in regard to rearing
young birds, the exact contrary is the case.
Every one knows that adult turkeys are hardy,
and we have already enlarged on the necessity
of open shedding for the roosting birds. But
at the season whilst the chicks are growing, the
American climate is not only warmer, but far
more uniformly dry than in this country, so
that the great danger in England of exposure
to wet during the period of infancy, is almost
non-existent. Land is also abundant and cheap
in America, and very great numbers are sel-
dom reared on one farm. The largest breeder
cited for the " natural " plan, Mr. Tucker, of
Providence, R.I., only raises three or four
hundred ; and" when it is stated that his
daughter had to walk three miles to go the
round of the broods, it will be obvious that such
a system would fail absolutely to manage the
large numbers reared by some producers for the
British Christmas market. The same plan has
been followed, and with the same success, by
gentlemen in England who have parks, coverts,
or similar advantages, and who have not to
make a profit out of a market price ; but for
such market purposes, and in a thickly popu-
lated country, other methods must necessarily
be followed, even leaving such risks as those
from poachers and foxes out of account.

Neither are the older methods necessarily
attended by " disaster," as is freely alleged by
some. It is by them that the British market is
mainly supplied, both from England itself and
from France ; and the large numbers reared at
a profit are a very simple reply to extreme

REARING YOUNG TURKEYS.

545

statements of that kind. Lastly, the really largest
and most successful rearers, even in America,
employ more moderate and domestic methods,
which keep the broods more under control,
while carrying out the same general principles.
Differences in race also have to be borne in
mind, and it is interesting to observe that in
America also, where the more domesticated
" White Holland " turkey is largely bred, and
by many preferred for profit to the Bronze,
this breed is found to require far less range
than the wilder race.

While therefore the beneficial effects of real
freedom and exposure deserve the attentive
study of all rearers, there is more to be learnt
from the general American methods, which
have reduced such principles to application on
farms, and we have been interested in collating
more than a score of accounts furnished by
different breeders concerning their systems of
rearing and management. One lady already
referred to, Mrs. Charles Jones, who raises
turkeys on a farm in Illinois, has for years
raised 95 per cent, of all she hatches in con-
siderable numbers, and in fact finds that trifling
mortality considerably less than amongst her
chicks, is still of opinion, after trying the other
plan, that " if you do not keep them near the
house so that you can run them under cover
when a heavy storm comes on, you are liable to
lose a large percentage." She uses for this pur-
pose a large shed with a board floor, and watch
is kept in showery weather against all such
contingencies. As birds grow they are put in
flocks of about fifty, which she finds enough for
one yard or field of two or three acres, till
about two months old, when they are driven
out to their summer liberty. Her hens are
cooped for a few days, and then let out in a
home lot, except for showers as just mentioned.
A considerable majority of the breeders
just mentioned adopt a plan which is more or
less general throughout the United States, and
in a dry season is found to answer well. Three
boards, each twelve to sixteen feet long and
twelve to fifteen inches wide, are fastened to-
gether on their edges as an equilateral triangular
pen, on a piece of grass cut very short, and
quite fresh. The turkey chicks are put out in
this, in the sun, and the hen put down close by
to step into the pen, when she will gather them
together. For about a week the boards will con-
fine the chicks, and when they can get over them
they are strong enough on their legs to be left
at liberty. About three such pens, each with a
hen and her brood, is considered enough for a
five-acre lot or field, and gives ample range,
while keeping all under control. Care has to

be taken that there are no hollows in the pen,
else the turkey is very apt to choose just that
spot for brooding, and if it rains the water col-
lects there and the chicks come to grief : with
this precaution many of the Bronze mothers are
found to shelter their broods with great care
and certainty during a storm, and bring them
up in safety, the White mothers being less to be
relied upon in this respect. Some prefer to
choose a spot for the pen which is bare of grass ;
and a great many move the pen every two days
to fresh ground. By far the greater number
agree that in the dry seasons of America, the
young ones do best if given full liberty (i.e. in
their field) with their mother after the first
week or ten days.

On the other hand, some of the largest
American breeders who have tried the " three-
board " system, have given it up in consequence
of losses ; and we find this chiefly, as might
be expected, in those States which have the
most spring and summer rainfall. Some of
these tether the mother by the leg under a
shed, where she has a considerable amount of
liberty : others coop her in a large slatted coop
under such a shed : others confine her in a large
covered coop, and give the chicks their liberty,
as countless English breeders do with their hens
and chickens. Much depends on whether grass
is long or short, and upon the season. All
agree that too many must not be allowed in
one field or lot, and that it is better if there
have been no turkeys in that lot the year before,
when the birds are reared in great numbers ; of
course a brood or two ranging over the whole
farm produce no ill effects.

The best English practice, it will thus be
seen, does not really differ in any essential point
from the best American, and so far as it does
so at all, that difference is necessitated by the
far greater liability to rain-storms in this
country. A few people may still roost their
breeding stock in close houses, and shut over-
crowded broods into close coops on foul ground,
and such folly must of course be often followed
by disaster. But the more intelligent and
successful English breeders either use open-
fronted coops or open sheds, get their broods
" out " as soon as possible, to roost out of doors,
and so far as practicable try to rear each year
upon a fresh field or part of the farm, taking a
crop before young turkeys are turned upon it
again. This cannot, however, always be done
in a thickly-populated country like England,
and in some places a system of disinfection is
practised which appears to be effectual. Un-
slaked lime is scattered freely over the grass
on a dry day, and left for about a week. Then

546

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

it is scratched over by a harrow or rake, and
a layer about half an inch thick put upon it of
well-decayed farm manure, ashes, road-scrap-
ings, or even arable soil if there is nothing else.
This promotes a free growth of fresh grass,
and next spring the ground is found sweet
and recuperated.

Where there is covert, nothing may be
needed in the way of shelter after the poults
are once well upon their legs ; but on ?iny
ordinary farm some available shelter from wet
is found as necessary as ever, to which the
young ones can be driven when the necessity
arises. This danger remains till they have
" shot the red " about their heads, which is
generally at about ten weeks old. In some
parts of France, whence so many birds come
to the London market, sheds with dry boarded
floors, and even garrets, are still used for the
young birds, and the breeders affirm that with-
out these they lose their birds from colds or
cramp. Much of all this, as repeatedly ex-
plained, will depend on whether the turkeys
belong to the more domestic or semi-wild races,
the Bronze breed thriving where Norfolks would
perish, and vice versA.

There are somewhat similar differences re-
garding the feeding of turkey chicks, but here
again thought and intelligence will disentangle
the real essentials. The chicks at
Fading fj^g,- seem stupid at picking up food.

Chicks. and some breeders are still accus-

tomed to put one or two eggs from
large fowls under the mother about the seventh
day, so as to hatch with the others and " teach "
them to feed. This may be useful, and there
is at all events no harm in it ; but our later
observations incline us to the opinion that the
turkey chick goes longer than other chickens
before requiring food, and is perhaps slower to
eat because less hungry. The majority of
breeders in both hemispheres feed for the first
two or three days upon a mixture of chopped
hard-boiled egg and stale bread-crumbs. A few
mix raw egg with the bread-crumb (which must
always be stale), and some American breeders
prefer bread-crumb soaked in milk and squeezed
dry, or squeezed curd. The fact is that the
young turkey chicks are (at least under artificial
feeding) particularly prone to a slightly inflam-
matory irritation of the intestines, tending to
diarrhcea, which has constantly to be guarded
against, and is, next to wet, the greatest peril
of their early lives. The egg should be left
off gradually, substituting some Spratt, or meal
mixed with rice boiled in milk, with some kind
of minced animal food or cut bone. Gradually
a little grain may be added, but soft food should

predominate for some weeks, and be given in
fair proportion throughout. A rather favourite
American diet is Indian-corn meal and curd
made from sour milk, a little cracked corn, and
wheat once a day. While penned up, it is
better to give them in addition some chopped
dandelion or lettuce leaves : the wild birds seem
to prefer dandelion to all other green food, and
there are no doubt reasons for this. The chicks
much enjoy the minced leaves, and seem in
general to thrive better with a supply of such
salad besides their food ; yet there are occa-
sional exceptions to even this, and we remember
one breeder writing that he never could give his
chicks such green food without starting the
dreaded diarrhoea, while he got along all right
so long as he reared them without any till they
could get it for themselves. We never could
get at the reason for this ; but any breeder
would be foolish to disregard such experience,
and there will always be an individuality about
the birds on any given farm, which may require
study and allowance of this kind.

Broadly and generally, however, in England
most success will follow feeding as above, and
cooping the hen under cover for three or four
weeks, either in a very large roofed coop with a
dry wooden floor, or under a shed. Where
coops are used, in the open, it will be all the
better to move them at intervals ; and by
degrees of course the food will be brought
round to rougher diet, avoiding too " soft " or
new grain as tending to looseness. We have
more doubt about egg-food than in former
years, and in case of any diarrhcea appearing,
would omit it at once, substituting some Spratt
mixed with rice boiled in milk, or even in water,
but so as not to be too soft, and if necessary
sprinkling on" the food a little powdered chalk.
Some still give chopped onions, but we think
this a mistake.

By far the most important general rule, is to
feed often, but to feed sparingly. Above almost
all chickens, young turkeys require to be kept
on the move, and to eat little at a time, and
while walking about, so far as possible. Full
feeding, of any kind, always upsets their
digestive system before very long ; and we
suspect that such disasters as occur under the
older methods of rearing have been far more
often owing to either this cause, or to insect
vermin, than to any other.

This latter pest must throughout be guarded
against, and it is largely because American
breeders have at last become so fully alive to it
as a cause of weakness and death, that their
results have so much improved over those of
former years. The British climate is not so apt

FEEDING YOUNG TURKEYS.

547

to encourage insects; still we have seen flocks of
young birds obviously pining from this cause.
Such should always be caught and examined,
and if necessary energetically treated, either by
using volatile insecticide in a large box, or by
powdered sulphur or insect powder. One great
advantage of the more open-air system is that it
keeps the poults more free from this danger.

Another point to be borne in mind is that
young turkeys, as indeed old ones also, specially
require abundance of grit. Plenty of gravel or
other grit should always be provided near their
coop or shed, and it will be seen that they take
a rather surprising quantity of it. Grit should
also be well scattered over the grass near the
coop. Some believe that coarsely crushed
charcoal amongst the grit is an advantage : we
can testify to its being eaten, at all events. With
plenty of grit, and very sparing but frequent
feeding upon good food, on clean ground, most
of the supposed difficulties of rearing young
turkeys will be found to disappear, and they will
make even larger frames than if fed more freely.
This kind of feeding is the more necessary
because they are eager feeders, and if allowed to
eat to repletion, suffer as above indicated.

Some American breeders mi.x a portion of
red pepper in the food of the young birds, and
believe them to do better with it. They state,
that if allowed the chicks will attack pods of red
pepper eagerly ; and it is just possible that the
old popular superstition of putting a peppercorn
down the throat of each poult may have been
origi^ially based upon some such observation.
The condiment prescription No. 2, given on page
1 99, may be of considerable service if used with
discretion, giving it only to chicks that seem
flagging, or on wet days. It is used by many
turkey-raisers in France, for whom it was origin-
ally devised by a French chemist, who also
raised turkeys himself, and who found its value
in bringing his birds through the critical weeks
before the "shooting of the red."

In America many turkeys get no feeding at
all during the summer, after being turned loose ;
and many others only a feed of corn at night,
given partly to supplement what they pick up,
and partly to keep them in the habit of coming
home : they make their growth on vegetable
food and insects, and are found to be larger as
well as more healthy in the fall. On English farms
they would not often get enough in this way,
though they will make splendid birds when
allowed to run wild on unlimited space in park
or covert. In some places it is still customary
for large farmers to buy young birds from the
smaller ones about the end of August, and turn
them into the stubbles, where they can get

plenty of food for some time ; but this plan is
less followed since other poultry are kept so
much more largely upon the farms. As a rule
English turkeys have to be regularly fed, and
the best breeders continue some soft food till the
poults are at least four months old, and even
longer, though gradually more grain is given in
proportion. Ground oats and skim milk, and
whole white oats, make the whitest flesh, and
turkeys thus fed present the best appearance ;
but in some districts this food would be too
expensive. They ought not to be allowed to
feed themselves really fat until the time for the
final fattening approaches ; such as fatten too
early not being later on so fine in quality, and
being seldom so fine in frame. The great
object during the earlier months should be to
keep in vigorous health and to make frame,
towards which some cut bone is a great
assistance.

About six to eight weeks old, when nearly
feathered, the poults will begin to try to perch
about on walls and fences, and should be
encouraged, if at all convenient, to roost either
in trees or on the beams of some open shed.
They should not be crowded too many together,
and as they grow up, should be sorted out a
little, and those to be kept for stock taken out
from the rest. Once having " shot the red " and
got fairly started on their open-air life, they are
extremely hardy as regards any weather, and no
further anxiety need be felt on that score ; if on
the other hand shut up to roost in closed houses,
there is likely to be a great deal of trouble from
colds and " swelled head." This last complaint
is the form in which loss most frequently occurs
in rearing turkeys, and is doubtless the turkey
form of catarrhal roup. The best treatment is
to pen the birds in a large barn or shed with
plenty of air, but no draughts, fomenting the
heads with hot water in which poppy heads are
infused, and giving either mild doses of Epsom
salts, or almost any approved roup pills, but
dividing these so as to give smaller doses not
less than four times a day. This complaint
usually occurs only in birds too much confined
at night, scarcely ever attacking such as roost
out of doors, or in a tall shed entirely open on
one side to the weather. The other most usual
trouble of intestinal irritation or diarrhoea has
already been mentioned, together with the
methods by which it can be warded off. In
some places large flocks are still placed under
the care of a boy, and driven some distance
from their roosting place to any good foraging
ground. If the space is ample this system pays
very well, as the birds need little other feeding
until the time for fattening arrivcb, but it only

548

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

answers upon really wide and good range. It
will be seen that circumstances and appropriate
management may differ in many details which
it is impossible to specify, but which intelli-
gence will grasp and turn to account.

A disease among turkeys that has ravaged
whole flocks in Rhode Island (America) and
adjoining districts, and which has occurred
with disastrous results in Australia,
"Blackhead" is that known as Blackhead. So
in Turkeys, far, fortunately, the complaint has
not troubled English rearers ; but
since importations of American stock are some-
times made into Great Britain, the importer of
American turkeys should as a precautionary
measure quarantine his newly-arrived birds.
The name blackhead was given to the disease
(scientifically known as Infectious Entro-
hepatitis), which originated in America, owing
to the fact that at a certain stage the affected
turkey's head turns quite black. About the
year 1894 the disease spread with such alarm-
ing rapidity, and decimated so many large
flocks, that Dr. Theobald Smith was requested
by the United States Department of Agricul-
ture to make investigations concerning it ; and
he subsequently reported that it was caused by
protozoa, a low form of microscopic life. He
likened the disease to amebic dysentery in the
human subject, and stated that it is charac-
terised by large sores in the ceca and liver.

Treating of the disease in a bulletin issued
by the Rhode Island Experiment Station, Mr.
Cooper Curtice says : " The majority of young
poults die after a day or two of droopiness.
Adults may droop longer, and pass into
chronic stages of the disease. Refusal to eat
and standing apart constitute late symptoms.
When the disease in the cecum is slight, it is
doubtful if the affected birds have diarrhoea,
which is more or less present in other cases.
In many of the older poults the droppings
will be liquid and stained orange-yellow ; this
is the most characteristic symptom of all. . . .
When yards are infected, two weeks will suffice
for the ameba to kill very young poults, three
weeks suffice for killing older ones, and
scarcely a longer period is required for adults.
. . . One point of interest to turkey-raisers
is that the experiments show that four-fifths of
the young poults exposed to infected yards
die before they are six weeks old. . . . The
amebEe are transmitted from diseased turkeys
to others through the droppings, which con-
taminate the food with which they come in
contact. Evidence obtained here indicates that
the amebas may also be carried by ordinary
fowl, and may be transmitted by them to

turkeys in the same manner. . . . The evi-
dence at hand indicates that turkeys may con-
tract blackhead disease at any time of life.
While the disease is usually fatal upon the
first infection, both poults and adults may
contract it, recover, and finally die during
another attack in a subsequent year. These
facts seem to indicate that immunity is not
acquired by previous disease nor by age. . . .
The fact that the common hen rarely succumbs
to the disease, but occasionally has it, demon-
strates that she would be an admirable natural
host for the parasite. Every fact so far
learned adds a link to the circumstantial evi-
dence that may convict her as a carrier of the
disease organism. If this be the case, hens
and turkeys should neither live together nor
be near neighbours. ... In despair the
poultryman asks if there is not something he
can give to cure the turkeys. There is as j^et
no known efficacious remedy, and there is
probably no medicinal remedy discoverable
which can be economically administered. . . .
Although nostrums are wanted, and will be
demanded by the breeder, his way to success
will be in the eradication and prevention of the
disease rather than in employing specific pre-
parations from which only the holder of the
formula and the dealers are likely to profit.
. . . Since the blackhead disease seems to
have been prevented in large part by dryness
of the surroundings, it is apparent that sandy,
well-drained lands afford better advantages
for raising turkeys than the heavier, moist clay
lands, and hence the former situations should
be chosen. The turkey attendant should not
attend the ordinary fowls unless he under-
stands the danger of carrying infection to the
turkeys, and provides against it. Above all,
the turkeys should be kept away from the hen
yards and farmhouse at all times, or, if this
is impracticable, the ordinary fowl should be
kept within fenced enclosures to which the
turkeys can never gain access, and care should
be taken not to have the turkeys near the
boundaries of such enclosures by feeding them
at such points."

On farms where blackhead has existed, the
following measures are recommended to be
adopted by Mr. G. Bradshaw, in a Farmers'
Bulletin, issued by the New South Wales
Department of Agriculture : — The liberal use
of slaked lime in the yards previously occupied
by the diseased turkeys. The following is a
serviceable disinfectant: Crude carbolic acid,
half a gallon; crude sulphuric acid, half a
gallon. These two substances should be mixed
in tubs or glass vessels. The sulphuric acid

FATTENING TURKEYS 10 R MARKET.

549

is very slowly added to the carbolic acid.
During the mixing a large amount of heat is
developed. The disinfecting power of the
mixture is heightened, if the amount of heat is
kept down, by placing the tub or glass vessel
containing the carbolic acid in cold water while
the sulphuric acid is being added. The result-
ing mixture is added to water in the ratio of
I to 20. One gallon of mixed acids will thus
furnish twenty-one gallons of a strong disin-
fecting solution, having a slightly milky ap-
pearance. It is quite corrosive, and care should
be taken to protect the eyes from accidental
splashing.

The houses, roosts, yards, and other places
over which the turkeys have had access should
receive one or two liberal douchings with the
above, and rearing be not again attempted till
six months after the last douching, and care
should be exercised that new stock should come
from unaffected yards.

As they approach full growth, turkeys are
prepared for market in various ways. Those
which have been well fed for growth and frame
can be brought to the highest pos-
Fattening sible condition by merely confining
ur eys or (-]i-,gjj^ (-q somewhat smaller range,
and feeding them freely twice a day
on ground oats mixed with milk, with a full
feed of whole oats at night. This is not a very
general plan, but we can vouch for the excel-
lence of the results. Some feeders add to the
meal diet, carrots boiled in lard and sliced up ;
some give one meal of thick oatmeal porridge.
In Norfolk the usual plan is to confine the
fattening birds in a shed, or hovel walled with
furze to keep the draught out while giving air,
with peat moss or other clean litter pretty deep
on the ground. A usual mi.xture for feeding
is oatmeal, barley-meal, and Indian-meal in
equal proportions, with house-scraps and boiled
carrots and other vegetables, mixed with skim
milk where this can be had, as it whitens the
flesh. During the last fortnight some fat or
suet rendered from butchers' scraps is often
added to the meal. In some sheds two meals
per day only are given, as with Sussex fowls,
and the sheds kept in semi-darkness between
meals, the birds being only let out for a few
minutes before each feed to stretch their legs ;
in others they are allowed daylight, and fed
oftener, say three times a day. Grit is always
supplied freely, and the birds generally roost
on perches, all on the same level at about
thirty inches from the ground. Many excellent
turkeys come to market which have never been
confined at all, but simply fed well three times
a day for some weeks before killing.

In Normandy a few birds are shut up, but
not many. The usual plan there is to cram
them every morning and evening, driving them
out on to the pastures during the day. They
are crammed with boluses composed of barley
flour (i.e. most of the husk taken out) and
potatoes, with some minced grass and a little
bran — these are dipped in milk before being
placed down the throats of the birds. One
point in which Continental raisers surpass
many in England, though the large British
raisers also give attention to it, is in the
grading or sizing of their produce. They con-
tract to deliver so many birds of a definite
average weight, and thus the dealer knows
what he will be receiving when the time comes.
Two or three fine birds among a dozen or two
small ones never fetch their value ; what im-
presses a London market salesman is the char-
acter of the lot as such, and far too little
importance has been attached to this matter.

Turkeys are usually killed in England by
dislocating the neck, and plucked while warm
like Sussex fowls ; the large wing feathers must
be plucked quickly, or there is great difficulty
in drawing them. Some people think the flesh
is whiter and more delicate if the birds are
bled, which is very usual in America and on
the Continent ; but this plan loses weight.

Turkeys meant for exhibition should not be
unduly fattened. The birds will of course have
been selected carefully, both as regards the
perfection of their plumage and
Exhibiting large frames, since it is the apparent
Turkeys. size of a turkey rather than mere

weight which tells most in a pen.
They should be fed carefully and systematic-
ally for this, but kept among their hardy sur-
roundings till late in the season — after that
they should be gradually accustomed to some-
what closer quarters, and be occasionally
penned. They usually take to this discipline
very well, being quite conscious of the admira-
tion which they excite. As soon as confined, a
portion of dandelion or lettuce should form
part of their diet, and good sharp grit not be
forgotten. The plumage of dark breeds will
always be in good condition if the birds are
healthy, and washing removes the wonderful
gloss ; only the heads and legs should therefore
be cleansed. White birds must of course be
dealt with according to circumstances ; but,
unlike fowls, even these are often clean enough
to pass muster.

Crested turkeys have been mentioned by
various naturalists ; but all attempts to breed
them true to this point having failed, the
crests must be considered to be merely acci-

SSo

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

dental sports. Various specimens of these have
been found from time to time, and have been
bred from, but have hitherto failed to produce
any crested progeny. The experiment has been
tried both by Mr. Simpson in America and
by Mr. Tegetmeier in this country, but both
gentlemen failed to produce even a trace of a
crest. The crest, therefore, remains as an
accidental " sport," and nothing more ; though
Temminck states that Maaame Backer had a
whole flock of crested turkeys in her aviary
at the Hague.

Nearly all good shows have classes for tur-
keys ; but where there is only one for each sex,
it is almost useless to exhibit anything but the
Bronze, though now and then we have seen a
fine White come in for second or third prize.
They used to be judged mainly by weight at
Birmingham ; but that is a thing of the past.
The real or apparent size is, of course, of
great importance, but mere excessive weight is
not now encouraged, as it spoils the bird for
breeding. Below is the standard of the Poultry
Club for these birds.

GENERAIv CHARACTERISTICS

Head. • — Long and broad, and carunculated
(covered with fleshy protuberances). Beak : Strong,
curved, well set in the head. Eyes : Full. Throat
Wattle : Large and pendent.

Neck. — Long, curving backward toward the tail,
the top and most of the front carunculated.

Body. — Long, deep through the centre, and well
rounded. Breast : Broad and full ; the cock's
beard long, bristling, and prominent. Back : Some-
what curving, rising from the neck to the centre
and descending in a graceful curve to the tail. Wings :
Large and powerful, carried well up and closely to
the sides.

Tail. — Long and drooping, the end almost touch-
ing the ground.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Long, stout, and strong.
Toes : Straight and strong.

Weight. — Black cock, 27 lb. ; hen. 18 lb. Bronze
cock, 36 lb. ; hen, 20 lb. White cock, 26 lb. ; hen,
16 lb.

Carriage. — Stately' and upright.

Plumage. — Hard and glossy.

COLOUR

THE BL.iVCK

Beak : Dark horn or slate black. Eyes : Dark
hazel. Head (including Face, Jaius, Throat Wattle,
and Caruncles) : Brilhant red, changeable to blue-
white. Legs and Feet : Dark lead or slate black.

Plumage. — Lustrous black.

THE BROKZE

Beak : Light horn at the tip and dark at the
base. Eyes and Head : As in the Black. Legs and
Feet : Black, approaching brown in young birds,
of a pink hue or flesh in adults.

Plumage of the Cock. — Neck : Light brilliant
bronze. Beard : Black. Back : Light brilhant

bronze, each feather terminating in a narrow black
band extending across the end. Breast : Dark
brilhant bronze. Body : Black, shaded with bronze,
but not so brilliant as that of the breast. Wings :
Bows, black, with a brilhant bronze or green lustre ;
coverts, rich bronze, the feathers terminating in a
wide black band, and forming a broad bronze band
across the wings when folded, and separated from
the primaries by a glossy black ribbon-like mark,
formed by the ends of the coverts ; primaries,
black or dark brown, pencilled across with bars of
white or gre}^ the more evenly and regularly the
better ; secondaries, similar to the primaries, the
colours clianging to a bronze brown as the middle
of the back is approached, but with httle admixture
of white ; an edging of white or brown on the
primaries or secondaries is verj^ objectionable. Tail :
Dull black, each feather regularly pencilled with
narrow bands of brown, ending in a broad black
band with a wide edging of dull white or grey, the
coverts dull black or dark brown, each feather
regularly pencilled with narrow bands of brown,
ending in a wide black and bronze band extending
across the feather, with a wide edging of white or
grey.

(Note: The more distinct the colours throughout
the whole plumage, the better.)

Plumage of the Hen. — Similar to that of the cock
(but not so brilhant nor so clearly defined) except
an edging of white on the feathers of the back,
breast, bod)^ and wing-bows, the edging to be
narrow in front and gradually widen as it ap-
proaches the rear.

THE white

Beak : Pink or flesh. Eyes and Head : As in
the Black. Legs and Feet : White or pink-white.

Plumage. — Pure white ; cock's beard, deep black.

SCALE OF POINTS

Type . .

Colour

Weight

Head and wattle

Legs and feet

Condition

30

Serious defects : Wry tail ; crooked breast-bone ;
any deformity. In the Black : feathers of any other
colour ; cocks weighing less than 20 lb., and hens
less than 12 lb. In the Bronze : white feathers in
any part ; wings clear black or brown, or minus
wMte or grey bars more than one-Iialf the length
of the primaries ; back, tail or tail coverts clear
black, brown, or grey ; cocks weighing less than
30 lb., and hens less than 18 lb. In the White :
feathers of any other colour ; legs other than white
or pink-wliite ; cocks weighing less than 20 lb.,
and hens less than 12 lb.

THE GUINEA FOWL.
Under the general head of Guinea fowls, or
the genus Ntunida, naturalists have grouped
many wild varieties ; but the fact that all be-
long to some part of Africa, makes a common

THE GUINEA FOWL.

551

origin almost certain. Many of these sub-races
have been crossed, and we believe in every
case the progeny have proved fertile. Of these
various races of Guinea fowls, some have a
peculiar bony helmet on the top of the head ;
others have this replaced by a crest of feathers,
the shape and size of which crest varies ; and
in a third section which appears to have
more distinctiveness, there is neither crest nor
helmet, and such a general resemblance to the
vulture that the bird has been graphically
termed the Vulturine Guinea Fowl.

To the first or helmeted group belongs
the common Guinea Fowl of West Africa, or
Nitmida tnclcagris, long regarded as the original
of our domestic race. Some author-
Wild ities have objected to this view, on
Varieties. the ground that as the bird is ad-
mitted to have been known to the
Romans, and they had more intercourse with
the Egyptian side of the great African
continent, one of the varieties common in
Abyssinia is more likely to have been the
original. It may have been so with the Roman
birds ; but in regard to the present European
stock, not only is the name entitled to
weight in a case of this kind, but at Bristol,
which is a considerable centre of the West
African trade, we have on many occasions seen
Guinea fowls perched on the rigging of African
vessels, brought from the coast by sailors ;
and in every case these birds were obviously
identical with the domestic breed, both in head
and plumage, being only somewhat slighter
in build.

The wild crested varieties are chiefly found
in Eastern and Central Africa, though one or
two are known en the West Coast. They have
black crests instead of the bony casque, the
spots are blue instead of white, and the necks
and wattles are more or less blue. Specimens
are sometimes to be found at the Zoological
Gardens in Regent's Park, London, and some
have been so beautiful as to give interest to
the probable prospect of their becoming better
known with the opening up of Uganda.

The finest variety of Guinea fowls belongs
to the class with neither helmet nor crest, and
is known as the Royal Vulturine Guinea fowl.
The neck and tail are very long in comparison
with the common variety, and the other points
have been described as follows : The head and
upper part of the throat are destitute of feathers,
the lower part of the neck ornamented with
long, lanceolate, and flowing feathers, having
a broad stripe of white down the centre, to
which on each side succeeds a line of dull
black, finely dotted with white, and margined

with fine blue. The feathers of the inferior
part of the back are of similar form, but
broader, with a narrower line of white down
the centre, and with the minute white dots
disposed in irregular and obliquely transverse
lines. The wing-coverts, back, rump, tail, under
tail-coverts, and thighs, are blackish brown,
ornamented with numerous spots of white sur-
rounded by circles of black, the intermediate
spaces being filled by very minute spots of
white ; the primaries are brown, with light
shafts and spots of brownish white on the
outer web ; the secondaries brownish black on
the tips, with three imperfect lines of white
disposed lengthwise on the outer web, and
three rows of spots of white on the inner
web ; the breast and sides of the abdomen
are of a beautiful metallic blue, the centre of
the abdomen black, the flanks dull pink, with
numerous spots of white surrounded by circles
of black. Mr. Gould writes of this magnificent
variety of Guinea fowl : " It is certainly one
of the most noble birds that has been dis-
covered for some years." It is the long neck
adorned with lanceolate feathers, the absence
of casque or crest, and the long tail and legs,
which give it so strange a resemblance to the
vulture. It has been introduced into one or
two menageries ; but appears more delicate
in cold situations than any of the preceding
kinds.

As a rule the common Guinea fowl is
very uniform in colour, the wattles being red,
the neck bare near the head, with a great
deal of white about it and a thin mane of
bristles behind, and the general plumage
marked with small round white spots all over
a very dark purplish grey ground. Variations
do, however, occur in a state of domestica-
tion. In some birds the spots have almost
disappeared : in a few the colour is reversed,
the spots being dark and the ground-colour
light grey : quite white birds are also known
(Ellis mentions white ones in Madagascar) ;
and from crosses of these last, pied fowls have
been produced. The birds are smaller than
they appear, rarely weighing more than 3i lbs. ;
but the bones are small and fine also. The
flesh is dark, but very delicate, and of a
gamey flavour : for this reason the birds are
most in demand about February or March,
when game is going out, and spring chickens
are scarce and dear. At this season from 5s.
to 7s. per couple is sometimes realised for
plump birds, but the demand so far has been
limited : possibly it might be increased by a
regular supply.

But for this limited demand, Guinea Fowls

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

would be very profitable poultry in some
localities, being best of all adapted to the
" let alone " system on a farm, where they
will find nearly all their own living, laying
about seventy eggs a year, and devouring more
insects than any other poultry, for practically
no cost in food. But there is at present no
great market for them ; and their eggs are
small, and very apt to be laid away and get
either lost or stale in such circumstances.
The cocks are also very pugnacious with other
poultry, driving them away from their food.

twenty-eight days. The chicks are small, and
rather delicate as regards damp ; and having
very small crops, require feeding not less than

six times a day. Until they can
Breeding roam about, they require a fair pro-
Guinea Fowls, portion of animal food, and plenty

of succulent green food. They should
at first be confined to a small wired grass-
run, shifted every two days, or they may run
away and get lost. After they are large and
strong enough to range about, they require little
feeding. Ihis should be given them with the

The Common Guinea Fowl

Given, however, any steady demand for young
birds, Guinea fowls will pay very well indeed.
It should perhaps be remarked, that while
generally most saleable at the season above
mentioned, they are really more delicious and
tender if eaten in late autumn and winter, when
they are younger. Birds eaten then, of course,
save their keep through the winter ; but though
a delicious dish at home, at that time of year
there is little market demand for such small birds.
A stock of Guinea fowls should be commenced
from eggs, not from purchased birds, and these
should be hatched under hens, when they grow up
much more tame. The normal time for hatch-
ing is twenty-six days, extending sometimes to

other fowls, when they will come back to the
yard at night ; and if the fowl-hftuse is large and
lofty, or, still better, if a large and lofty one
can be given up to them, with high perches,
they are readily taught to roost at home.

The wild bird is monogamous ; in domes-
tication two hens may be allowed to each cock ;
more than this sometimes succeeds, but nearly
as often fails. The cock closely resembles the
hen, but is generally slightly larger, has_ larger
wattles, his voice is a more shrill shriek instead
of the female's well-known " come-back " note,
and he has a peculiar habit of strutting on tip-
toe, and arching his back. The hen begins_ to
lay from the end of March in very warm spring

KING SOLOMON'S PEA FOWL.

553

seasons, to the middle of May in colder ones, and
seldom lays less than sixty eggs, going occasion-
ally as high as over a hundred, according to the
locality and supply of insect food : she continues
till about the end of August. This supposes
them to roost in a house, which they prefer to
do in really bad weather, and if brought up to it.
The eggs are rather small, with pointed ends, of
a very rich colour and fine flavour ; and if col-
lected fresh, sometimes find a good and regular
market at first-class shops, packed in dozen
baskets with a little moss, like the eggs of some
game birds. Of course the earlier eggs, in April
and early May, should be used for breeding, and
the Guinea hen herself seldom becomes broody
till late in summer, if the eggs are gathered
daily, leaving only one in the nest. If they
are to lay in the house, some pains should be
spent, as with turkeys, to arrange nests which
are not only secluded, but look naturally so :
otherwise care must be taken to regularly visit
all likely places about the farm.

All writers have noticed the good qualities of
Guinea fowls as night-guards. No strange person
or noise escapes them ; and then their screaming
is not only effectual, but calculated of itself to
frighten off any evilly disposed marauder.

The common Guinea fowl is now found wild in
the Cape de Verde Islands, and also in Jamaica,
to both of which there is no doubt it was taken
from Africa. Any covert, in a fairly warm and
dry locality, can be readily "swarmed" with them,
and they then become very wild and shy ; hence
many attempts have been made to utilise them
as game birds. Such attempts have, however,
always had to be given up, as the Guinea fowls
displaced all other game from the covert, while
themselves, as Mr. Hewitt wrote us long ago,
running before dogs like a corn-crake, and hence
affording no sport. They are essentially mere
domestic poultry, but suitable only for certain
markets and circumstances.

Hybrids have occurred between the Guinea
fowl and common poultry : we knew of one with
a Dark Brahma hen. The progeny in all such
cases is of course very wild and perfectly sterile.
The Guinea cock has also been known to cross
with small turkey hens occasionally. None of
these results are of any practical interest.

THE PEA FOWL.
If the references to the peacock in the two
parallel passages of Scripture, i Kings x. 22
and 2 Chron. ix. 21,* are correct translations
of the Hebrew Tnkiyynm, the bird has been
known from the earliest times ; and the question

* The passage in Job xxxix. 13 has an entirely different
word, which probably refers to the ostrich.

70

invests the pea fowl with a Biblical, historical,
and geographical interest greater than can be
attached to any other bird, since upon its
answer depends the destination of Solomon's
voyages, and the locality of that Ophir to
which they are said to have been directed.
As every one of the various products named
in these verses except the Tukiyyun could
have been obtained from either Arabia, Africa,
or India, the whole of this interesting question
almost entirely depends upon what creature is
meant by the Hebrew word. This word has
been supposed by Hebrew scholars to be
derived from a foreign root, signifying " tufted,"
or " crested " ; and although the Peacock is
crested, it has been objected that the crest is
far from being so conspicuous a characteristic
as the gorgeous plumes. Hence a crested
parrot has been conjectured by those who
would place Ophir in Africa ; but it does not
appear that the ancients were acquainted with
parrots, and much less with any crested parrot,
till long after. Besides other indications, how-
ever, which may point to Ophir being in the
East Indies, the natives of Malacca still call
their gold mines opiiirs (De Poivre); and in
Malabar the peacock is still called Togei, and
in one of the Indian dialects, Tikki, which
word furnishes a very probable origin for the
Hebrew Tfikiyyitn, and seems to show that
the name was brought along with the bird to
which it belonged, from the place of origin.
In such a case this is very likely to have
occurred ; that such a gorgeous bird should
be sought for and valued by a magnificent
monarch like Soloinon, who is expressly
stated to have taken special interest in natural
history, is highly probable ; and on all these
grounds, it is considered far the most likely
that Solomon really was nearly or quite the
first to import this beautiful bird from the
East, and that some southern region of the
Indies was the locality from which both it and
the other precious products enumerated were
procured. If such conclusions be correct, it
will be observed that they clearly point to
Solomon as the first importer of fancy poultry,
and, singularly enough, from the very same
region whence the most striking of our own
more modern varieties have been obtained.

The pea fowl, as will be gathered from the
preceding paragraphs, is found exclusively in
Eastern Asia, in which it has, however, a pretty
wide range, extending through part of China, the
whole of India, and the adjacent islands. It is
found in three natural or wild varieties.

The common pea fowl {Pavo cristatiis) is
so well known as scarcely to need description.

554

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

The head, neck, and breast of the male are
a rich purple, with beautiful blue reflections,
the head having an aigrette or crest com-
posed of twenty-four feathers, which
Varieties ^''^ °"'y webbed at the tip,
of where they show blue and green

Pea Fowl. reflections, j The back is green,
with a copper-coloured lacing
to the feathers ; the wings whitish, striped or
barred with black, gradually shading into deep
blue. The primaries and true tail-feathers are
a dark rich chestnut ; but the feathers of the
train are glossy green, ocellated at the tips.
These feathers, commonly called the " tail,"
are not really tail-feathers, but tail-coverts,
springing from the back, the true tail being
under them, and serving to support them when
erected. The thighs are generally greyish, and
the belly and rump black. The eyes are dark
hazel, pearled round the edges, and legs brown,
spurred as in the common fowl. The neck is
very long, slender, and snaky, and the head
small in proportion to the body. The female
is much more subdued in colour, being of a
prevailing chestnut brown, variously shaded
on different parts of the body, and mottled
or shaded in places, especially about the wings
and tail, with dull or greyish white. She has
a crest like the male, but duller in colour and
not so tall. This variety is common through-
out India, Ceylon, and the adjacent islands.
In some parts of India Peacock-shooting is a
recognised sport ; while in others, and in some
parts of Ceylon, the birds are so plentiful as
to be cared little about. Colonel Williamson
writes : " In the Jungleterry districts, I have
seen such quantities of pea fowl as have ab-
solutely surprised me. Whole woods were
covered with their beautiful plumage, to which
a rising sun imparted additional brilliancy, and
I speak within bounds when I assert that
there could not be less than twelve or fifteen
hundred peafowl of various sizes within sight
of the spot where I stood for nearly an hour."
He also mentions the curious fact that wherever
Peacocks abound the tiger is generally found
also more near than convenient, so that
Peacock-shooting is by no means devoid of
danger.

The Japanese Peacock {Pavo muticns) differs
considerably in colour and some other points
from the ordinary bird. The crest on the
head is nearly twice as long, and the feathers
of which it is composed are also webbed or
barbed from their bases, instead of only at
the tips. The colour of the neck is a glossy
green, margined or laced with coppery gold,
and arranged not as ordinary neck-feathers in

most birds, but like the scales of a fish. The
metallic gloss is extraordinary, and far superior
to that on the other variety. On the back,
which is a rich copper-bronze marked with
bars of green and light brown, this lustre is
still more conspicuous. The shoulder-coverts
resemble those of the common bird, but are
a deeper and more intense blue ; the tail-
coverts or train are rich green, barred across,
or shot with gold and copper-bronze reflections.
In the breeding season, which commences about
March, these barred feathers are replaced by
other ocellated plumes, resembling those of the
Common Peacock, but with more bronze. The
hen is sober in colour, much like the preced-
ing variety. This magnificent Peacock inhabits
Burmah, Siam, Java, Sumatra, and Japan, but
is believed not to be found in India. The
two kinds breed freely, however, and the
progeny is fertile.

The Black-Winged Peacock {Pavo 7iigripen-
nis), was believed by Dr. Sclater **■ to be a
distinct species, on the ground that it pro-
pagates true to points. It differs from the
Common Peacock chiefly in the dark colour
of the ^'ings, from which it takes its name,
but the thighs are also of the same dark tint ;
the hens, on the contrary, are almost white,
with dark tails. Mr. Darwin has, however,
shown almost conclusively that it is merely
a " sport " from the Common, which has been
recorded on many occasions, and is probably
due to domestication. To the same cause are
due the white and pied sports occasionally seen.
Pea fowl are so rarely thought of now as
table poultry, that it is remarkable how most
historical notices of the bird are from a gastro-
nomic point of view. A favourite
Domestic dish of Vitellius was partly com-

PeaFowl. posed of the brains of Peacocks;
and Columella gives full directions
for their management. In 1254 Henry III.
offered a Peacock as a prize for " running at the
quintain." The whole bird was considered a
dainty dish, and a " pecok enhakyll " (mean-
ing with the train-feathers) is named by Fabian
as one of the dishes at the wedding-feast of
Henry VI. From a curious old MS. in the
Library of the Royal Society, we quote the
recipe for this noble dish, as follows : " For
a feste royal, pecokkes schol be dight on this
manere: Take and flee off the sk}-nne, with
the fedures, tayle, and the neck and head
thereon. Then take the skynne and all the
fedures, and lay it on a tabel abrode, and
straw thereon grounden comyn. Then take the
pecok and roste hym, and endore him with

* "Proceedings of Zoological Society," April 24th, iS6q,

Peacock.

'.i6

THE BOOK OF POULTIiY.

rawe yolkes of eggs ; and when he is rostecl
take hym off and let hym cole a whyle, and
take and sowe hym in his skynne, and gild
his combe, and so serve him forthe with the
last cours." According to the old play by
Massinger, called The City Madam, " The car-
cases of three fat wethers were bruised for
gravy to make sauce for a single peacock " ;
and it is plain enough that the royal bird was
the principal dish of the course. A young
pea fowl of either sex is, in fact, as delicious
eating as can possibly be.

But it is on the lawn, in the park, or in
a public garden that the Peacock finds its
proper place and displays its full beauty. It
can be confined in wire pens like the Pheasant ;
but unless these are very large, and well
furnished with shrubbery, it seldom breeds
well in such confinement, though some restric-
tion is advisable at first, while domesticating
birds in a new home. They do best where
they can make their own nests in a shrub-
bery, or piece of long grass left for them, and
can roost in the trees. When settled down they
will range round the house, but generally stay
near it, and if regularly fed become very tame,
tapping at the window and calling if their
morning feed is delayed. Where not regularly
fed, they wander much farther, and may get
lost. When full grown, they may have mash
in the morning and corn at night, like other
poultry, but practically will eat anything that
is at all eat'able. They are long-lived, and
have been recorded as reaching the age of
thirty years.

The wild bird is polygamous, and should
not have less than three hens, if possible, up
to as many as six being quite permissible.
They are spiteful and quarrelsome among other
poultry, and the cock will sometimes not only
kill, but eat, newly hatched chicks, if he has
the opportunity. Some cocks have been known
to attack children ; but this is very unusual,
and they usually are very tame as regards
human beings. They are not of full age, as
regards either size, or plumage, or fitness for
breeding, till two years old, and should not
be mated before. The hen may begin to lay
in March, or more probably April, and is the
best mother for her own chicks, as she goes

all the rest of the year with them, and they
need this long protection ; on this account it
does not answer to set the eggs under hens,
which leave them before they can bear it.
The number of eggs usually laid is eight or
ten, sometimes more. The nest of a hen should
never be disturbed, but when she leaves it —
which she usually proclaims by a shrill cry —
food and water should be given promptly.
The period of incubation varies from twenty-
eight to thirty days. The young chicks are
delicate as regards wet and wind, but should
be allowed to run about on dry soil, and be
given, if possible, some ants' eggs, worms, or
other live animal food, besides Spratt and oat-
meal mi.xed with milk. They will soon come
on to grain of different kinds, and be reared
afterwards with little trouble. On damp soil
they should not be attempted. The hen will
take care of them till about February, when
she beats them off at pairing time.

Pea fowl moult fast, and the cock especially
seems to droop more than other poultry, owing
no doubt to the immense amount of "feather
which he has to renew. The birds at this
time seek the deepest seclusion they can find,
and should be allowed it, providing nourishing
diet for them in proper places. If all goes
well, the moult is soon over, and they are
all right again. The male's plumes do not
reach their full size and beauty till the third
season.

