Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1895. Plate 1. YEARBOOK OK THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1895. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 4 r 896. [Public— No. 15.] An act providing for the public printing and binding and the distribution of public documents. Section 17, paragraph 2 : Tlie Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture shall nereafter be submitted and printed in two parts, as follows : Part one, w^hich shall contain purely busi- ness and executive matter which it is necessary for the Secretary to submit to the President and Congress ; part two, which shall contain such reports from the different bureaus and divisions, and such pai^ers prepared by their special agents, accompanied by suitable illustrations, as shall, in the opinion of the Secretary, be specially suited to interest and instriTct the farmers of the country, and to include a general report of the operations of the Department for their information. There shall be printed of part one, one thousand copies for the Senate, two thou- sand copies for the House, and three thousand copies for the Department of Agri- culture ; and of part two, one hundred and ten thoxisand copies for the use of the Senate, three hundred and sixty thousand copies for the use of the House of Rep- resentatives, and thirty thousand copies for the use of the Department of Agri- culture, the illustrations for the same to be executed under the supervision of the Public Printer, in accordance with directions of the Joint Committee on Printing, said illustrations to be subject to the approval of the Secretary of Agriculture; and the title of each of the said parts shall be such as to show that such part is complete in itself. 3 PEEFAOE. Ever since 1849, when the report of the Department of Agriculture was first published in a separate volume, as Part II of the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Patents, it has been customary to issue large editions for distribution by Congress. Of the report for 1851, 110,000 copies were printed, 100,000 of which were for distribu- tion by Congress. The original edition of 110,000 copies was grad- ually increased with the growth of the population of the country and the development of its various agricultural interests, until it reached in 1892 half a million copies. The volume in the old form was made up of business and executive reports for the use of the President and of Congress, and such statements of the results of scientific work as promised to be useful to farmers. In the belief that a volume de- signed for such extensive distribution among farmers should' be specially prepared for them, a provision was incorporated in the act of January 12, 1895 (printed on the opposite page), requiring that future annual reports of the Department of Agriculture should be divided into two volumes: First, an executive and business report, and, second, a volume made up of papers from the Department bureaus and divisions ' ' specially suited to interest and instruct the farmers of the country," As the report for 1894 had been prepared before this act became a law, all that could be done last year was to separate the papers submitted and publish them in the new form. While it is hoped that the present volume is somewhat of an advance upon the Yearbook for 1894, it does not fully come up to the ideal which the Department has set before it. The plan has been to prepare a volume consisting of three parts : (1) "A general rejiort of the operations of the Department" dur- ing the year, by the Secretary of Agriculture. (2) A series of papers from the different bureaus and divisions of the Department, and from some of the experts of the agricultural experiment stations, discussing in a popular manner the results of investigations in agricultural science or new developments in farm practice. These papers are presented in the form of popular essaj's rather than scientific reports, and with the object of making them attractive as well as instructive they are illustrated as fully as possi- ble. The several topics have been treated in as thorough a manner 3 4 PREFACE. as space permitted, but no attempt has been made to cover the entire range of subjects that would be included in a handbook of agricul- tural science. As the years go on, it is hoped that the Department will, in successive issues of this work, give farmers a good library covering the applications of science to practical agriculture. No systematic treatment has, however, been possible in planning for this or succeeding Yearbooks, and only such subjects have been taken up as have been reasonably well investigated and seem timely or suit- able for discussion. (3) An appendix. The publications of the United States Govern- ment having more or less bearing upon agriculture have become so numerous that an epitome of their more important contents has become almost a necessity. Scattered through the publications of the Department of Agriculture, for example, are many valuable data, facts of interest, recipes, and directions with regard to agricultural and horticultural practice, which it is desirable to bring together for convenience of reference. Accordingly, in the appendix to the present volume there will be found a large amount of miscellaneous information taken from the reports of this Department and presented with especial regard to the requirements of the agricultural reader. Statistics of agriculture taken from the reports of the Census, and much interesting information relative to the exports, imports, and per capita consumption of agricultural products from the pu.blica- tions of the Bureau of Statistics of the Treasury Department, have also been compiled in convenient form down to the latest avail- able date. It has thus been sought to make the volume a concise reference book of useful agricultural information based in great part upon the work of this and other Departments of the Government, without making it an encyclopedia of general information. In brief, the effort has been to make a book, and not a mere Government report — a book worthy to be published in an edition of half a million copies and at an expense to the people, if we count both publication and distribu- tion, of over $400,000. Time and space have not been spared in the preparation of an index to the book, which, it is believed, will prove an efficient guide to all who consult it. Charles W. Dabney, Jr., Assistant Secretary. Washington, D. C, February 1, 1896. OOl^TENTS. Page. Report of the Secretary. 9 Soil Ferments Important in Agriculture. By H. W. Wiley ' 69 Origin, Value, and Reclamation of Alkali Lands. By E. W. Hilgard 103 Reasons for Cultivating tlie Soil. By Milton Whitney . . _ 123 Humus in its Relation to Soil Fertility. By Harry Snyder 131 Frosts and Freezes as Affecting Cultivated Plants. By B. T. Galloway 148 The Two Freezes of 1894-95 in Florida, and what they Teach. By Her- bert J . Webber 159 Testing Seeds at Home. By A. J. Pieters 175 Oil-Producing Seeds. By G. H. Hicks : 185 Some Additions to Our "Vegetable Dietary. By Frederick V. Coville 205 Hemp Culture. By Chas. Richards Dodge 215 Canadian Field Peas. By Thomas Shaw- 223 Irrigation for the Garden and Greenhouse. By L. R. Taft 233 The Health of Plants in Greenhouses. By B. T. Galloway 247 Principles of Pruning and Care of Wounds in Woody Plants. By Albert F. Woods 257 The Pineapple Industry in the United States, By Herbert J. Webber 269 Small-Fruit Culture for Market. By William A. Taylor. 283 The Cause and Prevention of Pear Blight. By M. B. Waite 295 Grass Gardens. By F. Lamson-Scribner 301 Forage Conditions of the Prairie Region. By Jared G. Smith 309 Grasses of Salt Marshes. By F. Lamson-Scribner 325 The Relation of Forests to Farms. By B. E. Fernow. 333 Tree Planting in the Western Plains. By Charles A. Keffer 341 The Shade-Tree Insect Problem in the Eastern United States. By L. O. Howard 361 The Principal Insect Enemies of the Grape. By C. L. Marlatt 385 Fovir Common Birds of the Farm and Garden. By Sylvester D. Judd 405 The Meadow Lark and Baltimore Oriole. By F. E. L. Beal 419 Inefficiency of Milk Separators in Removing Bacteria. By Veranus A. Moore. 431 Butter Substitutes. By E. A. de Schweinitz 445 The Manufacture and Consumption of Cheese. By Henry E. Alvord 453 Climate. Soil Characteristics, and Irrigation Methods of California. By Charles W. Irish 475 Cooperative Road Construction. By Roy Stone 487 A Pioneer in Agricultural Science. By W. P. Cutter 493 Work of the Department of Agriculture as Illustrated at the Atlanta Expo- sition. By Robert E. Wait. 503 APPENDIX. Organization of the Dei)artment of Agriculture 523 Statistics of the principal crops 526 5 6 CONTENTS. Page. Exports of the precincts of domestic agriculture for the years ended June 30, 1891 to 1895 543 Surveyors' measure - --- --- 547 Imports of agricultural products for the years ended June 30, 1891 to 1895 . . 548 Total values of exports of domestic merchandise since 1890 551 Exports of raw cotton from the United States since 1890 - 551 Production of certain fruits and nuts, mostly semi tropical, in the United States in 1889, and the quantities and values imported from 1890 to 1895, inclusive -- — 551 Statistics of fruit and vegetable canning in the United States 553 Average price and consumption of sugar 553 Tea, coffee, wines, etc .- - 553 Freight rates in effect January 1, 1893 to 1896, in cents per 100 pounds 553 Freight rates on wheat from New York to Liverpool 553 Freight rates (all rail) on live stock and dressed meats from Chicago to New York 553 The weather in 1895 554 The Weather Bureau and its voluntary obsei-vers 555 Texture of some typical soils 556 Educational institutions in the United States having courses in agriculture. 557 Agricultural experiment stations in the United States, their location, direct- ors, and principal lines of work 558 Feeding stuffs (for animals) 560 Fertilizing constituents of feeding stuffs and farm products 566 Fertilizing constituents contained in a crop of cotton yielding 300 pounds of lint per acre 5G9 Analyses of fertilizers 570 Barnyard manure 570 Cuts of meats 573 Human foods 573 Methods of controlling injurious insects 580 Preparation and use of insecticides 583 Treatment for fungous diseases of plants 537 Formiilas for fungicides 589 Erroneous ideas concerning hawks and owls -- 590 Timber — lumber — wood 590 Two hundred weeds : how to know them and how to kill them 593 Distance table for tree planting 593 Irrigation -- 610 Number, weight, cost of seeds, and amount to sow per acre 613 The metric system -- 614 Notes regarding Department publications --- 616 ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES. Page. Plate I. Main bnildins of the IT. S. Department of Ajiricnlture Frontispiece. II. Alliali I'liids in the San J nan ii in ^'illpyi California 118 III. Cocoanut grove near Palm iieach. Fla., allowing effect of freeze 172 IV. Pineapple ]ilantation at Jensen, Fla 272 V. (1) Early harvest hlackberrv, single wire trcUii', Benton Harbor, Mich.; (2) early harvest I)la<'kl)e!ry, Uill system, Falls rbiirch, Va 292 TI. Plan of irrig.'ition l)y terraces and check levees 486 VII. Furrow system of irrigating an orchard in California 4X6 VIII. View of exhibit of U. S. \Veatber Burean at Atlanta Exposition 504 IX. Fig. 1 — General view of exhibit of Dcpartnunt of Agriculture at Atlanta Exposi- tion (right of main ai.sle); Fig. 2. — General view of exhibit of Department of Agriculture at A tlant.i Exposition (left of main aisle) 516 X. Fig. 1. — Monographic display of Southern economic timber trees; Fig. 2. — Botanic display of Southern forest flora 518 TEXT FIGUKES. 99 100 108 110 111 Page Fio, 1. Diagram showing progress of ni- trilication in a solution seeded with soil ferments 2. Diagram showing relation of tem- ])eiature to rate of nitrification.. 3. Diagram sbowiTig aTuounts and composition of alkali salts at variou.s depth.s in partially re- claimed alkali land on which bar- ley grew 4 feet high 107 4. Diagram showing amounts and composition of alkali salts at va- rious depths in alkali soil on which barley would not grow .. . 5. Diagram showing amounts and composition of alknli salts at va- rion* depths in alkali land unirri- iratpil 6. Diagram showing amounts and composition of alkali salts at va- rious depths in partly reclaimed alkali land 7. Diagram showing amounts and composition of alkali salts at va- rious depths in bare alkali land where barley would not grow, irrigated 112 8. .Soeciuien weather map 147 9. sling psychrometer 149 10. Lath screen for protecting plants from frosts 11. Board screen for protecting plants from hot sun and frosts 12. Board wall for protecting hotbcd.^i, cold frames, etc., from cold winds 13. Apparatnsfor smudging orchards. 14. Apparatus for spraying orchards with water 15. Protecting trunks of orchard trees from frost injuries by means of water spronts 158 16. An old orange grove killed down by tlio cold and throwing np spronts frr)m the base of tho trunk. The tops wero cut off" shortly after the second freeze.. ]<)3 17. A properly trained trunk 166 18. An improperly trained trunk 166 19. Ituby orange liud, put in May 21, on sprout from old sweot-orango trunk 168 153 154 154 150 156 Paga Fig. 20. Method of crown grafting old orangestocks 169 21. Euby orange graft on old sweet- orange stock, put in March 1 by cro wn-grafi method 170 22. Cleft grafting 170 23. Simple germinating ajiparatus 183 24. Homemade germinating appa- ratus 182 25. Apjiaratus for germinating several varieties atone time 183 26. Ciittou (Ooii.li/pitnn harbadevse) . .. 18fi 27. Common tiak {Linum ukitatU6i- mum) 188 28. Castor-oil beau {Hicinus cominu- ni.i) 191 29. European spurge (Euithorbialathy- ri'<) 193 30. Sunflower (TTdiawf/iws annuva).. 193 31. Madia [iladia satira) 195 32. Pean u t ( .4 racli is hyporjcea) 1 97 33. Sesame (^fiominri Hirfi"i-n>«) 198 34. Hemp ( Cannabis saliva) 199 35. liapciHrnS'-^ica 7>apux) '.HiO 36. Opium poppy {I'apaver somni/e- ri(m) 203 37. Charlock (Jirafsica .nnapistnnn) . . 208 38. Cliicory (Cic/ieri'uiH rii/j/i'U*) 207 39. "Winter cress (liarbarea praecox) . 208 40. Broad-leafed dock {liumex obtiisi- foliun) 209 41. Lamb's-quaitors (Chenopodiinn al- hvm) 210 42. Marsh marigold (Caltliapahistris) . L'l I 43. Black mustard (Jtrassica vir/rn) .. 211 44. Fisweed (Amarantiispahneri) 212 45. 'Winter purslane (Claytonia per- fiiliata) 213 46. Pea harvester 230 47. Pea harvester with i)latforni 230 48. Single concave thrashing machine witli four teeth 231 49. Square trough for distributing water (sit-.tion) 2.18 50. V-shaped trough (section) 237 51. Irrigating young orchard with furrows 2«2 52. Water bench for greenhouse 246 53. Violet cuttings from old wood 2.'>5 54. Violet cuttings from mature wood. 256 65. Violet cutting with iusullicient siem 256 7 ILLUSTKATIONS. Page. Fig. 56, Ideal type of violet cuttings from Fie. M. niaturo wood 256 67. Cross section of trunk of sassafras tree 258 58. Trunk of maple, showing bole left 100. by decaying limb 202 59. Soft maple, cut back 263 60. Oak tree from wbicb some of the 101, lower limbs have been properly cut and most of the upper ones improperly cut 267 61. Showing where a large limb has 102, been CTit i'rom a tulip tree 268 62. Field of pineapples growing under shed, showins newly set plants 103, and illustrating the methods of si'ttiu;,' 270 63. Field of Porto Kico pineapples at 104, West Palm Beach, grown by open-field culture 271 6-4. Instrument for marking a field for pineapples 278 105. 65. Pineapple suckers 279 66. Tangle rootof the pineapple 280 67. Spot on the base of a pineapple 106. leaf caused by the pineapple mite or red spider (.S7if/7»iat(«) 282 107. 68. Grass garden at the U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture. Platofbuf- 108 falo grass in the foreground 302 109. 69. Bouquet of grasses from the grass 110, garden 306 70. Buffalo grass {BucJiloe dactyloides) 310 111. 71. Little blue stem (Andropogon sco- 112. partus) 313 72. Side-oats grama (BoiUeloua curti- pendula) 316 73. Big blue stem (Andropogon fur- calm) 319 74. White grama (Boutclona oligog- 113. tachya) 322 114, 75. Carrying salt hay to the stack 326 76. Making the stack 327 115. 77. Completed stack 328 78. Salt-marsh grasses — the spartinas 329 79. Salt-marsh grasses, sea spear grass, 116, spike grass, large reed couch grass, browntop, creeping fescue, and black grass 330 80. How the farm is destroyed 334 81. How the farm is regained 335 82. How the farm is retained 336 83. Bag worm (Thyridopteryx ephem- 117 erceformis) 361 84. Bag worm at successive stages of growth 362 85. The imported elm leaf-beetle 365 86. Orgyia Uucogtigma 369 118, 87. Tussock-moth caterpillar. First, second, and third stages 870 119. 88. Tussock-moth caterpillar. Third and fourth stages 371 89. Silver maple leaves eaten by larvae 120, of tussock moth .' 374 90. Ichneumouid parasite of tussock- 121 moth caterpillar 375 91. Fallwebworm. Moths and cocoons 380 92. Fall wobworm. Larva, pupa, and 122. moth 381 93. Fall webworm. Suspended larva 123 and section of web 382 124. 94. PhyUoxera vaxtatrix. Leaf with 125. galls, section of gall; egg, larva, 126, adult female 386 95. Phylloxera vastatrix. Root galls, with enlargement of same; root- galllouse , 387 96. Pliylloxira vastatrix. Migrating 128, stage, pupa, winged adult eggs, 129, and mouthparts 388 87. Phylloxera vastatrix. Sexed stage- I larvifonu female, egg, and sbriv- 130. eled female 389 131. 96. Fidia viticida. Eggs and full- 132, grown larva, pupa, beetle, injury 133. to roots ai-d leaves 392 134. Page. Amphicerus hicaudatus. Larva, larval burrow, pupa, beetle (dor- sal and lateral views), and injury to young shoots and canes 394 Hattica chalyhea. Larva, beetle, injury to buds and leaves, and beetles killed by fungus 395 Macrodactylus .'mbf:pi7iosvs. Lar- va, pupa, beetle, injury to leaves and blossoms, with beetles, nat- ural size, at work 397 Desmia inaculalis. Larva, pupa, male and female moths, and grape leaf folded by larva 398 Philampehis achemon. Young and mature larva, pupa, moth, and para.sitized larva 399 Typhlocyba. Typical form, female and male — all allied species; larva, pupa, and appearance of injured leaf 401 Eudemis hotrana. L.nrva, pupa, moth, folded leaf with pupa shell, and grape showing injury 403 Catbird {Galeoscoptes carolinen- »is) 407 Brown thrasher (Harporhynchu* rufus) 412 Mockingbird (Mimvt polyglottot). 415 House wren {Troglodytes aedon). . . 417 The meadow lark {Satumella magna) 421 Baltimore oriole (Icterus galhula) . 427 A, Microscopic appearance of pure milk ; B. microscopic appearance of milk after standing in a warm room for a few hours in a dirty dish. It shows the fat globules and forms of bacteria 434 A small milk separator 436 A vertical section through the bowl of the separator 437 A, Milk containing tubercle bacilli ; B, tubercle bacilli from a serum culture 438 A, Microscopic appearanoe of a pure culture of swine-plague bac- teria in milk; B, swineplagae bacteria as they appear in stained preparations ifrom the liver or spleen of a rabbit ; O, in bouillon culture 440 A, Hogcholera bacilli as they ap- pear in ordinarily stained prepa- rations from cultures ; B, when stained in a special manner show- ing their flagella 441 Bacilli of anthrax. A, without spores ; -B, with spores 442 A, Bacilli of typhoid fever; B, the same, stained by special method showing their flagella 442 Diagram showing increase in cheese production, 1849-1889 453 Diagram showing exports of cheese from tlie United States and Can- ada 463 Diagram showing influence of fat upon yield of cheese 470 Irrigation by basins 483 Irrigation by checks 484 Irrigation by furrows 4S4 Irrigation by moans of check lev- ees for orchards on sloping hill- sides 485 Irrigation by means of terraces on steep hillsides 485 Edmund Ruffin 495 Diagram of exhibit of U. S. De- partment of Agriculture at At- lanta Exposition 504 Diagram of cuts of beef 572 Diagram of cuts of veal 572 Diagram of cuts of mutton 572 Diagram of cuts of pork 672 Orchard -spraying apparatus 586 YEARBOOK U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Mr. President: The Secretary of Agriculture lias the honor to submit his Third Annual Report. It is a statement of the doings of the United States Department of Agriculture during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1895. It mil show wherein expenditures have been reduced for the sake of economy, and wherein they have been increased for the sake of efficiency. BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. MEAT INSPECTION. Meat inspection during the fiscal year increased and improved. The public demanded more extended and critical inspection in all the great cities where the larger abattoirs are located. Earnest efforts were made by the Department to insi)ect all animals slaughtered for inter- state and foreign trade. Those efforts, however, have been made only in the cities where United States inspection has been permanently instituted. At such killing places calves and sheep have been included in the inspection. The number of animals inspected at slaughterhouses during the year was 18,575,909. During the preceding year only 12,944,056 were inspected. This shows 5, 631,913 more this year than last. The work, therefore, of inspection at the abattoirs during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1895, was augmented by about 43 per cent. During the same year, in the stock yards, ante-mortem inspection was also made of 5,102,721 animals. By ordei- of the President of the United States, inspectors were placed in the classified service on July 1, 1894. Since that time the number of those officers has been largely reenforced from the list of eligibles recorded in the office of the United States Civil Service Com- mission. All inspectors thus appointed are graduates of reputable 4 A 95 1* 9 10 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. veterinarj^ colleges and liave passed satisfactory examinations in veter- inary science before tlie Civil Service Commission, Therefore tlie edu- cational acquirements of the corps of inspectors are of so high a grade that meat and animal inspection must become of great sanitary value to consumers at home and to interstate and foreign commerce, provided State and municipal authorities intelligently and diligently cooperate with those of the National Government. If such cooperation fails, then the people of the great killing centers become the consumers of all rejected animals and meats. The protection of domestic health will be much imjiroved when each i^urchaser of meats demands and insists upon that which has been governmentally inspected and cer- tificated. Had not the whole matter of animal and meat inspection better be relegated to State and municipal authority ? When and where will the duties of the Bureau of Animal Industry otherwise be defined and restricted ? And what will be ultimately the annual appropriation of money required to compensate its constantly increasing force of inspectors, assistant inspectors, stock examiners, and taggers ? But whether inspected by national or State authorities, the owners of the animals and carcasses inspected should pay for the ser^ice which confers an added selling value to their commodities. During the year this inspection cost 1.1 cents per animal inspected. The aggregate sum paid out for that service was $262,731.34. In 1893 inspection cost 4f cents per animal. In 1891 it cost If cents per animal. This service has been maintained during the year at 55 abattoirs, situated in 18 cities. During the previous year insi)ection was con- ducted at onl}^ 46 abattoirs and in 17 cities. MICROSCOPIC INSPECTION OF PORK. During the fiscal year 1895, 45,094,598 pounds of pork were exam- ined microscopically and exported, while during the year 1894 only 35,437,937 pounds went abroad, and in 1893 only 20,677,410 pounds of microscopically examined pork were exported. And notwithstanding the agrarian protectionists of Germany, who have instituted by unjust discriminations every possible impediment to the consumption of pork and beef from the United States in that Empire, 29,670,410 pounds of microscopically inspected hams, bacon, and other cured swine flesh were exported directly to that country; while France, which is intermittently discriminating against us, took 9,203,995 pounds of the same product; Denmark, 472,443; Spain, 4,752 ; and Italy, 3,630. Indirectly Germany and France probably received much more American bacon and hams than can be estimated from data at hand ; but the amounts set down for those two countries were sent directly to German and French ports, and can be verified by the records of the Department of Agriculture. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 11 Reciprocal certification of the chemical purity of vviiies exported from those countries to the United States may some time be demanded from the German and French Governments as a sanitary sliield to American consumers, for certainly American meats are as -wholesome as foreign wines. In the fiscal j'ear 1895, 905,050 hog carcasses and 1,005, 3G5 pieces of swine flesh \rere microscoj)ically examined. This shows a total of 1,910,415 specimens placed under the microscope. The cost of this was $93,451. 10. The cost of each examination was therefore 4. 9 cents. In 1893 the same examination cost 8| cents -per specimen, and in 1894, G| cents. The foregoing statement shows a reduction of 25 per cent in the cost of insi)ection in 1894, compared with the inspection in 1893; it shows likewise a reduction of 25 jyev cent in 1895, compared with 1894. This inspection cost for each pound of meat in 1894, 2--^%^ mills, and in 1895 it cost 2 mills per pound. INSPECTION OF LIVE ANIMALS FOR EXPORTATION. During the year 057,756 cattle were inspected for the export trade, and in 1894, 725,243. The United States actually exported during the fiscal year 1895 324,299 head, but in 1894 they sent out 363,535. This shows a falling off of exported cattle during the fiscal year 1895 of 39,236 head, com- pared Avith the year 1894. Out of all the cattle inspected, 1,060 were rejected during the year 1895, while only 184 were rejected during the year 1894. The number of sheep inspected for exportation in 1895 was 704,044. The number really exported was 350,808. In 1894 only 85,809 were sent abroad. Therefore, there was in the year 1895 an increase of 264,999 exported sheep. This increase is over 300 per cent. The foregoing statement shows that, taking cattle and sheep together, 1,361,800 animals w^ere inspected in the year for foreign markets. It also shows tliat out of that number a total of 675,107 animals were shipped abroad. Every bovine animal was tagged and numbered. Each number was registered so that individual animals could be identified. All the cattle were certified to be free from disease. DANGERS AND DIFFICULTIES OF SHEEP SHIPMENTS. Shoop, although lioalthy when exported, sometimes become affected witli seai> while on sliix)board. Large numbers of sheep crowded together in a vitiated atmosphere are conducive to the speedy develop- ment of seal). In case any of the parasites of that disease are present the symptoms of scab are rajndly developed during the voyage. Flocks carefully examined and found entirely free from any symp- toms of disease at the lime of embarkation are sometimes found 12 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. badly affected with scab when landed. Prolonged and diligent study has been given to provide measures to prevent infection with this disease. It is probable that some of the sheep are infected in cars which have previously carried diseased animals. Others are infected in stock yards, while others may be infected in the ships themselves. It is evident that to guard against all these sources of infection com- prehensive regulations are required for the disinfection of cars, stock yards, and ships, and, furthermore, that inspection must be so rigorous and specific as to prevent the sale by growers and feeders of diseased sheep to be placed on the market. VESSEL INSPECTION. All vessels in the export cattle and sheep trade have during the year been thoroughly inspected by officers of the Bureau of Animal Industr3\ That inspection was made in accordance with the act of Congress approved March 3, 1891. Revised regulations have been issued embodying the amendments suggested by actual experience since that law came into vigor. The losses of live animals exported from the United States during the year have been heavier than usual. An investigation has there- fore been commenced to determine whether any part of these losses was due to noncompliance with the regulations of this Department. Great Britain found that out of the 294,331 head of American cattle shipped to England, a loss was incurred while in transit of 1,836 head; that is, 0.62 per cent, as compared with 0.87 per cent in 1894. The number of sheep inspected after landing in Europe was 310,138. There had been lost in transit 8,480 head — that is, 2.66 per cent — in 1895. In 1894 the loss was 1.29 per cent. STOCK YARDS INSPECTION. Stock yards inspection is to prevent the spread of contagious dis- eases through interstate and foreign commerce. Texas fever is the only disease thus far absolutely controlled by this inspection. The further development and improvement of its active force in the field will enable the Bureau to finally include hog cholera, tuberculosis, sheep scab, and other diseases in its examinations of domestic ani- mals in market. QUARANTINE SEASON AGAINST TEXAS FEVER. From February 15 to December 1, 1894, there were received from the infected cattle districts and inspected at quarantine pens 30,531 cars of cattle. Those cars carried 826,098 animals. During the same period 8,958 carloads of cattle were inspected in transit, and 28,650 cars were cleaned and disinfected under the super- vision of inspectors. During the same time there were also inspected 156,660 cattle from the noninfected district of Texas, which had been REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 13 shipped or driveu to NorUieru States for feeding purposes. The iden- tification of the branding of all those cattle was necessary. That determined whether they could be with safety grazed and fed in the North. COST OF TEXAS FEVER AND EXPORT INSPECTION. Inspection to guard against Texas fever in interstate and foreign trade cost $104,492.40. Assuming that half of that sum should be charged to the inspection of export animals, the cost of inspecting 675,107 head of animals (cattle and sheej)) exported would be $52,246. 23, just 7.74 cents per head. During the preceding year the per capita cost, computed in the same way, was 10. 75 cents. The number of indi- vidual animals inspected in this country was 1,361,800, and 604,469 were inspected in Great Britain. This makes a total of 1,966,269 animals. Thus the average cost of one inspection for each individual animal was 2.66 cents. INSPECTION AND QUARANTINE OF ANIMALS IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED STATES. During the year the United States imported, quarantined, and Inspected at the Garfield Station, in New Jersey, 142 head of cattle, 23 swine, and 3 moose, besides 9 cattle from India; at Littleton, near Boston, Mass., 12 sheep were quarantined and inspected; at Buffalo, N. Y., 366 cattle, and at Port Huron, Mich., 1 bovine. Altogether 702 imported animals from Europe were quarantined for the prescribed period and inspected. ANIMALS PROM CANADA. During the same period 293,594 animals were imported from Canada, but not subject to quarantine, as follows: 292,613 sheep, 908 swine, 48 head of cattle, and 5 moose. CATTLE PROM MEXICO. From January 1, 1895, to June 30, 1895, 63,716 head of inspected cattle came into the United States from the adjacent Republic of Mexico. All of that number of animals were critically examined and passed upon by the emploj'ces of the Bureau of Animal Industry. No diseases were found among them. Their sanitary condition was, as a rule, most excellent, and their weights showed an improvement in breeding, while some animals were of very high grades. It is suggested that if the duty were taken off Mexican cattle it would be of great advantage to the grazers of Texas and the feeders of Kansas, Nebraska, and other Northwestern States which have a surplus of corn to convert into beef. Should these cattle be let in free of duty, it would certainly not enhance the price of steaks and roasts to beef eaters in the United States, who largely outnumber beef producers. 14 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SCIENTIFIC WORK OF THE BUREAU. Researches by the scientists of the Bureau, directed by Dr. D. E. Salmon, its chief, have during the past year yielded satisfactory and valuable results. Investigations are now in progress, the objective points of which have not yet been attained, though there is reasonable ground to believe that conclusions may be reached which will prove of great A-alue to the growers and feeders of domestic animals through- out the United States. For specific descriptions of the investigations here alluded to reference is respectfully and confidently made to the Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, which will record in detail the attempts to destroy Texas fever ticks upon and among Southern cattle by various insecticides. That report will dis- close the amount of tuberculin and mallein sent out, upon application, to the proper authorities of the several States of the Union during the fiscal year. DAIRY DIVISION. The dairy division was organized July 1, 1895, with Major H. E. Alvord as chief, with an assistant chief and two clerks.. Its work for some time to come will be largely confined to the collection and dissemina- tion of information relative to dairying as carried on in the United States and some foreign countries. Original scientific research bearing upon this branch of rural industry will necessarily be postponed until proper foundations have been laid therefor out of the experiences and observations that at present are being collected. It is hoped that this division will prove of great educational advantage to the farmers of the country. It is not reasonable to expect from the division anything more than practical didactics. It is not the province of this division, or any other in the United States Department of Agriculture, to do more than ijlainlj^ instruct i^eoi^le in the various branches of farming how to intelligently help themselves. During the fiscal year the Bureau of Animal Industry issued many reports, bulletins, and circulars which have been in great demand among the editors of agricultural periodicals and the intelligent farmers of the United States. The approi^riation for the Bureau for the year ended June 30, 1805, was $800,000. Out of that sum less than $533,000 has been expended. The balance to be returned to the Treasury of the United States will, when the j- ear's accounts are finally closed, exceed $250,000. FOREIGN MARKETS FOR AMERICAN MEAT PRODUCTS. Cheap swine feed throughout the Kingdom of Great Britain during the past year caused a large increase there in home-fattened pork. The British farmer, even at the present low price of bacon, finds it more profitable to fatten hogs than to market beans, pease, and cereals. The number of breeding soavs in Great Britain increased over 100,000 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15 during tlic year. That was an advance of more than G-Jt per cent. The number of other swine increased 430,314. This was an advance of more than 21 per cent. The total number of swine in Great Britain on tlie 4th day of June, 1895, is officially stated at 2,884,431. The British swine-flesh increase helped materially to depress the market for imported meats. Therefore prices averaged considerably lower during the year 1895 than in the year 1894. But the Sei^tcmber prices of the j'ear 1895 were not lower than those of the previous j^ear. The Wiltshire packers, at Calne, England, are paying d-^ cents per pound for hogs on foot not exceeding 150 pounds in weight and not carrying more than 2^^ inches of fat on the back. Heavier weight hogs bring smaller ]3rices. English packers invariably pay a premium for swine precisely adapted to making the kind of bacon most in demand — that is to say, lean, thin, and mildly cured. The call for this sort of meat throughout Great Britain has caused a change in the breeding of swine throughout almost the entire realm. The Tam- worth hog is now in more request than the Berkshire, Essex, or any other established breed. The farmers and packers of the United States must study and cater to foreign desire and demand in this respect if ihoy propose to secure and hold at a profit their share of the foreign markets. During the past summer there was a ver}^ considerable advance in the price of the bacon offered in the English market from Canada, from the Continent, and from the English abattoirs. This rise was brought about by a temporary shortness of bacon supplies, but United States bacon did not participate to any appreciable extent in the gen- eral advance, for the reason that as prices went uj) consumption was checked and imports Avere increased, so that there came to prices a speedy decline. Competition in supplying bacon to European mar- kets is increasing from year to year because of the increasing number of packing houses ujoon the Continent. Danish bacon is constantly growing in favor with the European consumers. The shii^ments of that meat from Denmark during the seven months ended July 31 last were increased 9,049,600 pounds, compared with the shipments for the parallel period of the year 1894, notwithstanding the Danes received, because of a low-priced market, less money for the increased quantity by nearly *!250,000 than the previous year yielded. The shipments of United States bacon increased in that time 15,080,000 pounds. But it brought less money by $1,000,000 than the shipments of the year 1894. During the same time Canada received a less sum of money for an increased exj)ortation of bacon to Europe. Modern methods of skillfully preparing and preserving great varie- ties of meat and vegetable foods of all kinds keep European and all other markets almost constantly supplied with a great variety of palatable and wholesome edibles. Moreover, the rapidity mth which the United States and parts of Europe can respond to any unusual 16 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. demand for bacon and other ijork products renders it improbable that there will be any considerable and permanent advance in the prices of hog products during the immediate future. But if there should come an advance, it will, it is reasonable to conclude, be maintained onlj^ temporarily. American packers can only obtain and hold Eng- lish and other European bacon markets by specially preparing their meats to meet the taste and demand of those markets. Smaller and leaner swine for bacon purposes are demanded in nearly all foreign markets. And the meat must be mildly cured. But in Mexico and some of the South and Central American States the heaviest, fattest, and thickest sides are required. The American packers who will cure bacon as above described for European consumption and maintain a high quality for their brands will find a reward not only in European but in the home markets, for it is a fact that each year limited quantities of English bacon are shipped uninspected to New York and Boston grocers, who retail it at high figures to fastidious customers. It is considered a luxury at some American breakfast tables, though no inspection has been demanded or imposed by the United States. The following tables will be of interest to American producers and consumers alike: Wholesale prices of bacon and hams in London. BACON. [Per 100 pounds.] Product. Irish English - Continental -- American (middles, short ribs) Cumberland cut Singed sides Canadian Legs, green Irish Cumberland American: Long cut Shortcut September, 1895. $12.85-$13..50 14.09 15.10 9.69 14.11 8.68 9.54 8.35 9.11 9.54 10.60 9.11 11.28 11.71 Same time last year. $13.0a-$13.40 14.00 17.00 10.85 9.54 9.54 9.11 10.00 12.50 13.25 10.50 9.98 9.98 11.38 13.00 July, 1895. |9.75-$12.37 10.42 11.73 9.33 7.37 7.37 6.94 9.11 10.64 11. 73 7.81 7.81 7.37 9.98 13.25 Sametimelast year. $13.03-$15.20 14. 11 16 29 12.00 8.68 8.25 9.54 10.85 12.58 14.77 9.54 11.71 13.09 HAMS. $17.33-$23.00 17.33 19.50 9.54 10.25 10.25 $15.70-$21.50 18.00 21.75 11.60 11.50 13.60 13.40 $15. 64-$30. 41 17.33 21.73 $16. .53-121.28 17.78 21.73 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 17 Imports of haco)i into the United Kingdom during the first seven months of 1S95, with comparison!^ tvith a similar period in each of the tivo previous years. From— Quantities ' for seven months ended July 31— Values for seven months ended July 31— 1893. 1894. 1895. 1893. 1894. 1895. Denmark 400,491 8,595 39,374 1,211,448 59,242 474,335 211 85, 413 1,5^,628 50,890 5,55, 179 15 86,607 1,681,340 73,422 $5,905,405.28 127,307.64 513,493.60 14,933,090.70 760,580.41 $6,737,489.18 3,031.82 854,27,5.14 14,931,940.34 657,483.61 $0,505,206.26 187 79 Germany 77.5,267.51 13,924,204.98 904,521.75 United States Other countries Total 1,719,150 2,150,477 2, 3%, 563 22,239,877.63 23 184 230 09 ** loo ^'^^ <><* ' ' In hundredweights of 112 pounds. Imports of hams into the United Kingdom during the first seven months of 1S95, loith comparisons with a similar pemod in each of the two previous years. From— Quantities > for seven months ended July 31— Values for seven months ended July 31— 1893. 1894. 1895. 1893. 1894. 1895. Canada 16,822 510,460 6,402 19,150 629,701 2,534 35,987 764,376 2,103 $200, 766. &3 7,564,365.93 99,373.93 $231,334.18 7,378,397.50 41,204.65 $388, 117. 97 8,238,478.37 32,006.97 United States Other countries Total 533,684 651,385 802,466 7,924,505.89 7,650,926.33 8,658,603.31 ' In hundredweights of 112 pounds. Imports of pork into the United Kingdom during the first seven months of 1S95, with comparisons ivith a similar jjeriod in each of the two previous years. Product. Quantities' for seven months ended July 31— Values for seven months ended July 31— 1893. 1894. 1895. 1893. 1894. 1895. Salted (not hams) : From United States .. From other countries . 56,295 41,131 84,675 44,663 82,034 47,366 $514,841.63 242,064.57 $700,099.55 302,175.58 $504,937.64 263,124.28 Total 97,328 129,341 129,400 756,906.20 1,002,275.13 827 051 92 Fresh: From Holland ... 60,251 14,613 19,078 51,905 1.5,240 14,921 114,179 14, 419 8,513 696,347.48 176,454.42 257,423.24 591,221.35 186,284.75 198,013.01 1,268,526.21 173,476.12 74,681.30 From Belgium From other countries. Total 93,942 82,066 137,111 1,130,225.14 975,519.11 1,516,083.63 ' In hundredweights of 112 pounds. Imports of lard into the United Kingdom during the first seven months of 1895, with comparisons loith a similar period in each of the two previous years. From— Quantities' for seven months ended July 31— Values for seven months ended July 31— 1893. 1894. 1895. 1893. 1894. 1895. United States 631,884 21,&58 834,028 11,622 1,067,646 10,476 $8 072 954 11 «8 fiiis .v>"> fai $9,040,550.57 97 334 86 Other countries 282,a-.9.19 113,540.29 Total 653,542 845, &50 1,078,122 8 355 313 30 « 1S2 (WW 89 9,137,885.43 ■ In hundredweights of 112 pounds. 18 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Wlidlesale prices of lard in London. [Per 100 pounds.] Product. Irish : Bladders - Kegs - --- English --- Continental American pails. - Compound, or lardine September, Same time last 1805. year. $8.6S-$10 85 8.00 8.50 10.25 7.70 6.93 5.63 10.85 7.15 5.85 $10.85-$12.79 9.50 10.25 11.75 11 28 10.15 7.60 11.50 10.35 8.48 July, 1895. $7.81-S11.07 7.81 8.25 9.98 8.25 7.37 10.42 9.11 7.49 5.96 Same time last year. $10.42-113.25 8. 90 9. 54 11.07 10.85 8.48 12.00 11.07 8.68 6.66 CATTLE AND MEAT TRADE WITH GREAT BRITAIN. In June, 1895, English farmers carried 4,500,000 head of cattle. Three years before the same farmers owned 5,000,000 head. Thus a decline of 10 per cent is shown in thirty-six months. In Scotland, in June, 1895, there were 1,178,000 cattle; in Wales, 704,000, and at the same time Ireland contained 4,358,000. Thus the total for the United Kingdom, in June, 1895, is about 10,750,000 head. But the United Kingdom is not holding its proportion of the trade as a purveyor of meat to its own people. Up to the present year the United States and Canada have had an unquestioned monoply in the supply of imported live cattle to the British people; but now there is vigorous and growing competition from Argentina and also incipient competition from Australia. The bulk of American shij)ments must be classed as first quality. The London average price for the six months ended August 31, 1895, for prime cattle was 88 per 100 pounds on foot; the Liverpool aver- age, $7.43; the Newcastle average, 157.62; and the Edinburgh average, $7.59. It is, however, only when we are dealing with live weights — that is to say, when the cattle are passing wholesale into first hands on the other side of the Atlantic — that we are able to detect any considerable difference between quotations for American beef and those for English or Scotch beef. During the first six months of this year domestic beef sold in Liverpool by the carcass at from S8 to $11.50 per 100 pounds. During the same time beef from the United States sold by the carcass at from $10 to $10.75 per 100 pounds. The Liver- pool prices include all grades of domestic cattle; but shipments from the United States are picked lots. Our prices did not, therefore, decline to within $2 of the Liverpool minimum, but the Liverpool maximum price exceeded ours by three-fourths of a cent per pound. However, only a limited number of very fine carcasses were sold at top Liverpool prices, while a fair average of United States steers reached the maximum of $10.75 per 100 pounds. Therefore, Amer- ican carcasses, sold in Liverpool, approximated the same prices that English, Irish, or Scotch brought in the same market. The fact that a REPORT OV THE SECRETARY. 19 larji^e number of Irish and soiiio Scotch cattle are slauglitered at the Liverpool abattoirs, and that Liverpool's domestic trade is not subject to the same conditions which c^)ntrol the import trade from the United States, should not be lost sight of. To illustrate, prices at Birkenhead are sometimes considerably depressed by the simultaneous arrival of carcasses of cattle from Canada and the United States, while domes- tic prices at the Liverj^ool abattoirs are not thereby in the slightest degi'ee affected. During the nine months of the year ended with last September, at the great Central meat market in London, the prices of prime Scotch and English beef compared with the prices of American as follows: Scotch sides, $11.25 to 114. 62| per 100 pounds; English prime, $11.25 to $12.87^- per 100 pounds; American, 19 to $11.50 per 100 pounds. The extremely hot weatlier of September lowered all i^rices, and the high temperature of that month is whoUj^ responsible for the minimum quotation of $9 per 100 pounds for American beef. Up to the begin- ning of September the lowest price during the year had been $10.50 per 100 pounds. Top prices in London are only paid for the finest beef of the world. But the minimum prices of that city do not by m\y means represent the poorest quality. That finds a more profitable market elsewhere. The top prices for American beef in London are, as a rule, about equal to the bottom prices for the best Scotch and English beef. When United States meat is selling from $10 to $11 per 100 pounds the Scotch and English are usually bringing from $11 to $14 per 100 pounds. Of course, these prices refer exclusively to the wholesale market and dealings. The apparent disparity in values disappears when the beef reaches the retailer. A Birkenhead-killed American side reappears in the retail market as "prime Scotch," while a Deptford-killed United States steer mas- querades as "prime English beef." The British consumer is unable to detect, eitlier by eye or palate, the origin of a side of beef or the roast cut from it. Thus far all attempts to identify and establish the nativity and fattening places of meats in English markets have failed. British consumers learned long ago that they had been tlioroughly and completely deceived by buj'ing American for Scotch and English beef. The conclusion drawn from said successful and nutritious deception is that American beef is as good as any in the whole world. The complaint now made by consumers is merely that the retailer does not allow them to participate in the profits which he makes upon United States beef over and above those which he pockets upon Scotch and English of the same or similar quality. The report of the London Central Market, just issued, states that of the 341,000 tons of meat received there in 1804, 71,G38 tons were American (tliis includes the relatively small quantit}' shipped from Canada), and 49,908 tons came from Australia and New Zealand. The United States and Canada will not be able in 1895 to show that 20 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. they liave supplied 20 j)er cent of the meat entering the great London market, and it may be a long time before they will repeat the figures of 1894. During the present year, however, steadier trade and prices have been quite satisfactory to American shippers and far more pro- ductive of profits than were the flurries and fluctuations of last year. Cattle in Great Britain from the United States represent more than 68 per cent of all its beef importations. During the year United States beef carcasses have exceeded in price those from Canada by 25 cents per 100 pounds. Argentina during tlie first eight months of 1893 sent to Europe 5,643 head of cattle. During the same period of 1894, 7,831 head were exported, and during a corresponding period in 1895, 25,165 head. The shipments of this year were valued at $9,181,000. Thus they were priced on the other side of the Atlantic at 178.72 per head; that is, $6.71 less than the declared value per capita of cattle from the United States. But this difference in price inadequately represents the decided difference in quality. South American cattle are coarser than ours, and the meat is not so salable in the English market. Prices of Argentina beef per carcass range from $1 to $2.50 per 100 pounds less than those paid for North American cattle. There is, however, no doubt that the Argentina shipper can make a profitable business at the prices named, and from year to year shipments from that Republic will continue and increase. Argentina is the most formidable beef-selling competitor of the United States in the world's markets. Australia made the first large shipment of live animals from the Antarctic continent on the steamship Southern Cross, 5,050 tons regis- ter, which arrived at London from Sydney on the 10th day of Sep- tember, 1895, laden with cattle, sheep, and horses. This steamship came by way of Montevideo. That route was taken to avoid the heat of the Red Sea. The voyage occupied two months. During that time 52 cattle, 82 sheep, and 1 horse were lost. The shipment orig- inally was made up of 550 cattle — grade Herefords and Durhams; 488 sheep, which were crossbreeds and Merino wethers, and 29 horses; the whole in charge of 30 men. The freight upon the cattle and horses was $39 a head, and the freight rate upon each sheep was $2.50. This Department is credibly informed that the freight, insurance, fodder, and attendance amounted to $68. 25 for each horse and each beef ani- mal, and to $6 for each head of sheep. The value of the cattle at Sydney was $20 a head; therefore they stood the shipper, upon arriv- ing at Deptford, where they were sold, $88 apiece. The condition of the animals was fair, as those which had been selected for the experiment were very large and coarse, the idea being that it cost no more to send a large steer than a small one. The prices realized were a great disappointment to the shippers and were en- tirely inadequate to recoui3 them. It is therefore generally admitted REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 21 in England that the experiment resulted in a very considerable loss. However, it is by no means certain that further experiments will not be made, nor can Americans congratulate themselves upon having no competition in the future from Australian cattle and their products in the markets of Europe. Frozen beef from that country will continue to be placed (although it is admitted to be of inferior quality) in European markets. But it is charged that out of the Australian cattle which arrived on the Southern Cross and were killed at Deptford 12 were found to have contagious pleuro-pneumonia. Shipments of chilled beef fi-om tlie United States fell off during the first eight months of the jjresent year 11,000,000 pounds, but increased over the corresponding months of 1893 by about the same number of pounds. The high quality of beef shipped to Europe from the United States has been steadily maintained and appreciated by remunerative and profitable prices. Refrigerated hind quarters sold during the year from $10.50 to $13.50 per 100 pounds. The maximum price has been considerably above the top prices at any time obtainable for beef from American cattle killed upon landing at the abattoirs of either Deptford or Birkenhead. Naturally it seems that the ship- ments of chilled beef should rapidly increase and cause a decline and impairment of the live-cattle transatlantic trade. Nevertheless, it appears to work out more profitably to transport the live cattle. They are carried on parts of the ship that would otherwise be unoccupied. Thej^ do not require such special fittings and appliances as to debar the vessel from carrying other cargoes when cattle are not available. Shipments of frozen beef from the antipodes may possibly become more common in English markets. But after it is defrosted it is unsightly in appearance, lacks fiavor, and is repulsive when served in the English method as a "cold joint" the second day after cooking. Australian hind quarters have sold from 16.50 to $7 per 100 pounds throughout the present year, up to September 1, at the Central Mar- ket in London. That is only a trifle more than half the prices quoted for American refrigerated hind quarters. AMERICAN CATTLE IN GLASGOW. During the year ended May 31, 1895, there were only 26,420 cattle from the United States landed at Glasgow. From June, 1879, to the 31st day of May above mentioned, American cattle landed at Glasgow numbered 337,627 animals. As a rule the cattle arrived there in good condition. The authorities of Glasgow make no discriminations against American live stock when compared with that from Canada. Animals from both countries are, by law, slaughtered within a certain number of days after landing. The average prices realized in Glasgow for cattle from the United States have been about 1 cent less than those obtained for Scotch cattle. The latest sale held at Yorkhill, Glasgow, on September 30, 1895, was of 384 United States {inimals, 22 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. which realized, for 26G steers, from .$G2 to $85 and §115 each, and 32 bulls, which sold per head from $50 and $65 to $96. Approximately the dead-weight quotations for the animals were: Best quality of steers, $12.15 per 100 pounds; heavy prime steers, $11.71; rough, secondaiy animals, $11; and at the same market, five days before — that is, on September 25 — top Scotch cattle sold at $13 to $13.70 per 100 pounds; secondary, $12.37 to $12.80; third quality, $8.45 to $10.20; middling and inferior, $5.42 to $7.80. The bulk of the meat from American cattle sold at Glasgow is cut and retailed without any distinctive reference as to where it originated. In that city there are comparatively few retail dealers who sell Scotch beef exclusively. Those few retailers demand higher prices than those asked hj dealers offering both Scotch and American meats. American cattle in the Scotch markets are looked upon as far superior in grade and quality to Irish cattle; in fact, they are regarded as next to the best Scotch. The following tables explain themselves : Table shoiving the quantity and value of beef imported into the United Kingdom during the first eight vionths of the years 1S93, 1SD4, and 1S95. Product. Quantities! for eight months ended August 31— Values for eight months ended August 31 — 1893. 1894. 1895. 1893. 1894. 1895. Salted : From United States... From other countries. 132,327 6,284 150,260 5,701 135,381 3,355 $780,104.81 54,134.93 $1,085,837.81 38,265.28 $854,030.39 24,244.90 Total 128,611 155,961 138,736 834,339.74 1,124,103.09 878,875.29 Fresh : From United States. .. From other countries. 995,746 184,648 1,888,399 215,456 1,093,299 326,972 10,707,195.43 1,575,811.63 12,293,689.03 1,575,1.54.65 11, 141, 934. 4« 2,381,626.16 Total 1,180,394 1,403,855 1,420.271 12,283,007.06 13,8aS,843.68 13, 53:5. .500. 62 Meat unenumerated : 83,865 13,839 27,905 74,896 19,097 30,729 116,833 21,351 33,098 917,125.98 143,332.52 319,067.19 796,879.64 173,943.30 aw, 103. 89 1,213,919.21 From United States. . . From other countries. 176, 730. 66 335,509.50 Total 125,605 134,722 171,283 1,379,525.69 1,329,926.83 1,726,225.37 ' In hundredweights of 112 pounds. Table shoioing the quantity and value of meat, preserved othericise than by salting, imported into the United Kingdom during the first eight months of the years 1SD3, 1894, and 1895. Product. Quantities 1 for eight months ended August 31— Values for eight months ended August 31— 1893. 1894. 1895. 1893. 1894. 1895. Beef . . 239,385 57,050 86,666 176,724 77,113 98,790 302,453 L26,569 122, 138 $2,829,957.33 523,898.18 1,519,506.22 $2,384,891.58 658,588.24 1,591,729.95 $3,057,427.80 Mutton . 1,017,536.48 1,825,448.48 Total 383,101 352,627 551,160 4,873,361.73 4,635,209.77 6,500,412.76 ' In hundredweights of 113 pounds. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 23 Tlie number and value of cattle imported into the United Kingdom during the first eight months of the years 1S9S, 1894, and 1S95. From— Number for eight months ended August 31— Values for eight months ended August 31— 1898. 1«94. 1896. 1893. 1894. 1895. 5t,600 157, 157 5,643 48,930 273,678 7,831 89 54,263 176,470 25,165 673 $4,751,700 14,309,000 433,473 9,934 $3,979,000 23,763,000 580,000 10,000 14,463,000 15,416,000 1,981,000 00,156 United States --. Other countries Total 217,477 380,518 256,569 19,504,106 28,333,000 21 920 156 Average wholesale prices of dressed meats at the London Central Meat Market, 1S94-05. [Per 100 pounds. Compiled from the Board of Agriculture returns and from the Meat Trades Journal.] Product. First quarter, 1895. Second quar- ter, 1895. Third quarter, 1895. Average for 1894. Scotch: Short sides Long sides English prime Cows and bulls American: Deptford killed Birkenhead killed Refrigerated hind quarters - - Refrigerated fore quarters... Australian frozen hind quarters - Argentinian Deptford killed Mutton, Scotch prime English prime Ewes - - Dutch and G States cattle * Canadian cattle ^ Colorado cattle ' South American cattle '. Mutton (home grown) i.. Berlin : ' Beef (first quality) Mutton (first qtiality)... Paris: < Beef (medium quality) . . . Mutton Quarter ended- Mar. 31, 1895. June 30, 1895. $8.60-$11.00 10.00 10.50 9.75 9.75 9.00 10.00 10.50 10.50 10.25 15.00 1.3.10 13.90 10.35 10.90 13.40 16.35 $8.00-$11.50 10.00 10.75 9.00 9.00 7.50 11.00 13.58 10.10 10.50 10.50 9.50 15.50 13.03 10.70 12.42 16.45 ' From official report to Board of Agriculture. '^ CompUed from prices in Meat Trades Journal. 3 From Deutsche Landwirthschaftliche Presse. * From Journal de I'Agriculture Pratique. Average prices per 100 live pounds of domestic cattle in certain English and Scotch markets for the first six months of 1895 and 1S94. [From official sources. It should be noted that these are live weights.] Location of market. Inferior or third quality. 1895. 1894. Good or sec- ond quality. 1895. 1894. Prime or first quality. 1895. 1894 London Liverpool Newcastle. -. Shrewsbury - Aberdeen Dundee Edinburgh .. Perth $6.26 $6.11 5.65 5.46 5.95 7.00 5.31 6.42 5.73 5.40 6.56 $7.60 6.04 7.25 6.95 6.95 7.17 7.65 7.20 $7.73 6.12 7.28 6.18 6.95 6.95 7.25 $8.00 7.43 7.62 7.47 7.82 7.47 7.59 7.69 $8.38 7.30 7.67 7.16 7.85 7.38 7.40 7.38 Average valu^ per 100 pounds of dead m,eats imported into the United Kingdom. [Compiled at the Board of Agriculture from the trade and navigation accounts.] Product. First quarter, 1895. Second quarter, 1895. Average for the last nine months of 1894. Beef: Fresh $8.79 5.75 7.67 9.41 6.42 8.00 9.33 $8.46 5.57 7.75 10.46 5.47 8.30 9.63 $8.56 Salted 5.90 8.00 Pork: Fresh 10.3(5 Salted 6.13 9.30 10.71 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25 In 1895 there were about 30,000,000 sheep in Great Britain. The falling off in English flocks during the last few years has been very marked. Prices have b 3n, however, firmly maintained for mutton, notwithstanding the great increase of the importations of live sheep and frozen mutton. The United States shipped more than three times as many sheep to England this year as in 1894. Argentina increased her shipments of mutton to the same markets from 53,000 to 240,000, but Canada remained practically stationary.at about 50,000 head. No law compels the slaughtering of these animals at the port of debarka- tion. Many of them, therefore, are fattened upon English pastures and sent to market as English. This is probably the principal reason why the table herewith submitted shows no quotations for American mutton as such : Table showing the quantity and value of mutton imported into the United Kingdom during the first eight months of the years 1893, 1894, and 1895. From— Quantities ' for eight months ended August 31— Values for eight months ended August 31— 1893. 1894. 1895. 1893. 1894. 1895. Germany 16,301 72,724 865,932 353,156 41,881 7,017 67,958 945,449 367,900 58,436 5,368 63,830 1,163,953 469,670 45,509 $198,918.18 834,930.80 8,267,108.00 3,201,928.27 507, 152. 55 $83,007.88 755, 363. .51 9, 032, 520. a5 3,296,912.63 635,287.50 $62,276.59 679,095.74 10.658,097.31 3,lt;2,928.14 433.430.23 Holland .. . Australasia Argentina Other countriea. . . Total 1,348,994 1,446,760 1,747,330 13,010,037.80 13,803,092.36 14,995,818.00 ' In hundredweights of 113 pounds. The Journal of the British Board of Agriculture for the month of September last says: Taken in conjunction with the large increase in the arrivals of live sheep, it is noteworthy that, roughly computing the number of carcasses represented by the total weight of mutton received and adding this to the sheep imported alive into the United Kingdom, the total receipts of mutton alive and dead indicate an importation equivalent to 3,000,000 head of sheep in the half year ended June 30, 1895. The above quotation indicates that the British consumption of imported mutton amounts to 6,000,000 head of sheep in a single year; and as there is no international agreement fixing the price of meats in the English market, the relation of the supply of meats to the demand for meats will continue to regulate the values, and those who can produce beef, pork, and mutton and place it in the European markets at the least cost will secure a monopoly of the trade. The struggle for the privilege of purveying food to consumers in all "^he markets of the civilized world was never before so strenuous, and neither national legislation nor international treaties can permanently retard, repress, increase, or encourage exchanges between the civi- lized peoples of the globe. That trade which is profitable will continue in spite of legislation, and that which is unprofitable can not be legislated into remunerative conditions. 26 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE "WORLD'S MARKET FOR AMERICAN HORSES. During tlie first eight months of the year 1893, 10,177 horses, in the same period of 1894, 15,614 horses, and during the eight months ended August 31, 1895, 22,755 horses from the United States were landed and sold in Great Britain, this last exportation being valued at $2,947,000. The average price of American geldings in the English market dur- ing the first eight months of the year 1895 was $155.50, Geldings from Canada during the same period of time averaged $141 each, while those from Germany during the same months in the English market averaged only $56 per head. However, as the appraised or entered values of horses at custom-houses, where thej" are free of duty, is altogether an arbitrary matter, too much weight should not be given to the per capita valuations aboA'c, as they can not more than approxi- mately represent the real subsequent selling value of the animals. The low valuation of German geldings indicates that those shipments are of an inferior class of horses which can not compete with American animals. The fact is Germany herself is a very large importer of a fine quality of horses from Russia, and animals of superior merits always find a market in Berlin and the other large cities of the Empire. The Department of Agriculture is credibly informed that Germany has taken during the past year almost as many horses from the United States as did Great Britain in 1892, showing that opportunity exists also there for intelligent horse breeders in the United States. Twenty-seven hundred mares were sent from the United States into the British market during the first eight months of this year, as against 461 for the same period last year and 112 for the year 1893. The average value per head of American mares this year was $134. It will be observed that this price is much lower than that of geld- ings. It indicates that no superior mares for breeding purposes were exported from the United States. In September, 1895, some good carriage horses were received in Eng- land from this country. They were of fine appearance, well gaited, thoroughly broken, and free from blemish. The best of them sold at $230 single, and as low as $300 for a matched team. The demand for such animals at that time seemed to be quite abreast, and possibly a little in advance, of the supi)ly. Europeans who have bought and used American horses generally express a very favorable opinion of them. The horses from the United States which have been criticised have been confined to a limited number of heavj^-weight draft horses. Up to date some of the great transportation companies in London which are using Amer- ican horses decline to give positive expression of their opinions regard- ing their qualities and durability. The London Roadear Company, however, is using a great number of American animals, for which it REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 27 has paid from 8100 to $175 a head, and llie managers of that corpora- tion unhesitatingly declare that the imported horses wear as well as the liome bred, and that they acclimatize with facility and celerity. The Andrews-Star Omnibus Company, of London, is also using many American horses, which they purchased through London and New- castle-on-Tyne dealers. Inquiry shows that there are many other establishments in England utilizing American horses, including the Great Eastern Railway Company, which has paid as high as $190 to $220 per head for imported draft horses. Editor McDonald, of the London Farmer and Stock Breeder, writes: Froui what I have been able to learn, it seems to me too early yet to pass any opinion regarding the future of the trade. The warm climate of London gives' the American horses every opportunity of doing well. In Scotland acclimatization is much more difficult, and hence it is found that three months' hard work on the causeway reduces them to skin and bone. The ciistom is largely pursued there (in Scotland) of buying animals from the ship and feeding them into good condition. By this means the farmer is en?.bled to reap a substantial profit with half the trouble and risk involved in breeding. This system is hardly pursued at all in England. Dealers usually hold large strings, and the horse repositories, through which the bulk of the trade is done, are called upon to meet the demand. The market at present is rather depressed, as is the market for home breeds. AMERICAN HORSES IN GLASGOW. The trade in horses from the United States began to assume grow- ing proportions in the city of Glasgow in the year 1891, during which the Dominion Line took into that city 114 horses. But in 1892 it car- ried in 147 head; in 1893, 137 head, and in 1894, 209 head. Since 1891 the Allan steamers have also carried to Glasgow 7,500 horses, and out of that number about 3,000 arrived in 1894. The total number of horses taken into Scotland from the United States and Canada in four years has not been less than 10, GOO. During the same period of time the Scotch exjiort ti-ade has fallen from 1,100 to 20 horses, while the American import trade at Glasgow has grown to about 4,000 animals. Most of the American horses there were natives of the Western States, though shipped from Montreal, Portland, Boston, and New York. As a rule, they have been light wagon or carriage horses. From reputable sources in Glasgow this Department learns that the importation of American horses is now engaging the serious attention of dealers and contractors in that city. The Dei)artment is further informed that the larger proportion of horses received there from the United States have given entire satisfaction to their purchasers, and that the only disappointing animals shipped from this countiy have been a few of the Clydesdale type, which have shown a markedly rheumatic tendency. If horses of a useful size, trained for roadsters and likewise adapted to ordinary wagon work — .something after the style of Cleveland bays — are shipped from the L'nited States to Glas- gow they will, as a rule, find a ready and profitable market. Heavy horses, likewise, weighing from 1,300 to 1,500 pounds, in matched 28 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. l^airs, may be shipped at current prices to that port Avitli a probable profit, though it might prove unprofitable to send in a large number of such animals at the same time. It seems now to be generally conceded in Great Britain that it is cheaper to import American horses than to produce horses in that Kingdom. It is also pretty universally admitted that the Canadian carriage horses are inferior to those exported from the United States, though the Canadian animals are claimed to possess, as a rule, greater l^ower of endurance. There are now a number of reputable firms of agricultural salesmen in England and in Scotland, at London and at Glasgow, to whom consignments have been made by Americans with quite satisfactory results. Immediately upon the arrival of steamers carrying horses, or within a few days after landing, the animals are exposed for sale at auction. They are readily purchased by contract- ors and others who require them for their own use, and thus there are very few transactions through middlemen. INSPECTION OF HORSES FOR EXPORT. In view of the growing foreign market for American horses, the Bureau of Animal Industry, under existing laws, will soon institute a thorough and rigid veterinary insjjection of all horses for exporta- tion. This, it is hoped, will preclude the possibility of the growth of the trade being impaired or suppressed by the foreign protective or agrarian element upon alleged sanitary grounds. After inspection each animal will be tagged and described so that identification will be easily made upon landing should any communicable or contagious disease be alleged to affect a horse in any lot shipped from the United States. It is important that the law providing for meat inspection be amended in several particulars. The suggestions of the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry (page 104, report 1895) are worthy of immediate consideration by the legislative branch of the Govern- ment. Unless the law can be perfected it can not be satisfactorily administered, nor can needed additional regulations be instituted and carried out. DAIRY PRODUCTS. CHEESE. Throughout the year United States cheese has commanded the minimum figure upon the English market, and as by the operation of an invariable law the lower grades always suffer the most bj'' a material fall in prices, our cheese has suffered disproportionately to other makes by the depressed condition of the English cheese market, and has reached in 1895 the lowest price yet quoted for American cheese in that country, namely, 12.17 per 100 pounds. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29 Our agent and correspondent reports in explanation that "United States cheese is, as a whole, the poorest in quality that reaches the English market, and the British public are not only aware of the fact but are prejudiced against it because so much in the past has been adulterated. " "While accusations that ' ' filled cheese " is being dumj^ed on the British markets from the United States go unrefuted, the very first statement impugning the Canadian product in the same manner was met with cabled denials from the Canadian Government; denials from the Canadian agent-general in London and Canadian exporters. The incident, it seems, has actually turned out to be an excellent adver- tisement for Canadian cheese, and it is now perfectly well understood by the British public that Canada is maintaining with strenuous care the quality of her exports. During the first eight months of last year Canada and the United States stood side bj' side in supplying the English market with cheese; but whereas Canada has this year not only held her own, but made a slight gain, shipments from the United States have fallen off 117,000 hundredweight, an amount about corresponding to the increased ship- ments of Australasia and Canada and to the falling off in the total imports into Great Britain. In fact, eveiy country shipping cheese to Great Britain has this year enlarged its trade with that country except the United States, which has lost over 21 per cent of its last year's business. The following table represents the quantity and value of cheese im- ported into the United Kingdom : Table showing the quantity and value of cheese imported into the United Kingdom during the first eight months of the years 1893, 1894, cmd 1895. From— Quantity (cwts. of 112 pounds). Value. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1893. 1894. 1895. Holland 174,009 38,355 36,180 480,642 522,461 12,638 185,904 33,812 50,256 .531,188 538,741 3,269 200,581 37,533 92,160 533,612 421,946 14,074 12,128,135.05 579, 877. .53 456,613.95 5,844,160.4'J 6,277,77.5.25 155,976.18 $2,302,681.81 504,(XJ3.93 623,522.68 6,037,735.15 6,280,412.91 403,194.38 $2,479,423.35 566, 781. 78 1,063,155.04 5 289 647 03 Australasia Canada United States Other countries 4,560,221.94 171,253.13 Total 1,264,286 1,372,670 1,299,905 15,442,538.38 16,150,550.86 14,130,481.27 BUTTER. Shipments of butter from the United States represent almost 1 per cent of the total imported into Great Britain. Denmark still holds the lead of all competitors in supplying this great butter market, others being France, Australasia, Sweden, and Finland, in the order named. 30 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table showing the quantity and value of butter imported into the United Kingdom during the first eight months of the years 1893, 1894, ctnd 1895. From— Quantity (cwts. of 112 pounds). Value. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1803. 1894. 1895. Sweden 185,099 649, 779 133, 149 94,838 319,575 101,095 13,232 19,793 77,216 176,158 702, 774 111,2.57 104,556 307,412 203,760 2,908 26,936 99,281 308,785 791,037 93,587 138,687 396,940 245,940 8,a53 19,371 129,318 $4,873,347 16 17,36.5,136.81 3,193,930.38 2,381,786.76 8,791,259.24 2, 529, 507. 70 277,989.07 436,291.45 1,917,376.66 $4,560,309.55 19,599,215.57 2,703,208.43 2,511,313.53 7,353.620.44 4,805,020.57 56,568.18 552,2*5.83 2,384,249.19 $5,231,623.75 18,949,396.69 Germany 2 240 434 79 Holland 3,009,331.67 7,692,919.39 5,306,507.86 155 737 73 Australasia Canada United States Other countries 305,970.53 3,08,5,589.73 Total 1,593,770 1,755,072 1,915,968 41,705,075.29 44,545,741.37 40,043,572.12 No one can carefully peruse the above facts and figures without arriving at the conclusion that unless our shippers of cheese pursue a very different course our foreign trade in that product will speedily fall, in the face of active, intelligent, and honest competition from all parts of the world, to the level now occupied by American butter. We have here a graphic illustration of the disastrous effects in all trade of disregarding the tastes of consumers and of acquiring a bad reputation. SUBSIDIARY FARM PRODUCTS. The importance of the subject to American farmers, who must learn to make up from subsidiary products, and, if necessary, in small sums, the losses entailed by low prices for staple crops, suggests reference to two so-called minor crops, one of which, eggs, is not quite sufficient to supply our own consumers, and the other, honey, affords us a little surplus for which there is a foreign demand, which, by intelligent and assiduous cultivation, could doubtless be greatly developed. The importance of the following table to poultry keepers is seen in the evidence it presents of a large foreign market of which we not only get no share, but in which we actually figure as purchasers our- selves : Tabic showing the quantity and .value of eggs imported into the United Kingdom during the first eight months of the years 1S93, 1894, (ind 1895. From — Quantity (great hundreds). Value. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1893. 1894. 1895. 825,037 630,191 1,199,894 1,107,599 3,046,727 23,065 138,413 744,435 754,763 3,256,934 3,109,085 1,804,837 33,377 120, .521 1,313,262 712,662 2,331,923 1,528,905 2,039,5a5 79,463 171,613 $1,055,908.83 1,007,818.08 1,704,085.50 1,984,247.23 6,283,570.13 33,803.70 317, n9. 45 $910.39.5.02 1,200.993.80 3,103,629.83 3,015,3«5.43 3,510,198.68 87.318.99 189,146.35 $1,525,008.81 D«n»;irk 1,136,199.03 Germany 3,055,343.22 B«lgiTjm ... 3,200,231.32 3, 859. 153. 96 Coaada 144,904.89 Other countries 299,576.87 Total . . 7,030,936 7,818,321 8,107,303 13,317,157.93 12,036,829.60 12, 280, 917. 09 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 31 HONEY. The English honey market is supplied by the lioine product, from the United States, and from Chile. There is a large and steady doiiiand, and, though sometimes exceeded by the supply, this is an uiuisiiul occurrence. The English honey harvest has been very good this year, and it is selling upon the retailer's counter at from 20 cents to 25 cents per pound. Wholesale prices at the latest date obtainable are as follows: English : Earthenware pots, finest, per doz $1 . 45 Earthenware pots, finest, ^-pound, per doz 90 Flint-glass jars, 17-onnce, per doz 1,70 Transparent honey, in glass jars, nickel-i)lated screw top, per doz 1.57 United States : Thurber-Whyland's white sage, strained, 1-pound jars, 3 dozen in a case, per doz 2. 30 Californian, in original cans (about 56 pounds), per cwt. of 112 lbs. 9. 60 Chilean, in original cwt. kegs, per cwt 8. 75 The American white sage commands the top price. It is a delicious honey and most attractively put up. All honeys sent to England are strained except a nominal quantity that reaches there in the comb from California. California shipments of strained honey are made in oG-pound tins, two tins in a case. Chilean usually comes in 60- pound kegs, but sometimes in 112-pound barrels. It is not a matter of great importance, as to size of packages, etc., though it would be well to conform to the California practice. It would be ruinous to send adulterated honey to England. Our agent in England has had several inquiries as to honey market this year, especially from Texas, and he has supplied inquirers with names of importers in England, and with information as to how to approach them, and this he will be pleased to do for all inquirers. The Department has knowledge that some years ago a large honey maker in California found in China a profitable market for some 20 tons of honey annually. In this, as in every other branch of industry, only the makes of the best, most genuine products can secure a permanent, profitable trade, creditable alike to themselves and their country, and they alone deserve to. 'WEATHER BUREAU. For the fiscal year ended June 30, 1895, Congress appropriated $878,438.84 to maintain the United States Weather Bureau. Ex- penses, however, were reduced while the efficiency of the service in- creased, so that there remains approximately a sum of 855,000 which will ultimately be covered back into the Treasury of the United States out of the appropriated amount. During the same twelve months the Weather Bureau received for condemned i)roperty, sale of pub- lications, and seacoast telegraph lines, and deposited in the Treasury 32 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of the United States, the additional sum of 15,498.57, making a total to be covered in by this Bureau of something over $60,000. FORECASTS. Detailed statements as to forecasts published during the year in the different States and Territories of the Republic are contained in the annual report of the Chief of the Weather Bureau. That report also gives approximations of the value of property saved because of those forecasts, and declares that the warnings of cold waves alone secured from freezing more than $2,275,000 worth of perishable agricultural products which otherwise would have been lost. It is proved by the report of the Chief of the Weather Bureau that the degree of accuracy in the forecast division thereof is steadily augmenting. It is now a duty, under orders from the Secretary of Agriculture to the Chief of the Weather Bureau, that reports be made on the first day of each month of all forecasts made for the previous thirty days, together with the percentages of their verifica- tion. Thus every forecaster realizes that his work is to be reviewed at the close of each four weeks and his accuracy tested by mathematical comjDutation and verification. This feature in the administration of the Weather Bureau has been adopted since Prof. Willis L. Moore was appointed chief of that bureau and entered upon his duties, July 4, 1895. Since that date many reforms have been successfully instituted, and thus far the service continues to show a marked and decided improvement as to its management and efl&ciency. The present Chief of the Weather Bureau began his i^rofession in an observer's station twenty years ago. He came up from the ranks of the intelligent and industrious workers. In 1894, at a competitive examination, which had been instituted by the Secretary of Agricul- ture, for a 82,500 professorship, it was decided, after a severe contest and examination by Professors Harrington and Mendenhall and Maj. H. H. C. Dunwoodj^, of the Signal Corps of the Regular Army of the United States, that Prof. Willis L. Moore was entitled, hy ability and acquirements, to the place. Thereupon, he was detailed to take charge of the Weather Bureau station at Chicago. He gave an entirely satisfactory and markedly useful service in that city. From there he was called to his present position. His success and promo- tion opens the way for advancement, through industry, skill, and attainments, to every observer in the Bureau. The possibilities of usefulness to agriculture, manufacture, and commerce are almost without limit in the increasing accuracy and capabilities of the Weather Bureau. The time is not probably very distant when its records, warnings, and forecasts will be constantly in demand as e^ddence in the courts of justice and also by those pur- posing large investments in certain kinds of agricultural crops, in REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 33 perisluible fruits, in commercial ventures, iiiid in manufacturing plants. AVeather Bureau forecasts in the not distant future will, no doubt, be consulted and awarded credibility just as thermometers, barometers, and aerometers are to-day. The usefulness of the mete- orological branch of the service, wisely and economically administered, is beyond computation. The annual report of the present chief is replete with interesting and practical suggestions. DIVISION OF STATISTICS. The work of the Division of Statistics, in charge of Henry A. Rob- inson, its chief, is, primarily, collecting, through many thousands of unpaid county correspondents in the several States and Territories of the Union, agricultural data as to area, condition, and probabilities of croi)S. After this data has been tabulated, averaged, and consoli- dated it is given to the general public in the form of approximations as to acreage, condition, and jdeld. From its origin, the conclusions and reports of this division have been frequently'' subjected to more or less severe criticism. Public attention is often called to the fact that the annual cost of securing agricultural statistics which are published from time to time by this Department is about $100,000, and that therefore they ought to more nearly attain accuracy. The authors of these criticisms forget that while about that sum of money is exhausted annually in the payment of certain State statistical agents and the employees and expenses of the division in the city of Washington, 10,000 county crop reporters in 2,500 counties throughout the several States and Territories of the American Union i)erform their duties without any j)ecuniary remu- neration whatever. Added to the foregoing unremunerated force there are 15,000 mil- lers and elevator men wlio send in figures and data from month to month relative to cereal and other croi)s, and also 15,000 township correspondents who do the same thing, and 6,300 agents who report to the several State statistical agents, who condense and send to this Department the results of their inquiries and estimates, and added to this last list are 3,000 special cotton-crop correspondents; and supplementing all the foregoing there are 123,000 American farmers wlu) have been selected because of their large experience and superior intelligence who assist (by making special investigations) in verifying tlie vast amount of data and figures furnished by the tens of thou- sands of correspondents enumerated. And not a single one of the aforesaid correspondents among the farmers, elevator men, millers, and other intelligent classes of citizens named receives a dollar of salary out of the Treasury of tlie United States. The marvel, there- fore, is that the data thus iiatriotically and freely furnished the Divi- sion of Statistics should prove as valuable, reliable, and accurate as it does. 4 A 95 2 34 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The statistical system of this Department at present, consequently, provides for the payment of collating and disseminating data evolved from facts and figures which have been furnished to its various sections and officers in Washington as mere gratuities. The fact that some citizens are paid fair salaries for industriously and correctly making computations, averages, and approximations, and determining results fi'om conditions and figures which have been gratuitously collected and sent in by other citizens who were wholly without compensation, is not calculated to inspire great faith or credibility as to the relia- bility of the conclusions reached. During the past j^ear, however, in addition to the usual county and township crop correspondents, gen- erally belonging to the agricultural classes, the Department has secured from month to month data from millers throughout the country, from railroad managers, from railroad station agents, and from bankers, merchants, and nearly every other intelligent source of information. During the last twelve months a visible improvement as to the accu- racj^ of figures promulgated has been developed relative to the cotton and some other crops, and yet the condition of the division and the fruits of its labors are not entirely satisfactory. Neither individuals nor governments can, ordinarily, successfully and i^ermanently obtain a valuable gratuitous so-vice. Humanity seldom gives, either to citizens or governments, something for noth- ing, except in cases of poverty and distress. It is, therefore, the opinion of the Secretary of Agriculture that no satisfactorily accurate statistical work can be accomplished for agriculture and commerce by this Department until a sufficient permanent appropriation shall have been made to provide for the taking of an annual agricultural census. Others who have made this subject a profound study, and whose judgment is entitled to great consideration and respect, believe that reliable detailed data may be gathered by the assessors of taxes in the various States and Territories. Othei'S again, of equal experi- ence in statistical research, declare that the collectors of internal revenue and their deputies and other employees could be success- fully commanded by the Treasury Department for the collection of agricultural statistics. Again, men of great experience in the cereal and cotton trades claim that if the acreage be accurately ascertained as to each staple product, and that acreage published in the month of June each 3'ear, and additionally the climatic conditions in each locality be also offi- cially promulgated each day or week or month during the growing season, more accurate approximations of crops can be reached than by any other method. It is possible, in the opinion of the Secretary, that the dutj^ of ascer- taining and reporting to this Department accurately the acreage of staple crops in each State on June 1 of each year might be, without working any hardship, imposed by law upon the authorities of our REPORT OP THE SECRETARY. 35 agricultural colleges and exi^eriment stations in consideration of llieir united annual appropriation of $-1:0,000 each. The acreage being given, the character of soil knoANTi, and climatic conditions published daily by the Weather Bureau, approximations of the jaelds of each crop could bo probably computed with more accuracy than under the present methods. Attention is particularly directed to the report of the chief of tliis division, which in detail and very clearly describes its work during the fiscal year, and likewise reiterates cogently an argument in favor of taking an annual agricultural census. It concludes that if there be value in statistics as now gathered and published there would be infinitely greater value and use for statistics based upon absolutely accurate returns made by the takers of a yearly farm census. If, however, the Congress of the United States finally provides for a permanent census bureau to gather populational, agricultural, com- mercial, and manufacturing statistics each year, instead of once in ten j^ears, the entire business of collecting agricultural data and statistics should be vested in that bureau, which is now proposed and advocated as a permanency by many of the most thoughtful econo- mists and statists of the United States. EXPERIMENT STATIONS. Tlio Office of Experiment Stations continues in charge of Dr. A. C. True as Director. In his report for 1893 the Secretary of Agriculture recommended that he be given authority to supervise the expenditures of agricul- tural stations; this had not been done before. In pui-suance of this suggestion the Fifty-third Congi*ess inserted the following sentence in the paragraphs providing the usual appropriation for these stations: The Secretary of Agi-icnlture shall prescribe the form of annual financial state- ment reqxiirecl by section three of the act of March second, eighteen hxindred and eighty-seven; shall ascertain whether the expenditures under the appropriation hereby made are in accordance with the provisions of the said act, and shall make report thereon to Congress. The blank schedules for reports and instructions for filling them up were prepared and distributed to the experiment stations as soon as practicable after the passage of this act. The new law applied to the appropriations made for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1895. Under the original experiment-station act the reports of these stations are not due until February 1, 1896. A complete report on their work and expenditures during the past fiscal year is therefore not possible at this time. This will, however, bo prepared as soon as practicable for transmission to Congi-css. It is respectfully recommended that the original experiment-station act bo amended so as to require the finan- cial reports of the stations to be rendered to the Secretary of Agricul- ture on or before September 1 following tlio close of the fiscal year. 36 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Thus it will be possible thereafter to include a report on their expendi- tures as a part of the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agricul- ture. In order that the Department might have accurate and complete information regarding the work and expenditures of the stations as the basis for the report to be made by the Secretary of Agriculture, it was decided that the stations should be visited by representatives of the Department. Up to the end of the fiscal year 35 of these stations were thus visited. In connection with these visits inquiries were made regarding the general management of the stations and their relations to the colleges ; their methods of keeping accounts and records of their work; the lines and methods of work undertaken, and all other matters which might throw light upon the expenditures as reported. W^ORK OF THE STATIONS. In regard to the work of the stations the Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, Dr. Charles W. Dabney, jr., says: In a general way it may be said that the investigation of the work of the sta- tions thus far made clearly indicates that even the poorest of our stations have done scientific work of practical benefit to the farmers of their communities, and that in many cases the services of the stations already rendered have been of great value to practical agriculture, far surpassing in the aggregate the total amount of expenditure made for them by the National G-overnment. The greatest hin- drances to successful work have arisen in those communities which have failed to appreciate the fact that the stations are primarily scientific institutions, and that, while they should always keej) steadily in view the practical results to be obtained, they render the most permanent benefits to agiiculture when they make thorough scientific investigations of problems underlying successful agriculture and horti- culture. The importance of adopting definite lines of work and sticking to them until definite results have been obtained is strongly urged. In order to accomplish this there should be greater permanency in the organization and tenure of office of the stations, as frequent changes in boards of management and station oflBcers have caused corresponding changes in the policy and work of many of the stations, which have either prevented their carrying out any thorough inqiiiries or discouraged the undertaking of important investigations. In some cases the institutions with which the stations are connected have not received that support from the States which was necessary and was evidently con- templated imder the acts of March 2, 1887, and August 30, 1890. In all of the acts from the land-grant act of 1863, providing the first endowment for colleges of agricultiire and mechanic arts, down to the act of August 30, 1890, making a hand- some addition to the income of the same institutions, it is clearly implied that the States shall provide the necessary land and buildings for these colleges as well as the experiment stations connected ^\ath them. The United States has provided a part of the funds necessary for paying the current ex^^enses of these institutions, but in doing so it places the obligation upon the States to provide the necessary land, buildings, and other things belonging to the plant. In all such cases this Department has sought to bring the local communities to realize more fully the importance of contributing from their ovsm means to build up strong institutions for the benefit of agriculture. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 37 THE NUTRITIVE VALUE AND ECONOMY OF FOODS. The supervision of the investigations on tliis subject was assigned to the Office of Experiment Stations, with Prof. W. O. Atwater as special agent in charge. In accordance "with the terms of the law, the cocri)eration of tlie agricultural experiment stations has been sought as far as was justified by their facilities and the requirements of their work. As a rule, only such institutions were invited to join in this work as were in a position to contribute the services of experts, laboratory facilities, and other resources to supplement those i^rovided ])y this appropriation. In this way work has been carried on under the immediate direction of Professor Atwater at MiddletoAvn, Conn.; in connection with the Society for Improving the Condition of the Poor and the Industrial Christian Alliance in New York City; in connection with the New Jersey State Experiment Station at New Brunswick; at Pittsburg, Pa. ; at Charleston, S. C. ; at Suffield, Conn. ; in connection with the agricultural experiment station at Auburn, Ala., and the Tuskegce Normal Institute, in Alabama; in connection with the University of Missouri, at Columbia; the University of Tennessee, at Knoxville; Purdue University, at Lafaj^ette, Ind. ; the Hull House, at Chicago, 111., and the Maine State College, at Orono, Me. The work has included so far the following lines: Studies of the composition, nutritive value, and cost of food materials; studies of actual dietaries, with a A'iew to learning what ai"e the kinds and amounts of food materials actually consumed by people of different sections, of different occupations, and under different conditions; studies on the digestibility of food; methods of investigation of food subjects, etc. The results of inquiries on food conducted in this country and abroad have been compiled, and already one technical and several popular publications have been prepared and published. A standard talkie of the results of food analyses is in course of preparation. Many food materials never before analyzed have been analyzed by our agents, and during the year the number of food analyses tabulated has increased from about 1,100 to 3,000. When comi^leted, this standard table of analyses will form an important advance in the study and will furnish a basis for future investigation. An effort Avill be made to build up centers of inquiry where the more scientific and fundamental i)roblems can be investigated, where workers in this line can be trained, where the importance and useful- ness of accurate information regarding the rational nutrition of man will be taught to largo bodies of students, and from which the prac- tical results of food investigations may be widely and efficiently dis- seminated among all the people. The results of this work thus far publirslied have awakened great interest in the subject, especiallj'' among physicians, teachers, clergymen, the officers of our Army and Navy, the superintendents of benevolent institutions, and persons 38 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. studying the sociological conditions of modern times. Tlie investi- gations already made plainly sIioav tlie wastefulness of tlie dietaries of a large number of peojile, and the importance of practical instruction in regard to proper methods of preparing and cooking food. The work of the experiment stations is so varied and voluminous that no adeciuate conception thereof can be obtained excei^t by a care- ful i5orusal of the report of the Director of the Office of Experiment Stations, to which you are respectfully referred. FORESTRY. The timber investigations have been continued and have received most of the attention and the largest share of the appropriation for this division, of which Prof. B. E, Fernow is chief. They are the most comprehensive experiments of the kind ever undertaken, and include tests of the average values of strength for the various species, varia- tion of strength in the various jjarts of the trees, the variation of strength of timbers containing different amounts of moisture, the effects of dry-kiln treatment, etc. Altogether 175 trees,- representing 24 species and 5 different sites, have been collected during the year. The total collection to date for this purpose numbers 761 trees, repre- senting 39 species, mainly of Southern timber. Thirteen thousand tests were made during the year, 340 of which were large columns and beams, and a large amount of material was placed in dry kilns for next year's work. Results referring to the four Southern pines, representing 163 trees and over 24,000 separate values, have been computed and arranged for publication. These results show that the shortleaf and loblolly pine are inferior to longleaf and Cuban pine by about 24 per cent; that the wood near the stump is 25 to 30 per cent heavier and better than that of the upper log; that the wood produced by trees 25 to 60 years of age is the best, and that in old trees there is a variation of 15 to 25 per cent in wood and quality. Special experiments in shrinking and swelling of timber were continued, and it was found that the wood of all pines varies in prox)ortion to its original weight. Treatment with high temperature under pressure does not, as has been claimed by owners of certain processes of wood treatment, do away with shrinkage either in pine or oak. These specimen results show the great practical value of these timber investigations. A series of experiments have also been begun with the object of determining how far the great deterioration of resin, so often noticed b^^ turpentine collectors, is due to unavoidable physiological causes, how far to existing practices, and how these practices may be improved. A series of measurements of the rate of growth of white pine has been made in Wisconsin and Michigan, comprising detail measurements of over 400 trees and the determination of 13 acre-yields, including REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39 measurcmeuts luado in counection with llio colleelion of material for timber investigations. There are now on hand measurements of 1,700 trees, mostly pines, sprnce, and a few hard woods, in addition to 57 acre-yields. Over 500 of these measurements have been worked up and tabulated, and the results charted so as to show the growth and development. These results show, for example, that the long- leaf and Cuban pines both grow in height and thickness much faster than had been supposed. Trees of white pine over 200 years old liave been found to have made over 1^ cubic feet annually for a cen- tury and a half. This work will be made the basis of a discussion of profitable forestry, and shall be continued until the rate of growth and capacity for production of all of our important species is established. A series of experimental plantings in the Western treeless country for the purpose of testing the best varieties of trees suitable for forest planting and the best methods of planting in the conditions prevailing there have been started in connection with the agricultural experi- ment stations in South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, and Colorado. It is proposed to continue these experiments for a number of years in the hope of getting material for a report on Western forest i)lanting. This division has continued most actively its propaganda work. Through publications and by correspondence, and through lectures and addresses before agricultural colleges, summer schools, and pub- lic meetings it has sought in every way possible to further the estab- lishment of a forestry policy among the people of the United States. By the extension of Arbor Day it is endeavoring to educate the children in the schools and the young iDeoplo in the academies and colleges to love trees and to i^lant them. ARBOR DAY IN JAPAN. In this connection it is interesting to note that through the agency of Dr. Xortlirup, of the United States, and of the vice-minister of edu- cation of Japan, Mr. S. Makino, Arbor Day has been taken up by the teachers of that progressive country, with the prospect of its early establisliment as a memorial day in all of its public schools. Through the courtesy of the Hon. S. Kurino, Imperial Japanese minister to the United States, the Secretary of Agriculture is able to present to you the foUov/ing translation from a Japanese document, setting forth the movement and a carefully considered plan for Arbor Day, drawn up for the bureau of private revenue in the Imperial household depart- ment. This plan sliows such an intelligent appreciation of the rea- sons for Arbor Day, and contains so many valuable suggestions with regard to the method of carrying it out, tliat it seems to merit special attention: Some time ago Dr. Northrnp, of the United States of Amorioa, came to .T.ipan and had a talk with Mr. Malrino. vice-minister of education, on the subject of 40 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Arbor Day. About the same time the meetings of the presidents of normal schools were being held from time to time at the educational department, and the vice-minister took this occasion to explain at one of the meetings the purport of his interview with Dr. Northrup, recommending the advisability of the adop- tion of this system in Japan. Ever since then the question of Arbor Day has attracted the attention of educators in Japan. The following article is con- tributed to this office, embodying some remarks on the subject by one now living in Shizuoka, who has been in the service of the bureau of private revenue in the Imperial household department and who has had many years' experience in the forestry business: "There are two objects to be attained by the adoption of a definite day for tree planting by the boys of our school — an Arbor Day — (1) To foster the idea of industry in the minds of schoolboys, divert them from indulging in bad practices, and cultivate among them botanical taste, besides affording intellectual pleasure and teaching them to look upon trees as the embodiment of love of home and country. "(2) In addition, the practice might be made conducive to increasing the resources of the country. "This system, if viddely adopted, will be of indirect but gi-eat benefit, by inspiring dwellers in the coimtry vsdth the love of forests, thereby on the one hand reducing the danger of injury to them, and on the other promoting their growth. Other benefits to accrue, such as the prevention of sand falling, the protection from wind, the preservation of water resources, the addition to natural beauty and to the landmarks, the increase in the supply of fuel, are of vast importance to the country and the people. "To simultaneously attain the two objects indicated above special heed must be given to following points : " (1) Plantation fund. — There ought to be a fixed and permanent source of income. This needs no argument. Nothing, however meritorious, can be under- taken without such a fund, and nothing can be maintained unless the fund is stable. Especially is this the case with forestry, as the foundation principle of forestry economy is permanency, and the Memorial Day plantation ought to thrive with the age of the school. " (2) Selection of ground. — This is the first step to be taken after the source of the fund is determined ; but there will be great difficulty in getting proper ground, as it is at present even difficult to get proper space for school premises. It may, however, be comparatively easy to find a space of ground if we confine our object to those mentioned under A in a preceding paragraph, as we need not then look beyond the school ground, playground, garden, public garden, or roadside. If, on the contrary, we want to attain at the same time economic advantages, a choice must be determined by the following considerations : "(a) Area. — A reasonable area is necessary, otherwise the space will be filled up very soon, which will make it impossible to continue the practice permanently or to iitilize the land economically, " (b) Distance.— The ground must be selected as near as possible to the school, otherwise it will be difficult to induce schoolboys to go there on Memorial Day. It will also entail expense. Moreover, it would be difficult to let the boj-s visit the grove frequently for future research into the theory of tree growth and to enjoy the observation of the several stages in the growth of the plant. " (c) Location and surface of the ground. — Shrubby or grassy, steep or rocky land is objectionable on various grounds. But level ground being generally better utilized for farming, care miist be taken not to employ it for this purpose, except in cases of sandy or poor ground fit only for forestry. " (d) Nature of soil. — Every seed, properly selected, vdll grow even in poor earth. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 41 unless it be rocky. But rich soil should be selected, because, in poor soil, growth being slow, schoolboys ^vill fail to find pleasure in the natural development of the grove and will at last become indifferent. "Above all, it is of the utmost importance to bear in mind that this matter should be so effected as to secure to the boys more pleasure than pain, and this with the greatest possible economical benefit. " (3) Selection of trees. — The trees planted must be those best adapted to the soil which will produce the greatest possible benefit. To attain the two objects men- tioned under A and B, the tree which will bear beaiitiful and fragrant flowers, or which will produce fine fruit, should be adopted. I should recommend pine, cedar, oak, camphor, etc. If a poor selection is made, the tree may not grow — may per- haps die — the boys will be disappointed, the teachers disheartened, and the expenses totally lost. " (4) Arbor Day or Memorial Day. — It is desirable to select for Arbor Day some day especially memorable ; hnt this is very difficult, as planting can not be done in every season, and trees planted out of the proper season generally die. The best way would therefore be to determine the date according to the respective localities and the kind of trees to be planted. The 11th of February (the day when our first Emperor ascended the throne), the 3d of April (the day when the same Emperor died) , in the spring, and the 3d of November (the birthday of the present Emperor) , in the autumn, may be good. But thespring season is recommended as most suit- able for planting. "(5) Protection of young trees. — The choice of trees to be planted being made, the means of obtaining the shoots must be determined. The best way would be to let the boys sow the seed and take care of the plants by spading the ground, cutting the grass, manuring, etc., as may be required, until the plants have gro\vn BTifficiently to be safely transplanted. This will enable them to become familiar with the different kinds of seeds and the different stages of their growth, and will promote fondness for the plants. This method is also applicable to small spaces which do not admit of the growth of plantations, and will enable us to obtain the desired plants at the proper time and in desirable places, while giving an immense advantage on the other hand in attaining the object mentioned under A. If, under certain circumstances, it is impossible to let the boys care for the plants, we must depend upon reliable and experienced dealers. "(6) The mode of planting. — This must vary according to the kind of plants, the location and nature of the ground, and special care must be exercised in the trans- portation of the plants, cutting of the grass and prickly shrubs, and the tilling of the ground. Much depends upon the circumstances in each case, whether the boys have to do all the work, or whether they are to have assistance from coolies. If the boys do it all, those who supervise their work must fully consider details as to implements, and apportionment of space to ijlanting, to the various classes of chil- dren, whether any and what distinction shall be made between male and female, between elder and younger, between higher and lower classes; whether shoots and modes of planting shall vary according to such distinctions. The growth of plants and the benefits resulting therefrom will differ greatly according as the manner of conducting the work is based upon the principles of forestry or not. "(7) Care and protection after planting. — It is better not to plant the shoots than to leave them without protection. To plant them is easy, but it is difficult to make them grow into large trees. All requisite precaution, such as cutting spreading grass, protection against insects and worms, provision against fire, sup- planting for decay, should be undertaken by the boys. But how boys are to undertake those precautionary measures, how they are to protect the tree for long years until it become fit to be cut as fuel, these are questions calling for special inquiry. 