Within the last few years there has been a
rather curious demand for Peacock feathers to
be sold for use (or abuse) as " ticklers " during
crowded rejoicings. The object cannot be com-
mended, and, indeed, it is to be hoped may be
hindered by the police ; but this odd and novel
market has had the effect of perceptibly
developing Peacock breeding in France in
order to supply it. Some of this has been
carried on upon ordinary lines ; but we are
informed that several breeders have kept the
birds in large pens to produce the eggs, which
are hatched in incubators, and the chicks reared
artificially. By artificial brooders the con-
tinued shelter which hens fail to afford can
be given to the chicks ; and, so far as the
method has been carried, it is stated to answer
very well.

557

CHAPTER XXXVII.

DUCKS AND ORNAMENTAL WATERFOWL.

WITH perhaps one exception (the Mus-
covy) the whole of the " farm " breeds
of ducks, and many of the others also,
are descended from the Wild duck or Mallard
(Anas boschas), which is distributed more widely
than perhaps any other bird over the entire
continent of Europe and a great part of North
America. Its range extends from the vicinity
of the pole in summer, to almost the torrid
zone in winter, the bird migrating regularly
towards the south on the approach of cold
weather, and returning with the summer to
northern regions. In the more southerly
countries it is a less frequent visitor, the tem-
perate latitudes being its favourite home ; but
it has been known to reach North Africa during
its winter migrations. Italy, Greece, and Spain
are however its most favourite winter quarters.
The colour of the Mallard resembles generally
that of the Rouen duck ; the shape is, however,
more slender and upright, and the habits much
more active.

Every year a singular change takes place in
the plumage of the Mallard drake, which, as
it is common not only to the Rouen, but to
nearly all varieties of ducks in which the
plumage of the male greatly differs from that
of the female, deserves special notice. It is
described by Waterton as follows : " About
the 24th of May the breast and back of the
drake exhibit the first appearance of a change
of colour. In a few days after this the curled
feathers above the tail drop out, and grey
feathers begin to appear amongst the lovely
green plumage which surrounds the eyes.
Every succeeding day now begins marks of
rapid change. By the 23rd of June scarcely
one green feather is to be seen on the head
and neck of the bird. By the 6th of July
every feather of the former brilliant plumage
has disappeared, and the male has received a
garb like that of the female, though of a some-
what darker tint. In the early part of August
this new plumage begins to drop off gradually,
and by the loth of October the drake will
appear again in all his rich magnificence of
dress, than which scarcely anything through-
out the whole wide field of nature can be
seen more lovely, or better arranged to charm
the eye of man." The dates mentioned are

of course subject to some variation, as Water-
ton observes, especially with domesticated and
other breeds.

Marshes and fens are the chief resorts of
the Wild duck ; and drainage and other forms
of cultivation have now driven it away from
many an old haunt where it formerly was a
regular visitant. To others, however, it still
comes in large numbers, and is taken in various
species of decoys, or shot by hundreds, espe-
cially in Lincolnshire. About March it pairs,
the wild bird being strictly monogamous. The
duck usually lays from seven to ten eggs,
making her nest of flags or sedges somewhere
near the water. She sits for twenty-eight days,
and the same period is common to all her
various descendants except some of the smaller
varieties, which, like Bantams among fowls,
often hatch in somewhat less. She sits with
great steadiness, and on leaving the nest
always covers her eggs carefully over with
leaves and grass. As soon as the duck begins
to sit, the drake leaves her, and joining the
others, begins the curious moult described.
Later on, when the young are partly grown,
the male rejoins his family, and several unite
to form one flock. They then remain together
till the autumn, when the whole colony fly in
consort to their warmer winter quarters. Dur-
ing this migration they generally fly in long
lines in the shape of the letter V, a mode of
flying which is more or less common to all the
waterfowl.

Wild ducks have often been domesticated,
eggs being taken and hatched under tame
ducks or hens, when they are brought up
with no difiiculty, though of course there is
some wildness of disposition. It is found that,
down to about the third and sometimes the
fourth generation, domesticated wild drakes
pair strictly like their ancestors, instead of
taking a small harem like the domestic varieties.
When thus domesticated, however, the progeny
after a while almost always begins to vary in
colour, showing in this way the origin of our
domestic races.

In treating these, it will be most convenient
to devote a few lines first to general habits
and management ; then to describe the prin-
cipal breeds which are exhibited and used for

55S

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

market purposes, and the methods chiefly used
in supplying the markets with this class of
poultry ; and finally to give such short account
as space will permit of the best known amongst
those exquisite varieties occasionally seen
at shows or on ornamental waters, and some
of which are among the most beautiful in
plumage of all the feathered tribes.

The house for a single pen of ducks need
only be a few feet square, and may be as freely
ventilated as desired, so that it is needless to
be particular about stopping every
General crack in the walls: the more air

of Duck™*"^ they have the better. The roof
should be tight, however, and the
chief requisite of all is a dry floor, as the birds
get cramp very quickly if this is not attended
to. The best floor for a duck-house is concrete,
sloping a little from the place where the birds
sleep ; another good plan is to make a floor of
slats raised two or three inches above the
ground, with half an inch of space between the
slats. On the floor dry straw is laid, on which
they sleep, and which must be renewed wholly
or in part whenever it is found wet or dirty. A
few bricks on the floor make as good nests as
anything, and some prefer none at all, the ducks
laying in the loose straw. It is generally the
best plan to shut laying ducks in the house till
nine or ten o'clock in the morning (they usually
lay early, and sometimes before light) as other-
wise they are apt to lay away anywhere, or even
in the water whilst swimming.

Though most of the ducklings reared for
market have never entered water in their lives,
breeding and exhibition stock require water, in
which copulation often takes place, and without
which the eggs are not fertile as a general rule,
though " dry " rearing in the United States has
produced strains that breed satisfactorily even if
not allowed to swim, and some dry-reared ducks
are found fertile in England also. Where there
is good range over farm or garden, however,
quite a small pond made of concrete, or by
sinking an iron cistern in the ground, will
suffice. A pen of ducks thus kept is useful in
a garden, eating many slugs and worms, and
doing little damage if fenced away from straw-
berries, of which they are specially fond. A
foot of wire netting is quite sufficient to confine
them anywhere, or a board stood up on its edge
will do the same.

It is usual to mate three or four ducks to
one drake, and the eggs are generally fertile,
except that the first dozen eggs which a duck
lays are very often not so. The birds are
almost always peaceable, and several pens will
agree perfectly well together. With good range,

stock birds do not require much feeding, as
they pick up a great deal in the water in the
shape of small molluscs, animalcula, and weed,
and also from the ground in the way of snails,
slugs, and worms ; in such circumstances a little
meal in the morning and grain in the evening
will suffice. When kept in smaller space more
food is required, and amongst this a portion of
animal food is absolutely necessary, far more
so than in the case of fowls, as nature intends
them to obtain a great deal of this description
of food, and without it they cannot thrive, much
less keep up a supply of eggs. Plenty of grit
must also be provided in such circumstances,
some being also placed in the trough of water.

A few ducks may be kept with profit, either
as providers of eggs, or of young birds. Where
ducklings are chiefly valued, the Aylesbury or
Pekin will generally pay best, or a cross between
the two ; where eggs are most desired, Pekins or
Indian Runners of good strains will lay as many
eggs in ji year as the laying breeds of fowls ; or
one of the Campbell varieties will be useful. The
young are much more easily reared than chickens,
having unfailing appetites, and growing much
faster, so that they are eatable at a much earlier
age. The eggs are much better set under hens as
a rule, and if the duck be placed in a pen by her-
self for a few days, her broody fit will go off and
she will soon lay again. It should be mentioned
that duck eggs are very often covered with a
sort of slime wiien laid (sometimes of quite a
different colour from the shell beneath), which,
if left on, sometimes hardens the shell so much
as to hinder hatching ; if this is apparent it
should be wiped off, either at once, or before
incubation, where the eggs are intended for that
purpose.

If a cosy house and bedding be provided
for the night, one hen can look after a
very large brood, the ducklings keeping them-
selves warm with much less brooding in com-
parison than chickens. They are generally fed
mainly on one part of chopped hard-boiled egg
mixed with two parts of stale bread-crumb, for
the first five or six day's, giving the food on a
board about every two hours, and adding twice
daily some green vegetables or weed chopped
up, of which they prefer lettuce to anything else.
A sod of turf may also be placed in front of the
coop when there is no grass run, of which they
will swallow a great deal of the earthy part as
well as of the green. Later on coarser grit
must be supplied, as for the old birds. After a
few days the egg and bread may be replaced by
Spratt and barleymeal, with which must be
mi.xed a fair portion of some animal food — it
matters little what — soaked dry meat or crissel,

AYLESBURY DUCKS.

559

boiled greaves chopped up, horse-flesh, or any
wholesome butcher's refuse, or a portion of fresh-
cut bone — any of these will suffice ; but, as
already explained, a fair proportion of such food
is absolutely necessary for rearing fine or healthy
ducklings. At a month old the five or six daily
feeds may come down to four, and at six or
seven weeks to three, leaving, however, in their
sleeping place, but not near their bed, some
grain in a shallow pan of water. They will
thrive just as well (if not better) hatched in an
incubator and reared in a brooder ; but food
must on no account ever be given in the inner
chamber, which must be kept clean and dry.

A few ducklings may be reared even for
exhibition in quite a small space, if it includes
an exercise yard, and a small pond. The best
time for hatching exhibition stock is March or
April. Those which promise best, either for
this purpose or as breeding stock, should be
picked out when a few weeks old, kept speci-
ally clean and dry at night, and given all the
exercise possible, feeding mainly for frame, with
nitrogenous food, and after three weeks old allow-
ing them to dabble in a large tin of water
kept indoors, if the pond outside is too cold
The remainder, which are only destined for
table, may be kept penned up, and forced on
with more fattening diet, on the same principles
as described presently in connection with larger
undertakings. Care must be taken to keep all
out of the hot sun, which produces in ducklings
a kind of sunstroke or heat apoplexy, and kills
many if exposed to it, besides spoiling the bill
in the case of Aylesburys. They also catch
cold and cramp readily, if left out in a shower
of rain before they are fledged, or allowed in
cold water too early. In nature, the duck takes
them to water at once, and the skin at once
gets hardened to it : but with a hen or incubator,
and at earlier seasons, this is not so, and they
get chilled.

The domestic varieties of ducks are much
more numerous than in 1861, when Mrs. Fer-
gusson Blair wrote in The Hemvife that " there

is not a great variety in our domestic
Aylesbury ducks ; only three distinct exhibition
Ducks. breeds exist, viz. the Aylesbury,

Rouen, and Buenos Ayres or East
Indian." Though, curiously enough, the last-
named has now practically disappeared, being re-
placed by the Cayuga, the list now would be twice
as long ; but the first place, at least in England,
must still be given to the Aylesbury breed,
named from the county town of Bucks, which
has for generations been the chief, and is still
the largest centre of the duck-rearing industry,

and where scarcely any other kind of duck is
thought of in connection with it.

The Aylesbury duck is long in the body,
which is carried horizontally, the legs appearing
almost in the middle. The neck is fine and
rather long, with a somewhat swan-like carriage,
the head a little snaky, with the bill long and
coming out straight like a woodcock's. The
most obvious characteristics to catch the eye
are the pure and spotless white of the plumage,
entirely free from the least yellow, which may
contaminate Pekin-crossed birds, and the delicate
colour of the bill, which should be a pale soft
pink, " like that of a lady's finger-nail." This
colour is partly the result of long and careful
breeding ; but there appears little doubt that
it is partly due also to constant scouring in a
fine shelly gravel found throughout the Vale of
Aylesbury about the streams and ponds, of
which the ducks are very fond ; and it is only
found in perfection when the birds are kept
out of much sun, and away from ferruginous
soil or foul water, which injures the colour
greatly. Left to wander at pleasure in other
localities, the progeny of the best stock will often
turn yellow in the bill, but it is found that this
can be prevented by care, and by placing in
their troughs abundance of fine white sharp
gravel. The legs are bright orange. The drake
differs in no respect from the duck, e.xcept in
being rather larger, and having two or three
curled feathers in his tail ; and at an early age
it is difficult to distinguish the sexes, as these
male feathers do not develop till the first moult.
As the young ones grow to the age of six or
eight weeks, however, the voice of the two sexes
will be found to differ, the ducks giving a dis-
tinct ''quack," whilst the note of the drake is
not a quack at all, but much fainter, and husky
in character.

In one respect the Aylesbury duck has
somewhat changed during recent years. As
we remember it in i860, and for some years
afterwards, it was not what duck-breeders term
"keeled" underneath the body. By degrees
this character was more and more cultivated,
from a desire to increase the massive look of
the birds, and at the present day the Standard
describes and requires keel — the term is self-
e.xplanatory — in exhibition birds. To a certain
moderate extent, while confined to a fairly deep
breast-bone, the point is useful ; but the present
exaggerated keel is disliked by market dealers,
and has had something to do with a partial dis-
placement of Aylesbury ducks by Pekins in the
London market. The average weight of good
stock is about 7 lbs. for drakes and 6 lbs. for
ducks, in ordinary condition at twelve months

S6o

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

old ; and such weights, if of large frame, are
quite large enough to breed from. The heavy
weights of lo lbs. and 9 lbs. seen at exhibitions
are obtained by forcing diet; and birds once fed
and fattened up to it are practically worthless
as breeding stock afterwards. As if that were
not enough, both these and other ducks are
often crammed before judging, or tempted to
eat a pound or more of raw sausages, or meat ;
or some exhibitors even provide a quantity of
live worms ! Some ducks have been killed in
this way, but a moderate quantity of uncooked
sausage, or something of the same kind, often
seems to pick up the birds and make them look
better in every way after the journey.

The bills of Aylesbury ducks kept for
exhibition require much care. If a bird with the
best of bills is allowed to grub about in filthy
places after the manner of its tribe, and be shut
up at night uncleansed, a very few days will dis-
colour it ; and a very few days of hot sun will
tan it perceptibly yellow. Show birds should
only be let out for an hour or two in morning
and evening, though the breeders must have
liberty even at the cost of tanning their bills, or
the eggs will fail. The houses must be kept
clean, and a pan of sharp white gravel and
water always kept in it, with some wheat to
induce them to scour in it freely. A young bill
is thus kept in order, but with age a coarse,
horny substance forms upon it, especially on a
bird with much liberty. Before exhibition this
is very carefully pared away with a sharp knife,
taking care not to trench upon the inner skin or
make it bleed. The bill is then smoothed with
fine sandpaper, and the duck kept in a darkish
house or pen for two or three weeks, with the
gravel and wheat above mentioned. This will
bring out a really good bill nearly as fresh as
ever. The bills of other varieties sometimes
need similar attention, though in less degree.

The special economic merits of the Aylesbury
duck are its size, its hardiness in all climates, and
above all its rapid and early maturity. Owing
to this quality of quick and early growth, many
are marketed at eight weeks old, and some
weigh as much as 4 lbs. at that age. The white
feathers are also of more value than coloured
ones. The colour of the eggs varies. Most
generally they are rather long and pointed, and
white, of a peculiarly pearly or transparent
quality, but others are green, and the same duck
will even lay eggs of one colour and then of the
other. Cream-coloured eggs are also not at all
uncommon. The eggs are thought by many,
more delicate in flavour than those of other
breeds. The ducklings when hatched are a
bright primrose yellow.

The Rouen duck closely resembles the wild
Mallard in its plumage, except that this has been
bred darker and richer. It is very probably cor-
rectly named from the city of Rouen,
Rouen Ducks, as ducks more or less resembling it in
colour are still plentiful in Normandy,
though not bred to such a precise standard of
feather, or so massive. In general conformation
the Rouen is somewhat shorter and deeper in
body than the Aylesbury, and considerably deeper
in keel. The bill should be long and broad and
straight,as in that breed, that of the duck, however,
being rather shorter than the drake's. The drake's
bill should be a greenish yellow with a black
bean at the tip, lead-colour amounting to dis-
qualification, and too bright a yellow being also
disliked. The head is a rich green, glossed with
purple, which extends down the neck to a
collar of pure white ; this does not quite meet at
the back, but must be clear and distinct so far as
it goes. The breast is a rich deep claret extend-
ing down well below the water-line, and free
from the fine white lacing which is called by
breeders " chain armour." There it joins the
delicate French grey of the flanks and under
parts, which should extend to under the tail, any
pure white under the tail being a great objection.
This French grey is minutely pencilled all over
with fine black lines. The back is a rich
greenish black, the curls in the tail being a dark
green. The wings are a greyish brown, with a
" ribbon-mark " across them, which must be a
very bright and distinct blue, edged on both
sides with black and white bands. The flights
are grey and brown, white in a flight-feather
being highly objectionable. The drake's legs
are a rich orange.

The bill of the duck is of an orange colour,
with a splash of nearly black upon it, two-thirds
down from the head, but not reaching the base,
tip, or sides ; this colour, however, changes
during the laying season to a dirty brown, and
sometimes they become almost black all over.
The head is brown, with two distinct shaded
lines on each side, running from the eye down
to the darker part of the neck. The breast is
brown, pencilled over with dark brown ; the
back pencilled with very dark brown, or Ijlack
glossed with green upon a brown ground. This
pencilling must be very distinct, though judges
differ somewhat as to the shade of brown which
should form the ground-work. The wing has
a ribbon-mark, as in the drake, and the legs are
like his, orange, but of a dusky shade.

Rouen ducklings when hatched are brown
and yellow. When first feathered the drake
has the same plumage as the duck, but at three
months or soon after begins to moult into the

THE PEKIN DUCK.

<,t\

male colours. The following summer and every
summer afterwards, about June or July, he
moults temporarily into very nearly the sombre
garb of the female, until late in the autumn he
resumes his male plumage again.

In mating Rouen ducks for exhibition, the
breeder should look to markings, and shape and
size of frame, rather than weight, a drake of
7 lbs. being quite heavy enough to breed fine
stock, and if more than a pound or so heavier
than that, being seldom so vigorous and fertile.
He is better not over eighteen months old, but
the duck may be older. Dark drakes mated
with dark ducks generally produce the best
coloured drakes, and a dark drake with light
but well marked females the best coloured
ducks ; thus one pen can be made up very well,
with ducks of dililerent shades. Sometimes a
fine drake will come with his wing twisted : such
a bird, if of good strain, need not be rejected
for breeding.

Rouen ducks are hardy, and delicate in flesh,
and fully as large as Aylesburys ; but they are
not such good or such early layers, and do not
mature in size nearly so quickly. Hence they
are not so well adapted for a spring trade,
neither are the feathers so valuable, nor does
the carcase look so nice when plucked as the
white-feathered birds. The heavy keel is also
somewhat against them. For a later market,
some think that they make finer birds. Some
portion of Rouen blood enters very widely into
the common coloured ducks seen in farmyards
all over the country.

The Pekin duck is a comparatively recent
introduction, and one of the most valuable. It
is rather doubtful whether the first importations
were made into England or America,
Pekin Mr. Palmer in the United States and

Ducks. Mr. Keele in England having both

imported birds in 1873, and both
exhibiting them in 1874; but in each case there
is no doubt they came from Pekin, and were
from the first a most well-marked variety, though
they bred freely with other ducks.

The Pekin duck differs from others in the
shape and carriage of its body, in a full spherical
growth of feathers under the rump, and a singular
turned-up carriage of the tail, the whole irre-
sistibly suggesting the outline of an Indian canoe.
The legs are set far back, which makes the bird
walk rather upright or penguin fashion. The
neck is somewhat long, and the head decidedly
large in proportion. The legs and bill are a rich
yellow or reddish orange, the bill being shorter
than in the two preceding varieties ; and the
plumage approaches white, with a peculiar canary

yellow running through it. At one time some
exhibitors showed pure white, but such specimens
nearly always had pale bills, and there is no
doubt that they originated in a cross with the
Aylesbury, which was at one time very prevalent
in both breeds, and is even now not altogether
banished from either. But it is now fully recog-
nised that canary plumage, deep orange bill
and legs, and erect canoe-like body make the
true type of the Pekin. It differs further from
both the preceding in having no keel.

The Pekin duck has strong characteristics in
qualities, as well as in colour and shape. It is a
non-sitter, and a most prolific layer, especially
if bred for that quality systematically as in
America, where many ducks have laid over 150
eggs in a year. When at large they are very
active, and their plumage and colour of bill give
no reason for keeping them out of the sun.
They are very large in frame, but the plumage is
so thick that they rarely weigh what they look in
England, where they were rashly pronounced
small, not adapted for fattening in confinement,
and dry in flesh. In America, on the contrary,
this duck is the one almost universally bred on
the great duck ranches ; and there it proves, not
only the best layer, but the most succulent in
flesh. Some of the American breeders describe
their birds as " keeled " ; but this is not what is
understood by " keel " in England, as explained
farther on. A pair on Mr. Hallock's ranche
at Speonk, Long Island, where 25,000 are raised
annually, weighed weekly, proved 3 ozs. each at
I week old, 5i ozs. at 2 weeks, 7i ozs. at 3 weeks,

I lb. 3 ozs. at 4 weeks, 2 lbs. 6 ozs. at 5 weeks,
3 lbs. 12 ozs. at 6 weeks, 4 lbs. 12 ozs. at 7 weeks,
6 lbs. 12 ozs. at 8 weeks, 7 lbs. 4 ozs. at 9 weeks,
8 lbs. at 10 weeks, and 9 lbs. 3 ozs. (each) at

I I weeks. The pair were admittedly somewhat
above the average, but by no means exceptional.
Such weights as these would not be attained
by British Pekin stock at the time we write.
But the old prejudices are dying out, and several
dealers in the London Central Market have told
us that year by year the Pekin is by degrees
displacing the Aylesbury, the flesh being much
liked, and the absence or comparative absence
of keel being a point in its favour.

On the water the Pekin duck is particularly
ornamental. The Poultry Club Standard for
Pekins will be found at the end of this chapter.

Of the various breeds of ducks, the greatest
forager and most prolific layer is beyond doubt
the Indian Runner. We are indebted to Mr.
J. W. Walton, of Tow Law, Co. Durham, for
the following notes on the breed : —

" The best and most authentic account of

562

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

the origin and introduction of this remarkable
breed is that given in the ' History and Descrip-
tion of the Indian Runner Duck,' by Mr.
J. Donald, of Wigton, published
Indian about 1890, wherein he states that

Runner the first were brought from India

Ducks. about fifty years earlier by a

sea captain, who, when ashore,
had been attracted by their peculiar car-
riage and active habits, and after learning
of their great egg-producing powers, and that
they practically foraged for their living with-
out being artificially fed, brought a few home
as a present to some farmer friends in Cumber-
land. They rapidly established a local repu-
tation for ^g^ production in the district, and
seem to have gradually spread northwards over
the Scottish border into Dumfriesshire and
southwards into Westmorland, but they re-
mained practically unknown anywhere else
until about the year 1890.

"At the time Mr. Donald wrote they had
lost a good deal of their striking, original
character, for he remarks that ' very few of
the original type are now to be found, and the
carriage is not so penguin-like as formerly ;
whether owing to climatic influences, to the
introduction of foreign blood into many
strains, or to in-breeding, it is difficult to say
with accuracy, but probably they have all
shared to a greater, or lesser degree in pro-
ducing these defects.

" He also noted the fact that a good many
of the Indian Runners of that period had been
produced by the use of Runner drakes with
farmyard ducks, for we are told, as the fame
of the breed as layers extended, the drakes
were eagerly sought after and largely employed
to cross with the common ducks of the county
with a view to improving their egg-producing
qualities, the Runner drakes stamping their
distinctive characters most pronouncedly upon
the produce of the cross, and in a good many
so-called Runners seen even then the distinc-
tive characters of the breed were in a great
measure obliterated ; and it is undoubtedly
to the timely publication of Mr. Donald's
brochure that the Fancy owes the preservation
of many of the best and most distinctive
characters of the original stock.

" Early in the 'nineties fanciers began to
take up the breed, and in 1896 a large class
of twenty-one pairs was got together at Kendal
Show, chiefly by the efforts of Miss Wilson-
Wilson, of that town. This was the beginning
of their popularity, the display at Kendal
being rapidly followed by classes at the
Dairy, Crystal Palace, and other great shows.

The Waterfowl Club took up the breed, and
drafted a Standard, but, unfortunately, the
professional exhibitors, whose chief aim in the
other varieties had been the production of size
and fine coloured feathers, failed hopelessly
when they tackled the Indian Runner and set
the fashion for it as an exhibition bird. At
the very outset the fatal mistake was made
of showing a very decided preference for
evenly marked plumage at the expense of true
form and carriage. The idea then was to have
nothing but clean-cut birds, with body mark-
ings somewhat similar to those of a Magpie
pigeon, and had the club insisted upon type
f-rst, markings second, all might have been
well ; but the craze for markings at any price
soon brought disaster upon the breed. The
pioneer breeders, disgusted at the ignorance
of writers and the decisions of judges of that
period, soon gave up showing, and kept their
birds at home, breeding them to meet their
own views. The desired markings were easily
enough produced upon cross-bred Runners and
common ducks, and things drifted from bad
to worse until the showing of Runners became
a mockery, and the exhibits were reduced to
evenly marked but shapeless mongrels, totally
at variance with the genuine breed and com-
paratively worthless as foragers or layers.

" Some dealers who followed the lead of the
show-bench bred large numbers of these birds,
and spread them over the country as pure
Indian Runners, and it is impossible to
estimate the harm done by this means. Many
who took them up became dissatisfied with
their commonplace appearance, and after
vainly endeavouring to improve their shape
and carriage, became thoroughly disheartened
and gave them up in despair and disgust
• — but the tares had been sown, and are still
strongly in evidence up to the present time.

" Mr. Donald tells of the decadence in his
own yard, resulting from an attempt to intro-
duce new blood by the use of a drake from
a Yorkshire poultry farm, many years being
required to breed out the bad qualities thereby
introduced.

" The Indian Runner Duck Club, a few
years ago, took up the work of reviving the
true type, and under its influence a marked
change for the better is now noticeable in the
general quality of stock shown ; further im-
provement is within sight, and it now appears
almost certain that the Runner will regain
all its distinctive character, and be likely to
spring into greater popularity in the near
future.

" There seems now no room for doubt but

INDIAN RUNNER DUCKS.

563

that the first Indian parents of the breed intro-
duced into this country were of a most out-
standing type, calculated to arrest the atten-
tion of the most casual observer and capable
of transmitting their peculiar characters with
great power to their offspring. No detailed
description of their colour and markings has
been handed down, but, in the light of what is
now known, it is likely that they were mostly
whole- or self-coloured birds, and when crossed
upon the common ducks of Cumberland they
produced the race of broken-coloured Runners
from which, it seems to us highly probable,
the evenly marked fawn and whites have been
cultivated by careful selection in breeding, for
Mr. Donald, in his pamphlet, mentions that
from want of selection even markings were
then difficult to attain and apt to come more
broken in colour than given in his illustration.

" The Indian Runner is a natural utility
duck, specially adapted for foraging and egg-
laying, and the type cannot be impaired with-
out a corresponding decline in utility qualities.
It is the elevated bottle-like body, balanced
in such a manner as to give perfect freedom
of movement, and the legs pitched far back,
allowing the quick-running gait, which give
the Runner duck such an immense advantage
over all others and places it supreme as a
forager and layer. The great speed and
foraging instinct of the Runner enables it to
travel over wide areas in search of insects and
various forms of animal and vegetable life,
which form a great part of its sustenance and
reduces hand-feeding to a minimum.

" When viewed at liberty, a flock of first-rate
specimens, with their smart appearance and
erect bearing, present a fine sight ; the pace at
which they run is surprising, and when alarmed
or startled it is interesting and amusing to
note how quickly they line up, and then, form-
ing into a solid block, they will mark time,
wheel, or advance like a company of well-
trained soldiers.

" In disposition they are restless and alert,
always being on the move, but seldom or never
making any attempt to fly. The wings are
carried higher up and much more closely
packed than in ordinary ducks, and, from long
disuse, they seem almost incapable of the
power of flight.

"Runners should be symmetrically formed
and properly balanced, and in the best
specimens the legs are pitched so far back
that the bird is compelled to elevate the body
to such as extent as to bring neck and body
into an almost direct line, the profile being
somewhat suggestive of the outline of an

old-fashioned soda-water bottle set at an
angle of 60 to 70 degrees. The hea:d is
carried high, and must be clean and keen-
looking, with a strong, well-set bill, eyes
placed very high in the skull, and the neck
should be very fine and of good length.
Many judges at present seem to have a
tendency to attach undue importance to mere
strength and length of head and bill. The
head and bill must be in keeping with and
proportionate to the neck and body. The legs
are short and strong, with small but very
supple feet, and the colour should be in
keeping with that of the bill. The bill varies
in colour according to age, season and con-
dition, and though yellow or pale green when
young, it darkens with age, the bill of an
old duck usually turning to a deep cucumber-
green.

"Ducks usually range from 3j4 lbs. to
4,^2 lbs. in weight and from 24 ins. to 28 ins.
in length, and drakes 4 lbs. to 5 lbs. and
from 27 ins. to 30 ins. or more, but they are
deceptive in appearance, and usually appear
smaller than they really are on account of their
compact build and the remarkable tightness
and closeness of the plumage.

" The eggs are large for the size of the
birds, and mostly white in colour of shell.
They are practically land ducks, and require
little water — sufficient to drink, and a bath now
and again keeping them in excellent condition.
The ducklings are easy to rear, and require
no special food or treatment beyond what is
usual in duck-rearing.

" Mr. Ludlow's fine coloured plate will
give readers a good general idea of the
characters, form, colour and markings con-
sidered most orthodox up to the present time,
save that the head and rump markings of the
drake should be darker in colour (a dark
bronze, with greenish lustre), except in July
and August, when the male assumes the female
plumage. However, it would seem that a good
Runner duck, like a good horse, is never a bad
colour, for the Indian Runner Duck Club
standard lays it down that, ' above all, type
must receive the chief attention of judges, and
on no account must evenness of markings and
colour be considered in preference to correct
shape.'

" The judging of Indian Runners, as we
before remarked, has in many cases not been
altogether satisfactory in the past, and we
would therefore counsel those who are to take
on the duty in future to carefully study the
lines upon which the true type is built up. For
this purpose no better guide than the Indian

5^4

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Runner Duck Club's descriptive standard can
be recommended, and if their awards are made
on the lines there laid down the decisions will
not be very wide of the mark. The standard
points are as follows : —

Head, bill, eyes and neck... 30 points.
Body, shape and carriage ... 45 ,,
Colour, markings and condition 25 ,,

" In Germany a breed of small white ducks
has lately been cultivated and boomed as
White Indian Runners. A few of these birds
have been seen in the show-pen in this country,
but they are of a very ordinary type, and
apparently of very common blood, and quite
unsuited to English ideas.

"At the Palace Show of 1910 there were
shown an old white and some young whole-
coloured fawn and brownish fawn ducks far
excelling in Runner type anything that has
previously been seen in this country, and which
caused quite a sensation and produced much
curiosity and comment among duck fanciers
who had the good fortune to see them.

" At the time of writing these whole-
coloured birds are very rare, being, we believe,
exclusively in two fanciers' hands, but in
our opinion there can be no doubt that they
are destined to produce a very marked influence
for good on the stocks of this country, and we
hope shortly to see them much more in evidence.
We believe they are descended from recent
importations, but upon their history their
owners are at present very reticent.

" The Australians have made the grave
mistake of insisting upon and trying to breed
drakes with heads the same colour as the body,
the result being that the breed has declined
greatly under such a ridiculous craze for some-
thing out of keeping with the nature of the
Runner. The same applies to the American
fad regarding the plumage of the duck. They
fancied a drab or very pale fawn feathering
in the coloured portions of the plumage of
the female, and the feathers to be quite flain
without either lacing or pencilling. All brown
and fawn ducks of the genuine breed (whether
whole-coloured or broken with white) have the
feathers marked in two shades of colour,
either single or double laced ; hence they have
managed to ruin entirely the character of their
stocks in order to obtain a mongrel with every
feature and point at variance with the true
breed. This shows how easily a wrong idea
or impression may cause trouble which cannot
be bred out for years."

The Poultry Club standard for the breed
will be found at the end of this chapter, and

it may interest breeders and genuine fanciers of
an inquiring turn of mind to study and com-
pare it with the other published standards,
both past and present, English and foreign.

The black Cayuga duck is called after the
lake of that name, and comes to us from
America, though a large black duck which
bred pretty true was known half
Cayuga a century ago in Lancashire. The

Ducks. fn'st American specimens were sent

to us by Mr. W. Simpson in 1871,
and the late Mr. J. K. Fowler imported them a
few years later. These early specimens were
not very large, and were rather dingy in colour,
and there is no doubt that they were crossed
with Black East India ducks in order to get
the green gloss of the latter. This was accom-
plished, but kept them still small ; and they
were afterwards crossed, by some with Ayles-
bury and by others with Rouen, to get size.
Unfortunately with this the type was also
changed, as the original birds had no " keels,"
while the modern English exhibition Cayuga
has this feature very pronounced. It has
thus been made an exhibition duck at the
expense of popularity in the market.

Owing partly to this change, perhaps, the
Cayuga has never quite had its deserts ; for
general consent attributes to it decided superi-
ority in flavour over any other of the large
breeds. It is now a large breed, very similar
in shape to the Aylesbury, the plumage being
a rich black, heavily glossed with green, the
legs a sooty orange, the bill a leaden or bluish
black, with an intense black splash in the
middle and a black bean at the tip. The skin
is very white. The breed is hardy, matures
early, is a very good layer, and of more quiet
and stay-at-home habits than most. If ever
Cayugas should come into fashion, these
qualities would be in its favour as a market
duck, but the black feathers would, of course,
be against it, and may be a reason why it is so
little bred. After the first year Cayugas are
■ apt to moult more or less white feathers,
especially at the base of the bill ; but this is
no sign of impurity of race.

The following notes on the Crested Duck
are from the pen of Mr. Scott Miller, Hon.
Secretary of the Crested Duck Club : —

" In general appearance this breed
The Crested is much like the Aylesbury, though
Duck. not quite so large (adults usually

weighing about 8 lbs.) and without
the heavy keel of the latter ; also the head is
adorned with a crest or top-knot, which should

CHESTED AND ORPINGTON DUCKS.

565

be globular in shape, as large as possible,
and set evenly on the head : a common fault,
especially in ducks with large crests, being that
the crest hangs more to one side than the other.
The breed is to be found in certain districts
all over the British Isles, and is also known
in America and other places abroad. It is
known to have existed in Scotland at least
seventy years ago. As to origin, we can only
theorise, the theories we have heard advanced
being that the breed was introduced pure from
the East, or may have been produced by ducks
frequenting quiet lakes mating with crested
wildfowl, such as Grebes, if such mating be
possible, or may have been bred from sports
from common ducks ; the latter is, in our
opinion, the most feasible.

"Whilst being decidedly ornamental, this
variety is also a first-class utility one, the
ducks being excellent layers of large eggs and
themselves making a very creditable appearance
on the table. Crested ducks always throw a
number of crestless ducklings, but these can
be picked out as soon as dry ; and, similarly,
the size of crest, in crested specimens, can be
readily told, as the crests are of the same size,
in proportion, as they will be when the bird is
full grown. This only holds good for the first
three or four days after hatching, as the bird
soon commences to outgrow its crest, which
grows little till the bird gets its first feathers.
Fanciers find that fewer crestless birds hatch
year by year.

" It is a strange fact that those youngsters
with very large crests generally appear very
delicate for the first three days or so, and
many die during this period ; they rush about
apparently afraid of their large head-dress.
When this occurs, the breeder should try the
remedy of clipping the fluff of the crest short,
care being taken not to injure the scalp. In
breeding, it is advisable to use crested birds
on both sides, though good ones can be bred
from plain-headed birds, provided they are
crest-bred — that is, from crested parents ; but
in our opinion this encourages the plain-
headed element, which is most objectionable.
Choose nice, large, typical birds — one often
reads in poultry books that the female has
most influence on the size of the progeny, but
our experience in this breed is that the drake
influences the size quite as much as the duck — •
with nice, evenly-shaped, and well-placed
crests ; those having long feathers in the crest
are preferable to those with short, the reason
being that the crest in ducks, like that in Polish
fowls, is composed of a spherical protuberance
of the skull-bone, this being the main cause

of the crest, length of feather greatly adding
thereto. Crested ducks may be of any colour,
and need no special care in rearing (beyond
what is mentioned above) or general manage-
ment, being hardy and reaching maturity at
an early age. Care should, however, be taken
that the crest feathers do not damage the eyes,
either by clipping the offending feathers or
binding with an elastic band."

The Poultry Club standard for the breed
will be found at the end of this chapter.

Blue races of ducks are obviously allied to
black, and have often appeared. The late Mr.
Teebay several times told us that about i860

there was a recognised local race of
Blue large blue ducks in Lancashire, and

Ducks. more or less of that colour would be

produced by crossing white with
either black, or even any dark breed like the
Rouen. The same colour has been imported
and bred in the United States under the name
of blue Swedish ducks, which it is said really
were introduced from northern Europe, and
only differ from the foregoing in having a
white throat or semi-collar at the front of the
base of the neck. More recently blue ducks
have been bred and sold as " Orpingtons."

Writmg to TJie Feathered World in 19 10,
Mr. A. C. Gilbert, Hon. Secretary of the
Orpington Duck Club, thus describes the

origin of the Buff and the Blue
Buff and Blue Orpington duck: —
Orpington " Buff Orpington ducks were

Ducks. made some twelve or fourteen years

back, but not brought into promin-
ence in England until 1908, when they were
shown at several large shows, such as the
Dairy and Crystal Palace, where classes were
guaranteed for them by Mr. A. C. Gilbert,
who also at the same time drew up standards
for them and formed a club for them. In
Australia they had previously made their repu-
tation by winning two twelve months' laying
competitions in succession.

" They were made to fill the demand for a
first-class layer, and at the same time a nice-
sized table bird of fine quality and flavoured
flesh. The start was made by mating Indian
Runners to Aylesburys, Indian Runners to
Rouens, and Indian Runners to Cayugas.

" These different varieties previously to this
mating up had been carefully mated and bred
for three years for egg-production alone, all
laggards m this respect being noted and
weeded out, so that when the pure stock was
put together for the first crossing a line of

S66

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

good layers was included in all four breeds.
The descendants of these matings were then
crossed back and forth on to one another until,
with time, care, and patience, the desired end
was accomplished. But before this came about
it was noticed that a great many of the off-
spring came with a lot of blue on the back,
wings, thighs, and portions of the neck. This
put the idea into the head of the originator
(the late Mr. William Cook) to make a Blue
Orpington duck, as well as Buff Orpington
ducks ; so the darkest and the ones with most
blue markings were put on one side and mated
with Cayugas and Pekins. Then the same
process went on with these, mating and inter-
mating, until the Blue Orpington ducks were
a finished article, the same as the Buffs.

" Both varieties are most useful and at the
same time very handsome and good to look at.
They are very hardy, easy to rear, quick in

Buff Orpington Ducks.

growth, and good foragers on an open space or
held, finding most of their own food ; very
active and fctile, being equally good with a
pond or stream, or merely a trough or drinker,
for their water. In mild countries, such as the
British Isles, they require no houses, doing
well out in the open run, held or stackyard."

The Standard for the breed appears at the
end of this chapter.

A successful attempt to create by crossing
and selection a new breed of ducks which
should exhibit real superiority in useful quali-
ties has resulted in what are known
Campbell as Campbell ducks, produced by
Ducks. Mrs. Campbell, of Uley, in Glouces-

tershire. These are now bred in
two colours. The original strain was descended
from one duck which exhibited most remark-
able laying powers, and was probably some-
thing of the Rouen colour, since the original
Campbells are somewhat like Rouens in ap-
pearance, but much lighter, with a plain head

of a greyish brown shade, and no streak
running from the eye : the drakes have grey
backs and a pale claret breast — the legs
yellow. The object was to produce excellence
'in laying, with fair table qualities and quick
maturity ; and it is stated that for years past
the egg-average has been over 200 per annum,
while the young are hatched at all seasons, and
do well all the year round. They are not very
large, stock birds weighing 4^ lbs. to 5 lbs.,
and in flavour considerably resemble the wild
]\Iallard, which was used in crossing as one of
the foundations of the strain.

The other sub-variety is, more recent, and is
known as the Khaki or Khaki-Campbell duck.
The drake is khaki colour all over except the
head and stern, which are bronze green ; the
duck is entirely khaki colour, a delicate lacing
of darker buff showing on each feather. The
Indian Runner has been used in crossing to
produce this variety, and as the result the
Khaki duck is of extremely active habits,
doing best on a good range, and showing very
little desire for swimming — in fact, Mrs.
Campbell, we believe, only allows them drink-
ing water. At twelve weeks old the ducklings
come up to about 4 lbs. to \\ lbs., the laying
being about the same average as the other
strain. Whatever time of year they are
hatched, they are said to commence laying at
or before six months old, so that by hatching
about three lots, very early, medium, and late,
eggs are easily obtained every day in the year.

Much was said at one time about the
Duclair duck, named from a town between
Havre and Rouen, and the chief duck of
that district ; but there appears
Continental nothing distinctive about it at all.
Ducks. The colour is much like that of

carelessly bred and mis - marked
Rouens, or rather of common farmyard ducks
with Rouen blood ; and those imported gave
no better results than the old Englisn breeds.
The beautiful smooth white skin so admired is
the result of French feeding, devoted to birds
without keel. These ducks are long in shape,
and not so deep in body as Rouens, and are
very good layers. The same in effect may be
said of the Belgian races called Laplaignc,
Merchtem, etc., occasionally seen at London
shows of table poultry : their distinctness of
race is mostly very dubious, and the same
feeding would certainly, in a generation or
two, produce better results with the races
familiar to our readers.

The most distinctive race of all is the
Peruvian or Muscovy or Musk duck, which
alone appears not to be descended from the

D UCK- FARMING.

567

Mallard. It comes not from the north at
all, but from South America; is very different
in many characteristics ; and the progeny when
crossed with other varieties appear
Muscovy to be real hybrids, being decidedly

Ducks. sterile inter st\ though fertile more

or less with either parent strain. The
name is derived from an odour of musk which
pervades the skin, but which disappears when
cooked. The generic name is Cairina moscliata.

The wild Muscovy duck is very agile, often
perching upon trees, and even making its nest
occasionally in such situations. Another pecu-
liarity is the disparity in size between the sexes,
a fine drake weighing pe.rhaps 11 lbs. or 12 lbs.,
while the female will be only 6 lbs. or 7 lbs.;
and the male has no curled feathers in his tail
like other breeds. The feathers on the body are
very large and broad, and often appear loose as
if ready to drop out. The head of the drake
is very large, and in both sexes the cheeks are
naked, with scarlet fleshy carunculations, very
developed in the male, and giving him a peculiar
leery and wicked expression. This is not
belied by his temper, which is very bad with
other ducks and poultry, and the drakes also
fight fiercely among themselves, another point
in which they differ from other breeds. The
period of incubation also differs, being from
thirty-four to thirty-five days.

The general colour of the Muscovy duck is
pied black and white ; whole white, whole black,
and blue dun being also found. The legs are
pale yellow, and the toes have very sharp claws.
The eggs are large and white, but the duck is a
poor layer. The flesh is rich, and at one time
the bird was popular in America, and con-
siderably used for crossing; but this has been
nearly abandoned, and the breed cannot be
considered a profitable one.

Duck-raising for market, or duck-farming, is
an ancient industry in England, being for some
generations almost confined to the Vale of

Aylesbury, which is still a great

Duck-Farming centre of supply for the best trade

in of the London market. That the

England. business should so long have been a

local one, is rather surprising, as the
voracious appetite, hardihood, and rapid growth
of ducklings afford quicker returns from them
than in any other branch of poultry-rearing,
whilst numbers are handled with so much
greater facility in a small space : the local breed
had, however, doubtless much to do with this.
So long ago as 1870 the receipts of the Vale
amounted to over .^^20,000 a year, and in 1900
this had increased by about fifty per cent, but

since that date the trade of this locality has
practically not increased. As a rule the birds
are sent up to London twice or three times a
week, several tons sometimes going up in a
single night; and a system has grown up, as in
Sussex, by which the railway companies collect
the birds in " flats," and return the empty pack-
ages to the roadside, for an inclusive charge of
one penny per bird.

VVhile there always have been a few larger
raisers, the bulk of the trade in Bucks at this
time was in the hands of moderate or small
men, who raised probably about a thousand
birds each. These " duckers " would begin to
collect eggs for sitting from the farmers after
Michaelmas, generally contracting to take all
any man could supply them with from that time
till next June, at one average price, which in
1S70 was 2s. or 2s. 6d. per dozen ; if eggs were
bought in December and January only, the cost
per sitting would be double that price. Hens
were hired at about 3s. 6d. each, and were set
as fast as they and the eggs for them could be
procured. When hatched, four or five broods
were put together, so that every hen left in
charge had twenty-five to fifty ; and the young
birds were, as the hatching progressed, dis-
tributed in some cottages over every room in
the house, including bedrooms, a single room
accommodating in some cases two or three hens
with their families, separated by boards placed
on edge. The noise at feeding times was
deafening. The first food was usually chopped
egg and bread-crumbs, then chopped egg and
boiled rice mixed with meal, later on mainly
meal and rice mixed with boiled greaves, or
other cheap meat, with green food as required.

In 1890, while this trade had considerably
extended as stated above, the profits had some-
what decreased. The cost of eggs had gone up
to about 4s. per dozen through the season, or as
much as 12s. a dozen for December only, and
the average market price had fallen about 2s.
per couple, though a guinea could still be
realised for the choicest ducklings in February
and March. Against this, the cost of food had
somewhat fallen. Sanitary legislation had also
placed salutary check upon the extraordinary
indoor arrangements above described, once so
prevalent in many cottages, and more birds
were reared in consequence out of doors than
formerly, in pens with some slight shelter,
though many ground floors were still occupied
in the old way. A few larger raisers were
gradually beginning to use incubators, and some
of them to keep ducks and breed their own
eggs for hatching ; but the main business of the
"duckers" was still done by purchasing eggs,

56S

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

and hiring hens, in the old way. The cost of
rearing a duckling to 4 lbs. weight at eight or
nine weeks old, was usually reckoned at is. 6d.
to 2s. per bird. They should be read\- by that
age ; and must at all events be marketed before
they are eleven weeks old. as about that age
they begin to moult into their adult feathers,
after which they grow no heavier for many
weeks, whilst the pin-feather lowers both quaUty
and price terribly.

Since 1S90 further changes have taken place
in British duck-farming. The industry has
grown and developed verj- largely, either find-
ing or creating a much larger market than in
former years ; but the Aylesbury Vale portion
of it has not done more than hold its own, if it
has even done so much, the extension taking
place in other districts. For this some reasons
have already been given ; but it should also
be obser%-ed that a large part of the new
demand has been due to the middle classes, and
the more prosperous portion of the working
classes, who have required ducks at more
ordinary' seasons and at lower prices, thus
prolonging the season for hatching, and con-
tinuing sales into September, though at lower
prices than during the spring trade. Some have
connected with this change in length of season,
the more extensive cultivation of Pekin ducks,
or crosses with them, which have formed a
large portion of the new supplies ; but the
results of inquiries which we have made go to
show that these ducks have also gradually
found favour in the London spring market, and
that crosses are beginning to form part of even
some of the Aylesburj- trade. In Bucking-
hamshire itself a system of large rearing-sheds
has been introduced to some extent, thus
replacing in a way the birds no longer allowed
in cottage rooms ; but otherwise the old cottage
methods are still followed prett>' largely. The
following description of duck-farming as now
carried on in England was contributed to our
last edition by Mr. Edward Brown, F.L.S.,
who made special personal investigation in
order to prepare it for these pages.

" Since the first publication of the Illustrated
Book of Poultry many and great changes have
taken place in the English duck-raising industry.
About the year 1875 the bounds were broken,
first over the border into Bedfordshire, where
large numbers are reared around Eaton Bray,
and subsequently the area has been still further
extended. Probabl}' more ducklings are now
produced around Chesham and Princes Ris-
borough, in Bucks, and in the eastern districts
of Oxfordshire, than in the Aylesburj' district
itself; and other parts of England have shown

that they can equal Buckinghamshire as to
qualitj', and excel it as to quantity of ducklings
produced. Aylesburj' men still claim that their
birds are the finest in the world, but their pre-
eminence has been lost, and birds from other
districts now compete with them successfully.
That many of these duckers are yet verj- skilful
is unquestionable ; but their very success has led
to neglect They have been content to con-
tinue in the old ruts, have neglected the pre-
vention of tainted soil, and being firmly con-
\-inced that their locally bred ducks were the
best, have bought stock from each other, so that
in-breeding has resulted, with consequent de-
generacy. Soft-bill, which appears to be a
result of close breeding, and other weaknesses,
are now seriously prevalent in Bucks, whilst
they are practically unknown elsewhere. Re-
cently there has been an awakening among the
younger duckers in that count}' ; but much of
the trade has gone, never to be regained. From
the national point of view this is not regret-
table, as it has led to a great increase in duck-
raising in other parts of the countrj-.

" In the districts of Bucks and Beds to which
reference has already been made, the method
adopted is ver>' much on the old lines, with the
exception that in a few cases artificial methods
are now being introduced, and in others opera-
tions are carried out upon a larger scale than
formerly. I have visited a farmer near Eaton
Bray in Bedfordshire, who markets about 10,000
ducklings a year. In this case, as in most
others, he buys the eggs, hatches them under
hens, and rears and finishes off for the market
For the work of rearing he has a long range of
shedding, with doors in front similar to those
fitted to stables, divided into two parts so that
the birds can be enclosed within the building
and yet obtain plenty of air and light This
shed is about ten feet wide, and divided into
compartments si.x feet or more in width as the
birds grow larger, each holding about fifty
birds ; the divisions being simply boards about
iS inches in height, which can be easily stepped
over. In front are enclosed yards where the
birds are fed. In his case, as in many others,
there is great \-ariety in the food given to the
birds. It is generalh' conceded that the best
food during the latter part of the feeding is rice,
but in many cases barley meal and Indian meal
are employed by reason of their cheapness,
though it is universally admitted that the
results are not so satisfactory as with rice-feed-
ing. Most of the duckers employ tallow greaves
for mi.xing with the meal or rice, as the case
may be, and large quantities of greaves are used
in this way.

DUCK-FARMING IN ENGIAND.

569

" The majority of the duck fatters are small
occupiers, and a report presented to the last
Royal Commission on Agriculture in 1895,
written by Mr. Aubrey Spencer, Assistant
Commissioner, summarises the methods still
adopted in Bucks and Beds.

The persons who engage in duck fattening are
generally men of the labouring or small village trades-
man class. The number of ducklings reared and sold
annually by individuals varies from a few hundred to
several thousands. The ducks require constant care
and attention all through the spring months, and no
one who rears a large number has, during that period,
time to engage in any other work ; but where a com-
paratively small number are reared the female portion
of the household may do most of the necessary work.
Many of those engaged in rearing, however, find time to
carry on some other occupation in the autumn months,
such as shoe-making, or at any rate can earn a little
extra money by harvesting and occasional agricultural
work. At Weston Turville I was told that about eleven
men in that village fattened 1,000 ducks apiece annually,
and that about 16,000 or 17,000 were sent from there to
London in a year. As a rule the duck fatteners do not
themselves keep stock ducks, but buy eggs from farmers
or others who keep breeding ducks, so that the breeding
and rearing are in different hands.

It is a main object of the duck fattener to bring out
as many young ducks as he can ready for the market in
February or early in March, when the game season is
over, and the highest prices are obtainable for duck-
lings. The season for ducklings commences in February
and continues till about the end of August, the prices
falling as the year advances. In February or March as
much as £\ is. a couple is occasionally obtained for
ducklings, and one fattener at Weston Turville
informed me that in 1894 he had obtained the very
exceptional price of 24s. for a couple, which was the
highest figure he had ever reached. The average in
March is more usually about 12s. or 14s. the couple.
The carriage and salesman's commission (5 per cent.)
for the ducklings are reckoned at about 3d. a bird, and
duck fatteners commonly estimated that after deducting
carriage and commission they would receive on the
average throughout the season about 3s. to 3s. 3d. a
duck. I am, however, inclined to think that this
estimate is rather under than over the mark, for in
August, when I visited the district, prices were still as
high as 6s. to 7s. a couple.

" Large quantities are now produced around
Diss in Norfolk, where the system is very similar
to that followed in Buckinghamshire, in Lincoln-
shire, and North Lancashire ; and recently many
ducklings have been produced in Cornwall,
where for climatic reasons there may probably
be a great development in process of time. At
many of these places the system adopted does
not call for any special mention ; but two cases
afford an excellent example of what can be
done by other methods, and may perhaps be
regarded as the most advanced duck farms in
the country.

" The first of these duck-farms is at Bourne
Hall, near Poulton-le-Fyldc, in North Lanca-
shire, and is owned by Mr. Peter Walsh, who

possesses the most extensive duck-farm at the
present time in this country. Mr. Walsh has
occupied his farm, which comprises about 285
acres, for twelve years. It consists of a clay
loam, and is situated a mile from the sea, about
five miles from Fleetwood, and six miles from
Blackpool. The farm is largely pasture, and
the other members of the Walsh family devote
themselves to dairying, selling the milk, about
sixty-five cows being kept. Eleven years ago
Mr. Walsh, who had read a great deal about
duck-fattening in the South Midlands of
England, determined to try whether it was
possible to establish an industry in his district.
For two years he worked against manifest dis-
advantages from inexperience, and at the end of
that time was so discouraged that he gave it up.
But a year afterwards he commenced again.
The first season he hatched, reared, and fatted
slightly under 2,000 ducklings, steadily advanc-
ing since year by year, until during the season
of 1901 he hatched and reared 25,000 ducklings,
in addition to which he purchased nearly 5,000
more to feed off. Such an industry is worthy
of careful observation, because there can be no
question that Mr. Walsh has made it profit-
able, and some of his methods have been con-
siderably modified since he first began his
enterprise.

" Mr. Walsh now keeps no breeding ducks
whatever, but as a result of the demand created
by him (especially as his example has been
followed by others in the district), a very much
greater number of ducks are kept throughout
that part of Lancashire, the farmers finding it
profitable to keep the ducks, and to sell the
eggs to Mr. Walsh's (and other) collectors.
These collectors go round regularly to the
farms, and attend the markets almost as far as
Lancaster and Preston. Whilst the majority of
the birds are largely of Aylesbury blood, there
has been a good deal of Pekin influence intro-
duced into the district, and Mr. Walsh believes
that the cross between the Aylesbury and the
Pekin gives the best results for his class of
trade. He does not attempt to produce first-
class ducklings, such as still come from Bucks
and Beds, especially as his demand is chiefly
in Lancashire and Yorkshire, where the prices
obtainable in London during the spring months
of the year are not paid. But it is impossible
for him to obtain sufficient eggs from the
immediate district, and therefore he buys more
wherever he can secure them, obtaining a goodly
number from Ireland, as well as from the south
of England. These longer-distance eggs are
not nearly so good for hatching as those pro-
duced in the immediate district, and give him

570

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

many more coloured specimens than he h'kes.
The prices paid for the eggs are 2s. and is. 6d.
per dozen, in accordance with the time of year,
and farmers find the production of eggs at these
prices profitable.

" So far as hatching is concerned, during
some of my former visits to Bourne Hall I
found that Mr. Walsh then used a considerable
number of hens ; but these have now been
altogether discarded. He is the inventor of
what is known as the Acme incubator, a
machine which is regulated by means of a
capsule, and very similar in many respects to
the Hearson. During the season of 1901 he
had sixty-five of these incubators at work, each
of which holds about 100 duck eggs. They
were accommodated in five rooms, not specially
built, but simply some of the existing farm places
adapted to the purpose. They would have been
better for the purpose had there been more
ventilation. He does not keep a great number
of machines in a room, and believes that this
gives better results than having one large
incubator house. His e.xperience is that in-
cubators arc more reliable, and more easily
managed than hens, provided of course that
proper attention is given to the machines, and
this work he does almost entirely himself. No
moisture is placed in the trays ; but every time
of cooling the eggs are damped. Mr. Walsh
does not attempt to keep records, but says that
the near-by eggs (that is, those produced in
the Fylde district) give much better results than
those coming from a distance.

" When the ducklings are 'hatched, and
thoroughly dry, they are removed to a large
foster-mother, whicli is fitted with circular pipes,
and under these pipes they are placed in trays,
where they are kept for two days. This foster-
mother accommodates 1,000 young ducklings
at one time. They are then placed in other
foster-mothers, which are kept out in the open,
and at a low temperature. This is to harden
the birds off, and the heat given depends largely
upon the period of the year, in warm weather
being comparatively low.

" At the end of nine days the ducklings are
divided into flocks of 100, and placed in
small houses. These houses are of the very
cheapest make, in fact consist of large packing
cases, which are bought at about 6d. each,
and require very little alteration ; a door being
simply cut from the lid, which is then nailed
on to the box, the door alone being hinged,
and the cost of each house being under a
shilling. Each case is on an average about
30 inches square, and when the ducklings are
first put out, two of them are placed in each

run of about twenty feet square, and after
feeding they are put back, fifty in each case.
As they increase in size, another box is added,
or even two to avoid overcrowding. The runs
are formed of inch-mesh wire netting one foot
wide, and (as mentioned shortly) are put down
temporarily. The birds are fed at first every
two hours, as also while in the foster-mothers,
and gradually the period is extended until the
feeding is five times a day. They are allowed
out in the runs for feeding, but as soon as
satisfied they are driven back into the houses,
and kept there until the next time of feeding.
Thus they are not exposed at this stage to
the air except during the feeding.

" The food given is as follows : When first
hatched clear eggs are used, hard boiled,
chopped fine, and mixed with the best bread,
special loaves being baked, weighing 8 to 10
lbs. each, with plenty of crumb. The bread is
used new, and this method of feeding is con-
tinued for about a week, but during the last two
or three days a little bran is added to the bread
and hard boiled egg, the whole being slightly
moistened with milk. At the end of about a
week the feeding is changed, and now consists
of barley meal, bran, middlings, oatmeal, and
a little maize meal, in accordance with the
prices at which the meals can be purchased.
Oatmeal is greatly preferred, but it can only
be used to a limited extent by reason of its
cost. In the second week meat is added in
the shape of tallow scrap-cake, or liverine. The
food is prepared by steaming, but is not always
given hot. This system of feeding continues
until the birds are five to six weeks old, in
accordance with their development. Mr. Walsh
has found by experience that when they are
about from three to five weeks old they must
have animal food, as this is the stage when
the feathers are growing, and if denied this they
are found to pull the feathers from each other.
The system pursued during this period yields
an astonishing frame in about six weeks, when
the final process of fattening commences.

"The birds are now placed in larger runs
about twenty-five yards square, divided by wire
netting in the same manner as already indicated,
and from this time until the period of killing
are not kept under cover at all, but allowed to
sleep in the open air entirely. During this last
stage they are fed chiefly upon Indian meal and
fat, with which is mixed a little of the best
broad bran, the object of which is to keep the
bowels in proper order. Mr. Walsh would pre-
fer to use rice, to secure the best quality, but
finds this too expensive for his particular class
of trade. The system here described yields

MR. P. WALSH'S DUCK-FA JiM.

S7I

birds averaging about 60 lbs. per dozen when
killed, which for the Aylesbury and Pekin cross,
should be when they are between nine and ten
weeks old. It will be seen that the system
employed is not so speedy as that followed in
Bucks and Beds, and it is evident that the
quality, as already referred to, would not com-
mand the best prices in southern markets.
During the whole period of rearing and fattening
the birds are not allowed to swim in water, but
are given a small quantity to drink.

" The killing is by dislocation of the neck.
As soon as the bird is killed, it is hung up by
one of the feet for five or ten minutes. The
killer has a barrel with the open end upwards,
and in the side of the barrel there are slits, into
which he puts one of the feet of the bird, allow-
ing the head to hang down. The object of this
is that the blood may gather in the neck. Thus
the plucking does not commence until nearly
ten minutes after the killing, and it is stated
that if done immediately the bird is dead, in
certain parts of the body the blood goes to the
holes from which the feathers have been drawn,
instead of to the neck. This statement I had
not heard before, and it may be peculiar to
ducks, as in connection with table poultry it is
customary to pluck directly the birds are dead.
The labour of attending to the ducklings, killing,
and plucking, occupied the attention of ten
men, chiefly Irishmen, who engage themselves
for the season from March to September. They
do everything, as no women are employed about
the place.

" One most important point to keep in view
is the system pursued to avoid tainting the
ground. Of course, upon so large a farm there
is practically no limitation of space, but for con-
venience the fields near the house are generally
used. No field, after being employed one
season for the ducklings, is used again in the
same manner for at least three years ; and as
upon the field which has been used during 1901,
sometimes as many as 7,000 ducklings were to
be found at one time, it will be seen that the
ground was very thickly covered, and the
amount of manure produced must have been
very large indeed. Of course, the grass was
eaten closely, but the following year the growth
is luxuriant, and of fine quality, so that the
manurial value is very considerable. Mr. Walsh
thinks that the effect of this manure is exhausted
quickly, and that it would not remain much
beyond the second year. Upon that point,
however, his observations have not been made
at all closely.

" This enterprise has now been carried on
without a break for eight years, and disposes of

a statement made in T/ie Field not very long
ago, to the effect that no duck-farm had been
conducted for more than two years. The whole
enterprise is very simply carried out, yet with
great skill, and is a proof of what can be done
even in the most unlikely district by energy and
perseverance. Nearly all the birds are sent to
the great towns of Lancashire and Yorkshire,
and during the busy season as many as 1,500
are frequently despatched in one week. Mr.
Walsh is certainly favoured with railway rates,
as these are very reasonable indeed. It may be
mentioned that about Christmas time he also
feeds off something like 5,000 geese. The
feathers are carefully placed loosely in sacks,
which are hung up and sent away at the end of
the season. The wing and tail quills are thrown
away, as they cannot be sold, but the duck and
goose feathers realise very high prices. During
the season of 1901 a ton and a half of these
feathers were sold, and the money received,
amounting to nearly ^^250, goes a long way
towards paying the labour bill.

" Three miles from Woodbridge in Suffolk is
a duck-farm which is conducted upon different
principles. This is at Dallinghoo, and is owned
by the Rev. Stewart Walford, whose manager,
Mr. R. W. Murrell, has courteously given me
all particulars with regard to the business which
he is building up there. Mr. Murrell was born
and brought up in Norfolk, but has lived many
years in Canada and the United States, where
he had considerable experience in this industry.
The farm is 35 acres in extent, mostly a meadow
with a little arable land, the soil being heavy
in its nature and distinctly poor in quality, the
original grass being coarse, and covered with a
rough growth which is of little value for feeding
purposes.

" Here no attempt is made to keep breeding
stock, nor is any hatching done. The ducklings
are hatched by farmers, mostly in Norfolk, and
are bought very young, as follows : In January,
February, and March, one day old ; in April,
first week, one week old ; second week, two
weeks old ; third week, three weeks old ; fourth
week, four weeks old ; in May, first week and
onwards, five weeks old. The price paid for all
is one shilling each. The ducklings are never
purchased more than five weeks old, and none
are bought after August. When the birds are
received they are placed out in open pens, which
are formed by 50-yard rolls of netting, 2 inches
mesh and 18 inches high ; thus each pen is fifty
yards in circumference. The ducklings always
sleep in the open at all seasons after the age of
four weeks; previous to that age being accom-
modated in small sheds. During very rough

572

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

weather some canvas is hung on to the netting
to afford a little shelter.

" The feeding is as follows : A mixture is
made of barley meal, 4 parts ; middlings, 3 parts ;
bran, 2 parts ; maize meal, i part ; and tallow
greaves, one-eighth part in bulk. The food is
thoroughly mixed and prepared crumbly moist,
and it is kept always before the birds. It is
either put down upon the ground or upon sacks,
never fed from troughs. Mr. Murrell says that
the mixture given above is properly propor-
tioned, and that is of great importance. Water
is supplied, but not as much as the birds would
drink. As with those of Mr. Walsh, they are
not allowed to swim in water, from the time
they are hatched until they are killed, nor are
they given as much as they care to drink, only
a small quantity being supplied in tins about
6 inches deep ; it is stated that if they are given
more than that they will not eat nearly so well.
The weights attained are as follows : Nine
weeks, 5i to 6 lbs. ; ten weeks, 6 to 7 lbs., and
they are killed at this stage. The breeds chiefly
preferred are a cross between the Aylesbury
and Pekin. Rouens and coloured ducks are
not liked, because they are too dark in flesh.
It is claimed that the Aylesbury and Pekin cross
are a better shape and stronger than the pure
Aylesbury. The greatest care is taken with the
feathers of the ducks, and it is stated that these
cover all expenses of labour, buying, selling,
rearing, killing, and plucking. Considering the
prices at which first-class duck feathers can be
sold, this statement appears to be nearly correct.
The birds are killed by breaking the neck, and
are plucked immediately. They are shaped on
flat boards, breast downwards.

"Duringthe month of August, I90i,therewere
5,000 birds upon this place, and at that period of
the year 500 were being marketed every week.*
The labour employed in killing, plucking, and
packing, consisted of two men and five girls, and
four men were employed in attending to the live
birds. All the ducks are sent to one firm of
dealers in the Central Market, London, and Mr.
Murrell speaks of the treatment he has received
from that firm in the highest terms. He states
that the profit made upon the enterprise is
equal to 6d. per bird.

" One of the most surprising points, and one
which will appeal to multitudes of farmers
throughout the country, is the effect upon the

* It should be stated that this was far the highest number ;
and in fact the total for the entire season only reached 8,000,
there being very few comparatively during the earliest and
latest monttis. h will be obvious that if 5,000 were an ordinary
number all through the season the acreage stated would not
suffice for each pen to occupy the ground only one week in five
years. More land is, however, available if required for extension.

land itself. During my visit to this farm I was
accompanied by one of the best farmers in the
Woodbridge district, who knows the land very
well ; and he was astonished at the result. As
already explained, each pen is enclosed within
50 yards of wire netting, 100 to 200 ducks
being put into one of these pens, not so much
according to the size, as to the number on hand
at the time. They are kept there for a week,
and then removed on to fresh ground. In that
time every particle of grass is eaten off, and it
might be thought that it would be destroyed.
The change in the parts over which the birds
have run is the most remarkable feature of the
whole place. A week after the birds are re-
moved, during at any rate the growing periods
of the year, the ground is thickly covered with
the finest grass, of a rich green colour, and thus
from a poor useless piece of common land, a
magnificent meadow has been made. It is not
intended to put the ducks upon the saine piece
of ground again for five years. The land will
be in grass during that time, and it is supposed
that no more manure will be needed. It will be
seen that this is rather antagonistic to Mr.
Walsh's opinion that the effect is exhausted in
two years, and probably one or the other may find
it necessary to modify his opinion. f However,
during the past season, in the prolonged drought,
when there was no hay in the district generally,
Mr. Murrell cut from 2^ acres ten tons of the
finest meadow hay. It is evident from both
statements that the manure from ducks specially
feeds the finer qualities of grass, and enables
these to displace the coarser growth.

" A year or two ago a somewhat pretentious
attempt was made in Kent to establish another
duck farm upon a large scale. Its manager had
induced a gentleman living in Kent to invest
about iJ^2,ooo, very fine buildings being put
up, large numbers of birds imported from
America, and American incubators used. The
returns, however, in hatching and rearing did
not equal expectations, and up to the present
this could not be cited as a successful duck
farm. It has now passed into other hands, and
its future will be watched with considerable
interest."

In each of the recent developments here
described American methods have obviously
exerted considerable influence ; and in this
branch also of the poultry industry the greatest
development has been in the United States,
where there are numerous establishments that
market from 10,000 to 15,000 birds annually,

t Mr. Murrell means m grass. Mr. Walsh probably means
under arable cropping, which Mr. Murrell also believes would
probably require fresh manure in two or three years. — I. W.

DUCK-FARMING IN AMERICA.

573

and a fair number whose output is consider-
ably more. A remarkable fact about this
American industry is that the supply appears

to have really created the demand,

Duck-Farming whicli the rapidly increasing popula-

in tion has maintained. The pioneers

Amenca. jj-, jj- ^^g admitted by all to have

been Mr. James Rankin and Mr.
A. J. Hallock, both of whom began to raise
ducklings by artificial methods before i860, and
who soon found the business profitable, but for
the fact that there was then little market. It
was about 1876 before either raised any con-
siderable number ; and five or six years after
that, when producing only about 1,500 per
annum, Mr. Rankin records that he found these
hard to sell, aud had to solicit orders for them.
But the public then began to appreciate fine
ducklings, so that later on, when he reared 10,000,
he could not supply the demand. The many
others now in the business have also found, so
far, that if the quality be good enough the
demand and the price are both forthcoming.
Some reasons for this immense demand have
already been stated (see page 169), others being
found in the well-being of the people, and the
number of independent large cities widely
separated, which do not centralise sales in one
chief market as in London.

This great industry has been built upon the
basis of the Pekin duck. Up to 1873 local
farm ducks were crossed with Rouen or
Muscovy drakes, Aylesburys being also tried,
and crossed with Muscovy too, the last being
generally considered best, but these best being
small and carrying little meat compared with
those now bred. In 1873 came Pekins, which
at once were found superior, but still were very
different from those of the present day, being
longer and narrower in body, coarser in bone,
and with far less development of flesh. The
Pekin as now bred is much broader and thicker,
and fuller in breast meat, with much less bone
and offal in proportion, and also differs much
from the bird as known in England at the
present time. Possibly some of the early
Pekins imported into America may have been
somewhat superior to those brought to England ;
but it is doubtful, as Mr. Rankin states that
thirty years ago it was difficult to find a young
bird that could be got up to real weight at ten
weeks old. It is more likely, perhaps, as the
breed admittedly needs more space to grow in
than the Aylesbury, that American conditions
more favoured it. At all events, this breed of
ducks has since been so improved in size,
precocity, and fecundity, that ten-weeks drakes
have weighed down 9 lbs. to 10 lbs., and ducks

81 lbs. ; that many ducks will lay, if the least
forced, at five months old ; and some raisers
and many odd breeding pens average 150 egg:
from each duck in a year. Owing to this
advance ducklings now mature in three-fourths
of the time formerly required. English Pekins
are imported from time to time in order to
furnish strong out-crosses, which as such are
valued ; but these birds have rarely if ever been
found hitherto to equal in either size or shape
the best American Pekins, as may be seen
from the weights of breeding stock. Several of
the largest American raisers, who keep 1,000
breeding ducks or more, find drakes weighing
12 lbs. quite common in their flocks ; and one
of them (Mr. Weber) when pointing the repre-
sentative of a poultry journal to a certain flock
of his breeders, numbering sixty ducks and a
dozen drakes, made the statement : " Every
duck in that pen weighs 10 lbs. or over." These
results have been obtained by long and careful
breeding, with special reference to fine market
shape and quality of meat, avoiding that false
idea of " keel " which has done so much
harm in England. This English notion of
" keel " (as bred for exhibition) does not
seem understood by American breeders ; for
while Mr. Rankin writes expressly against
" deep-keeled " birds, and describes a " wide,
plump-breasted, and finely rounded contour," an
article upon another great duck-rancher speaks
of the " deep, long keel " of his stock, and
again of the " depth of keel " in even the
youngest birds. But there is appended to it
a set of drawings of a pair of birds at every
successive week of their age, and it is curious to
observe that in spite of all this, at no age is
there the least keel as understood by British
exhibitors : the American writer and artist both
mean merely a deep plump breast, covered with
meat level to the top of the breast -bone, which
every salesman knows to be the true model.
American breeders, in short, have bred the Pekin
systematically for fecundity, early maturity, and
deep flesh on the breast ; and the results are a
striking testimony to their skill.

In management there are some differences
amongst the largest raisers, though in most
points there is practical agreement. The chief
difference is that some provide ponds or other
swimming range for their breeding stock, and
a few even smaller puddles for their market
ducklings, though nearly all raise the latter dry.
Others, including some of the largest, have
nothing but drinking troughs even for their
breeders, and these are found fertile provided
there is adequate yard-room for exercise. This
is more matter of location than choice, however,

5/4

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

and it is admitted by most that swimming-
water really is better for fertility, and promotes
stronger hatches. The almost universal pro-
portion of breeders is one drake to five ducks ;
and the great majority keep five drakes and
twenty-five ducks in one pen, those who have
water often reducing the proportion with
warmer weather to one drake in six or eight.
Some, however, keep more together, penning
forty or fifty or even sixty together. They are
generally taken out from the general flock of
breeders and mated up early in November. A
very usual arrangement for the breeding ducks
is a long large house with a passage up the
centre, each side being divided into pens about
ten feet square, which have outside yards of the
same width and about ICX) feet or more long,
the water-range (where there is any) being at
the bottom and also wired out in divisions.

The general diet for breeders is a mixture of
one part of maize meal to one varying to two
parts of bran, as the foundation ; with this is
mixed about 25 per cent, of cooked vegetables,
10 per cent, meat meal or " beef-scrap," and a
portion of grit. This is fed twice a day, and in
addition most give a good allowance of green
food, such as cut cabbage, cut clover, or chopped
green rye. This plenitude of green food, with
adequate regular animal food, is an integral part
of the system. It is found that any sudden
change of diet affects laying very seriously,
and that in particular a failure in supply of
the beef-scrap so largely used, will, in two or
three days, bring down the egg-yield by an
alarming figure, and also affect the fertility.

Of the eggs incubated, on an average about
50 per cent, hatch, counting the whole season,
the early eggs being, of course, less fertile than
later on. A few do rather better, something
depending upon the incubator used, and much
more on the stock and the feeding. In considering
this average, it must be remembered that it is
the result of birds kept in many hundreds, and
of eggs incubated in many thousands, in winter
as well as in spring. When hatched, the ducklings
are never left less than twenty-fourhours, and more
commonly thirty-six hours, without feeding; then
transferred to brooders or brooder-houses, with
the hovers kept at about 90° the first day or two,
gradually reduced. After a week old, they are
often shut away from the hovers in daytime on
warm days, and may or may not be let out into
small open yards in front of the pens, according
to the weather. As soon as possible, they are
got into cool brooder-houses, also divided into
pens, and with yards in front of these averaging
100 feet long, each pen and yard carrying 50 to
100 ducklings, according to size. Some bed the

covered pens with pine sawdust, others with
shavings and chaff, or cut straw, and they are
kept wholesome and dry.

All do not feed quite alike, though a general
method prevails. Messrs. Seeley give for the
first week equal parts of rolled oats and cracker
(biscuit) crumbs, to which is added some chopped
egg and some grit ; for the next two weeks
equal parts of rolled oats, cracker crumbs, maize
meal, and bran, to which is added 5 per cent, of
meat and 5 per cent, of chopped green food,
with grit ; then, till eight weeks old, equal parts
of maize meal and bran, with 5 per cent, meat
and green food as before ; and the final two
weeks before killing, two-thirds maize meal and
one-third bran, with 10 per cent, of meat. Mr.
Hallock's system is, for the first week equal
parts of maize meal, bran, and coarse flour, with
10 per cent, coarse sand; thence till eight weeks,
equal parts of same meals, but adding 10 per
cent, beef-scrap, I2i per cent, green food, and
10 per cent, sand ; for the final two weeks, two
parts maize meal, one part each bran and flour,
I2i per cent, beef-scrap, \2\ green food, and
coarse sand as before. The general principle is
to increase maize meal and meat during the
finishing period, giving all through regular green
food, and grit or sand. They are fed first every
two hours, after a few days five times a day,
gradually down to four and three times. The
food is by some given in troughs, by others
on boards; and water is kept close at hand, as
Pekins appear to need to wash down every two
or three mouthfuls ; but many raisers do not
leave water by them between meals. Milk to
drink has been tried by some small raisers who
had enough of it to make the experiment, but
was found to get into the eyes and make them
sore, and it is never given except in the food
occasionally. " Bad eye " is also sometimes
produced by over-crowding upon sawdust.

Pekin ducks are found to need special care
in regard to several points. They are never
caught or handled by the legs, which are very
tender and easily sprained, especially with their
great weight — always by the neck. They are
also very timid and nervous, especially at night
— if disturbed with a lantern it often upsets
them for the whole night, and causes a set back
in weight. If anything is done at night in the
routine, it is usual to leave enough lanterns to
see by, burning in their pens. Adequate shade
is provided in hot weather by canvas or other-
wise, hot sun being fatal ; as also found in
England. If any do really ail at all, the hatchet
is usually applied at once, as possibly avoiding
danger, and almost always saving trouble in the
end. Besides " bad eye," and bowel complaints

DUCK-FARMING IN AMERICA.

575

due to some mistake in feeding, the only other
trouble usually met with is feather-plucking,
the causes of which are either over-crowding,
or a deficiency in meat-scrap and greens. As
a general rule, the yards are finally vacated in
August, being immediately ploughed over and
sown with rye, which grows profusely and purifies
the ground, as well as providing much green
food in due time. When ready for market, the
ducklings are usually killed in America by a
knife stuck in the roof of the mouth. The
weight at the universal ten weeks ranges from
lo lbs. to 13 lbs. per pair ; but this depends upon
the amount of food given and the weight really
worked for, as much as upon the stock. The
best-formed birds, meant for stock, are generally
picked out at three or four weeks old, when
transferred from the nursery brooders, and
brought up with as much liberty as convenient
in a somewhat hardier way.

Space will only allow of any details respect-
ing a very few American duck-farms. These are
not selected as being largest, there being several
which raise more than most of those mentioned
here, but partly for some variety of their circum-
stances or practice, and partly for the reputation
of their owners as breeders ; many of those who
raise largely for market also having a reputation
for eggs or breeding stock. And all are confined
to establishments which have now had years ot
experience and continued success.

Some raise a relatively considerable number
on a small space. Mr. George Pollard, well
known as a breeder, raised 5,000 on less than
two acres, and if he had continued with that
plant, stated his ability to raise 8,000 on it,
purchasing, of course, all the food ; but he
afterwards bought a sixty-acre farm as a larger
ranche. It may be useful to state that he
bought the small plant from an enthusiast
who had rushed into it and sunk 5,000 dollars
therein, selling out " on account of his health."
As Mr. Pollard remarks, many others think like
that young man, that it is an easy business
and quick road to fortune ; his stock had also
become weakly from in-breeding. The ex-
perience of all the successful men is that
duck-raising requires intense application and
constant supervision ; and many of the largest,
who are making thousands of dollars a year
by it, work sixteen and seventeen hours a day
during the busy part of the season.

Mr. James Rankin, now eighty years of
age, but quite recently retired from business,
raised about 15,000 for market. He also
sold 1,200 to 1,500 breeders at two to five
dollars each, and in the last season of which
we have any statement sent out about 50,000

eggs for hatching. He bred from about 1,000
stock birds, and these had no water except
for drinking. The area not used for duck-
yards was mainly devoted to growing green
and vegetable food — rye, turnips, cabbage,
clover, etc. — of which tons were accumulated
to supply his breeders during the winter. Grit
was constantly mixed in the food, in the pro-
portion of 5 per cent, of its weight, and this
practice is very general.

Mr. A. J. Hallock, of Speonk, Long
Island, as before intimated, has also been in
the business, or rather his father had before
him, since about i860. His ranche is about
fifty acres, and all his stock have swimming-
water. He markets annually nearly 70,000,
and keeps 4,000 or more for breeders, the spare
ones selling from two to as high as twenty-five
dollars each, being well known as exhibition
stock. He reckons his laying average at 135.
Though many of the females are more, he
prefers to breed from ducks about 8 lbs. and
drakes 12 lbs., finding birds of 13 lbs. less
satisfactory. He raises many chickens as well,
and several years ago, when rearing consider-
ably less than now, 3,000 lbs. of food was
fed per day to the birds on this ranche, to
facilitate which a rail or tram-line is carried
across the yards, over the tops of the low
fences. His breeders are weeded out after
three years old, and such ducklings as may
be behind in growth are put back betimes
among rather younger ones, when they often
catch up. He employs four or five men and
a number of women.

One of the most successful duck-farms in
the States is that of Messrs. Weber Brothers,
at Wrentham, Mass. The father was a German,
who with his sons struggled along on the farm
with little success, till in 1888 they visited
Mr. Rankin's duck-ranche, saw his results, and
concluded to follow his example, raising in
1889 800 chickens and 500 ducklings. Though
still 3,000 dollars in debt, they were so
satisfied with the prospects that they bought
two incubators holding 600 eggs each, and
from forty breeders hatched in 1890 3,000
ducklings, marketing 2,800 and clearing over
1,500 dollars. That was their real start. Six
years later, in 1896, they had paid off all
debt and sunk 2,000 dollars more in plant,
and that year from 500 breeding ducks
hatched about 21,000, selling 19,000 and real-
ising 7,000 dollars. In 1899 they raised about
35,000 ducklings, to produce which they em-
ployed 1,500 breeders, and were collecting
from these six or seven bushels of eggs every
day. The plant comprises several large brooder

576

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

houses, cool houses, a grain house, a cooking
house, incubator rooms, etc., and has an engine
to pump water, cut bone, and do other work
needing power. In the swing of the season,
two tons of grain are used every day. The
rest of the farm {i.e. not used by the ducks)
is occupied in growing vegetables and green
crops for them, which are immense, owing to
the manure. Grass and rye mostly serve till
late in the year, and when this fails the food
is mixed with 20 per cent, of boiled turnips,
beets, or carrots, except that two or three times
a week they are given raw cabbages and turnips
cut up. The breeders on this ranche have no
ponds, but the egg-average is reckoned at 150 ;
and in 1896, when they were carefully tabu-
lated, the ducklings hatched amounted to 58
per cent, of the eggs put down.

The Trenton Farm, New Jersey, has mar-
keted 20,000 to 30,000 ducklings for several
years, but there are no details of special
interest ; neither have we seen any of nearly
a dozen plants on a similar scale which might
be cited. Mr. Charles Stauffer, of Harrisburg,
Pa., hatched 30,280 in 1899, and actually
raised just over 27,000 of them, figures which
are interesting as illustrating the small mor-
tality under good management. And Mr.
W. H. Truslow, of Stroudburg, Pa., whose
output is about 20,000, may be mentioned on
account of his exceptional feeding — he feeds
his ducklings on Spratt for the first five days,
and half Spratt for the next five, after which
the birds have about the usual rations.

It will be seen that American methods
and results are well worthy of attentive study.
It does not appear that in all points those
results are superior. These breeders never
possessed such Aylesbury stock as produces
tender birds of 4 lbs. and more at eight weeks
old ; and we have seen also that of late British
raisers have marketed Pekin crosses which
have equalled the American average weight at
ten weeks. But still heavier Pekin ducklings
could be produced if there were demand
for them ; and when we read of breeding
drakes weighing 12 lbs. and ducks 8 lbs. to
10 lbs., yarded in such flocks, and with such
^gg-averages, it is impossible not to be struck
by the advance due to systematic breeding,
according to a real "utility" standard. That
these immense establishments breed their own
stock, are self-contained and self-sufficient for
all their wants except grain food, and occupy
to profit permanent buildings of such a char-
acter, is also noteworthy. It by no means
follows that in the milder climate of England
such expensive plant is either necessary or

desirable ; but the importance of green food in
the system, and the fact that the stock has
been bred to such perfection by the great
raisers themselves (who know the bird they
want), will not fail to be remarked.

Very little need be said in regard to Con-
tinental duck-raising. By feeding with rice,
and oatmeal, and white fat, more or less mixed
with milk, some of the ducks fed in France
and Belgium are made as smooth and white
in skin as a La Fleche capon, and have
attracted some attention at the Smithfield
Table Poultry shows ; but this kind of finish, so
far as we can learn in the markets, is not much
valued in England. In curious contrast to this
is the fact that the celebrated French ducklings
from the Rouen district, being killed by sheer
suffocation (the bill being held shut and the
nostrils covered) pluck dark and discoloured :
but the black carbonized blood thus retained is
held to give a higher flavour. More practically
suggestive is the fact that these birds are with-
out keel, and are fed so that the breast is full and
level. That has a considerable value. In none
of these ducks have we seen much evidence of
distinctive race ; but by care in selecting the
stock of the district, they have been bred
successfully for the same deep flesh on the
breast which American breeders have so
developed in the Pekin.

ORNAMENTAL DUCKS.

There are a large number of wild or natural
varieties of ducks which are occasionally seen
at exhibitions, and some of which are amongst
the most beautiful in plumage to be found in
the feathered world. These are bred more
often by amateurs in Holland and Germany,
and even in France, than in England, where
less attention seems at present given to this
class of birds than was even the case some
years ago. We can remember seeing at Bir-
mingham about 187s really large classes
of Black East India ducks, another good
class of Mandarins and Carolinas, another
of Call ducks, and yet another for any other
variety : now the single class last mentioned
is the only one generally found at even the
largest shows. Some day perhaps the great
beauty of many of these birds may revive
their popularity.

They are not as a rule very easy to breed
successfully, which may be one reason for their
present scarcity ; but any difficulty in merely
keeping them has been exaggerated. One or
two pairs may be kept in a comparatively small
space, with a small pond ; but, unlike other
ducks, these kinds must have clean or fresh

MANAGEMENT OF FANCY WATERFOWL

577

water : vvith only a stagnant puddle such as
suffices large market ducks for weeks, these
neither keep healthy nor can preserve their
plumage. With adequate shade and
General a few shrubs and such a fresh pool,

Management a pair or two of birds will keep in
FMicy ^^''y good order and health ; but to

Waterfowl. breed most of them, more should be
provided. The water should for such
a purpose be rather larger, and have tall rushes
round it in some parts, or shrubs for shelter,
with some grass, and the whole be fenced round.
Where there is any danger from rats, inch-mesh
netting should be carried all round a foot into
the ground, which is generally effective ; but
fancy ducks are specially in danger from such
vermin. If the pond is large enough to have
a small island in the middle, or even a raft,
all the better. If there are many shrubs and
trees, it is better still ; and besides the shelter
given by these and the flags or rushes, small
nesting boxes like little kennels may be placed
about in sheltered places, and even a few up
among low branches, where perching ducks like
Mandarins or Carolinas are kept. Care should
be taken not to startle or frighten them, and
to feed them regularly, giving the adults grain
in pans of water, and if in small yards adding
duck-weed and some boiled liver chopped
small : in larger enclosures they will forage
greens and animal food for themselves. A few
of the less wild and larger varieties, such as
Bahamas, will range over a farm, and need
give no trouble at all.

The eggs of small ducks mostly hatch in
about twenty-five or twenty-six days, and do
best under Silky hens. When hatched they
should be cooped with the mother in a warm
place, but provided with ample shade, with some
clean turf in front, and be fenced in pretty
near the hen for two or three weeks. They
can be fed first on egg and bread-crumb and
duck-weed or minced grass, gradually adding
Spratt or meal, and a little minced boiled liver,
or small worms, and small seeds and grain.
They should not have too much water, and it
is best given with duck-weed in it, which will
supply small molluscs and other food as well,
and helps greatly in rearing them. Gradually
they come on to seeds and grain only, given
in their water with the duck-weed, but clearing
away all that is left every day.

There are two ways of confining them. If
the enclosure is small, it is not very expensive
to enclose it entirely with netting, either of
wire or tanned twine. Otherwise, before they
begin to fly the young birds must be pinioned.
A sharp knife or strong pair of scissors is

brought nearly close to the knuckle at the
first joint of the wing, and cuts the latter off,
carefully leaving on the limb the little pro-
jecting point carrying a plume of feathers,
which will protect the part. Let the bird then
dabble in cold water, and bleeding will quickly
stop, or hazeline lotion may be applied.

Before exhibiting any of the more wild
varieties, the pair should be confined two or
three weeks in a quite small enclosure, also
with its pond, but with comparatively little
hiding place, that they may become tamer ;
and while thus taming, before transference to
a pen, particular care should be taken not to
frighten them. As a rule all the varieties, if
well kept, improve in brilliance of • plumage,
and become more and more domesticated, the
longer they live. A pair should never be ex-
hibited unless they have mated, or at least
lived together on friendly terms, as otherwise
the drake may very likely kill the female, most
of these ducks being very constant in their
affections, and resenting any interference with
them. This constancy to some extent facili-
tates hybridising, several of the small ducks
being so much alike that if brought up on
the same ground from the &^^, they often
attract males from kindred varieties.

From the immense number of beautiful
waterfowl, distributed almost all over the world,
we can only here briefly describe a few of the
best known and most worthy of cultivation.

Call Ducks are small descendants of the
Mallard, and formerly had a class at Birming-
ham, but are little kept now except in puolic
parks. The Grey resembles the
Call Ducks. Rouen in colour, the White is white
all over with a yellow bill. The
bills and heads are shorter than the Rouen
and Aylesbury, the forehead being rounded, or
with considerable " stop " as it is termed.
These birds breed freely, are very hardy, and
may be kept at large.

The Black East India duck, known also as
the Buenos Ayres and Labrador, once filled
large classes, but appears little kept now. It

also descends from the Mallard, and
Black jg fertile with all ordinary breeds.