4 A 95 2* 42 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. •'There are many otlier points to bo investigated, sucli as superintendence, con- trol, keeping of records, utilization of principal and secondary products, etc. '•It would be improvident if, believing in the system of Arbor Day and approv- ing it as feasible, one should try to at once apply it in practice without full consideration of means and methods. It is not easy, as stated above, to start the plan, and it is very difficult to can-y it out successfully. The plan, if \indertaken without proper care and full consideration of means and methods, would result in needless trouble and expense, and we should be not only unable to obtain good results but every tree and every plant would die, and both boys and teachers woxild be disheartened in spite of great encouragement from the other side." CHEMISTRY. This division, of which Dr. II. W. "Wiley is chief, has received 1,420 samples for analysis during the fiscal year. It has completed 613 of these analyses, and the unfinished samples, consisting almost entirely of specimens received from divisions of the Department, can be worked up when time is found. The investigation of food adulterations has been continued, being confined chiefly to the examination of cereal products and the manu- factured articles therefrom. No adulterations of cereal products with gypsum, terra alba, and the like have been found in this country as they have frequently been found in Europe. Active preparations have been made for carrying out "Investiga- tions relative to the various typical soils of the United States to de- termine their chemical characteristics, especially the nature of the nitrifying organism contained therein," provided for in recent appro- priation acts. The methods employed in the chemical and bacteri- ological examinations of soils have been systematized and studied. A vegetation house capable of holding about 200 pots for cultural purposes has been constructed and fully occupied. Through the cooperation of the experiment stations, samples of typical soils have l)een secured, and the chemical analyses, pot cultures, and bacterio- logical examinations are well under way. PERVERSION OF OFFICIAL ANALYSES. The people are frequently misled by perverted references to the analyses of this division by advertisers of baking powders, food prod- ucts, etc., whose products have been analyzed in the course of inves- tigations of food adulterations or other official work. There can bo no objection to advertisers referring to the published reports of the Department in support of the virtues of the w^ares they offer for sale, but exaggeration, perversion, suppression, and misstatement of facts, attributed to official authority, should not be allowed. In the hun- dreds of advertisements that have been noticed in which the work of this division has been referred to, there is scarcely a single case in which the facts were accurately set forth as officially published. There is, therefore, just reason for complaint. It seems to the EEPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 43 Secret-ary of Agriculture that tliere should be some method adopted by means of which advertising misrepresentations of official analyses^ intended originally to protect the people, could be prevented. BOTANY. The herbarium of the Department of Agriculture, coramonlj' called the National Herbarium, having outgrown its old quarters, was, by the kind permission of the Secretarj^ of the Smithsonian Institution, removed and well installed in the fireproof building of the National Museum, where it will be cared for bj'^ the botanists of this Depart- ment. This herbarium is steadilj^ being built up and enlarged at the expense of the Department of Agriculture. This division, with Mr. Frederick V. Coville as chief, has continued its investigation upon weeds, pure seed, poisonous plants, and other subjects mentioned in the last report. Several bulletins have been published calling attention to dangerous weeds, and a general bulletin on ' ' Weeds ; and How to Kill Them " was issued in the series known as Farmers' Bulletins. In addition to illustrations and special re- marks regarding many of the weeds, it gives a tabular arrangement of the most important facts, from a practical standpoint, concerning about 100 of our common weeds, with brief instructions as to the best method of their eradication. A bulletin has also been prepared on the subject of weed legislation, consisting of the laws now in force in the different States, and suggestions for similar legislation by other States. SEED TESTS. The seed-testing laboratory of this division is doing much to educate American farmers, seed producers, and dealers in seeds with regard to the best methods of harvesting, cleaning, and preparing for market the various commercial seeds, as weR as the simpler means for testing their purity and germinating power. The special investigation of clover seed grown in. this country has been continued. The methods of handling and growing seed have been carefully studied, and a report on tills subject will be published at an early date, whicli it is hoped will materially assist the producers of this seed, the demand for which is steadily growing abroad. Seeds purchased by the Department of Agriculture for distribution dui-ing the fiscal year 1895 Avere all sub- mitted to purity and germination tests, but as the number of these seeds was very gi-eat few of them could be finished before the seeds had to be sent out. Many of the varieties showed a surprisingly low percentage of germination, and evidences of fraud were detected. The work upon grasses and forage plants has been separated from the Division of Botany and hus been phiced in cliargo of a new divi- sion called the Division of Agrostology, whicli will be spoken of in another place. The work on jioisonous plants has been continued by a careful study 44 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of laurel i^oisoning and the Western leatherwood, and a number of medicinal plants have been taken up for investigation. AGROSTOLOGY. In accordance with the recommendations of the Secretary of Agri- culture in his report for 1894, the act making appropriations for the Department for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1896, contained a special provision for the Division of Agrostology. This di\asion was organized July 1, when the act providing for its establishment went into effect, with Prof. F. Lamson-Scribner as its chief. The work of this division is devoted to the investigation of grasses and forage plants and experiments in the culture of our native species, as well as those of other countries which may be profitably introduced into the United States. These plants will be studied both scientifically and economically. The nature and the distribution of the various kinds will be considered, as well as their economic value and adapt- ability to special uses or to various soils and climates. The chief aim of the diAasion will be to instruct and familiarize the people with the habits and uses of all forage plants hy the publication of circulars, bulletins, and reports. The importance of this work is attested by the vast interests of our country which are dependent upon the products of our meadows and pastures. EXPERIMENTAL GRASS STATIONS. Two experimental grass stations have already been established for the purpose of enabling this division to effectively i)rosecute special lines of work in the cultivation of the several kinds and to bring under direct and intelligent observation the numerous native and cultivated grasses and forage plants. These gardens afford opportunity for the proper investigation of the nature and peculiar habits of growth of these plants, and to determine in a large degree their actual or prob- able value to agriculture. About 400 different varieties have been grown upon these gardens during the present season, and some of the native sorts tried have proved of interest. The true buffalo grass of the "Western plains is one of these. Its cultivation in the grass garden has been a marked success, the grass forming in a comparatively short period a dense and pleasing sod completely covering the plat assigned to it. As this grass is more hardy than the somewhat similar Bermuda grass of the South, it may possess no less value for the Middle and Western States than is claimed for the latter in more southern latitudes. When domesticated it may prove of great value because of its ability to withstand drought and its superior nutrient qualities. It is intended that a larger area of ground shall be set aside for the en- largement and continuation of experiments in grass and forage-plant culture, the results of which may prove of incalculable benefit to the farmers and stock growers of the United States. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 46 SPECIAL STUDIES — PUBLICATIONS. Special studies have been made of the j2:rasses and forage plants of the Rocky Mountain regions and of the prairie regions of Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas, with a view to preparing a report upon the actual and prospective forage conditions of these sections of our country. A preliminarj'^ report has been published, giving the results of the examination of the grasses and forage plants of the Southeastern States, and circulars have been issued upon Hungarian brome grass, flat pea, sachaline, experimental grass gardens, and a Farmers' Bulletin on alfalfa, or lucern; other papers of a similar nature are in course of preparation, also an illustrated handbook of all the grasses of the United States. HAY AND FODDER PLANTS — MONEY VALUE. Each year develops more intelligent interest and inquiry in the production of better hay and fodder plants. The money value of the hay crop for 1894 was estimated at nearly a half billion of dollars. "With more intelligent selection of hay plants cultivated the average production might have been 2 tons per acre, instead of 1.14 tons. That would have added 41,396,483 tons to the total crop of the year, and increased its cash value, based upon the low average price of $8.54 per ton for 1894, by 1353,575,090. The hay crop in the United Kingdom of Great Britain was a disas- trous failure in the year 1893. As a consequence, the United States sold to the British during that year 124,390 tons of hay, while during the year 1895 we have exported to that country only 28,056 tons. On October 15 of this year prices of hay in London were $12 to $20 a ton. Though a superior article from the United States or Canada was sold upon that date at about $20 a ton, it is not exjDected that this price will encourage exports from this country, where the 1895 crop is below an average. VEGETABLE PATHOLOGY. The work of this division, of which Prof. B. T. Galloway is chief, has been broadened during the year to include plant physiology. It is believed that this will add materially to the value of the investiga- tions. Owing to the crowded condition of the main building and the need of necessary facilities for work, new quarters were secured for the division early in February. The buildings now occupied are sit- uated only a short distance from the Department proper, and are provided with necessary facilities for laboratory investigations. A greenhouse for conducting experimental work has also been provided. This adds greatly to the opportunities for work, especially in matters of interest to florists, market gardeners, and all others engaged in intensive agriculture. Work commenced last year on wilt diseases, which affect the potato, tomato, eggplant, and cotton in the South, and it is progressing satisfactorily. Experiments carried on in the field, 46 YEAEBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. laboratory, and greenliouse liave thrown mncli liglit on the causes of the diseases and the best methods of preventing them. It is most pleasing to announce that the work on pear blight, which has been nnder way for some time, has evolved a thorough knowledge of the organism which causes that disease, and also in the discovery of a means to easily and cheaply prevent it. A bulletin on the subject is in the course of preparation, and will soon be ready for distribution. During the year over one thousand varieties of wheats were tested by the division ; the object sought being to discover their respective values in the matter of resisting rust and in their milling qualities. Crosses have been made with some of the more promising forms. They will be given a further trial and on a more extended scale. The work on citrus diseases has been continued with very satis- factory results. Remedies and preventives for a number of the most serious have been found, and these findings will soon appear in a bulletin. On the Pacific Coast, diseases affecting the peach, almond, apricot, apple, and grape have been studied. A successful method for the prevention of i)each-leaf curl has been discovered, and a detailed account thereof will soon be j)ublished. The complete and instructive exhibit of the division at the Atlanta International and Cotton States Exposition will, it is believed, be very useful to farmers, fruit growers, and others. In this exhibit the diseases affecting cotton, citrus fruits, and other crops of special interest to the South, are made a special feature. POMOLOGY. This division has continued, under the direction of its chief, Mr. S. B. Heiges, the systematic examination and comparison of supposed new varieties of fruits sent to it for identification, and has prepared careful studies and descriptions of the new specimens, illustrating them in most cases either with water-color sketches or colored models. These descriptions are carefully filed and must in time prove of great value. They will eventually make it possible to publish an authori- tative work on the fruits of the United States. The introduction and distribution of new varieties of fruits have been continued, the effort, however, being confined to the compara- tively few varieties of fruits of great value not at present found in our country, but promising to do well here. Cions of many of these have been placed with experiment stations and sent to private experi- menters for the purpose of determining their adaptability to various sections. NEW VARIETIES OP FRUITS INTRODUCED. Among the more important varieties that have been introduced are 65 new specimens of figs received from the Royal Horticultural Society REPOKT OF THE SECRETARY. 47 of England. For tlie present these varieties are being proi)agated in different places for the purpose of testing further their adaptability to our climate and soils and for producing a larger number of cuttings for distribution. It is believed that there is a largo area of country within the United States adapted to the growth of figs and that it will be sufficient to supply our entire demand for this delicious fruit. Other important importations consisted of 29 varieties of the choicest apples of Austria-Hungary, which have been grafted upon seedling stocks for the purpose of propagation. It is proposed to distribute these trees to the experiment stations as soon as they are in proper condition. Efforts have also been made to introduce improved and hardy varieties of persimmons from northern China and the citron of commerce from Italy. EXPERIMENTS IN ROOT-GRAFTING APPLE TREES. Considerable experimental work has also been, undertaken. Prom- inent among these tests are experiments made with full-rooted and top-cut and lower-cut grafting in the pro^Dagation of apple trees. These experiments will be continued, and possibly on a larger scale. It is intended that trees grown from grafts as above described be distributed in different States and localities for testing. Varieties varying in habits of growth and longevity will be chosen. Generally they will be of standard varieties, like the Winesap, Albemarle, Pippin, Ben Davis, Oldenburg, Jonathan, and Xorthern Spy. Under this system of experimentation a few years will demonstrate whether whole roots, top cuts, or bottom cuts for grafting eions upon are most conducive to vigor of growi:h and longevity. Special effort is being made to interest the State experiment stations in these and similar subjects and to secure their assistance in collect- ing new and comparatively unkno"\m varieties of fruits. It is desired to develop some regular plan of cooi)eration by which the horticul- turists of these stations shall collect new seedling varieties or other novelties and forward them to this division for identification, descrip- tion, illustration, and preservation. Some central record office of this kind is absolutely necessary, and should be located in the Department of Agriculture. FRUIT IN COMMERCE. EXPORTS OF APPLES. The economic value of apples for exiiort is becoming more generally known to the horticulturists and farmers of the United States. Eacli year their exportation to Europe increases in quantity, qualitj^ and value. Good winter apples, carefully selected and proj^erly packed, always meet with a favorable reception and command good prices in Great Britain and on the Continent. Among the best known of Ameri- can varieties on the other side of the water are the ]>aldwins. King 48 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of Tompkins County, Ribston Pippins, Northern Spy, and various russets. But there is no doubt that the Winesap, Jonathan, Green- ing, Ben Davis, and Vandever Pippin, together with nianj'^ other well- known varieties from the orchards of the United States, would be very acceptable and alwaj'^s secure for their shippers fair prices and profits. The most successful shipments of apples are made in New York bar- rels, which carry about 3 bushels and weigh about 112 pounds. The freight upon each of these barrels from American to European ports averages less than a dollar. During the fiscal year ended June 30, 1895, we shipped 818,711 barrels of apples abroad, valued at $1,954,318, The following table shows our exports of apples, green or ripe, and dried, for the fiscal years ended June 30, 1893, 1894, and 1895, and the three months ended September, 1895: Year. Green or ripe. Barrels. Value Dried. Pounds. Value. 1893.. 1894. 1895 Three months ended September, 1895 408,014 78,580 818,711 31,093 $1,097,967 343,617 1,954,318 74,137 7, 966, 819 2,846,645 7,085,946 1,387,843 $483,085 168,054 461,214 69,427 Export shipments of apples from any of the States east of the Rockj^ Mountains can be made remunerative. The apple among fruits is as staple and universally demanded as beef among meats. The variety which has sold for the highest price in British markets is the Albemarle Pippin, which is successfully grown to its greatest per- fection in the State of Virginia. This variety has at times netted the growers $7 a barrel in the orchards. It is a remarkably fine keeper, of delicious flavor and beautiful coloring. The profits of intelligent horticulture along the Atlantic Seaboard can not well be overesti- mated. The success in foreign marts of the Pacific States fruit growers and shippers, laboring under the disadvantage of a rail carriage from the Pacific to the Atlantic, should stimulate all horti- culturists this side of the Rocky Mountains to further secure sales for their products in Europe. The peaches of Delaware, Maryland, and most of the Southern States along the Atlantic Coast would cer- tainly reach the London market in as good condition, if properly put up, as those from California. CALIFORNIA FRUITS IN ENGLISH MARKETS. California fruits have made marked gains in European markets dur- ing the last year. This trade began three years ago by a shipment on the White Star Line, which consisted of pears, peaches, plums, and grapes. Tlie sale of that invoice at Covent Garden Market attracted public attention at the time, and the prices were so remunerative as to encourage further shipments. The succeeding year, however, REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 49 satisfactory terms could not be made for railroad and steamship trans- portation; consequently no shipments of California fruits were made during those twelve months to transatlantic markets. But in the year 1894 the American Steamshij) Company carried over quite a number of fruit invoices. The results Avere satisfactory gen- erally as to prices and profits upon the pears and peaches, while the traffic in grapes was not such as to induce further shipments of that fruit from the Pacific Coast. A representative of the Department of Agriculture during the past summer attended the California fruit sales at Covent Garden. From that attendance he concludes that the California Fruit Transportation Company has solved the freight problem and that only the finest qual- ity of fruit can be remuneratively sent abroad; even then sound con- dition and careful packing, and their arrival at London between the 1st day of July and the last day of August, can alone secure the best prices in competition with English and continental growers. During the year 1805 the first lot of California fruit arrived in Lon- don on the 1st day of July. It met competing fruits from southern France, the Channel Islands, and Spain, together Avith fair specimens of English products, in a very propitious season. On that date fine English hothouse peaches sold at 15 cents each, with fair to common qualities at 5 to 3 cents each. All of the California fruit arriving on the date mentioned above consisted of Bartlett pears (in England called the Williams pear) and of peaches. They arrived in fine con- dition; the Bartletts brought from $5 to $6.25 per box of 50 pounds, and the peaches sold at an average of $2.50 per box of 25 pounds. The pears retailed at from 4 to 5 cents each, and the peaches at from 6 to 12 cents. The second arrival in the same market of California fruit was July 15. At this date the pears brought from $3 to $3. 50 per box of 50 pounds, and the peaches and plums from $1.70 to $2 per box of 25 pounds. The third arrival was on August 1, when the peaches and pears com- manded about the same prices as in the previous shipments to the same market. The fourth California fruit invoice was received in London the middle of August. It was an unusually large consignment and con- sisted of 10 carloads. Pears in this lot, in perfect condition, sold as high as $2.80 per box. The ])eaclies brought only II to $1.50 per box. The fifth shipment of Pacific Slope fruit arrived in England on the last day of August. The late peaches were in very fine condition and gave the best satisfaction to dealers, but the prices were not as good as expected, as they ranged from $1.20 to $1.80 a box, according to quality. The pears ran from $1.50 to $3 per box. The sixth shipment reached London in the month of September, via Southampton, where it Avas unloaded from the steamer Paris on Wednesday night and placed on sale in Covent Garden Market on 50 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Friday uioruing. Buyers were eager to get hold of the late pears. They were in great demand, because of the satisfaction which the fruit of the two previous shipments had given. A large number of intend- ing buyers were gathered about the auctioneer. The liveliest interest was displayed. The fruits were divided into lots representing dif- ferent growers, one kind of fruit in each assortment. The boxes, made of the lightest possible durable material, were labeled with the names of the respective packers. The peach boxes contained 25 pounds. Each peach was wrapped in white paper, single thickness, a little heavier and tougher than tissue paper. The plums, not wrapped singly, were in similar boxes divided into small compart- ments. The pears were in 50-pound boxes and separately wrapped, though pears in 25-pound boxes bring a much better price. Under this system of selling, the reputation of some growers commanded special interest and higher prices from buyers. Those who desire to maintain a high standard of excellence, and decline under any temp- tation to send inferior fruits, and who use the most scrupulous care in packing, find their reward at last in a reputation wliich commands enhanced prices for their products. The average quality of the peaches at this sale- was very good. The Orange Clings seemed to be a favorite, v/hile the late Crawfords in fairly good condition and Strawberry peaches did not seem to stand the transportation as well. The fruits from the hill counties of California were in firmer and better condition than those from the valleys. Among pears, the Beurre Clairgeau and Hardys arrived in excel- lent order, and brought prime prices, while some Bon Chretiens were also highly appreciated. For a new branch of international commerce — one requiring great care and perfection in shipments — the exjjortation of California fruits to London has been quite as successful as could have been expected. The business is in its infanc}'^, and has, if properly managed, a profit- able future. Shippers must remember that there is always a market in London for such luxuries; that no fruit should be sent there except when in perfect condition and j^roperl)- packed, and that, gen- erally, i)rices will be more remunerative for early fruits. However, shipments were to arrive in London in September and October of this year, and it is possible that they will show better prices than some of the otliers, because they will meet with less competition from English and French and other continental fruits. Fruit growers on the Pacific Coast, however, have special oppor- tunities open to them in foreign markets for dried fruits, prunes, and raisins, and for brandies and wines. These particular industries need only be cultivated with energy and intelligence to achieve great results, and their development is earnestly commended to growers in that section. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 51 ENTOMOLOGY. The work of this division, of which Mr. L, O. Howard is chief, is grouped under the following heads: Investigations upon special insects; experiments with insecticides and insecticide machinery; determination of insects sent in by agricultural experiment stations and others and giving advice with regard to them; abstracting and cataloguing the literature of insects; scientific work upon groups of insects which have a bearing ui)on agriculture; special investigations. It will only be possible to mention here a few of the many valuable services rendered by this division. THE MEXICAN COTTON-BOLL WEEVIL. A ncAv insect {Aiitlionomus giximJis) which appeared in the cotton fields of south Texas, damaging the squares and bolls and ruining both fiber and seed, received especial attention during the year. The insect was found to be a species which had been brought across from Mexico, and so was commonly called the Mexican cotton-boll weevil. Through an agent sent into southwest Texas and into Mexico to study the his- tory of this insect a careful investigation of the subject was made and a preliminary report has been published for the purpose of giving the I)eople of this section proper warning. A complete report will be published during the coming winter. It is now hoped that the early fears as to the possible spread of the species throughout the entire cotton belt of the United States will not bo realized, and that a toler- ably efficient remedy for the prevention of the spread of the insect in south Texas has already been ascertained. THE SAN JOSE SCALE. Special efforts have been made to ascertain the exact points in the Southern States at which the San Jose, or pernicious, scale of fruit trees had established itself, and extensive experiments have been carried on for the purpose of ascertaining the best methods of com- bating this very destructive insect. Some progress has been made, and a bulletin on the subject will be published at an early day. In connection with this investigation, new studies have been made of all the principal scale insects of the orchard. The edition of the report published ten years ago on insects affect- ing the orange having been exhausted, a new report on this subject lias been ordered and is now rapidly approaching completion. This report will include consideration of all insects which affect citrus phuits in other parts of the world than the United States, as they are all liable to be introduced into our country. APPEARANCE OF INSECT PESTS. Research has been made to determine the geographic distribution of iuj urious insects appearing in devastating numbers. The localities in 52 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. which thej" have appeared have been platted and the records of their damages carefully collated. With such data in hand, the entomologist will he able to predict the geographic lines at which the progress of certain species will stop and to advise agriculturists with some degree of certainty as to the possibility of the appearance of well-known insect pests in any given locality. The minor subjects of investigation have been insects injurious to shade trees, local outbreaks of the American and other locusts in different parts of the country, the cotton or melon plant louse, the currant-stem girdler, etc. The work of this division in bee culture has been concluded with the comi^letion of the manual on apiculture, which is now going through the press. Experiments with insecticides and insecticide machinery cover such subjects as the effect of different arsenical poisons upon insects and upon the foliage and other parts of plants, the use of hydrocyanic acid gas against insects, new devices for spraying, etc. Since the new insects which sprung into prominence as destructive species have to be classified, described, and named before they can be intelligently considered in popular publications, several competent assistants are preparing monographs on groups of such insects. ORNITHOLOGY AND MAMMALOGY. The name of this division is unfortunate, as it convej's an erro- neous idea of the nature of its work. The division, of which Dr. C. Hart Merriam is chief, is in effect a biological survey, and should be so named, for its principal occupation is the preparation of large scale maps of North America, showing the boundaries of the different faunas and floras, or life areas. In fact. Congress, in 1890, author- ized this division to undertake a comprehensive investigation of the geographic distribution of animals and plants; thus in effect estab- lishing a biological survey. These maps when completed will show the farmer and fruit grower the areas on which particular kinds of grasses, grains, vegetables, and fruits may and may not be cultivated with success; thus saving the large sums of money now expended annually in futile efforts to make crops grow in places climatically unsuited to their needs. They will be further useful in indicating the areas subject to and those exempt from the ravages of destructive insects and other pests, and also those in which certain diseases of plants and animals are likely to flourish. Within the Department these maps are helpful in many ways, serv- ing as an intelligent basis for that part of the work of the divisions of Forestry, Botany, Agrostology, Pomology, Entomology, Vegetable Pathology, and Bureau of Animal Industry which relates to the geo- graphic distribution of the forms they study. In the preparation of faunal maps three kinds of work are neces- sary: (1) Field work, in collecting specimens and tracing the actual REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 53 limits of distribution by runniug lines across tlie country; (2) office work, in platting on maps the results of tlie field Avork; and (3) labora- tory work, in determining the status of animals in groups that have not been worked up; for it is obviously impossible to map the distribu- tion of a species which has not been discriminated from related species that may inhabit adjacent areas. So far as preliminarj'^ work is concerned the biological survey has been already extended over the greater part of the United States except eastern Oregon, north and central Nevada, parts of New IVIex- ico and Texas, and some of the Eastern States. In addition, a detailed survey has been made, with a degree of accuracy equal to or exceed- ing that of the best topographic maps available, of large parts of Cal- ifornia, western Oregon and Washington, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, South Dakota, Utah, Arizona, and a number of the Southern States. Of all the life zones entering the United States, the Austral, which covers tlie southern tier of States and much of California, is of greatest importance, because of the large number of specially valua- ble crops — as cotton, rice, sugar cane, the citrus fruits, raisin grape, fig, olive, and almond — that grow within it. The northern boundary of botli arid and humid divisions of this zone have been followed completely across the continent and shown on maps prepared by the division. The final maps of the life zones, when available to the intelligent farmer and fruit grower, are likely to save the country each year far more than the total cost of maintaining the di\'ision. The more strict!}'' economic work relates to the food habits of our native birds and mammals. These are studied in the field and their stomachs are examined in the laboratory in order to ascertain the normal food of the different species. In this way the beneficial kinds are known from the injurious, and the results are published in special bulletins. Those thus far issued treat of the English sparrow, crow, crow-blackbird, woodpeckers, hawks, and owls, pocket gophers, and ground squirrels. AGRICULTURAL SOILS. This division, which was organized eighteen months ago as a divi- sion of the Weather Bureau, with Prof. Milton Whitney as chief, has now been taken out of that Bureau in accordance with the recom- mendation of the Secretary of Agriculture and the act of the last Congress and given an independent organization. As also pro- vided in the appropriation act, it is now accommodated in a building convenient to the Department, which was rented and rearranged for its special use. ADVANTAGES OF SUBSOILING. While the Division of Chemistry has been making a study of the chemical properties of soils and of the bacteria which prepare nitro- gen for plants, this division has been investigating the physical and 54 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. mcclianical properties of soils. It is rarely that a new line of work like this proves as fruitful of good results in such an early stage of its operations. By it public attention has been called to the fact, for example, that irrigation has frequently to be resorted to solely for thQ lack of proper preparation of the soil to receive and hold the winte» and spring rains. The gradual destruction by cultivation of the humus stored in the prairie soils has made them less and less reten- tive of moisture, and thus created the necessity for different methods of culture which shall enable them to hold water for the crops. The diminished rainfall several years in succession has also thoroughly disposed the farmers of the West to consider any well-conceived measures or recommendations for the amelioration of existing con- ditions. The work of the Division of Soils in calling attention to and emphasizing the fact that at least a partial remedy for this condition is to be found in subsoiling, has attracted widespread attention and been followed by most gratifying results. Several of the experiment stations, notably that of Nebraska, have undertaken similar investigations and made i)ractical studies of subsoiling, and the practice is gaining in favor so rapidly that leading plow manu- facturers are making plows especially for subsoiling purjjoses. Other subjects which have occupied the attention of this division were the examination and classification of soils of some of the principal agricultural areas of the country, the working out of methods for the study of the phj'sical properties of soils and the effect of fertilizers thereon, and the adaptation of soils to particular crops. THE STUDY OF LOCAL SOILS. Under the instruction of the Secretary of Agriculture the division is cooperating with a number of States in the study of their local soils and their conditions. A regular system of soil observation is being organized by the employment of observers in the principal agricul- tural regions of the country, and the records of their results are tabulated and published for the information of those interested. Tlie Secretary of Agriculture believes that it is by work of this practical character that the Deiiartment can promote the great interests it is designed to serve. IRRIGATION INQUIRY. Mr. C. W. Irish, chief of the Office of Irrigation Inquiry, has devoted much time to the further personal examination and investigation of the different methods of irrigation practiced in Utah, Nevada, Nebraska, and some of the arid and subhumid regions. He has not yet com- pleted his report; but considerable progress has been made with it, and it is believed that the Department will speedily be in position to render important didactic service to that large and increasing body of agriculturists who are farming irrigated lands. Inquiries are received REPORT OF TUE SECRETARY. 55 from time to time as to the best methods of overcoming the various difficulties that are encountered in the artificial application of water to soil under the widely varying conditions which obtain in the far West, and the most reliable information in the possession of the Department is promptly afforded to the thousands who seek it. The Secretary of Agriculture realizes that only by irrigation can many of the richest soils of the United States ever be successfully brought under cultivation, but he strongly deprecates any appropriation of the public money or any alienation of the jjublic domain as a subsidy for the at tempted solution of irrigation problems, which are, in his oijinion, pressed upon the country years before their time and years before the best interests of the country can be served by their consideration and determination. AVith almost a suj^erabundance of agricultural prod- ucts in our home markets at reasonably low prices, public funds out of taxes gathered largely from existing farms and farmers can not justly be appropriated from the Treasury of the United States to create competing farms. ROAD INQUIRY. The work of this office under Gen. Roy Stone, chief of Road Inquiry, has i)roceeded steadilj'^ during the j'ear, in accordance with the pro- visions of the act making the appropriation, and has included inves- tigations in regard to the best methods of road making, road legisla- tion, and especially the condition of the country roads of the United States. Improved road construction is progressing in many of the States, notably in Massachusetts, New Jersey, North Carolina, and Kentucky. More than half the States have passed new road laws within the last year, and there is a general effort to ascertain the best methods for develoj^ing the country roads, for using the county prisoners or State convicts for this purpose, and for organizing State commissions to look after these matters. Special attention is called to the results of the inquiry made by this office into the cost .of hauling farm products to market, compiled from data received from 1,160 counties, contained in the report of the special agent in charge, accompanying this document. The facts cited show lucidly the great expenses entailed by bad roads and the great value of good ones, and should do much to awaken the farmers of this country to the importance of this subject. The office is also compiling a national map, on a large scale, to show all the macadamized and gravel roads in the United States. Upon this map new roads are laid down as fast as they are built and reported to til is office by the county clerks or surveyors. Such a map will, when finished, be of great value. The maps of Pennsylvania, Indiana, and New Jersey are already sufficiently advanced to present most inter- esting facts, and those of other States are proi^rossing. 56 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The office has published directious for building improved roads, compilation of road laws, information regarding road material and transportation rates for the same, the proceedings of road conven- tions, and much other useful information for free distribution among the people. It is proposed during the coming year to secure the cooperation of agricultural colleges and experiment stations in the object-lesson method of disseminating this information. They will be taught to construct model roads on the farms of their experiment stations or on their college ground-s, where they can be regularly used, and thus become a lesson to all the farmers who visit them. Public interest in the whole subject of road improvement has become thoroughly aroused, and a feeling of great hopefulness has been developed. The usefulness of a central good-roads propaganda such as this ofi&ce affords has been amplj'- illustrated. FIBER INVESTIGATIONS. The decline of the price of cotton and the successful establish- ment in this country of ramie manufacturing has called increased attention to the cultivation of this plant. Correspondence with ref- erence to it has been very large, and has necessitated the publica- tion of a special report on the subject in addition to the paper in the last Yearbook. The great desideratum is still a practical ramie decor- ticating machine. Recognizing this, the Department has endeavored, in the line of its duty, to assist by study and suggestions in perfect- ing practical apparatus for this purpose. In cooperation with the Louisiana experiment station it has tested a number of new machines. These trials showed gratifying progress in their construction, and though they have not yet produced a perfect machine, it is confidently believed that American inventors will at last successfully solve this problem. Experiments in the production of flax in the region of Puget Sound, Washington, have been continued during the year on a larger and more comprehensive scale with the cooperation of farmers in several sections of the State. Some very fine samples of straAv have been submitted, which encourages a hope for satisfactory final results. The interest in the profitable growth of flax has been much stimulated in this region. In evidence, it is said that a considerable area will be planted with this crop next season. In furtherance of this interest, a Farmers' Bulletin was published on "Flax for Seed and Fiber," which has been successfully circulated with good results in sections interested. Other fibers which have been subject to more or less inquiry are sisal hemp, pineapple fiber, jute, and the common hemp of the North. A descriptive catalogue of the world's fibers is in preparation by Mr. Charles Richards Dodge, the special agent in charge of this work. BEPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 57 MICROSCOPY. The Division of Microscopy was established iu the Department of Agriculture twenty years ago, when this art was considered a sepa- rate branch of technology. Since that time the microscope has come into daily, almost hourly, use in nearly all scientific laboratories. A separate Division of Microscopy in this Department has thus become an absurdity. The Department of Agriculture during the last fiscal year used at least 500 microscopists of one class or another outside of the Division of Microscopy to tlie one in it. This division, haAing completed a line of investigations on edible fungi, the butter fats used for adulterating pur^joses, the textile fibers, and one or two other sub- jects which it had undertaken some years ago, was abolished on the Ist of July, 1895. The apparatus and material pertaining to fungi were turned over to the Division of Vegetable Pathology, which makes a special study of fungi and fungous diseases of plants; the material pertaining to food adulterations was turned over to the Division of Chemistry, which by laAV is charged with the investigation of this subject; and the material belonging to textile fibers was turned over to the Ofiice of Fiber Investigations. These divisions v.all continue to attend to any investigations needed under these heads. PUBLICATIONS. The Division of Publications is in charge of Mr. George William Hill, who has managed and directed its affairs from the day of its incetjtion. During the fiscal year, under his vigilant supervision, 254 publications have been issued, including 120 reprints. The total number of copies of bulletins, pamphlets, and other publications aggregates more than 4,000,000. Together they make 420,000,000 printed pages, each page containing more than 500 words. Thus the Department of Agriculture has issued in a single year, gratuitously and promiscuously, under present laws, more than six printed pages for every man, woman, and child in the United States. This vast volume of reading uiatter, given free of cost to all who asked for it and mailed postage free to the donees wherever they might be, caused tlie disbursement of a largo sum of public money for paper and print- ing alone. The regular annual report, averaging nearly 40 ounces per volume, made more than 600 tons weight for gratuitous delivery in the various States and Territories by the Post-Office Department. A careful comi)arative estimate shows that the total weight of publi- cations, other than the annual report, aggregated 200 tons. Thus this Department alone has given 800 tons weight to the postal authorities for gratuitous transportation. GRATUITOUS DISTRIBUTION CONDEMNED. In view of the above facts it is again recommended that all publi- cations issued by the Department bo furnished fo such citizens only as will pay for their net cost and added postage, and that gratuitous 58 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. distribution be confined to public libraries and benevolent and edu- cational institutions, with tlie exception of such publications as may bo for specific purposes and properly termed "exigency" or "emer- gency " documents. Under the present system many secure publica- tions who do not need them for practical purposes, and those who would put them to good use are frequently unable to get them because editions have been exhausted by the former class. To-day almost any Government publication, no matter when it was published or how rare or valuable it may have become, can be purchased in second-hand and other book stores in nearly all the larger cities of the countr3^ There is not time to detail here the extravagance and needlessness of the present sj^stem. At this writing the Department has knowledge of the sale of the Yearbook issued in September by booksellers, and learns of the proposed sale of the same in large lots at $5 per 100. It is enough to suggest that the annual deficiencies of •the Post-Oflfice Department are largely attributable to this unwise distribution. With great satisfaction reference is made and public attention called to the report of the chief of this division. SEED DIVISION. Under the direction of Mr. M. E. Fagan, chief of the Seed Division, there were gratuitously and promiscuously distributed during the last fiscal year, in accordance with a long-prevailing practice, about 10,000,000 papers of flower and vegetable seeds. His report, together with that of Enos S. Harnden, the authorized purchasing agent of seed for the DeiJartment, is submitted and published. Together they give a detailed account of the purchase and distribution of the seed, which involved the deadheading in the United States mails of 270 tons weight. After the adjournment of the Fifty- third Congress inquiry was made at the Department of Justice as to the legality of purchasing any other than seeds "rare and uncommon to the country," etc. The following letter from the honorable the Attorney-General of the United States ansAvered and settled the question: Department of Justice, Washington, D. C, April 20, 1895. The Secretary of Agriculture. Sir: I have the honor to aclaiowledge yours of the 18th instant, in which yon call my attention to a portion of the act making appi-opriations for the Depart- ment of Agricnlture for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1896, and approved March 2, 1895, and running as follows: "Division of Seeds — Purchase and distribution of valuable seeds, and for the printing, publication^ and distribution of Farmers^ Bulletins: For the purchase, propagation, and distribution, as required by law, of valuable seeds, bulbs, trees, shrubs, \-iues, cuttings, etc., one hundred and eignty thousand dollars." You make two inquiries, as follows: '' Can the Secretary of Agnculture legally purchase any other seeds than those described m section 527 of the Revised Statutes, to wit, seeds ' rare and uncommon REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 59 to tlie country, or such as can be niade more profitable by frequent clianges from one part of our own country to another,' under authority of the act of March 3, 1895? "Would It be proper and lawful for the Secretary of Agriculture, in view of the verbiage of the act of March 2, 1895, and the wording of section 527 of the Rc\'ised Statutes, to advertise for proposals to f lu-nish the Department of Agricul- ture seeds, bulbs, trees, vines, cuttings, and plants 'rare and uncommon to the country, or such as can be made more profitable by frequent changes from one part of oiu- own country to another,' reserving the right to reject any and all bids?" 1. The seeds purchasable under the act of March 2, 1895, are limited to those described in section 527 of the Revised Statutes — there being no reasonable ground for claiming that the act of March 2, 1895, operates, or was intended to operate, as a rei)eal of the earlier statute. 