East India t^ n i i r i

Ducks. ^^ ^'^^^ ^ small duck, of plumage

all black with intense and brilliant
green lustre, and has been shown as small as
2 lbs. for the drake and if lbs. for the female,
though most exhibition birds would reach 5 lbs.
the pair. This duck is delicious eating, and
hence was also bred, by scores, larger in size ;
these larger sizes being hardy, while the small

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

were delicate. The delicacy of the smaller
sized, and gradual crossing of the larger with
the Cayuga, has almost exterminated this
breed in England ; but specimens still exist,
and it could soon be recovered by judicious
line-breeding. It can be kept at large, and
intense green gloss is the chief exhibition point.

Mandarin
Duck.

The Mandarin duck {Aix galericulata ;
Chinese Teal) is confessedly the most orna-
mental of all waterfowl, the drake exhibiting

almost all the colours of the rain-
The bow. These birds are very small,

but the most diminutive in size are

never the best breeders, and it is
also found that they grow rather larger with
age and more thorough domestication.
They are found in flocks between May
and August in the countries watered by
the river Amur, but are exceedingly diffi-
cult to approach or to capture. Those
kept by Chinese mandarins are caught
north of Pekin, so far as wild stock is
concerned, but are also bred with great
success, under the name of Li-chi-ki. They
are highly prized both for their exceed-
ing beauty and as striking examples of
conjugal fidelity and affection, a pair being
often carried in a gilt cage in marriage
processions. The first known in England
are described by Edwards in 1747 as at

Richmond; forty years later they were at ..^.„^.^^__- ^-_ -^^^^^^

Osterley Park; and in 1833 they bred at -.v^'rVe- J^^^T?^^^^^^^
the London Zoological Gardens. But all Vj"''*" v.' *'A.''-^''j^ ^^
bred in Europe for many years were de- ^^^^— _ - ^-^
scended from a few procured in 1850 by -^^^---je--^ ^_ - — --^^^

Sir John Bowring, and two pairs which "

reached Rotterdam a year or two earlier. Di

Since that time others have been imported.

In shape these birds are very compact,
and slightly chubby. The drake's head has
a large and long crest carried backward,
which is erected or lowered at will, and

purple bar. His greatest peculiarity lies in
the wing-fans, the inner web of the inner
feather of each wing being enormously
developed into a sort of fan, which is carried
up like a sail, and which is a rich brown
edged with bright blue on one side and
white on the other. The eye is black, the
bill crimson, the legs pink, with yellowish
feet. The duck also has a crest. Her beak
is more of a horn colour, and her general
plumage a sober greenish brown and mot-
tling, except for eye-marks and a wing-bar.
In summer the drake casts his whiskers and
fans, and moults into summer plumage.

The Mandarin is naturally a percher, and
will breed very well in a small house raised

the water, if necessary. The

two and even more nests of

a dozen eggs each, white in shell. It is a

pretty sight to watch them, the drake being

a little above
duck will lay

green and purple on the top, shading off to obviously vain of his beauty, and the duck

rich chestnut and green. Along each side
of the head, back into the crest, is a broad
band of cream colour. The neck has round
it a full ruffle of feathers rather like the
hackles of fowls, but stiffer and more apart,
of reddish glossy chestnut, which are termed
" whiskers." The upper breast and shoulders
are deep claret, terminated across each
shoulder by two bars of black and white,
the under parts being white ; and the flanks
are greenish yellow very finely pencilled with
black lines. The back is light brown, the
wing metallic brCwn quills with silver edging
to the webs and tipped with blue, and with a

fondling his handsome whiskers, and the two
" kissing " each other like doves. A pair
may be kept and will breed in an enclosure
eight or ten feet square, if arranged with a
little care for appearances ; but it is worthy
of note that the produce so bred is not equal
in furnishing or brilliance of colour to either
imported birds, or those reared in wider and
more natural surroundings. These general
remarks apply also to the next variety.

The Carolina Duck {Aix sponsa ; Summer
Duck, etc.) is a native of the United States,
and also of the West India Islands. It, too,

THE CAROLINA DUCK.

579

The

Carolina

Duck.

is a percher or tree duck, often carrying its
young to the water when hatched ; and in
the crest of the drake, the deep claret of
the breast, the pencilled flanks,
and the broad black and white
shoulder-marks (though single in
this case) there are evident signs
of some former common origin, the lines of
descent being probably connected through
Behring's Straits. The wild birds also fly
in flocks, though strictly pairing. The
drake's head and crest are glossy green and
violet, with pure white stripes arranged as in
the illustration, the lowest forming a collar ;
the upper breast claret, but spotted prettily
with white, tlie shoulder being crossed by a

Carolina Ducks.

single bar of intense black and one of white ;
flanks a yellowish drab finely pencilled with
black, and with pure white and black wider
pencil marks along the upper margin (there
are traces of these latter also in the Man-
darin). The under parts are white, the back
bronze and green, tail green-black, wings
almost glossy black, with a bright blue and
green ribbon-mark edged with white. The
legs and feet are yellowish red, bill red mar-
gined with black, the eyes black in pupil
with red irides. The duck has a much
smaller crest, carried close, her back is a
kind of glossy bronze, which extends more
or less over the bird, the sides more of an
ashy brown and drab, with spots near the
breast. She has a white mark round the
eye, which increases in size with age. Her
quiet colours have, in spite of differences, great

resemblance to the Mandarin duck, but she
is rather brighter and more glossy. Owing
to this resemblance hybrids or crosses some-
times occur.

The Carolina lays about the same as the
Mandarin, but the eggs are more of an ivory
colour. It generally grows slightly larger
than that variety, and tends to increase in
size when bred and fed in captivity, and these
rather larger birds are usually the best breeders;
but beyond reasonable latitude size should
not be encouraged.

The entire family of ducks known as
Teals are small and very pretty. The British
Common Teal and the Garganey Teal are
widely spread and very hardy,
The and breed well on any orna-

Teals. mental water. The Garganey

{Qiierquediila circid) is the
European representative of a group which
is characterised by the upper shoulder-
coverts of the wings assuming the form
of broad pointed hackles. The most
beautiful examples of this feature are the
Japanese Teal {Q. fonnosa) and the
Falcated duck {Q. falcaria).

The former of these is rare, but has
been imported now and then : the first
we ever saw were a splendid pair ex-
hibited at the Crystal Palace in 1874.
■*' 'In some slight degree these had som.e
:V general resemblance to the Mandarins, to

" -^ which we should place them next in
beauty. The top of the drake's head is
black or dark grey, below which is a
white streak just over the eye. From the
eye descends nearly perpendicularly a black
stripe, meeting a black patch under the
throat, and enclosing a triangular white space
in front of the face. Behind this stripe is
another of white, behind which and back-
wards from the eye is a large crescent of
bronze-green, the lower horns of which comi.'
forward and nearly meet in front of the
breast. The breast is a light purple beauti-
fully spotted with black, shading off to white
on the under parts. The shoulders and
flanks are a beautifully pencilled silver-grey
with a broad white stripe or crescent on the
shoulder at the same place as that on the
Mandarin. The wing-spot is bronze-green,
bordered above with brown and below with
white. Th2 tail and wings are brownish
grey, but the shoulder or upper wing-coverts
are long and pointed like hackles, and falling
over the wings. These hackle-feathers are
black in the centre, edged on one side with

;8o

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

brown and on the other with white, and give
a very handsome appearance. Under the
tail is black. The female is a plain bird, not
unlike the female Mallard. In habits the
birds resemble the Mandarins.

The Falcated duck has similar hackle-
like appendages to the wings. The drake is
ir,ost beautifully pencilled all over the body
\\ ith black on a silver-grey ground ; the head
purple, beautifully glossed with green, and
having a crest of the same colour ; the throat
white, below which is a collar of green, and
below that another ring of white. We have
only seen one pair, which was at Manchester
many years ago, and we are not sure they
have yet been bred in this country.

The Shieldrakes, or Sheldrakes {Kasarkas),
are large birds. Both the Common British
Shieldrake and the Ruddy Shieldrake are hardy,
handsome, readily domesticated, and
The can be fed in a farmyard with other

Shieldrakes. poultry, though apt to be a trifle
spiteful now and then, which seems
general in the family. They also do well in a
garden, if there is even a very small pond. The
wild birds often nest in rabbit-holes ; farm-reared
ones may nest almost anywhere, and may some-
times be seen in the act of carrying their
young to the water in their bills. They are
not well adapted to excessively small runs.

Of foreign Shieldrakes, the best known is the
Paradise duck {K. variegata) of New Zealand,
remarkable for the extraordinary difference be-
tween the colours of the two sexes. The drake's
head is glossy green black, while the duck's is
pure white : his body is mainly a dark pencilled
grey, with deep bronze stern ; she has a great
deal of white and red, with some of the pen-
cilled grey intermingled. This duck often took
prizes some years ago. A larger and more
beautiful bird is the Australian K. tadornoides.
The drake has dark hazel eyes and a black
beak, black head and neck, below which
comes a clean white collar, then succeeds a
ruddy brown, gradually lightening; round the
top of back and centre of breast another white
collar runs completely. The body is mainly a
silvery grey ; the wings white on the shoulder,
blue in the bar, and black in the flights,
with a curious expanded feather on each
side in the same place as the Mandarin's fan,
but lying flat over the rump, and chestnut in
colour with a white edge. This is perhaps the
noblest in appearance of all the ducks.

The largest of the Shieldrakes is known as
the Egyptian Goose, which is not a goose at all,
though known as such for hundreds of years.

Years ago we noted its affinity to the Shiel-
drakes, and that it had bred with even common
ducks ; it bred with Shieldrakes at Regent's
Park Gardens in 18S7, and again in 1901
similar hybrids were produced in one of the
London parks, we think the St. James's. It
has been seen flying at large in England. It is
tame, but quarrelsome in a yard, and does best on
the water of a park, where it will breed freely.

The drakes of this family do not moult into
female plumage in the summer.

The Pintail family i^Dafild] are named from
their long pointed tails. The Common Pintail
is a British bird, the drake being distinguished
by long pointed shoulder- hackles,
The which are black edged with pale

Pintails. buff. The head is dark brown with

bronze or purple gloss, the breast
white, tail black, back and flanks silver-grey,
formed by beautiful fine black pencilling on
white ground ; the wing - bar brilliant green.
The bill is lead colour. The female is brown,
edged with lighter colour. This duck breeds
freely, and often hybridises with others.

There are two foreign varieties often seen.
The Chilian Pintail is small, very long and slim
in shape, and rich but quiet in colour, varying
from chestnut to fawn, the drake's back being
brown edged with black, and his wing-bar blue.
The most beautiful and popular is the Bahama
Pintail, which is a perching bird where it has a
chance. The bill and feet are lead colour, the
head deep glossy brown, the general colour
cinnamon, passing on the breast to greyer colour
spotted with black, the tail deep bronzy cinna-
mon, the shoulder feathers black edged with
chestnut ; both sexes are nearly alike. This
pretty duck is hardy and prolific, and, as already
noted, will range over a farm.

Of the Whistling ducks {Dendrocygna)
only two varieties are commonly seen, and
may be mentioned as specially adapted, from
their tameness, to be kept in any

Whistling

small grass run with a little

Ducks. pond at the bottom of a garden,

requiring no special privacy to
thrive. They do not, however, breed well in
this climate, and require a tight shed or house
in the winter.

The Widow duck {D. viduata = " little
widow ") has rather long, thin, lead coloured legs,
and stands very upright, the feet having less web
and more claw than usual. The bill is nearly
black, the head from base of bill to behind the
eyes white; back of head and neck black, with a
patch of white rather below the throat; all along

OTHER VARIETIES.

581

centre of breast and belly black ; the feathers of
back and shoulders dark brown edged with
lighter colour, tail black, rest of flanks and
shoulders mostly brown pencilled across with
black. Both sexes are marked alike. The Red-
billed Whistler (Z). autumnalis) has a red bill
and pinky legs, crown of the head chestnut,
cheeks and throat greyish white, lower neck
and back and shoulders chestnut well bronzed,
the belly, thighs, and tail black.

Of varieties usually exhibited, the only other
calling for special mention is the Indian Spotted
Bill duck. This is a true duck of the Anas
family {A. poecilorJiyncha). It breeds
Other freel)', and often crosses with others

Varieties. in a pond, especially with the

Mallard — it is, in fact, the wild duck
of India. The bill is black, with a red border at
the base and a bright yellow spot at the tip.
The drake's head is brown, his breast paler
brown with dark brown spots, or dark brown
broadly edged with pale, the back rather darker,
till the tail and stern become black. The
wing-bar is probably the most brilliant green
possessed by any duck, with a band of black and
white above and below. Both sexes are nearly
alike, but the duck rather duller in colour. This
duck has been by turns very popular, and again
quite neglected. We remember the few then in
England once selling readily at £\o for a pair.

Several other of the wild British ducks are
very handsome, and though not adapted to close
confinement or exhibition, are often seen on
ornamental waters in parks and public gardens.
The short and chubby Pochards are often kept
thus, being generally knov/n as " diving ducks,"
and watched with interest on that account. The
Shoveller and Common Wigeon are frequently
thus seen. Many of the wild " British "
varieties can often be obtained at a cheap rate
in Leadenhall Market, or at the annual sales of
waterfowl now held by the managers of the
larger public parks. They need for successful
breeding the natural surroundings and range
mentioned at the commencement of this section,
and to be left much to Nature, and are not
adapted for small runs.

In judging the larger kinds of ducks, the
chief duty of the judge is to distinguish between
mere cramming or gorging of the crops just
previous to his awards, and real size and weight
of frame. Much harm has been done even by
the recognition of a degree of fattening which
ruins the birds as breeders. The Standards of
the Poultry Club for the recognised classes
sufficiently deal with other points, and are as
follows:

AYLESBURY DUCKS

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Large, straight, and long. Bill : Long
and broad, and when viewed from the side the
outline almost straight from the top of the skuU,
the head and bill measuring from six to eight inches.
Eyes : FuU.

Neck. — Long, slender, and slightly curved.

Body. — Long, broad, and very deep. Breast :
Full and prominent. Keel : Quite straight from
breast to stern. Back : Straight and almost flat.
Wings : Strong, and carried closely to the sides ;
fairly high, but not touching across the saddle.
Tail : Short, only slightly elevated, and composed
of stiff feathers, the drake's having two or three
well curled feathers in the centre.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Very strong and short,
the bones thick, well set so as to balance the body.
Toes : Straight, connected by web.

Carriage. — Horizontal, the keel practically parallel
with the ground.

Weight. — Drake : 10 lb. Duck : 9 lb.

Plumage. — Bright and glossy, resembUng satin.

Legs

COLOUR

Bill : Pink-white, or flesh. Eyes :

Dark.

and Feet : Bright orange.
Plumage. — Pure white.

SCALE OP POINTS

Head and bill

Size . .

Condition

Keel

Colour

Type

Eyes

Neck

Legs and feet

Serious defects : Plumage other than white ; bill
other than white or flesh colour ; crooked back,
wry taU, or any other deformity ; ducks so heavy
behind that in the opinion of the judge they will
not breed.

CAYUGA DUCKS
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Large. Bill : Long, wide, and flat, well
set in a straight hne from the tip of the eye. Eyes :
Full.

Neck. — Long and tapering, and with a graceful
curve.

Body. — Long, broad, and deep. Breast : Pro-
minent ; keel well forward, and forming a straight
under-hne from stem to stern. Tail : Carried well
out and closely folded, the drake's having two or
three well-curled feathers in the centre.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Large and strong boned,
placed midway in the body, giving the bird a carriage
similar to that of the Rouen. Toes : Straight, con-
nected by web.

582

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Carriage. — Liveh", clear of the ground from breast
to slirn.

Weight.— DrrtAi? .• 8 lb. Duck : 7 lb.
Plumage.— Bright and glossy.

COLOUR

Bill : Slate-black, with dense black saddle in
the centre, but not touching the sides nor coming
within one inch of the end ; the bean black. Eyes :
Black. Legs and Feet : Dull orange-brown.

Plumage. — Lustrous green-black, as free as possible
from purple or white, the whole of the back and
upper part of wings, the breast, and under-parts
of body deep black, the vWngs naturally more lus-
trous than the rest of the body plumage ; a brown
or purple tinge is objectionable, although not a
disauahfication.

SCALE OP POINTS

Type 30

Size . .

Colour . . . . . . . . . . ..15

Head and bill
Condition

Neck

Tail

Legs and feet

Serious defects : Red or white feathers ; orange-
coloured bill ; dished bill ; crooked back, wry tail,
or any other deformity.

CRESTED DUCKS

GEXERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Long and straight. Crest : Globular, as
large as possible, and set evenly on the skull. Bill :
Long and broad. Eyes : Large and bright.

Neck. — Rather long, shghtly arched.

Body. — Long, broad, and fairly deep. Breast :
Full and round. Back : Long and broad. Wings :
Strong, and carried closely to the sides. Tail :
Short, similar to that of the Aylesbury.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Short and strong. Toes :
Straight, connected by web.

Carriage. — Somewhat erect.

Weight. — Drake : 7 lb. Duck : 6 lb.

COLOUR
Any colour is permitted.

SCALE OF POINTS

Crest . .
Type . .
Size . .
Head and bil
Colour
Condition
Neck . .
Legs and feet

25

INDIAN RUNNER DUCKS

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Long, fine, and comparatively flat. Bill -
Very long and strong, fairly broad, coming straight
down from the skull and giving it the appearance
of a long wedge : the long sweep of the top hne of
the head should continue without an indentation
or stop right down to the end of the bill, and should
not dip in the centre (known as " dished "). Eyes :
Set high in the head.

Neck. — Long, and as thin as possible.

Body. — Long, narrow, and racy-looking. Breast .-
Round. Shoulders : Gently sloping, gradually taper-
ing upward until they reach the neck. Wings : Of
medium length and closely carried. Tail : In a
line with the body, the drake's having two or three
curled feathers. From the shoulders the body is
drawn out at length, tapering gradually to the
stern, and without the sUghtest indication of keel,
the top and lower halves resembling each other
in shape, and appearing as two symmetrical ovals.
(Note. — A good description of the general shape
of the Indian Runner is that it resembles that of
the old style of soda-water bottle.)

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Of medium length, set
well back and compelling the bird to Ccurry itself
upright. Toes : Straight, connected by web.

Carriage. — Very erect, somewhat after the form
of a Penguin.

Weight. — Drake : 4^ lb. Duck : 4 lb. Weight
in either sex not to exceed 5^- lb., nor to be less than
3* lb.

COLOUR

Bill : Yellow, and spotted with green in young
birds ; entirely green in adults, and with a black bean.
Eyes : Hazel. Legs and Feet : Deep and bright yellow.

Plumage. — Fawn and white. Head : Cap and
cheeks fawn, a narrow line of white dividing those
markings, and a line of white about one-eighth of
an inch wide dividing the base of the bill from the
head markings. Neck. — White from the head to
il- to 2 in. from the base of the neck, where it joins
the fawn evenly and abruptly all round, the lower
part of the neck fawn. Breast (upper part, about
half-way between the point of the breast-bone and
the legs). Shoulders, Wings (top part). Back, and
Tail : Fawn. Flights and Fluff : White, except an
indistinct line of colour running from the base of
the tail to the thighs. The colour should be uniform
throughout the whole of the surface plumage,
except the tail of the drake, which is of a dark
shade. The fawn of the shoulders, the top part
of the wings and the tail is the shape of a heart
pressed flat on the back. The two colours through-
out should be cleanly cut, and not running into
each other.

SCALE OP POINTS

Colour and markings :
Type and condition
Head, eves, and bill
Neck . . '
Legs and feet

bodv, 2S ; head, 10

Serious defects i Slipped wings ; any deformity.

STANDARDS I-OR DUCKS.

583

Serious defects : Blue ribbon wing bars ; claret
breast ; horizontal shape or carriage ; absence of
leathers from the wings or any other part of the
body ; shpped or twisted wings ; wry tail ; or any
other deformity.

ORPINGTON DUCKS

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Of

the

Straight, con-

6 lb.

Head. — Fine, and of oval shape. Bill :
moderate length and in a straight line from
skull. Eyes : Bold and full.

Neck. — Fairly long and gracefully curved.

Body. — Long, broad, and deep. Breast : Full
and round. Wings : Strong, and carried closely to
tlie sides. Tail : Small, and rising gently, the drake's
ha\-ing two or three curled feathers in the centre.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Strong and set well
apart, of medium length. Toes :
nected by web.

Carriage. — Somewhat upright.

Weight. — Drake : 7 lb. Duck :

Plumage. — Bright and glossy.

COLOUR

THE BUFF

Bill : Yellow, with dark bean. Eyes : Brown iris,
blue pupil. Legs and Feet : Bright orange yellow.

Plumage. — Rich shade of fawn, even through-
out, the head and the upper portion of the neck
of the drake at least two shades darker than the
body colour.

SCALE OP POINTS
Colour . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Type

Size
Head . .
Legs and feet

100

Serious defects : Colour other than buff ; lack of
size ; twisted wings ; wry tail ; or any other
deformity.

PEKIN DUCKS

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Head. — Large, broad, and round, with high skull,
rising rather abruptly from the base of the bill,
and heavy cheeks. Bill : Short, broad and thick,
slightly convex but not dished. Eyes : Partially
shaded by heavy eyebrows and bulky cheeks.

Neck. — Long and thick, carried well forward in
a graceful arch or cur\'c, and with slightly gulleted
throat.

Body. — Broad and of medium length, and with-
out any indication of keel except a little between
the legs. Breast : Broad and full, followed in under-
line by the keel (which shows very slightly between
the legs) to a broad, deep paunch and stern, carried
just clear of the ground. B((ck : Broad. Wings :
Short, and carried closely to the sides. Tail : Well
spread and carried high, the drake's having two or
three curled feathers on top. (Note. — A good
description of the general shape of the Pekin is that

it resembles a small wide boat standing almost on
its stern, and the bow leaning slightly forward.)

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Strong and stout, set
well back and causing erect carriage. Toes : Straight,
connected by web.

Carriage. — Almost upright, elevated in front
and sloping downward to the rear.

Weight.— Dra/ce .• 9 lb. Duck : 8 lb.

Plumage. — Very abundant, the thighs and fluff
well furnished with long, soft, downy feathers.

COLOUR

Bill : Bright orange, and free from black marks
or spots. Eyes : Dark lead-blue. Legs and Feet :
Bright orange.

Plumage. — Buff canary, sound and uniform, or
deep cream, the former preferred.

SCALE OF rOIXTS

eyes, 5

Type . .
Size . .
Head : bill.
Colour
Condition
Neck . .
Tail . .
Legs and feet

Serious defects : Black marks or spots on bill ;
white plumage ; wry tail ; or any other deformity.

ROUEN DUCKS

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Massive. Bill : Long, wide, and flat,
well set on, in a straight line from the top of the
eye. Eyes : Bold and bright.

Neck. — Long and tapering, slightly curved but
not arched, carried erect.

Body. — Very long, broad and square, very deep
keel just clear of the ground from stem to stern.
Breast : Broad and deep. Back : Long. Wings :
Large and well tucked to the sides. Tail: Only
slightly elevated, the drake's having two or three
curled feathers in the centre.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Of medium length, large
boned, well set, so as to balance the body in a straight
line. Toes : Straight, connected by web.

Carriage. — Horizontal, the keel practically parallel
with the ground and just clear of it.

Weight. — Drake : 10 lb. Duck : 9 lb.

Plumage. — Bright and glossy.

COLOUR

THE DRAKE

Bill : Bright green-yellow, with black bean at
the tip. Eves : Dark hazel. Legs and Feet : Bright
brick red.

Plumage. — Head and Neck : Rich iridescent green
to within about an inch of the shoulders where the
ring appears. Ring : Perfectly white and cleanly
cut, dividing the neck and breast colours, but not
quite encircling the neck, leaving a small space at

5^4

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

the back. Breast : Rich claret, coming well under ;
cleanly cut, not running into the body colour, and
quite free from white pencilling or chain armour.
Chain Armour or Flank Pencilling : Rich blue
French-grej' ground, well pencilled across with
glossy black, perfectly free from white, rust, or iron.
Stern : Same ground as flank, very boldly pencilled
close up to the vent, finishing in an indistinct curved
line (perfectly free from white) followed by rich
black feathers up to the tail coverts. Tail coverts :
Black or slate-black, with brown tinge, mth two
or three green-black curled feathers in the centre.
Back and Rump : Rich green-black from between
the shoulders to the rump. Wings : Large coverts,
pale clear grey ; small coverts, French grey very
finely pencilled ; pinion coverts, dark grey or slate
black ; bars (two, composed of one line of white
in the centre of the small coverts), grey tipped with
black, also forming a line at the base of the flight
coverts, the latter feathers slate-black on the upper
side of the quill and rich iridescent blue on the
lower side, each of these feathers tipped wdth white
at the end of the lower side, forming two distinct
white bars (the pinion bar being edged with black)
with a bold blue ribbon mark between the two,
each colour being clear and distinct and making a
striking contrast ; flights, slate-black with brown
tinge free from white. The markings throughout
the whole plumage should be cleanly cut and well
defined in every detail, the colours distinct and
not shading into each other.

Remainder of Plumage : The ground of rich (golden,
almond, or chestnut) brown of level shade, every
feather distinctly pencilled from throat and breast
to flank and stern, the markings to be rich black
or very dark brown, the black pencilling on the
rump having a green lustre.

SCALE OF POINTS

THE DRAKE

Colour : breast, lo ; bill, 5 ; neck, 5 ; ring

chain armour,

wings, 5
Markings
Size . .
Type . .
Condition
Head
Legs and feet

stern, 5

back and rump,
tail, 5 . .

5 ;
5 ;

50

Colour : g

round, 15

5 ; wings, 5
Pcncilhng

Size . .

Type . .
Condition

Head

Legs and

feet

THE DUCK

bill, 10 ; head, 5 ; neck,

THE DUCK

Bill : Bright orange ground, with black bean
at the tip, and with black saddle extending almost
to each side and about two-thirds down towards
the tip. Eyes : Dark hazel. Legs and Feet : Dull
orange brown.

Plumage. — Head : Rich (golden, almond, or
chestnut) brown, with a wide brown-black line from
the base of the bill to the neck, and very bold black
lines across the head, above and below the eyes,
filled in with smaller lines. Neck : The same
colour as the head, with a wide brown line at the
back from the shoulders, shading to black at the
head. Wings : Bars, two distinct white bars with
a bold blue ribbon-mark between, as in the drake ;
flights, slate black with brown tinge, no white.

Serious defects : Leaden bill ; no wing bars ;
white flights ; broken down in stern ; wngs down
or twisted ; wry tail ; or any other deformity. In
the drake no ring on neck or black-saddle or bill ;
in the duck, white ring, or approaching white, on
neck.

OTHER BREEDS

Beyond the foregoing mentioned breeds of ducks
those occasionally seen at exhibitions in tliis country
are East Indian (Black), Muscovy (Black-and-White,
and White), Swedish (Blue), and Ornamental varieties,
such as Bahamas, Calls, Carolinas, Mandarins, Spot-
Bills, Shovellers, and Whistlers ; but they are not
kept or exhibited in sufficient numbers to warrant
descriptive standards. — W. W. B.

585

CHAPTER XXXVIII.

GEESE AND SWANS.

SEVERAL wild breeds of Geese are more
or less spread over Europe and northern
Asia and America ; but there is no doubt
that all of the domestic varieties are descended
from the Grey-lag (Anser chierats), which
alone still breeds in Scotland and our northern
islands, and also breeds freely with the domestic
races and produces fertile progeny. This bird
ranges as far as northern India, and has an
orange bill and general resemblance to the
common grey geese of many farm-yards, though
smaller and lighter in build. It is singular
that the most common goose now found wild
in Britain is the somewhat smaller Bean goose,
which has longer wings and a shorter bill, but
is only a winter visitant ; as is also the Pink-
footed goose. Both these may be allied to the
Grey-lag, and have hybridised with it ; but
the other best-known wild geese, the very dark
grey Brent goose, and the Bernacle goose,
which has grey sides with each feather banded
with black and white, appear to be more allied
to the Canada goose presently mentioned, and
most of their recorded hybrids have been with
that bird.

Wild geese resemble the wild ducks in their
habit of flying, which is in a V-shaped phalanx,
even more decided than in those birds ; but
they differ materially in habits and diet, which
difference is still more accentuated in the
domestic races. While the duck is a very
omnivorous and somewhat foul feeder, but
requiring a pretty large proportion of animal
food, the domestic goose especially, and the
others less so, seeks a vegetable diet, and is
a very clean feeder. Some of the wild birds
feed largely upon water-weed, but the domes-
tic breeds chiefly graze upon land. The period
of incubation is about thirty days ; rather less
in the smaller birds.

Geese pay best to rear in an ordinary way,
where access can be had to commons or waste
lands, as then the stock birds will only need
a little grain in the morning, and
General graze for themselves the rest of the

Management ^^^^ j^ jg ^^^ advisable to run
Geese. them very thickly upon good pas-

ture, as they eat it freely, and crop
the grass even closer than a sheep, and would
rather "sour" the land for that year by their

manure ; but in smaller number they are a
benefit to it, and grazing stock often thrive
better, as they are found to eat off the seeds
and ergot of the rye-grass. For housing they
should have a comfortable shed large enough
for the number kept, well bedded down with
straw, and in which it is better to keep them
confined in the breeding season until they have
laid, as the female is rather apt to try to steal
a nest abroad if there is any chance. They
spend so much time in grazing on land, that
large swimming range is not required, though
they enjoy it : they can do with even a very
large tub sunk in the ground, but it must be
large enough and deep enough for them to
bathe themselves in thoroughly, and of course
a pond is better.

A gander is generally mated with three geese,
and they should be put together not later than
the new year. A month or two earlier is much
better, and would prevent many disappointments,
as explained more fully further on. For very early
breeding young geese must be used, and usually
lay in February ; but the strongest birds are bred
from females a year older. They have been known
to breed till thirty and even forty years old, and
are often kept on farms for twenty years and
more ; but old ganders generally become very
fierce and dangerous to children long before that,
and have to be killed. Breeding stock must not
be allowed to get over-heavy during the winter,
but, on the contrary, kept rather thin and spare.
All eggs should be taken away as laid, in
order that they may lay as many as possible.
Some breeders set all the eggs under the largest
hens procurable, which will cover about five: in
which case the eggs must be well sprinkled,
or the nest well watered, which is better.
Others let the goose (unless a Toulouse) also sit
when she desires, giving her a roomy nest in a
damp place. The gander will often stay an
hour or two by a sitting goose, and when she is
sitting the birds must not be disturbed, at least
by a stranger, or the male may attack, and a
blow from his wing is capable of breaking an
arm. The eggs hatch at or before the expira-
tion of thirty days. They also do very well in
an incubator, or under turkey hens.

A goose which has hatched a family is best
cooped out when they are about twenty-ibur

5S6

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

hours old under a large crate, on dry ground, but
sufficiently shaded, as goslings cannot stand the
sun. No coop for them should have a wooden
floor, as their feet seem to slip about on this in a
strange way, and they may get their leg-joints
dislocated. For about a week it is well to keep
the goslings confined in a run; but after that
they begin to graze and forage, and may have
liberty, provided they are housed and well
bedded down at night. They need no brooding
after that age if properly sheltered, but the
natural parents take great interest for a long
time in the young family, which on a good
grazing ground will need scarcely any other
attention until nightfall. Incubator - hatched
goslings do quite well in an outdoor brooder,
cooled down as soon as possible.

They may be fed the first day on chopped
egg and bread-crumb like ducklings, but mixed
with some chopped weed or greens, which they
need from the very first. After that there is no
better diet than barley-meal and wheat, scalding
the wheat with boiling water and mixing rather
dry meal with it : any boiled greens and
vegetables may be mixed with it, and minced
grass, or boiled potatoes. The drinking water
should be in a fountain into which they can only
get their bills. When strong, they need very
little food if there is good grazing, so that
formerly many were killed at Michaelmas just
as they came from the grass, as " green " geese.
When kept after that for greater size, they are
usually either turned into stubbles, or folded on
a piece of turnips to eat it off like sheep — eating
off the greens themselves, and having the roots
chopped in two for them, or put up to fatten in
sheds. During such fattening they are usually
led three times a day, having by them clean
water and a tub of coarse gravel. The finest
flesh is probably produced by whole or crushed
white oats in water ; but they will fatten more
quickly on a mixture of fresh brewers' grains
and barley-meal, or with some Indian meal.
They are more contented if some sweet hay
is fastened up so that they can nibble at it,
but not get it down under foot ; and so far as
possible, only the number should be penned
together which are likely to be killed together,
since they form strong companionships, and are
apt to fret and "go off" if a portion of the
flock are taken away. As a rule it pays best
either to keep them on till near Christmas, if
there are stubbles to run them on ; or else to
fatten them up as quickly as possible for
market ; or else, spending less upon them, to
sell them in good condition, but small, as
indicated later on.

In regard to exhibition, nothinsr need be

added to the articles which follow respecting the
chief varieties of geese. For practical purposes
these consist of the Embden, the Toulouse, the
Chinese or African, and the Canada goose; the
first three of which are descended from the wild
Grey-lag, while the Canada is distinct. The
ordinary domestic goose has also given rise to
one or two sub-varieties.

The most valuable breed of geese at the
present day, for reasons stated presently, is
probably the Embden. The following article
on Embden geese was kindly con-
Tte tributed by the Hon. Sybil and

Goose.^° Florence Amherst, who was until

recently well known as a successful
breeder and e.xhibitor of this variety.

" The development of the white domestic
goose can be traced from the earliest times.
Before show Standards required certain geese to
be ' spotless white throughout,' it had been the
study of breeders, from the remotest ages, for
utility purposes, to establish white varieties of
geese. An account is given on a papyrus* of an
Egyptian prince, who, in ordering ten geese to
be given as payment to his workmen, cautions
those who are to kill the geese not to touch ' the
white bird on the cool tank.' In much later
times, large flocks of white geese were driven
to Rome from north-western Europe for the
sake of their feathers. According to Lucretius,
the sacred geese that saved the Capitol were
white. Horace t describes a famous Roman
dish made of the liver of white geese fed on
fat figs. Varro, about 50 B.C., urges that geese
chosen for stock should be large and white, J
for the goslings are generally like them, and
points out the advantage of their ' domesticated,
placid nature.' Columella, in the beginning of
the Christian era, writing on the same subject,
remarks § that ' care must be taken that male
and female of the largest bodies and of a white
colour be chosen ' (avoiding the wilder grey
kinds). These scattered notes show that it
has been by careful selection that pure white
breeds of geese have been formed.

" The work of generations is shown to per-
fection in the Embden goose as now bred and
exhibited in the United Kingdom. All nations
recognise the creation of this beautiful bird by
the English. In Germany, the original home
of the Embden, they say, ' Embdens were ex-
ported to England a long time ago, and how
admirably they have succeeded, and surpassed

* Anastasi Papyrus,
t Sat. Lib. viii. 66.
X Lib. iii. cap. v.
§ Lib. viii. cap. xiT.

THE EMBDEN GOOSE.

587

us with this variety, is well known.' The present
race is called ' the new English breed,' and as it
exists now, is not known in Germany, except
as imported from England ; and, ' For the last
ten years there has been no chance of obtain-
ing a prize at any exhibition for the old type of
Embden.' English exhibitors, who have seen
the older German Embdens at shows on the
Continent, also say, ' They are correct in shape,
but too small to compete with our birds.'

" The old Continental Embden goose, or as
it is spelt in Germany, Emden {A7iser doin.
frieslaitdicns), is sometimes, though wrongly,
called the ' Bremen ' goose. It derives its name
from the town of Embden, having been bred in
East Friesland, in the valley of the River Em,
and the adjoining Jeverland, from time imme-
morial. The export of feathers from East Fries-
land to the Levant in very early days formed an
important trade, and the rearing of geese on
the coast, in the regions of the River Em, for
centuries was extensive ; but the area of its
activity from floods and other causes gradually
decreased, and it is now only carried on in two
little villages, Riepe and Simonswolde, two or
three hours distant on foot from Embden. At
the present day, in the middle of May, Embden
goslings of four to five weeks old are sent from
that district to all parts of Germany, and also to
other countries, principally Hungary, Bohemia,
and Russia. Eggs for sitting are also sold at
high prices, and there is a large export of
feathers.

" There is a myth in Friesland, that the geese
in olden days were grey, but that a wild swan,
which had come among them unnoticed, paired
with a goose, and this was the origin of what,
in those parts, they call their ' Embden swan
geese.' Apart from this myth, it is a fact that
Continental Embdens in moulting go through a
change of colour like a swan, being, it is said,
the only tame goose that thus changes its plum-
age. As soon as they grow their quills, they
show more or less grey feathers (sometimes pure
white young ones are seen, but they are invari-
ably ganders), a bird not becoming pure white
till its second autumn moult. In pure Embdens
as now reared in England, grey feathers in
young birds occasionally appear (which they lose
after their first moult), but careful breeders avoid
these swan-like propensities. It is considered
quite wrong for a young prize-bred Embden to
have any grey feathers, as these also mark a cross
with the Toulouse. The naturalists of Embden,
snd others, do not consider the Embden repre-
sents a distinct breed. The geese on the north
coasts of Holland and north-western Germany,
and the white Flemish goose bred in BelErium

and northern France, may all be considered to
be of much the same race. The ordinary birds
of Friesland also resemble in many respects the
variety known as Pomeranian, especially when
the latter are white.

" It is impossible to state when Embden
geese were first imported into England. In the
beginning of the last century a great deal of
poultry was reared in Nesserland, close to
Embden, and as there was a brisk trade in fowls
between England and Embden, it is probable
that geese were also imported. Mowbray re-
marks, 'At present (1815) Embden geese are
in the highest esteem,' but respecting their table
qualities he adds, ' I am unable to say, having
yet had no experience in this variety.' From
this latter remark it might be inferred that this
variety was a somewhat new addition to English
geese. English writers about fifty years ago
say these geese had been imported ' some time
ago ' from Embden in Hanover, and also from
Holland, and at the time they wrote birds
were still being largely imported. They state
that Embdens differed in no way from our
white geese in England ' except from their
great size and uniform clear white plumage.'
Pure stock was kept, and they were largely used
for crossing to improve our common white
geese. The breed, as it exists at present,
owes something to a cross with Toulouse
geese, the object having been to increase the
size, while still trying to retain intact the dis-
tinctive attributes of the Embden breed.

" Embden geese were exported from Ger-
many to America in 1821 as 'Bremen' geese,
but the letter relative to the care of the geese on
the voyage, addressed to the captain of the ship,
was dated from Embden, showing Bremen to
have been merely the port of embarkation. In
1 85 2 a pair were again sent to America as
Bremen geese. Some were exported direct
from Embden in 1882.

" The advantage of Embden geese over
Toulouse in rearing is, that while the Toulouse
perhaps is susceptible to greater growth for
extra care, the Embden is better grown under
neglect than the Toulouse. Embdens are very
good foragers, and by this means assist in keep-
ing down the food bill. The chief advantage
of Embden.s, however, is their rapid growth.
They are well grown and ready for killing at
an earlier age than are the Toulouse, and thus
Embden goslings can be got ready for the
' green ' goose trade in the autumn, which is
impossible with the Toulouse. Embdens look
their best for table just before Christmas, when
their feathers are well up. Owing to their
white plumage they dress more quickly, and

588

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

look very superior to coloured geese. A large
dealer states that if other qualities are equal,
he would give preference to white geese. The
flesh is of finer quality, and lighter in colour.
When cleaned and dressed and cooked, the
Embden loses less weight in proportion than
the Toulouse. The marketable value of white
feathers is also a consideration, the value being
certainly 2d. or 3d. per lb. more than the
coloured ones, and white down is worth 2s. 6d.
per lb. The five first wing feathers are quills,
and have a certain value, though not so much
as formerly. For utility purposes and quick
fattening, however, a cross between an Embden
gander and a Toulouse goose is often found
most valuable.

"Ganders and geese are at their best for
stock from two to ten years old. They live
to a great age — it is stated to thirty or more
years — but after ten years they cannot be
reckoned upon as reliable assets on a farm.
Two years old is the best age to mate them,
making up pens of a gander and two or
three geese at the New Year. It is difficult
sometimes to distinguish ganders from geese.
A practical man is, however, rarely mistaken.
Some say they make a different noise. The
size and thickness of the neck is some indica-
tion. You can generally distinguish the young
birds about Christmas time. A curious plan
is said to be adopted in Cambridgeshire : all
the geese are shut up in a shed, and a small
dog is put in. The geese, it is stated, will
lift their heads up, and go to the back of the
shed, while the ganders will lower and stretch
out their necks, hissing all the time.

" Embdens are of a quiet, tractable dis-
position. As layers, they are not considered
so good as the Toulouse, an ordinary farm bird
laying about twenty to twenty-four eggs in
a season, the larger show birds about sixteen to
eighteen. Embden geese lay two sets of eggs
in the season. They lay in February and leave
off in April. The egg is larger than that of a
Toulouse, or of an ordinary goose, with a hard
white shell. Young geese, as a rule, begin
to lay in their first February, but it is not
advisable to set the eggs of young birds. A
prize-bred goose will lay eight to nine eggs
before she wants to sit, ordinary ones perhaps
more. It is, however, better not to let her sit
the first time, as she may fail to have a second
brood if allowed to do so. Her eggs should
be put under hens. A hen can cover from three
to six eggs according to size. Eggs should
be gathered each day the geese lay, and be set
as fresh as possible. A goose broken off the first
time she wants to sit will, after fourteen to

sixteen days, begin laying again, and when she
has laid her second complement of eggs, can
be allowed to sit, as convenience admits. She
generally sits on about ten up to fifteen eggs.

" The eggs take twenty-eight to thirty days
to hatch. They are very hard and tough, and
sprinkling them with water, especially if laid in
boxes, is a good precaution to assist the hatch-
ing. In all rearing, however, individuals must
be guided by their experience. One breeder of
Embdens, when he lets a goose sit, as a rule
leaves her entirely alone, to make her nest
where she likes, and allows her to hatch off" her
own brood. Under this arrangement, a prize
goose appeared on one occasion with twelve
splendid goslings. Many approve of this natural
treatment. But another breeder has tried this
plan of leaving the goose to nature, to find
invariably, when hatching, the eggs broken and
the goslings squashed, as if she was too heavy
to hatch them properly.

" A sitting goose will come off to be fed
with the rest of the poultry. She carefully
covers her eggs with down, and straw, or what-
ever is available, before leaving them. She
will often choose a place for her nest near a
stack yard or where there is litter, giving
preference to a situation near a pond, instinct
telling her that the result of a good bath
helps to moisten the eggs. The other geese
will not disturb her on her nest, and the
gander always takes a special interest in the
sitting goose.

" Embden goslings when hatched are yellow,
some, however, with a grey tinge on their down.
Observation has proved that the grey ones
are geese, and the bright yellow ones invariably
ganders. It is said that Pfannenschmidt, who
was a well-known merchant and connoisseur of
geese at Embden, also certifies this ; but this
theory is not accepted by all.

" Embdens can be brought up like ordinary
geese, and are hardy ; but prize birds, like all
highly-bred exhibition stock, are more difficult
to rear than the ordinary ones. For goslings at
twenty-four hours old, little rolls of dough,
sometimes mi.xed with raw or boiled eggs, put
down their throats, form the most suitable food.
At about two or three days old they will be
able to eat meal, or whole corn, which is better
when soaked. As with all goslings, care must
be taken to avoid damp, or very hot sun, where
they cannot get shade. Where there are ten or
twelve goslings together, they can be left without
a hen at a week old, but where there are only
two or three, the hen should have charge of
them for two or three weeks. They can be
allowed as a rule to sleep out at a month old

POINTS OF EMBDEN GEESE.

5S9

March-hatched goslings are generally found to
be the strongest.

" Grown-up birds hardly ever ail anything,
but if they do become ill they rarely recover.
They are sometimes seen to ' droop,' their
feathers looking draggled and damp. This state
of health is caused by cold clay soil, and a
change at once on to dry gravel soil, as a rule,
sets them right again. There is probably a
want of oily secretions to supply the feathers.
By some this appearance is said to be caused
by an irritating insect on the birds. Diluted
paraffin is said to be a cure. The defect of a
twisted or hanging wing in Embdens can some-
times be remedied by tying the wing into the
right position. Owing to their white plumage,
though not absolutely a necessity to Embden
geese, a pond is an advantage ; and essential
with show birds. Embdens can sleep out at
night (where there is no fear of foxes) even
in the severest weather.

" The prize points of an Embden gander and
goose are the same. Any signs of a Toulouse
cross, such as a throat-gullet, breast-keel, or
looseness of feather, must be avoided. Judges
agree that these defects ought not to be allowed.
The contrast of the two breeds with regard
to type has been described as that shown
between a typical hunter and a Shire cart-horse.
It is a question whether the cross with the
Toulouse gave size to the Embden, or only
semblance of size from loose feathering. The
compact feathering of the true Embden often
deceives the eye as to actual size and weight.
The judges discourage Toulouse points in the
Embden, in order that Embdens may stand on
their own merits, and thus develop their own
good qualities.

" At about two years old Embden geese and
ganders attain their full weight, and do not as
a rule increase very much after that. The
standard gives weights up to 34 lbs. for a gander
and 22 lbs. for a goose, and the weight of prize
birds should be from 24 to 34 lbs. for ganders,
and 20 to 26 lbs. for geese. The weight of a
fine Embden, in proportion to its size, is some-
times deceiving. A few weights which were
taken of young birds may roughly serve as
average specimens. A goose eight weeks old
weighing 15I lbs., by Christmas would be 22 lbs.
A gander at eleven weeks i6i lbs., would be by
Christmas 24 lbs. or more. A gander at si.xteen
weeks weighing 20 lbs., would probably scale
more than 24 lbs. by Christmas. Twenty is a
good average weight for birds hatched in April
to attain at Christmas. The following weights,
given by two fanciers, may be quoted as
examples of fine birds. A gander (in store

condition) 26i lbs. A pair, exhibited, 55 lbs
The weights however, are very variable. A
good deal of the weight, of course, depends on
' feeding,' and extra food will soon add a pcund
or two. Birds also lose weight quickly, even in
going to and from a show. Prize geese should
always be well fed, and very little extra food
will then bring them into condition for exhibition.

" Shows under the Waterfowl Club rules
require geese to have a ring on one leg, to
show the year of hatching. They should be
put on at about three weeks old, as soon as the
gosling's feet are large enough to prevent their
falling off, for if forgotten at the right age, it is
impossible to put them on afterwards. The
plumage of Embdens should be spotless white
throughout, and condition requires hard feather-
ing. The description of an unsophisticated
visitor at a Royal Agricultural show, when look-
ing at a champion Embden gander, was singu-
larly appropriate : ' He looks as if he was
carved out of marble.' The bill is longer than
that of the Toulouse. It should be bright
orange, the nut at the end being paler, and the
nostrils and softer parts of the bill shading into
red. This colour becomes brighter in the spring.
The feet and legs should be bright orange. The
eye is blue, with an orange rim. The blue eye
is probably a form of albinism, and the brighter
the blue, the stronger indication of the genuine-
ness of the white breed. In breeds of geese
that vary between the white and grey, the
blueness of the eye is variable. Preserving,
therefore, the point of blue eyes is a means of
helping to ensure the reliability and pure white-
ness of the race. The twisted or curled neck
feathers, which are also seen in the Toulouse
and other European geese, is a characteristic
of their ancestor the Grey-lag.

" Geese should have a good swim in a clean
pond the day before they are to be sent off to a
show, and should then be shut up for the night on
clean straw. They should not be frightened
when caught, and be handled gently by whoever
is accustomed to look after them. The way to
hold a goose is to take the neck in one hand,
the bird's back towards you, putting the other
arm right round the goose, keeping the wings
quite firmly down. - "The bird should be put
head foremost into the basket, so if the feather.s
are touched they are rubbed the right way.
The best basket is a round wicker one, covered
with canvas, about 30 inches high and 30 inches
diameter. The only drawback to exhibiting
geese is their weight for carriage.

" The best proof of the value of this breed in
the United Kingdom is the great increase in the
numbers kept. In Norfolk about twenty years

£9°

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

ago there was only one breeder of pure Embdens,
and now there are over a score, besides numbers
of rearers who buy Embdens for crossing
purposes. Thirty years ago exhibition Embdens
were in the hands of a few fanciers, the most
famous coming from Lancashire. The ex-
hibitors of this variety are now more widely
distributed. Not only in this country are these
fine birds sought after, but goose breeders from
all parts of the world are eager to obtain them.
Both sittings of eggs, and birds, are exported
far and near. Possessors of Embdens may well
be proud of their geese. It is an interesting
study to preserve their swan-like whiteness,
to increase their size, to maintain their special
capacity for early growth and delicate quality
of' flesh for table, and to improve their laying
qualities, always endeavouring to keep the
stock hardy and healthy. With care and prac-
tical work, these objects can easily be attained.
The breeder of a typical Embden may indeed
feel that he is the happy possessor of the goose
that lays the golden eggs, and will be able to
say that ' all his geese are swans.' " *

The Toulouse breed takes its name from
the well-known city in southern France, round
which birds generally similar to, though not so

fine as the English stock, are still
The reared to a large extent ; and it is

Gooie"'^ this variety which is used in the

production of the celebrated patt'
de foie gras, so much imported from the Con-
tinent, the essential part of which consists of
goose-livers potted with truffles. Did people
realise how this delicacy is produced, it is to
be hoped that it would be less popular than
it is, even amongst fashionable epicures. To
make a painful story as short as possible, even
by the more merciful feeders the geese are
confined in a very hot room or caged near a
stove, and there forced with fattening food

* In compiling this article most of the standard English
works on poultry have been consulted, also the following
authors: Blanchon ("Canards, Oies"), Diirigen ("Gefliigel-
zucht"), Kramer ("Rasse gefliigelzucht "), Vienkoff ("Les
Oies en Russie"). The Journals of the Royal Agricultural
Society, and Socit'te d'Acclimatation de P'rance ; the
American Poultry Journal, and Live Slock Jimrnal. Notes on
the rearing and exhibition of Embdens have been most kindly
given by many breeders and judges, including Messrs. Abbot,
Baily, Bagshaw, Bragg, J. Pettipher, MM. Flescher and Marchand
(Muids, France), Herr Radetzky (Wurzburg). Information
has also been received through the kindness and courtesy of Mr.
Brown (Secretary, National Poultry Organisation Society),
M. L'Hoest (Societe Royale de Zoologie, Antwerp), M. Loyer
(Secretary, Societe Nationale d'Acclimatation de France), M.
Oustalet (Mus. Hist. Nat., Paris), Mr. Theobald (British
Museum, Natural History), M. Van der Snickt (Brussels),
Captain Boyle (British Consul, Copenhagen), Mr. Boyes
(British Vice-Consul, Bremen), Mr. Zorn (British Vice-Consul,
Kmbden).

until they would die in a day or two more,
when they are killed, and their livers are found
swelled to an enorrnous size ; but there is un-
fortunately no room for doubt that by some
the wretched birds are tied down to prevent
their moving, and by a few, actually nailed by
their feet to a board.

This goose is beyond doubt the result of
breeding and feeding up the grey or dark
descendants of the Grey-lag, and presents
marked differences from the preceding in
several respects. For the following descriptive
notes we are indebted to Miss Campain, of
Deeping St. Nicholas, Spalding, known as a
prize-taker with this variety for many years : —

" It is many years since I started breeding
geese, and for several years I have been an
exhibitor at the leading shows of both the
Embden and Toulouse, with a fair share of
success, but I treat here of the Toulouse variety.
I started by buying a pair of his celebrated
geese from Mr. Fowler, of Aylesbury, who had
then quite as good birds as anyone, if not the
best at that time. The gander, I think, was
without exception the longest bird in every
way I have seen, and the goose was remark-
ably good in colour, very wide and deep, and
not showing the least tinge of brown in
plumage, but of a beautiful silver grey.

" This variety should be massive and heavy
in appearance in every way. In both the
gander and the goose the head should be broad
and deep in face, the beak being in a straight
line from the top of the head to the tip, very
strong and without any indenture or hollow in
the top bill, which gives the bill a most ob-
jectionable snipy appearance. The bill should
he of a rather brown flesh-colour,* the dewlap
should hang well down, and be as large as
possible. The neck should be long and grace-
ful ; a short neck completely spoils the appear-
ance, and in mating up for breeding, care
should be taken in this point, because they are
apt to breed short. Both for the show-pen and
for breeding, the birds should be exceptionally
well bowed in front and 'keeled' deeply, points
which in this variety are of almost primary im-
portance, with their bodies almost touching
the ground behind. They must be very broad
across the back, and long to the tip of the
tail. Their legs must show as large an amount
of bone as possible, to get which is a great
indication of size and massiveness. In colour
they should be rather dark grey on the head,
neck, back, and wings ; rather lighter on the
breast, gradually becoming lighter towards the
belly, where it ends in good pure white. The

* \_T/ie standard says " orange." See also next pa^e. — Ed.]

THE TO UL O USE GOOSE.

59?

plumage should be as free as possible from a
brown tinge, which I strongly object to, though
it is prominent in some strains. The sun has
some influence on this, but very little com-
paratively on good-coloured ones compared with
others. The legs are a deep orange colour.

" I consider the birds of this variety are
more commanding-looking, if I may use the
term, and more graceful, than they were when
I first started breeding and exhibiting them.
The Toulouse are more prolific than the
Embdens, as I have frequently known them to
lay forty or fifty eggs before leaving off, and
seldom ever showing any tendency or wish
to sit.

" Formerly in this district the goose industry
was a very large one. It was no uncommon
occurrence to meet a thousand geese on the
road six or eight weeks before Christmas, going
to the various dealers or breeders to be fattened
up, and which in due time were dressed and
forwarded to market, or to various clubs. The
breeders would send to the various farmers the
stock birds, two or three geese and one gander ;
then about Michaelmas divide the produce with
the farmer, giving him half he had reared, or
allowing him half (about 2s. 6d.) upon the whole,
or else 5s. each for his half share. It was
nothing unusual to see as many as ten thousand
geese on one place, collected from the farmers
prior to selling them to the feeders to fatten
up, and I have heard of half a dozen of such
feeders, in this neighbourhood, also sending as
much as ^^50 worth of feathers and down to
Boston in a cart at one time. I am sorry to
say that there is nothing of the sort now ; I
do not know a single person carrying on this
business near here. The large foreign import-
ation of both turkeys and geese has almost
completely killed the industry, or rather the
profitable part of it, but I am rather inclined to
think that turkeys are also taking the place
of geese to a certain extent."

The Toulouse goose is generally stated to
surpass the Embden in weight, but this idea is
by no means borne out by historical records, and
appears mainly founded upon the reputation of
certain celebrated birds, an element of crossing
having also something to do with it. In regard
to the last point, it has been already mentioned
above that the Embden is in some degree
indebted to the Toulouse ; and it is equally
beyond doubt that many Toulouse geese have
been crossed with the Embden, the motive in
both cases having been the fact that a cross
between any ordinary stocks of the two, usually
produces goslings heavier than either of the
parent races. But the size of these cross-bred

birds is not kept up if breeding is continued
with them ; and a further result has been the
obliteration of proper distinctive marks in many
prize pens. Breeders of pure Embdens and
Toulouse have during many years often com-
plained to us that they have been unfairly beaten
by specimens obviously cross-bred; and we have
frequently seen so-called Embdens with dewlap
and keel, while, conversely, Toulouse geese have
been shown with clean gullets, and too high on
the leg for pure Toulouse. In the absence of
such obvious signs of crossing, there can be little
doubt that even the " orange " bill described in
the Standard, where it exists, is more or less due
to an infusion of Embden blood ; for not only is
the bill described above by Miss Campain as
brownish flesh colour, but in 1872 the late
Mr. J. K. Fowler himself described it to us as
resembling "sunburnt flesh," which is practically
the same thing, and is beyond dispute the
colour of the bill in the original pure breed.
Another frequent sign of crossing is found
in white feathers round the base of the
bill, which in some cases is even accompanied
by a light eye. Returning to the question
of weights, however, there are some who
still remember when the late Mr. J. K.
Fowler and Mrs. Seamons were the principal
champions of the day in the goose classes. It is
within our own personal knowledge that Mr.
Fowler's heaviest Toulouse gander weighed once
38 lbs., while the heaviest Mrs. Seamons ever
had was 36 lbs. Probably those weights have
never been equalled by any white goose, though
we had strong reason to suspect some white
blood in both. In 1870 the heaviest Grey pair
at Birmingham weighed 62J lbs., probably never
equalled by any other pair; and in 1S71 they
were 60 lbs. But in 1874 the heaviest Greys
were 58^ lbs., while the heaviest Whites were
59^ lbs. After that, extreme fattening foi
weight began (happih-) to go out of fashion.
In 1875 the heaviest Birmingham Greys were
51 lbs. 9 ozs., against 58 lbs. 9 ozs. for Whites;
and since that time the weights have often
been still less, and Whites quite as often as not
the heavier of the two breeds.

The Toulouse usually looks larger than the
Embden, owing to its much looser feathers ;
and its heavy keel gives a far more massive and
heavy appearance. Owing to this different con-
formation, two geese to one gander generally do
better than three in this variety. As it does not
sit, or at least not with any steadiness, the eggs
must be hatched otherwise ; and, owing to the
greater number laid, a larger flock can be
reared from one pen of Greys than from one
of Embdens. The ordinary saddle-backed geese

59 =

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

of farm-yards are generally descended from half-
bred stock, and some of them are very fine.

The Chinese or African goose (Anser
cygnoides) has also been termed the Hong Kong
goose and Knobbed goose, and some birds have

been written of as Spanish geese,
The Chinese which appear to have had the
01 African same general characteristics. It was

classed by Cuvier actually with the
swans, which it resembles in the longer and more
slender neck, and the knobbed bill, also in the
neck feathers being smooth and not curled as
in the two preceding varieties ; and it has been
recorded on two or three occasions (on rather
doubtful authority, but the gander is such an

/

African (jeet*

itrdent breeder that it is not unlikely) to have
produced swan hybrids. But that it is a true
goose is proved by not only its domestic habits
and prolificacy, and the number of its vertebras
(sixteen), but by the fact that it breeds freely
with other geese, and that the produce is fertile
and not a hybrid ; the common goose of India
being, as Mr. Blyth pointed out long ago, a cross
between the Chmese and the ordinary domestic
race known to us. This immemorial crossing, in
India and elsewhere, is the explanation of differ-
ences that seem to have puzzled some writers in
America, between the " African " goose as there
known, and their smaller Chinese.

The original Chinese variety ranges over all
China, much of Siberia, and most of India, but
chiefly northern India. In size it is midway
between the wild goose and the swan, but con-

siderably less than our large domestic geese.
The neck is long and slender, but the head
rather large for the bird, with a knob or protuber-
ance much like that of a swan at the base of the
upper bill, and a heavy dewlap under the throat
The usual colour is brownish grey on back and
upper parts, passing into light grey or almost
white underneath, the breast and front of neck a
yellowish grey, and a dark brown stripe running
all down the back of the neck : in this colour the
knob is generally black, the bill orange or dark
brown, or even black, the legs orange. There
are also white birds, which have orange knob
and bill ; in these also there is a stripe behind
the neck which, although white, is more glossy,
and different in appearance from the other
plumage.

This Chinese race is very prolific, laying

twenty to thirty eggs in a sitting, and

several sittings in a year, the eggs being

about two-thirds the size of those laid

by fine ordinary geese. The breed is

/ very hardy and easily reared, and the

/ flesh of very delicate quality ; but it is

not so domestic in habits as the European

geese, and rather fond of swimming at

^ night. It has a harsh and peculiar cry,

the most shrill amongst any of the true

geese known in domestication.

The " African " goose, as known in
America, is stated by American writers
to have come from either India or Africa,
and is considered by most of them to be a
distinct " pure" variety. It is very much
larger than that just described, adults
weighing as much as 24 lbs. for ganders,
and 19 lbs. for geese, and being described
by Mr. Cushman and others as actually
the largest of all the geese. It is stand-
ardised at the same weights as the
Embden and Toulouse ; but the standard
American weights for these are only 20 lbs.
and 18 lbs. for the two sexes, which is far
less than in England. All the known facts and
circumstances point to the conclusion that this
African goose of America is originally simply
a cross of the Chinese with the domestic goose,
and especially with the Toulouse. During the
last thirty years Africa has been opened up
in all directions — north, south, east, and west
— as it never was before, but no wild goose re-
sembling this breed has ever been found. It
probably did come from India, where such crosses
have existed for generations ; and it is even quite
likely that some of these Indian biids may have
been carried to East and South Africa by the
coolies and Banian traders who have visited
those districts so largely ; but every single point

THE CANADA GOOSE.

593

about the bird tells unmistakably of such a
mixed origin. The breed has more of the solid
carriage of the Toulouse ; the brown has become
more grey ; the knob is less prominent in pro-
portion ; the neck is shorter and thicker ; and — ■
most significant of all — the eggs have become
fewer, and often as large as those of the older
domesticated varieties. The voice also is deeper
and more approaching that of the domestic
goose, and the flesh more of the same character
as in that breed. In the only American
specimens of " African " geese which we have
seen, a strong element of the ordinary domestic
goose was quite unmistakable. It is not neces-
sary to suppose any recent cross-breeding, as
some of the Indian birds may quite possibly have
possessed all the present features of the African ;
but it is significant that energetic crossing with
the European breeds is now openly practised
and strongly recommended by American writers,
and it is probable that it has taken place on
many occasions. The illustration herewith was
given in an American poultry journal as one
of the " Chinese " goose, and originally procured
for this work as such ; but on finally tracing it
back, with considerable trouble, to its origin, we
found that it really represents a photograph of
the " African," in which character it is reproduced
here.

This fact illustrates the direct connection
between the Chinese and African goose; but it
-annot be questioned that in the American
modified race, however produced, we have the
most valuable and useful form of the breed.
Even the African, however, varies considerably.
While Mr. Cushman places it first in size, and
states that it lays the largest eggs of any, but
does not put the number higher than in the
Embden, if as high, Mr. Rankin docs not put
size so strongly, but states that his birds are
better layers than ever, and reach about sixty
eggs per annum. These differences are largely
accounted for by the fact that recent American
breeders have chiefly crossed the African goose,
when crossed at all, with the Embden, in order
to get as many white goslings as possible.

The great merit of this characteristic race,
however, is as a breeder. Every goose breeder
knows that the ordinary goose is slow to mate,
and requires time, as presently mentioned.
Both Chinese and African ganders mate earlier
and more quickly, and at a pinch will mate suc-
cessfully with one or two more geese, being
ardent in disposition. The curious fact is also
noticed that even an Embden gander will be
prolific earlier, and mate with more African
geese than with his own variety. As the cross
makes weight early, and is of good quality, these

facts are of value. There is of course nothing
remarkable, to English notions, in ganders of
20 to 24 lbs. ; but as these are fully equal to the
American weights for other breeds, the real
aspect of the matter is the existence of a breed
equal to Embdens and Toulouse in size, with
the advantages just stated ; and from this point
of view the African, as developed in America,
appears well worthy of attention from English
goose-breeders who desire an early market. As
before intimated, the cross-bred produce are not
hybrids, but simply crosses, and perfectly fertile.

The

Canada

Goose.

The only other breed requiring particular
mention is the Canada goose, the ordinary wild
goose of Canada and the United States, but
which has a much wider distribution.
It has often been shot on the wing
in England, where quite wild flocks
of it have been seen ; and it ranges
through most of the Arctic regions,
at least as far north as Spitzbergen. This goose
used to form an important portion of the food of
the Hudson's Bay Company's trappers, one
goose being reckoned as a day's ration, and
recorded in the Company's annals as averaging
about 9 lbs. The size and weight are thus equal
to those of the wild Grey-lag, though in com-
parison with domestic geese it must be called a
rather small breed. The somewhat long body,
the long and slender neck, and the character and
shape of the head, much resemble those of the
swans. Buffon states, indeed, that at Versailles
in his time the domesticated Canada geese had
bred, or hybridised with the swans kept there,
and the older naturalists gave this goose the
generic name of Cygnopsis Canadensis : but its

594

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

affinities are clearly with the geese rather than
with swans, and it will breed with the races
previously described, though the progeny is
perfectly sterile.

The head, bill, and greater part of the neck
of this goose are black, with a conspicuous white
cravat rather than collar at the throat, the head
and bill being long. The feathers of the upper
parts of the body are greyish-brown, rather lighter
at the edges, shading into ashy grey at the wing-
coverts, and gradually shading into greyish-white
on breast and under-parts, to pure white on the
abdomen. The flanks are pale grey tipped
with white, the quills of the wings, and tail,
almost black. The legs are rather long, set
somewhat back so as to give a commanding
carriage, and in colour blackish-grey to black.
The amount of brown differs somewhat, some
birds being an almost pure black and grey.

Small flocks of these geese are often kept
in a half-wild condition as ornamental water
fowl, on meres and lakes; and such flocks do not
much exceed the weight above given. But by
selection in the United States, where they are
very largely bred in domestication, the size has
been increased, until they have adult ganders
weighing i6 lbs. and females of 14 lbs. The
goose is not a good layer, more than nine or ten
eggs being seldom produced in one laying,
though a second is often obtained by taking the
eggs away. It is cultivated there for the table
qualities, either of its own goslings, or of its
hybrid produce, which is almost always bred
with the African goose. The flesh of the Canada
goose is considered more delicate and delicious
than that of any other known waterfowl except
one, the far-famed Canvass-back duck ; and the
hybrids have almost the same reputation for
quality, and realise the highest prices of any
geese marketed in America. Now that the
somewhat gross and rich quality of the ordinary
goose appears to have lost much of its former
favour in England, this delicacy and quality of
flesh of the Canada and its hybrids are of
special importance, and may open out some
fresh possibilities.

The cross-bred birds are known and sold in
American markets as " wild mongrels," and the
largest Canadian ganders are specially valued for
breeding them, realising from ten to twenty-five
dollars. This kind of breeding is only success-
fully carried on by experienced men, who under-
stand both the Canadian and African breeds.
The Canada gander only mates with a single
female, and is not very ready to mate with
another variety ; he has therefore to be run with
the goose for some time, and should have a good
range, with ample water, as natural-looking as

possible ; on the other hand, when once mated
he will breed for many years, forming very
strong attachment to his partner. The African
gander is also sometimes used. He may be
mated with several Canadian females, and will
breed more readily, but the Canadian females
lay few eggs, and those not very early in the
season.

One or two sub-varieties of the domestic
goose only require brief mention. The best
known is the Sebastopol or Danubian goose,
which has plumage of pure white.
Minor but of a peculiar character,somewhat

Varieties between that of the Frizzled and

Ornamental the Silky fowl. The feathers, except
Geese. those of the neck and breast, are

very long, and slender in the quill,
and curled, so that the wind blows them all
about. The head, bill, and body are rather long.
These birds are small, only averaging about
10 lbs. each, and are also poor layers, and by no
means equal to the ordinary races in quality of
flesh. They are the most quiet and tame in
manners of all the geese, but are only valued by
some for their quaint appearance, and are of no
practical interest.

A variety was highly recommended by several
writers about ten years ago under the name of
Italian geese. It has been stated to be un-
usually prolific, laying 50 to 60 eggs in one
laying, and sometimes a second. Mr. Teget-
meier describes them as mainly white, with a
blue-grey head, a grey roundish spot or patch
between the shoulders, and grey thighs. But a
great many we have heard of have certainly not
come up to that standard, and have been
decidedly small. Mr. R. Fowler found them, on
trial, to possess no superior merits, and they have
been scarcely heard of during recent years.

Mr. Edward Brown published in 1S99 an
interesting account of two varieties of geese
which he had found in Russia, known as the
Arsamas and the Tula breeds, both bred in the
country south of Moscow, and for the special
purpose of fighting! The Arsamas is described
as pure white, and weighing from 15 to 20 lbs.,
while the Tula is grey, and from 12 to 15 lbs.
In both the head is verj' short, almost round,
with a wide forehead bearing two prominences
in old birds; the bill also very short and thick at
the base, coming down in almost an unbroken
line from the forehead. The wing-muscles are
enormously developed, causing solid flesh on
the breast, rather than depth of abdomen. It is
claimed that crossing this breed upon other
European geese has somewhat of the same result
as crossing English fighting Game fowls upon

GOOSE-FARMING IN ENGLAND.

595

large-bodied birds. The flesh of geese is so very
difterent from that of fowls, that this appears
exceedingly questionable, and still more so that
the cross is likely to be of any service to breeders
of the recognised varieties.

The so-called Egyptian goose has been

run is good. The Magellan is fairly good-
tempered, but the Cereopsis gander is sometimei
dano-erous. The Bar-headed goose comes from
Indfa, is also of slight and graceful build, and
marked by three black bands at the back of its
white head. The Gambian goose has a knob on

Sebastopol and C.iml nn Gtese

already referred to as in reality a large Shiel-
drake. Of several other "geese" often kept
upon ornamental waters, the Cereopsis goose of
Australia, and the Magellan goose, can also be
scarcely regarded as true geese. Of the latter,
a South American bird, there is a variety called
the Chilian : both stand high on the leg, are
prettily barred in the plumage, and graceful in
shape, and can be kept with little water if their

the top of the head, something like, but farther
back than that of a swan, and a powerful bony
spur at the wrist -joint of the wing ; it has long
legs and stands very upright, the plumage being
chiefly white and black, the bill and legs dark
red. It is shy, but has been known to breed
in suitable circumstances. Several of the birds
here mentioned have been on rare occasions
exhibited, but are really only suitable for the

596

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

lake or private enclosure, and are of no econom-
ical importance. In breeding them, they must
have as much as possible of secluded shelter,
and be left pretty much to nature.

The industry of goose-raising for the British
market has seen great changes, having been at
one time a very extensive one, which has con-
siderably declined of late years, as
Geese already indicated by Miss Campain.

for In 1896 a sensational account of an

Market. alleged great goose ranche in Essex

was published, and copied rather
extensively, which contained some extraordinary
statements. It was alleged that there were
30,000 birds on the ranche ready for market,
with others coming on ; that thirty-five men
were employed ; that the owner cleared between
£2,000 and i!'3,ooo a year, and that " many
others do the same." It is unnecessary to com-
ment on such statements as these, none of which
were correct at any period ; still, at one time
immense numbers of geese were reared and
fattened, especially in Lincolnshire and Norfolk.
Besides scouring the country for what goslings
were procurable young from the farmers who
had bred them, very large supplies of young live
birds were imported from Ireland and Holland,
the latter consignments coming most largely
from Rotterdam. A large dealer near Norwich
is stated to have imported from Rotterdam in
1872 very nearly 5,000 young birds for feeding,
which mostly came through Hull. Many foreign
goslings also came to Liverpool, for the more
northerly dealers, Silloth being another northern
port of entry. This Irish and Continental trade in
live goslings for feeding is still carried on, but to
a very much less extent than formerly, for which
there are various causes besides an undoubted
fall in prices.

One cause often alleged for the falling off of
geese reared in England, is the considerable
decline in area of unenclosed commons and
waste lands. Such land is peculiarly favourable
to the goose industry, no doubt, and its diminu-
tion cannot but have had effect ; but so far as
prices are concerned, that effect would be rather
to raise them, whereas there is no doubt that they
have decreased, in spiteof the diminished supply.
Thus a decline in price, and also of facilities for
cheap rearing, have worked together to make
goose-breeding less profitable than formerly.
Another cause, though less important, has not
received the attention it deserves. The feathers
were once more valuable than now, and live
geese were often plucked several times a year to
supply them. Steel and other pens have nearly
destroyed the market for goose quills ; and

owing to the better knowledge of hygiene, where
respectable families once always provided feathei
beds for good bedrooms, these are now mostly
furnished with hard mattresses laid upon spring-
wire, and the returns from this source too have
greatly diminished. It is doubtful if profit has
really been much lessened by this cause, as it is
now known that the strain of being plucked
sapped both the vigour, and laying, and fertility
of the stock ; but the apparent inducements were
decreased, and this has had its effect, as no doubt
has the increase in cheaper foreign supplies.

The chief cause of all, however, is undoubtedly
that popular taste has changed. Roast fat goose
is a somewhat rich and gross dish, and all the
reports we have received from market salesmen
go to show that the demand for Christmas
poultry especially, has gradually been more and
more transferred to the more delicate turkey.
The goose has gradually become more a working-
man's dish, and the demand from even that
quarter has been checked considerably by recent
interference with licensed houses, many of which
were once centres of enormous Christmas goose-
clubs, so that some of them would order as many
as a thousand birds, which were desired large
and plump. From some or all of these causes
the demand for large fatted geese has greatly
decreased in the principal markets; while it is
remarkable that it keeps up best, and has in a
few localities even increased, in the thickly-
populated industrial districts of the Midlands
and north of England.

If goose-breeding and feeding is to be carried
on profitably in England, it must recognise these
modern conditions and this change in taste.
There will always be some market for large fat
birds at Christmas ; but it is more limited than
formerly, and the best quality will have the
preference. This depends upon even feeding for
flesh rather than fat; and as lean goslings fed up
rapidly with fattening food do not supply this,
masses of fat on a goose will not " sell " now-
adays. Experience proves that feeding mainly
upon oats or other grain, given in water, largely
avoids this deposition of useless fat. But the
revival of any considerable goose-industry, apart
from the northern demand alluded to above,
seems likely in future to depend largely upon
earlier birds, of s))ialkr size, but of first-rate
quality. It is probably this development which
has lately given greater predominance to the
pure Embden breed, which matures early, plucks
to a nice colour, tends rather to solid flesh than
fat, and is decidedly less "rich" than the Toulouse.
Still more worthy of attention appear to be those
hybrids or " wild mongrels " between Canada
and African geese, which top the American

GOOSE-FARMING IN ENGLAND.

597

market, and are affirmed to be equal in flavour
and quality to the Canvass-back duck. It is by
no means certain that British consumers can be
educated to a similar taste ; but it is possible,
perhaps probable, that earlier birds of smaller
size and such surpassing quality might find more
room, and create a demand, as they have done
across the Atlantic. The earliest would cost
very little to feed, being killed as "green"
geese ; and up to Michaelmas the stubbles would
afford nearly all that was required.

Now that the margin is narrower, causes of
unprofitableness in the breeding stock must also
be avoided. Totally unlike fowls in this respect,
geese require time to get acquainted and to mate,
and fresh stock is very often put together too
late, with the consequence that eggs fail to
hatch. They will not breed together, a;; a rule
(we speak of the ordinary breeds), until th-jy have
been acquainted for some time, and otten not at
all the first season, unless put together early.
Two-year-old birds are the strongest, and these
should be put together not later than the begin-
ning of November, if possible. It is really better
in general to buy young stock, and indeed good
adult stock is often very difficult to procure ; but
young birds should be bought chiefly in antici-
pation of what they will produce the following
season and afterwards. From this point of view
the amorous disposition and generally much
quicker mating of the African goose may
offer the goose-breeder solid advantages. The
progeny of this bird with Embden is mainly
white, and the flesh is considered in America less
gross, or more delicate, than the old-fashioned
Ernbden and Toulouse cross.

Geese are generally killed by piercing the brain
from the back of the skull. A spot will be found
there just where head and neck join, at which
there is no protecting bone — there the knife is
inserted, and also severs a principal artery.
Many killers first stun the bird by a sharp blow
on the back of the head, which obviates pain and
struggling, provided it be done with sure hand
and eye. Some feeders stick them in the roof
of the mouth, after stunning them as above.
They are usually plucked before bleeding has
ceased.

The best geese of France are largely fed upon
whole buckwheat, given in troughs of water. This
produces white flesh, with scarcely any fat, while
the same grain, ground into meal, is said to
produce too much fat. This confirms the results
in England from feeding upon white oats in
water. The best of these French geese are sent
to Paris, where they realise as much as i4 francs
per pound, and only inferior produce is sent over
for the cheaper markets in England.

The largest consumers of geese upon the
Continent are the Germans, whose taste is
exactly suited by the rich flesh of this bird.
Enormous numbers are reared at home, every
farmer keeping more or less ; but, in addition,
immense quantities are imported from Russia.
An interesting report from the British Consul-
General at Berlin, in igoi, states that a special
" goose-train " of from fifteen to forty cars
arrives in that city daily from the Russian
frontier, fitted specially for, and occupied
solely with, this traffic. The latest figures pro-
curable show that in 1909 these imported
Russian live geese numbered 6,681,723, and
were of the value of ;£'i,i35,900. These
figures indicate that 895,361 more Russian
geese were imported into Germany in 1909 than
m 1899, and that the increase in value was
7jd. a bird, or 21.65 P'^'^ cent.

The industry of goose-fattening on a whole-
sale scale has only developed in the United
States quite recently, Mr. E. A. Cornell, of
Rhode Island, being the principal pioneer.
He has lately been in the habit of fattening
from 12,000 to 15,000 annually, breeding none,
but collecting them from the farmers round,
none of whom rear more than a moderate
number. He has laid down plant costing about
15,000 dollars, and up to last accounts had
been in the habit of penning about 300 together
in one pen. The birds, when ready, were sent
to New York, where they fetched the top price
as "Rhode Island geese," and considerably
more than the breeders themselves could realise
by their old methods. Similar business has
been carried on by several smaller men. But
during the last few years the system has been
put in jeopardy by the outbreak of a disease
known as goose cholera, which runs its course
so rapidly, that birds affected almost always
die within 36 hours of experimental infection,
and often within less than an hour of the first
apparent symptoms. The chief of these are
staggering gait and agonised motions of the
head, in the dirt and otherwise, that appear
to denote spasm of the glottis ; the passages
being found full of mucus and the blood-
vessels much congested. The liver is studded
thickly with yellow nodules. Mr. Cornell, in
1900, lost thousands from this disease. A
bacillus was found, and pieces of the viscera
of dead birds fed to healthy geese caused
death in less than 30 hours. The success of
Dr. Klein with contagious fowl enteritis (see
next chapter) gave room to hope that a pro-
tective anti-toxin might be prepared from pure
culture of the bacillus, but this had not been
done up to the last advices we have received.

593

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

We mention this because of its importance
in connection with such methods of fattening.
The system has been profitable to the smaller
breeders of Rhode Island, who sell their goslings
to the feeders ; but such losses must put an end
to it in that form unless a sure remedy be found.
All British experience goes to show that geese
do best either at large on stubbles or roots, or
else in small quiet yards, without too much light
or exposure, and do not thrive well in very
large pens of several hundreds. We have already
alluded to the desirability of only penning
together the number which can probably be
killed and marketed together ; a consideration
which tends in the same direction, and moreover
enables more systematic care to be given to
bedding and cleanliness. To shortcoming in
these respects such outbreaks may probably be
due, and it is likely that restriction of the number
in one pen to fifty or less, may prove more of a
cure than any direct measures.

We have never heard of any similar out-
break in England ; but amongst those reared
for exhibition a very peculiar affection of
the floor of the mouth is sometimes found,
called by some breeders " dropped tongue " or
"fallen tongue." We take the description of it
from a note by Mr. D. Bragg, in an article con-
tributed by Mr. Edward Brown to the Journal
of the Royal Agricultural Society, 1899. The
skin is or becomes so lax under the lower
mandible, that the tongue sinks down into the
hollow, and the bird is, consequently, unable
to swallow. The remedy is simple, resembling
that for enlarged crop described in the next
chapter. The outer skin below the mandible is
pinched up and pulled down, separately from
the floor of the mouth, and a strip about an inch
wide entirely cut out. The edges are then sewn
together, taking up the slack, and the difficulty
is at an end. While this deformity is less pre-
valent in Embden geese, the Toulouse, which
have heaviest dewlaps, are also said to be less
subject to it than smaller guUeted birds. We
believe that the real origin of the malformation
lies in the mixture of blood already referred
to, and to a sort of consequent struggle for
mastery between the two types of throat ; but
as it is practically confined to exhibition
specimens, it is no doubt stimulated by forcing
diet, or any other cause leading to a relaxed
state of the tissues.

SWANS.

The true swans are the largest of water-fowl,
though the family, which comprises seven or
eight known varieties, has one or two members
smaller than an ordinary goose, and possessing

characters apparently midway between the
geese and the ducks. Their general obvious
characteristics are a rather long body carried
horizontally, short legs, and very long, slender
necks, with long, snake-like heads. The wild
birds fly in flocks, in the V-shaped phalanx
common to all the larger waterfowl, and when
fairly on the wing fly strongly, and sometimes
at a height of several thousand feet ; but they
seem to rise with some difficulty. They usually
take flight from the water, and splash along for
twenty or thirty yards till they have gathered
" way " enough ; and they descend in the same
way. They are more or less migratory, like the
ducks and geese; though often remaining in
one locality that suits them. They are strictly
monogamous as a rule, though one or two rare
cases of two females mating with one male are
reported on credible authority; and usually pair
for life, which may amount to as much as a hun-
dred years if no accident happens. As usual when
such is the case, the two birds cherish the deepest
afi"ection for each other, always swimming close
together, frequently caressing their mates about
the head and neck, and, if necessary, fighting for
one another with the greatest courage. They
fight with their wings like geese, and strike with
fearful force. They feed chiefly on vegetables,
including the roots and stems of grasses and
plants which they pull up from the mud, stretch-
ing deep down with their long necks, but never
diving. They will, however, also graze to some
extent on land, and it is believed eat also fish-
spawn and animalculae ; probably they also eat
very small or young fish occasionally.

The male swan is called a " cob," the female
a " pen," and the young ones " cygnets." Both
parents help to make the nest, which when at
large is a very big affair, built up with sticks and
rushes and coarse grass outside, and lined with
fine grass and down. In this six to nine eggs
are laid, which are of course large, and ver>'
thick in the shell, of a dirty white or pale
green colour. The time of incubation varies
somewhat, from 35 to 40 days. The young are
densely covered with down, taken to the water
by the parents almost immediately, and watched
over with the greatest solicitude, more than four
or five being rarely hatched out of one nest.
The first year the plumage of the ordinary or
mule swan is grey, and the bills blackish-grey
instead of orange. The flesh of young birds is ■
very tender, and resembling that of the goose,
but not quite so rich ; and as swans hatched and
brought up under geese are much more domestic
in their habits, it was at one time thought pos-
sible that cygnet-rearing for market might prove
remunerative ; but the decrease in the demand foT

MANAGEMENT OF SWANS.

599

very heavy geese has deprived any such attempt
of practical interest.

Owing to their slow development, the sex of
young birds is not easy to distinguish. When
approaching maturity the male of the Common
swan is larger and more bold-looking, with a
thicker neck, larger knob, and brighter bill. But
the first distinction which can generally be
observed is that the male swims or floats con-
siderably higher, or more on the surface of the
water, while the female sinks much deeper.

The Common or Mute swan is the largest
and most graceful on the water of all. It has
an orange-red bill with a black knob at the base,
brown eye, legs and feet blackish-grey, plumage
all over a pure white. Its note is soft and low,
but it is not mute, as the name would imply. It
is common to Europe and America. A sub-
variety called the Polish swan comes from the
Baltic region, and is characterised by paler legs
and knob, and the fact that the cygnets are never
grey, but white from the very first — a singular
parallel to the Embden goose. The Whistling,
Singing, or Whooper swan {Cygiiiis musiciis)
really has a most beautiful note, especially when
flying in company overhead. It is also white
in plumage, but is smaller than the Common
swan, has no knob on the bill, and is shorter
and thicker in the neck, which is carried more
straight and upright. This swan is sometimes
found wild in England, and no doubt would
be seen oftener but for " sportsmen " ; a fine
specimen was shot at Avonmouth, near Bristol,
in igoi. Bewick's swan is still smaller, and
has a similar carriage of the neck. Both
these are very difficult to obtain in pairs.
The Black swan of Australia was imported
many years ago. It is not so large as the
Common swan, but the neck has a similar
graceful carriage, and the general shape of body
is the same. This swan breeds well in confine-
ment, sometimes two broods in a year, and the
young are hardy. It has no knob on the bill,
which is red, the legs are black, and the plumage
black exceptwhite inflights. TheChilianor Black-
necked swan is about the same size as the last,
with a leaden or grey bill, and the large knob
on it rich red, the legs orange-red. The body is
pure white, the neck and head jet black, all but
a streak or patch across the eye. It carries the
neck upright and straight. This beautiful bird
is not a very ready breeder, but has been reared
successfully for many years in the gardens at
Regent's Park. Another so-called swan from
South America [Coscorobd) is smaller than many
geese, and has such long legs and short neck that
its place in the family is perhaps doubtful. It
has red bill and legs, and the body is white

except the wing-quills, which are tipped with
black.

Swans retain so much of their wild instincts,
and are such powerful birds and so jealous of
interference, that it is useless to attempt to
" manage " them at all like domestic waterfowl.
They resent the presence of anyone very near
the nest. Where there is ample range of grass
and water, they are best left entirely to them-
selves, like the swans of the River Thames, or as
on many meres and lakes in England. On the
smaller ornamental lakes of parks and country-
seats they must be treated rather differently.
Here an enclosed shed should be built at the
edge of the water as a swan-house, with one
entrance from the water, though there may as
well be another from the land. Inside on the
bank facility may be provided for a large nest
or two, so as to give a little choice of locality,
and a supply of sticks and rushes and sweet hay
may be placed at hand. Often a nest already
half made will be taken advantage of But for the
rest the birds must be left to themselves, beyond
throwing them some grain or broken biscuit upon
the water. The cygnets may be fed, if wild, in the
same way, by throwing Spratt's meal or grits
upon the water ; but when the old birds have
become familiar they will generally bring theii
young, when once hatched, up to the bank,
where first poultry meal, and later on grain, can
be given in a trough of water, not forgetting
some clean gravel. It seems a rule rarely
broken for four cygnets of the Common swan
to be reared.

The judging of geese has seen manj' changes
during the last forty years. At one time, as
already indicated, size and weight were almost

everything, especially at Birming-
Judging ham, and there is not the slightest

Geese. doubt that the heaviest winners were

in some cases directly cross-bred ;
the fact has been admitted to us, and where
classes are simply described as for " white," or
" g''cy," no one has any right to object, the
more so as at that time very large geese were
worth more per pound in the market. The
change in the market has brought other con-
siderations more to the front ; and the most
pressing need at present is to preserve purity
of race, especially in regard to the Embden. It
should be seen that Toulouse entrants have the
well-developed dewlap, the massive-looking, low-
carried body, and ample keel of that breed ;
while the Embden presents the clean throat,
longer neck, higher carriage, finely shaped breast
free from keel, and clean-cut hardness of feather
proper to it. In either breed, points of the other

6oo

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

should be heavily penalised. The Standard
of the Poultry Club is as follows : —

EMBDEN GEESE

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Head. — Long and straight. Bill : Fairly short,
stout at the base. Eyes : Full.

Neck. — Long and swan like, the throat uniform
with the under mandible and neck — i.e. without a
gullet.

Body. — Broad and thick ; frame, long. Breast :
SoHd, with as little indication of keel as possible.
Shoulders : Broad. Back : Straight. Wi)igs : Large
and strong. Tail : Carried well out and close.
Paunch : Deep. Stern : Broad.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Fairly short, large, strong
boned. Toes : Straiglit, connected by web.

Carriage. — Upright and defiant.

Weight. — Gander : 30 lb. to 34 lb. Goose : 20 lb.
to 22 lb.

Plumage. — Hard, tight, and glossy.

Bill : Orange.
Feet : Bright oran.

Plumage. — Pure white

COLOUR
Eyes : Light

blue. Legs and

SCALE OF POINTS

Size . .
Breast
Head
Carriage
Neck . .
Colour
Condition
Legs and feet

Serious defects : Plumage other than
wry tail ; or any other deformity.

100
white ;

TOULOUSE GEESE
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Head. — Strong and massive. Bill : Strong, fairly
short, and well set, in a uniform sweep, or nearly

so, from the point of the bill to the back of the
skull. Eyes : Full.

Neck. — Long and thick, with the throat well
guUeted.

Body. — Long, broad, and deep. Breast , Pro-
minent, deep, and fuU ; keel straight from stem
to paunch, increasing in width to the stern and
forming a straight underhne. Shoulders : Broad.
Back : SUghtly curved from the neck to the tail.
XVijigs : Large and strong. Tail : Somewhat short,
carried high and well spread ; paunch and stern
heavy and wide, wth a full rising sweep to the
tail.

Legs and Feet. — Legs : Short, stout, strong
boned. Toes : Straight, connected by web.

Carriage. — Somewhat horizontal, and not so
upright in front as the Embden.

Weight. — Gander : 28 lb. to 30 lb. Goose :
20 lb. to 22 lb.

Plumage. — Full and bright.

COLOUR

Bill : Orange. Eyes : Dark brown or hazel.
Legs and Feet : Orange.

Plumage. — Neck : Dark grey. Breast and Keel :
Sound grey, rather Ught, shading dark to thighs.
Back, Wings, and Thighs : Dark steel grey, each
feather laced with an almost white edging, the
flights without white. Stern, Paunch, and Tail :
White, the tail with a broad band of grey across
the centre.

SCALE OF POINTS
Size . .
Carriage

Head and throat . .
Breast and keel
Tail, stern, and paunch
Colour and marking
Condition
Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Legs and feet . . . . . . . . . . 5

Serious defects : Patches of black or white among
the grey plumage ; slipped or cut wings ; wry taii ;
or any other deformity.

CHAPTER XXXIX,

POULTRY DISEASES AND VICES. VERMIN.