2. If not obligatory upon the Secretary of Agriculture to purchase seeds, trees, etc.. conformably to section 3709 of the Revised Statutes, it is certainly competent for him to make the purchases conformably to said statiite, the right to reject any and all bids being reserved. But the form of the question is such that I think it proper to call attention to the fact that while seeds purchased must be such as are "rare and uncommon to the country, or such as can be made more profitable by frequent changes from one part of our own country to another,'' the trees, plants, shrubs, vines, and cuttings to be purchased are such " as are adapted to general cultivation and to promote the general interests of horticulture and agriculture throughout the United States.'' Respectfully, youi"s, Richard Olxey, Attorney-General. And the followiiic: advertisement was immediately inserted in tlie legally required number of newspapers: proposals. TJnited States Department op Agriculture, Office op the Secretary, Washington, D. C, April 27, 1895. In accordance with section 527 of the Revised Statutes, which authorizes the purchase of "seeds rare and uncommon to the countiy, or such as can be made more profitable by frequent changes from one part of our own country to another," also "such trees, plants, shrubs, vines, and cuttings as are adapted to general cul- tivation, and to iiromoto the general interests of horticulture and agriculture throughout the United States,'' and in accordance v/ith the terms of the appropri- ation (act approved March 2, 1895) for the purchase and distribution of valuable seeds, "as required by law," sealed proposals, in duplicate, subject to the usual conditions, will be received by the Secretary of Agriculture until 2 p.m., July 1, 1895, for supplying to the United States Department of Agi'iculture during the fiscal year ending June 30, 189G, and to be delivered before November 1, 1895, such valu- able seeds, ti'oes, plants, shrubs, vines, and cuttings as are covered by section 527 of the Re^ased Statutes quoted above. Persons submitting bids should specify the kind and varieties, with full description of each variety, of seeds and plants upon wliich they desire to submit bids and the quantities they are prepared to contract for, and must guarantee delivery of the same in Washington. The right is reserved to reject any or all bids. J. Sterling Morton, Secretary. Tliere \^'cre only three bids mado under tlie above, and they were passed upon and rejected by a committee, as follows: Washington, D. C, Jnlij G, 1S95. The Secretary of Agriculture. Sir: The undersigned board, appointed by you on July 1, 1895, to open and examine bids for seeds to be furnished this Department for diatribulion according 60 YEARBOOK OB^ THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to law, during the fiscal year ending July 1, 1896, have the lienor to report that we have opened and examined the bids received and find that the same do not meet the requirements of the advertisement as printed, and therefore respectfully recommend that all bids be rejected. Respectfully, yours, Enos S. Harnden. F. L. Evans. J. B. Bennett. The various divisions of the Department had been for a long time crowded for want of proper ofl&ce rooms. Therefore the first story of the large building heretofore mostly occupied by the Seed Di\'ision was at once, under the law providing for such emergencies, speedily transformed into apartments for the Division of Entomology and the Division of Ornithology^ and Mammalogy, and immediately occupied by the chiefs and clerks thereof. In this way the libraiy room of the main building of the Department has been relieved from a congestion of accumulated specimens, books, and other property which hereto- fore lumbered up the galleries of that room in various unsightly pine-board partitions. The two divisions named have, for the first time since their existence, been properly housed and decently pro- vided witli working rooms suitable to their peculiar labors and lines of investigation. The detailed showings of the chief of this division, and likewise of the seed-purchasing agent, will, in all probability, sufficiently enlighten the general public as to the needlessness and folly of the annual gratuitous and promiscuous distribution of seeds deadheaded through the United States mails. The one hundred and thirty thousand dollars appropriated by the Fifty-third Congress for the purchase and distribution of seed this year is practically intact, and consequently undrawn from the Treas- ury of the United States. GARDENS AND GROUNDS. The gardens and grounds of the Department are, as they have been for more than thirty years, in charge of the chief of that division, Mr. William Saunders, horticulturist. The work of the division has consisted ' ' in keeping the grounds in good condition, in the cultiva- tion and care of the i)lant and fruit houses, and in the proi)agation of plants for home use and for distribution." The free and promiscuous distribution of strawberry and grape vines, privet plants, camphor trees, tea trees, olive trees, fig trees, pineapples, and miscellaneous varieties of cuttings ought to be abol- ished. But if the propagation of rare and valuable plants, vines, and exotics is to be continued by the Department, the distribution should be limited to the experiment stations and agricultural farms of the several States and Territories. By such a limitation the appropria- tion for this di\asion could be verj^ materially reduced. It is, how- ever, the purpose of experiment stations and agricultural colleges to attend to the introduction of new, rare, valuable, or improved plants, REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 61 vines, and seeds to their respective localities. Those institutions are in charge of and directed by skilled, scientific agriculturists of great experience. Therefore all of this business of propagating and distrib- uting new varieties should be relegated to those institutions. Before their existence there might have been some excuse for the gratuitous and promiscuous distribution of seeds, vines, plants, trees, and cut- tings, but there is no necessity for such distribution at this time at the exjiense of the Federal Treasury. That being the case, the appro- priation for the care of thirty-five acres of grounds about the United States Department of Agriculture and for the greenhouses thereon situated could be very materially and profitably reduced. ACCOUNTS AND DISBURSEMENTS. Chief "F. L. Evans has submitted a summaiy of the work of this division for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1895, together with a state- ment of appropriations, disbursements, and unexpended balances of the United States Bureau and Department of Agriculture from the fiscal year 1839 to and including the fiscal year 1895. His report is entirely satisfactory and could only be evolved from a service of great perfection over which he has with scrupulous economy and vigilance most eflBciently presided. The appropriation for the maintenance of this Department for the year 1895 was one hundred and four thousand four hundred and seventy-six dollars and ninety-four cents ($104,476.94) less than the apijropriation for 1895, and yet it was one hundred and eighty-three thousand four hundred and twenty dollars (^183,420) more than the amount estimated for by the Department. For the fiscal year ended June 30, 1893, tliere was covered back into the Treasury of the United States from the appropriation for this Department one hundred and eighty-five thousand four hundred and ninety-seven dollars and sixty-four cents ($185,497.64). Subsequently the sum of (in round numbers) six hundred and twenty-five thousand dollars ($625,000) for the fiscal year 1894 was returned to the Treasury, and for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1895, there is an unexpended balance amounting to about five hundred thousand dollars ($500,000), RECAPITULATION. Five million one hundred and two thousand five hundred and twenty-three dollars and six cents ($5,102,523.06) was appropriated to the United States Department of Agriculture during the two fiscal years 1894 and 1895; and out of that sum one million one hundred and twenty-six thousand two hundred and sixty-eight dollars and seventy- four cents ($1,126,268.74) has been saved to cover back into the Treasury. Then add to that saved sum the one hundred and eighty-five thou- sand four hundred and ninety-seven dollars and sixty-four cents ($185,497.64) returned to the Treasury out of the 1893 appropriation, and we find that, with an unlinpairod jind extended and disciplined 62 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. service in this Department, the aggregate sum of one million three hundred and eleven thousand seven hundred and sixty-six dollars and thirty-eight cents ($1,311,760.38) is available for return to the Treasury since March 4, 1893. In a Government where vast siims are handled every day and tens and hundreds of millions of money are ordinary topics of conversation, the saving of thirteen hundred thousand dollars may attract little attention and less commendation. But in the most fertile farming county in the best agricultural sections of the American Union it will be difficult to find thirteen hundred farmers who all together have earned and saved as much in the same period of time. No other class of gainfully employed workers among the citizens of the United States are so interested in a judiciously economical management of govern- mental affairs as are the farmers, who directly and indirectly pay the most taxes in proportion to their property, because that property is, as a rule, material and visible. And farmers, more than any other class, ought to know that governments, whether monarchal, despotic, or democratic and republican, are born without money and never get any money except by taxing either subjects or citizens, and that a tax is payment by the citizen to the Government for the protection it gives to propert}^ life, and liberty. And further, that neither bankers, railroad owners, manufacturers, farmers, nor any class, can legiti- matelj^ demand the expenditure of public funds for any other purpose than that for which they were taken from the people. BUILDINGS FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It is suggested that the Weather Bureau could be furnished with commodious offices and apartments in the top story of the new post- office building in the city of Washington, and upon the roof of the same edifice the exposure of all the instruments used in taking meteorological observations could be advantageously made, while a small part of the basement of the same building set apart for the printing office and presses, whence the daily weather maps are issued, would complete a most desirable domicile for that Bureau. Such a transfer having been made from its present location, the Weather Bureau buildings and grounds at the corner of Twentj''- fourth and LI streets, in the city of Washington, could be converted into cash and would bring something like $200,000 or $300,000. This sum, added to the $1,300,000 which has been saved and covered into the Treasury from appropriations for the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal years 1893, 1894, and 1895, makes $1,500,000, which, invested in a building constructed purposely for the Department of Agriculture, would afford in compact form sufficient accommodations for every one of the divisions and bureaus and bring them in daily communication with each other. Under the present system of renting (rents now amounting for this Department to $3,920 a year) the expenses are increasing, and the necessity of having all the divi- sions and bureaus, especiallj' those of a scientific character, brought together is becoming more and more obvious. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 63 In view of tliese facts, if tlie Departmcut of Agriculture is to be domiciled, as every other Department is, in a building proportioned to the value and magnitude of the interests which it conserves, it is suggested tliat an appropriation for tlie construction of an edifice for the Department of Agriculture must be made in the very near future. EXTENSION OF THE CIVIL SERVICE. By Presidential order, on May 24, 1895, all the employees of the Department of Agriculture, with the exception of three persons holding office by appointment of the President and of some 500 laborers and workmen (not skilled) and charwomen, were included in the regularly classified civil service. Of the 500, only 78 laborers are in Washington. Of employees included in the classified service only four are excepted from the rule requiring apj)ointment by competitive examination or by promotion. That order, therefore, put all the educated and skilled force of specialists and scientists, including all the chiefs of division of this Department, into the classified service. The total number of employees is 2,019. Four hundred and twenty- nine are females. One hundred and sixty-five out of the whole num- ber were appointed after civil-service examination and certification. Thirtj'-three of this number are women. From the date of the enactment of the civil-service law, .January 16, 1883, to March 6, 1893, the number of persons appointed in this Department after examination and certification by the United States Civil Service Commission, under the rules, was 112. Of that number 42 were women. But since March 7, 1893, the number so appointed has been 102. It lacks only 10 of being as many as had been appointed in accord with civil-service law and regulations during more than the ten previous years. And since March 7, 1893, only 8 women have been so appointed. Of the whole number of 214 thus brought into the serv- ice 49 persons have been severed from the Department by resigna- tion, transfer, or otherwise. Of that total civil-service list 37 — 25 males and 12 females — have been severed from the service since March, 1893. A thoroughly economical and efficient departmental service can only be secured and maintained by extending the provisions of the civil-service law so as eventually to include all purely noui)olitical ministerial ofiicers, clerks, skilled workmen, and laborers. This is not the place to discuss in detail the amendments and modifications needed to render the civil service of this Government one of the most enlightened, prompt, and efficient in the world. The subject, how- ever, justly claims space in this report for the expression of the con- viction that the service of the Government should be put, in all respects, on as good a footing as that of first-class establishments conducting professional or commercial enterprises. Tlie present system, awarding unduly large salaries for the simplest clerical work, almost mechanical in its character, invites an influx to Washington of persons seeking work who properly belong to the 64 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. lowest clerical grade. But unfortunate statutory limitations restrict salaries for the more responsible and important positions, which re- quire special knowledge, to a level 25 or 50 per cent lower than those paid for similar efforts by reputable commercial and professional establishments throughout the country. Radical reorganization is needed, therefore, in these respects. Reasonable remuneration in the subordinate ranks and sufficient inducements in the higher grades to stimulate ambition and suitably reward exceptional merit will, together with permanency of tenure and the responsible character of the employer, attract talent, industry, and character to the service of tlie Government. Under other conditions, which have been tried, favoritism, injustice, and dependence upon political influence satu- rate the service with mediocrity, indolence, and inefficiency. Before dismissing this subject special attention is directed to sec- tion 25 of Chapter II in the Vermont constitution of 1793, which embodies on the subject of public officers and office holding in gen- eral a specimen of good New England sense which may be studied ■with advantage at the present time, more than one hundred years after its adoption: As every freeman, to preserve his independence, if without a sufficient estate, ought to have some profession, calling, trade, or farm, whereby he may honestly subsist, there can be no necessity for nor use in establishing offices of profit, the usual effects of which are dependence and servility, unbecoming freemen, in the possessors or expectants, and faction, contention, and discord among the people, But if any man is called into public service to the prejudice of his private affairs, he has a right to a reasonable compensation; and whenever an office, through increase of fees or otherwise, becomes so profitable as to occasion manj- to apply for it, the profits ought to be lessened by the legislature. And if any officer shall wittingly and willfully take greater fees than the law allows him, it shall ever after disqualify him from holding any office in this State until he shall be restored by act of legislation. THE FUTURE OP FARMS AND FARMING IN THE UNITED STATES. The farms of the United States, averaging 137 acres each, are valned at more than S13, 000,000,000. Those farms number four mil- lion five hundred and sixty-four thousand six hundred and forty-one^ (4,oG4,G41), and their average value in the census of 1890 is S2,909. The farm family, including hired help, averages six persons. By their own labor, with an additional investment upon each farm of about 8200 in implements and $800 more in domestic animals and sun- dries (making a total farm plant of 14,000), those families made for themselves during the year, out of the products of the earth, a whole- some and comfortable living. The same farmers have with part of their sui'plus products also fed all the urban population of the United States, poor and rich alike. Cereals, meats, vegetables, fruits, eggs, milk, butter, cheese, and poul- try have been supplied the village and city markets of the United States in abundance. It is probably safe to say that more than ■40,000,000 of American citizens not living on farms have been so far- ' The 1893 report of the Secretary of Agriculture erroneously stated the number of farms in the United States at 6,000,000. EErORT OF THE SECRETARY. 05 nishcd witli all the necessities and luxuries known as products of the varied soil and climate of the States and Territories of the Unioii. Dnrinjj; the fiscal year 1895 the United States exported to foreign countries domestic commodities, merchandise, and i)rodncts aggre- gating in value $793,000,000. The aggregate value of the agricul- tural products included in that sum was 8553,215,317. Of the total exports Europe received a valuation of $028,000,000, or 79 per cent of the whole. Thus American agriculture, after feeding itself and all the towns, villages, and cities of the United States, has also sold in the outside world's markets more than $500,000,000 wortli of products. So the farmers of the United States have furnished 09. G8 per cent of the value of all the exports from their country during the j^ear 1895. But this large number of consumers, consisting not only of our own citizens, but of the citizens of all nations, have not been gratuitously f<'d, though their supplies have been constant and abundant. With sound money of the least fluctuating buying power — money on a parity with and convertible into gold the world over — American farmers have been remunerated for their products. The exact amount paid for the products of agriculture consumed in the United States during the year is not known, but it must have aggregated hundreds of millions of dollars. But all products, i. e,, those consumed at home and abroad, were in — 1870 (including betterments and addition to stock) _ §3, 447, 538, G58 1880 2, 213, 540, 937 1800 2, 460, 107, 454 No absolutely credible method of estimating products for 1895 is available at this time, but since i^roduction has not increased to any considerable extent, and the farm value of many of the chief products has decreased to a remarkable degree, it seems reasonable to assume a decrease in the total valuation of farm i)roducts since 1890. Say, as a i-ough approximation, the valuation is 62,300,000,000. In the presence of these facts, in the front of these figures demon- strating that agriculture in this Rei^ublic has during the year fed itself, supplied all citizens of the Union engaged in other vocations, and then shipped abroad a surplus of over 8500,000,000 worth of its products, how can anyone dare to assert that farming is generallj'^ un- remunerative and unsatisfactory to those who intelligently follow it? How can the 42 per cent of the population of the United States which feeds the other 58 jjcr cent and then furnishes more than 09 per cent of all the exports of the whole people be making less profits in their vocation than those Avhom they feed when the latter supply less than 31 per cent of the exi)oi'ts of the country V For the purpose of illustrative comparison transfer the 84,000 agri- culturally invested in each farm of 137 acres to the choicest Wall street investment. Risk that money in railroad first-mortgage bonds, in bank stocks, or any oilier allegedly safe security which may be found a favorite among shylocks, brokers, i^lulocrats, monopolists, money-power manipulators, and multimillionaires, and if it returns 4 A 95 3 66 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 6 per cent it is a remarkably profitable investment in the eyes of capitalists. Therefore $240 is the annual income. Follow the transfer of the farm monej^ with that of the farm family to nrban residence. Now, with the same labor in the city or village can they attain by hard work every day in the year, adding their wages to the S240 income, as much of independence, vvholesome living, and real comfort as the same amount of money in the land and the same heads and hands working on the soil generously and healthfully bestowed upon them, in the sweet quiet of a home, amidst flowers, trees, fruits, and abundance, on the farm ? But the declaimers of calamity declare that the farms of the United States are sadly burdened with mortgages. The census of 1890, hoAv- ever, develops the fact that on the entire valuation returned for farms there is only a mortgage of 16 per cent. It will be borne in mind, too, that many thousands of acres of mortgaged lands of great value whieli are returned as farms were such only before they were mortgaged. Thej' were purchased to plat as additions to cities like Chicago, Brook- lyn, Kansas City, and Omaha, and ceased to be farm lands as soon as mortgages representing part of the purchase price were recorded. Such lands are, therefore, wrongfully included and returned as farms. They show an aggregate of many millions of liabilities. On each $10,000 of rural real estate there is, then, an average incum- brance of $1,600. And when the fact is recalled to mind that a large j)art of all farm mortgages is for deferred payments on the land itself, or for improvements thereon, what other real or personal property in the United States can show lesser liabilities, fewer liens in proportion to its real cash-x^roducing value ? Certainly the manufacturing plants of this countrj'', neither smelting works, mills, iron and steel furnaces and foundries, nor any other line of industry, can show less incum- brance on the capital invested. Railroad mortgages represent 46 per cent of the entire estimated value of the lines in this country. On June 30, 1894, 192 railroads were in the hands of receivers; they represent $2,500,000,000 cap- ital— nearly one-fourth of the total railway capitalization of tlie United States. On that date how relatively small was the amount of money in farm mortgages compared to the value of the lands securing them ? During the year 1894, according to the five reports made that year to the Comptroller of the Currency, the average indebtedness to their depositors of the national banks was $1,685,756,062.45. Besides the above, State and private banks, loan and trust companies, and savings banks owed their depositors during the same period an average of $2,973,414,101, making a total of $4,659,170,163.45. And in this j'^ear, 1895, by the responses of national banks to the four calls thus far made upon them by the Comptroller of the Cur- rency, their aggregate indebtedness to depositors is shown to be $1,719,597,911.33; State and private banks, loan and trust companies, and savings banks show an aggregate indebtedness to their depositors of $3,185,245,810, making a total of $4,904,843,721.33. EEPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 67 These figures show an enormous and constaut indebtedness of the banks and bankers alongside of which the money in farm mortgages and tlie debts owed by farmers are relatively insignificant. I'he debts of railroads, bankers, manufacturers, and merchants entitle them, and not the farmers, to bo called the "debtor class" in America. In 1880, 'It per cent of all Americans engaged in gfiinful occujia- tions were in agricultural pursuits. Applying the same ratio to the total ijopulation we should have a farming population in the United States for 1880 of 22,008,-134. The returns of the Eleventh Census show that the rural population has increased by 4,078,422 during the decade 1880-1890. Adding this to 22,008,434, we get a rough approxi- mation of the farming population in 1890 — 20,146,856, or 42 per cent of the total — and the number of farms in the United States in 1890 being 4,504,041, the average number of i)ersons on each farm would thus, approximately, be 0. There were in 1890 improved farm lands in the United. States repre- senting an area of tilled and productive fields amounting to 357,010,755 acres. At that time the United States contained 05,000,000 people. Therefore, each citizen of the United States, with an equal per capita distribution of farm products, was entitled in the year 1890 to receive the cereals, vegetables, and other products evolved from 5^ acres of cultivated land, less the amount consumed for the maintenance of domestic .animals. These figures illustrate the importance of having some other than an exclusive "home market." No legislation, how- ever encouraging or protective, will be able to create an American demand, appetite, and digestion of sufficient magnitude to consume all that American farmers produce. Human beings capable of eating the food products of even 2^ acres each year have not yet been developed. Until they are or until the population of the United States has been quadrupled, foreign markets for farm products are essential to the i^rosperity of the plowmen and planters of this country. It will be observed that between 1880 and 1890 the proportion of the people engaged in agriculture declined 2 per cent, and that to-day there are only 42 persons in rural pursuits to 58 in mercantile, manu- facturing, and other callings common to the great populational and industrial centers. Fifty-eight i>qv cent of the people can not always be satisfactorily maintained upon the profits of exchanges among themselves in the villages and cities. Food for all must come from the earth — from tilled fields. The population of the United States in 1915 — a quarter of a century after the census of 1890 — admitting that the increase will diminish very materially as compared with that of each preceding quarter of a century since the Government was estab- lished, will, no doubt, number at least 120,000,000. The value of farm lauds, being governed by the relation of tlie supply of those hinds to the demand for them, will therefore steadily increase. The area or supply remains stationary, or from careless tillage decreases. But the added millions of our population augment and intensify demand. TheiH'fore the prices of farms must in the next twenty years, and possibly in ten years, advance more markedly 68 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. llian those of urban real estate. The owners of fertile fields, how- ever, most understand now that agriculture is swiftly becoming a scientific profession. The more the fanner cultivates his mind the better and more profitably he can cultivate his fields. The Depart- ment of Agriculture has expended during each of the last two years a greater per cent of its appropriations in the application of science to farming, to correct tillage and fertilization, than ever before. Each season teaches anew the imperative necessity of more and more scientific knowledge for those who are to plow and plant profit- ably. The markets of the world will finally be invaded, captured, and lield by those who produce cereals and meats, A'egetables and fruits at the least cost, and can therefore most cheaply sell. Competition is fiercer every year. American inventions, improved implements and machinery for saving labor on the farm and for saving the fruits of that labor are exported to Africa, Europe, and South and Central America. Thus our own recipes and contrivances for cheap produc- tion are used abroad to strengthen the abilities of foreign farmers to contend with our own in foreign markets. Information direct from Russia, from Argentina, and from Africa tells of larger sales of Amer- ican agricultural implements and machinery annually in each country. Thus competition is made far more formidable by the increased use in foreign parts of our own improved machines and implements with which American manufacturers more than ever are supplying ^Lsm. In view of such a state of facts, farmers must, to be successful, stuay probable demand and adjust supply to its needs. Forecasts of mar- kets and their conditions can, by diligent study and attention, be so accurately made as to nearly always secure producers against loss. The profits of planting must largely become premeditated. The struggle to obtain for the offerings of the American farmer the mar- ketvS of the globe is fiercely carried on betAveen him and every other farmer in all the world. They are brothers in agriculture, as were Abel and Cain, "bringing the fruits of the ground" for approval. He who brings the best and cheapest will find approval in welcoming purchasers and remunerative prices. The success of the farmer of the future therefore depends more upon mental than upon manual effort. An act of Congress approved May 15, 18G2, creates— A Department of Agriculture, the general designs and duties of which shall be to acquire and diflhise among the people of the United States iiseful information on subjects connected with agricultiire in the most general and comprehensive sense of that word. And the foregoing report, in conformity to the spirit and letter of that law and in accord with the educational design and scope of tlie Department, is respectfully submitted, with the belief that in it may be found "useful information connected with agriculture in the most general and comiirehensive sense of that word." J. Sterling Morton, Department of Agriculture, Secretary. Washington, D. C, November 15, ISOo. SOIL FERMENT8 IMPORTANT IN AGRICULTURE. By H. W. Wiley, Chief of the Division of Chemistry, U. S. Deparlment of Afjviculture. VITALITY OF THE SOIL. Not many years ago the soil was regarded by the agriculturist as dead, inert matter, devoid of all vitality. The theories of fertiliza- tion of the soil were based ujion this idea, and the methods of culture were conducted according to the same theory. The only vital thing which the farmer considered was the growing crop itself, and there was no suspicion of the relations existing between the ^^tality of the crop and the living organisms of the field. The reader of the agri- cultural literature of to-day does not need to be told how all this has been changed in the last tAventy years. Tlie soil is no longer regarded as dead and inert matter, but is known to be so permeated with living beings as to entitle it to be considered a living mass. The parts of the soil which are not endowed with life noAV receive their highest s'gnificance as the environment of the living organisms which they c )ntain and which they may help to nourish. The plant which forms the growing croj) receives its nourishment through the media of the air and soil, but this nourishment must undergo a process of diges- tion, before it becomes available as plant food, similar to that suffered by the food which nourishes animals. Indeed, the purely mineral, inor- ganic foods of iilants are probably not always absorbed as such, and must undergo a decomposition before they are assimilated. A striking instance of this is shown in the case of silica, an important plant food and a type of inert mineral matter. Silica is highly insoluble and apparently the least suited of the mineral constituents of the earth to enter the vital organism of the plant. Yet not only do we find it in the tissues of the mature plant, but also, strange to say, in the greatest abundance in those parts of the plant organism, viz, the leaves, most remote from the sources of siipi^ly. It is evident from this that tJie highly insoluble silica of the soil must undergo a com- plete solution in oider to be carried hy the juices of the plant through the network of cellular tissues to be finally redci)osited in the leaf. Tlie same statement may be made with regard to the other purely mineral foods of plants. It is quite certain that the}' do not become a part of the plant organism in the form in which they are found in the 69 70 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. soil or in applied fertilizers. In pliospliorns, for instance, is found one of the most important mineral foods of plants. This substance exists in the soil almost exclusively as mineral phosphates, or is applied as such in fertilizers. Nevertheless, the phosphorus which is found in plants, and especially in the seeds of cereals, exists largely in organic combination, showing that the original mineral phosphates have been entirely deeomioosed by the process of digestion to which they have been subjected. Even the mineral phosphates which are found in plants are not those which preexisted in the soil. Soil phosphates are chiefly those of lime, iron, and alumina, while plant phosphates are chiefly those of potash. SOLUTIOX OF SOIL PARTICLES. At the present moment it is supposed that the purely mineral mat- ters mentioned above pass into solution under the influence of the secretions and vital forces of the plant rootlets. It is not improbable, however, in view of the knowledge we already possess of independent soil organisms, that there may be a class of such bodies especially active in the disintegration of mineral particles and the preparation of them for plant digestion. K'aturally, the first organisms which would act upon a bare rock would be those which could subsist upon a purely mineral environment. Such organisms could draw their nourishment solely from the mineral itseK and from the air. One of the most imjDortant of modern discoveries is the fact that the nitrify- ing organism of the soil, the natiu-e of which will be explained further on, and which is the cliief instrument in providing and digesting nitrog- enous nutriment for plants, is capable of subsisting and flourishing in a purely mineral medium. It is believed, therefore, that in the primary decay of bare rocks, especially at high altitudes, the nitri- fying organism plays a highly important part and prepares the sur- face of the rock for the first growth of lichens and other low vegetable organisms from which the first traces of humus are formed. While these organisms are said to subsist in a purely mineral environment, it must be understood that the carbon dioxide and traces of ammonia which the air may contain belong to this category. It has been shown that these bacteria can be developed by absorbing from the ambient atmosphere traces of ammonia and other bodies which may be present in the air. They even assimilate the carbon of the carljon dioxide much in the same manner as vegetables which contain chloro- phyll. Thus, even in the denuded rocks of high mountains, the con- ditions for the development of all these inferior organisms exist. In examining the particles produced by attrition from such rocks it is easily established that they are uniformly covered by a layer of organic matter, evidently formed by microscopic vegetations. There is thus discovered in the very first products of the attrition of rocks the characteristic element of vegetable soil, viz, humus, the proportion SOIL FERMENTS IMPORTANT IN AGRICULTURE. 71 of Avliicli increases rapidly witli the process of disintegration, until finally the decaying mass is capable of sustaining chlorophyll-bearing plants. Not only upon the surface of exposed rocks have these organisms been discovered, but also to a considerable distance in the interior of rocks on high mountains, fragments of which have been collected in sterilized tubes and subjected to cultivation in an appropriate environment. DECAY OF ROCKS AT HIGH ALTITUDES. The naked rocks of high mountains comprise mineralogical types of the most varied nature, viz, granite, liorphyry, gneiss, mica schist, volcanic rocks, and limestones of all varieties, and all these have been found to be covered with a nitrifying ferment which is doubt- less extremely active in i^roducing incipient decay. At the high altitudes at which these observations liave been made the activity of bacteria is necessarily limited by the low temiierature to which they are subjected during the greater part of the year. During the winter season their life is suspended, but is not extinguished, since they have been found living and ready to resume all their activity after an indefi- nite sleep, perhaps of thousands of years, on the ice of the glaciers, where the temperature never rises above tlie freezing point. When the activitj'^ of these ferments in the most unfavorable conditions is recognized, it is easily seen how much more active they become when brought down to lower levels where they are nourished by the favoring conditions which exist, esiDCciallj' during the summer time, in culti- vated soils. In fact, the importance of the action of these bodies on the mineral particles of which the soil is largely composed has never been fully recognized, and there is no doubt whatever of the great signifi- cance of their decomposing action in the liberation of plant food locked uj) in undecomposed mineral structures. In this case the activity of the bacteria is not limited to the surface of rock masses, but per- meates every x)article of soil and thus becomes effective over a vastly extended surface. WTien the extreme minuteness of these organisms and of the phe- nomena which they produce is considered, there may be a tendency to despise their importance, but by reason of the fact that their activity is never ceasing and of the widest application, it must be placed among the geologic causes to which the crust of the earth owes a part of its actual physiognomy and to Avliich the formation of the deposits of the comminuted elements constituting arable soil are due. TRANSLATION OF MINERAL MATTERS IN PLANTS. Consider for a moment a minute fragment of mineral matter of any description containing particles of plant food presented to the rootlet of a plant. ]t is evident at once that no mineral particle, 72 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. however minute, can be bodily transported in a mechanical way and become an integral part of any jjlant tissue. Any attemjit to move soil particles in this manner could only result in a clogging of the pores of the cellular tissues, the stoppage of the circulation, and con- sequent death of the plant. The mineral particle in question, there- fore, must suffer a complete disintegration, and the only forces capable of effecting this, in so far as we know, are the solvent action of the plant secretions, the vital activity of the rootlet itself, and the decomposing influence of the soil ferments. What particular pro- portion of the solvent action is due to each of these causes has not yet been determined. It is known, however, that the weak organic acids which may be contained in secretions from the roots of plants are not capable of exercising a very important solvent influence on the soil particles. In fact, one of the organic acids which may be found in the secre- tions of the rootlets of plants, viz, oxalic acid, is capable of exerting an influence which is unfavorable to the decomposition of mineral matters containing lime. A mineral Avhich is comi^osed in part of lime Vv'hen exjjoscd to the action of oxalic acid becomes coated with a film of lime oxalate which prevents any further decomposing action. The influence of nitric acid, which is due to the activity of soil fer- ments, is exerted in this case in the most beneficial way, attacking and dissolving the film of lime oxalate and exjDosing fresh portions of the mineral substance to decay. Phosphoric acid especially, which is so often found in combination with lime, may be released by this action and made available. It must not be forgotten also that lime itself is an essential plant food and must be supplied in appropriate quantities to secure a normal growth of the plants. The "vital activity" of the rootlet itself, a phrase often used, has an indefinite meaning and conveys absolutely no comprehensible idea of solvent action. On the other hand, it is known that soil ferments are found in particularly large numbers clustering about the rootlets of plants and in fact existing in symbiotic union therewith. This sig- nifies that the relation existing between them is so intimate as to make their vitality mutually dependent. It is therefore quite probable, as has already been intimated, that the preparation of soil particles for plant food is due quite largely to bacterial activity. KINDS OF ORGANISMS. The nitric organisms in the soil exist in common with hundreds of others, many of which are doubtless active in the solvent Avork. The nitrifying organisms themselves, as will be mentioned further on, have such important relations in the supply of nitrogenous food as to have escaped consideration in their more purely solvent action. The attention of bacteriologists has been devoted almost exclusively to a study of the nitrifying organisms in respect of their relation to albu- SOIL FEKMENTS IMPORTANT IN AGRICULTURE. 73 minoid and ainiuoniacul bodies. For this reason the action of these organisms and others relating thereto as a solvent for mineral par- ticles in preparing them for plant absorption has not received the consideration which it merits. THE NITRIFYING FERMENTS. The microorganisms of most importance to agriculture, and those to which attention is particularly called in this article; are the bacteria which act upon nitrogenous matters and oxidize them to nitric acid, or which exert a reducing effect on nitric acid, bringing it to lower forms of oxidation, or even to free nitrogen. These organisms belong to many different species, and act in very many different ways. The general group to which these organisms belong is known as nitro- bacteria. The classification of these organisms by genera and species would prove of little interest to the readers of this article. In gen- eral it may be sai(f that there are three distinct genera, comprising, in the first place, those organisms which form ammonia or carbonate of ammonia from organic nitrogenous compounds, such as albumen; in the second place, the organisms which transform carbonate of ammonia into nitrous acid; and, in the third place, those which trans- form nitrous into nitric acid. Each genus is necessary in the com- plete transformation of proteid matter into nitric acid, in which latter form alone nitrogen is chiefly available for plant food. FORMATION OF AMMONIA. The bacteria which are especially active in the formation of ammo- nia are found constantly in surface soils and in the air and rain waters. By the activity of these organisms in the decomposition of albumen or of an albuminoid body large ciuantities of ammonium carbonate are produced. The organic carbon, which is present in the compound, is also acted upon during the decom'positlon of the albumen, and by its oxidation certain organic acids are produced together with carbon dioxide. Any organic sulphur which is present in the original compound becomes converted into an acid. As a rule, nitrogen, in the decomposition of albumen and albuminoid bodies, is not i^roduced in its free state unless, indeed, the denitrifying organ- isms should attack the products of the first oxidation. The ammonia ferment naturally produces alkalinity in the media in which it is active, but it has been found that its activity is not wholly destroyed even in the presence of a slight excess of acid, provided the amount of acid present does not exceed 1 per cent. As with the case of the other nitrifj'ing organisms, the ammonia ferment is most active in a warm environment. A temi)eraturo of from 80° to 100*^ F. is found most favorable to the production of a maximum fermentative activity. As the temperature approaches the freezing point the activity of the organisms diminishes and finally ceases altogether, but their \itality 4 A 05 3 * 74 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. is not destroyed. Above a temperature of 110^ F. tlie activity of the ferment is also mncli diminislied and at higher temperatures ceases. A temperature near the boiling point of water continued for some time destroj^s the vitality of the organisms altogether. The demonstration of the fact that the transformation of organic nitrogenous matter into ammonia is due to microorganic activity is easily made in the following simple manner: Two samples of the same soil are placed iii suitable vessels. The percentages of ammonia and of oxidized nitrogen which these samples contain are determined by the usual chemical process. One of the samx^les is then sterilized b}' heating it for a few hours to a temperature considerably above the boiling point of v>'ater. After the lapse of a few weeks or months, the ammonia, or its oxidized i)roducts, nitrous and nitric acids, is again determined in the two samples. In the unsterilized sample it will be found, provided the soils be kept moist and at the proper temperature, that there is a marked increase of ammonia. In the sterilized sample no such increase will be found. In general it may be said that the organic matter in the soil which is the source of the ammonia is not altogether albuminoid or iDroteid matter, but includes also the nitrogenous constituents of humus. Soil humus is remarkably rich in carbon, and under the conditions favorable to nitrification this is constantly suffering oxidation. As a result of this constant oxidation, the percentage of carbon in humus maintained for a long while under cultivation is much less in pro- portion to the other constituents of that body than in soils whicli are regularly fertilized with organic matters or in virgin soils. The exact manner in which microorganisms reduce the nitrogenous stores of humus to the form of ammonia are, of course, not known, and the ferments which are active therein have been the subject of less investigation and are more imperfectl}'' understood than those which are active in the formation of nitrous and nitric acids. It may be jjossible that the organism which converts organic mat- ter into carbonate of ammonia and that one which forms nitrous acid are quite similar in their character, but this can not be definitely stated. PRODUCTION OF NITROUS ACID. The next step in the process of nitrification is the conversion of ammonia or its compounds into nitrous acid. With a moderate store of ammonia the oxidation into nitrous acid takes place as a rule with- out any of the nitrogen being lost in a free state or being volatilized as ammonia compounds. When, however, there is a large excess of ammonium carbonate, a considerable loss of nitrogen may take place. The practical deduction to be drawn from this fact is apparent. Nitrogenous fertilizers should be applied only in moderate quantities, so as not to increase the stock of material beyond the power of the active ferments to handle it. SOIL FERMENTS IMPORTANT IN AGRICULTURE. 75 Tlio nitrous ferment is b)'- far tlie largest and most vigorous of the nitrifying organisms. It is from three to four times as largo as the nitric ferment, and under a liigli power of the microscope appears as minute globules, slight^ oblate. These globules are multiplied by spores, Avhich develop rapidly to perfect organisms of full size. In most cases the organisms appear as distinct globules, but many are congregated into masses vvhere the distinctive cell structure seems to be lost. CONVERSION OF NITROUS INTO NITRIC ACID. The last step in the process of nitrification consists in the oxidation of nitrous to nitric acid. As a rule plants absorb nitrogenous food onl}'- as nitric acid, but it can not be said that the nitrogen maj^ not be used by the plant in other forms. Some experiments seem to show that ammonia and its compounds may be directly absorbed by f>lants, but if tills be true it must be only in a very limited quantity. The final step, therefore, in nitrification is necessary to secure this valuable food in its most highly available state. The nitrifying organisms are much smaller than their nitrous cousins, and of the same general shape but more globular. It must not be supposed that these steps in the preparation of a nitrogenous food are performed with entire distinctness. The imj)res- sion might be obtained that the ammoniacal ferment exerted its activ- ity, converting the whole of the nitrogenous supply into ammonia, and that in this state only the nitrous ferment would become active and convert the whole product into nitrous acid which finally, under the infiuence of the nitric ferment, would form nitric acid. In point of fact, however, in arable soils and under favorable conditions the steps of nitrification may be almost synchronous. In the case of a growing crop, a chemical examination or repeated chemical examina- tions might find only traces of ammonia and nitrous and nitric acids. As each particle of ammonia is formed it is converted withoiit delay into nitrous acid, and then at once into nitric acid. The nitric acid formed would be absorbed by the growing plant, and thus it might seem that the activity of the ferments present in the soil had been reduced to a minimum, when in point of fact they were exercising their functions with maximum vigor. The separate stages of nitrifi- cation mentioned above can only be secured in the laboratory by a skilled bacteriologist patiently working to separate the different gen- era of nitrifying organisms until he procures them in an absolutely pure form. As may be supposed, this is very difficult to accomplish. CONDITIONS FAVORING NITRIFICATION. The further discussion of the character of the microorganisms pro- ducing nitrification and their relations with each other, although highly interesting from a scientific point of view, would have no great interest for the i^ractical farmer. For him the most important thing 76 YEARBOOK OF THE V. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. is to knov/ liow to secure in tlic field the most favorable conditions for the development of those soil ferments upon whose activity'- the abundance of his crops so intimately depends. INFLUENCE OF POSITION. The vitality of a nitrifying organism is as a rule greatly diminished as it occurs at a greater depth below the surface. For this reason it is found that these ferments occur in the greatest numbers and -with a maximum vitalitj^ near the surface of the soil. It folloAvs from this that the conditions favoring the development of these ferments are largely found in good drainage and good cultivation. In experiments conducted in this division it has been found that in low, wet lands, especially those standing under water for a good ijortion of the year, the nitrifying organisms are almost unknown. Such a soil may be rich in stores of nitrogenous material, but even after the water has been withdrawn and crops are planted it will be found that they do not grow luxuriantly by reason of the deficiency of the number and vitality of the nitrifying ferments. Practical farmers know very well that in reclaimed lands, after the water has been removed, it is found necessary to thoroughly plow the soil and leave it exposed for one or more seasons before good crops can be produced. One of the chief reasons for this delay is doubtless due to the fact that it requires a considerable time for the nitrifying organisms to be developed and properly distributed through the soil. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE. Another condition favorable to the activity of soil ferments is warmth. As has already been indicated, a maximum activity of these organisms is shown at a temperature of from 85° to 95° F. Everyone who has lived upon a farm knows how rapidly the growth of a crop will be checked by a fall of temperature. It is evident, however, that this depression of temperature does not diminish in the least the quantity of prepared food to which the plant has access. The unfavorable influences of a low temperature are doubtless found not alone in the sluggishness of the movement of the sap through the cellular tissue of the plant, but also in the fact equally as patent that the diminished activity of the soil ferments prevents the rootlets of the plants from absorbing their normal rations of food. ACTION OF LIGHT. At this point attention might be called to a fact showing the differ- ence between the activity of the soil ferments and of the jjlaut cells. It is well known that in the latter case, viz, the activity of the plant cells, the influence of light is of the utmost importance. It is true that while plants may grow to a certain extent when deprived of direct sunlight, yet such plants grown in semidarkness never reach matu- SOIL FERMENTS IMPORTANT IN AGRICULTURE. 77 rity, and the products of their vitality arc often quite different from those of the normal plant. In etiolated plants — that is, tliosc grown in the dark — arc often found i:)roducts which do not occur at all in those subjected to normal growth. The action of sunlight is there- fore indispensable to the full functional activity of the supraterra- nean parts of i^lants. On the other liand, it is seen that tlie action of sunlight is highly prejudicial to the develoi^mcnt of the soil fer- ments. Exposed to a bright light, the activit}^ of these ferments is diminished until it reaches practically the vanishing point. Happily, the surface of the soil, being almost impenetrable to light, preserves the organisms lying even near the surface from the deleterious action of the sun. Warm nights, therefore, are even more favorable to the development of soil organisms than warm days, and all are familiar with the phenomenal growth which many plants make during the night. BENEFIT OP AERATION. From what has been said above it can be inferred that a proper aeration is also necessary to the development of the functional activity of the fermentative germs. Good drainage and cultivation secure a free circulation of air through the soil and this is essential to the process of nitrification, which is simply oxidation produced by low vegetable organisms. While it is important, as indicated above, to remove the excess of water to secure proper aeration, it should not be forgotten that a certain amount of moisture is necessary for the life of the microorganisms. Experience has shown that when the soil contains from one-third to one-half of the total jnoisture it is capable of holding, the proper quantity of water is sui^plied for the most rapid growth of the nitrifying ferments. UTILITY OF TILLAGE. Among the influences which favor the process of nitrification tillage of the soil must be mentioned. A thorough breaking up of the soil and of the upper layers of the subsoil is necessary to the aeration which is an indispensable condition to the progress of nitrification. The cultivation of the soil, therefore, in this waj'" not only makes it l^ossible for the rootlets of the plants to extend to a greater distance and thus secure larger quantities of food, but actually increases the available quantity of nitrogenous food in the soil. In connection with thorough drainage the best tillage of the soil thus tends to make avail- able its stores of inert nitrogen. NECESSITY FOR LIME. Since the final action of the nitrifying organisms results in the production of nitric acid, it is highly important that the soil contain some substance capable of combining with this acid and thereby pre- venting its accumulation in a free state. The activity of these fer- ments is diminished by the presence of an acid and increased by a 78 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. moderately alkaline environment. If the acid be allowed to accumu- late to a certain point, not only is tlie activity of the ferments sus- l)ended, but a positive injury may be done to a growing crop. All practical farmers know liow poorlj^ sour lands resi)ond to cultivation, and this injurious influence is due not onlj'^ to the action of the acid upon plant growth but also in a high degree to its effect in prevent- ing the evolution of the nitrifying organisms. It is well known that a soil wliicli has an abundant content of carbonate of lime is, as a rule, fertile. The value of lime as a fertilizing agent in many soils is well attested, yet it is certain that this favorable effect is not due to the fact that an additional amount of lime is necessary for j)lant food. Soils are rarely found which do not contain an abundant supply of lime for all the nutritive needs of plants. It is certain, therefore, that the chief value of the use of lime in agriculture is to be found in some indirect influence which it exerts upon the soil. Heretofore three special methods have been pointed out in which lime exerts a beneficial influence. In the first place, it profoundly affects the phys- ical structure of stiff soils, i)roducing a flocculation of the silt and thus preventing its deposition in individual particles. A well-limed soil is thus apt to be open and porous and easily tilled. In the second i)lace, the lime exerts a certain soluble influence on undecomposed particles of rock, thus favoring their speedy decomposition and the consequent freeing of the potash and i)hosphoric acid which thej'^ contain. In the third place, the added lime tends to correct any acidity of the soil which may be due to the accumulation and excess of humus, or which may arise from imperfect drainage. It must be admitted, however, that one of the chief benefits of the introduction of lime into a soil is derived from the fact that it favors in a high degree the evolution and development of the nitrifying ferments. The lime which is used for fertilization is, as a rule, chiefly in the form of oxide or hydrate, that is, slacked lime. After its incorporation in the soil, however, both the oxide and hydrate of lime are rapidly changed to carbonate under the influence of the carbon dioxide (car- bonic acid) which is found in the atmosphere of the soil in notable proportions ; in fact, in a much higher percentage than in the air. The soil thus becomes permeated with lime carbonate in a fine state of sub- division, a condition especiallj'' well suited to favor the growth of the nitroorganisms. Hereafter, therefore, in discussing the benefits of the application of lime, this function of it must receive duo consider- ation. It will not be at all surprising if future investigations should establish the fact that this use of lime is of far more importance in agriculture than any of the others above noted. SEEDING THE SOIL WITH NITRIFYING ORGANISMS. In the above paragraphs the conditions favoring the developmeiit and activity of nitrifying organisms have been briefly set forth, but SOIL FERMENTS IMPORTANT IN AGRICULTURE. 