FOR several reasons, to treat minutely of every
disease known to occur in poultry would be
of little use to the practical poultry keeper,
especially as most competent veterinary practi-
tioners nowdevote real studyto this branchof their
profession, and are able to render aid in serious
cases. There are several useful special treatises
accessible to the few who are really competent to
make use of them* ; but many causes of death
which can be easily determined by ^post-mortem
examination present no symptoms during life to
mark them off from others, especially to the
ordinary observer, even though familiar with his
birds. The skin of a fowl does not perspire
(practically, at least, as there are no sweat-
glands), and very little liquid is excreted by the
kidneys ; and the skin being covered over with
feathers also, it will be seen how whole classes of
symptoms must be wanting, which in other
animals we can examine and form our opinion
upon. Many ailments from which fowls have
died, arc also very rare ; and upon the whole little
can be done to assist the majority, except in
regard to complaints ordinarily met with, and
whose symptom? are fairly constant and defined.
That so large a proportion of these relate to
the respiratory system, arises from the peculiar
anatomy of birds. The moisture other animals
excrete through the skin and kidneys, is in them
almost entirely given off in breathing. In birds,
also, the ordinary lungs and air-passages are
supplemented by nhie air-sacs, communicating
with those organs, and supplying them with a
certain quantity of air in the intervals of breathing.
This extra oxygenation is connected with the
higher temperature of the body, which exceeds
fever-heat in other animals. At all events, these
air-sacs expose larger surfaces to possible dis-
turbances, including certain microscopical para-
sites, and the wider functions of the whole
apparatus give more prominence to its work in
the system, and increase its liability to disease

• For such British readers, The Diseases of Poultry, by J.
Woodroffe Hill, F.R.C.V.S., "Feathered World" Office,
London, may be useful. The best American work is The
Diseases of Poultry, by D. E. Salmon, D.V.M., George
Howard and Co., Washington, D.C. French readers possess
Midecine des Oiseaux, by Pierre Megnin ; German poultry-
keepers have at command Die Krankhtiten des HausgeftUge/s,
by Friedrich A. Zuern.

76

There is another point of view, of great im-
portance. In a large proportion of cases of
disease, the birds ought to die or be killed. Even
where there is no constitutional taint, the fact
that they have succumbed to circumstances which
have not affected others, marks them out as the
weakest, which unaided Nature would assuredly
weed out, and which if we preserve and breed
from, perpetuate some amount of that weakness
in the progeny. Rheumatism, for instance, can
be cured ; of that there is no doubt. But the
vast majority who have had such success, agree
that the effects are either never recovered from
as regards strength and vigour, or else that the
original weakness continues ; and the same may
be said of some severe contagious diseases,
such as diphtheritic roup, which may affect the
strongest On the other hand, many diseases also
apparently contagious, and so attacking healthy
birds under certain predisposing conditions of
exposure or other coincident strain upon the
system, do not appear to leave serious results
behind them, and are tolerably definite in
symptoms and character. It is these which may
be most successfully treated, and in which treat-
ment is most worth while where fowls of value are
concerned. But it is significant that nearly all
breeders who rear really large numbers of poultry,
gradually come to the conclusion that, except in
special cases, with valuable birds, the most
economical treatment of serious disease occur-
ring in a yard is — execution. Concerning this
matter each must judge for himself.

Before proceeding with details, three other
general points require mention, (i) The first is
the absolute necessity for a hospital, adequate to
the establishment, where sick birds can be both
placed in comfort and under observation, and
kept from infecting others, at all events after dis-
covery. (2) The second is a question of dosage.
Fowls are not homoeopaths, and take relatively
large doses, so that if any reader wants to try
any new remedy, suggested perhaps by his own
doctor, a large fowl may have about one-third of
the dose for a human adult. Further, however,
where the doses are given as two for the day, it
would often be far better if the same quantity
could be subdivided and given in three or four
portions instead. For colds in particular, we

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

always dose our own selves at short intervals ; and
between morning and night the effect of a drug
has often quite ceased. There would often be
more success in treating disease, with more
frequent and proportionately smaller doses. (3)
Never give castor-oil. This drug is almost
poison to fowls, making them always wretchedly
ill ; and whenever a purge is needed, salts or
jalap or calomel should be preferred.

Yet a few further remarks about symptoms.
To give medicine for one or two symptoms
only, is the mistake of quack-medicine vendors
and of some homcEopathists (not all). The same
symptom may denote very different diseases, of
which we will give two examples which cover,
perhaps, the widest ground. Take first lame-
ness. In a very young bird this denotes probably
cramp, gouty or rheumatic. (See p. 85.) In
older chickens and adults, after bad weather, and
with evident pain, it probably means rheumatism.
In cockerels almost grown, and apparently
healthy in all else, it is most likely leg-iveaktiess.
With heat, and swollen joints, and after high
feeding, it will md^z'aX^ gout. If an open wound
appear, it is joint disease (q.v.). And if more of
a dragging lameness, especially in right leg, with
evident ill-health, yellowish face, anxious eye,
and evident pain in body, it probably means con-
gestion or inflammation of the liver. This will
explain what we mean ; but we give one more
instance in cough. Coming on gradually, of a
chronic kind, with little discharge or none, poor
appetite, and perhaps emaciation, it stands for
consumption. With rather hurried breathing
and a little discharge from nostrils, and some
expectoration, it is probably bronchitis, especially
if there be rattling in the throat. With still
more short and evidently distressed breathing,
slimy matter in the mouth, obvious pain and
fever, and disposition to lie down, the case is
probably pneumonia. Finally, some cough is
often associated with gapes. It is in this kind of
comparative study, from the descriptions follow-
ing, that indications for treatment are to be
found.

We have only further to add, before proceeding
to details, that any really serious case for ^post-
mortem should be sent to a qualified veterinary
surgeon. Reports rendered for a shilling or two,
which speak glibly of " germs " that can only be
made visible under first-class microscopes by
complicated staining processes, do not inspire
respect in those who know what a bacteriological
examination really means. The veterinarian, if
he deems such an examination desirable, will
say so and get it made, for an adequate fee, at
one of the establishments which do this kind of
work. It will not cost a great deal, and will be

reliable, and where serious interests are at stake
is worth the money.

Abortion of Eggs. — This is not to be con-
founded with the laj-ing of soft eggs. These
last are laid when mature, and usually by fat
birds : but when violently driven or startled, or
subject to violence of any kind, or even if sud-
denly and greatly terrified, immature yolks are
sometimes detached from the ovary and ex-
pelled. This is most likely to happen with
pullets not yet laying but about to lay, and
being a real miscarriage or abortion, may wreck
the constitution of a valuable bird unless
attended to. It is distinguished from the other
by not occurring as a rule in fat birds ; by the
immaturity and small size of the yolk or yolks ;
generally also by hsemorrhage ; and always by
signs of illness and shock afterwards. Any such
bird should be placed for a few days in a quiet
and comfortable but rather dark pen, with a
nest in case of need, and fed on a little bread
and milk. Quiet rest is the main thing, but
20 grains bromide of potassium may be dis-
solved in half a pint of drinking water. With
such care the event may be entirely recovered
from.

Apoplexy. — The bird suddenly falls down
apparently dead or nearly so, sometimes quite
so. The usual cause is too high feeding of the
bird itself, but it may also occur upon some
accidental provocation, from past generations of
very high feeding predisposing to it. A cock
may thus be attacked owing to a sudden
quarrel, or a hen from the strain of laying.
Sometimes threatening symptoms of an attack
maybe seen in unsteady and bewildered gait:
any such bird, obviously In high condition,
should be at once placed in a dark pen, fasted
for some hours, and then fed several days on
low diet, and given 30 grains of Epsom salts
next day, and for a few days after 10 grains of
bromide of potassium morning and evening.
After actual attack, if not dead, lift the wing,
and plunge the point of a penknife or lancet
lengthwise into the large vein there seen, letting
it bleed freely. When consciousness returns,
which may perhaps be hastened if smelling salts
or ammonia be at hand, apply some styptic to
the wound, such as hazeline lotion, alum, carbolic
acid, or cold water. Then place the bird in a
pen, and treat as above ; and afterwards take
care to keep it in rather spare condition, and the
blood cool by occasionally putting a few grains
of Epsom salts or bicarbonate of potass in the
drinking water.

Bronchitis. — The leading symptom of this is
cough and quickened breathing, with perhaps a

DISEASES OF POULTRY.

603

Jittle discharge from the nostrils, but there is
more expectoration from the mouth if the case
is severe. The usual cause of this is a sharp
■change of weather or a draught. If the
symptoms are sudden and serious, give fresh
ipecacuanha wine, 3 to 5 drops every three
hours, and, if possible, occasional inhalation of
steam from boiling water, on which has been
poured a few drops of pure terebene and pinol.
Less severe cases may be treated by 20 grains
liquorice and 10 grains ammonium chloride in a
quarter-pint of water. Of course the bird will
be taken care of in hospital ; it is no use treat-
ing fowls with medicine, while left exposed to
the conditions which made them ill. Often
bronchitis finally assumes a mild chronic form,
but obstinate. Such are usually cured by adding
to the fountain enough of the B. P. dilute nitric
acid to make the water slightly sour, with two
teaspoonfuls of gum arable and two of glycerine
to a pint. Or two or three Keating's cough
lozenges may be dissolved in a quarter of a
pint, and given as drink for a few days.

Bumble-foot. — A corn, which may cause in
bad cases an abscess, under the foot. It may
be rarely caused in any heavy breed by bad
perches, or daily having to jump down from too
great a height on hard ground, or confinement
to a stony run. But it is chiefly confined to
five-toed breeds such as Dorkings and Houdans,
being thus evidently a functional weakness con-
nected with the fifth toe. It was once exceed-
ingly common in Dorkings, in conjunction with
greatly swelled (or apparently gouty) fifth toe.
But care in breeding, discarding such birds as
parents, has now nearly banished the trouble
from many yards ; and such a course should
always be pursued. When the ailment occurs,
while it is confined to a corn, this may be partly
pared away as on the human foot, and salicylic
acid ointment (10 per cent strength) applied
every night, which will gradually soften the
rest, if the exciting causes be removed.
Should an actual abscess have formed, the bird
must be kept upon straw in a pen, and the place
may probably need poulticing. Whether poul-
ticed or not, when ready an incision is made and
Ihe matter squeezed out, the wound cleansed with
Wright's Liquor Carbonis Detergens and half-
and-half water, and then dressed with carbolised
vaseline, or aristol, and tied up with rag. Some-
times the tumour appears hard and fibrous : in
that case if the incision be made in form of a
cross, it can be squeezed out whole in most
•cases ; but here the wound is better dressed with
boric acid ointment. Abscesses may also form
•occasionally in the feet from thorns, or cuts
■from glass, etc. Such often appear more on the

top of the foot, and are easily opened, but taking
care to remove the cause of irritation if still
present. These can be treated with the Liquor
Carbonis and carbolised vaseline, and generally
heal up quickly and well.

Chicken Pox. — This disease is rare in Eng-
land, but frequent in hot climates, such as the
Cape and Australia, and in America. It begins
as a whitey-brown excrescence something like a
carrier-pigeon's wattle, generally near the base
of the beak, and extends rapidly, becoming more
yellowish as it does so : sometimes it will invade
the feathered parts of the head and neck. If
the nodules are broken, they exude matter. It
is manifestly contagious, and isolation and dis-
infection are the first measures. Small doses of
sulphur should be given internally, with tonics
and green food ; the diseased spots should be
washed daily with oxygen peroxide (burning
the bits of sponge after), and when dried painted
sparingly with a 2 per cent solution of formalin
or 5 per cent of resorcin in glycerine.

Cholera. — It is not known whether this dis-
ease is really the same as Asiatic cholera in the
human race, but that it is of the same type
is undoubted ; that is, it is a highly contagious
disease, conveyed by bacilli, which are found in
discharges of the rice-water type and in the
blood. There are first great thirst and diarrhcEa,
the discharges at first generally greenish ; but they
soon become thin and white, often frothy. The
intestines are inflamed. The bird becomes
huddled and drowsy. The comb may be either
pale or very dark, and death may take place
either in stupor or convulsions. The disease is
distinguished from mere severe diarrhoea by its
rapid course ,ind evidently epidemic character,
and from contagious enteritis by the green or
white instead of yellow colour of the evacua-
tions. Death usually occurs within 36 hours.
The disease has caused immense losses on the
Continent and in America, Africa and Australia,
but some have said it is unknown in England.
We have known two or three outbreaks, and the
disease has also been reported on by Prof.
MacFadyean. Treatment of birds attacked is
practically hopeless ; but in the British climate
at least, an outbreak may be stayed by instant
isolation, careful collection and disinfection of all
infected evacuations by strong carbolic acid, and
the addition of 20 grains salicylic acid to every
pint of water. Every dead bird should be burnt.
Where the disease is most prevalent, recourse
must be had to Pasteur's vaccine ; this being,
in fact, the very first disease from which that
eminent man prepared any preventive anti-toxin.
The bacteria were by him cultivated in chicken-
broth expo.sed to the action of oxygen ; and by

6o4

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

inoculating healthy chickens with this attenuated
virus a mild disease is produced which makes
them immune, as vaccination does to small-pox.
The vaccine can be obtained, in case of need,
from the Pasteur Institute in Paris, and out of
thousands of inoculations, scarcely any have
failed to produce immunity. For practical
purposes, no other treatment is of any avail
in a real epidemic of this disease, which so far
has been happily rare in England.

Cold or Catarrh. — This is common enough
in winter, from the same causes as amongst
ourselves, though there is little doubt that even
these mild diseases are contagious, so that a
cold will "go through the house." The main
symptom is watery discharge from the nostrils,
and, perhaps, a little frothiness at the eyes.
There may be a little sneezing and feverishness,
but it will be sneezing and not coughing, and
there may be a little diarrhrjea. It often gets
well of itself if the weather improves and the
birds are taken care of and well fed, being kept
out of draught and wet. If seen very early, the
best treatment is about five drops essence of
camphor on a bolus of meal, followed by a i m.
tabloid of aconite every four hours for a day,
and one morning and evening next day. Mean-
while the nostrils should be squeezed out and
syringed gently with hazeline tincture in equal
parts of water. Another good early treatment
is a 2 grain tabloid of quinine at once, and
then night and morning. This treatment is
only of use early, however ; if the catarrh has
become confirmed, the nostrils and throat
should be cleansed with peroxide of hydrogen
and equal parts water several times daily,
and the nostrils greased with vaseline which
has been melted and mixed with 5 per cent
eucalyptus oil. Internally, 20 grains Epsom
salts may be given, followed up by two or three
drops each of eucalyptus and pure terebene on
a meal pill every three or four hours, or half
a teaspoonful of each may be poured on the
bird's fountain. It is also of much benefit to
give them a thorough fumigation at night with
some sulphur on a red-hot shovel, or a teaspoon-
ful of eucalyptus on a shovel not so hot ; it will
make them sneeze, but do them good. If the
catarrh does not yield to this treatment, that for
catarrhal rotip should be adopted.

Consumption. — See " Tuberculosis."
Cramp.- — This complamt in young chickens
has been sufficiently treated of at page 97.

Crop-bound. — This term denotes a crop so
gorged as to be hard and tense, in which con-
dition food may be unable to pass out, and
the bird may die if not attended to. No fowl
gorges itself in this way at the time, but if fed

irregularly and carelessly, so that it eats freely
of grain when very hungry, the dry grain swells
with the moisture, and so causes the mischief
The first measure is to dissolve a little Epsom
salts (not much) in warm water, and giving the
bird a spoonful at intervals, very gently to
knead the distended crop with the fingers. It
may take one or two hours, but generally the
contents can be moved and made softer with
patience. If this can be effected, give then 30
grains of salts in water, and leave the bird in a
pen. No further food should be given till the
organ is nearly empty, and then for several
days only a very little biscuit-meal, with a
little perchloride of iron in the water, in order
that the crop may contract ; else the case is likely
to be followed by the ailment described in the
next paragraph. If these measures fail, however,
an incision must be made, choosing a place near
the top free from any large blood vessels, and,,
after plucking a few feathers, making a cut
about \\ inches long. Through this the con-
tents must be all removed with a small teaspoon,
and when empty it is safest to pare the nail of
one finger very short, oil it, and feel that the
outlet is open and free, as in some cases a piece
of bone or other hard object may be found im-
pacted and so have caused obstruction. The
edges of the wound should then be washed with
dilute carbolic acid, and the edges sewn to-
gether. This is as well done by a white silk
thread which has been kept in the carbolic till
the time has come to use it, and continuously,.
like one seam, taking inner and outer skin
together ; but most professional doctors would
make several separate stitches through the inner
skin first, and then through the outer skin in the
spaces between the others. The wound will
heal up either way. The bird should have no-
water for 24 hours, and be fed sparingly for a
few days on biscuit meal or bread and milk,
not too moist. There is very seldom any
trouble if the operation is done in good time,
and it should never be delayed after it is once
clear that the crop cannot be evacuated by the
first milder measures; as the contents gradually
begin to putrefy, and the tissues lose their
healthy condition, after which healing may not
take place. In some cases, where a contributing
cause of the attack has been a crop already
over-distended from some previous occurrence,
the bottom of which hangs loose and pendulous,
so that this portion of the food cannot pass out-
wards, but lies there decomposing, a modification
of the operation is advisable. In this case a
longer incision should be made, transversely
across the front of the crop, and lower down,
about at the centre ; and a considerable piece of"

DISEASES OF POULTRY.

605

bay-leaf shape should be cut out entirely. When
this is stitched up properly, the slack is taken
out, and a great deformity and source of danger
removed. This operation is as easy as the
other ; but owing to the lower position of the
wound, and its transverse character, the bird
must be very carefully fed for a longer period
before being left to itself

Crop, Soft or Sivcllcd. — In this complaint the
crop is also large and full, but the contents are
fluid, generally very much like foul or dirty water,
which is easily expelled if the fowl be held with
the head downward, and the crop squeezed a
little. From many cases we have investigated,
the causes appear to be two. One is a continu-
ance of the relaxed pendulous condition referred
to above, the sour and foul food left in the bottom
of the bag gradually bringing the lining mem-
brane into an unhealthy catarrhal condition.
This admits of remedy by emptying the foul
contents thrice a day, and only feeding sparingly
two hours after with a little scalded Spratt, in
which some wheat grains are interspersed, with
a little grit ; after each feed let the bird have
a little chopped onion, and drink a little only of
rather strong brandy and water, in which i grain
of perchloride of iron is dissolved. The food
itself may be also seasoned a little with the No. i
mixture on page 199. If with this treatment
and care the foul secretion ceases, the operation
described above should be carried out ; but it is
useless otherwise, as the wound would probably
not heal while the organ was in an unhealthy
state. Other cases, apparently very similar,
appear to be a sort of dropsy, caused by defective
nutrition or circulation in the system at large.
Even such cases may often be alleviated by
occasional doses of jalap or salts, with iron in
the water and 2 grains iodide of potassium
twice a day ; but such a state denotes wreck of
the entire system, and the bird is totally unfit
for any real purpose, and should be killed.
These latter cases sometimes follow excessive
over-showing.

Debility. — Fowls, when first kept by inex-
perienced persons, in small runs, often appear
weak and anaemic generally, without any very
definite symptoms. Usually the great want is
light and air, which above all must be supplied,
and all birds which are too many for the space
cleared out. The necessities of green food and
cleanliness should next receive attention, and
possibly animal food also may be needed, which
can be judged from what has been said in our
early chapters. These matters being put right,
and exercise in various ways encouraged, some
cod-liver oil should be given if the birds are
thin, and in any case iron tonic or Parrish's

Chemical Food in the drinking water, or 2 grains
carbonate of iron may be given to each daily
in a pill for a time. This simple treatment
usually causes rapid improvement. Condiments
should be carefully avoided in such circum-
stances, doing more harm than good.

Diarrlicea and Dysentery. — Diarrhcea may
occur at any time without anything very serious
being the matter, from change in food, or even
sudden cold or wet, which often causes a sort of
catarrh of the bowels. Slight cases may often be
met by giving first of all 20 grains of Epsom
salts, afterwards mixing the food rather dry, with
a portion of rice in it boiled firm in whole grains,
sprinkling the whole with chalk; or, if apparently
the weather has been the cause, season the mash
(still mixed rather dry) with No. i mixture on
page 199, and on a small bolus of food give about
six drops essence of camphor. If more than this
seems needed, an excellent prescription is that
given by Mr. Tegetmeier, many years ago, of: —

Rhubarb ... ... ... 5 grains

Chalk 5

Cayenne ... ... ... 3 „

To be given as a pill morning and night.
If still obstinate, or very severe, add | grain of
opium to three or four doses of above, or try
instead (not in addition) 3 to 10 drops of chloro-
dyne every three hours. Very severe cases, in
which the evacuations are tinged or mixed with
blood, have really become dysentery, and are
often fatal ; but are sometimes saved by 5 to 10
drops of chlorodyne given as described. The
best treatment, however, which has been suc-
cessful in some instances that looked almost
desperate, has been the administration of
5 grains sulphur and I grain Dover's powder
every four hours for a day or two. A very
favourite remedy for, and preventive of simple
diarrhoea, in America, is Venetian Red (red
oxide of iron) in the water.

Diphtlieria. — This dreaded contagious malady
was unknown in England till about 1876, when
it suddenly broke out and spread to such an
extent as to be written about for months under
the name of " the new disease," being chiefly
spread by birds which were purchased, or had
returned from shows. The marked symptom is
the appearance of diseased growth in the throat
and inside of the mouth, resembling raised
patches of whitish or pale yellowish skin, which
may invade the entire throat and mouth, often
also appearing like ulcers or sores on the face,
comb, and about the eyes. It was first treated
by caustics, with practically no success : we were
the first to detect the true diphtheritic nature of
the malady and to prescribe for it as such, and
since then it has been found curable to a consider-

6o6

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

s.ble extent. It very often commences as roup,
and has been confounded with that disease ; but
it is a true diphtheria, propagated by a bacillus
which has been isolated by Loffler and others,
and the truth seems to be that the mucous
surfaces already inflamed, and the system
already weakened by the roup, are peculiarly
unable to withstand infection from the diph-
theritic bacillus. Even in a recovered case, the
disease so greatly affects the strength and
constitution that such a bird should never,
if possible, be used for breeding; and it is,
moreover, by no means certain that the disease
is not communicable to man. About 1S95 that
question was believed to be settled in the
negative; but further investigations since have
revived the doubt, though the general opinion
of bacteriologists in America still is, that cases
which have been observed there of a sort of
diphtheritic sore throat rather common among
poultrymen working amidst an outbreak, is of a
much milder type and distinct from diphtheria
in man. Of course cases which have begun as
roup will have been treated as such, and the
treatment will so far have been good ; some
have thought, in fact, that hydrogen peroxide
freely applied from the first, has often aborted
or prevented further growth of diphtheric mem-
brane. As soon as any such growth is found,
however, the diseased surfaces should be assidu-
ously painted or swabbed several times a day.
A thoroughly good lotion is one of the earliest
we gave, as follows : —

Carbolic acid i drachm

Sulphurous acid solution ... j drachms

Tincture perchloride of iron 4 ,,

Glycerine ... ... ... 4 „

With this paint all the sore places, morning and
night, also removing any membrane that will
come off pretty easily, and burning all such care-
fully. Now and then a drop may go the wrong
way and choke a bird, but this can be avoided
with care, and some such dressing is necessary.
Quite as good an application, and often better,
is to make a swab of cotton wool tied on the end
of a stick, and well swab the mouth all over,
especially diseased places, with hydrogen
peroxide, full strength : it should not be taken
from the bottle, but some poured into a saucer,
not to contaminate the bottle, throwing away any
not used, and burning every swab after use.
Remove, as before, any of the growth that comes
readily. Open and squeeze out swellings on the
face, and cleanse with the same fluid ; but if
necessary to cleanse the eyes, use for this a
dilution of two parts water, or a solution of boric
acid 15 grains to the ounce. After this dressing,
touch all parts, except the eyes, with aristol

powder ; or, stiil better, apply witn a brush a
2 per cent, solution of formalin in glycerine, or
resorcin in glycerine of the same strength. On
the whole these last dressings are the most
efficacious of any we know. For the throat
tincture of iodine may also be used, if it
happens to be at hand, and other things are not.
For internal use, get from any chemist a bottle
of his ordinary sore-throat mixture of potass-
chlorate and perchloride of iron, and give about
a si.xth to a third (according to size of the bird)
of the ordinary human dose every three hours for
two days — all chemists make a mixture of this
kind, but rather differing, and each will state his
own dose, which will turn out about the same
in the end. Some may prefer to try a homely
treatment much used in France, and easily
carried out. Equal measures of tar and tur-
pentine are mixed, and, the house being well
closed at night, enough of the mi.xture is burnt
to fill it with thick black smoke, so plentifully
as to " black " the birds. They sneeze and
cough violently ; and, though this remedy is not
equal to the foregoing in advanced cases, it has
often proved effective when employed in good
time, the false membrane being detached, and
the throat returning to a healthy state. It also
appears to stop infection of the rest. Whatev'er
form of treatment be adopted, feed on the very
best soft food mixed with weak brandy and
water, and if the bird seems very ill give a raw
egg and brandy once a day. When conva-
lescent, nourishing food and tonics will be
called for. All dead bodies, as well as foul
swabs and rags, should be carefully burnt.

There are one or two other diseases which
rather resemble diphtheria, and no doubt often
pass as such. The mouth is sometimes found
coated with a sort of white " thrush," and occa-
sionally the air passages and the throat are
infested by microscopic vegetable moulds of
the Aspergillus family, which are found in quite
thick growths, an eighth of an inch deep, or
even more. These last are generally yellowish,
with a pale green cast. As a rule, however,
these growths when present are lower than the
throat, and not therefore to be observed during
life, though readily seen under the microscope
whenever found post iiwrtein. Diphtheritic treat-
ment would probably be as good as any, but
any treatment is rarely successful in such cases,
which are, fortunately, not common. It is of
chief practical importance to remember that
these vegetable microscopical growths are
generally introduced through the medium of
" musty " grain or straw, on which they may
often be found.

Dropsy. — The abdomen is sometimes found

DISEASES OF POULTRY.

607

distended with fluid so as almost to touch the
ground. The bird may often be apparently
relieved by tapping the fluid and giving 5 grains
iodide of potassium daily. But it is worthless all
the same, and if exhibited and claimed by some-
one else, the proceeding can scarcely be deemed
honest.

Egg-bound. — Inability to pass the matured
igg IS of frequent occurrence. The bird either
goes often to the nest or remains long there, but
without laying. Neither of these is any proof;
but if such a biid, when off, walks with evident
distress, perhaps with wings nearly touching the
ground, it is probably a case, and gentle examina-
tion with the fingers will make it clear. The
cause may be a large, double-yolked egg > or it
is not unusual for a pullet to have trouble with
the first egg or two, till the sphincter-muscle is
stretched ; or the difficulty may be the result of
too much fat, a condition which should be seen
to at once if it be found ; or finally the oviduct
may be rather inflamed, and form a very rough
shell. In most cases it is sufficient to gently
inject a tablespoonful of olive oil from a small
flexible syritige, or to lubricate the vent and
cloaca with the finger repeatedly dipped in oil,
and then hold the part over a jug of boiling water
for a quarter of an hour. If the bird be then
placed on the nest she will probably soon lay.
The process may be assisted by about five drops
of tincture of ergot every four hours, or 30 grains
of Epsom salts, or a tablespoonful of hot treacle
made into a sort of thin pudding with finely-
chopped groundsel. If such measures fail, the
egg should, if possible, be gently manipulated
from outside towards the vent, till its end can be
seen. Then this may be punctured, the egg
emptied with a very small spoon, and the shell
crushed and removed with tweezers, the oiled
finger being passed afterwards to make sure that
nothing is left. Should the egg break of itself,
the accident is almost always fatal, leading to
peritonitis. A little cooling medicine should
always follow cases of egg-bound.

In the effort to lay, the oviduct is sometimes
extruded. This may sometimes be cured by
gently anointing with carbolised vaseline and
returning, giving 3 drops tincture of ergot. After-
wards it may need returning several times, which
should be followed by injections of hazeline
tincture and water, keeping quiet. Laying
should be suspended, however, for which there is
nothing better than Mr. Tegetmeier's old pre-
scription of I grain calomel and yV grain tartar
emetic, followed by low diet, and especially dis-
carding meat and condiments for a while, until
the bird is got into more spare condition.

Egg-eating. — This vice has been sufliciently

dealt with at page 61. Another expedient
pretty effectual is to keep the beaks of ofTenders
cut back for a while sufficiently to be tender,
feeding on rnash meantime.

Eggs, Soft, atid Abnormal. — Soft eggs may
be caused by lack of shell-material, which, if
discovered, points to the remedy, the most rapid
being pounded raw oyster-shell. Or they may
be caused by the fowls being driven or frightened,
in which case they soon cease, and nothing need
be done unless the injury has been so severe as
to prematurely detach small and unripe yolks,
when the case becomes a real abortion (q.v._),
or they may be caused by condiments and too
much animal food, spices in particular leading
frequently to all sorts of trouble with the egg-
organs, particularly in the Mediterranean races
of poultry. A few small doses of Epsom salts
or jalap, and cessation of the extra stimulus, will
remedy this. But far the most usual cause is
simple over-feeding. A little careful investiga-
tion will find what is in fault, and that will
indicate the appropriate remedy. Want of shell
material is far less common than it used to be ;
over-feedingor over-stimulation probably more so.

Of the other kinds of abnormal eggs the very
small ones, only containing albumen, need seldom
occasion any anxiety. They usually occur at
or near the end of a batch of eggs, and merely
show that the ovary is exhausting its supply ol
ova and yolks a little before the secreting parts
of the oviduct arequite ready to suspend business.
Neither need an occasional large double-yolked
egg cause concern, as it may be due to a hen
occasionally "holding up " one ovum till another
is also ready. But any frequent occurrence of
such eggs is a proof of over-stimulation, and
should be met by a little cooling medicine, or less
meatj or more green food ; not, however, over-
doing any such changes if things on the whole
look pretty well.

Eggs, Spots in. — Small spots of blood are
occasionally found in eggs. They may occur
in the yolk, which means a slight haemorrhage
in the ovary, or in the white, which locates it
in the oviduct. An odd instance or two means
little, and in fact can seldom be identified ;
but a series at the breakfast-table points to a
definite inflammatory condition, caused usually
by condiments, or too much meat, or consti-
pation. The remedy is obvious. Black spots
are more rare, and may mean an early stage
of gangrenous ovary, which has once or twice
occurred in America in epidemic form, and is
probably due to bacteria. For this reason,
whenever such occurs the bird should if pos-
sible be separated, and carefully treated by
herself till it is seen whether the spots cease.

6o8

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

Enteritis, Contagions. — Simple enteritis or in-
flammation of the bowels is sometimes found in
poultry on post-mortem examination, and may,
of course, occur in them from irritating food, as
in other animals ; but they can stand more than
most creatures in the way of diet, and it is very
uncommon, and not very distinct in symptoms
from other complaints during life. Most cases
found have occurred from corrosive /i:?wOT«(q. v.),
such as arsenic, phosphorus, or unslaked lime.
But there is a highly contagious form of enteritis
of which destructive outbreaks have occurred on
several occasions, and which has been described
by Dr. Klein. '^ Being called in, he states, to
investigate a contagious malady from which 400
birds had died on a poultry farm at Orpington
between March 1888 and March 1889, he found
a clearly marked disease entirely distinct from
cholera in several obvious respects, though there
was some general resemblance in others, so that
the complaint appears to have been observed in
America and confounded with cholera on several
occasions years before. As already described on
page 9, on the farm attacked four or five hundred
birds had been kept on two acres of land. The
fowls did not appear ill till twenty-four or thirty-
six hours before death, but from his experiments
in feeding and inoculating the poison, these
earliest symptoms do not appear to occur until
three or four days after the first actual infection.
The birds become inert, but not sleepy as in
cholera ; and the diarrhoea, which is the
clearest outward symptom, is yellow, or the
colour of thin mustard, instead of being
greenish or white. Great thirst is always pre-
sent, with often dark comb, staggering, and
ruffled plumage. Post-mortem examination
showed that the spleen and liver were greatly
enlarged and softened, the heart filled with
stagnant blood, and the intestines inflamed ;
and the evacuations, intestines, blood, and much
of the above structures swarmed with a bacillus,
which could be cultivated by the usual bacterio-
logical methods on gelatine or in broth, and
when so cultivated, reproduced the disease by
inoculation into healthy fowls. The rapid spread
of the contagion was obviously accounted for by
the fowls eating grass or other food contamin-
ated by the evacuations of diseased individuals.
Thus the disease is readily communicated, and
in point of fact outbreaks due to imported birds
have been observed in Ireland and elsewhere.

No treatment was found to cure birds once
attacked ; and although more recently we have
reason to believe that some genuine cases have

* " The Etiology and Pathology of Grouse Disease, Fowl
Enteritis, and some other Diseases Affecting Birds." By E.
Klein, M.D., F.R.S. London : Macmiilans.

been pulled through, the disease is so fatal, and
so easily spread by fowls apparently well, that
we do not think direct treatment desirable, even
if such results should be confirmed.* Effort
should rather be directed to stamp out the
epidemic, by instantly separating all diseased
and suspected birds, and removing the others to
clean ground ; watching these carefully, and re-
moving at once every fresh one that is noticed
with thirst and fluid diarrhoea ; cremating all
dead bodies ; and disinfecting the runs with
quicklime, afterwards dug into the ground, and
leaving them empty for some time.

The next thing is to protect the remainder.
Terrible as this disease is in its effects, an un-
justifiable use has been made of it by several
writers who seem more really anxious to oppose
poultry-farming than to give useful information.
Fowl enteritis is not the necessary result of
even over-crowding, since it never appeared in
many cases we know of where crowding had
long been worse than even on this farm at
Orpington ; and on the other hand, it has been
introduced by infected birds and proved ruinous,
where there was no crowding at all, as in
Ireland. Those who so greedily seized upon it
as a mere argument to serve their purpose, have
(so far as we have noticed) carefully abstained
from stating that Dr. Klein succeeded in pre-
paring 2, protective anti-toxin or vaccine. Dr. Klein
grew his cultures of the bacillus in faintly alkaline
broth kept at 35° to 37° C (95° to qS'' F). He
heated some of this culture to 55° C (131° F) for
fifteen minutes, and then injected 5 cubic centi-
metres of the preparation into eight healthy
birds All of these were quiet and off their feed
by the sixth to the eighth day, but had no
diarrhoea ; and in a {&\'^ days apparently re-
covered. They were then inoculated with the
virulent culture, with two untreated fowls to check
or "control" the experiment. The two controls
both died ; and one of the inoculated also died
with enlarged spleen and showed bacilli ; but
the other seven were unaffected. This being
not quite successful, a virulent culture was next
similarly heated for twenty minutes, and 5 c.c.
again injected into eight healthy fowls. All
were quiet and off food on the sixth and seventh
days, but had no diarrhoea, and by the tenth

* Up to the time of writing we have been unable to obtain
such definite information as we could wish, either as to the
results or the treatment ; it is not, indeed, often that experiments
can be made. In one case we believe the treatment was the
administration of I drop Calvert's No. 4 carbolic acid every
six hours, with chlorodyne, raw eggs, and tonics. Probably
greater success might be obtained by the administration of
creofoim, a compound of formaldehyde and creosote. This
latter is a new drug, neither poisonous nor irritating, which may
prove useful in many intestinal complaints. It is insoluble in
water, but can be given in brandy.

DISEASES OF POULTRY.

009

day they appeared well. They and two more
controls were then infected ; the two untreated
controls died on the seventh day as usual from
typical enteritis, but the others remained per-
fectly well. This then is Dr. Klein's preventive
vaccine, which can be prepared from these par-
ticulars by any competent bacteriologist, and
disarms this fatal disease of much of its terror.
A broth culture for preparing it should be recent,
and only needs to be incubated from twenty-four
to forty-eight hours.

Favtis. — This formidable disease was at one
time, and still is by some writers, treated as if
only a severer degree of " white-comb," from
which it is entirely distinct. It is caused by a
microscopic vegetable parasite or fungus, on
account of which origin it may attack the most
healthy fowls, and is highly contagious. The
same fungus is known to attack man, dogs, cats,
mice, rabbits, and horses ; and one severe out-
break reported to us lately was probably due
originally to an infected pony in an orchard
rubbing itself against the trees. The fungus is
;iamed Achorio)i schotilcinii, and is one of the
contagions most easy of any to observe under
a microscope, in spite of its minuteness. If a
particle of one of the scabs be taken, moistened
with dilute acetic acid, and crushed on a micro-
scopic glass slip, a power of x 500 or even less
will show distinctly a quantity of thread-like
bodies, or mycelium, in which are developed
spores, which also abound in a detached form.
No microscopist can miss so much as this ; and
more careful examination will show that the
fungus even penetrates the shafts of the feathers
in severe cases. The disease has lately become
very common, and for some reason Anconas
have appeared to be specially subject to it —
perhaps from their fighting proclivities. At one
of the largest shows in 1901 we noticed the
disease as next predominating in the Buff
Orpingtons, and of these two breeds there were
numerous cases at this one show. Unless
allowed to become very bad, leading to loss of
feathers on the head and down part of the neck,
the general health seems but little affected, and
the fowls lay as usual ; but in severe cases the
health fails and the bird dies of weakness. The
first symptoms usually noticed are small white
or yellowish spots or papules on the comb,
which have a thin scale or crust. These crusts
seem to extend, rather raised at the edge and
lower in the centre like a shallow cup ; they also
multiply and run together. When removed,
the skin underneath is red and excoriated. If
neglected, the eruption extends to the head and
down the neck, one of the little cups often sur-
rounding a feather, or the hole where the feather

once grew, and even the region of the vent may
be invaded. Birds allowed to become so bad as
this usually die of debility, and are difficult if
not impossible to cure ; but while confined to
the comb the disease may be successfully
treated.

For successful treatment, and impunity in
handling it, the nature of the disease must be
borne in mind. Being a vegetable fungus, many
of the usual insecticides are of little or no use ;
also it should not be forgotten that the invisible
spores are being detached as dust and floating
about, and if they reach any scratch or abrasion
on the hands may attack them ; this has several
times happened. They do not appear capable
of rooting themselves on sound and healthy
skin, but the least scratch on a bird's comb, in
an infested yard, will probably be at once
infected, the whole scratch being marked by
diseased growth in a day or two. Hence two
cockerels which have fought will quickly both
develop the disease if it exists near them, and
there is reason to believe that even a flea-bite or
wound from a tick may give footing to the germ.
For local treatment we have several resources,
all the following having proved effectual, but
it may be as well to say that carbolic acid is
unsuitable, as enough of it to be effective would
be absorbed into the system, and prove poison-
ous. First of all, as we have seen above
that dilute acetic acid softens and breaks up the
growth, we may wash the affected parts with
vinegar, and after drying off that, strong brine
or solution of nitre in water will kill a great deal
of the fungus : this treatment followed up has
mastered several outbreaks. Another applica-
tion which has proved effectual is tar and
sulphur, provided the way has been first opened
to the spores by either the vinegar or a good
wash with hot water and soft soap. The most
powerful dressing is corrosive sublimate, strength
I in 1,000, but it must be remembered that this
is a strong poison, and in water almost tasteless.
For these reasons it should be dissolved not in
water, but in methylated spirit, applying with
a brush to all the affected places night and
morning at first, and later on once a day.
Another very powerful dressing is solution
of resorcin, 40 grains in an ounce of water.
With any of the applications, a wash with
vinegar should be given occasionally, as this
increases their effect for the reason stated above.
The most rigid cleanliness, burning of all matter
removed, and for the birds themselves good food
and tonics, should not be forgotten.

Fcather-catiiig. — Fowls in small space espe-
cially, but sometimes in other circumstances,
often develop the deplorable habit of devouring

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

each other's plumage, plucking out the feathers
even till blood flows. Some of the varieties
appear more subject to it than others. Causes
and remedies are various. There is no doubt
that insect vermin are often the cause, the birds
plucking their own feathers from irritation, or
seeing them crawl on others, and pecking at
them, and some writers state that this is always
the cause. That is not so ; as we have re-
peatedly been consulted where the conditions
were of the best and the strictest scrutiny could
find nothing of the kind ; in these cases there
is obviously an appetite that craves for some-
thing not found in the dietary. Moreover, we
must place in the same category the habit of
pecking at the comb and face, in which case
almost invariably the hens alone are guilty,
and the cock remains unmoved, almost as if
he liked it, though his comb and wattles are
being torn to pieces. But when unchecked for
a time the habit becomes an inveterate vice,
very hard to cure. Naturally various remedies
are occasionally effectual. Where animal food
has not been given, meat or cut bone has
stopped it sometimes ; in other cases plenty
of greens, especially lettuces, have succeeded.
The administration daily of lO grains sulphur
and 5 grains of chlorate of potash has in many
instances worked wonders ; and so has one-
eighth grain daily of acetate of morphia, with
bi-carbonate of potash in the water. It is worth
remarking that a bad case broke out in a
breeding-pen at the great New York show of
1902, and that the owner was assured by a
Canadian breeder it could be cured by salt
properly given. He accordingly purchased a
Bologna sausage, cut it up, salted it somewhat
further, and fed it to the birds. It is stated
positively that they ceased at once, and the
occurrence seems worth recording, though we
have never known any particular treatment
always successful. Another treatment is the
administration of sulphuret of lime, which has
been repeatedly stated in Poultry to be very
successful. It is prepared as follows : Put three
or four lumps of fresh burnt lime, the size of
eggs, into an iron pot, slack the lime with
boiling water, then stir into the lime about
6 ozs. of flowers of sulphur, add gradually two
quarts of boiling water, stirring all the time ;
then boil gently for an hour or so, pour off"
the clear liquid (which will be the colour of
dark brandy), bottle and cork well. A second
boiling may be made with fresh water, but the
liquid will not be so strong. . A tablespoonful of
this liquid to every six hens, put into the water
used for mixing the meal, is the best way to
give it. Given daily, or twice a week, it is

stated that this preparation wil! keep the fowls'
plumage in good condition, and soon put a
stop to feather-eating. The mixture should be
kept away from the dwelling-house, otherwise
every time the cork is removed from the bottle
the whole house will be filled with the sulphuric
vapour given off from the liquid. Full bottles
not in present use should be well corked and
sealed, and kept in a cool place. If vermin
are found, that of course must have attention.
Other measures should be taken of a more
general character. Any bird specially attacked
must be secluded ; and so also any special
culprit, before she has finally corrupted all the
rest. The numbers must be reduced in proper
proportion to the space ; and when this is con-
fined, care must be taken to provide occupation,
as suggested in earlier chapters, for it is largely
idleness in confinement that has to be com-
batted. The birds should further be made
nauseous to each other, by drenching their
plumage with either Jeyes' Fluid, or Wright's
Liquor Carbonis diluted with two parts water,
or a strong solution of quassia in water,
and applying carbolated vaseline freely to the
bare places, which will also promote re-growth.
Also the edges of both mandibles should be
filed away at the tips, so that for an eighth
of an inch back they do not quite close : the
quick need not and should not be touched, or
the bird could not peck, but when properly
done it can pick up corn, while unable to get
hold of a feather. Some hens appear quite
incurable, being then utterly useless except
for exhibition ; but intelligent use of one or
the other of these methods will in most cases
be successful.

Fi-actures. — A fracture of the shank can
generally be treated quite satisfactorily, placing
the bones in position, and applying a splint
by wrapping around some soft brown paper
saturated with white of egg, which stiffens as
the albumen dries. A broken wing is not so
easy to manage, and little can be done beyond
getting the bones in proper position as nearly
as possible, and then tying the quill feathers
together to prevent movement as far as
possible. The result is very seldom perfect
in the case of a wing, but a valuable bird may
in this way be often preserved for breeding.

Frost-bite. — This is not very uncommon,
especially in the north. The comb really turns
pale first, but is seldom noticed till the edges
become dusky or livid, or finally black, and as
a rule the health seems little affected, though
part or the whole of comb and wattles may
drop off". If the first stages were noticed the
best treatment would be, as usual with our-

DISEASES OF POULTRY.

6ii

selves, sharp friction with snow or ice-cold
water, but the time for that is usually past
when observed. In the United States, where
this accident is more frequent and more severe,
the best recommended remedy is lard 2 ozs.,
quinine i oz., kerosene 3 ozs., melting and incor-
porating all together. Gentle friction with this
is said to cure even bad cases, if not left till
altogether too late. Others use vaseline 5
drachms, glycerine 2 drachms, spirit of tur-
pentine i drachm. Frost-bite may be largely
prevented by well greasing all over the comb
and wattles every day in very frosty weather.