79 lliG presence of all these favoring conditions will i)rove of no advan- tage in a soil whicli is practically sterilized. In such a case, however, if a few organisms can be supplied a practically sterilized soil will, after a time, by the natural growtli and distribution of nitrifying organisms, become fully impregnated with the nitrifying germs. The question naturally arises. Is there any artificial way in which the seeding of the soil maybe accelerated? Tlie answer to this ques- tion is undoubtedly affirmative. In experiments which have been conducted in this Department, and of which notice will be made fur- ther on, it has been fully demonstrated that different soils differ in the most marked degree in the number and vitality of the nitrifying organisms which the}' contain. As a rule, the richer the soil or the more highly fertilized it has been and the more fully cultivated, the greater will bo the number of the organisms vdiich it contains and the liigher the degree of their vitality. It is thus seen that in a field which contains all the elements of fertility, but whioh by reason of unfavorable conditions, as, for instance, having previously been a swamp or marsh deficient in nitrifying organisms, maj^ be practically sterilized, great benefit may be derived by spreading over it as evenly as possible a little soil taken from a rich garden which lias been kei3t in excellent cultivation. The amount of plant food added in such a soil would not be of any great importance, but the nitri- fying organisms thus distributed would rapidly grow in the favorable environment in which they were found and the inert nitrogen of the field be thus speedily prepared for the wants of the growing crop. Tlie action of stable manure is another instance of the great benefit which is derived from manuring a field with nitrifying organisms. It is well known that the nitrifying ferments of decomposing stable manure are particularly numerous and vigorous. The production of ammonia in a pile of stall manure is often so rapid as to be distinctly noticed by the passer-bj^ from the odor produced. It has long been a matter of wonder among agronomists to find stall manure, when scat- tered over a field, producing fertilizing results far in excess of what could be expected from the quantity of i)lant food contained therein. In the light of the facts set forth above, however, these results are no longer surprising. In the distribution of the manure large numbers of a particularly vigorous species of nitrifying organisms are incor- porated with the soil, and these and their i^rogeny continue to exercise their activity upon the inert nitrogen of the soil when the more easily nitrifiable portions of the stall manure are exhausted. This result brings to the attention of the scientific agronomist an entirely new factor in the process of fertilization. Even in poor soils chemical analysis often discovers quantities of iilant food which seem amply sufficient to produce remunerative crops. The true theory of fertili- zation, therefore, not only looks to tlie addition of appropriate plant foods to a soil deficient therein, but also to the making available the stores of plant food already present. 80 YEARBOOK OF TEE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FERTILIZING FERMENTS. When a soil is practically free from albuminoid bodies a.nd contains but little humus, the attempt to develop a more vigorous nitrifying ferment would be of little utility. Even in a soil containing a con- siderable degree of humus, it may be found that its nitrogen content has T)een so far reduced as to leave nothing practically available for the activity of nitrification. In such cases the only rational method of procedure is in the a^pplication of fertilizers containing nitrogen. In other cases where the lack of fertility is due to the extinction or attenuation of the nitrifying ferment, remunerative results may be obtained by some process of seeding similar to that described above. It is entirelj' within the range of possibility that there may be devel- oped in the laboratory species of nitrifying organisms which are par- ticularly adapted for action on different nitrogenous bodies. For instance, the organism which is found most effective in the oxidation of albuminoid matter may not be well suited to convert amides or the inert nitrogen of humus into nitric acid. We have already seen the day when the butter maker sends to a laboratory for a ferment best suited to the ripening of his cream. It may not be long until the farmer may apply to the laboratory for particular nitrifying ferments to be applied to such special purposes as are mentioned above. Because of the extreme minuteness of these organisms the too prac- tical agronomist may laugh at the idea of producing fertility thereby, and this idea, indeed, would be of no value were it not for the wonder- ful facility of propagation which an organism of this kind has when exposed in a favorable environment. It is true that the pure cultures which the laboratory would afford would be of little avail if limited to their own activity, and it is alone in the possibility of their almost illimitable development that their fertilizing effects may be secured. NUMBERS AND KINDS OF NITRIFYING ORGANISMS. In regard to the numbers and kinds of organisms which take pait in the oxidation of nitrogenous bodies, our knowledge is limited. It has already been noted that a great many species take part in the production of ammonia. The purely nitrous and nitric ferments seem to be of a more limited character, but it must not be forgotten that scarcely a beginning has been made in the investigation of these bodies, and it is entirely probable that great differences in their nature will be established. It is not at all likely, for instance, that a nitrifying organism such as exerts its activity in an ordinary soil under ordinary conditions would belong to a species which was capa- ble of develoijment and work in an entirely different medium. There are in the arid regions indubitable evidences of strong nitrifications in the presence of highly alkaline salts. While it is true that a slight alkalinity favors the ordinary form of nitrifying activity, it is likewise SOIL FERMENTS IMPORTANT IN AGRICULTURE. 81 certain that such organisms would be practicallj^ paralyzed if subjected to the alkaline environment of the arid plains. It is therefore highly desirable that the investigation of these organisms be pushed to the widest extent, not only for the scientific value of the investigation, but also for its jiractical utility in scientific farming. This is one of the objects kept in view in the investigations which the Depart- ment has undertaken in respect of the extent and character of the nitrifying ferments in the typical soils of the United States. FERMENTS OXIDIZING FREE NITROGEN. In the preceding i)aragraphs the attention of the reader has been briefly called to the action of those species of ferments which attack nitrogen in some of its forms of combination. Since nitrogenous food is the most expensive form of nutriment which the plant consumes, it is a matter of grave importance to agriculture to know the full extent of the supply of tliis costly substance. It is evident that the continued action of nitrifying ferments finally tends to exhaust the stores of this substance which have been provided in the soil. The quantities of oxidized nitrogen produced by electric discharges in the air and by other meteorological phenomena, and which are brought to the soil in rain waters, are of considerable magnitude, but lack mueli of supplying the ordinary wastage to which the stores of soil nitrogen are subjected. Even with the happiest combination of cir- cumstances it is not difficult to see in what way the available stores of nitrogen could be diminished to a point threatening the proper sustenance of plants, and tlius diminishing the necessary supplies of human food. The examination of the drainage waters which come from a fertile field in full cultivation is sufficient to convince the most skex)tical of the fact that the growing crop does not by any means absorb all of the jjroducts of the activity of the nitrifying ferments. Nitric acid and its compounds, the nitrates, are exceed- ingly soluble in water, and for this reason any unappropriated stores of them in the soil are easily removed by heavy downpours of rain. Happily the living vegetable organism has the property of withhold- ing nitric acid from solution, either by some property of its tissues or more probably by some preliminary combination which the nitric acid undergoes in the plant itself. This is easily shown by a sim- ple experiment. If fresh and still living i)lants be subjected to the solvent action of water, very little nitric acid will be found to pass into solution. If, however, the i)lants are killed before the experiment is made, by being exposed for some time in an atmosphere of chloroform, the nitric acid which they contain is easily extracted bj^ water. The losses, therefore, which an arable soil sustains in respect of its content of nitrogenous matter must be supplied either by the addition of nitrogenous fertilizers or by some action of the soil whereby the nitrogen whicli pervades it may be oxidized and fixed in a form suited 82 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICUX^TURE. to tlie noiirisliment of plants. The discussion in regard to the possi- bility of fixing nitrogen in the soil has been carried on with great vigor during the last two decades. The proof, however, is novv' over- whelming that such fixation does take place. It would not be i)roi3er here to enter into a discussion of the processes by which this fixation is determined, and, in fact, they are not definitely known. One thing, however, is certain, viz, that it is accomi>iIshed by means of micro- organisms or ferments similar, perhaps, in their nature to those already mentioned, but capable of absorbing, assimilating, and oxi- dizing free nitrogen. METHODS OF OXIDIZING FREE NITROGEN. At the present time it is sufficiently well known that this operation takes place in two waj^s. In the first place, there are found to exist on the rootlets of certain plants, chiefly of the leguminous family, colonies of bacteria whose function is known by the effects which they produce. In such plants in a state of maturity, as was men- tioned above, are found larger quantities of organic nitrogen than could possibly have been derived from the soil in which they were grown or from the fertilizers with which they were supplied. Cul- tural experiments in sterilized soils, with careful exclusion of all sources of organic nitrogen, have proved beyond question that this gain in nitrogen is found only in such jDlants as are infected bj'^ the organism mentioned. The logical conclusion is therefore inevitable that these organisms, in their symbiotic development with the plant root- lets, assimilate and oxidize the free nitrogen of the air and present it to the plant in a form suited to absorption. Attempts have been made to inoculate the rootlets of other families of plants with these organ- isms, but so far without anj^ pronounced success. There are, however, certain orders of Ioav vegetable life, such as cryptogams, for instance, which seem to share to a certain degree the faculty of the leguminous plants in acting as a host for the nitrifying organisms mentioned. The observation above recorded becomes a sufficient explanation of the fact that the fertility of fields is increased by the cultivation of leguminous plants, which would not be possible except they could develop some such property as that which has already been described. Another order of organisms has also been discovered vvhich is capable of oxidizing free nitrogen when cultivated in an environment from which organic nitrogen is rigidly excluded. It seems probable, therefore, even in soils which bear crops not capable of developing nitrifying organisms on their rootlets it is possible that the actual stores of available nitrogen may be increased. This fact exjilains the observation which has frequently been made that in fields which are not cultivated but which remain in grass there may be found an actual increase in the total amount of nitrogen which is available for plant growth. As will be seen further along, the soil is also infested with SOIL FEEME2TTS IMPORTANT IN AGRICULTURE. 83 an organism which is capable of destroying nitric acid and returning the nitrogen Avhich it contains to the air in a free state. It seems almost certain that in every complete decompo.sition of a nitrogenous organism a part of the nitrogen Avhieh it contains escapes in the free state. Were it not, therefore, for tlio fact that this free nitrogen can be again oxidized and made available for plant growth the total stores of organic nitrogen in existence v>'ould bo gradually diminished, and the time would ultimately come when their total amount would not be sufficient to sustain a plant life abundant enough to supply'- the food of the animal kingdom. Thus the earth itself, even without becoming too cold for the existence of the life which is now found upon it, might reach a state when plant and animal life would become pi'actically impossible by reason of the deficit of nitrogenous foods. Much less is known concerning the character and activity of the organisms that oxidize free nitrogen than of those which feed upon organic nitrogen. It can not bo doubted, however, that these scarcely known ferments arc of the greatest importance to agriculture, and the further study of their nature and the proper methods of increas- ing their activity can not fail to result in the greatest advantage to the practical farmer. FERMENTS INIMICAL TO AGRICULTURE. It has been noticed by manj'^ observers that when nitric acid is subjected to certain fermentative processes it becomes decomposed and gradually disappears. In studying the causes which lead to this decomposition it is found that it is due to the action of a micro- organism or ferment, which, bj* reason of the result of its functional activity, is called a denitrifying organism. While it is true that in numbers and activity this denitrifying organism does not equal its nitrifying relation, yet it is a matter of no inconsiderable importance to know fully the laws which govern its existence. As in the case of the bacteria which are found in ripening cream, where some produce evil and some good effects, so it is also with those in the soil. The favoring organisms, whose functional activity prepares nitrogen in a form suited for j)lantfood, are accompanied by others, doubtless nearly related to them, whose functional activity tends to destroy the work wOiich the first have accomplished. It thus happens that in the fermentation of nitrogenous bodies there is danger of losing, as has already been said, a part of the nitrogen, which may either escape as gaseous oxides unsuited for the sustenance of plants, or even as free nitrogen. The object, at least the practical object, of the investiga- tion of these denitrifying organisms should be to discover some process bj'' which their multiplication could be i)rc vented and their activity diminished. At the present time all that is known is that in favoring circumstances these organisms are not developed in sufficient numbers to prove very destmctive. It has already been mentioned. 84 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. however, that in ease of a very great excess of organic nitrogenous matter a considerable quantity of the nitrogen therein contained may, tlirough the action of these organisms, be lost. The practical lesson taught here is to apply nitrogenous foods in a moderate manner and avoid every unnecessary excess. PATHOGENIC FERMENTS. There are also other forms of ferments in the soil of an objection- able nature which are not related to the nitrifying organism. It has been observed in France that in localities where animals are interred which have died of charbon the germs of this infectious malady per- sist in the soil for many years, and tiiat, especially when cereal crops are cultivated upon such soils, there is great danger of contaminating healthy cattle with the same disease. In one case it was observed tliat many sheep which were pastured in a field in which, two j^ears before, a single animal which had died of charbon was buried were infected with the disease and died. In like manner, it is entirely probable that the germs of hog cholera may be preserved in the soil for many years to finally again be brought into an activity wliich may prove most disastrous for the owners of swine. Every effort should be made by agronomists to avoid infecting the soil by the carcasses which are dead from any zjTuotic disease. Cremation is the only safe method of disposing of such infected carcasses. The investiga- tions of scientists have shown that there are many diseases of an infectious nature due to these germs, and that these germs may preserve their vitality in the soil. Among others may be mentioned yellow fever and tetanus. USE OF SEWAGE AS FERTILIZER. For the reasons given above, the agronomist who also has at heart the health and welfare of man and beast can hardly look with favor upon any of the plans which have been proposed for the use of sew- age from large cities for irrigation purposes. There is scarcely a time in any large city when some infectious disease, due to the activity of germs, does not exist, and the sewage is liable at all times to be con- taminated therewith. In view of the fact that the vitality of the germs mentioned above may be continued for a long time in the soil, it is fair to conclude that it is of the utmost importance to avoid the con- tamination of the soil, where it is to be used for agricultural purposes, with any of the dejecta which may come from those infected with any zymotic disease whatever. THE STORAGE OF NITRATES. Attention has already been called to the fact that the activity of the nitrifying ferments in a soil is, as a rule, greater than the needs of the growing crop. For this rea^son the waters of drainage are found to be more or less impregnated with nitrates. The sea is SOIL FERMENTS IMPORTANT IN AGRICULTURE. 85 eveiituall}- llie great sorting ground into whieli all this waste material is poured. Tlie roller processes of nature, like the mills of the gods, grind exceedingly slow and small, and the sea becomes the bolting cloth l)y which the products of milling are separated and sorted out. Not only do the drainage waiters carry nitrates, but also potash, phosphoric acid, lime, and other soluble materials of the soil. As soon as this waste material is poured into the sea, the process of sifting at once begins. The carbonate of lime becomes deposited in vast laj^ers, or by organic life is transformed into immense coral formations or into shells. Phosphoric acid is likewise sifted out into phosphatic deposits or passes into the organic life of the sea. Even the potash, soluble as it is, becomes collected into mineral aggregates or passes into marine animal or vegetable growth. All these valuable materials are thus conserved and put into a shape in which they may be returned sooner or later to the use of man. In the great cosmic economy there is no such thing as escape of any valuable material from usefulness. The nitrates which are i)oured into the sea are sooner or later absorbed by the seaweed or other marine vegetation, or serve for the nourishment of the animal life of the ocean. It is highly probable that the great deposits of nitrates found in certain arid regions, notably in Chile, are due to the decom- position of marine vegetation. There must be present in the sea vast fields of vegetation Avhich, growing in water largely impregnated with nitrates, become highly charged with organic nitrogenous matter. In the changes of level to which the surface of the earth is constantly subjected, the depths of the sea often become isolated lakes. In the eva.poration of the water of these lakes, such as would take place in arid regions, immense deposits of marine vegetation and common salt would occur. In the oxidation and nitrification of this organic matter, due to fermentative action, the organic nitrogen would be changed into the inorganic state. In the presence of calcareous rocks the nitrate of calcium would be formed, which finally, by double decompositions, would result in the formation of nitrate of soda, the form in which these deposits now exist. The fact that iodine is found in greater or less quantity in these deposits of soda saltpeter is a strong argument in favor of the hypothesis that they are due to marine origin. Iodine is found only in sea and never in terrestrial plants. Further than this, attention should be called to the fact that these deposits of nitrate of soda contain neither shells nor fossils, nor do they contain any phosi^hate of lime. It is hardly credible, there- fore, that they are duo to animal origin. The activity of ferments in these great deposits of marine plants, although taking i)lace perhaps millions of years ago, has served to secure for the farmers of the present day vast deposits of nitrate of soda which prove of the utmost value in increasing the yield of the field. To every quarter of the globe where scientific agriculture is now practiced these deposits are 86 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. sent. Tliey are of sucli vast extent that it is not likely they will soon be exha'jsted, and the labors of the agriculturist for many hundreds of years to come will continue to be blessed by reason of the activity of the insignificant microscopic ferments v/hicli plied their vocation in past geological epochs. Because at the present time there are no known deposits of marine vegetation undergoing nitrification, is no just reason for doubting the accuracy of the above-mentioned hj'pothesis. Our geologists are not acquainted at present with any localit}'' in which deposits of phos- phate are taking place, but the absence of the process can not be used as a just argument against any of the theories which have been i)ro- posed to account for the immense deposits of this material which are found in various parts of this and other countries. Another illustra- tion of this iioint may be found in the coal deposits. The environ- ment which determines the geologic conditions now is not favor^lble to the development of large quantities of organic matter from which coal might be produced by changes in the level of the earth's surface. In fact, all the teachings of paleontologj^ show beyond a doubt tliat life in the past geological ages was on a far larger scale than at present. In those remote times the mean temperature of the earth's surface was very much greater than it is at the present time. There are many indubitable evidences of the fact that high equatorial tem- X^eratures prevailed even at the poles, while the present tropic and temperate zones were probably too warm for any forms of life which now exist. The fossil remains of animals and plants of those ages shew the gigantic scale on which all animal and vegetable life Avas formed. When crocodiles were nearly 70 feet in length and dragon flies 3 feet long it is not surprising that both terrestrial and marine vegetation existed in a far more exuberant form than at present. The dense terrestrial vegetation which made the coal deposits possible were doubtless equaled by marine vegetable growth capable, by oxida- tion under favorable circumstances, of forming the vast deposits of nitrates which have been discovered in various parts of the world. The depression of the surface of the land which enabled the coal measures to be developed beneath the surface of the sea, was doubt- less compensated for by the elevation of the marine forests into a position favoring the deposits of nitrates. The wonderful conserva- tive instincts of nature are thus demonstrated in a most remarkable manner in restoring to the fields the nitrates leached therefrom in past ages. GENESIS OF GUANO. The fermentative action of germs in the production of nitrates on a small scale and their storage to a limited extent are found going on in many caves at the present time. In these localities large num- bers of bats formerl}- congregated, and tiie nitrogenous constituents of SOIL FERMEJJTS IMPORTANT IN AGRICULTURE. 87 thoir dejecta and remains, collecting on the floors of caves practically devoid of vater, have undergone nitrification and become converted into nitric acid. In a similar manner tlio deposits produced in rook- eries, especially in former ages, have been converted into nitric acid and jireserved for tbo use of the farmer. The well-known liabits of birds in congregating in rookeries during the nights and at certain seasons of the year tend to bring into a common receptacle the nitroge- nous matters which they have gathered and which are deposited in their excrement and in the deca}- of their bodies. The feathers of birds are particularly rich in nitrogen, and the nitrogenous content of their flesh is also high. The decay of the remains of birds, especially if it take i^lace in a locality practically excluded from the leaching action of water, serves to accumulate vast deposits of nitrogenous matter, which is at once attacked by the nitrifying ferments. If the conditions in such deposits are particularly favorable to the i)roccss of nitrification, the whole of the nitrogen, or at least the larger jiart of it which has been collected in these debris, becomes finally converted into nitric acid, and is found combined with approiDriate bases as deposits of nitrates. The nitrates of the guano deposits and of the deposits in caves, as has already been indicated, arise in this way. If these deposits be subject to moderate leaching, the nitrates may become infiltered into the surrounding soil. The bottoms and sur- rounding soils of caves are often found highly impregnated witli nitrates. IMPREGNATION OF SOILS WITH NITRATES. When, on the other hand, these deposits take place in regions sub- jected to heavy rains, the nitric acid which is formed is rapidly removed, to be returned to the ocean and begin anew the circuit of life which will finally restore it to the land. By reason of the accu- mulation of nitrogenous matters in tropical regions, especially where there is deficient rainfall, it has been found that the soils of those regions contain a very much la,rger percentage of nitrates than is found, for instance, in the soils of the United States. These nitrated soils are very abundant, especially in Central and South America, where they cover largo surfaces. In these soils the nitric acid, as a rule, is found in combination with lime, while in the purer deposits of nitric acid it is almost constantly found in combination with soda. In som.e South American soils as much as 30 per cent of nitrate of lime has been found. Not only birds serve thus to secure deposits of nitrogen, but large quantities of guano rich in nitrates have their origin in the debris of insects, fragments of elytra, scales of the wings of butterflies, and other animal matters wliich are often brought together in quantities of millions of cubic meters. The products of nitrification in these deposits may also be absorbed by the surround- ing soils. Some localities produce such great quantities of nitrate of lime (which is a salt easily absorbing water) as to convert the soil in 88 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. their iinmediate neighborliood into a plastic paste. In all the deposits such as are described above are found large quantities of phosphoric acid and sufficient remains of animal life to show in a positive manner their origin. It is thus seen that there is a very marked difference between the character of the deposits of nitric acid due to terrestrial animal origin and those which have been derived from a marine vegetable source. An economic observation of some importance may be made here, ^^z, to the effect that when in the future the deposits of nitrate of soda due to marine origin are cxliausted it may still be possible to keep up the supply demanded for agricultural use by leaching the highly impregnated soils above mentioned and thus securing the nitric acid in a form sufficiently concentrated to make its transportation profitable. PROPERTIES OF NITRATE OF SODA. Practically the only form of oxidized nitrogen Avhich is of commer- cial importance, from an agronomic point of view, is sodium nitrate, commonly know^n in commerce as Chile saltpeter. The nitrate of potash, a nearly related salt, is also of high manurial value, but on account of its cost and the importance of its use in the manufacture of guni)owder, it has not been very extensively applied as a fertilizing material. When Chile saltpeter is applied to a growing crop it becomes rapidly dissolved, especially at the first fall of rain or by the moisture normall}^ existing in the soil. It carries thus to the rootlets of plants a supply of nitrogen in the most highly available state. There is, perhaps, no other kind of plant food which is offered to the living vegetable in a more comj)lctely predigested state and none to which the growing plant will yield a quicker response. By the very reason of its high availability, however, it must be used with the greatest care. A too free use of such a stimulating food may have in the end an injurious effect upon the crop and is quite certain to lead to a waste of a considerable portion of expensive material. For this reason Chile saltpeter should be applied with extreme care in small quanti- ties at a time and only when it is needed by the growing crop. It would be useless, for instance, to apply this material in the autumn with the expectation of its benefiting the crop to a maximum degree the following spring. If the application of the manure should be made just previous to a hea'vy rain, it is not difficult to see that nearly the whole of it might be removed beyond the reach of the absorbing organs of the plant. DECOMPOSITION OF SODIUM NITRATE. The molecule of sodium nitrate is decomposed in the process of absorption of the nitric acid. The plant presents a selective action to its constituents, the nitric acid entering the plant organism and the soda being rejected. Soda, however, may not be without its uses, for, SOIL FERMENTS LMTORTANT IN AGRICULTURE. 89 doubtless being at. some tiino in n practically nascent or liydrated state, it may play a role of sonic cunsidci'abl<5 iiiii)ortaTicc in decom- posing particles of minerals containing phosphoric acid. It is proba- ble that the decomposition of the sodium nitrate takes place in the cells of the absorbing plant, for it is difficult to understand how it could be accomplished externally except by a denitrifying ferment. While the soda itself is therefore of little importance as a direct plant food, it can hardly be dismissed as of no value Avhatever in the process of fertilization. Manj^ of the salts of soda, as, for instance, common salt, are quite hygroscoj^ic, and serve to attract moisture from the air and thus become carriers of water between the plant and the air in seasons of drought. The Chile saltpeter of commerce may reach the farmer in the lumpy state in which it i-s shipped, or finely ground ready for application to the fields. Unless the farmer is provided with convenient means for grinding, the latter condition is much to be preferred. It permits of a more even distribution of the salt, and thus encourages economy in its use. NEED OF SODIUM NITRATE. The question of when the soil needs an ai^plication of Chile saltpe- ter is often one of great imi^ortauce, and the farmer would do well, before applying a great deal of this expensive fertilizer, to consult the agricultural experiment station of his localitj^, or should determine the actual needs of his soil by experiments upon small i^lats. The quantity of Chile saltpeter which should be applied per acre varies with so many different conditions as to make any definite statement concerning it unreliable. On account of the great solubility of this salt no more should be used than is necessary for the temporary nutrition of the crop. For each 100 pounds of it used, from 14 to 15 pounds of oxidized nitrogen would be added to the soil. Field crops, as a rule, require less of the salt than garden crops. In field crops th<3re is an economic limit to the application of the salt which should not be passed. As a rule, 250 pounds i)er acre should be a maximum dressing. The character of the crop must also be taken into consid- eration. Different amounts are required for sugar beets, tobacco, wheat, and other standard crops. Cereal crops, especially, absorb a high percentage of tin; nitrogen in Chile saltpeter judiciouslj^ applied. As a rule, Chile saltpeter should be used as a temporary supplj\ Its I)reseuce diminishes to a certain extent the necessity for the activity of the nitrifj'iug ferments, and its long-continued use in sutficient quantities would evidently cause an enfecblement of those organisms. CONSUMPTION OF SODIUM NITRATE. The entire consumption of Chile saltpeter for nianurial purposes throughout the world at the present time is perhaps a little over a 90 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. jiiillion tons anniiall}', of a total value, delivered to the farmer, of over ^40,000,000. The approximate amounts annually consumed in different countries are as follows: Tons. Germany 400, 000 France 200, 000 Belgiiim . , l^.l, 000 England 120,000 United States 100,000 Holland 60,000 Italy and Spain - - 5, 000 Other countries 6, 000 VALUE OF CHILE SALTPETER. Chile saltpeter has a moderate value at the factories in Chile where it is prepared for shipment. Its high cost at the ports where it is delivered for consumi)tion is due chiefly to the freights and the profits of the sjaidieate controlling the business. The factories where it is prepared for the market are at or near the deposits, and the freights thence to the seacoast in Chile are very high. The railroads which have been constructed to the high pla- teaux which contain the deposits have been built at a very great cost, and the freights charged are correspondingly high. There is also a tax of $1.20 levied by the Chilean Government on each ton exported. Deducting all costs of transportation and export duties, the actual value of sodium nitrate at the factory ready for shipment is about ^16 in gold a ton. METHODS OF PRESERVING NITRATES IN THE SOIL. It is not possible at all times to maintain an equilibrium between the activity of the nitrifying organism and the needs of a growing crop. There are times when the amount of nitric acid produced is greater than the crop demands, while at other periods the needs of tiie crop may be far in excess of the ability of the organisms to supply. In the one case there will be a necessary increase in the amount of nitrates in the soil, while in the other the vigor of the growing crop will be at least temporarily checked. There are many practical points connected with this matter which must be of great interest to tlie farmer. As a rule, farming operations are carried on for profit and not for pleasure, and for this reason the more practical the results of scientific skidy the more useful they become to the great mass of agriculturists. The rich man who farms for pleasure can easily afford expenses in the way of fertilizers which the practical farmer must avoid. Happily, at those seasons of the year when crops grow least vigorously the activity of the nitrifying organisms is reduced to a minimum. For instance, the amount of nitric acid which is produced during the winter is a A^ery small quantity as compared with the SOIL FERMENTS IMPORTANT IN AGRICULTURE. 91 production during tlie warm months. In tho natural order of things, tliereforc, there is a tendenc}^ to conserve to the utmost the products of nitrification. ABSORPTION OF NITRATES BY PLANTS. Evidentl.y, the very bCvSt nietliod of utilizing the products of the activity of the soil ferments is to have them absorbed by a growing crop. For this reason, as well as for others of an economical nature, the farmer should have as little waste land as possible. Every acre wliich he possesses should cither be devoted to forest, orchard, grass, pasturage, or cultivated crops. By thus occupying the land he will reduce to a minimum tlie losses which occur from the leaching of the soil by water. It is well known that all agricultural crops store immense quanti- ties of organic nitrogen in their tissues. As a rule, the highest per- centages of nitrogenous organic compounds are found in the seeds of plants, but it must not be forgotten that certain grasses which are harvested for hay also contain large quantities of nitrogen. This is especially true of clover. It is easily seen from the above how waste- ful is the practice, now happily almost extinct, of burning the residue of cereal crops, as, for instance, Indian cornstalks and the straw of wheat, in order to prevent them from obstructing subsequent tillage. In this wasteful process it is true that the phosphoric acid and potash are saved and returned to the soil, but all the nitrogenous compounds are practically lost and dissipated in the air. The quantity of am- monia and oxids of nitrogen which are produced in combustion is insignificant when compared with the total nitrogenous content of the refuse matters mentioned above. It is far better that these residual matters be chopped as finely as possible and turned under by the plow. Although they may not decay with sufficient rapidity to be of much benefit to the next crop, yet thej^ will gradually become decomposed and serve a most valuable end in contributing fresh stores of humus and nitrogen to the arable soil. Combustion is the most wasteful and also the least scientific method of disposing of the refuse of tho fields. FALLOW FIELDS. In former times it was a common practice among farmers to allow a field to lie fallow for one season in order to increase its fertility. The advisability of this process is extremely questionable. During a moderately dry summer there is probably very little loss experienced by i)lowing a field after the spring rains and keeping its surface suffi- ciently well cultivated during the summer to prevent the growth of weeds. In the absence of heavy rainfall tlie stores of available nitro- gen in such a soil will undoubtedly be increased during the summer, inasmuch as the processes of nitrification will be continued and tho stores of nitrogen thus oxidized, in the absence of absorbing bodies, 92 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. will rciiirtin iu the soil. Even in case of rainfalls wliicli may carry the soluble plant food below the arable soil, there may not be any notable loss, especially if such a downpour be followed by dry weather. In the latter case, by the evaporation from the surface and consequent capillary movement of the soil moisture upward, the available plant food carried below the reach of the rootlets of plants will be brought again toward the surface and rendered available. But in case of heavy rains, producing a thorough saturation and leaching of the soil, the losses in a field Ijing fallow during the summer will be very great, and it is not well at any time to take the risk. Especially is this statement true of fields which have lain fallow during the summer and which are afterwards exposed to the saturating rains of the autumn and winter. In these cases the nitrogen will be thoroughly extracted and all the soluble matters which may have accumulated during the summer will be lost. It is advisable therefore in all cases, instead of allowing the fields to lie fallow, to seed them with a catch crop, such as barley, rj^e, or peas, which may retain the i^roducts of nitrification. When the time comes for seeding the field with the intended crop the catch can be turned under with the plow and, in the process of decay, furnish again the nitrogenous food in an available form. This practice should never be neglected in fields which lie over during the winter in preparation for planting during the following spring. Of course, this statement does not api)ly so particularlj'^ to fields which may be plowed late in the autumn, after the activitj^ of the nitrifj'ing ferments is practically suspended for the "winter. In a temperate climate fields may be i^lowed late in ISTovember or during the month OL December and the freshly turned soil be exposed to the action of the weather during the winter without great danger of loss. In many localities even an earlier period might be chosen for the autumn plowing, which should be deep or accompanied by subsoiling. The loosened soil should be brought into good tilth and thus form an absorbent which will hold large quantities of moisture, becoming available for the following season during the period of deficient rains. THE SUPPLY OF RAW MATERL^L FOR THE ACTION OP FERMENTS. A field is as poor as its most deficient fertilizing principle. A plant, like an animal, demands a balanced ration. It can not live upon phos- phoric acid alone. In order to secure the most economic method of fertilizing, the peculiarities of each field must be carefully studied and its particular deficiency in plant food determined. In the case under consideration it may happen that a field will have an abundant sup- ply of potash and phosphorus and be deficient only in nitrogen. In such a case its pristine fertility will be restored by the application of nitrogen alone, provided the other conditions in the composition of the soil are favorable to the development and activity of the ferments which oxidize nitrogen. Virgin soils as a rule are extremely rich in SOIL FERMENTS IMPORTANT IN AGRICULTURE. 93 nitrogen. This arises from several causes. In tlic first place, such soils usually contain a large quantity of humus, and this humus is exceptionally rich in its nitrogenous elements. In the second place, a virgin soil is apt to be well protected from leaching. This is secured either bj' a forest growth or, on prairie land, by the grass. In the third phice, there is a well-marked tendency m soils, especiallj^ those covered by grass, and presumably those also protected by forest growth, to develop ferments capable of oxidizing the free nitrogen of the air. When virgin soils are subjected to cultivation, it is found that their nitrogen content as a rule diminishes most rapidly as compared with that of the other leading plant foods. Hence it becomes necessary sooner or later, if maximum crops are to be maintained, to supply nitrogenous food. Attention has already been called to the use of the stores of nitrogen which h!ive already been oxidized for fertiliza- tion. It is evident, however, that only a very small part of the nitrog- enous needs of arable fields can be supplied in this way. Further than this, it must not be forgotten that in the use of a substance like Chile saltpeter there is added to the soil a material which can in no manner foster the growth and development of nitrifjing organisms. To feed a soil with a food of this kind alone, therefore, would be to virtually produce a famine in respect of the nitrifying ferments which it contains. It is therefore highly important that additional methods of supply- ing tlie nitrogenous foods of plants should be i^racticed. Stall manures and tlie refuse of cattle and poultry j^ards furnish considerable quanti- ties of nitrogenous materials suited to the needs of the soil ferments, anu useful after oxidation to the growing crop. In the growth of leguminous plants, as has already been intimated, another important supply of organic nitrogen may be secured, some of which, at least, is a clear gain from the atmosphere. Other imjiortant forms of nitrog- enous materials are found in the pressed cakes left after the extrac- tion of the oil from oil-producing seeds, such as flax and cotton seed. These cakes are exceptionally rich in nitrogenous matter, which may be secured for the field both by the direct application of the ground material to the soil or by first feeding it to animals, the part which escapes digestion in the latter case being still a valuable fertilizing material. In the case of cotton-seed cake, moreover, it should not be forgotten that there is some danger in feeding it, especiall}' to young cattle, on account of the poisonous nitrogenous bases (cholin and be- tain) which it contains. These poisonous bases produce no deleteri- ous effects whatever in the soil, althougli it is doubtful whether they are attacked very readily by the nitrifying ferments. Other sources of nitrogenous foods for the soil ferments are found in the refuse of slaughterhouses. Dried blood is perhaps the richest in nitrogen of any organic substance that is known, and is readily attacked by the soil ferments. The nitrogenous refuse of slaughtered animals, after 94 YEAKBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the extraction of tlie fat, is dried and gronnd and sold under the name of tankage. It is a substance very rich in nitrogenous matter. The bones of animals are not only valuable on account of the phosphoric acid which they contain, but also have a large percentage of nitrog- enous material which renders them particularly well suited for appli- cation to a soil deficient both in phosphoric acid and nitrogen. For this reason, burning bones before grinding them for fertilizing pur- poses, which is done in some localities, is extremely wasteful. For a similar reason, also, the composting of coarsely ground fresh bones with wood ashes is not to be recommended because of the tendency of the alkali of the ashes to set free, in the form of ammonia, at least a part of the nitrogenous content of the bones. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE OCEAN. The farmer, happily, is not confined alone to the land for the sources of organic nitrogen with which to supply the demands of the nitrify- ing ferments of his field. The ocean is made to contribute to the stores of nitrogenous matters to which the farmer has access. The vast quantities of seaweed which are thrown up annually upon our shores are rich in nitrogenous matters. The value of this material, however, is not generally appreciated, but in some parts of the coun- tr}'^ it is carefully gathered and utilized. The value of this product gathered annually upon the shores of Rhode Island alone is nearly $100,000. While seaweed, for obvious reasons, can only be success- fully apiDlied in marine littoral agriculture, yet the extent of agricul- tural lands bordering on the sea is so great as to render the commercial imijortance of the matter of the highest degree of interest. Seaweed is not valuable for its nitrogenous constituents alone, but also carries large quantities of potash and phosi)horic acid, and thus, to a certain degree, it may be regarded as a complete fertilizer. But the seaweed which is thrown upon our shores is not the only source of nitrogenous food which we receive from the ocean. In the animal life of the ocean are gathered vast quantities of nitrogenous materials. The quantity of albuminoid matter in the water-free substance of the flesh of fish is enormously high as compared with that of ordinary foods. It may be said to be, approximately, 75 per cent of the water-free substance. Some varieties of fish are taken alone for their oil product and agri- cultural value. This is especially true of the menhaden, vast quan- tities of which are annually brought to land, and after being passed through the oil factory are ground and distributed as fish scrap to the manufacturers of fertilizers. The practice of using fish for fertiliz- ing purposes is many centuries old; but until recent years the farm- ers residing along the coast were the only ones receiving any benefit therefrom. At the present time the nitrogenous elements taken from the sea find their vrsiy to the gardens, truck lands, and fields of the interior. SOIL FERMENTS IMPORTANT IN AGRICULTURE. 95 RELATION OF DIFFERENT CROPS TO FERMENTATIVE ACTIVITY. It is a Avoll-ostablished principle of farming that there are certain crojis uhich can not be groAvn continuously npon the same field, wliilo in the case of other crops almost an indefinite growth can be secured. Broadly, it may be said that cereals can be grown upon the same field almost indefinitely and without fertilization. In such cases the large crops of cereals which are at first obtained rapidly diminish in quan- tity until they reach a certain minimum limit, at which point they tend to remain, with variations in yield due only to seasonal influences. On the other hand, root crops of all kinds, and especially leguminous crops, do not continue to flourish UT)on the same soil, even when lib- erally fertilized. The necessity for rotation, therefore, is far greater in the latter class of crops than with the cereals. It apiiears from the result of the scientific investigations attending this difference of behavior that the relations of these two classes of growing crops are different toward the soil ferments. In the case of the cereals the quantity of nitrogen which they require can be obtained from humus, or other sources, with little effort. In the case of the other class of crops, such as root crops and those of a leguminous nature, it appears that the humus should be particularly rich in nitrogen, and that when by the activity of the soil ferments the percentage of nitrogen is reduced to a certain limit there is no longer a possibility of a suffi- ciently ^'igorous nitrification to meet the demands of the growing veg- etables. There is thus a scientific basis, as well as practical reasons, for a, frequent rotation of crops. Even in the case of cereals, which, as mentioned above, can be grown with considerable success without rotation, experience has shown that a change from one crop to another is always beneficial. THE RELATION OF HUMUS TO SOIL FERMENTS. The term humus is applied to those constituents of the soil which have been derived chiefly from the decay of vegetable matter. In this decay the original structure of the vegetable has been entirely lost, and the residue, in the form of vegetable mold of a black or brownish color, is left distributed in the soil. In the processes of decay the organic matter of the vegetable is converted largely into acids of the humic series and the nitrogenous principles of the plant become changed from an albuminoid to a more inert form, in which it is more readily preserved. It is this practically inert form of nitro- gen on which the soil ferments exercise their activity in preparing it for the uses of the plant. It has been a commonly accepted theory in the past, especially since the time of Liebig, that the organic prin- ciples of humus of every description suffer entire decomposition under the action of fermentative germs before being absorbed as plant nutriment. Recent investigations, however, tend to show that in some instances the organic elements of humus itself may serve as 96 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. food for plants without undergoing entire decomposition. Wlietlier or not the nitrogenous principles of the humus can tlius be employed has not been determined, but that the humus itself, or some con- stituents thereof, can be absorbed by the plant I have myself often noticed, especially in the case of sugar cane grown upon a rich veg- etable mold. The juices exi:)ressed from such canes contain the organic matter of the humus to a certain extent unchanged, and the sugar and molasses made therefrom are distincth^ impregnated in the raw state with this organic matter. These facts have a tendency to raise again the question concerning tlie i)urely mineral character of plant food, which for many years was considered as definitelj' settled. Recent progress in syntlietic chem- istry has shown that there is no impassable barrier between organic and inorganic classes of comiDounds. By the union, for instance, of lime and carbon under the influence of the electric arc, a substance is obtained — calcium carbide^ — which, when thrown upon water, evolves the gas, acetylene, which was formerly supposed to be wholly of organic origin. In hundreds of other instances the barriers between organic and inorganic substances have been broken down in the laboratory, and organic bodies as complicated in their nature as sugars have been formed by pure synthesis. The chemistry of the vegetable organism is admittedly superior to that of the chemical laboratory, and while there is no doubt of the fact that the vast j^re- ponderancc of vegetable food is of a mineral nature, it would not be safe to deny to the vegetable the ability to absorb to a certain extent organic compounds. There is, however, at the present time but little evidence to show that organic compounds of a nitrogenous nature are ever absorbed by plants, and therefore, even in the ease of liumus, we must still con- tend, at least for the i^resent, that its nitrogenous constituents only become available for jjlant food after having been fully oxidized by the action of the soil ferments. DETERMINATION OF THE ACTIVITY OF SOIL FERMENTS. It is evident from the preceding pages that a stud}' of the soil for agricultural purposes is incomplete which does not include a deter- mination of the character and vigor of the ferments which it contains. This necessarily introduces into the practice of soil analysis the processes of bacteriological examination. It is not the purpose at the present time to describe these processes, but to give only to the general reader as clear an idea as possible of the principles which underlie the analysis of soils for the purpose of determining the activity of their nitrifying ferments. PRECAUTIONS IN SAMPLING. First of all, the method of sampling must be such as to secure for examination portions of soil which certainly contain no other SOIL FERMENTS IMPORTANT IN AGRICULTURE. 