Gapes. — The disease well described by this
name carries off hundreds of chickens and very
young birds in England, and is still more destruc-
tive in France and America. Every chicken
which opens its mouth and gapes, has not how-
ever got the " gapes " : such an action may be
seen in healthy birds. The real disease is most
common in England from two to six weeks
old, but rnay occur at a week, or after several
months, and is shown not only by the frequent
gaping, but by the bird appearing also unwell,
coughing and sneezing occasionally (in which
process the worm may often be seen to be
coughed up), getting weak, rough in feather,
and often standing with closed eyes. When
badly affected, a few die from suffocation, but
more from weakness and exhaustion, as the
worms prey upon the juices as well as obstruct
breathing. The disease is as destructive
amongst pheasants as poultry, also among
other birds. It is caused by a small reddish
worm now known as Synganius tradiealis, the
male and female of which are almost always
found together in conjugation in the form of the
letter Y, the main stem being the female and
varying from half an inch to as much as
i^ inches long, the attached male about one-
fifth of an inch. The worm attaches itself
to the surface of the trachea or windpipe by
both its mouths, or both tips of the Y. Out of
hundreds of specimens found and extracted,
we should estimate that not 10 per cent, were
single or uncopulated, and it is likely enough
that even of these the male had adhered by its
own mouth to the chicken, and been torn off.
The greatest number we have ever known in
one bird was thirty-five worms, or pairs. The
disease was once believed to be only one of
chickens or very young birds, an opinion which
we formerly shared ; but as we have since found
many specimens in full-grown fowls, and as the
larger and stronger chickens attacked often
recover without treatment, the truth appears
to be that such birds can endure a moderate
number of these parasites without serious

suffering, until they have run their course and
been ejected.

The eggs of the gape-worm do not exceed
2-joth of an inch in diameter, and there are
many thousands in the body of one female.
They are not laid, but liberated by the disinte-
gration of her body, each egg containing when
mature a small white embryo ; and it was
found by M. Megnin that these never hatch
within the pa}-e?it, however mature, but will do
so and liberate the embryo wherever they have
moisture and a heat of not less than 68 ° or 70^ F.
Hence they will hatch in damp earth or tepid
water, and he kept some alive in water alone
at the requisite temperature. There is no doubt
that such polluted warm water will communi-
cate gapes, the embryo commencing to grow
whenever it reaches the trachea of a chicken ; and
possibly the egg itself may hatch there, though
all known facts appear to negative the transmis-
sion of gapes by swallowed eggs alone. Hence
Megnin concluded that no intermediate host
is concerned in an outbreak of gapes. Others
have affirmed the same, and a leaflet issued
by the Board of Agriculture in 1901, after
alluding to statements made in The Illustrated
Book of Poultry thirty years ago, and repeated
presently, concerning the probable connection
between gapes and insect vermin, affirms,
" Needless to say there is no connection what-
ever." To ignore a large quantity of positive
evidence on the ground cited, does not exhibit
so much the superior scientific knowledge
evidently supposed, as an ignorant dogmatism
which under pseudo-scientific pretences has done
so much harm in many cases besides this, and
would for instance have prevented the recogni-
tion of vaccination for small-pox. The fact
proved is simply that the life-cycle of the
worm requires no real " host " for any stage of
its development ; but whether it does not
practically depend jtpon some carrier or bearer
in the majority of outbreaks, is quite another
thing, and there are further facts also known
which make this a very practical question,
(i) It is known that the eggs are often found
in large numbers in the digestive canal of
both the large and smaller earthworms : we
have seen many such under the microscope,
and in a few cases in summer free embryos, but
these latter have never appeared to us to show
any growth whilst in the worms. (2) They
have also been found in and upon small
molluscs in water. (3) It has been proved
that infected earthworms fed to chickens may
produce gapes : but we could never obtain
enough infected molluscs to test that matter,
which is worth investigation. (4) The most

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

remarkable facts, however, are the following :
Whole worms coughed up are eaten by young
chickens most eagerly, and every worm con-
tains, as already stated, many thousands of the
ova ; but in clean, healthy chickens never but very
few worms, and often none at all, can be found
after this in the trachea, if the chicken be kept
apart ! It looks as if the fresh worms and their
ova passed through the digestive canal, most
of the ova being voided unhatched ; or, in other
words, a certain time seems needed for maturing.
Dr. Salmon states as the result of experiment
that ten to fifteen worms (containing many
thousands of eggs) have been fed to a single
chicken, with the result that only four or five
worms at the utmost ever appeared in the
trachea ; and he accordingly acutely remarks,
in reference to the path of the parasites from
the digestive canal to the trachea, that " no
doubt the path is a difficult and dangerous one
for them." Still later Dr. Francis A. Winder,
of Glasnevin, co. Dublin, made experiments, of
which he has kindly given us some details
(besides the general results stated in an article
in the Medical Press, of Feb. I2, IQ02). In
June, igoi.he penned a male and female chicken
a month old, and on June 7 gave the male two
worms ; on June 10 the female was given two
worms; on June 20 four worms were crushed
and mixed with food, all which was eaten ; and
on June 27 worms were placed in the drinking
water, which was left unchanged for a week.
Both remained perfectly healthy ; the cockerel
being killed and eaten at Christmas, and the
pullet being alive and laying in March, 1902.
It is clear that fresh worms and ova can be
eaten with safety, and pass through the digestive
canal to the vent unhatched. It is well estab-
lished that in the case of the thread -worm
(Oxyuris vermicularis) children re-infect them-
selves by scratching alternately at the anus and
the nostrils. And these later researches seem
to make it probable that where a chicken is
infested with insects, which can range over its
body freely, and many of which insects can be
seen to resort occasionally to the nostrils, either
for moisture or some other purpose, ova may
become attached to them in the neighbourhood
of the vent, and, after thus spending sufficient
time to ripen, or perhaps even hatch, be con-
veyed from that region, in a state ready for
growth, to those portals of the trachea. It
appears to be established that in sufficiently
warm, damp seasons the ova will also mature,
probably into embryos, on the damp grass, and
so infect the chickens ; but all the facts seem
to render necessary some such course and means
of conveyance as here supposed.

This brings us to treatment, and has been
given as bearing upon one method which has
been so well proved, that practical men will
hesitate to sneer at it. About 1865 the late
Mr. Halsted, of New York State, found on
his chicks some large insects — apparently ticks,
though he figures a louse — ranging from two
to a dozen, and whose heads were embedded in
the skin. He cleared one brood assiduously,
but not the others. That season he had gapes
badly, losing all or part of the other broods,
but not one chick of the brood he had cleared.
Picking was tedious, however, and Mr. Halsted
compounded the following ointment, except
that we have modified it for the official mer-
curial ointment of the British Pharmacopoeia : —

Mercurial ointment i oz.

Sulphur ... ... 3 „

Crude petroleum ... ... ... J ,,

Lard .. 2 „

This he applied to the heads of the young
chicks when putting them out (sparingly, or
mercurial poisoning would be produced), and
afterwards he never lost a chicken of those so
treated. Other experience in America cor-
roborated this. Not only so, but after we had
published this treatment, breeder after breeder
testified to its success in the Live Stock Journal,
particularly during the widespread epidemics
of iSSoand 1881. With only a few it failed, and
there chiefly through poisoning by carelessness
in application. Facts of this kind are not set
aside by sneers, and the practical breeder who
finds his yard in danger will be slow to neglect
a precaution which is so easy, and will, at all
events, benefit his young stock in other ways.
It is significant in the same direction that gapes
has been found much less severe where chicks
have been hatched and reared artificially in
detached broods.

When the disease has actually broken out
there are various remedies. As a preventive
for other broods which may be coming on,
camphor in the water has undoubtedly some
efficacy, and every vessel should be weekly
scalded. The old-fashioned cure was to strip
a small quill-feather, all but a small tuft at the
point, and (moistening it in turpentine or not)
introduce it into the trachea, turn it round, and
withdraw it with the worms. This is eftectual,
but requires care to prevent lacerating the wind-
pipe or causing suffocation. In this way thirty
worms have been successfully extracted from one
chicken. A very much better method is to take
two straight hairs from a horse's tail, laid together,
tie a knot on the end of the pair, and cut off the
ends close to the knot. This is passed straight
{i.e. without twisting) down the windpipe as far

DISEASES OF POULTRY.

613

as it will go without bending, then twisted between
the finger and thumb and drawn out. A trial
or two may miss, but usually five or six attempts
will bring up four or five worms, and the hairs
inserted in this way, without twisting, do not
seem to hurt the chicks, and are used with the
greatest facility. The bringing up of even from
four to ten worms, and the failure of more to
come after a blank trial or two, may usually
be reckoned as a cure. Another method of
individual treatment is to get some carbolic
acid (which must be of the clear or white
quality), and placing some in an iron spoon or
saucer, hold it over a lamp. Dense white fumes
will arise, in which the chicken's head is to be
immersed till nearly suffocated ; or if a number
have to be treated the wliole may be confined
in a box and fumigated at once ; being, how-
ever, carefully watched through a hole in the
box covered by a piece of glass. For, while
this treatment is unfailing, it is a ticklish opera-
tion, since the worms have to be killed without
quite killing the chickens, which is very easily
done beside. There are other methods of a
more general character. M. Mdgnin proved
repeatedly that to substitute an infusion of
garlic for water, and add fine-chopped garlic or
onions in the food, will check the complaint and
kill the worms. He has also tried, with marked
success, dissolving in the water (to kill all worms
that may find their way there) i part in 100
of salicylate of soda, and dosing each pheasant
with jh grains of yellow gentian and 7^ grains
of asafcetida — large fowls will need more.
Only vermifuges which, like these, have a
strong odour can kill parasites which inhabit
the air-passages rather than the digestive canal ;
but there is good evidence of the success of this
treatment in pheasant preserves which had been
all but exterminated by gapes. An English
" patent" taken out by Mr. J. H. Clark, a game-
keeper, is very similar. He takes and intimately
compounds the following : —

Powdered quicklime ... ... i lb.

Powdered sulphur ... ... \ „

Tincture of asafcetida ... i oz.

Arsenious acid (white arsenic) 1 drachm.

Oil of thyme, or oil of cummin i oz.

This is kept in a close-stoppered bottle, to
prevent slaking of the lime or evaporation of
the volatile constituents. When required two
or three tablespoonfuls are placed in a depres-
sion in the centre of a coop in which the
chickens are confined, and then a sharp blast
from the nose of a bellows blows it all up into
the air, filling the coop and entering the nostrils
of the birds. It is said that one application
is generally effectual, but if not that two, or

at most three, at intervals of a day, are always
so. We should be disposed to omit the arsenic.
The advertised preparations known as "Kalyde"
and " Camlin " are used in a similar way, and
are well reported upon ; even powdered air-
slaked lime is fairly effectual. A very im-
portant point is, when worms are extracted, to
do this on a clean sheet of paper and burn
every one ; and to burn, not merely bury, the
body of every bird that dies of gapes.

Gout. — This may be distinguished from mere
leg-weakness in young birds by evident pain as
well as weakness, and generally by some heat and
swelling of the principal joints, and sometimes of
the feet. From rheumatism it is known by want
of connection with cold and wet. A bird so
affected should not be bred from. The treat-
ment will be stimulating liniment to the joints:
internally give a grain of calomel at night, and
20 grains of Epsom salts next morning, and
after that i grain colchicum extract or 10 drops
colchicum wine every day for about ten days.

Joint Disease. — Dr. Klein found cases both
amongst game birds and chickens, in which a
disease, commencing with lameness, proceeded
until the bones were found softened, and some-
times broken, while the hock-joint became an
open wound. A writer noted for his hostility to
rearing poultry in large numbers has confounded
this disease with " cramp " in chickens, stating
that attempts to cure cramp are " worse than
useless," a statement that speaks for itself.
This disease, however, really is a hopeless one,
the bones and joints being practically eaten
away and necrosed by bacteria. If ever the
bones of young chickens are found really
softened, much more with any open wound, the
birds should be destroyed and burnt. It is
fortunate that, though destructive whenever it
appears, this disease is rare.

Leg Weakness. — This is distinguished from
other forms of lameness by attacking almost
exclusively cockerels as they begin to approach
full size, and especially those rather long in
leg, while in all other respects the birds appear
in perfect health. The causes are length of
limb and too fast growth. The use of dry
bone-meal is to a considerable extent a preven-
tive. It can generally be cured if taken in
time by leaving off all condiments and (for a
time) animal food, and giving the following
pill :—

Strychnine... ... ... i grain.

Citrate of iron i drachm.

Phosphate of lime ... i „

Quinine di-sulphate ... 15 grains.

Make 30 pills. One twice to three times a day.

Mr. Cobb advises colchicum, but this is only

6i4

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

of use when tlie lameness has the character of
gout iq.v.), and is a somewhat dangerous
medicine to administer freely.

Liver Disease. — Of late years persistent and
early in-breeding, combined with high feeding,
and want of exercise, and the injudicious use of
condiments, have caused a great increase in
cases of disordered liver amongst poultry, which,
however, differ much in symptoms, nature, and
seriousness. Poultry highly fed in small yards,
during summer, unless adequately shaded and
plentifully supplied with fresh green food, are very
liable to gradual enlargement or hypertrophy of
ihe liver. The symptoms are not very definite,
consisting chiefly of sluggishness in motion and
appetite, and a tendency to somewhat yellow
evacuations. The condition, when once fully
set up, cannot be cured, but may be kept in
check by shade, a more spare diet, green food,
and an occasional dose of salts or carbonate of
potash. Congestion is due to very similar
causes, and the symptoms are similar, but more
sudden and severe, and more evidently bilious,
sometimes reaching to a distinct yellow shade
about the face. There may be lameness, as in
the next more severe stage. Maize causes
many cases. The treatment, which in spite of
the greater severity is more hopeful in this case,
owing to its more sudden onset, is a course of
saline purgatives, such as lo grains of potass-
bicarbonate and 6 of Epsom salts twice a day
for a few days, or alternated with 6 grains of
rhubarb ; or if the attack has seemed very
sudden, a grain of calomel first will be very
useful, to be followed by a little of the B.P.
dilute nitric acid in the water for a day or
two, afterwards giving the above salines. Actual
inflanunation of the liver is a disease of the
same class, but of an acute kind, and is
speedily followed by death unless the attack
can be relieved. The causes may be as
before, but in our experience exposure to wet
and cold, in conjunction with other causes tend-
ing to congestion, produces inflammation much
more frequently than heat does. There will be
.somewhat similar symptoms, but with evidently
more suffering, and especially the bird will show
tenderness or pain. The skin is almost always
yellow, and the evacuations yellow or tinged
with blood. The bird may seem too tender to
move about much, and very often there is lame-
ness, especially in the right leg ; if such lame-
ness accompanies other symptoms, the character
of the disease is nearly certain. Only energetic
treatment is of any avail. The bird is to be
held frequently over boiling water, when the
steam will relieve the pain and inflamma-
tion ; and half a grain each of calomel and

opium must be at once given, repeated after
four hours ; then lo drops of chlorodyne may be
given every four hours for two days. All water
to be acidulated with nitric acid as before, and
the bird kept quiet, and only allowed a small
quantity of bread and milk. If the urgent
symptoms disappear, careful diet and small
doses of salines, with iron tonic, will complete
the cure. None of these functional diseases,
though they may weaken the progeny, neces-
sarily impart any constitutional taint. But the
case is very different with scrofulous disease of the
liver, the most common development in poultry
of the tuberculous taint. To stamp it out is the
only remedy for this kind of liver disease, as
much as in the case of pulmonary consumption,
for both of which see paragraph on Tuberculosis.

Paralysis. — Loss of power to move may
occur suddenly or come on gradually, and be
either almost general, or confined to one set of
limbs or the legs. The cause may be rupture
of a blood-vessel on or in the brain, allying
it closely to apoplexy {q.v?^, and in such cases
known usually by the sudden onset ; similar
treatment will sometimes be successful. True
disease or injury of the nerves is hopeless, except
in two cases, (i) It may result from sudden
injury, as by a blow on the back from something
falling, or from rushing under a low perch, or
through the entrance-hole of the house ; in such
a case rest and quiet for a few days, painting
iodine tincture every day on the spot believed to
have been struck or bruised will often be followed
by recovery, being injury and not disease. (2)
The other case is that of a hen or pullet subjected
to excessive sexual intercourse, under which the
poor bird's nervous system entirely breaks down.
Such a case is often known by the back being
nearly stripped of feathers, as well as the legs
being paralysed. In this case seclusion and rest
for a while, with a little iron tonic and a tea-
spoonful of coca extract in half a pint of water,
generally cures ; but care must be taken to give
the male bird a greater number of mates, 01
to restrict his company to an hour or two daily.

Peritonitis. — Inflammation of the lining mem-
brane of the abdomen. Now and then caused
by injuries; more usually due to the escape of a
ruptured ovum, or egg, into the abdominal cavity,
and in a less acute degree by excessive straining
or over-stimulation of the reproductive organs,
in which way many cases are directly due to the
stimulating condiments so largely advertised.
As to symptoms, peritonitis may usually be sus-
pected whenever a hen in full laying, with bright
red comb, and with no previous illness, shows
evident pain and distress, but does not seem
egg-bound. Severe cases are practically hope-

DISEASES OF POULTRY.

6'5

less: those of the less severe type may often be
treated successfully by perfect quiet and the
administration of five drops of tincture of hyos-
cyamus three times a day for a few days, with a
little brandy occasionally. Steaming over boil-
ing water is also most useful, which can be done
gently by keeping the bird in an open basket,
and holding this over a hot can.

Pip. — This word was once popularly applied
to almost any disease ; later it became identified
with a hard and horny appendage at the tip of a
fowl's tongue. In common with other writers,
we formerly did not consider this as any definite
disease, but as the effect of a dry mouth when
the nostrils were obstructed, to be treated chiefly
with cooling medicine, and perhaps applying
honey and borax to the tongue. There are in
truth many such cases. Dr. Salmon believes
that there are others due to some inflammatory
affection, causing secretion which deposits and
dries at the edges of the tongue, the dry coating
and epidermis gradually separating from the
skin beneath. This may perhaps be the cause;
but whether so or not, our experience has, in
this matter as in some others, justified the
popular idea against would-be scientific sneers,
and convinced us that, although they are not
common, there are occasional cases of a real
epidemic, which causes death unless relieved, of
which this is the distinguishing symptom, and
with no "dry" mouth at all. Three outbreaks
in different yards have come under our notice,
and in two of them the scale at the tip of the
tongue was nearly as thick, and quite as hard, as
the nib of a quill pen, while the edges were
almost as sharp as a knife. The fatal results we
believe to be due to the soreness produced by
these keen edges quite preventing the fowl from
swallowing. It was unmistakably " about " in
these yards. If a fowl apparently well in the
main, is seen to pick up and then drop its corn,
the mouth should be examined. If such a hard
and sharp scale (very different from the ordinary
rather hard and sharp tip of a fowl's tongue) be
found, it should be removed by the thumb-nail,
and the spot dressed a few times with honey and
borax. Give soft food for a day or two, and
a couple of morning doses of 20 grains Epsom
salts, and the bird will speedily be well.

Pneumonia. — Inflammation of the lungs.
Besides the cough, which might hardly be dis-
tinguished from that of bronchitis, there will be
evident distress in breathing, like gasping or
panting, and generally considerable matter
coughed up from the mouth rather than the
nostrils : the bird spends much of the time lying
down. A good ear can detect " crepitation " if
brought in contact with the back. The patient

must be put in a warm place, and fed on a little
bread and milk only. Rub in a little turpentine
between the shoulders among the roots of the
feathers, or paint on some strong iodine liniment
as a counter-irritant ; and, if observed early, give
a tabloid or drop of B.P. tincture of aconite in
a spoonful of water every half-hour. Later, or
as another good alternative treatment, give two
drops of antimonial wine or ipecacuanha wine,
in water, every hour. If improvement sets in,
give only half as often. If the bird is very weak,
give brandy and e.^^. Very young chickens
reared artificially often succumb to pneumonia,
owing to coming from a far too hot and foul
brooder into cold air. The heat should at once
be reduced if this occurs ; but for those affected
special care, counter-irritation, and a little aconite
or medicated wine in their water, is all the
treatment such tiny creatures are capable of
undergoing.

Poisons. — Acute inflammation of either crop,
stomach, or intestines, or of all, is sometimes
caused in this way, and is rarely discovered till
too late for treatment. The most usual are the
following. I. Unslaked ///«<; may be eaten, when
used to disinfect runs. 2. Phosphorus may be
eaten from rat poison, or a dropped box of lucifers.
3. Arsenic may also be picked up from poison
laid about. The main symptom is obvious, acute
suffering, of rather sudden onset : when this is
observed, it should at once be considered whether
any of the foregoing have been accessible, and
treatment adopted accordingly, though usually
too late. Phosphorus can be smelt strongly.
For lime, give two large tablespoon fuls of oil,
and then linseed tea or gum-water. For phos-
phorus, avoid oil, which makes things worse, but
give thin cream of calcined magnesia, and then
white of egg. For arsenic, give calcined mag-
nesia freely, and a little later olive oil. Unless
discovered and treated promptly, it is better to
kill the poor birds.

Rlieumatisin. — This is to be distinguished
from mere weakness by pain, and from gout by
absence of swelling and heat ; also by pretty
evident connection with cold or wet, and by
affecting both se.xes and all ages. Affected
birds should not be bred from, the tendency
being hereditary. Treat by well rubbing in any
stimulating liniment, such as EUiman, or Jacob's
oil, or belladonna liniment, and put some salicin
in the water. If this fails, try rubbing in Chaul-
moogra oil, and give two drops of same oil three
times a day. Another useful treatment is 30
grains salts, followed by 10 grains each of
biqarbonate potass, iodide of potassium, and
salicylate of soda in half a pint of drinking
water, for a fortnight, painting the joints and

6i6

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

toes with tincture of iodine. As a general rule,
rheumatism is an indication for less meat and
more green food, for the last anyhow.

Roup, Catarrhal. — This differs from a mere
cold in being markedly contagious, and of course
introduced by contagion, though fowls crowded
into ill-ventilated houses contract it when others
do not, and in airy runs and houses the stronger
birds often escape when others do not. It
begins as catarrh or cold, and will have been
treated as such [q.v.) unless circumstances lead
to a belief from the first that the more serious
complaint has been introduced. The catarrh
resists simple treatment, soon becomes more
sticky, and acquires a bad smell, also increasing
from the eyes, which often become swollen or
closed, and with very obvious fever. Later the
discharge may become almost cheesy, and accu-
mulate in nostrils, eyes, and even throat, but
does not form a membrane in the latter as in
diphtheria. The disease assumes many phases
and forms, and in consequence there are many
widely difterent advertised remedies, of which it
may be said that every one can chronicle both
marked successes and dismal failures, according
as it happens to "hit" the special type or stage
for which it is adapted. The best general treat-
ment is, as soon as thickening and smell of the
discharge make the case clear, to make a mixture
of peroxide of hydrogen and water in equal
parts, with which spray (with an atomiser) or
syringe ©r swab the throat, nostrils, and eyes,
squeezing matter out first, several times a day.
Internally give first half a teaspoonful of Epsom
salts, and then the following pills : —

Balsam copaiba
Liquorice in powder
Piperine

I oz.

4 drachms.

I drachm.

With sufficient magnesia to make a mass.
Make above into sixty pills, giving one morning
and evening. The following may be kept as an
alternative ; there are cases in which each is
best : —

Copper sulphate
Cayenne
Hydrastin
Copaiba

.. 30 grains.

I drachm.
.. 30 grains.
.. 4 drachms.

Add magnesia q.s., and make sixty pills, to be
given as before. Both these prescriptions have
been well tested. We need scarcely insist upon
the importance of isolation and of thorough
disinfection of houses and runs with carbolic
acid and unslaked lime ; and convalescents should
be cleansed with either the hydrogen peroxide
or permanganate of potash solution up to the
very last, transferred to a clean pen from the
hospital for a few days before return, and only

turned out on a genial day. While birds can be
thus successfully treated, however, this is a
disease which, when it has been fully developed,
should in our opinion discard them from the
breeding pen. When cases apparently at first
of roup develop white or yellowish raised growths
upon the throat or inside the mouth, the disease
is shown to be diphtheria {q.v.).

Scaly Leg. — -This is the well-known name
for an unsightly coating of whitish scurf on the
shanks of fowls, sometimes so thick as to form
masses a quarter of an inch deep. In very severe
cases left untreated, the joints sometimes become
affected, the toes may drop off, and the bird die
from the drain upon the system. It is most
common in feather-legged Asiatics, in Cochins
and Silkies most of all, but not confined to these
This disgusting disease is now known to be due
to an itch-mite {Sarcoptes mutans), and is there-
fore very contagious, being often propagated
from a hen to her brood, but more commonly
from bird to bird. For this reason perches and
houses where it occurs should be well treated
with carbolic lime-wash, as well as dressing the
fowls, which can be cured if taken in reasonable
time. While cases are still mild it is sufficient
to give a good scrubbing twice a week with soap
and water, applying every night dilute sulphur
ointment, or any of the special ointments sold
by poultry medicine vendors, or a mixture of
one part petroleum oil and three parts olive 01
colza oil. In severe cases, where the scurf is
very thick, it is quicker to remove the raised and
loosened scales under which the insects burrow
This can be effected by applying with a brush a
thick dressing of soft soap, leaving this on fot
a night, and then standing the bird in hot water
and well scrubbing, rubbing, and pulling off the
scales, which will generally come pretty easily,
after which the shanks are dried and treated as
before ; but a bird should never be allowed to
reach a state to need this. Another excellent
after-application for such cases, and indeed for all
cases, is compounded by mixing half a pint of
petroleum oil, a pint of water, and half a pound
of soft soap, and simmering together on a hot
stove, taking care, of course, not to ignite the
petroleum. When cold this is bottled, and
applied with a stiff brush after shaking. Twice
a day of this mixture for a week, and once a day
for another week, is usually sufficient for a cure.
An anointing with this before moult, or with the
petroleum and oil, is very useful as a preventive
where there is any reason to fear this disease.

Skin Diseases. — Poultry are subject to
various forms of these, but not very commonly,
owing partly to the absence of sweat-glands
already referred to ; and they are not easily

DISEASES OF POULTRY.

617

distinguishable or very amenable to treatment,
for the simple reason of the birds being covered
by feathers. Those due to insects, with the
exception of scaly leg, are for this reason almost
hopeless to treat, as the whole surface cannot be
dealt with. Such are fortunately rare, but any
cases of such "mange" diseases are best stamped
out. Those more of a pustular or eczematous
character are more hopeful. It is almost im-
possible for any ordinary poultry-keeper — or,
indeed, anyone else — to find the distinctions
mentioned by some veterinarians, but most of
them answer to a little cooling medicine, rigid
cleanliness, ample green food of the dandelion
or lettuce tribe, and application of benzoated
zinc ointment.

Tuberculosis. — In-breeding and late breed-
ing, and confinement in close houses, have made
this destructive disease, due as is well known
now to the Bacillus tuberculosis, terribly com-
mon amongst fowls. It is chiefly found in the
lungs, where it becomes " consumption," or in
the liver, where it is the well-known chronic
form of liver disease. The first sign of the
former is cough, but the case is distinguished
from bronchitis, catarrh, roup, or pneumonia
by the more gradual onset of the cough, the
absence of any acute symptoms, and the
gradual wasting. Liver disease is generally
manifested by a gradual failure of appetite,
emaciation or " going light," and generally a
shrunken comb and dull look in the eyes ;
on post-mortem examination the liver is found
studded with whitish or yellowish cheesy nodules
or tubercles, which may amount to quite masses
of its substance. Tuberculosis in the liver is
especially grave in fowls, because the bacilli
often reach the oviduct, and hence may become
actually included in the white of the egg, and
perhaps its yolk, in which case the chicks will
be born tuberculous, a thing scarcely possible
except in birds.

Tuberculous fowls should never be bred
from, and are unfit for food. Some cases may
be apparently patched up, as it were, by removal
to airy surroundings, feeding on oatmeal, with
cod-liver oil and a little razu meat, and 5 to 10
grains daily of urea. But if such birds are
bred from, the penalty must be paid ; and as
there is no sacredness about their life, as in
the human race, the only sound policy is
resolute eradication.

Vent-gleet or Cloacitis. — This arises from
inflammation of the lower portion of the
passage. It probably begins by redness and
swelling, but the first symptom usually ob-
served is a discharge, first rather milky, but
soon offensive, which e.xcoriates the vent and

forms crusts. It always begins with a hen,
usually we believe from a broken egg or yolk
causing septic inflammation, but is propagated
in copulation, and hence may spread in a yard
or be imported with an infected male bird.
Any hen found with it should at once be
isolated, and the male bird carefully examined,
and if necessary also isolated and treated.
Give 30 grains Epsom salts, and twice a day
inject first a 4 per cent, solution of cocaine, and
immediately afterwards a solution of nitrate of
silver 4 grains to the ounce. The fifth day
commence a small copaiba capsule daily, and
inject acetate of lead, i drachm to the pint.
Feed rather low meanwhile, and dust any sore
places outside with iodoform or aristol. If not
well after two or three weeks, we would kill the
bird, as the disease is not quite free from danger ;
for if the operator should touch his eyes acci-
dentally before he has cleansed his hands, the
result might be a most violent inflammation.*

Vertigo. — This is due to pressure on the
brain, causing the bird to stagger or run round
and round. High feeding is generally in fault.
Quiet in the dark, with low feeding and 10
grains daily of Epsom salts, are often effectual,
while immediately the bird may have its head
held for a long time in a gentle stream of
cold water. A short exposure to cold would
cause temporary congestion, and only do harm ;
but continuance removes this effect, and is
more analogous to application of ice to the
head in brain fever.

Wattles, S'lVoHch. — This may occur from
injury, or from a bad state of health, especially in
large-wattled birds. When the skin is unbroken
and the swelling seems to contain no fluid, if
it is a bruise it should be bathed with hazeline
tincture ; if a swelling, painted with iodine.
Where there is much fluid the wattle should
be lanced at the lowest part of the bag, the
fluid evacuated, and its sac gently syringed
out with a warm solution of perchloride of iron,
10 grains to the ounce.

White Comb. — This name is only properly
applied to a comparatively mild ailment shown
by an apparent white powdering on the comb,
like flour or plaster of Paris, which sometimes
extends over the head and down the neck, and
causing more or less loss of feathers. It

* Many of the symptoms so closely resemble those of gonor-
ihoja, that identity has been suspected by some ; but we have
never been able to detect in the discharges, by any of the usual
microscopical methods, the true gonococcus. If any scientific
fancier should think he has identified this organism, we would
feel exceedingly obliged if he would forward to us, through the
publishers, a microscopical slide for examination, as the question
may have a wider bear:.".g than upon the immediate disease
before us.

6i8

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

appears generally due to dirt, or over-crowding
in small space, or want of green food. Appro-
priate treatment in any of these respects, with
iron tonic in the water, is necessary first of all,
with say 20 grains of Epsom salts to each bird,
followed by a pinch of sulphur in the food
every day for a week. The best local appli-
cations are carbolised vaseline to the comb and
other bare red appendages, and equal parts
of water and Wright's Liquor Carbonis- to the
head and neck if also affected. A far more
severe and highly contagious disease, marked
by scabs and crusts, is sometimes confounded
with this, but is totally different, being of
fungoid origin, and treated under Favus.

Worms. — A variety of these parasites infest
the intestines of fowls, and some of them
occasionally reach the oviduct, and may thus
be found even in the albumen of an egg. Such
an occurrence should always be followed by
treatment ; but the other usual symptoms, such
as wasting away, slow movement, etc., are so
common in quite other diseases also, that we
can seldom really diagnose worms unless they
are found whole or in portions in the droppings,
or else in the intestines of dead birds subjected
to post-mortem examination. The usual causes
arc probably foul ground or water, contami-
nated meat or other animal food, or neglect
to remove the manure. The best remedies, for
a good sized fowl, are 2 grains santonin, or
10 grains powdered areca nut, or either three
or four drops of the oil or ten or twelve drops
of the extract of male fern in salad oil. Pro-
fessor Woodroffe Hill advises as the besc
remedy and dose in his experience, i grain
santonin combined with 7 grains of areca nut.
Any of these should be given after three hours'
fast, followed by a similar time, and then by
a laxative dose of salts and warm mash only
for a day or two. All evacuations containing
worms should be carefully burnt.

Many other forms of disease, as already inti-
mated, are occasionally found in fowls when
examined post-mortem. Some of them are
due to small or microscopical parasites, vege-
table or animal ; indeed, some of the true mites
are occasionally found infesting the air-sacs, and
even the larger bronchi. Inflammation may be
found, from some cause, in almost any organ.
The kidneys and the reproductive organs are
found from time to time atrophied, or hypertro-
phied, or the subject of disease, due as a rule to
stimulating condiments, undue forcing with meat,
or sexual excess. But while these ailments may
be easily distinguished upon the post-mortem
examination, they can rarely be distinguished
with any certainty during life, and it would be

of no practical use to discuss them at length,
while few of them would repay treatment even
if known. We have dealt, we believe, with such
as are of really practical interest to the practical
poultry-keeper.

VERMIN AXn THIEVES.

Insect Vermin. — The combating of these has
been partially treated already at pages 53, q6>
but it is desirable to add here fuller details. They
consist mainly of fleas, lice, red mites, and ticks,
besides the leg mite treated above under the
head of scaly leg.

Fleas infest the houses, and especially the
nests, as much as they do the poultry. The
individual bird can be cleared at any time, for
the time, by a good dressing with Pyrethrum
insect powder, which also helps in a nest.
In powdering a fowl it is held by the legs
with the head downward, when the feathers fall
apart or separate, and the powder is readily
dredged in. Some like to give first a slight
spray of water to damp the roots of the feathers,
which retain the powder longer. Where it
can be obtained readily, a nest made largely
with leaves of common moor-fern or bracken
seldom has fleas ; and another good plan is
to use as a nest-egg one of the hollow white
perforated ones in which is a piece of sponge
soaked with eucalyptus oil. But the house must
be systematically treated with hot lime-wash and
carbolic two or three times yearly, and frequently
spraying the walls with some carbolic mixture,
uf which the following is cheap and effectual :
Boil half a pound of soft soap in three quarts of
water, and while still boiling hot agitate with it
a quart of the crude carbolic acid. Keep this
corked and labelled " Poison," and when a wash
is wanted mix a pint with a bucket of water,
and syringe with it freely. Another wash quite
as good is made by shaving up a pound of yellow
soap in three pints of boiling water, keeping hot
till all dissolved ; then remove from the fire
to avoid danger, add three pints of common
kerosene and a gill of crude carbolic acid, and
agitate briskly for fifteen minutes, which will
make a creamy emulsion. When well emulsified
add twelve quarts of weak soap solution and
mix well. This is to be sprayed freely over the
interior ; if twenty quarts suds are added instead
of twelve, it makes a very good dip or wash for
the birds. These mixtures are as good for mites
in the house or lice on the birds as lor fleas.

Lice on birds may be also treated, as mentioned
on page 96, either with insect powder or oil con-
taining a little paraffin. The birds may also be
dipped in the above dip, or in one made by
mi.xing about 2\ ounces of creolin to one gallon

VERMIN AND THIEVES.

619

of water, or may be touched here and there
under the wings, near the tail, and in other places
with sweet oil in which is mixed one part in
eight of either paraffin oil or oil of sassafras. A
more wholesale plan much used in America,
where this pest is serious owing to the numbers
kept, is to employ volatile liquid " lice-killers,"
of which many are advertised. A fair example
of them is naphthalene dissolved to saturation
in kerosene. This is often applied now and then
to the roosts ; but when a lot of chickens are to
be treated a dozen or so are put into a large box
without a cover, the bottom and sides being
painted with the "killer," and the whole covered
over with a coarse canvas lightly sprayed with
the solution. The canvas is necessary, that the
birds may have air enough to breathe. The\-
stay in the box to be penetrated by the fumes
for half an hour to an hour, and the process is
repeated three times at a week's interval, in
order to destroy the produce of the eggs or
nits. They sometimes have a slight looseness for
a day after treatment, but it passes off in a few
hours.

The red mite lives mainly in the crevices of
house and roost, coming out at night to feed on
the birds. It is naturally white, but becomes red
when fed with blood. The eggs are seen in
crevices, especially where ends of perches rest,
as white dust. All should be removable, and
the surfaces of such places washed daily with
kerosene, or still better the lice-killer above,
painting the perches themselves once a week ;
but fire must be specially guarded against. This
and frequent carbolic lime washing and removal
of manure will be effectual. The birds them-
selves may be partly protected by touching here
and there Vv-ith oil and paraffin as above, or by
the " dips " above given.

Ticks have been sufficiently dealt with at page
96. Touching with carbolised sweet oil is also
pretty effectual.

Cats. — The best methods of guarding against
these creatures have been mentioned at page 95.

Foxes. — In some localities these animals
are a very serious hindrance to poultry farming,
or indeed any other kind of poultry keeping.
Just in the very districts where this is most felt,
the killing of a fox is regarded as a crime,
socially at all events ; but where serious pecu-
niary interests are at stake, those who maintain
a sport should be willing to pay fair value for
the losses which it occasions, and where this
is not done reprisals in kind cannot be wondered
at. Short of this, there are several very effectual
precautions which may be taken ; and it is
curious that one or the other seems the best
deterrent in one district, and quite a different one

in some other, (i) A little asafoetida may be
sprinkled round the entrance to each house, and
about each gap in the hedge or fence where the
animals enter the field. The scent lasts well, and
the drug only needs resprinkling about once a
month. This has repeatedly proved effectual.
(2) Hang about six inches of iron chain in the
centre of the hole by which the fowls enter, from
the top. They will brush it aside: the fo.x dreads
a trap, being the most suspicious of animals.
Mr. T. C. Burnell vouches for the efficacy of this
plan. (3) Few foxes will cross even two feet of
wire netting, from the same dread of danger, and
they are still more deterred if it be roughly
brushed with tar now and then. (4) Bits of sack-
ing dipped in gas-tar and hung at intervals on
the hedge, will often protect the field thus
enclosed. (5) Another similar plan is to plant
short sticks or rods round the field, with hooks
about a foot from the ground, supporting any
rough cord well soaked in paraffin oil, and re-
dipped occasionally. (6) If the hole for entrance
is made at one corner of the house, and a sort of
tunnel be made to it along the side, from which
the birds turn in after walking about, i&v^ foxes
will venture, and a sprinkle of asafoetida increases
their dread. By day, of course, when the birds
are about, the best precaution is a dog at large
which has the proper animosity to " anything
with hair on't."

Hedgehogs. — It is only of late that the ravages
of hedgehogs have become generally known, their
attacks having been put down to rats or other
vermin. But recently a mass of evidence has
accumulated to the effect that the hedgehog
in the country frequently attacks fowls during
the night, generally seizing on the hinder parts
and eating away the entrails. In any case of this
kind the best plan is to employ a professed
hedgehog catcher.

Rats and Mice. — The former of these are often
most destructive amongst the stock, and the
latter to the food. Grain and meal should never
be kept in wooden receptacles, but in iron bins,
and never spilt about ; carelessness in this respect
is the principal attraction to the vermin.
Asphalt floors are seldom mined by rats,
especially if every hole is filled up with gas-tar
and ashes ; but when rats are known to be near,
it is worth while to lay inch-mesh netting under
the floor and a foot up the walls. When the
animals do abound there are various resources.
(i) Ferreting. This is very effective in ex-
perienced hands. (2) Poison. Phosphorus paste
is generally used, but means lingering torture,
and is dangerous to the poultry unless laid only
in the holes. If these last can all be located,
a plan often used in France is to stop all but one

620

THE BOOK OF POULTRY.

tight, and pour down that some bisulphide of
carbon, then stopping that also ; the vapour
asphyxiates them, but is explosive with a naked
h'ght. We do not like poisoned food in any case,
owing to the suffering involved ; but if it is used,
the best is probably quite dry plaster of Paris.
Some oatmeal should be put about, in small
quantity at first, till the rats have found it, and
eat more and more, noticing what quantity they
do eat, and only giving that. Then put same
quantity made up of half plaster, first dried on a
red-hot shovel over the fire. A dish of water
should be placed on the ground not very far off.
The plaster will cause inflammation and thirst,
and the water they will hasten to drink kills them
almost immediately, more quickly, at least, than
any other poisonous proceeding. The fowls
must be carefully kept away from it. (3) Traps.
The trap in two compartments known to iron-
mongers as the "Wonder" trap, is the best, if
used with patience. It should be fastened open
for a week or two, with plenty of bait. It is
a mistake and cause of failure to try to catch the
first one or two, which would be decoys to tempt
others in ; they should be allowed to run through
a week or two. Then, when a good catch is
made, they should be allowed impunity again for
a bit. A herring's head, or meat, or cheese will
do for bait, especially if scented with oil of
rhodium. Some toast stale bread and soak with
ale, putting some round the entrance, with the

idea that when intoxicated the rats lose their
cunning; at all events, this also appears to
answer very well, but the main thing is to let the
rats have a safe run through for a while every
now and then. Another good and most simple
trap for mice as well as rats is a smooth, round,
iron cask or bin, not less than two feet deep, with
some corn and meal and a little cheese in the
bottom, and something outside by which they
can climb up. They will get in, but cannot
get out, and may sometimes be found a dozen at
a time.

Weasels and Stoats. — These are troublesome
in some country districts. They are not disposed
to enter traps much, but are not really suspicious,
and can generally be trapped by hanging a dead
chicken or other bait from a hedge, about
eighteen inches from the ground, so that the
animal has to jump to reach it, and placing a
catch-trap underneath. The trap need not be
concealed in any way.

Thieves. — The best security against these
at night will be found in savage watch-dogs,
properly "wired." Stout galvanised wire is
fastened, where required, in fifty-yard lengths ; to
which a dog is tethered, so that the ring of the
chain slides along the wire. One dog thus
effectually commands a good range. Electric
alarms vhich give warning when a door is opened
at night, are easily arranged by any good electric
bell fitter.

^-^^W3^. J^^-^^^.^t' fl >^

v^^'"

INDEX.

Abortion of Eggs, 6f)2.

Acre, Number of Fowls per, 145.

Addled Eggs, 65.

African Geese, 592.

Age for Laying, 43.

of Breeding Stock, 193.

of Fowls, Jfarks of, 42.

Aged Fowls, Cooking, T07.
Air-cell, Size in Hatching Eggs, S4.
Albions, 299, 4S6.

Albumen, Function in Egg, 56.
Albuminoids in Food, 32, 34.

■ Best Way to Feed, 49.

Alexander, Sir Claud, on Asecl, 338.
AUantois of Hatching Chick, 58
America, Canned Eggs, 170.
Duck -farming in, 572.

Extent of Poultry Industry in,

169.

Fanciers and Farmers in, 17S.

Feeding of Poultry in, 38, 46.

Goose-fattening in, 592, 597.

■ Poultry Hcuses in, 28-30

Table Poultry in, 170.

Utility Points Preserved in, 17S.

Amherst, Hon. Sybil and Florence, on

Ivmbden Geese, 586.
Analyses of Foods, 33

of Poultry Manure, 146.

of Poultry Imports, 161

Anconas, 422.

• New Type, 425.

Old Style, 424.

Qualities of, 424.

Rosecomb, 427.

Standard for, 427.

Andalusians, 407.

- — Breeding, 409.

Characteristics of, 408.

■ OiT-colours in, 409.

Origin of, 407.

Standard for, 410.

AniUne Dyes in Colour-feeding, 208
Animal Pood, 49.

for Chicks, 94.

for Layers, 38.

Necessity of, 40.

Anti-toxin for Enteritis, 608.
Apoplexy, 602.
Appetite, Preserving, 44.
Ardenne Fowls, 482.
Artificial Brooding, 100.

Incubation, 67

Success of, S3.

Aseel, 336.

Standard for, 345.

Assisting Chicks in the Egg, 66.
Atkin.son, Herbert, on Old English

Game, 355.
Australia, Poultry in, 171.
Autumn, Layers for, 44.
Average of Laying Hens, 38, 149.
Aylesbury Ducks, 559

Baby Chickens, Business in, 156.
Bahama Pintail Ducks, 5S0.
Bakies, Scotch, 4S9.
Balancing a Dietary, 36
Jiantams, 507.

Barred Rock, 535.

Black Rosecombfd, 519.

Baoted, 526.

Brahma, 530.

Cuckoo, or Scotch Grey, 527

Frizzled, 529.

Game, 510.

Standard for, 51S.

Hamburgh, 534.

Houses and Runs for, 508.

Indian Game, 533.

Japanese, 529.

Malay, 531.

■ Nankin, 52S.

Pekin, 522.

Rearing and Exhibiting, 51:8.

Rumpless, 529.

Sebright, 520.

Spanish, 534.

Standards for, 535.

Training for Exhibition, "jog.

Variety, 519.

Various Minor Breeds, 535.