97 organisms tlian those locally found therein. The methods of secur- ing the samples are purely technical and will be fully described in a special bulletin from the Division of Chemistry of the Department of Agriculture. THE CULTURE SOLUTION. Many readers of these pages who are not bacteriologists will be interested in knowing the character of the solution which is used for testing the nitrifying vitality of the ferments in the soil. A solution which we have found very useful for this purpose is composed of the following constituents: Potassium phosphate, 1 gram; magnesium sulphate, lialf agram; ammonium sulphate, two-tenths gram ; calcium chloride, a trace, and calcium carbonate in excess of the amount which will be necessary to combine with all the nitric acid produced from the ammonium sulphate present. The above quantities of materials are dissolved or suspended in 1 liter (about 1 quart) of water, and one-tenth of this volume is used for each culture solution. This quantity is placed in an Erlenmeyer flask, Avhich is then ster- ilized, after stoppering with cotton, by being kept at the temperature of boiling Avater for an hour on three successive days. The flask itself, before using, should be thoroughly sterilized by heating to 300° F. for an hour. The calcium carbonate employed in the above culture solution should not be prepared by finely grinding marble or chalk, but in a chemical way by precipitation. It is best thoroughly sterilized sep- arately and then added to the flask immediately before seeding. The sterilized spoon which is used for seeding holds, approximately, half a gram of the soil. This spoon is filled from the contents of one of the freshly opened sample tubes, underneath a glass hood, the plug of cotton is lifted from the sterilized flask, and the contents of the spoon quickly introduced and the plug of cotton replaced. While the above details are well known to the practical bacteriologist, they are not appreciated, as a rule, by the general reader. From the numerous inquiries concerning this process which have been received at the Department it is believed that the above brief outline of the method of procedure of securing samples of soil and seeding sterilized solu- tions therewith will be useful. NOTING THE PROGRESS OF NITRIFICATION. It will be seen from the above description tliat the object of the tests in question is to determine the activity and strength of the nitrous and nitric organisms alone, inasmuch as the process begins with an ammoniacal salt. At the end of five days from the time of the first seeding a portion of the solution is withdrawn in a sterilized pipette for the purpose of determining whether or not the process of nitrification has commenced; and if so, to what extent it has pro- ceeded. This may be accomplished by either determining whether 4 A 95 4 98 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUEE. any ammonia have been destroyed or whether any nitrous or nitric acids have been produced. These processes are of a purelj' cliemieal, technical nature and therefore would not be iwoperly described in this place. In the case of an active and fertile soil the nitrifying I)rocess begins i)roini)th', and as a rule continues with unabated vigor until the whole of the nitrogen present in the ammonium salt is converted into nitric acid. In very favorable circumstances this object will be accomx^lished in about six weeks. AVhen the organisms in the sample are few in number or deficient in vitality, the nitrifi- cation does not begin for a long time, and then goes on with great slowness. By tracing the x^rogress of the fermentation, as described above, it is seen how easy it is to comx)are various samjiles of soil in respect of their nitrifying power. If after four or five weeks no trace of nitrification has been found, the soils are regarded as being practically deficient in nitrifying ferments. This often happens with samples taken at a depth of 3 or more feet, or even in the case of surface soils or others subjected to conditions inimical to fermenta- tive life. REPRESENTATION OF THE DATA OBTAINED. In the actual work which has been done in this Department to fol- low the j)rogress of nitrification in culture solutions, it lias been found convenient to determine the rate of the fermentative change by the determination of the nitrous and nitric acids produced. It is evident that in the process of fermentation three cases may arise. In the first x)lace, the nitrous fermentation may occur first, and after its completion the nitric may follow it. This is a condition which evi- dently would rarely arise, and could only occur when the nitrous ferment was present in such a predominating quantity as to subdue and restrain the vitality of the nitric ferment. In the second place, the two fermentations could go on synchronously, and in this case the solution when tested would never contain more than the merest trace of nitrous acid. This condition of affairs would only occur when the two ferments were present in about equal numbers and endowed with equal vitality. In the third place, and tliis is the one which commonly occurs, the two fermentations go on sj'nclironouslj^ but at first the nitrous fermentation is more vigorous, so that tliere may be a considerable accumulation of nitrous acid in the solution. After a few weeks the nitric fermentation begins to gain in Aitality by reason of the fact that the raw material on Avhich the nitrous ferment worked has become nearly exhausted. Tlie quantitj' of nitrous acid, therefore, which was at first formed would gradually begin to disappear, and finally, if the examination be continued long enough, be reduced to zero at or before the time when the total amount of nitrogen present would be converted into nitric acid. In order to represent the progress of the fermentation, it has been found most convenient to use the graphic form of illustration. The SOIL FERMENTS IMPORTANT IN AGRICULTURE. 99 method of doing this is illustrated in the accompanj'ing chart (fig. 1), showing the i^rogress of nitrification in a sample of soil taken at a depth of 15 inches below the surface on the 27th of April, 1895, at the C'anebrake station in Alabama. The culture solution was seeded with a sample of this soil on the 3d of May and the j)rogress of nitri- fication is represented in the chart. The figures in the perpendicular column on the left represent the parts i)er million of nitrous or nitric acid. The continuous line rejiresents the sum of the nitrous and nitric acids. The dotted line represents the nitrons acid in the solution. At any given time the actual amount of nitric acid x^resent can be 150 100 50 10 8 4 2 0 "WEEK OF THE CULTURE PERIOD. I IE m IF ^ TI "VH Tin IE X XT XII / ' / / If "■ \ ii^" \ / \ 1 1 7 / « ■ / \ / \ 1 1 1 Fig. 1.— Diagram showing progress of nitrification in a solution seeded with soil ferments. found by taking the difference between the continuous and dotted lines. Thus, at the end of the fifth week it is seen that there were nearly four parts of nitric acid present per million. The diagram shows that no action took place during the first two weeks after seeding. During the third week there was a Aigorous evolution of nitrous acid, with only a trace of nitric acid. During the fourth week, attending a depression of temperature, the bacterial action was less active. During the fifth week both tlio nitrous and nitric organ- isms were active, attending a considerable rise of temperature. After the fifth week the nitrous acid began rapidly to disappear, being 100 YEAKBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. converted into nitric acid. The horizontal position, however, of the continuous line shows that no additional nitrous acid was formed from the ammonia during the sixth week. During the seventh week there was no activity either of the nitrous or the nitric ferment. Dur- ing the eighth and ninth weeks both ferments were again active, the nitrous acid being converted into nitric as soon as formed. The second diagram (fig. 2) gives the variations in temperature of the closet where the nitrification took place during the whole time of observation. The upper line represents the maximum and the lower the minimum temperatures at the time mentioned. It will be seen by- comparing the two diagrams that there is in general quite a marked agreement between the rate of nitrification and the degree of temper- ature. This is shown by the slow rate of nitrification during the third and fourth weeks and the rapid rate during the fifth week. TVEEK OF/ THE CULTURE PERIOD. Fig. 3.— Diagram showing relation of temperature to rate of nitrification. ' It is evident that many conditions beyond the control of the oper- ator may serve to render the observations upon the rate of nitrifica- tion somewhat unreliable, but in general the data of nitrification properly ascertained will give an unerring insight into the character of a soil as affecting its ability to furnish nitrogen to the growing plant, and hence to that extent to the degree of its fertility. PREPARATION OF PURE CULTURES. It is evident from an inspection of the processes mentioned above that the ferments which are obtained in the culture solutions are not confined to the nitrous and nitric organisms. All the ferments which the sample of soil may have contained of every description suited to grow in the culture solution employed will be developed. The SOIL FERMENTS IMPORTANT IN AGRICULTURE. 101 solution, therefore, after the nitrification is complete, contains not only the nitrous and nitric microor -* 2 ^ \ ? "1; + ' ? ;> * + p o' 3 i=i 0 m •-t d" 1 R 5 1 15 1 II 1 n 0 p SI i^. p 5.1 ? p 1 1 \ E p' 0 n' 0 0 G pr CD _ 108 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPABTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. •"■ •- <^ + + 4- fO <\j 3. -J <: :> 1. "o :^ S>- ^ c\4 rj ^ ii ii c rs, " ORIGIN, VALUE, AND RECLAMATION OF ALKALI LANDS. Ill Again, it not infrequently happens that in sloping valleys or basins, where the central (lowest) portion receives the salts leached out of the soils of the adjacent slopes, we find belts of greater or less width in which the alkali impregnation may reach to the deiDth of 10 or 12 feet, usually within more or less definite layers of calcareous hard- lian, likewise the outcome of the leaching of the valley slopes. Such Amounts of Ingredients in 100 of So/l. .02 .04 .06 .08 JO .12 .14 .16 .18 .20 22 .24 Depth of Soil. ^ I FOOT ■ aAF(LE /mffCH, Fig. 0. — Diagram showing ainouiits anil composition of alkali salts at various ileptlis in partly ro- claimed aliculi land. Tulare Experiment Station . areas, however, are usually' quite limited, and are, of course, scarcely reclaimablo without excessive expenditure, the more as they are often underlaid by saline bottom water. In these cases the predominant saline ingredient is usually common salt, as might be expected and as is exemplified on a large scale in the Great Salt Lake of Utah and in the ocean itself. 112 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. > S 9 Si 1 O to 4 t f 1 ' V. I ■\ \ \ \ \ V A \ \ . \ 1 \ i A \ \ I ^ y \ u -^ ) A ' \ \ A. \ ^\ \ V ^ ^"^ e;\ + V ■f '£) + + \ + it ^ i, \ '~1 1 1 \ K % s \, 1 1 + ^^ N \ 3 1+ \ \ .^ s ft^' u H- + + ■<. *■•* X s \_ -N . s f'j'H 'bs'^ ^ ^> >< + + ^ - ' »•<- + -^^ t.+ * ~-_ — crj 5j ^ • ! (.V a> ^ >1 =3 !? 0, ^^ » 1 ^ s 2 s ft* 05 OJ *^ L > \ -' a ^ .2 II ORIGIN^ VALUE, AND RECLAMATION OF ALKALI LANDS. 113 Summing up tlie conclusions from the foregoing observations and considerations, avc find that — (1) The amount of soluble salts in alkali soils is usualh' limited; they are not supplied in indefinite quantities from the bottom water below. These salts have essentially been formed by weathering in the soil layer itself. (2) The salts move up and down within the upper -J: or 5 feet of the soil and subsoil, following the movement of the moisture, descending in the i-ainy season to the limit of the annual moistening as a maxi- mum, and then reascending or not according as surface cvai^oration may demand. At the end of the dry season, in untilled irrigated land, the entire mass of salts may be within G or 8 inches of the surface. (3) The injury to vegetation is caused mainly or wholly within a few inches of the surface by the corrosion of the bark, usually near the root crown. This corrosion is strongest when carbonate of soda (salsoda) forms a large proportion of the salts; the soda then also dissolves the vegetable mold and causes blackish spots in the soil, popularlj'- knowni as black alkali. (4) The injury caused by carbonate of soda is aggravated by its action in puddling the soil so as to cause it to lose its flaky condition, rendering it almost or quite untillable. It also tends to form in the depths of the soil layer a tough, impervious hardpan, which yields neither to plow, pick, nor crowbar. Its presence is easih' ascertained b}^ means of a pointed steel sounding rod. (5) AYhile alkali lands share ^Aath other soils of the arid region the advantage of unusually high i^ercentages of plant food in the insoluble form,^ they also contain, alongside of the noxious salts, considerable amounts of soluble plant food. "When, therefore, the action of the noxious salts is done away with, they should be profusel}" and last- ingly productive; particularly as they are always naturally somewhat moist in consequence of the attraction of moisture by the salts, and are therefore less liable to be injured from drought than the same soils when free from alkali. UTILIZATION AND RECLAMATION OF ALKALI LANDS. The most obvious mode of utilizing alkali lands is to occupy them with useful plants that are not affected by the noxious salts. Unfortunately, as has already been stated, but few such crops of general utility, especially for the commercial and labor conditions of this country, have as j'ct been found. Practically the most im- portant problem is to render these lands available for our ordinary cultures; and for this reason this part of the subject Avill be consid- ered first. ' See Bulletin No. 3 of the United States Weather Bureau, 1892. 114 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. COUNTERACTING EVAPORATION. Since evaporation of the soil moisture at the surface is what ])rings the alkali salts to the level where the main injury to plants occurs, it is obvious that evaporation should be prevented as much as possi- ble. This is the more important, as the saving of soil moisture, and therefore of irrigation water, is attainable by the same means. Three methods for this i)urpose are usually practiced by farmers and gardeners, viz, shading, mulching,, and the maintenance of loose tilth in the surface soil to such depth as may be required by the climatic conditions. As to mulching, it is alreadj- well recognized in the alkali regions of California as an effective remedy in light cases. Fruit trees are fre- quently thus protected, particularly while j^oung, after which their shade alone may (as in the case of low-trained orange trees) suffice to prevent injuiy. The same often happens in the case of low-trained vines, small fruit, and vegetables. Sanding of the surface to the depth of several inches was among the first attempts in this direction; but the necessity of cultivation, involving the renewal of the sand each season, renders this a costly method. Straw, leaves, and manure have been more successfully used; but even these, unless employed for the x^urpose of fertilization, involve more expense and trouble than the simple maintenance of very loose tilth of the surface soil through- out the dry season, a remedy which, of course, is equally applicable to field crops, and is in the case of some of these — e. g., cotton — a necessary condition of cultural success everywhere. The wide prev- alence of "light'* soils in the arid regions, from causes inherent in the climate itself,^ renders this condition of relatively easy fulfillment. Aside, however, from the mere prevention of surface evaporation, another favorable condition is realized by this procedure, namely, the commingling of the heavily salt-charged surface layers with the rela- tively nonalkaline subsoil. Since in the arid regions the roots of all plants retire farther from the surface because of the deadly drouglit and heat of summer, it is usually possible to cultivate deeper than could safely be done with growing crops in humid climates. Yet, even here, the maxim of "deep preparation and shallow cultivation" is put into practice with advantage, only changing the measurements of depth to correspond with the altered climatic conditions. Thus, while in the eastern United States 4 inches is the accepted standard of depth for summer cultivation to preserve moisture without injuiy to the roots, that depth must in the arid region frequently be doubled in order to be effective, and ayIU even then scarcely touch a living root in orchards and \-ineyards, particularly in unmanured and unirri- gated land. A glance at fig. 3 (p. 107), will show the great advantage of extra ' See Bulletin No. 3 of the United States Weather Bureau, p. 17. ORIGIN, VALUE, AND RECLAMATION OF ALKALI LANDS. 115 deep preparation in commingling the alkali salts accumulated near the surface with the lower soil layers, diffusing the salts tlirough 12 instead of 6 inches of soil mass. This will in very many eases suffice to render the growth of ordinary crops possible if, by subse- quent frequent and thorough cultivation, surface evaporation, and with it the reascent of the salts to the surface, is prevented. A striking example of the efficacy of this mode of procedure was given at tlie Tulare station, Avhere a portion of a very bad alkali spot was trenched to the depth of 2 feet, throwing the surface soil to the bot- tom. Tlie spot thus treated produced excellent wheat crops for a few years — the time it took the alkali salts to reascend to the surface. It should therefore be kept in mind that whatever else is done toward reclamation, deep preparation and thorough cultivation must be regarded as prime factors for the maintenance of production on alkali lands. The efficacj'- of shading, already referred to, is strikingly illustrated in the case of some field crops which, when once established, will thrive on fairly strong alkali soil, i)rovided that a good thick "stand" has once been obtained. This is notably true of the great forage crop of the arid region, alfalfa, or lucern. Its seed is extremely sensitive to black alkali, and will decay in the ground unless r>ro- tected against it. But when once a full stand has been obtained, the field may endure for many years without a sign of injur}-. Here two effects combine, viz, the shading, and the evaporation through the deep roots and abundant foliage, which alone prevents, in a large measure, the ascent of the moisture to the surface. The case is then precisely parallel to that of the natural soil (see fig. 4), except that, as irrigation is practiced in order to stimulate production, the slieet of alkali hardpan will be dissolved and its salts spread through the soil more evenly. The result is that so soon as the alfalfa is taken off the ground and tlie cultivation of other crops is attempted, an altogether unexpectedly large amount of alkali comes to the surface and greatly impedes, if it does not altogether prevent, the immediate planting of other crops. Shallow-rooted annual crops that give but little shade, like the cereals, while measurably impeding tlie rise of the salts during their growth, frequently allow of enough rise after harvest to prevent reseeding the following season. TOTAL AMOUNT OF SALTS COMPATIBLE WITH ORDINARY CROPS. Since the amount of alkali that reaches the surface laj-er is largely dependent upon the varying conditions of rainfall or irrigation, and surface evaporation, it is difficult to foresee to what extent that accumulation may go, unless we know tlie total amount of salts present that niay be called into action. This can be ascertained bj- a summation of the results obtained and shown in the diagrams for each layer, but more readily by the examination of one sample 116 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. i-epreseiiting the average of the entire soil column of 4 feet. By cal- culating the figures so obtained to an acre of ground, we can at least approximate the limits within or beyond which crops will succeed or perish. Applying this jirocedure to the cases represented in the diagrams, and estimating the weight of the soil per acre-foot at 4,000,000 pounds, we find in the land on which barley refused to grow the figures 32,470 and 43,GG0 pounds of total salts per acre, respectively, corresponding to 0.203 per cent for the first figure (the second, representing only the 2 surface feet, is not strictly compara- ble). For the land on which barley gave a full crop, we find for the ]S[ay sample 25,550 pounds, equivalent to 0.159 per cent for the whole soil column of 4 feet. It thus appears that for barley the limits of tolerance lie between the above two figures, which might, of course, have been obtained equally well from an average sample of the 4-foot column hj making a single analysis. It should be noted that in this case a full crop of barley was grown, even when the alkali consisted of fully one-half of the noxious carbonate of soda, proving that it is not necessary in every case to neutralize the entire amount of that salt by means of gypsum, which, in the present case, would have required about 9^ tons of gypsum per acre — an almost prohibitory expenditure. CHEMICAL ANTIDOTES. To the chemist it is readily apparent that of the three sodium salts that usually constitute the bulk of "alkali" only the carbonate of soda is susceptible of being materially changed by any agent that can practically be applied to land. So far as we know, the salt of sodium least injurious to ordinary vegetation is the sulphate, com- monly called Glauber salt, which ordinarily forms the chief ingre- dient of white alkali. Thus barley is capable of resisting about five times more of the sulphate than of the carbonate, and quite twice as much as of common salt. Since the maximum percentage that can be resisted by plants varies materially with the kind of soil, it is difficult to give exact figures save with respect to particular cases. For the sandy loam of Tulare station the maximum for cereals may be approximately stated to be one-tenth of 1 per cent for salsoda, a fourth of 1 per cent for common salt, and from forty- five to fifty one-hundredths of 1 per cent for Glauber salt, within the first foot from the surface. For clay soils the tolerance is mark- edly less, especially as regards the salsoda, since in their case the injurious effect on the tilling qualities of the soil, already referred to, is superadded to the corrosive action of that salt. Since, then, so little carbonate of soda sulfices to render soils un- cultivable, it frequently happens that its mere transformation into the sulphate is sufficient to remove all stress from alkali. Gypsum (land plaster) is the cheap and effective agent to bring about this ORIGIN, YALUEj AND RECLAMATION OF ALKALI LANDS, 117 transfonmxtion, provided water be also present. The amount required per acre will, of course, vary with the amount of salts in the soil, all the way from a few hundred i:)ounds to several tons in the case of strong alkali spots; but it is not usually necessary to add the entire quantity at once, provided that sufficient be used to neutralize the alkali near the surface and enough time be allowed for the action to take place. In very wet soil this may occur within a few weeks; in merely damp soils, in the course of months ; but usually the effect increases for years, as the salts rise from below. The effect of gypsum on black alkali land is often verj- striking, even to the eye. The blackish jDuddles and spots disappear, because the gj'psum renders the dissolved humus insoluble and thus restores it to the soil. The latter soon loses its hard, puddled condition and crumbles and bulges into a loose mass into which water now soaks freely, bringing up the previously depressed spots to the general level of the land. On the surface thus changed seeds now germinate and grow without hindrance; and as the injury from alkali occurs at or near the surface, it is usually best to simply harrow in the plaster, leaving the water to carry it down in solution. Soluble phosphates present are decomposed so as to retain finely divided but less soluble phosphates in the soil. It must not be forgotten that this beneficial change may go back- ward if the land thus treated is permitted to be swamped by irri- gation water or otherwise. Under the same conditions naturally white alkali may turn black. Of course, gypsum is of no benefit whatever on soils containing no salsoda, but onlj' Glauber and com- mon salt. REMOVING THE SALTS FROM THE SOIL. In case the amount of salts in the soil should be so great that even the change worked b}^ gyxisum is insufficient to render it available for useful crops, the only remedy left is to remove the salts i^artially or wholly from the land. Two chief methods are available for this pur- pose. One is to remove the salts, with more or less earth, from the surface at the end of the dry season, either b}^ sweeping or by means of a horse scraper set so as to carry off a certain depth of soil. Thus sometimes in a single season one-third or one-half of the total salts may be got rid of, the loss of a few inches of surface soil being of little moment in the decj) soils of the arid region.' The other method is to leach them out of the soil into the country drainage, supplement- ing by irrigation water what is left undone by the deficient rainfall. It is not practicable, as many suppose, to wash the salts off the sur- face by a rush of water, as they instantly soak into the ground at the first touch. Nor is there any sensible relief from allowing the water to stand on the land and then drawing it off; in this case also the •See Bulletin No. 3 of the United States Weather Bureau, p. 19. 118 YEAKBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. salts soak down ahead of tlie water, and the Avater standing on the surface remains almost unchanged. In very i^ervious soils and in the case of white alkali the Avashing oiit can often be accomplished without special provision for underdrainage by leaving the water on the land sufficiently long. But the laying of regular underdrains greatly accelerates the work, and renders success certain. An important exception, however, occurs in the case of black alkali in most lands. In this ease either the imper%aous hardpan or (in the case of actual alkali sj)ots) the impenetrability of the surface soil itself will render even underdrains ineffective unless the salsoda and its effects on the soil are first destroyed by the use of gypsum, as above detailed. This is not only necessary in order to render drain- age and leaching possible, but is also advisable in order to prevent the leaching out of the valuable humus and soluble phosphates which are rendered insoluble (but not unavailable to i^lants) by the action of the gypsum. Wherever black alkali is found, therefore, the appli- cation of gypsum should precede any other efforts toward reclamation. Trees and vines already j)lanted may be temporarily protected from the worst effects of the black alkali by surrounding the trunks with gjTpsum or with earth abundantly mixed with it. Seeds may be simi- larly protected iri^ajring, and j'oung i^lants in planting. Another methdufor diminishing the amount of alkali in the soil is the cropping with plants that take up considerable amounts of salts. In taking them into cultivation, it is advisable to remove entirely from the land the salt growth that may naturally cover it, notably the grease wood {Sarcohatus), with its heavy percentage of alkaline ash (12 -per cent). Crop i)lants adapted to the same object are men- tioned farther on. WILL IT PAY TO RECLAIM ALKALI SOILS? This is a question naturally asked when considering the nature and expense of the operation iuA^olved, especially when the last resort — underdraining and leaching — has to be adopted. Those familiar with the alkali regions are aware how often the occurrence of alkali spots interrupts the continuity of fields and orchards, of which they form only a small part, but enough to mar their aspect and cultivation. Their increase and expansion under irrigation frequently renders their reclamation the only alternative of absolute abandonment of the investments and improvements made, and from that point of view alone it is of no slight practical importance. Moreover, the occurrence of vast continuous stretches of alkali lands within the otherwise most eligibly situated portions of the irrigation region forms a strong incentive toward their utilization. There is, however, a strong intrinsic reason pointing in the same di- rection, namely, the almost invariably high and lasting productiveness Yearbook U. S. Dept, of Agriculture, 1895. Plate II. ORIGIN, YALUE, AND RECLAMATION OF ALKALI LANDS. 119 of these lands Avheii once rendered available to agrieulture. This is foreshadowed bj' the usnally very heavy and luxuriant growth of native plants around the margins and between alkali spots (see PI. 11); that is, wherever the amount of injurious salts present is so small as not to interfere with the ntilization of the abundant store of plant food which, under the peculiar conditions of soil formation in arid climates, remains in the land instead of being washed into the ocean. Extended comparative investigations of soil composition, as well as the experience of thousands of years in the oldest settled countries of the world, demonstrate this fact and show that so far from being in need of fertilization, alkali lands possess extraordinary productive capacity whenever freed from the injurious influence of the excess of useless salts left in the soil in consequence of deficient rainfall. It does not, of course, follow that alkali lands are good lands for farmers of limited means to settle upon. On the contrary, like most other business enterprises, they require a certain amount of capital and lapse of time to render them productive. They are not therefore a proper investment for farmers or settlers of small means, dependent on annual crops for their livelihood and unable to bring to bear upon these soils the proper means for their reclamation, unless, indeed, local conditions should enable them to use successfully'' some of the crops specially adapted to alkali lands. CROPS SUITABLE FOR ALKALI LANDS. As has already been stated, the search for generally available crops that will thrive in strong, unreclaimed alkali land has not thus far been very successful. Of the native vegetation found on it within the United States, none is thus far known that would be available to any considerable extent for stock feeding. Cattle will nibble alkali grass {Disfichlis maritima), but will soon leave it for any dry feed that is within roach. When they are forced to eat such plants, loose- ness of the bowels and other disorders usually result, which in such ranges is, however, often counteracted to some extent by an aromatic antidote, such as the gray sagebrush, tliat, Avhile not thriving in alkali lands, is fairly tolerant of the salts. Late experiences in California seem to indicate that in at least the more southerly portion of the arid region the unpahatable native jjlants may be generally replaced, even on the ranges, by one or more species of the Australian saltbushes {Airiplex spp.) long ago recommended by Baron von Mueller, of Melbourne, of which at least one {A. semihaccatum) has proved eminently adapted to the climate and soil of California and is readily eaten by all kinds of stock. The facility with which it is propagated, its quick development, and the large amount of feed yielded on a given area, even in the strongest of alkali lands thus far tried, seem to commend it specially to the 120 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fanner's consideration wherever the climate will permit of its use.^ Its resistance to severe cold weather has not yet been tested. It is probable that other species, now also under trial, will equally j ustify the recommendation given them by the eminent botanist who first brought them into public notice as promising forage plants. It is to be noted that since the saltbushes take up nearly one-fifth of their dry weight of ash ingredients,^ largelj^ common salt, the complete removal from the land of a 5-ton crop of saltbush hay will take away nearly a ton of the alkali salts per acre. This will in the course of some years be quite sufficient to reduce materially the saline contents of the land, and render possible the culture of ordinary crops. As regards the familiar culture plants, both the natural growth of alkali lands and experimental tests seem to show that the entire leguminous family (i)eas, beans, clovers, etc.) are among the more sensitive and least available wherever black alkali exists, while fairly tolerant of the white (neutral) salts. Apparently a very little sal- soda suffices to destroy the tubercle-forming organisms that are so imx)ortant a medium of nitrogen nutrition in these plants. Alfalfa, with its hard, stout, and long taproot, seems to resist best of all these plants. As a general thing, taprooted plants, when once established, resist best, for the obvious reason that their main mass of feeding roots reaches below^ the danger level. Another favoring condition, already alluded to, is heavy foliage and consequent shading of the ground ; alfalfa happens to combine both of these advantages. Several of the hardiest of the native " alkali Aveeds" belong to the sunflower family, and the common wild sunflowers {Heliantlius cali- fornicus and H. annuus) are common on lands pretty strongly alka- line. Correspondingly, the "Jerusalem artichoke," itself a sunflower, is among the available crops on moderately strong alkali soils ; and so, doubtless, are other members of the same relationship not yet tested, such as the true artichoke, salsify, chicory, etc. The common beet (including the mangel-wurzel) is known to suc- ceed well on saline seashore lands, and it maintains its reputation on alkali lands also. Being specially tolerant of common salt, it may be grown where other crops fail on this account, but the roots so grown are strongly charged with salt, and have, as is well known, been used for the purpose of removing excess of the same from marsh lands. It is quite otherwise with Glauber salt (sodium sulphate); and as this is usually predominant in alkali lands, either before or after the 'See Bulletin No. 105 of the California Experiment Station. 'Analyses made at the California station show 20.84 per cent of ash in the dry- matter of Australian saltbush, 19.37 per cent in the air-dry material. (See Cali- fornia Sta. Bui. lO.l; E. S. R., vol. 6, p. 718.) Recent analyses of Russian thistle have been reported showing over 20 per cent of ash in dry matter. (See Min- nesota Sta. Bui. 34; Iowa Sta. Bui. 26; E. S. R., vol. 6, pp. 552, 553.) ORIGIN, VALUE, AND RECLAMATION OF ALKALI LANDS. 121 gypsum treatment, this fact is of great importance, for it permits of the successful growing of the sugar beet, as has been abundantly proved at the Chino ranch in southern California, where land con- taining as much as one-fourth of 1 per cent of salts, mostly this compound, has yielded roots of very high grade both as to sugar percentage and purity. Asparagus is another crop whicli bears considerable amounts of common salt as well as of Glauber salt, but not of salsoda, which must first be transformed by the use of gypsum. The superlicial rooting and fine fibrous roots of the true grasses render them, as a whole, rather sensitive to alkali salts; yet there are a number of the perennial kinds whose thick roots and deeper rooting render them measurably resistant. Aside from the alkali grass proper (DisticliUs), the so-called rye grass of the Northwest {EJyrnus cnnden- satus) is probably the most resistant species among the wild grasses. Its southern form, with several others not positively identified, occupy largely the milder alkali lands of southern California, such as the low lands near Chino, already referred to as producing choice sugar beets. While maize is rather sensitive, and fails on even slightly alkaline lands, Egyptian corn and other sorghums, rooting somewhat deeper, succeed on mild alkali soils of the white class. The same appears to be true of some of the stout-rooted millets, such as barnyard grass {Panicum crus-gaUi), of which the variety muiicurti (?) is reported to succeed well in neutral alkali land. Of the important group of legumes (peas, beans, vetches, clovers, etc.), alfalfa appears thus far to be the most available, on account of its hardy, long, and deep-feeding taproots. Very few plants belong- ing to this family are naturally found on alkali lands, and attempts to grow them, even where only Glauber salt is present, have been but very moderately successful. The salts seem to retard or even prevent the formation of the tubercles useful for nitrogen absorption. Of trees suitable for alkali lands, two native ones call for mention. One is the California white oak {Quercus lobata), which forms a dense forest of large trees on the delta lands of the Kaweah River in Cali- fornia, and is found scatteringly all over the San Joaquin Valley of California. Unfortunately, this tree does not supply timber valuable for aught but firewood or fence posts, being quite brittle. The native cottonwoods, while somewhat retarded and dwarfed in their growth in strong alkali, are quite tolerant of the white salts, especially of Glauber salt. Of other trees, the oriental plane or sycamore and the black locust have proved the most resistant in the alkali lands of the San Joaquin Valley. Of the eucalyptus, the narrow-leafed Eucalyptus amygcla- lina seems to be least sensitive, and in some cases has grown as rap- idly as anywhere. Next to these, the elms have done fairly well, as has also the large-leafed maple {Acer granclideniatum). The English 122 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. oak {Quercus pedunculata) becomes stunted, as does the tulip tree {Liriodendron), the linden, and most other Eastern species of trees. Of orchard trees, strangely enough, the shallow-rooted almond seems to resist best; i)each is more sensitive; apricot does fairlj-; apples are very sensitive; pears somewhat less so; the olive resists very well ; the fig is rather sensitive ; the English vralnut resents even a slight taint of black salts; the citrus fruits, while not very sen- sitive, are much retarded in their growth by any considerable amount of alkali in the soil. The grapevine {Vitis vinifera) is quite tolerant of white or neu- tral alkali salts, and will resist even a moderate amount of the black so long as no hardpan is allowed to form. Vines rapidly succumb, however, when by excessive irrigation the bottom water is allowed to rise, killing the ends of the roots, shallowing the soil at their disposal and increasing the ascent of the alkali salts. In such cases sometimes the formation of hardpan is followed by that of a concentrated alkaline solution above it strong enough to corrode the roots themselves, and not onlj^ killing the vines, but rendering the land unfit for any agricultural use whatsoever. The swamj^ing of alkali lands, whether of the white or black kind, is fatal not onh- to their present productiveness, but, on account of the strong chemical action thus induced, greatly jeopardizes their future usefulness. Many costly investments in orchards and vineyards have thus been ren- dered unproductive, or have even become a total loss. While it is certainly true that when rightly treated alkali lands can be rendered profusely and lastingly productive, yet close attention and constant vigilance are needed so long as the salts remain in the soil ; and no one not determined to give such land such full attention should undertake to cultivate it. REASONS FOR CI LTITATINO THE SOIL. By Milton Whitney, Chief of the Division of Agricultural Soils, U. S. Department of Agriculture. HOW WATER ENTERS THE SOIL. AVater is the most abundant substance found in livinc: crops. Not onlj' does it form by far the largest proportion of all fresh vegetable substance, but, on account of loss through evaporation from the leaves of growing plants and tlie necessity of replacing this loss, thirty or forty times more water is needed during the growing period of a crop than is contained in the crop when harvested. Plants require a large amount of water for their life and growth, and it is necessary that the supply should be abundant at all times. If the evaporation from the plant greatly exceeds the amount taken in through the roots, the leaA-es wilt and the plant suffers.* Therefore one of the most important functions of the soil in its relation to crop production is the maintenance of a proper supply of water. Rain falls, on an average, in the humid x)ortion of the United States for two or three days in succession, and is then followed by an interval of eight or ten days of fair weather. As plants are fixed in their relative positions in the earth, the soil, in order to supply them with water during the fair-weather period, has to offer such a resistance to the percolation of the rain that an adequate supply shall be lield back. On account of this resistance, due to the friction which the rain encounters in the minute spaces between the soil grains through which it has to pass, the movement is ver}'- slow and only part of the water sinks below the reach of plants before the next rainfall occurs. Tlie resistance which soils, owing to their difference in texture, offer to the iDcrcolation of the rain varies greatlj'. Light, sandj'- soils maintain comparatively little moisture, because the spaces between the grains are comparatively large and there is relatively but little resistance to the flow of water, so that the rainfall moves down quite rapidly until there is only 5 or 10 per cent of moisture present in the soil. Strong clay soils, on the otlier hand, liave very minute spaces for tlie water to move tlirougli, and consequently offer a veiy great ' This subject was treated quite fully in an article by Galloway and Woods on "Water as a factor in the growth of plants," in the Yearbook for 1894. 123 124 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. resistance to the jjercolation of the rain. These soils maintain, as a rule, from 15 to 20 per cent of their weight of water. Different plants groAv best Avith different amounts of water. For instance, the j)asture grasses thrive on a soil which is too moist for Indian corn, or even for the largest and surest yield of wheat. Some classes of tobacco thrive well on soils which are very retentive of mois- ture, Avhile other classes can only be grown with success on drier soils. We are not concerned in this article with the amount of moisture which different soils maintain or with the amount of moisture required by different kinds of plants. We must recognize, however, that it is not possible nor desirable to maintain the same amount of water in ages will show, humus performs a number of dif- ferent functions in the soil wliich arc of the highest imj)ortance in crop production. It influences the temperature, tilth, permeability, ab- sorptive power, weight, and color of soils, and directly or indirectly controls to a higli degree tlieir supi)ly of water, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and i)otash. 131 132 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. LOSS OF SOIL HUMUS AND DECLINE IN FERTILITY. A virgin soil or one recently cleared may sliO"sv a high state of productiveness for a number of years after it is brought under cultivation. Gradually, however, a decline in fertility is observed, which is slight at first, but more marked after a lapse of fifteen or twenty years. Experiments have shown that the decline in fertility is not entirely a result of the removal from the soil of the essential fertilizing ele- ments— nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, or lime — but is due in many cases to getting the land out of condition through a loss of humus. Experiments conducted by the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station on different types of soils worn by continuous grain crojii^ing have shown that when a fertilizer was used contain- ing nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, or lime, or when any one of these materials was applied alone, there was "in no case an in- crease of over 3 bushels per acre of wheat and 2 of flax. * * * With soils that have been cropped for twenty years, the largest increase was 4 bushels per acre." The difference between the grain- producing power of new soils and of worn soils of the same original character was about 15 bushels per acre. These results, as well as many others which could be quoted, make it clear that the decline in fertility of the soils was not entirely due to a loss of the essential elements of fertility, and that we must seek the cause elsewhere. The most important difference, physical or chemical, between the composition of old, worn soils and new soils of the same character is in the amount of humus which is present. That the loss of humus is an important factor in the decline of fer- tility is also indicated by the fact that with methods of farming in which grasses form an important part in the rotation, especially those that leave a large residue of roots and culms, the decline in jDroductive power is much slower than when crops like wheat, cotton, or potatoes, which leave little residue on the soil, are grown continuously. Under grass and similar crops the soil humus increases from year to year, while the continuous culture of grain, cotton, or potatoes gradually reduces the original stock of humus. Grass and grain crops in rota- tion result in alternately increasing and decreasing the humus of the soil and keep the land in a higher state of productiveness, although more nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash is removed from the soil than when grain, cotton, or corn is raised continuously. In no case, however, do those systems of farming which return humus-forming materials to the .soil reduce the land to so low a state of productive- ness as do those sj'stems in which there is a continual loss of humus from the soil (seep. 141). Agriculturallj" considered, the two most imi)ortant points regard- ing the composition of humus are (1) the presence of nitrogen as a HUMUS IN ITS RELATION TO SOIL FERTILITY. 133 constant const itiieiit, and (2) tlic choniieal nnion of the hiimus Avith l)otasli, lime, and phosphoric acid, forming luimates. NITROGEN IN HUMUS. Ilumns, as ordinarily obtained from the soil, contains from 3 to 12 per cent of nitrogen. According to Professor Hilgard, the soils from arid regions are poor in humus, containing from 1 to 2 per cent, but this humus is correspondingl}' rich in nitrogen, in many cases con- taining 14 i)er cent. In many of the j^rairie regions the soil contains about 5 per cent of humus, and this humus contains about 10 per cent of nitrogen. Since, therefore, nitrogen is one of the prominent constit- uents of humus, it is easily understood hoAv a loss of humus has also resulted in a loss of nitrogen. This decline in the nitrogen content of the soil is one of t.lie most serious results of the loss of humus from the soil. A virgin soil containing 4 per cent of true humus and 0.35 per cent of nitrogen will after twenty years of grain cropping show about 2.5 per cent of humus and 0.2 per cent of nitrogen. In the twenty years, therefore, there has been a loss of 1.5 per cent of humus, equivalent to about 3,500 x)ounds per acre, and 0.15 to 0.2 per cent of nitrogen, which is equivalent to 3,000 to 5,000 pounds of nitrogen per acre. Since 50 pounds per year of nitrogen is a large quantity for any ordinary grain croj) to remove, the 20 crops have at the most removed 900 pounds of nitrogen. At least 2,500 pounds have, therefore, been lost by the decomposition of the humus, the nitrogen being lost either in the free state or in the drainage waters. For every pound of nitrogen removed in the crops during the twenty years of cultivation there has been an additional loss of 3 or 4 pounds of nitrogen from the soil by the decomposition of the humus. We know that most if not all of the changes that organic matter undergoes are the result of the action of microscopic organisms. Such changes as nitrification, or the transformation of organic nitrogen into nitrates and its opposite denitrification, or the reduction of nitrates to gaseous nitrogen, besides many others which might be mentioned, are illustrations of the work of these minute organisms. Humus fur- nishes a medium peculiarly adapted to the activity of these organisms. The decomi^osition of humus, by Avhich it loses its nitrogen, is due chiefly to the combined action of the organisms of nitrification and denitrification. The nitrifying organism feeds upon the humus, break- ing down its organic nitrogenous constituents and i^roducing nitrates which may be washed out in the drainage, and the denitrifying organ- ism completes the work by feeding upon the nitrates, producing free nitrogen gas, which escapes into the air. Nitrification is one of the most important natural provisions for rendering the inert fertility of the soil available to i)lants, and a cer- tain amount of it is necessary to plant growth, but it can be readily seen that under injudicious management or cultivation of the soil 134 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. it may work a positive injuiy by causing unnecessary waste of the nitrogen, or, in case of rich soils, it may supply the growing crop with too much nitrate and thus produce a rank growth of straw and leaves. Summer fallowincj. — Bare summer fallowing is widely practiced, and has been yqtj beneficial to the succeeding crop b}'" increasing the available nitrogen, of the soil, but frequently more nitrogen is rendered available than is necessary for the following crop, and whatever the eroj) is unable to utilize is lost by leaching or else escapes into the air. The available nitrogen is thus increased, Avhile the total nitrogen is greatly decreased. Experiments at the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station indicated that one year of fallowing caused a gain of 0.0022 per cent available nitrogen and a loss of 0.0114 i)er cent of total nitrogen in a soil containing originally 0.1536 per cent of total nitrogen and 0.0002 per cent of available nitrogen. For everj^ pound of nitrogen rendered available by the fallow treatment there was a loss of over 5 pounds of nitrogen from the soil. Bare summer fallowing is, therefore, only temporaril}^ beneficial at the exi)ense of the total humus and nitrogen of the soil. When a soil is poor in humus and nitrogen the loss of nitrogen is much smaller, but eveii then it is doubtful whether bare summer fallowing is a wise practice. In no case should summer fal- lowing be x)racticed on a new soil. Fall plowing keeps the humus and nitrogen of the soil in better condition than late spring jplowing. Nitrification goes on in the soil until quite late in the fall, and in the South the process goes on the entire year. The change is most rajjid near the surface, where there is i)lenty of oxygen from the air. In early fall i^lowing the available nitrogen formed from the humus is near the surface, where it does the sprouting seeds and the young crops the most good. With late spring plowing this available nitrogen is plowed under, and inert organic nitrogen is brought to the surface. In old soils the process of nitrification does not go on rapidly enough to furnish available nitrogen to the crop. In a new soil the process of nitrification is liable to go on too rapidly. Deep plowing and thorough cultivation aid in nitrification. Hence the longer the soil is cultivated, the deeper and more thorough must be its prepara- tion. Plowing must be done at the right time, X)referably in the fall, so as not to interfere with the next year's water supply. The ai)plication of lime and wood ashes aids in the reduction of nitrogen of humus to available forms and i)revents the formation of sour mold. Good drainage is also necessary to nitrification in the soil. In water-logged soils the humus docs not decompose normally, but peat is produced on account of the absence of oxygen. We thus see that nitrification, although sometimes a serious source of loss, ma.y be largely controlled by careful management of the soil. HUMUS IX ITS EELATION TO SOIL FERTILITY. 135 Burning over of soils. — Another source of loss of luimiis in the prairie and forest regions is the frequent burning over of the hmd. Soils covered Avith pine, in which sand largely predominates, fre- quentlj' lose half or three-quarters tlieir total nitrogen Avlien visited by forest fires. The sand, being of an open and porous nature, aids in the more complete combustion of the liumus. In the timbered regions of the Northwest the great forest fires of 1894 resulted in the average destruction of over 1,500 pounds of humus nitrogen per acre, to saj' nothing of the nitrogen lost in the burning of the timber. Analyses of soils, before and after the fire, made by the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station showed a loss in some cases of 2,500 pounds per acre of nitrogen, equivalent to a loss of 75 per cent of the total amount in the soil. The prairie fires have not been so destructive upon the humus as the forest fires, because the burning has been confined more to the surface. An average prairie fire, however, will remove more nitrogen from the soil than five ordinary crops of wheat. MIXERAL MATTER IX HUMUS. Besides being a great reservoir of nitrogen, humus is an indirect means of supplying the plants with other fertilizing constituents. Humus as it occurs in the soil is combined with potash, lime, phos- phoric acid, and other compounds which are essential as plant food. The decaying animal and vegetable matters form various organic acids, which combine with the potash, lime, iron, and alumina, as well as with other elements, and form a series of compounds known as humates, of Avhich but little is definitely know^n. By some, tlie potash, lime, and other mineral constituents of the humus are regarded as simply associated with the humus and not organically combined with it, but there are a number of facts which indicate that tlie union is chemical and not simplj- mechanical. The mineral matter combined with the humus is characteristically rich in phosphoric acid and i^otash, two compounds which are of great value agriculturall3\ The mineral matter combined with the humus from different soil types, however, is not always of the same nature, and the amount of plant food thus combined with humus has not been extensively investigated. In the case of rich i^rairie soils over 1,500 pounds of pliosphoric acid and 1,000 pounds of jiotash i^er acre to tlie depth of 1 foot have been found to be in combination with the humus. In the case of soils poor iji humus and Worn bj'^ cropping, the amount may be reduced to 100 pounds per acre. The average of analyses of the mineral matter of the humus from samples of productive prairie soils yielding 25 per cent of humates showed 7.50 per cent of potash and 12.. '57 per cent of phosplioi-ic acid. In these soils, wliicli were well sui)plied with liumus, 1,500 pounds of pliosplioric acid per acre out of a total of 8,750 was combined with humus, and 1,000 pounds of potash out of a total of 12,250 pounds. According to Ililgard, theanujunt of 136 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. phosphoric acid usually found associated with humus varies from 0.1 to 0.5 of the total amount in the soil, indicating in many cases the amount of this element available to j)lants. VALUE OF HUMATES AS PLANT FOOD. The value of these various forms of humates as plant food has been the subject of extensive investigations and many of these ex- periments indicate that the humates, when acted upon by the proper microorganisms, are very valuable forms of plant food. At the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station oats and rye have been successfully grown when the only forms of mineral food were humates of potash, lime, magnesia, iron, and humic phosphate and sulphate. Humate material obtained from rich prairie soil was mixed with pure sand, which contains practically no plant food, and gypsum was added to prevent the formation of sour humus. The mixture was watered with leachings from a fertile field, so as to introduce the organisms which usually carry on the work of liumus decomposition. Oats seeded in the soil thus prepared finally produced fertile seeds, the entire plants containing fifty times more potash than was in the seeds sown, and over sixty times more phosphoric acid. The only source from which the plant could obtain these substances was the humates added to the soil. In experiments in which the soil leachings were omitted the oat plants made only feeble signs of growth, plainly showing that unless the potash, phosphoric acid, etc., combined with the humus is set free by the action of microorganisms the plant is unable to use them. There are a number of facts in field practice which also indicate that plants are capable of feeding on humates. The roots of plants, particularly those of grains, will always be found clustering around any decaying vegetable matter that may happen to be present in the soil. When wheat or oats follow a corn crop the roots of the grain will be found in many cases to completely incase any decaying pieces of cornstalks that are present. The cornstalks are not rich in plant food, but they decay in the soil and combine with the soil potash, phosphates, etc., forming humates which the grain feeds upon. Large piles of sawdust many feet in height and circumference are frequently left around sawmills, or the sawdust is used for filling in low places. The sawdust is very slow in decomposing, but in time it is covered with vegetation which must obtain most if not all of its mineral food in the form of humates. MEANS OF INCREASING THE HUMATES OF THE SOIL. Inasmuch as both experiments and observations in the field appear to strongly indicate that plants have the power of feeding upon humates, it becomes important to determine to what extent the HUMUS IN ITS RELATION TO SOIL FERTILITY. 137 addition of animal and vegetable matters to the soil is capable of affecting the amount of available plant food. Experiments conducted at the JMinnesota Agricultural Experiment Station have an important bearing upon this question. To a box holding 100 iiounds of loam soil 20 pounds of cow manure was added. The contents of the box were kept moist and well mixed. At the end of twelve months the amount of mineral matter combined with the humus was determined, and the amount found compared Avith that originally in the box. Another box containing an equal amount of the same soil to which no manure was added was treated in the same manner. In the first case the mineral matter originally present in the manure was deducted, as well as the amount which was only sol- uble in the solutions used in the analysis. The results were as follows : Increase of huinates in the soil due to applications of manure. Potash Soda Iron , Magnesia Alumina Phosphoric acid Total hu- mates in ITO pounds of original soil. Grams. 7.25 7.84 2.44 .&5 2.96 11.97 Total at the end of 1.".' months in ma- nured box. Grains. 9.14 10.11 4.13 ..54 4.64 13.99 Gain of humates from soil throush manure. Grams. 1.89 1.09 .19 1.68 2.02 Total hu- mates at the end of 12 month';, no manure. Grams. 6.92 7.50 2.46 .27 2.75 11.50 Loss when no manure was added. Grams. 0.33 .34 As will be seen, the cow manure increased the amount of mineral matter combined with the humus to the extent of 15 to 25 i^er cent of the original amount present in the soil. In addition to adding new elements of fertilitj' to the soil, it has also resulted in changing a part of the potash, magnesia, and phosphoric acid, as Avellas other solid elements, into forms more valuable as plant food. The manure, therefore, not only has a direct fertilizing value, but is also useful in making the inert plant food of the soil more available. A number of facts i-n field practice also point to the same conclusion. It is well known that barnyard manure is among the most lasting in effect of any of the fertilizers which can be applied. This is undoubtedly due to the power which the manure possesses of uniting with the soil potash, iihosplioric acid, etc., to produce humates. It has been frequently observed that when potatoes are cultivated on new prairie land for three or four years in succession, both the yield and the size of the potatoes decrease. When the land is seeded to a grass crop, the sod plowed under, and potatoes again planted, the yield and size of the potatoes are often nearly the same as when the land was new. This result has been attained without the addition of any manure to the land except the vegetable matter in the sod which has furnished materials for the formation of humates. In the same 4 A 95 5* 138 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. way, wiieat gro^vn continuously on j)rairie soil will gradually decline in yield, but if grass is alternated with the wheat, nearly the original yields are restored. Besides performing the useful functions just discussed, which are essentially chemical in character, humus iDrofoundly modifies the physical x^roi^erties of soils. This influence is most marked in rela- tion to the water content and temperature of the soil. HUMUS AND THE WATER SUPPLY OF CROPS. A soil rich in humus not onlj^ absorbs more water, but holds it more tenacioush' in time of drought than a soil poor in humus. In fact, this is one of the most important differences between soils rich in humus and those poor in humus. A soil which by long cultivation has lost half of its total humus will show a loss of 10 to 25 per cent of its water-holding j)ower. These differences are well illustrated in the follo^^dng table, compiled from data obtained in the examination of two t3"pical Minnesota soils: Water capacity of soils containing different amounts of humus. Water. In original soil. After 10 hours' exposure to the sun. Loss. Soil richer in humus (3.75 per cent). Soil poorer in humus (2.50 per cent). Percent. 16.48 12.14 Per cent. 6.12 3.94 Percent. 10.26 8.20 Humus is also an imi^ortant factor, especially in sandj^ soils, in assisting the capillary rise of subsoil water to the roots of crops. In a mixture of sand and humus, water will rise to the surface by capil- larity much more rapidlj^ than in pure sand. As is well known, soils which are prox)erly manured and thus suj)plied with abundant humus retain more water and yield it up more slowly and evenly to growing crops than unmanured soils. The part which the humus takes in the water suj^ply of crops is sufficient in itself for placing a high value upon the humus of the soil. HUMUS AND THE HEAT OF THE SOIL. Humus soils are generally considered cold or sour, but this is not always true of them. In humus soils decomposition or oxidation of the organic materials is constantly taking place, and this oxidation is accompanied by the evolution of a certain amount of heat. A }X)rtion of this heat is used up in warming and evaporating the additional water stored up in the soil on account of the humus, but even after tliis is proAided for there is still some heat left from the oxidation of the humus to aid in warming up the soil. HUMUS IN ITS RELATION TO SOIL FERTILITY 139 It should be observed also that, humus, as a rule, imparts a darker color to the soil, and thus causes it to absorb more of the heat of the sun. In autumn humus soils are not afifected bj' sudden changes of temperature to the same extent as soils poor in humus, the difference frequentlj^ being- sufficient to ward off an early frost and to enable corn in the Northern States to reach its full maturity. Applications of humus-forming materials, such as manure, have frequently been observed to raise the temperatui'o nearly a degree, and this in colder climates is often sufficient to prevent the growth of a crop from being checked. In the colder regions soils which are poor in humus freeze much deeper than soils Avhich are richer in humus. In the i)receding pages the attempt has been made to demonstrate that the chemical action of humus in providing available plant food in the soil makes it of the greatest value as a fertilizer; that it assists materiall^^ in bringing about the i^hysical conditions in the soil best suited to the growth of plants; that it furnishes a medium peculiarly suited to the activities of such organisms as those of nitrification, which are useful in x^lant growth ; and that loss of humus from the soil is alwaj's attended by a marked decline in its productiveness. It is now important to discuss the means by which this valuable con- stituent of soils may be conserved and increased. MEAXS OF MAINTAINING THE HUMUS OF THE SOIL. On account of the variable composition of humus it is difficult to state the definite amount which should be present in all soils. A large amount of humus, containing a ver}^ high per cent of carbon, approaching in many cases the comi)osition of charcoal, is not as valuable as a smaller amount of humus which is capable of readily undergoing decomposition. "With an excessive amount of water, and in the absence or scarcity of the proper soil elements, like lime, potash, etc., humus-forming materials may produce sour soils, but in good soils well stocked with lime there is but little danger of this result. It is safe to conclude, therefore, that soils as a rule will be benefited by those systems of culture which conserve or increase the humus content. The liberal use of well-prei)ared farm manures, green manuring* and a judicious rotation of crops are the three most important means of maintaining the humus of the soil. The preparation and use of farm manures and green manuring have already been discussed in some detail in bulletins from the U. 8. Department of Agriculture,^ and it is only necessarj' to briefly refer to these subjects here. In the arid regions, and in many of the prairie sections, the proper preparation of farm manures is a problem which has not as yet been satisfactorily solved. On account of the sloAvness of decomposition ' Farmers' Bulletins Nos. 16 and 21. 140 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE. of the straw in the manure, many farmers in the regions named have begun to look upon manure as a detriment rather than a benefit to the land. In these regions, however, the soil is in greater need of humus than in the regions of uniform summer rains, and it is of the highest importance to devise some system of preparing the manure produced on the farm so that it may be utilized to the fullest extent. The humus materials of the soil may be increased by the use of well-prepared muck. It is best to draw the muck during the summer. After drying, it can be used as an absorbent in stables, for which pur- pose it is very valuable, many mucks having the power of absorbing more than their own weight of liquid. When muck is mixed with urine, it readily undergoes fermentation, which increases its fertilizing value. The brown mucks are much quicker in their action than the black. A little marl or land plaster mixed with the muck keeps it from forming sour mold. Clover and plants of the leguminous family are more suitable for green manuring purposes than any other class of farm crops, because, in addition to suj^plyiug an abundance of humus-forming materials, they add to the soil large amounts of nitrogen drawn principally from the air. In the South the cowpea is extensively used for this pur- pose with good results, and crimson clover has proved valuable on the sandy coast soils of the Eastern States. Where land is cheap and fertilizers and labor are expensive, green manuring mil doubt- less prove to be the most economical way of maintaining fertility. Where land has a high value and labor is cheap, better returns will be obtained from feeding the crop to stock and using the manure rather than resorting to green manuring. Rotation of croj^s. — Another means of maintaining the liumus of the soil is the practice of proper systems of rotation of crops. The general laws which apply to the rotation of crops are in perfect accord with the conservation of the soil humus, but definite rules can not be given on account of the variations in soil and climate of different parts of the country. The methods of farming which are the most destructive to the soil humus are continuous grain cropping without manures and the con- tinuous cultivation of cotton, corn, or potatoes, while the methods which increase the soil humus are the growing of grass crops and dairy and stock farming, which result in the production of large quantities of man-ure. These statements are by no means intended to discourage grain, potato, or cotton growing, but they are intended to encourage a definite course of rotation in the culture of these crops, and the use of more well-prepared farm manures, so as to keep up the humus of the soil. The influence of different systems of farming on the humus content and fertility of soils is illustrated by the four examples, HUMUS IN ITS RELATION TO SOIL FERTILITY. 141 selected from a largo number of similar import, given in the follow- ing table : Injlucnce of different systems of fanning on the chemical and physicial properties of soils. Character of soil. Weight per cubic foot. Humus. Nitro- gen. Phosphoric acid com- bined with humus. Water- holding capacity. 1. Cultivated 35 years; rotation of crops and manure; high state of productiveness 2. Originally same as 1; continuous grain cropping for 35 years; low state of pro- Pound& 70 72 70 67 Per cent. 3.32 1.80 3.46 2.45 Percent. 0.30 .16 .20 .21 Percent. 0.04 .01 .03 .03 Percent. 48 39 3. Cultivated 42 years; systematic rotation and manure; good state of productive- 59 4. Originally .same as 3; cultivated 35 years; no systematic rotation or manure; me- 57 Soils Nos. 1 and 2 are from two adjoining farms, and originally had practically the same crop-i^roducing power. No. 1 has received reg- ular and liberal dressings of manure, and has produced wheat, corn, oats, timothy, and clover in rotation. There has been no apparent decline in fertility. No. 2 has been under continuous grain cultiva- tion and has never received any farm manure or other humus-forming materials. During the first few years heavy crops of wheat were raised, but during the past few years the yield has been very low, especially in dry seasons. The land has been reduced in wheat- producing power from 25 to 8 bushels per acre. The main difference between the two soils at the present time is in the amount of humus and nitrogen and phosphoric acid. Soils Nos. 3 and 4 are from the same farm. No. 3 has been cropped forty-two years, timothy and clover, wheat, oats, and corn having been raised in rotation. Every five years the land has received 10 tons of stable manure per acre. No. 4 has been cropped only thirty- five years, producing mainly wheat, oats, and corn, with an occasional crop of timothy. It has not been cropped continuously to one crop, neither has it been under a regular system of rotation. The soil which has been cropped forty-two years shows more humus and nitrogen than the one which has been cropped thirty-five years. SUMMARY. (1) Tlie decline in the crop-producing power of many soils is duo to a loss of the partially decomposed animal and vegetable matters known as humus. (2) The humus of the soil is decreased by the continuous cultiva- tion of grain, cotton, potatoes, or any crop with which the land is 142 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. kept constantly under the plow without the addition of anj^ humus- forming materials. (3) The loss of humus involves a loss of the nitrogen, which is one of the elements composing humus. The less of nitrogen from the soil is not alwaj^s due simply to the nitrogen removed b}^ the crop, but is frequentlj^ caused by waste of the humus by improper methods and systems of cultivation. (4) The humus of the soil is increased by the use of Avell-prepared farm manures, green manures, and by a systematic rotation of crops in which grasses, or preferably clover, form an important part. (5) The loss of humus from the soil results in decreasing its power of storing up and properly supj)lying crops with water. Soils with a liberal amount of humus are capable of more effectually withstand- ing drought than similar soils with less humus. In arid regions the loss of humus from the soil is more serious than in the regions of continuous summer rains. (6) In sandy soils the loss of humus is most severely felt. In poorly drained soils, where there is a deficiency of lime, potash, and other similar materials, the humus may form sour mold, but this can usually be corrected by a dressing of lime, marl, or wood ashes. (7) Humus-forming materials, like the decaying animal and vege- table matters in farm manures, have the power of combining with the potash and phosphoric acid of the soil to form humates which are readily assimilated by plants when acted upon by the proper soil organism. These humates thus increase to a marked extent the available plant food of the soil. (8) Farm manures and other humus-forming materials are not only valuable for the elements of fertility which they contain, but also for the power of making the inert material of the soil more available to plants. (9) In soils where there is a good stock of reserve materials it is cheaper to cultivate fertility through the agency of humus than it is to purchase it in the form of commercial fertilizers. FEOSTS AND FREEZES AS AFFECTING CILTITATED PLANTS.! By B. T. Galloway, Chief of the Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. The object of tliis paper is to bring together some of the more important facts relating to frosts and freezes as affecting the farmer, gardener, and fruit grower. While for the most part the injurious effects of frosts on j)lants will be considered, it must not be forgotten that there are other aspects of the case. Frosts may kill or injure plants, but the}' also check many diseases affecting the human family. Furthermore, they are of the utmost importance in disintegrating the soil and underljing rocks and putting into condition the materials necessary for plant growth. These questions, however, do not con- cern us here, hence we may pass to a consideration of the kinds of frosts and freezes and how they affect plants. KINDS OF FROSTS AND FREEZES. Frosts and freezes varj- both as regards their effects on plants and their origin and distribution. Light frosts. — These may occur on clear, still nights, when the gen- eral temperature of the air is above freezing. If the sky is clear all exposed objects will cool down by the radiation of heat from their surfaces, and the cooling may proceed so far that the adjacent air deposits some of its own moisture upon them. If the temj)eratures of the surfaces and the adjacent air are above freezing this deposit will be dew, but if the temperatures fall below freezing the deposit will be hoar frost or some other form of ice. The loss of heat by radiation is ordinarily checked by natural proc- esses, such as a breeze or high wind, the clouding over of the sky, the formation of fog, or the convection of heat brought from a neigh- boring pond or river or from the warm soil below. In general, there- fore, there is a tendency toward lower temperatures and the formation of frost on every clear night, the drier the air the greater being this tendency. 'This paper was prepared under the direction of the Assistant Secretary from material furnished by the Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, and Prof. Cleveland Abbe, of the U. S. Weather Bureau. 113 144 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Light frosts may begin to form a short time before sunrise and may be immediately cliecked by the warmth of the sun's rays. Some- times frost may begin to form earlier, say about midnight, but soon after be checked by the formation of haz^, fog, or cloud, or by the starting up of the wind, and thus what would be a serious frost is converted into a light one. Heavy frosts. — These occur when the air is very drj^ and large areas of clear sky prevail. Under such conditions frost may begin to form by midnight, and neither cloud, fog, nor wind will check its progress. Local frosts. — There are always to be found some spots Avhere plants are peculiarly liable to damage by frosts. Usually such spots are a little lower than the surrounding region, and thus the cold air is more liable to collect in them, for the reason that the rapid loss of heat from the higher places causes the air to contract and become heavier. The heavy air then flows down into the depressions, while the warm air, being lighter, moves out and up to the higher places. Frosts occur in these spots or pockets on still, clear nights, when they do not occur on the neighboring dry soils, warm exposures, or high- lands. Often a whole township or river valley is subject to local frosts, while neighboring townships are far less liable to suffer. General frosts. — Frequently the condition of the atmosphere favors the occurrence of frost everywhere over large sections of the country. On nights when such conditions prevail the freezing is, of course, most severe in places subject to local frosts, as in lowlands, and least severe, but still injurious, on hilltops. Even then, however, it has been noticed that on the slopes of certain mountains there are regions rarely or never visited by such frosts. These regions are apparently warmed by the flow downhill of the cooling air, so that there is for every hillside a certain zone of elevation Avithin which frost is least liable to occur. Freezes. — It is, of course, difiicult to draw the line between a freeze and a frost. So far as we are at present concerned, however, a freeze differs from a frost merely in intensity. It may penetrate the ground and freeze through and through the roots, stem, branches, and other parts of the plant. This may take place and still there may bo no actual hoar frost visible anywhere on the plant. HOW PLANTS ARE AFFECTED. The effects on plants of the different kinds of frosts and freezes are, of course, exceedingly variable. Not only do the different degrees of cold produce different effects on the same plant, but the same plant will often behave differently when subjected to the same degree of cold. It is well known that plants or parts of plants in active growth are much more easily killed by low temperatures than the same plant or part when in a dormant condition. Actively growing plants con- tain relatively large quantities of water, so that it may be put down FROSTS AND FREEZES AS AFFECTING CULTIVATED PLANTS. 145 as Ji rule that the hirger the proportion of water contained witliin the plants the more likely are they to be injured by cold. It is a matter of common observation that quite tender plants may bo hardened so that the}' will stand a considerable freeze. All the phenomena involved in the freezing of succulent and other plants depend on the condition of the protoplasm or living matter in the plant cell. If the temperature is sufficiently low to cause a chem- ical disorganization of the living substance, the part of the plant where this takes place dies. If, on the other hand, no actual disor- ganization of the cell contents occnrs, the affected parts may recover. It is hardly necessary here to enter upon a discussion of the various phenomena. Suffice it to say that nnder the influence of cold the water in the cells escapes, and may be frozen either in the spaces between the cells or on the surface of the leaf, stem, or whatever the part may be. As the temj^erature rises this frozen water may again be taken np by the cells, and in such cases little or no injury results. If for any reason, however, the cells are not able to regain the water withdrawn by the cold, injury or even death may result. In many cases the rapidity with which the ice is thawed has a marked effect on the ability of the cells to regain their normal condition. If the thaw is gradual, the water is furnished no faster than the cells can absorb it, and equilibrium is therefore soon restored, the chemical processes Avhich were checked during the freeze are resumed and the plant soon regains its normal condition. With a rapid thaw, how- ever, the cells are not able to take up the Avater as fast as it is fur- nished, and as a result chemical decomposition sets in and death follows. Death in this case is essentially the same as that which results from drought. The cell loses water to such an extent that it is not again able to become turgid, and as a result it finally withers and dies. It will be seen from the foregoing that it is not always safe to con- clude that a succulent jilant is killed because it is frozen. The contents of the cells, as has been shown, may have given up much of their water in the formation of ice and still be able to revive under proper conditions. These conditions, however, will be discussed more in detail in another part of this paper. Speaking generally, it is the late spring and early autumn frosts which are the most damaging to the farmer, gardener, and fruit grower. These frosts are especially destructive where intensive culti- vation is practiced, as, for example, among truck farmers, market gar- deners, growers of jieaches, grapes, and small fruits, tobacco raisers, and others. Pearly autumn frosts are frequently very destructive in the Eastern grape regions, coming on and destroying the grapes before they can be gathered. The general frosts and freezes which prevail during winter are de- structive to plants in numy ways, only a few of which can be referred 146 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AORICULTURE. to liore. The separation of the ]>ark from tlie Avood in many of our trees, notabh" tlie apiile, is one of the most serious troubles. In some parts of the West, particularly in Illinois, Missouri, and. Nebraska, it is not an uncommon thing for hundreds of bearing ti'ees to be killed by this trouble, which, to the best of our present knowledge, is due, either directly or indirectly, to freezing. Bj' the formation of ice in the cambium layer, or active growing tissue between the wood and bark, the bark is forced away from the wood, the rupture pix)babh' taking place in the layer itself. Sometimes the bark is spbt, but usually this is not the case. The injured parts may not die immediately, and for this reason the damage majmot l>ecome apparent for months, i. e., toward the middle of summer, at which time the leaves appear sicklj- and an examination will show the injury to the trunk near the ground. Usually the trunk is most severely injured on the side towaixl the sun, and on this account the opinion generally prevails among fruit growers that the trouble is largely brought about bj' alternate freez- ing and thawing or b}" sudden thawing after a severe or prolonged freeze. One of the common effects of freezing on the trunks of trees is the splitting of the bark and wood. This is usually due to the formation of ice in the heartwood, producing a high internal pressure. It rarely causes any particular damage to the tree, excepting its disfigurement. It is a matter of common observation that a dry summer, followed by a wet autumn, leaves plants in poor condition to stand the winter. During the dry summer the plants i-emain in a partial resting condi- tion, and when rains set in there is a renewed period of growth, which does not mature before winter and is therefore killed by the first haixi freeze. Late summer plowing or the application of stimulating fer- tilizers toward the close of the season also frequently results in the formation of immature wood, which is killed during the winter. Undoubtedlj' also the defoliation of many of our fruit trees, notablj'' the pear, by such fungous diseases as leaf blight, results in the forma- tion of Avood which is easily ^nnterkilled. HOW TO FORETELL FROSTS. Use of the daily iveafher map. — The possibilitj^ of being able to determine in advance the approach of frosts likely to be destructive to growing crops is of the utmost importance to those engaged in more or less intensi\"e lines of agriculture. The market gardener, the truck farmer, the fruit grower, and otliers engaged in similar lines of work often have the gi*eatest interests at stake in the spring and fall, and there is no doubt that timely frost warnings are of the greatest value to tliem. In making predictions of approaching frosts the most reliable infor- mation is to be obt^iined from a studj" of the daily weather map issued by the Weather Bureau. These maps, unfortunately, can not reach FROSTS AND FREEZES AS AF^FECTING CULTIVATED PLANTS. 147 all who are actually engaged in j-aising plants, and too often their value is not understood by those who really have access to them. For the latter reason it seems desirable to offer a few suggestions as to how the mai)s may be made useful, especially to those living near cities, where the majis can in all probability be obtained earlj^ each day. To make the matter clear, a specimen weather map is reproduced in the accompanying illustration (fig. 8). At first sight this map presents merely a number of lines and figures, which, liowever, will be clear after a little explanation and study. The full black lines indicate the pressure of the atmosphere as shown ])y the barometer, while the broken lines indicate the tem- perature of the free air at the level of the highest housetops. Shaded portions show where rain or snow has fallen during the twelve hours preceding the issue of the map. ^WvS^SS^^ ! majo in the r ) : / I X ( j.fUuisvillcKy. ' I ' / I ^ iul«rvc.lMan-hi>7 (.-[ 1^ ^1- - Fig. 8.— Specimen weather map. In addition to the lines numerous dots, or symbols, are seen. Each of these has its special significance, which is as follows: \An aiTow indicates the direction in which the wind is l)loA^^ing ; that is, it flies with the wind. O >^ A circle indicates a clear sky and calm weather at that place. A dot with a black bar indicates a sky half clouded. \^ A cross-barred dot indicates that it ^i is snowing. ^ A black dot with a white center M^ indicates a wholly clotided sky. o 3° 4° 5° 6" 1" 3° 3» 4» 5° 6° 54 52 50 49 46 44 43 68 07 &5 03 63 60 58 68 i>5 53 52 50 48 46 43 55 09 68 60 04 as 01 59 09 56 54 53 51 49 47 44 56 70 69 07 GO 64 03 61 70 57 55 54 53 50 48 46 57 71 70 08 67 65 63 63 71 58 56 55 53 51 49 47 58 73 71 09 68 66 64 63 73 59 57 56 54 52 50 48 59 73 73 70 69 67 60 64 73 00 58 57 55 53 51 49 60 74 73 71 70 68 07 a5 74 61 59 58 .56 54 53 50 61 75 74 73 71 69 08 66 75 03 60 59 .57 55 53 53 63 70 75 73 72 70 60 67 76 63 01 60 58 56 55 53 63 77 70 74 73 71 70 08 77 64 63 61 59 57 56 54 64 78 77 75 74 73 71 09 78 65 63 62 60 59 57 55 05 79 78 70 75 73 73 70 79 66 67 1 64 66 63 64 61 63 60 61 58 59 56 57 00 07 80 79 77 76 74 73 73 80 t. 1° 2° 3° 4° 5° 6" t. Table 2. — Temperature of the deiv-point in degrees Fahrenheit. 19 Difference between the dry and wet thermometers ( t—t'). 11 19 © s k 0 Qg Difference between the dry and wet thermometers (t—f). MS *J HI >>a 9i 0° 7° 8° 9° 10° 11° 13° 6° 38 7° 8° 9° 10° 28 11° 12° 31 51 36 33 31 24 51 30 -19 30 53 40 37 34 33 29 26 23 53 21 —15 —47 21 53 41 38 36 33 30 28 34 53 23 -11 -31 •» .54 43 40 37 34 33 29 36 54 33 — 8 —'4 33 43 41 39 30 33 30 38 55 56 24 — 5 —18 34 1 50 44 43 40 37 34 32 29 25 — '>, —13 —43 25 46 44 41 39 30 33 30 57 20 0 - 9 -28 W .W 47 45 4? 40 37 35 33 58 "7 + 3 — 6 — f^ 37 59 48 46 44 41 39 30 33 59 28 29 5 7 - 3 0 -15 -10 -54 -,33 38 60 61 49 .50 47 4« 45 40 43 44 40 42 38 a5 36 60 01 30 9 + 3 — 6 -33 30 0'^ .53 .50 4S 45 43 41 38 03 31 11 5 - 3 -15 31 03 .53 51 49 47 44 4*^ 39 63 32 13 0 -10 -.33 3:^ 64 .54 5:^ 50 48 46 4,3 41 64 33 14 9 + 3 — fi 03 33 65 55 53 51 49 47 45 43 65 34 35 16 18 11 13 c 8 o + 1 -15 - 9 34 35 66 67 56 57 54 55 .53 51 50 .53 48 50 46 47 44 45 66 67 -33 36 19 15 10 4 - 5 —20 36 68 58 57 55 53 51 49 46 68 37 21 17 13 6 _ 3 -14 -.52 37 69 59 58 56 54 52 50 •48 09 38 23 19 14 9 + 3 — 8 -29 38 70 61 59 57 55 53 51 49 70 39 24 20 10 11 5 - 4 -18 39 71 02 60 58 50 .55 53 51 71 40 25 33 18 13 8 0 -12 40 73 03 61 .59 .58 .50 51 53 73 41 36 23 30 15 10 + i — 0 41 73 64 63 61 59 57 &5 .53 73 42 27 34 31 18 12 7 — 3 43 74 05 63 03 60 58 56 54 74 43 29 36 23 19 14 9 + 2 43 75 GO 64 03 01 59 57 56 75 44 30 27 24 20 16 13 6 44 76 07 05 64 03 01 59 57 76 45 31 28 25 23 18 13 8 45 77 68 67 65 03 62 00 58 77 46 33 30 37 24 30 16 11 46 78 69 68 66 65 (W 61 59 78 47 33 31 38 35 23 18 13 47 79 70 69 07 00 04 (i3 01 79 48 m 33 39 28 23 20 15 48 80 72 70 68 07 65 03 63 80 49 50 .36 37 33 34 31 33 28 29 25 20 21 23 17 19 49 50 t. 6° 7° 8° 9° 10° 11° 12° t. 152 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. To determine the dew-point, use the instrument as described, mak- ing a note of the readings. Now sui)i)ose, for example, that the dry- bulb thermometer stands at 54 and the wet bulb at 45. The difference between 45 and 54 is 9. Find first 54 in the left-hand column of the table, then the number on the same line with it in column 0, table 2. This is 34, the dew-point, or probably the loAvest point the tempera- ture will reach during the night. The rule, then, to find the dew-point is: Subtract the reading of the wet bulb from that of the dry; find the reading of the dry bulb in the left-hand column of the table; then on a line with this, in the column showing the same figure as the difference between the wet and dry bulbs, will be found the figures indicating the dew-point. In whirling the psychrometer some precautions are necessary, lest the instrument be broken. It would be well before actually using the instrument to practice whirling a stick of approximately the same weight. The handle on the i^sychrometer may be removed and fas- tened to the stick if desired. If the sun is shining the instrument should be whirled in the shade of a tree or a house, and always out of doors where there is a free circulation of air. PROTECTION OF PLANTS FROM THE INJURIOUS EFFECTS OF FROSTS AND FREEZES. As already pointed out, the greatest injury to groAving crojDs from frosts occurs in early spring and autumn. It is possible, of course, to prevent these injuries, but it may not always be profitable or practicable to do so. For example, a 300-acre field of young corn might be saved from severe frost injury, but the cost of the saving would be almost as much as the crop would be worth. Where inten- sive cultivation is practiced, however, as in the case of tobacco growing, fruit and vegetable growing, etc., it is often practicable to prevent, at reasonable cost, much of the injury that might result if the plants are left exposed. Some of these methods will now be described. It must be rememljered, however, that to profit by them careful attention to the suggestions in regard to the foretelling of frosts will be necessary. SliieldiiKj plcmts hy means of st7-aiv, soil, etc. — In low-growing crops, such as strawberries and many kinds of vegetables, it is often prac- ticable to prevent injuries from frost by covering the plants with straw, marsh hay, or similar material. Of course it maj'' not always be i^ossible to obtain straAV, but where this material is at hand it can be spread rapidly and may result in saving a very A'aluable crop. Large i^lantations of strawberries have been covered in this way, the work being continued throughout the night. Although the last plants covered may be slightly frozen, the covering will prevent rapid thaw- ing, and the crop maj^ in this way be saved. Valuable beds of sweet potatoes, tomatoes, and other plants may often be saved, even after FROSTS AND FREEZES AS AFFECTING CULTIVATED PLANTS. 153 being frozen, by covering with straw before thawing begins and allow- ing tlie straw to remain all the next day. Young plants of melons, encumbers, tomatoes, etc., in the field may frequently be saved by throwing on a light covering of soil with a plow. It requires very little time to run a furrow down the rows of plants, and the soil can be easily and quickly removed by hand the next day or as soon as the danger is past. Cloth frames are now extensively used by market gardeners and others in protecting beds of young jilants in spring from cold and frosts. These frames are usually made of 1 by 3 inch white pine strij^s. They are 3 feet wide and G feet long, and have a brace run- ning diagonally from corner to corner to strengthen them. For a covering, protection cloth, sold by nearly all seedsmen, is used. This consists of oiled muslin of different grades and prices. The best of this material can be bought for about 10 cents a yard. This will make the ^_=.„,_.___,=,„^ frames cost about 50 cents each, and with good care they will last for several years. The frames will be found useful for cov- ering hotbeds and cold frames, and pffer nearly as good protec- tion as glass. Shallow box frames, about 14 inches square, covered with the protection cloth, are also very useful for covering hills of young melons, cucumbers, etc., in the field. In crops of this kind earliness is, of course, the all- important consideration. If cut back by frosts, the crop is delayed until it has compai'atively little value, hence the imiwrtance of using every method to bring it in early. The cloth-covered boxes can be made for 5 cents each, and in addition to protecting the plants from cold, winds, and frosts will be found very useful in preventing the ravages of numerous insects wliich feed on the crop. Screens and wind-breaks. — In many cases plants can be protected from the injurious effects of light or even moderately lieav^' frosts by sheds or screens nuxde of laths, boards, or otlier suitable nuiterial. Such sheds serve another purpose, that is, shading plants from the hot summer sun. Fig. 10 shows a screen of laths used for shading Fig. 10.— Latb screen for protecting plants from frosts. 154 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Fig. 11.— L. from hot suu riud frosts. l)lants during summer and for protecting tliem against earl}- spring and autumn frosts. In tliis case the laths are fastened to ordinary- clothesline wire by means of small staples. "When not in use the screens may be rolled up and stored away un- til again needed. Another form of shed is shown in fig. 11. This is made of cheap pine boards IG feet long and 8 to 12 inches wide. The stringers, as ^vill be seen, are nailed to posts, which are about 7^ feet high. Spaces 4 to 6 inches wide are left between the boards. Sheds similar to these, but usuallj'^ made of nar- row strips, are extensively used in southern Florida for protecting the pineapple against hot sun in sum- mer and cold winds and frost in win- ter. The injuri- ous effects of cold winds may fre- quently be prcA'cnted by suitable wind- break s . In market - g a r- deningoiiera- tions, where hotbeds are used, such a protection is very important. For this purpose a tiglit board wall is built, as shown in fig. 12. The wall is made at the north side of the frames and is from 7i to 8 feet high. It Fig. 12. -Board ■wall for protecting hotbeds, cold frames, etc. cold winds. from FROSTS AND FREEZES AS AFFECTING CULTIVATED PLANTS. 155 is given a slight tip to the iiortli in order to offer better facilities for holding up the straw mats used to cover the glass on cold nights. Natural or artificial groves of trees may frequently be utilized as wind-breaks. Cedar and arbor-vitfe offer very effective barriers to winds, and where special crops are cultivated in an intensive way such barriers will be found verj'- useful. Smolce and fire as protection against frost. — On still ni5:hts, when the temperature barely reaches 32° F., it is often possible to prevent frost injuries hj making a smudge, thus covering the field with a haze, which prevents the rapid loss of heat. Dense smoke can be pro- duced hy burning wet straw, wet leaves, sawdust, etc. A mixture of two-thirds sawdust and one-third gas tar makes an effectual material for forming a smudge. The quantities of these materials burned will have to be regulated largelj' by surrounding conditions. It is prefer- able to have small fires at frequent intervals rather than large ones more scattered. Gas tar alone may be used, and in such cases cheap iron kettles are distributed in the orchard, vineyard, etc., the number of kettles being proportionate to the liability of different parts of the ground to frost. The coal tar is placed in the kettles, and whenever indica- tions of frost appear the contents of the kettles are lighted. This is accomplished by a man passing rapidly from kettle to kettle with a torch and a can of benzine or gasoline, a little of this inflammable material being poured into the kettle, and the torch ai)plied. The burning of the tar results in the formation of considerable smoke, and there is also sufficient heat to keep the air in motion. The smudge-pot system is not used as much as formerly, as it does not protect the fruit from a degree of cold much below the freezing point, and furthermore for the reason that the kettles are often burned out before morning, after which time the frost may still prove injurious. A modification of the foregoing sj'stem is used to some extent in certain parts of California. In this case, iron drums, holding per- haps 100 gallons, are placed in rows through the orchard about 100 feet apart in the row. The drums are similar to those commonly used for shipjung oil and gasoline. In the orchard they are placed horizontally on framework supports so as to lie about 20 inches above the ground. From each end of the drum a line of gas pipe is laid for some -iO feet along the ground toward the adjoining drums. At intervals of about 10 feet along these pipes are placed iron kettles, which are supplied with crude oil from the main drums. The piping is so arranged as to discharge the oil directly downward into the kettles. The pipes leading out of the drums have stopcocks to regulate the flow of oil into the pipes, and each of the small pipes entering into the kettles is also furnished with a stopcock to control the discharge of oil. When it is apparent that frost is about to 156* YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Fig. 13.— Apparatus for smudging orchards. occur, a man passes from tauk to tank, opening the supply pipes and regulating the flow into the kettles, at the same time lighting the oil with a torch in the manner already described. The advantage of this system is ^° I that the supply r 1 of oil is constant ' ;J and fire can be maintained as long as required. Fig. 1.3 shows the method of using the system described for pre- venting frost in- juries. There are also some disad V a n t a g e s which should be mentioned, chief of which is the expense connected with the work. It is also claimed that the fruit is frequently soiled by the smut which rises from the kettles and settles on all parts of the trees. Flooding, irrigating, and spray- ing.— The free use of water may often save certain crops from de- struction by frosts. The cranberry marshes, for example, are fre- quently flooded when frost is pre- dicted and thus injury is avoided. Where it is possible to irrigate, frost injuries may frequently be prevented to a large extent. Irri- gation in early spring may delay the opening of buds until danger of frost is past. In certain parts of California it is the practice to run irrigating furrows between the trees, and on nights when frost is likely to occur water is run through the furrows. This practice might be followed in other sections where it is possible to obtain water. A method used to some extent in California, and which might prove of value elsewhere, is illustrated in fig. 14. This is a system of spray- ing far above the ground, whereby the air is charged with a fine, fog- like mist during the colder parts of the night. To accomplish this, Fig -Apparatus for spraying orchards with water. FROSTS AND FREEZES AS AFFECTING CULTIVATED PLANTS. 157 tlie oivhard is first piped Ijolow ground with small pij^es. From tliese, perpendicular i)ipes are carried up to the height of 40 feet. There are 100 of these pipes in every 10 acres of trees under treatment, or an average of 10 to the acre. They are held in .position by passing througli the center of wooden supports made in the form of a box. This pole-liko box is formed of three parts. The lower third is made of four G-inch boards nailed together at the edges; the second length, which extends downward through the first as well as far above it, is made' of four 1-inch boards, also nailed together at the edges; the thiid and last length is of two 1-inch boards nailed edge to edge, and is supported by extending down for some distance into the middle length of boxing. Across the toj) of each perpendicular pipe is con- nected a pipe of the same size 4 feet long. Each end of this cross- pipe is furnished with a fine cyclone nozzle, with the discharge turned upward. At the base of each main pipe, just above the ground, is a stopcock for regulating the supply of water. All the ground pipes in the orchard unite in one common su^jply pipe, which jiasses through the sleeping house of a watchman and connects with the main of the city. The watchman's house is located on that side of the orchard most subject to injury from frost. It consists of a single room, simply furnished, and is supplied with a telephone connected with the house of the superintendent, as well as with an electric alarm in connection with a thermostat, or alarm thermometer, located in the orchard. When the temperature in the orchard falls to 32° an elec- tric circuit is completed by the contraction of the metallic ther- mometer, or thermostat, and two alarms are given, one in the room of the watchman and another in the residence of the superintendent, there being wires laid from the orchard to both these places. As soon as the alarm is rung, the watchman, by opening the cock in the supply pipe which passes through his house, can at once turn on the water to all the pipes and spray nozzles. The result is a fog-like mist thrown upward by 100 cyclone nozzles over the entire 10 acres in the block of trees thus protected. This mist soon fills the air to a height of 45 feet, and any stir drifts it about like a bank of fog. PREVENTION OF INJURIES TO TREES AND OTHER WOODY PLANTS. The injury to apple and other fruit trees as a result of the alternate freezing and thawing of the tissues has been pointed out. Such injuries are likely to l)e more severe in seasons of summer drought followed by copious fall rains. During such seasons every effort should be made to conserve the moisture in the soil. Frequent sur- face cultivation, therefore, is highly important. In i)lanting orchards the importance of properly selecting soils and varieties as resistant as possible to the effects of drought should be kept constantly in mind. (4<)od results have been obtained in pre- venting frost injury to the trunks of fruit trees by fixing a board 158 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Oil llio soutliwest side of tlic main body. Another very satisfactoiy method is to train a water sprout on the southwest side o^ tlie trunk, cutting the same back so as to form a bushy growth. Mulching the ground around the trees is frequently j)racticed with beneficial results. The mulch assists in holding the water in the soil, and also prevents the freezing of the ground around the roots, wliich latter is frequenth' the cause of serious trouble to fruit trees, ever- greens, and other woodj" plants. Under the action of cold, diy winds the parts of the trees above ground lose their water, and the roots (being practically unable to obtain a new supply on account of the frozen condition of the soil), the smaller branches, and frequently the large limbs i)erish from drought. Pig. 15.— Pi-otecting trunks oi orchard trees from frost injuries by means or w;iter sprouts. The effects of fall cultivation, the application in late summer of stimulating manures, and the early defoliation of the trees by the attacks of fungi, have already been briefl}^ referred to. In each of the foi-egoing cases the tendency is to cause late fall growth, the tissues of wliich do not have suf&cient time to mature, and as a result are killed by the ordinarj'^ winter conditions. The remedy, so far as fall cultivation and application of manures are concerned, is plain, viz, to discontinue such methods. In tlie case of fungous diseases .which cause the loss of the leaves in early summer, sprajdng with fungicides should be carried on. This work is now so well understood as to require no description here. Suffice it to say that the matter has been very fully discussed in otlier publications of the Department,^ to which the reader is referred. 'Bulletins Nos. G and 7 and Farmers' Bulletin No. 37, Division of Vegetable Physiolog}^ and Pathology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. THE TWO FREEZES OF 1894-95 IN FLORIDA, AND WHAT THEY TEACH. By Herbert J. Webber, Afssistant, Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. RECORD OF FREEZES. The winter of 1894-05 was rendered memorable in Florida hj two of the most severe freezes which have taken place since careful records have been kept. The injuries to the fruit industries vrere very j^reat, orange, lemon, and many tropical trees being generally killed to the ground in all parts of the State except in the extreme southern portion and on the keys. Certain well-protected localities in the central part of the jieninsula also escaped without serious damage, but on the whole, latitude was the only modifjdng influence of importance. As the blizzards swept southward their severity gradually decreased. Judging from reliable temperature records and from the effects of the cold on vegetation, the isothermal lines in both freezes ran almost directly east and west across the State. From experience and observation in these freezes many important points have been noted as to ways in which plants may be protected against the effects of frost, and the best methods for quickly restor- ing fruit trees which have be«n frozen down. These will be discussed in this paper. On December 27, 1894, the first blizzard began to be felt. This culminated December 29, when the temperature^ fell to lAP above zero at Jacksonville, one degree lower than during the great freeze of .Tanuary 12, 1880. The fall in temperature was accompanied by a strong wind, which, at most stations, reached a maximum velocity of from 25 to 30 miles per hour. At most places throughout the northern and central parts of the State killing frosts and freezing temperatures occurred for three days in succession — December 27, 28, and 29. For several days after this blizzard the weather was gen- erally clear and comparatively cold. The second blizzard, which was very similar to the first, extended over three days — February 7, 8, and 9, 1895. The lowest temperature recorded was on the morning of February 8, Avlien at Jacksonville it again fell to 14°. The reports from stations throughout tlio orange belt showed a temperature ranging from 10° to 19°. This freeze 'All temperature records given in this paper are a^x^ording to Fahrenheit. 159 160 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE. also was accompanied by a strong wind, the maximum velocity of which was from 30 to 35 miles an hour. Killing frosts were reported from almost all stations in northern and central Florida on February 8 and 9, and in various i^arts of these sections of the State snow and sleet fell. For several days after this freeze the weather was gener- ally clear throughout the State. The following are the minimum temperatures recorded at various selected stations during the freezes of 1886 and 1804-05, the stations being arranged in order of latitude from north to south : Minimum temx-)eratiires recorded during the freezes of 1SS6 and 1804-05. Place. Jacksonville St. Aiigustine , Federal Point De Land Eustis Sanford Titusville Orlando. Mei-ritts Island . - . Melbourne Tampa Avon Park Manatee Jupiter West Palm Beach . Myers Hypoluxo Key West ..- Latitude. 30 19.1 29 53i 29 45 29 00} 28 5U 28 48 28 36J 28 32^ 28 22i 28 05.1 27 57 27 36} 27 30 26 56} 26 43 26 39 26 35} 24 38 i Minimum teiuperature. January 12, Decern l3er February 1886. 29, 1894. 8, 1895. 17' 18' 21 19 and 20^ 321 41.431 19 21 19 24 251 24 26 44 23 23 27 291 30 33 49 1 Records are not official. These records will serve to show the comparative severity of the two freezes of last winter and that of 1886, and the gradual abatement of the severity of each as it progressed soutliward. From a comimrison of the locations given in the table above it will be seen that in any given latitude practically the same temperature prevailed in localities whether in the western part of the State, in the interior, or on the east coast. The ]\Ianatee region, protected on the north by the broad Manatee River and Tampa Baj% shows almost the same temi)erature as Avon Park, in about the same latitude, in the interior, and Mel- bourne on the east coast. Again, Myers, on the west coast, protected on the north by the broad Caloosahatchee River, and West Palm Beach, on the east coast, protected on the west by the waters of the Everglades, show nearly the same temperature. Since the blizzards of last winter the fact that killing freezes have occurred before in Florida has been brought prominently to notice. TWO FREEZES OF 1894-95 IN FLORIDA. 161 It is known tliat severe freezes occurred in the winters of 1747, 1766, 1774, 1799, 1828, 1835, 1850, 1857, 1880, 1884, and 1886, and many lesser freezes are also known to have taken place. Those which were remarkably severe, however, and which are spoken of as "the great freezes," occurred on February 7 and 8, 1835, and January 12, 1886, In the former, the only one which in severity and destructiveness compares with those of last winter, the thermometer, it is said, fell to 8° at Jacksonville. This freeze is reported to have killed orange trees from 40 to 50 years old at St. Augustine and Mandarin. The freeze of 1886 destroyed most of the orange crop, killed j^oung orange trees, and froze all trees back somewhat. Although the damage from this freeze was very great, it was mostly repaired the next year, as the crop that season was larger than ever before. The recorded temper atures of either of the freezes of the winter of 1894-95 are but slightly lower than those of 1886, and consequently either one alone would not have done much greater damage. Their extremely disastrous effects were due to the fact of their having occurred so close together. From the above statements it appears that many disastrous freezes have occurred in the past, and it is reasonable to assume that similar freezes will take place in the future. It therefore behooves Florida growers to profit by past experiences and take such precautions a8 are possible to avoid future losses from this source. EXTENT OF INJURY TO THE CITRUS INDUSTRY. Damage caused hy the first freeze. — At the time of this freeze, De- cember 27-29, 1894, the orange and other citrus trees were largely dormant and the injury was thus not so great. At the time the blizzard occurred it is estimated that there were about 3,000,000 boxes of oranges still on the trees. These, of course, were almost a total loss. When cut open the morning of the 29th, the fruits were found to be a solid mass of ice, the pulp having the appearance of watery snow. The same was true of all lemons, pomeloes, and other citrus fruits which remained on the trees. The leaves were frozen stiff and rattled in the wind. The vegetation as a whole did not begin to wither until December 30, which was a bright day. Thin, fragile leaves, like the common guava {Psidiurn guajava) and castor-oil bean {liicinus communis), withered very quickly in the sun, but thick- leaved plants, like the eucalyptus, Cattley guava {Psidiurn cattley- anum), and orange, were slow to show the effect of the frost. When protected from the direct rays of the sun, many orange leaves remained green and apparently fresh for five or six days. All leaves were killed, however, except in a few protected groves on the south side of large lakes, like Lake Eustis and Lake Harris, and in the southern part of the State. The leaves did not fall immediately, as is their wont in case of slight injuries, but remained attached to the tree 4 A 95 6 162 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. until about January 7, at which time they were dry and crisp. After this the dropping was gradual, and was caused entirely by out- side forces, such as the wind. The fruit began dropping about January 10. This was also very gradual, being caused, as in the case of the leaves, by the wind, etc. The frozen oranges and pomeloes remained firm and solid for fully a month after the freeze, and were eaten in great numbers and also shij)p8d to Northern markets. It is safe to say that there has never been a time in the history of Florida or America when so many oranges were eaten in so short a time. The cautions of physicians were un- heeded, but the result was not disastrous, as many feared. Indeed, such sickness as occurred from eating frozen oranges was unques- tionably due to excessive indulgence. Many of the frozen oranges were sent to Northern markets and placed on sale while still juicy and palatable. In some cities their sale was forbidden by the health authorities, who claimed that they were injurious, but this claim has been thoroughly disproved by their extensive use, as above described. In frozen oranges white specks, frequently as large as half a milli- meter in diameter, form in the membranes between the segments and in the membranes of the pulp vesicles. They are so invariably present in frozen oranges, even where the fruit is but slightly injured, that they may be considered as evidence of the effect of freezing. These specks are apparently masses of hesperidin crystals, separated from the cell sap by chemical changes caused by freezing. These characteristic specks are also found in frozen lemons and pomeloes, and i)robably in all citrus fruits. The lemon and citron were the first of the citrus plants to show the effects of the freeze. The leaves withered and turned brown in about two days after the freeze, and the fruits became soft and watery, and hung as flabby, misshapen masses as soon as thawed out. Frequentlj'^ the bark of lemon, citron, and pomelo trees burst open on the trunk, large fissures being formed. Very few sweet or sour orange trees were found to be injured in this manner. Practically all lemon trees in the northern and central portions of the State were killed to the ground by the first freeze. Many pomelo trees were also killed, but others escaped with the loss of most of their limbs. About January 18 the buds of orange trees began to push, and in a few days numerous sprouts were growing vigorously. By this time the injured wood had become plainly marked in most cases. An examination of many orange groves made at this time showed that small sweet seedlings and budded orange trees were in most cases killed to the ground. The budded trees suffered somewhat more than the seedlings, the point of union between stock and graft being apparently very easily injured. However, it was found that budded or seedling sweet-orange trees which had reached a diameter of from TWO FREEZES OF 1894-95 IN FLORIDA. 