Washing, 509.

'White Rosecombed, 520.

Barbezieux Fowls, 471.

Barley as Food, 35. [309

Barred Rocks, Various Matings for,
Barring of Plymouth Rocks, 305, 307.
Baynes, Jlrs., and Intensive System,

vii.
Beans and Peas as Food, 34. [430.
Beldon, Late Mr. H., on Hamburghs,
Belgian Poultry, Breeds ot, 4S1.
Belgium, Eggs from, 161.
^ Fattening Industry in, iii.

KilHng Poultry in, 120.

• Poultry in, 168.

Bellamy, Mr. W., on Trussing Fowls,

142.
Binder, Arthur, on Duckwing Game.

368.
Biscuit Meal for Chickens, 92.
Black East Indian Ducks, 577.
Blue Madras Game, 343.
Board, Feeding Chickens on a, 93.
Body, Composition of the, 31.
Bolton Greys, 441.
Bone, Fresh, as Food, 36, 38.

and Combs, 199.

Bone-cutting Machines, 49.
Bone-dust for Chickens, 98.
Bonnemain's Eccalobion, 68.
Booted Bantams, 526.
Bourbourg Fowls, 472.

Bourlay, Mrs. Constance, on Anconas^

424.
Boyle's Incubator, 68

Boyle's Regulator, 72
Brabants, 4S3.

Bracken, T. B., on Campines, 476.
Brahmas, 257.

American Type, 274.

Changes in Judging 01, 265, 270

Characteristics of, 266.

Crosses of, 276.

. Dark, 262, 269.

. Light, 267.

Origin of, 257, 262.

QuaUties of, 27.^-

Standard for, 277.

Strains of, 263.

Types in, 264.

Bran as Food, 35, 'ij, 46.
Branford, Edgar, on Jfalays, 333.
Breast, A Good, 140.
Breastbone, Breaking the, 123.
Bredas or Gueldres, 481, 4S3.
Breeders, The Work of, 175, iSi.
Breeding Chart, Felch's, 1S6.

Factors in, 183.

Four Points usually in, 1S3.

from Best Necessary, 1S3.

■ Mistakes in, 1S2.

of Prize Poultry, igo.

Stock, Ages of, 193.

Value, 6.

Breeds, \'alue for Exhibition, 220.

Brent, W., on Indian Game, 341.

Prindley's Incubator, 68.

Broilers, 106, 141.

Broken Eggs when Hatching, 65.

Bronchitis, 602.

Brood, Hatching of a, 89.

Brooders for Chickens, 100.

Disinfecting, 105.

Management of, 104.

Number in, 105.

Types of, 10 1.

Brooke, Mr. C. E-, on Prices of Fowls,

137.
Brown, Edward, on Continental Breeds,

469, 481.

. on Duck-farming, 56S.

on Fattening Poultry, 107.

on Russian Geese, 594.

Bruges Fowl, The, 482.

Buckwheat as Food, 35.

Buff Colour, Breeding, 245, 296.

Building Poultry Houses, 17.

Bumble"- foot, },?,-, 603.

Bnrnell, T. C, on Dark Dorkings, 379.

Burnham, G. P., on Brahmas, 259.

Cabbage as Food, 49.

Cages for Fattening Fowls, 113, 133.

Call Ducks, 577.

Campain, Jliss, on Toulouse Geese, 590.

Campbell, Mrs. A., on Brahmas, 273.

on Silkies, 493.

Camphor in Water, 51, 612.

622

INDEX.

A77-

Campines, 476.

and Braekels, 47S.

Description, 47.S.

Exliibition, 4S0.

History, 478.

r\rating, 4S0.

Origin, 478.

Qualities, 479.

Silver and Golden,

Standard for, 4S0.

Canada, Eggs from, 161.
Geese, 593.

Poultry in, 170.

Canned Eggs, 170.
Cantelo's Incubator, 68.
Capons, 124; the Operation, 125.
Capsule Regulator, Hearson's, 70.

Defects of, j'^, 77.

Carbo-hydrates in Food, 32.

Carbon, Consumption and Excretion

of, 31.
Carbonuier's Incubator, 68.
Carolina Ducks, 57S.
Carswell, J., on Scotch Greys, 490.
Catarrh, 604.

Cats, Protection against, 95.
Cayenne Pepper in Colour Feeding, 206,

207.
Cayuga Ducks, 564.
Chalazae, The, 57.
Chick, Development of the, 58.
Chicken Pox, 603.

Pudding, 106.

Chickens and Cramp, 97.

and Diarrhoea, 96.

and Insect Vermin, 96.

Animal Food for, 94.

Colour of Newly-hatched, 204.

Coops for, 90.

Drafting into Lots, 204.

Dry Feeding ot, 104.

Fattening of, 107.

Feeding at Night, 94, 210.

Feeding on a Board, 93.

Flagging, 99.

Food for, 89, 92.

(ireen Food for, 92

(jrit for, 93.

Lean for Fattening,

Marking, 202.

Jlilk, 126.

Roosting, 205.

Shade for, 99.

Times of Feeding, 92.

AVater for, 95.

Weaning from Hen, 98.

Chicks Dead in Shell, 85.

Hatching, Assisting, 66.

Sale of Newly-hatched, i

Chilian Pintail Ducks, 580.
ChiUing of Eggs when Sitting, 64.
Chinese Geese, 592.

Chittagongs and Brahmas, 260, 262.
Chittiprats, 44;.
Cholera in Fowls, 603.

ill Geese, 597. [69.

Christy, Mr. T., and Hydro-Incubators,
" City Svstem," v.
Cleaning' Birds for Show, 21;.
Cleanliness in House and Run,

• in Shed. 19.

Climate and Size of Grass Run,

and Time of Hatching, 44

Clover as Food, 35, 38, 46.
Cochins. American, 252.

93-
1:1, 137

■-.6.

52.

Cochins, and the Poultry Fancy, 240.

and Vulture Hocks, 243, 252.

Black, 249.

Buff, 243.

Crosses of, 255.

Cuckoo, 252.

Mr. Sturgeon's Early, 241.

Partridge, 246.

■ Rearing, 254.

Silky, 253.

Standard for, 2;:;.

White, 251.

Cock, Dispensing with, 42, 60.
Cock-iighting, History of, 34S.

in India, 337.

Mains or Jlatches in, 351.

Origin of, 347.

Spurs for, 352.

the Real Cruelty of, 353.

Cockle-seed as Food, 48.

Cocks, Duration of Influence, ig6.

Feeding Brood, 44, 194.

Sulky, 196.

Cold or Catarrh, 604.

Cold Storage and Eggs, 164, 169.
Coloration, Laws of Animal, 207.
Colour Feeding, 206 ; Experiments,

207.
of Combs, 215.

of Ear-lobes, 213.

of Shanks, Keeping, 205.

Combs, Care of, 200, 212.

Colour of, 215, 218.

Exaggerated, 175, 17S.

Trimming of, 234.

Competitions, Laying, 179.
Condiments for Poultry, 198.
Condition and Feeding, 44, 48.
Conditioning for Exhibition, 211.
Consmnption {see Tuberculosis).
Continental (Miscellaneous) Breeds, 476.
Cook, W., and Black Orpingtons, 293.

and Buff Orpingtons, 295.

Cook, W. H., on Orpingtons, 299.
Cooling Eggs in Incubators, 8;.
Cooping Hens with Chickens, 92.
Coops for Chickens, 90.

Dry Floors for, 91.

Copper Colouring Birds, 207.
Cornish, Mr. V., on Erahmas, 257,

258.
Corridor Plan for Poultry Houses, 26.
Cossack (French) Fowls, 471.
Coucou de Malines, 48 1.

Standard for, 482.

Course of Breeding or Selection, 182,

183, 1S4.
Courtes Pattes, 470.
Cracked Eggs, Hatching, 6^.
Cramming Fowls, Systems of, 1 14.

by Machine, 116.

Cramp in Chickens, 97.

Creels, 429.

Cresswell, O. E., on Exhibition Fowls,

174.

on Silver-grey Dorkings, 382.

on White Dorkings, 385.

Crested Ducks, 564.

Crests of Houdans, 262, 464.

of Polish, 454, 456.

Preserving, 452.

Trimming, 459.

Crevecceurs, 465.

Standard for, 473.

Criticism, Press, 224

Cronibleholme, Rev. J., on Buff-laced
Wyandottes, 321.

• on Gold-laced Wyandottes, 320.

• on Silver Wyandottes, 316.

on Violette Wyandottes, 322.

on White Wyandottes, 323.

Crooked Toes, 200.
Crop-bound, Operation for, 604.
Crop, Soft or Swelled, 605.

Cross, Breeding Back from a, 187.
Crossing a Cause of Reversion, 1S2, 1S4.
Crowding, Mortality from, 23, 153.
Crushing Breast-bone, 123.
Cuca Extract for Nervous Debility, 220.
Cuckoo or Barred Marking, 305.
Custard for Chickens, 89.

Dandelions, Cultivation of, 93.

Dari as Food, 35.

Darwin, Charles, on Brahmas, 258.

on Reversion, 182.

Davies, Rev. A. C, on Langshans, 283.
Dead in Shell, Causes of Chicks, 58, 85.
Debility, 605.

Delicacy, Two Kinds of, 15.
Denmark, Eggs from, 161, 169.
Despatch for Exhibition, 218, 219.
Diarrhoea and D5'sentery, 605.

in Chickens, 96.

Dietaries, Balancing, 36.

Special, 38, 46.

Digestibility of Food, 33.
Diphtheria in Fowls, 605.
Diseases of Poultry, 601.

Dogs, Wiring them as Guards, 620.
Dominance, 12
Dominiques, American, 304. ■
Donald, J., and Indian Runner Ducks,

562.
Dorkings, 375.

Bumble-foot in, 387.

Combs in, 3S7.

Cuckoo, 38;.

Dark, 376. '

Fancy and Utility in, 175.

Origin of, 375.

Qualities of, 386.

Red, 381.

Silver-grey, 382.

Standard for, 390.

Vermin in, 381.

White, 384.

Double Mating, 179.

Causes of, 187.

Double-yolked Eggs, 56.
Douglas, John, on Dorkings, 376.

on Game Fowls, 361.

Drafting-out Chickens, 98.

Drakes, Change of Plumage in, 557.

Drentishe Fowl, 483

Drinking, Excessive, 5 i .
Dropping-board System, 19
Droppings, Removing, 52.
Dropsy in Fowls, 6116.
Dry-feeding of Chicks, 104.
Drj'ing Fowls after Washing, 216.
Du Mans Fowls, 470.
Du Mantes Fowls, 471.
Dubbing Game, 372.
Duck P^ggs, Hatching, 86.
Duck-farming in America, 572.

in England, 567.

Ducks, 557.

Aylesburv, :; ^9.

Bills of", 560.

INDEX.

Ducks, Black East Indian, 577.

Blue, ^6:.

CaU, 377.

Campbell, 566.

Carolina, 57S.

■ Cayuga, 364.

Continental, 566.

Crested, 564.

Duclair, 566

French, 576.

Indian Runner, 562.

Indian Spotted IJill, 581

Keel in, 559, 561, 564, 573.

Management of, 5 58.

Mandarin, 578.

Muscovy, 567.

Ornamental, 576.

Orpington, 565.

Pekin, 561.

Pintails, 580.

Rouen, 560.

Shieldrakes, 580.

Standards for, 581.

Teals, i;79.

■ Wliistling, :;8o.

Wild British, 557, 581.

Dumpies, Scotch, 489.
Dust-bath for Poultry, 21.
Dutch Every-day Layers, 429.
Dutch Fowls, 483.

Dyed Plumage at Shows, 234.

Shanks, 235.

Dysentery, 605.

Eat lobes. Care of the, 213.
Early Breeding, Evils of, 194.
Early-hatched Pullets, Merits of, 43.
Eating Eggs, Treatment of Hens, 61.
Eaton, F. R., on Sumatra Game, 501.
Economy in Food and Labour, 150.
Edwards, Miss X., on Babv Chickens.

156.
Egg, Development of the, 55, 58.

Protectors, 65.

Egg-bound, 607.
Egg-eating Habit, 61.
Egg-food for Chickens, 89.
Egg-ovens of Egypt, 67.
Egg-sales, Records of, 201.
Egg- testers, 66, 82, 83.
Egg-trade of Ireland, 163.

Foreign, 161.

Eggs, Addled, 65.

Breeding for. 53, 175.

British Supply, 163.

Canned, 170.

Chilled when Hatching, 65.

Cold Storage, 164, 169.

Collecting, ^i.

Constant Succession of, 44.

Cooling in Incubators, 81.

Duck, in Incubators, 86.

Feeding for, 38.

for Artificial Incubation, St, SS

for Sitting, Choice of, 61.

Packing, 62.

Imports into England, 161.

Increased Home Production, 162.

Marking, 54.

New Laid, 150

— Prices for, 162.

Number for a Sitting, 64.

Preserving, 60.

Purchase of, 191, 192.

Recognising Parentage of, 53.

Eggs, Resting, 62

Shape and Sex of, Ci.

Soft and Abnormal, 607.

Spots in, 607.

Storing, 60.

Testing for Fertility, 65, 82.

: Turning, Si.

Egypt, Artificial Incubation in, C7.
Egyptian Goose, nSo.
Embden Geese, 5 86.
Enteritis, Contagious, 23, 60S.
Estaires, Fowl of, 472.
Even Feeding for Table, 135.
Exhibiting Poultry, 191, 211.
Purchased Stock, 192.

Table Poultry, 141.

Exhibition and Utility, 172.

Conditioning for, 211.

Hampers for, 219.

Profit and Loss of, 220.

Selection for, 214.

Treatment after, 219.

Experimental Mating, 196.
Experiments in Colour Feeding, 20S.

in Feeding, Mistakes in, 39.

Exposure, Results of Free, 16.

Failures in Poultry-farming, 151, 154.
Fair Play at Exhibitions, 221.
Faking Birds for Exhibition, 231.
Falkner, Major, and Intensive Sy^uiii
Falling-over of Combs, 212. [vi.
False Sickles, Insertion of, 236.
Panciers, Work of the, 177.
Fancy Points, LTtility of, 174, 175.

Poultry, Merits of, 43.

Farm, Poultry upon a, 143.
Farmers and Poultry, 147.
Fasting Fowls before Killing, 119.
Fat in Cramming Fowls, 118, 132.
Fats and Oils in Food, 32.
Fatted Poultry, 107.
Fattening a Critical Business, 12S.

a Special Industry, no.

Advantages of, 107.

Anticiuity of, 107.

Breeds and Crosses for, 137.

Combined with Rearing, 1 29.

in Sussex, 108, 128. [i37-

Supply of Chickens for, in, 128,

Weight Gained in, 136.

Faverollcs, 467.

as Table Fowls, 1 38.

Colours of, 468.

Qualities of, 469. ■

Standard for, 474.

Favus, 609.
Feather-eating, 609.

Danger of, 45, 52.

Feathers, Disposal of, 122, 134.
Home-cured, 135.

AVhite, a Cause of, 201.

Feeding at Shows, 221.

Cliickens, 89, 92.

Early and Late, 198, 210.

for Eggs, 38.

for Exhibition, 218

Vessels, 47.

Felch's Breeding Chart, 1S6.
Female, Influence of, in Breeding, 193,
Females, Vigour of the, 194.
Fencing for Poultry Yards, 24.
Fertility of Eggs, 193.

Mechanical Obstacles to, 194.

Firth, A\'alter, on Pile Game, 370

Fish, Dried, as Food, 36.

Fitch, J., on Cock-fighting in Schools,

347-
Flagging in Growth, Chickens, 99.
Fleas, 618.
Flesh V. Fat in Fowls, 135.

■ in Geese, 596.

Flocks of Poultry in a Run, 153, 155.
Floors, Dry, for Chicken-coops, 91.

of Poultry Houses, 17.

Fluffing Birds for Exhibition, 236.
Food, Constituents of, 32.

for Chickens, 92.

for Cramming Fowls, 1 1 7.

— — • Layers, 38.

• for Newly-hatched Chickens, 89.

Purposes of, 31

Quantity of, 41, 45.

Foods, Analyses of, 32.
Prepared, 46.

Forcing Diet, Dangers of, 39, 41.

Fountains for Water, 5 1 .

Fowl, Characteristics of a, 13.

Fowls, Old, for Table, 107.

Foxes, 619.

Fractures, 610.

France, Fattening Fowls in, 113.

Imports of Eggs from, 161.

■ Killing Poultry in, 120.

Poultry in, 167.

Fraud, Suppression of, at Shows, 232,

236.
Fresh Air for Poultry Houses, 18.
■ Blood, 1 84 ; Incorporation of,

187, 196.
French Breeds of Poultry, 461.
Frizzled Fowls, 486.
Frost-bite, 610.
Funnel, Cramming with a, 115.

Game, Bantams, 507.

Birchen, 516.

Black- red, 511.

Brown-red, 515.

Duckwing, 514.

Old English; 516.

Pile, 512.

Standard for, 518.

Type of, 510.

White, 516.

Birchen, 36S.

Black-breasted Red, 363.

Blue Madras, 343.

Erown-breasted Red, 366.

Cock, Trimmed and Heeled, 351.

Cocks, Feeding and Training of,

350-

Dubbing, 372.

Duckwing, 368.

Exhibition, Development of, 361,

362.

Rearing, 37:.

Standards for, 373

Fowl, Origin of the, 347.

Indian, 339.

Old Eng'lish, 347.

. Pile, 370.

Points of the Old, 349.

Wheaten, 370

Gapes in Chickens, 611.
Geese, 585.

African, 592.

Canada, 593.

Cereopsis, 595.

Chinese, 592.

624

INDEX.

Geese, dropped Tongue in, 598.

Egyptian, >Sti.

Einbden, 586.

Kxhibiting, 589.

for Market, 596 ; Hybrids for,

594-

French, 597.

Gambian, 595.

in Germany, 597.

Italian, 594.

Killing, 597.

JIageUan, ■;9i;.

Rearing, 586^ 588.

• Russian, 594, 597.

Sebastopol, 594.

Standards for, 600.

Toulouse, 590.

Genetics, 5.

Germ of the Egg. -^y.
Germany, Eggs from, 161.

Geese in, 597.

Germs, Detection of, 602.

Gilbert, A. C, on Orpington Ducks,

565.
Gloss, ileans of Increasing, 215.

Red Hackles and, 251.

Go-laighs or Dumpies, 4S9.
Goodfellow, R., on Dark Dorkings, 3S0.
Goose Cholera, 597.

Fattening in America, 597.

Raising lor Market, 596.

Gordon, R., on Blue Madras Game, 343.

on Bui^-laccd Polish, 456.

Gould, Hon. J. S., on Exliibition Fowls,

172.
Gournay Fowl, The, 471.
Gout, 613.
Grain Dietary, A, 37.

for Chickens, 94.

for Feeding, 48.

Grapes and Poultry Manure, 130.
Grass as Food, 35.

Cut Small for Chickens, 92.

Growing in Frames for Chicks, 93.

Runs, 22.

Area of, 22.

Sweetening, 23.

Gravel or Grit, 'ji.

Graves' Inciibator, 69 ; Regulator, 72.
Grazing Animals and Fowls, 146.
Green Food, 38 ; Necessity of, 49.

for Chickens, 93.

Grit for Chickens, 93.

for Fowls, 50.

Ground Oats, 117, 131.
Ground, Tainted, 23, 97.
Gueldres or Bredas, 481.

Guinea Fowl, 550 ; Breeding, 552.

Half-fatted Fowls, 112.

Hallock, A. J., and Duck-fanning, 573,

Halsted's Incubator, 69 ; Regulator,

Hamburghs, 429.

Black, 444.

Breeding, 430.

Buff, 446.

Combs of, 431, 447.

Common Origin of, 429.

Drawbacks of, 446.

Golden-pencilled, 443.

Golden-spangled, 436.

Qualities of, 429.

Silver-pencilled, 441, 443.

Hamburghs, Silver-spangled, 431.

Standard for, 44S.

Trimming of, 235, 447.

White, 446.

Hamlin, Harry, on Red Dorkings, 381.
Hampers for Exhibition, 219.
Hardiness and Delicacy, 15.
Harwood, J., on Minorcas, 400.
Hatching, Artificial, 67.

Commenced in the Fowl, 57.

■ Moisture in, 64.

of the Chick, 59.

under Turkeys, ?,?,.

Hawkins, A. C, on American Barred

Rocks, 310.
Hay and Poultry Farming, 153.

as Food, 35.

Heap Bros., Messrs., on Anconas, 426.
Hearsou's Cramming Machine, 116.

Incubator, 70.

Heat of Brooders, 104.

of Incxibator, 79.

of Sitting Hens, 63.

Heath, A., and Trimming of Spanish,

3Q6.
Heathfield Poultry Trade, 108, 123,

129.
Hedgehogs Killing Fowls, 619.
Hempseed as Food, 21S.
Henny Game, 357.
Hen-tailed Hamburghs, 432, 442.

Sebrights, 521.

Heredity, 8.

Hewitt, E., on Malays, 352.

Hicks, J. S., on White 'Wyandottes,

Higglers, The, of Sussex, in.
Hinton, Jos., on Aseel, 337.
Holt, C, on Hamburgh Breeding, 433.
Home Products, Preference for, 163,

171.
Horseflesh as Food, 36.
Hot-air Incubators, 74.

Compared with Tank, 75.

Houdans, 461.

as Layers, 463.

Qualities of, 461, 463.

Standard for, 473.

Houses for Poultry, 1 5 .

Hunter, A. F., and Poiiltiy Houses, 29.
Hunter, Mr. S., and Pourtr>' Farming,

154, 157-

Hydrogen, Consumption and Excre-
tion of, 31.

Hydro-incubator, The, 69.

Imagination, Influence of, 197.
Imports of Eggs in England, 161.

■ Poultry, 164

In-breeding, 1S5.
Incubation, Artificial, 67.

Period of, 66.

under Turkeys, 88.

Incubator-room, The, ■/%.
Incubators, Choice of, 77.
Cleansing, 88.

Cosy Coop, 75.

Cyphers', 75.

Final Hatching out in, S3.

Hearson's, 70.

in America, 77.

Management of, 77.

Temperature in, 77.

Various Early, 68, 69.

India, Cock-fighting in, 337.

India, Fowls in, 331.
Indian Corn as Food, 35.
Indian Game, 339.

Breeding, 342.

Qualities of, 340.

Standard for, 346.

Runner Ducks, 562.

Infertility, Causes of, 195. [181.

Inheritance, Nature of, in Breeding,
Insect Vermin, 53.

and Chickens, 96.

in Dorkings, 381.

Intensive System, v.-xx.
Ireland, Poidtry and Eggs in, 164, 167.
Irish Agricultural Organisation Society,
165.

Ciiickens for Fattening, in, 129.

Iron, Carbonate, for Colour Feeding,

207.
Tonic, 51, 199, 218.

Jackson, Mr. H., and Intensive S
Japanese Bantams, 529.

Long-tailed Fowls, 496.

Silkies, 492.

Teal, 579.

Javas, Black and Wliite, 4S7.

Jersey Blues, 503.

Joint Disease, 613

Jones, Rev. E. Lewis, on Campi

Judging, Abuses of, 224, 226, 2

Earl}' System of, 223.

Modern System of, 224.

Standards of, 226.

Table Poultry, 141.

Jukes, \V. A., on Blue Langshans

stem,
Lxi.

[477-
nes.

288.

Keel in Ducks, 559, 561, 564, 573.

in Geese, 589, 590, 599.

Killing Ducks, 571, 575, 576.
Fow-ls, 120.

Geese, 597.

Turkeys, 549.

King, Nelson, on Black Leghorns, 419.
Klein, Dr. E., on Contagious Enteritis,
23, 60S.

and Joint Disease, 613.

La Bresse Fowls, 469.
La Fleche, 466.

Standard for, 474.

Labour and Poultry-farming. 145, 150,

152.
Lacing of Indian Game, 340.
Layberry, T., oh Anconas, 4.35.
Laying of Wyandottes, 316.
Lakcnvelders, 485.

.Standard for, 501.

Lameness Caused in Brooders, 105.
Lancashire Mooneys, 432.
Land, Management of, 153.
Langshans, 279.

American, 286.

and Cochins, 28

Blue, 288.

Buff, 290.

Change of Type in, 281

Croad, The, 291.

Original, 279, 280.

Standard for, 290.

White, 287.

Large poultrv- Farm, an English, 154.
Layers, Breedingfor, 147, 152, 175, 179.
Selecting, 42.

INDEX.

025

Laying, Average, Increase of, 175.

Competitions, 1 79.

Development of, 53, 180.

Hens, Diet tor, 38.

Purposes, Blue Hens for, 504

Lean Cliickens for Fattening, Cost of.
Leg Feather, Care of, 209. [i37-

Weakness, 613.

Leghorns, 411.
American, 420.

Black, 419.

Brown, 414.

Buff, 4 1 8.

Changes in, 411.

Cuckoo, 420.

Dubbing, 413.

Duckwing, 417.

Mottled, 420.

Pile, 416.

Qualities of, 411.

Standard for, 421.

White, 412.

Lice in Poultry-, 53, 96, 618.
Lime for Fowls, 50.
I^incolnshire Buffs, 295.
Line Breeding, 181, 185.
Linseed for Increasing Gloss, 215.
Little, Robert, on Aidalusians, 407.
Liver Disease, 614, 617.
Lobes, Attention to, 2:3.

Macliines for Cramming Fowls, 115.
Madras Blue Game 343. [129.

Mains or Matches in Co:k-fighting, 351
Maize as Food, 35, 36, 37, 39.
JIalays, 331.

Breeding, 334.

Early History of, 3^2.

Pheasant, 339.

Standard fc r, ,344.

Male, Influence of, 193.

Duration of, 196.

JIallard or Wild Duck, 557.
Malt Culms or Malt Dust, 34.
Management of Shows, 221.
Mandarin Ducks, 57S.
Manure, Poultry, 52.

• and Tomatoes, 130, 146.

— Value of, 129, 146.

Market, Making a, 152.
Marketing Eggs as New Laid, 150.

Table Fowls, 123.

Markets, Opening up New, 140.
Marking Chickens, 202.
Marx, J. P. W., on FaveroUes, 467.
Mash, Morning or Evening, 45.

or Soft Food, Advantage of, 44.

Various Kinds of, 45.

Mating Breeding Stock, 192, 196.

Double, 179: Evils of, 18S.

Matings, Experimental, 196.
Matthew, Samuel, on Black-breasted
Ked Game, 364.

on Rearing Game, 371.

Meal Food or Mash, 44, 45.
Jleals per Day, 48.

Meat Feeding and Combs, 1 99 [200.

and Excessive Plumage,

Mediterranean Race of Fowls, 393.
Meech, Mr. Randolph, and " City "

System, v.
on Semi-Intensive System,

XX.

Jlendelism and its Application to
Poultry Breechng, 5.
79— N.E.

Mice, 619.

Middlings or Sharps, 35.

Milk Cliickens, 126.

for Chickens, 92.

for Fattening Fowls, 118, 133.

Miller, Scott, on Crested Ducks, 564.
Mill-stones for Grinding Oats, 132.
Minasi's Incubator, 68.
Minorcas, 399.

Breeding, 401.

Crosses of, 405.

Ear-lobe in, 403.

Exhibiting, 402.

History of, 400.

Langshan Cross in, 403.

Qualities of, 405.

Rosecomb, 405.

Standard for, 406.

White, 406.

Mites, Red, 96, 619.

and Chickens, 96.

Mixing Soft Food or Mash, 47.
Moisture, Hatching without, 83.

in Incubators, 83.

Mooneys, 429, 432, 433, 435, 436, 437
Mortality from Crowding, 23, 153.
Moss, Mr. H. E., on Hatching Ducks,
Moult, 51 ; Feeding in, 52. [86.

and Colour Feeding, 208.

and Vermin, 218.

Jloulting Exhibition Stock, 217.

of Earlv PuUets, 43.

of the "Shanks, 21S.

Mullens, H. P., on the Croad Lang-
shan, 291.
Murrell, R. W., and Duck-fanning, 572.
iluscovy Ducks, 567.

Naked Necks, 503.
Nankin Bantams, 528.
National Poultry Interests, 161.

Organisation Society, 163.

Nature, on Following, 44.
Nests, 20, 60.

for Egg-heating Hens, 61.

for Sitting Hens, 63

Recording or Trap. 1S8.

Neve's Cramming Machine, 1 ib.
New-laid Eggs, 138.

Fraud in, 163.

Market for, 162.

Newly-hatched Cliickens, Saie ot, 156.
Night, Feeding Chickens at, 94, 19S,

210.
Nitrogen, Consumption and Excretion

of, 31-
Notice of Sales and Awards, 222.
Number in one Breeding Pen, 193.

of Fowls per Acre, 145, 153.

Nursing Birds for a Given Date, 211,

217.
Nutritive Ratio of Food, 32, 34.

Oatmeal as Food, 35..
Oats as Food, 35.

Grinding in Sussex, 132.

Ground, 117

Occupation for Fowls, 50.
Old English Game, 347.

Bantams, 51O.

Colours of, 357.

Henny, 357.

Judging, 358.

Points of, 356.

Qualities of, 355.

Old English Game, Revival of, 355.

Standard for, 359.

Fowls, Cooking, 107.

Open Judging, 222.
Open-air Houses, 18.
Orloff Fowls, 484.
Orpington Ducks, 565.
Orpiugtons, 293.

Black, 293.

Blue, 302.

Buff, 295.

Cuckoo, 301.

Jubilee, 300.

Spangled, 301.

Standard for, 302.

White, 298.

Ostrich Eggs, Hatching, 88.
Ovary of a Hen, 55.
Over-showing, Effects of, 219.
Oviduct, The, 55.
Ovum, Formation of the, 55.
Owl-bearded Fowl, 483.

Packing Eggs for Sitting, 62.

Sussex Poultry, 123.

Paralysis, 614.

Parentage, Influence of Former, 197.
Parrish's Chemical Food, 19.S.
Partington, J., on Black Orpingtons,

294
Pavlott Fowls, 484. [417-

Payne. G., and Duckvvin.'; T.e-horns,

and Pile Leghorns, 416.

Pea Fowl, 553.

■ Varieties of, 554.

Peas as Food, 34.

Pedigree Breeding, 181, 1S5.

Pekin Bantams, 522.

Ducks, 561.

Ducks and Duck Farming, 573.

Penman's Incubator, 68.
Penning at Shows, 221.
Pens for Training, 214.
Perches for Fowls, 19.
Peritonitis, 414.
Petits Poussins, 106, 126.
Pheasant Fowls, 429, 432, 436.

Malays, 339.

Pliilo, Mr., and Intensive System, w
Phcenix Fowls, 495.
Phosphates in Feeding Chicks, 198.
Pickles, H., on Breeding Hamburghs,

430-
Piercy, F. O., on Langshans 28;.
Pintail Ducks, 580.
Pip in Fowls, 615.
Plaisted, C, on Brahmas, 260.
Plans for Poultry Yards, 26-30.
Plucking Birds for Exhibition, 233.

Table Poultry, 120.

Plumage, Care of the, 205, 217.

Dyeing of, 234.

Hastening, v/hen Backward, 212.

Plymouth Rocks, 304.

American, 308.

Black, 312.

Black Blood in, 305.

Buff, 312.

Characteristics of, 305.

Mating of, 306, 309.

Origin of, 304.

Pea-combed, 312.

Qualities of, 306.

Standard for, 314.

White, 312.

026

INDEX.

Pneumouia, O15.

Points, Fowls necessarily Judged by,
172.

of a Fowl, 23S.

Produced by Selection, 181.

Polisli Fowls, 451.

and French Breeds, 461, 472.

Chamois or Buft-laced, 456.

Introduction of Muffs in, 451.

Minor Varieties of, 459.

Skull of, 451.

Spangled, 453.

Standards for, 459.

White-crested Black, 453.

Pollard as Food, 35.
Portable Houses, 20.
Poit-moHcm Examinations, 602.
Potatoes as Food, 35, 37.
Poulets de Grains, 127.
Poultry Club, Origin of the, 232

Rules against Fraua, 232.

Manure, AppUcation of, 146.

. Quantity of, 146.

Value of, 129, 146.

Poultry-farming, 145.

Colony System, 159.

Difiiculties of, 152.

Essentials of Success in, 149..

'?-■

Failures in, 151.

iu England, 154.

in Sussex, 1 50.

Real Difficulty of, 145.

Poultry-farms, Colony, 153.

Large, 154.

Preserving Eggs, 60.

Press, The, and Exhibition, 224.

Pressing Trough for Table Poultry,

122, 134.
Prices of Fatted Fowls, no, 136.

of Foreign Eggs, 161, 162.

of New-laid Eggs, 162.

of Table Poultry in France, 1 10,

13S.
Privileges at Shows, Unfair, 221.
Prize Poultry, Breeding and Rearing,

190.
. Profits from Breeding, 159,

190.
Procter, G. H., on Buff Cochins, 244.
Profit and Loss iu Fattening, 136.

on Poultry, 54.

Protectors for Eggs, 65.
Proteids in Food, 32.
Protests at Exhibitions, 222, 233.
Proud, P., on Bantams, 507.
Ptarmigans, 495.
Puddings, Chicken, 106.
Purchased Stock, Exhibiting, 192.
Purchasing Eggs, 191
■ Prize Stock, 192.

Quantity of Food, 41, 44.
(juassia in AVater, 51.

Rake for Removing Droppings, 52.
Ranges of Poultry Houses, 25.
Rankin, Jas., and Duck Farming, 573,

575-
Ratio, Nutritive, of Food, 32, 34.
Rats and Mice, 619.
Reaumur's Experiments in Incubators,

68.
Recording Nest Boxes, 188.
Records of Breeding, 201.

Redcaps, 439.

Standard for, 450.

Red Hackles and Green Gloss, 251.

Mite, The, 96, 619.

Relation, Importance of Some, 192.

Renwick's Incubator, 69.

Reporting Shows, 223, 225.

Resting Eggs for .Sitting, 62.

Return from Exhibition, 219.

Reversion, Effects of, 1S4.

Rheumatism, 611;.

Rhode Island, Reds, 4SS ; Wliites, 506.

Rice as Food, 35.

Rice, Frank E., on Yokohamas, 496.

Richardson, W., on Black Orpingtons,

on Buff Orpingtons, 296. [294.

on White Orpingtons, 29S.

Rivalry, Evils of Unbridled, 226.
Roberts, William, and Breeding Ham-
burghs, 430.

Rocks, Plymouth, 304.

Roofs of Houses, 1 7.

Roosting or Perching Chickens, 205.

Rouen Ducks, 560.

Roup, Catarrhal, 616

Rouse, Miss E., on White Cochins, 251.

Rumpless Fowls, 503.

Runs, Management of, 153.

Small, 22.

Russia, Eggs from, 161 ; Poultry, 164.

Frozen fowls from, 169.

Poultry in, i63.

Russian Fowls, 484.

Geese, 594, 597.

Rye as Food, 35.

Safety Nests, 61.

Sales, Notice of, from Shows, 222.

Salts in the Food, 31, 32, 40.

Scalding Table Poultry, 121.

Scales of Points, Theory of, 227.

Scaly Leg, 616.

Schools and Cockrfighting, 347.

Schroder's Incubator, 68.

Schwartz, V , on Irish Egg Trade, 165

Score-card Judging in America, 229.

Scotch Dumpies, 4S9.

Grey Bantams, 527.

Greys, 490.

Standard for, 504.

Scratching Sheds of America, 28.
Seasons, Eft"ect on Confonnatiou, 195.
Sebright Bantams, 520.

Cochins or Wyandottes, 315.

Segregation, 9.

Selection for Exhibition, 214.

in Breeding, 182.

Selling Prize Poultry, Difficulty of, 190.
Semi-Intensive Houses, xv.
^ex, Control of, 195.

Distinguisliing, 203.

Sexes, Separating, 194, 203.
Shade for Chickens, 99.

Value of, for Plumage, 205.

Shank Feathering, Care of, 209.
Shanks, Colour of the, 205.

Dyed for Exhibition, 235.

Moulting of the, 218.

Shaping Table Poultry, 122, 134.
Sharpe, S. C, on the Sussex Fowl, 3S9
Sharps as Food, ■>,<,.
Shed, Diet of Fowls Confined to a, 48.

or Covered Run, 21, 25.

Sheds for Cramming Fowls, 133.
Shelf in Poultry Houses, 19.

Shell of the Egg, 56.
Shells for Egg-eating Hens, 61.
Sherwoods, 504.
Shieldrakes, 5 So.
Shinowaratoa Fowls, 496.
Show JIanagenent, 221.
SiciUan Buttercup. 506a.
Sickles, Inserting False, 236.
Silkies, 491.

Oualities of, 493.

Standard for, 505.

Simpson, H. and A. P., on Pile Leg

horns, 416.
Singeing Table Poultry, 121.
Sitting, Choice of Eggs for, 61.

Hens, 62.

Breaking off, 63.

Heat of, 63.

Nests for, 63.

Vermin on, 62.

Size, Feeding Chickens for, 94.

Skin E)isenses, 6 16.

Slipped Wings, 209.

Small Runs, Care of, 22.

Small Space, Poultry-keeping iu, 42.

Smyth, M. F., on Dark Dorkiugs, 377,

Soft Food for Mash, 44.

.Solomon, King, and Pea Fowl, 553.

Sour Milk in Fattening, 133.

Southern, R., on Partridge Cochins,
247.

Space, Smallest, for Fowls, 21.

Spangles of Hamburghs, 431, 434.

Spanish, 393.

Breeding, 395.

Bristol, Breeders of, 394.

Characteristics of, 394.

Exhibitiijg, 395.

Faces of, 395, 396, 397.

OuaUties of, 398.

Standard for, 398.

Trimming of Faces, 396.

White, 397.

Spots in Eggs, 607.

" Sports," 14.

Spurs for Cock-fighting, 352.

Standard, Judging by, 228.

Need of Utility Points in, 17S.

LTse of, iu Judging, 231.

Value as a, 230.

Standards, First American, 227.

First Poultry Club, 228.

The " Book of Poultry," 227.

The First, 226.

The Present Poultry Club, 228.

Sterile Eggs Keeping Better, 60.

Sterility, Causes of, 195.

Stimulants, LTse and Abuse of, 199.

Stock for a Poultry Farm, 152, 155.

Weeding out the, 203.

Stones for Grinding Oats in Sussex, 1 32.

Storing Eggs, 60.

Strain, What it really is, 182.

Strains, Distinct, from one Stock, 1 87.

Stubbing Table Poultry, 121.

Stud-book, Importance of a, 201.

Study of Points and Type, 190.

Sugar in Fattening Fowls, 133.

Sulphur in the Food, 31.

.Sultans, 494.

Standard for, 506.

Sumatra Game Fowls, 501.

Standard for, 502.

Summer Shows, Chickens for, 211.

Winners, Drawbacks of, 192.

INDEX.

627

Sunflower Seed as Food, 35, 37.

Growing, 200.

Supervision at Shows, 222.
Support lor Falling Comb, 212.
Suppressing Fraud, Dutv of the Pub-
lic, 236.
Surrey Fowls, Old Breed of, 130, 38S.

Decay of the, 177.

Sussex, Fattening Sheds in, 112, i'^^.

Ground Oats in, 131.

Growth of Chicken- Rearing in,

129.

Out-door Cages in, 112, 1 36.

Poultry Fattening in, loS, 12S.

Sussex Fowl's, 130, 38S.

Cramming, 115, 117.

Marketing, 123.

Packing, 123.

■ Present Local Breed of, 130.

Shaping, 122, 134.

Standard for, 391.

Swans, 59S.

\'arieties of, 599.

Symptoms of Disease, 602.
System in Management, 42.

Table of Foods, 33.

Fowl, Points of a, 140, 142.

Poultry, 106.

Exhibiting, 141.

in America, 170.

Shaping, 122, 134.

Shows of Dead, 13S, [41,

179.

Trussing, 142.

Tail, Wry, Operation for, 214.
Tainted Ground and Chickens, 97.

and Fowls, 23.

Taking out of Exiiibition Pens, 222.

Tameness, Cultivating, 209.

Tank Incubators, 71.

Taste, Cultivating Public, 140.

Teals, The, 579.

Technical Poultry Terms, 237.

Teebay, R-, on Spanish Fowls, 394.

Tegetnieier, W. 13., on Bralimas, 258.

on Exhibition Fowls, 1 74.

Temperature in Incubators, 79.
Testing Eggs, 65, 82.
Thermometers for Incubators, 79.
Thermostats for Incubators, 71 ;

Double, 74.
Tliieves, Protection against, 620.
Thomas, S. W., on Crevecoeurs, 465.

on Houdaus, 461.

Thompson, E. B., on Plymouth Rocks,

309-
Thompson, Sir H., on Exhibition Fowls,

173.
Thornber, T. H., on Houdans, 463.
Thorniley, Percy, on Buff Orpingtons,

297.

] Thumb-marks in Combs, 200.
Ticks on Cliickcus, 96.
Time for Hatcliing Layers, 43.
Toes, Crooked, 200.
Tomatoes and Poultry Manure, 130,

146.
Tomkins, F. C, on Black-breasted Red

Game, 3S3.
Tootill, F., on White Lcgliorns, 412.
Toulouse Geese, 590.
Training for Exhibition, 214, 509.
Trap Nests, 188.
Trimming Birds for Exhibition, 231,

234-
Trough-feeding for Table, 114.
Troughs for Feeding, 47.

for Shaping, 122, 134.

Trussing Table Poultry, 142.
Tuberculosis, 617.
Turkeys, 539.

American, 541.

" Black-head " in, 54S.

Breeding, 541.

Cambridge, 540.

Crested, 549.

Exhibiting, 549.

Fattening, 549.

Fawn, 541.

Hatching under, 83.

Narragansett, 541.

Norfolk, 540.

Rearing, 544.

Standard for, 530.

White, S41.

Wild, 539.

Turning Eggs in Incubators, 8r.
Type, Study of, in Breeding, 190.

Unclassed Breeds of Poultry. 4S6.
United States, Poultry in, 169.

Intensive System in, v.

UtiUty and Exhibition, 172.

Points, Decline in, 176.

Poultry Club, The, 179.

Value of Breeds for Exhibition, 220.
Variety Class, The, 486.
Vent-gleet or Cloacitis, 617.
Ventilation in Incubators, 83.

in Poultry Houses, iS.

Vermin and Moulting, 218.

Insect, 53, 96, 618.

Predatory, 619.

Retarding Effect of, 212.

\'errey, L. C, on Brown Leghorns, 414.

on Buff Leghorns, 41 S.

Vertigo, 617.

Voelcker, Dr., and Poultry Manure, 14C.
\'ulture Hocks, 239, 243.

Walsh, Mr. P., and Duck-farming, 569.

Walton, J. W., ou Indian Runner

Ducks, 561. I

Warmth in Poultry Houses, iS.
Washing Exhibition Poultry, 215 ;

Bantams, 509.
Water for Chickens, 95.

for Fowls, 51.

Water Fountains, 51.
Waterfowl, Fancy, 577.
Water-glass, for Preserving Eggs, 60.
Wattles, Swollen, 617.
Weaning Chickens, 9.S.
Weasels and Stoats, O20.
Weediug-uut Cliickens, 203.
Westlake, W. B., ou White Langshans,

288.
Wharton, John, on Partridge Wyau-

dottes, 325.
Wheat as Food, 35.
Whistling Ducks, 580.
White Comb, 617.
Feathers, A Cause of, 201.

of the Egg, 56, 57-

Wilkinson, Mrs., on Barred Rocks, 306.
on Buff, White, and Black Rocks,

312.
Wilhamson, Capt. R. S., on Black

Cochins, 249.
Wings, Slipped, 209.
Winter Laying, Profit in, 43.
Wire Netting, 24.
Woodgate, Rev. R. S. S., on Silkies,

492.

on Sultans, 494.

Worms in Fowls, 213.

Wragg, A. E., on Redcaps, 439.

Wright, Lewis, Mr., and " The Book of

Poultry," iii.
Wry Tail, 213.
Wyandottes, 315.
Black, 324.

Blue-laced, 321, 322.

Breeding Laced, 3:8.

Buff, 324.

Buff-laced, 321, 322.

Columbian, 326.

Comb of the, 316.

Gold-laced, 320.

History of, 315.

Lacing of, 317.

New Varieties, 327.

Partridge, 324.

QuaUties of, 315.

Silver, 316.

Silver-pencilled, 326.

Standard for, 327.

Violette or Blue-laced, 322.

White, 323.

Yards, Plans for, 21, 30.

Yokohamas, 495.

Yolk, Nourishing the Chicken, 59.

Yorksliire Pheasants, 432.

Young Chickens, To Cook, 106, 126.

Casseil & COMP

La Belle Sauvace, Lone

100114065