163 4 to G iuclies or over were seldom seriously injured. It was also found that wliere budded trees had reached this size, and the point of union of stock and bud was not injured, the tops were, as a rule, not so much injured as those of seedling trees. The small twigs were killed back from 12 to 18 inches, while the seedlings were apparently killed much farther back. The budded trees of the size mentioned also showed much more vigor in reviving than seedlings, starting growth sooner and growing more rapidly. The period for two weeks preceding the second freeze was, unfortu- nately, fine growing weather, the night temperature not falling below 60°, and the day temperature usually reaching 80°. The result was a very rapid growth, especially in budded trees. At the time of the second freeze, commencing February 7, 1895, this growth had reached a length of from 1 to 4 inches, and flower buds were forming on many i :„. . - : 1 orange grove killed down by the cold and throwing up sprouts l L ■ base of the trunk. The tops were cut off shortly after the second freeze. Photographed October 25, 1895. ' of the trees; the orange groves had begun to look promising, and growers felt much encouraged and were quite elated by the fact that the orange tree had shown itself capable of resisting such a low temperature. Disastrous results of the second freeze. — Such were the conditions when, on February 7, 8, and 9, 1895, the second blizzard swept over the State. No fruit was now left to be destroyed, but the rapidly growing trees, stripped of their normal dense foliage, were exi")osed to tlie full strength of the cold blast, and the little life left was entirely destroyed in many of them. The oldest and youngest trees, whether sweet or sour, were alike killed to the ground throughout the greater part of the State. In many groves this was true of large budded and seedling orange trees from 20 to 40 j^ears old or more (fig. IG), while in 164 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. other groves, frequently in the same vicinity, sprouts have been thrown out on the old trunks for some distance up. This is particularly true of hammock groves, which seem to have suffered least. The extent of the damage to orange trees did not become apparent for some months after the freeze. Many of the large trees threw out sprouts on the trunks some distance up. These struggled along for a time, making considerable growth, but in many cases subsequently died back entirely, the bark having been killed below. This si)rout- ing out and dying back continued more or less throughout the summer, T)ut the growth which remained healthy until July has in most instances continued to the present time (November 1, 1895). The effect of water protection was in many cases very noticeable. In groves on the south side of Lake Harris and Lake Eustis, for instance, several rows of trees nearest the water retained some of their leaves, and the effects of the protection afforded was apparent for about half a mile back from the lakes. On Terraceia Island, in Tampa Bay, even lemons escaped unhurt, and in some groves on the mainland bordering on the bay orange trees were almost entirely unharmed and lemon trees only slightly injured. Passing away from the bay, however, the effect of even this broad expanse of water gradually disappeared, being hardly noticeable 2 miles distant. The orange groves south of Braidentown and Manatee, and 2 miles distant from the broad Manatee River, were about as badly injured as groves in the interior of the State in the same latitude. The effects of the freezes were also considerably ameliorated by forest protection. This was ^particularly noticeable in groves where large numbers of palmettoes and some oaks and magnolias were allowed to stand among the orange trees. Again, thick wind-brelaks perceptibly protected a few rows of trees nearest to them. Orange trees not protected were injured as far south as Myers (26° 30'). The damage south of the twenty-seventh parallel of latitude, however, was not serious, consisting merely of injury to a few of the top leaves and young branches. The mandarin, tanger- ine, and Satsuma oranges {Citrus nohilis) in general suffered about the same as the common sweet orange. The pomelo and shaddock ( C. decumana) are much tenderer than the orange. The large j>omelo trees which were not killed by the first freeze were almost invaria- bly split open and killed to the ground by the second. It is difficult to find a tree where any portion of the trunk was saved. In well- protected regions, like Palmetto, trees which lost all leaves and many branches are in some cases bearing fruit this year. At Bartow the trunks of some of the large trees were saved, and in the town of Myers, which has good water protection, the trees were practically uninjured. East of Myers, and farther away from the river, they were injured, but not seriously. At Jensen buds 3 years old wore killed down. The latitude below which the pomelo escaped serious TWO FREEZES OF 1894-95 IN FLORIDA. 165 injury can liardly be detenuined, owing to lack of trees from which to judge. It can probably be i)laced at about 2G° 30'. Lemons (C. lim- ouuin) and limes {C. limetta) throughout the northern and central j)arfs of the State were killed to the ground. In the Manatee River region the trees, when near the water, were not seriously injured; at Mj'ers they suffered but little; at Palm Beach they escaped Injury; and south of the twenty-sixth parallel they evidently were not severely affected. Every citron ( C. niedica) ^ and kumquat ( C. japonica) in the State, so far as know-n to the writer, was killed. In the extreme southern part of the State they would probably have escaped serious injury. The trifoliate orange (C trifoliata) is the only citrus species which escaped injury from the two freezes. LESSONS TAUGHT BY THE FREEZES. The experience of last winter has taught some valuable lessons as to ways by which the extent of damage caused by severe freezes may be lessened. In a few cases wiiere growers had banked their trees up some distance around the ti-unk with earth, covering the union of bud and stock, it was found that the buds and a portion of the trunk were saved. This shows that it would unquestionably be a wise policy to make a i)ractice of banking up the trees every winter in this way, say by the middle of December, removing the soil about the 1st of March. The expense of doing this would be very slight, probably not more that one-half cent per tree. Care should also be taken to have the point of union betw^een the stock and bud or graft near the soil. On thoroughh' drained, j^orous soils there is no objection to having the union slightly below the surface. This would insure the safety of the buds in the most severe freezes, especially if the trees were slightly banked. On poorly drained soils, where the trees are subject to foot rot, sour-orange stocks, budded above the ground, should be used. When lemon or pomelo stock is used, the union should by all means be placed low, as these stocks are very easily injured by cold. Careful observations have shown that the method of training the trunk is also important. Trees having a single main trunk were much less injured by the cold than those of the same size growing under similar conditions but having several trunks. This was quite noticeable in protected regions after the fii-st freeze, but of course the two freezes in most places were enough to kill almost any trunk. This shows clearly that where possible it is very desirable to train the trees so that a single main trunk is formed up as high as is con- sistent with a w«dl-shaped tree. By following this rule a much larger trunk can be saved in case of a severe freeze (figs. 17 and 18). Dividing groves into small plats of 4 or 5 acres and leaving wind- breaks between and surrounding these has also proved to be a good practice. This can easily be done by leaving strips of the original 'Sincp this papor was writtpn nnininrerl citron trees have heen seen by the writer ut Cocoauut Grove ami ElIio.t.s Key. 166 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. forest when clearing the ground. In many hammock groves in which palmettoes, magnolias, and other forest trees were allowed to stand among the orange trees, the protection they afforded was plainly noticeable. Where the soil is rich enough to allow of this method of culture, it should be adopted as a protection against cold and frosts. Several groves, in various parts of the State, were protected to some extent by fires distributed through them at regular intervals. These fires were made by lighting brush piles already in the grove, or by distributing and igniting pots of resin prepared for this purpose. The trials made of these methods were fairly successful, and indicate that much can be gained even from the little protection thus afforded. During light freezes in the northern part of the State the fruit has often been saved hy such fires. The well-recognized slight differences in hardiness shown by vari- eties of oranges was scarcely perceptible in the last hard freeze. In Fig. 17. — A properly trained trunk Fig. 18. — An improperly trained trunk. protected regions, like Palmetto and Braidentown, and in the southern part of the State, however, some difference could be observed. Harts Late is reported by most growers to have withstood the cold better than any other variety, and the Jaffa and Majorica were also found to be quite hardy. The Mediterranean Sweet proved to be very tender, and the Satsuma, which was supposed to be very hardy, usually suf- fered as much as the tangerine. When on Citrus trifoliaia stock, however, the Satsuma is reported to have withstood the cold better. RESTORATION OF FROZEN ORANGE GROVES. After it became apparent that most citrus trees wer^ killed back nearly or quite to the ground, the question as to what treatment was best under the existing conditions came to be an important one with TWO FREEZES OF 1891-95 IN FLORIDA. 167 gi'owers. Tlie experieuce gained in the freeze of 188G was of little value, as at that time the trees were not, as a rule, severely injured, and the lessons taught by the freeze of 1835 had been largely for- gotten and were too iudofinitc. The result was that many different treatments were followed. The time and manner of pruning the frozen trees were puzzling questions. From the experience in the freeze of 1835, it was claimed by some growers that if the dead top was not cut off the fermenting sap would i)ass down and Idll the li^dng portion of the trunk and the roots. This belief, however, has been disproved by extensive experi- ence since last winter's freezes. As yet hundreds of groves remain uni^runed, and in no case do the trees show any injurious effect that can be traced to this cause. Indeed, many growers claim that the protection and slight shade afforded by the old top has been decidedly beneficial. The sprouts on such trees have unquestionably grown higher than on pruned trees, but are usually slender and unbranched, probably due to the effect of the shade. Trees which were pruned back into the living wood earlj" in the season have made a more gen- eral and bushy growth, and will probably ultimately make the best- shaped tops. As a whole, little difference can be seen between early pruned trees and those left unpruned. The sprouts in unpruned trees have grown so large now (November 1, 1895), however, that many will be destroj^ed or in j ured bj'^ even the most careful pruning. Probably the best iDractice is to prune the trees as soon as the sprouts have started and show a healthy growth, cutting the trunk below the upper sprouts down to a short distance above where the most healthy, vigorous growth appears. Where the trees were killed to the ground, many cut them off below the soil and covered the cut surface with earth to protect it from the hot rays of the sun. In general this did not prove as satisfactory as allowing the tops to remain until the sprouts started. Where the trees were slow in sprouting, removing the dirt from around the trunk and crown roots, thus exposing them to the sun and air, proved efficient in inducing sprouts to start. The practice most generally followed throughout the State with trees killed below the buds was to allow sprouts to come up from the base of the trunks or from the roots and bud them as soon as they reached sufficient size. The budding of the sprouts was commenced in May and continued tliroughout the season as the sprouts attained sufficient size. The buds put in during May have now, as a rule, reached a height of from 4 to 7 feet (fig. 19). Many growers have allowed all the sprouts to grow that started, intending to dormant bud the largest this fall or bud early next spring. In cases where the trees sprouted early, and the necessary buds could be secured, this would seem to be a waste of valuable time. The jjractice of crown grafting trees killed to the ground Has been followed to some extent, and when properly done has proved an 168 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. excellent method. In this case the trees were cut down below the sur- face of the soil to where the wood was sound, and the scions inserted. The scions should be of sound, mature wood, about 5 inches long, sharpened by a long, slanting cut on one side, as shown in fig. 20, a. Several grafts should be inserted on each stock to make sure that at least one will grow. The grafts should be pushed down between the wood and the bark, as shown in fig. 20, h. The best place to insert the grafts is in the concave portions of the trunk, as here the bark can be pressed out without breaking in order to allow the insertion of the scion. The bark mil hold the scion firmly against the stock, and in this way no wrapping is required. Moist dirt is then thrown up over the grafts, allowing simply the upper end to protrude. The use of grafting wax on scions inserted in this way is said to be unnecessary. If the trees are not cut below the ground it would probably be desirable to place small strips of waxed cloth over the cavity formed between the bark and the wood. In the use of this method, however, many failures have been made, evidently due to cutting the trees too high. Cutting below the soil, even though some of the large crown roots had to be sacrificed, seemed to be the best way. The benefit derived from the use of this method is that of securing in the graft all the growth made. The grafts may be put in promptly after a freeze, or as soon as the bark can be made to part for their insertion. The graft heals on before growth usually starts and has buds formed ready to push in the spring, while if the trees are allowed to start of their own accord advontive buds must be formed before the sprouts start. Grafts properly inserted started earlier than the sprouts, and as a rule made a much larger growth than sprouts which grew from the roots of sim- ilar stocks. Cutting back the sprouts to force the buds, in the prac- tice of sprout budding, puts the growth back and again weakens the roots, already nearly dead. This is prevented by grafting, by which means all the growth made is thrown into the grafts which are to Fig. 19.— Ruby orange bud, put in May 81, on sprout from old sweet-orange trunk. Photo- graphed October 25, 1895. TWO FREEZES OF 1891-95 IN FLORIDA. 169 remain. Crown grufts put in inunodiately after the second freeze are as a wliole six mouths in advance of the best growth made by buds put in on sprouts from the roots, and are fully a year in advance of many of the groves of the State which liaA e been slow to start sprouts and thus could not be budded. Grafts on old and young stocks take equally well (fig. 21). Xursery stock and small trees killed down by the freeze were apparently built up with the least loss of time by cutting them down below the soi] 1 or 2 inches immediatelj' after the freeze, and cleft grafting them by the common method, as illustrated in fig. 22. This method was not practiced sufficiently to Avarrant a positive statement that it is the quickest. The almost universal practice was to allow sprouts to grow from the roots and to bud them as soon as they had Fig. 2f(. — Method of crown grafting old oi-ange stocks, a, base of scion showing form of situat- ing cut; b, method of inserting scion. reached sufficient size. The greater handiness of this latter method recommends it in this case, where at best little difference can be expected. By means of inarching, many growers are throwing the strength of several sprouts into the one which is budded. Although tedious, this practice is desirable to hasten development. It necessitates rather higli budding, however, which should be avoided if possible. DAMAGE WHICH THE FREEZES CAUSED TO PINEAPPLES. The j)ineapple industry, which in southern Florida has reached considerable importance and probably ranks second among the fruit industries of peninsular Florida, was also severely injured by the 4: A 95 (J* 170 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. freezes of last winter. In tlie northern part of the pineai^ple section all plants, covered and uncovered, were killed to the gi-ound, and as far south as Biscajne Bay all uncovered i)lants Avere injured. The damage to the pine- apple industry was proportionally less than to citrus fruits, as at the time, of the freezes the pineapple crop had been market- ed, and, besides, it does not take the plants so long to re- cover. Moreover, the exi)ense and delay in budding or grafting necessary in citrus trees are not required in these x)lants. This season the crop was very small and the fruit formed was of inferior size and quality. During the season of 1894 Fig. 21. — Ruby orange graft on old sweet-orange stock, put in March the J aCkSOnVllle, 1 by crown-graft method. Photographed October 33, 1895. (Com- g^ Auo'UStine and pare with fig. 19.) ' ^ Indian River, and the Savannah, Florida and Western railroads carried 82,708 whole or barrel crates, while in 1895, the season following the freeze, the same roads carried only 17,093 crates. From present indications the yield of the summer of 1896 will probably be as heavy as ever before. The only loss, how- ever, even in these exceptionally severe freezes, was one crop of fruit and the cultivation for one year. During both freezes ice was formed in the cen- ters of almost all the pineapi)les as far south as Palm Beach, and the leaves were frozen stiff; most plants grown outside of sheds were killed to the ground as far south as West Palm Beach and Mj'ers. A few localities having extensive water protection, like Sewalls Point, escaped with but little injury. At West Palm Beach plantations bordering on the fresh- water lakes ^-"^tf-^'A Fig. 33.— Clef t grafting. TWO FREEZES OF 1894-95 IN FLORIDA. 171 of the Everglades -were scarcely iujureil, A quarter of a mile away from the water, however, little benefit could be observed. At Bis- cayne Bay (25° 45'), nearly one d€'gree south of West Palm Beach, the damage to plants outside of sheds was noticeable, but not serious. The crowns of the fruits were injured and the foliage somewhat dam- aged, but the development of the fruit was not impaired. Plants grown under sheds were severclj' injured in the northern part of the pineapple section, but may be said to have jpractically escaped injury south of the twentj^-seventh parallel. Old ijineapi3le plants which had fruited and suckered, being mainly above the ground, were most seriously injured. The buds of such plants were in most cases killed, but suckers and ratoons^ were formed from the base, so that the fields were largely replaced without replanting. Plants which had not fruited were much less injured, probably owing to the fact that in plants set out the bud is placed lower in the soil. Such plants did not lose their buds, and in some cases retained a few of the central leaves uninjured. Young plants set in July and August of last season (1894) did not lose their buds. These have grown rapidly this summer, and from their size now (November 1, 1895) it is almost impossible to tell that they were injured. Little difference could be observed in the hardiness of the different varieties, other than that due to the difference in size. The large plants were usually the least injured. Thus the Porto Rico, the largest variety grown, was probably the least injured. The Abbaka and Spanish probably come next in the order of size and consequent injur)', but the difference is very slight. EXTENT OF INJURY TO OTHER FRUITS. Guavas {Psidium guajava) were greatly injured by the two freezes, being frozen to the ground throughout most of the State. At Myers the plants suffered considerably. On the west side of Lake Worth they were slightly injured, but on the east side of the lake, at Palm Beach, they were generally unharmed. At Biscayne Bay they escaped entirely. The Cattley guava (P. cattle yamim), although much hardier than the common guava, was almost as badly killed down in these severe freezes. At Jensen all X)lants of this variety were killed to the ground, but at Palm Beach they escaped injury. Though one of the tenderest fruits grown, the guava recovers so rapidly from injury that it has been quite generally planted as far north as 29°. All guavas frozen down have sprouted abundantly from the base and have made a vigorous growth this summer (1895). They will bear a fair croj) next year, the second season after freezing down. The cocoanut palm {Cocas nucifera), which is grown quite exten- sively from Eden south, on the east coast of Florida, and at Myers, on ' Suckers starting from the old stem from below the soil. 172 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the west coast, suffered severely in the northern parts of these locali- ties. At Eden, Palm Beach, and Myers all the leaves were killed. On most of the trees, however, the buds remained uninjnred, so that new leaves were thrown out in the spring and the majority of the plants are rapidly recovering from the damage done. At Palm Beach the buds of about 5 per cent of the plants were killed, so that they have not started (see PI. III). Like many other monocotyledonous plants, if the apical bud of the cocoanut palm is killed the trunk will die, as it is not able to form a new bud. At Biscayne Bay even the leaves were i^ractically uninjured. The mango {Mangifera indica), which is quite extensively grown in the southern part of the State, was severely injured as far south as Palm Beach and Myers. Here the plants lost most of their leaves and the branches were killed back from 2 to 4 feet. At Eden, Manatee, and St, Petersburg large trees were killed to the ground. The trees, however, have shown great vigor in recovering, sprouting readily from the base of the trunk or from large uninjured limbs. The banana {Musa), sapodilla {Achras sapota), sour sop {Anona muricata), sweet sop {A. squamosa), cherimoya, or Jamaica apple {A. cher'imolia), Spanish lime {Melicocca bijuga), Otaheite gooseberry {Cicca disticha), and other strictly tropical fruits were killed almost to the ground at all places in the State other than the extreme south- ern portions. EXTENT OF INJURY TO NATIVE VEGETATION. The native plants of Florida were in general but slightly injured. The plants which suffered severely were principally those of tropical origin, which have spread into southern Florida from the West Indies and Bahamas and thence northward as far as thermal conditions permit. These plants are limited principally to the keys and ham- mock islands along the coast. The mangrove {Ehizophora mangle), which forms dense thickets on the tide-washed islands and on the shore as far north as Ormond (29'^ 22'), was killed down as far south as Lake Worth, except in cases where the plants grew on the south side of large bodies of water. At Myers, however, trees bordering on the south side of the Caloosahatchee River were killed. As the mangrove is one of the most valuable honey plants in Florida, its destruction is a great loss to bee keepers. The sea grape {Coccoloha uvifera) also suffered severely, large trees being frozen down at Manatee. At Palm Beach, however, they were only slightly injured. The satin leaf {Chryso- phyllum, oliviforme), probably having the most beautiful foliage of any native tree of Florida, was frozen down about Rockledge, its northern limit, and was seriously injured as far south as Palm Beach. Rubber or wild fig trees {Ficus pedunculata and F. hrevifolia) , which are abundant in the island and coast hammocks as far north as Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1895. Plate III. TWO FREEZES OF 1894-95 IN FLORIDA. 173 Rockledgo, were considerably frozen back as far south as Palm Beach and jNIyers. The guiubo-linibo {Bursera gummifera Jacq.) and satin wood {JCanthoxyhnn pterota) were also among the seriously injured plants. Water lettuce {Pistia spathiilata) and water hyacinth {Eich- ornia speciosa), which are very abundant in many ponds and sluggish streams, were frozen down to the water level. Considering the severity of the freezes of last winter, it is indeed remarkable how slightly the majority of the native plants were injured. The plants of Northern origin growing in the high pine lands, flat woods, scrubs, and hammocks of the interior were almost all unharmed. SUMMARY. (1) The first freeze, December 27-29, 1894, caused a loss of some 3,000,000 boxes of oranges and lemons, killed many young citrus trees, and seriously injured old trees. Guavas, i)ineapples, and many tropical fruit trees were frozen down throughout the northern and central portions of the State. (2) At the time of the second freeze, which culminated on February 8, 1895, the citrus trees which were not killed by the first freeze had started to grow vigorously. The result was that trees of all varieties and sizes were killed to the ground throughout the State, except in the extreme south and in a few protected localities. (3) The frozen oranges and pomeloes were eaten in great numbers and large quantities were also shipped to Northern markets, and the fact that no injury resulted from the unprecedented comsumption disproves the claims of many physicians and health authorities that such frozen fruit is unhealthf ul. In the membranes between the seg- ments of frozen oranges white specks were so invariably present as to be satisfactory evidence of freezing. (4) Where orange and other citrus trees had been banked with earth around the base before the freezes, a portion of the trunk was saved. This practice is thought very desirable in order to protect the point of union in trees budded or grafted near the ground. Bud- ding or grafting trees near the ground or below it is a good preventive against loss bj' cold, and should be invariably followed, except on low, poorly drained soils, which are subject to foot rot. When the point of union is placed below the soil the bud is generally safe from injury, even in the most severe freezes, and if near the ground it can easily be protected by covering with earth. (5) Citrus trees having a single main trunk were found to endure the cold much better than trees of the same size having several trunks, and therefore wherever possible trees should be trained so as to form but one trunk as high up as would be consistent with a well- shai)ed tree. Wind-breaks and forest trees scattered among the fruit trees proved beneficial. Protection of this kind can be provided for when clearing the ground, by leaving strips of the original forest 174 YEARBOOK OF THE U, S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. around plats of, say, 4 or 5 acres, and a tree here and there tlirough the plats. Fires scattered through the groves were also markedly bene- ficial. Losses from freezing can also be overcome to a slight extent by planting hardy varieties, as some kinds withstand low temperatures better than others. (6) Little difference was apj^arent in frozen trees whether pruned soon after the freeze or left nnpruned. Apparently no injuri- ous effects resulted from leaving the frozen tops attached, but it is thought that in general early j^runing gave rather the best results. Probablj'^ the best time to prune the trees is when the sprouts have started and show a healthy growth. The trees should be cut below the upper sprouts doAvn to a short distance above where the most healthy and vigorous growth appears. In restoring orange and lemon groves frozen to the ground, the method of cutting the trees off below the soil and crown grafting has proved much better and quicker than waiting for sprouts to grow from the base and budding them when they had reached sufficient size. "What appeared to bo the quickest way to build up nursery stock and small trees killed down by the freeze was by immediately cutting them 1 or 2 inches below the soil and cleft grafting them. (7) Pineapples were injured as far south as Biscayne Bay. Plants which were grown under sheds were not seriously injured south of the twenty-seventh parallel. The pineapple plants will entirely recover from the injuries of the freezes in one year. (8) Strictly tropical fruits and plants were badly injured in all places in the State except in the extreme southern part, that is, at Biscayne Bay and on the keys. The native vegetation, particularly plants of Northern origin, was but slightly injured. (9) Large bodies of water afforded great protection to citrus trees growing in their vicinity. Except in the southern part of the State the first freeze killed the foliage on all trees outside of those growing on the south side of large lakes, where the results of the tempering influence was perceptible for half a mile from the water. On Terra- ceia Island, in Tampa Bay, even lemons escaped unhurt, and orange groves bordering on the mainland of this bay were almost entirely unharmed. The beneficial influence of this large body of water extended 2 miles. Pineapples, guavas, etc., grown in regions having extensive water protection escaped much of the damage sustained by such fruits when grown in the same latitude but away from any bod)^ of water. TESTING SEEDS AT HOME. By A. J. PlETERS, Assistant, Division of Botany, U. S. Department of Agriculture. THE IMPORTANCE OF HAVING GOOD SEED. The importance of seed testing is recognized not only by profes- sional seedsmen, but also by intelligent farmers. The necessity for testing seed arises from the fact that not every seed contains a li^'ing germ. The absence of a living germ makes the seed useless for the reproduction of its kind. To find out what iDroportion of the seeds in a sample contains germs capable of growth is therefore the object of all seed testing. Good seed is essential to successful agriculture. No matter how well the farmer prepares his land; no matter how much time, labor, and money he spends on it, if much or all of his seed fails to * ' come up" he will either have a poor crop or will be obliged to reseed, thus losing time and labor. Manj'^ causes may contribute to prevent him from getting a good stand, but if he can eliminate any one of these he is by so much the gainer. Poor seed is a great cause of poor stands. The farmer and the gardener get seed from one of two sources — the}'' either grow it themselves or buy it. If the former, there is less danger of its being poor. The chief source of poor seed is careless handling in harvesting and storing. If seed gets too damp, mold will destroy much, or the seed will begin to sprout, then dry out, and the germ will be killed. If seed is bought, the chance of getting a poor quality increases many fold. If all seed was bought from relia- ble dealers, there would be far less cause for complaint, but farmers too often buy seed where they can get it the cheapest. They pay their money for trash that is either full of harmful weed seeds or has a liberal admixture of old and dead seeds. Whenever large quantities of seed are purchased, they should be tested for purity and germination. The table on the following page gives the result of a few tests out of the many that were made in the Department seed laboratory last year of seeds bought from sup- posed reliable seedsmen. 175 176 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPAETMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The old adage that a dollar saved is a dollar earned mil apply to the purchase of seeds. It is an easy matter to waste a dollar on seeds, and when profits depend upon cutting down useless expenditure, the use of inferior seed can not be too strongly condemned. Germination tests of seeds. Kind of seed. Bean, Burpee's bush lima.. Bean, Dwarf, pink-eyed wax Cabbage, Drumhead Cabbage, Luxembourg Carrot, Mastodon _ Clover, scarlet -. Japan Corn, Egyptian sweet Corn salad Cucumber, White w^onder Eggplant, Xew York improved thornless Grass, Kentucky blue Orchard Texas blue Lettuce, Golden ball. - Muskmelon, Shumway "s giant Muskmelon, Surprise Onion, Early round white Dutch Oats, Scotch white Parsley, Beauty of the Parterre Pea, Dr. McLean Pepper, Cranberry Pumpkin, Winter luxury.. Radish, Chartier Rape, Dwarf Essex Salsify, Sandwich Islands Spinach, Mett's crumpled leaf Tobacco, White burley Tomato, Lorillard Watermelon, Cole's early... Per cent of germina- tion was— Per cent of germi- nation should be- 72 95 77 95 07 95 67.5 9S 58 85 4 90 5 76 76 92.6 39 80 72 92 62 85 10 50 31.3 80 1 60 64.5 90 69 92 64 92 58.5 85 79.3 95 53 75 88 98 42 85 65 92 63 95 79.5 95 49.5 83 43.5 89 0.25 88 72.5 90 88 92 The standard of germination in oats is 95. This places the normal loss from nonviable seeds at one-twentieth part. In the sample of oats reported in the table the loss was slightly more than one-fifth. There was four times as much waste in this sample as there should have been. The White Dutch onion seed germinated 58.5 per cent. The loss in this case was 1 pound in every 2^-, while the normal waste should have been less than 1 pound in 7. The loss on Egyptian sweet corn reached 1:^ pecks in 5. The normal loss should not exceed 1 peck in 13. A farmer sowing a meadow to Kentucky blue grass and buying such seed as that reported in the table would pay for 9 bushels of dead seed out of every 10 bushels purchased. There is always a great deal TESTING SEEDS AT HOME. 177 of loss in this as in most grass seeds, but it should not exceed 5 bush- els in 10. Here is a clear loss of 4 bushels out of every 10 bought, which, at §1.65 per bushel, is worth considering. The normal waste in orchard grass seed is 1 bushel in 5, but the sample tested contained almost 3^ bushels of worthless seed out of 5. At present orchard grass brings about $2 per bushel. This makes a net loss of about 17 on a purchase of 5 bushels of seed. It is unnecessary to give other examples of the loss which farmers suffer by purchasing poor seed. The table affords ample illustration. METHODS OF TESTING SEEDS. Many seedsmen and a few farmers test their seeds. The method generally followed is to throw a handful of seed into a box full of earth, and decide by the waj^ it comes up whether the seed is good. This is better than no testing at all, but it is impossible to get accu- rate results in this manner if the seeds used are not counted. Another method is to make a shallow trench in sand, scatter in the seeds as thickly as is recommended for the variety, and wet with warm water. The seeds germinate rapidly, and the merit of the sample is judged by the stand in the row. When the seeds are not counted, no accuracy is possible. Besides, it is well known that the amount of seed thought necessary per running foot of drill, or per acre, is from two to four times as much as would be required if the seeds used had a high vitality. Some people think that if seeds are thrown into water the good ones will sink and the dead seeds will float, but this notion is not sup- ported by facts. When seeds float it is often because an air bubble has become attached to them or because they have not become wet all over the surface. Several experiments were made to test the germination of seeds that sink and those that float. Wheat was used in one set of experiments, and the average of all tests showed a germination of 08.3 per cent for the sunken seeds and 72 per cent for those that floated. In another set of experiments lentil was used, and it was found that 75.4 per cent of the sunken seeds and 86,7 per cent of those that floated germinated. The germination of seeds depends on a proper supply of heat and moisture. For accuracy in testing, darkness is also essential. Seeds will germinate through a considerable range of temperatures, but the number of germinating seeds decreases as we depart from t»he optimum, or most favorable, temperature. If seeds are subjected to temperatures higher or lower than the optimum, germination will proceed more slowly, and when either extreme is passed it will cease. All seeds do not have the same temperature limit. Seeds of tropical plants need more heat to germinate than those from plants growing in northern latitudes or on high altitudes. Certain seeds hav^e been known to germinate upon ice, Nobbe records an observation by 178 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Ulotli on tlio root of a maple seedling wliich. penetrated a short dis- tance into solid ice. Wheat has been known to germinate at the freezing j)oint. The following table, showing the effects of given temperatures upon the germination of seeds, is taken from Nobbe's Handbuch der Samen- kunde. The column under a indicates the number of seeds germi- nated ; that under h shows the number of hours required to germinate that number under the fixed temperature. Seed. 16° (C0.5 c. >F.). 25° (77° C. p.). 31° (88° C. F.). 3". 5 (100° °c. F.). 41° C. (111° F.). a b a b a b a b a h Barley 100 100 100 100 100 100 80 76 100 100 4 100 100 100 100 100 100 76 100 100 73 56 48 32 32 144 216 33 33 290 80 33 192 56 216 33 168 192 56 92 100 100 100 100 100 68 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 72 24 32 24 24 24 56 96 23 24 120 48 24 48 32 130 32 144 108 32 24 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 84 100 100 100 88 88 100 144 24 48 48 24 24 48 32 47 24 48 80 32 96 80 72 24 148 168 48 100 48 Clover, scarlet 100 100 100 100 24 24 48 48 Clover, red Corn (maize) 12 60 80 120 Flax Lucern 100 100 24 48 20 90 Oats Radish, round, white . 100 48 36 96 Radish, long, white Ryo Rye grass, English Sunflower 100 48 Timothy Wheat PROPER CONDITIONS FOR TESTING SEEDS. The best temperature for the germination of most seeds is shown to be 25° C. (77° F.), while for a few this optimum is 31° C. (88° F.) and 37.5° C. (100° F.). But seeds germinating under natural condi- tions seldom have the advantage of this optimum- temperature. In testing seeds, therefore, since it is necessary to get as near the natural conditions as possible, the temperature should be kept at between 18° and 20° C. (G4° and 68° F.). This has been found to be the normal temperature for germination. Usually the heat of an ordinary living room will be sufficient for home testing, but if the temperature is likely to fall veiy low during the night it is better to provide a little heat during that time. More harui will result from a considerable decrease of temperature than from a slight increase. In the European seed-control stations seeds are tested at a constant temperature of 18° to 20° C. (64° to 68° F.). For grass seeds the temperature is forced up to 30° C. (86° F. ) during six hours of the twenty-four, this variation in the heat being found advantageous. TESTING SEEDS AT HOME. 179 Moisture is as important as temperature. Before a seed can sprout it must absorb water and swell. Though the swelling of a seed is a necessary preliminary, it is not always followed by germination, for the absorption of water is a i)uroly mechanical process and does not imply vitality in the seed. The entrance of water into the seed is dependent upon the structure of the seed coats. When these are hard and impervious, as is often the case in leguminous seeds and in nuts, water gains admission slowly and germination is retarded. In cereals ahd in most garden seeds the seed coats are easily penetrated by water, the seeds swell rapidly, and germination is prompt. Experi- ments have proved that seeds will absorb moisture and swell in a damp atmosphere, but that for germination, contact with water is necessary. An atmosphere saturated \\'ith water vapor is not suffi- cient to induce germination. Flaxseed kept in a saturated atmos- phere for nine days, and seed of kohl-rabi kept under the same conditions for twenty-two days, did not germinate (Nobbe, Ilandbuch der Samenkunde). Too much water is equally injurious. As a gen- eral rule, seeds will not germinate well when immersed in water. It is necessary to have the seeds in contact with some medium from which they can obtain an abundant supply without allowing water to stand around them. Light exerts a harmful influence upon germination. Experiments have shown that seeds placed under colored glass did not germinate as rai)idly as those which were in complete darkness. Even more important than the exclusion of light is the free access of air and the escape of the noxious gases generated by germinating seeds. When germination has commenced, carbonic acid gas is given off, which must be allowed to escape, or growth will be checked. SELECTING SAMPLES. Selecting the sample to. be tested is a matter of great importance. It must be a fair sample, including both good and bad seeds. If the quantity to be tested is considerable, small amounts should be taken from different parts of the mass. These small samples, thoroughly mixed, form the larger sample out of which the proper number of seeds is to be counted. In case the quantity of seed is small, say one-half pound of clover seed, jiour the seed from the package into a pan, taking a small spoonful occasionally from the stream. From the quantity thus secured a sample for testing is taken. The number of seeds used in testing depends ui)on the size of the seed and upon the quantity at disjiosal. If the sample is large enough, 100 seeds of the larger kinds and 200 to 400 of the smaller seeds are taken. The increased number is a check upon error in counting small seeds. In counting out the seeds a fair number of small and immature ones should be selected as well as the large and plump ones. There is reason to susi)Oct that in some 180 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tests onlj" fine-looking seeds are used. These would, of course, give a higher i^ercentage of germination than could be sustained by the entire sample. In selecting grass seeds for testing, care must be taken to use only such as contain a grain. In some kinds of grass seeds there are many empty glumes which it is difl&cult to distinguish from those containing a grain. A simple way to separate them is to wet the soed, spread it out on a plate of glass, and hold the plate up to the light. The empty chaff will appear translucent, while the good seed will be opaque. KEEPING A RECORD. Although for the results usually desired in home seed testing it is not absolutely necessary to keep a record, yet such a record, if well made, will be found to contain much valuable information. A few items will always need to be recorded, in any event, such as the date of beginning the test, the name of the variety, the number of seeds, and the number of germinated seeds removed from day to day. It is dangerous to trust anything to memory. Mistakes are sure to occur, and the test will then be useless. LENGTH OF TIME REQUIRED. The length of time a test should continue depends upon the seed. In the seed-control stations ten days has been accepted as the proper time for most seeds, but a few require a longer period, namely: Days. Esparsette, serradella, beet-seed balls, rye grasses, timothy, carrots 14 Grasses, except meadow and rye grasses, and timothy 21 Meadow grasses (Poo), coniferse (except white pine), birches, alders, acorns, beeches, and hornbeams 28 White pine and stone friiits 42 The seeds should be examined each day, and those that have ger- minated should be removed and the number recorded. A seed is con- sidered as germinated as soon as the root breaks through the seed coats. Under favorable conditions niore than one-half ©f the seeds in a good samjjle will germinate in a much shorter time than that given above. The rapidity with which the seeds germinate is some indica- tion of the vigor of the embryo, and determines the germinative energy. The number of days in which more than one-half of the seeds in a good sample should germinate has been fixed as follows : Days. Cereals, clovers, peas, vetches, flat peas, flax, dodder, poppy, cabbage, radish, spurry , chicory 3 Squashes and pumpkins, cucumbers, beans, spinach, lupine, buckwheat, bur- net 4 Beet, timothy, serradella, bird"s-foot clover, rye grasses, meadow foxtail, reed grass 5 TESTING SEEDS AT HOME. 181 Days. Redtop, hair grass, chervil, carrots, fennel, esparsette, sorghtim 6 Spruce, fox-tail grass, sweet vernal grass, canary grass, Deschampsia, Trise- tum, Poa, crested dog's tail, velvet grass, red and sheep's fescue 7 Fir, pines (except white pine), maiile 10 White pine ' 14 In nearly eveiy test, especially of leguminous seeds, there will be some that remain hard. These can not be regarded as dead seeds, because their condition is due to the hardness of the seed coats. The number of such seeds should be recorded. SPECIAL CARE NEEDED IN TESTING BEET-SEED BALLS. In testing beet-seed balls special care is necessary in recording the number of germinated seeds. The balls must be left in the test Fio. 23.— Simple germinating apparatus. A, closed; B, open. during the entire period of fourteen days, but whenever a seed has sprouted it must be cut out with a sharji knife; or the root may be allowed to grow two or three days and then .broken off and counted. The roots will either not grow out again, or, if they do, can not be mistaken for fresh ones. Either operation is very simple, and can be done by any one witliout the least trouble. The removal of the ger- minated seed or of the young roots is the only sure way of making an accurate test of the germination of beet-seed balls. One hundred seed balls should produce at least 150 seedlings. ' Yearbook, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1894, p. 399. 182 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. APPARATUS. The apparatus used for home seed testing should be as simple as is consistent -with a reasonable degree of accuracy. Any method that complies with the conditions given above — a proper amount of heat, moisture, air, and the exclusion of light — ^vill give good results. For- tunately, these conditions are so easily fulfilled that the most inex- pensive apparatus will answer. Perhaps the simplest and at the same time the most satisfactory is the following: Take two lolates and place in one of them a folded cloth ; wool or flannel is preferable, since it remains moist for a long time, but any cloth -«ill do. The cloth should be free from dyes that will come out in water, since they may contain chemicals that would be injurious Fig. 24.— Homemade germinating apparatus. A, complete ; B, section. to the seed. Wet the cloth, pressing out the surplus water, leaving it very damp, but not soaked. Place the seeds between the folds of cloth, i)ut in the number of the record, marked in pencil on a piece of i^aper, with date and number of seeds, and cover with the second plate, inverted. Plentj^ of air will get in between the i^lates, and the upper one will prevent too rapid evaporation of moisture. If the tests are to be made during the winter, keep the apparatus in the living room, as the heat of such a room will be sufficient for most seeds. During the night the seeds should be put in a warm place. Instead of the cloth, old newspapers, well soaked, can be used. These need to be moistened more frequently, however. (See fig. 23.) Another apparatus that will give good results, especially for seeds not larger than wheat, is the one shown in fig. 24. Here the seeds are placed free on the bottom of a porous saucer and the latter put inside of a tin basin. The basin should have at least two coats of TESTING SEEDS AT HOME. 183 mineral paint to i^revent rusting. Water is poured into the basin up to about one-half the height of the saucer. The water "will soak through the saucer and supply the seeds. For larger seeds this method is slow, since the seeds do not get water rapidly enough.^ A very simple ai^paratus is a glass or porcelain dish or tin pan with a little water in the bottom, and a handful of cotton batting, soaked, and placed in the dish. Put the seeds on the cotton and cover the dish with a plate of glass. If it is desired to test a number of samples in the same apparatus, a convenient form is the following: Take a large dripping pan or an ordinary frying pan. Paint it to j^revent rusting. Put four sup- ports in the pan (inverted porous saucers are good) and place a tin or wire frame upon them, as shown in fig. 25. The seeds are laid between folds of blotting i)aper or cloth, which are then placed on the frame. A flap of x^ajjer or cloth hangs down into the water, which half fills the tray and keeps the folds moist. Fig. 25.— Apparatus for germinating several varieties at one time. If glass can be had to put over the pan, evaporation will not be so rapid ; otherwise the water will need replenishing frequently. The tin or wire tray need not be expensive, and can be replaced by anj'thing the operator may have. It is only necessary that a flap should dip into the water to provide moisture. In testing seed some trouble will be experienced from the growth of mold. If the cloths and dishes are used many times, this trouble will become worse unless the spores of the fungi are killed. This can easily be done by boiling all cloths and washing the dishes in boiling water after each test. In testing seeds it is necessary that there should be a standard of germination with which the germination of the sample can be com- pared. If tlio percentage of germination falls far below the standard, the seed is not fit for use, and its value decreases for everj'^ per cent ' An improvement on the above is described in the Yearbook of 1894, p. 405. Here folds of blotting paper or flannel clotli are placed in tlae porous saucer and the seeds laid between the folds. 184 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of difference between its germination and that required by the standard. The following table is offered provisionally, having been made up from original data and the most reliable outside sources. A great deal of experimenting will be necessary before a permanent table of germination standards is offered : Table of germination standards. Seed. VEGETABLE AND GRAIN SEEDS. Asparagus Beet - Brussels sprouts Borecole --- Broccoli --- Beans, bush Beans, lima Buckwheat Cabbage Carrot Celery Celeriac Corn, field Corn, sweet Cucumber CoUards Cauliflower Chicory Cress Eggplant - Endive Kohl-rabi Lettuce Per- cent- 90 150 95 95 85 95 95 93 95 85 65 65 92.5 92.5 92 95 85 85 90 85 94 90 90 Seed. VEGETABLE AND GRAIN SEEDS — continued. Leek Lupin, yellow Gherkin Melon, musk Melon, water Mustard Onion Okra Oats Parsley Parsnip Peas , Pepper Pumpkin Radish Rhubarb Salsify Spinach Squash, winter Squash, summer , Sunflower Tomato , Tobacco Per- cent- age. Seed. VEGETABLE AND GRAIN SEEDS— continued. Turnip Wheat GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. Rape Sorghum Spurry Clover, red. Clover, white _ Clover, alsike Clover, scarlet Grass: Fowl meadow Johnson Kentucky blue Meadow fescue Orchard Texas blue Timothy Millet: Common Pearl Per- cent- age 05 95 06 00 00 00 86 85 90 76 76 60 80 80 60 90 85 86 Nothing has been said in this article about testing seeds for purity. This is an important matter, but could not be properly treated in a few pages. Garden and flower seeds ought always to be nearly pure, but those of grasses and forage plants, especially clovers, frequently contain a considerable amount of foreign matter. The seeds of harm- ful weeds are often found in quantity in clover seed. Farmers should be on their guard against impure seeds. OIL-PRODUCING SEEDS. By Gilbert H. Hicks, Assistant, Division of Botany, U. 'S. Department of Agriculture. GENERAL REMARKS. There are over 200 species of plants whose seeds are used in makini? oil for illumination, medicine, food, soap, and lubricating machinery. A large proportion of these plants are natives of tropical regions, many of which will not thrive in colder climates. On the other hand, there are many plants which could be profitably grown in the United States for the oil contained in their seeds. A few such plants are now cultivated in this country, principally, however, for other pur- poses than the use of their seeds for oil, as in the well-known eases of cotton, peanuts, etc. The object of this article is to collate from reliable sources infor- mation concerning some plants which now are or which might be grown with profit for oil, thus developing a new line of agricultural activity which may in many cases prove profitable. Oils are divided into three classes: Fatty oils, mineral oils (such as kerosene, benzine, etc.), and volatile, or essential, oils (oil of turpen- tine, camphor, etc.). Oils of the first group are subdivided into those of vegetable and those of animal origin. Of the former, seeds furnish the main supply, although no part of the plant seems to be entirely wanting in fat. That found in the organs of vegetation, however, is more wax-like. The oily matter in seeds is stored up as food to be used b}^ the young plant during the early stages of germination, before it is able to absorb food materials for itself from the earth and air. All seeds store up oil or starch for this purpose. The amount of fat in plants is said to be in nearly an inverse ratio to the amount of starch and sugar which they contain, ranging from G7 per cent in the brazil nut to only 1 per cent in barley. Oil is obtained from seeds by first crushing and then pressing them in cloth bags, or by boiling them in water and skimming off the oil which rises to the surface, or by using some chemical solvent, such as carbon disulphide, which extracts the oil. The first method is that generally employed, although the chemical process is coining into use to a large extent. Seeds are either pressed cold in mills con- structed especially for that purpose, or heat is used to coagulate any albumen present and to render the oil more liquid. In many 185 186 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. instances both cold and warm pressure are used, but in the case of the best medicinal or table oils no heat is emploj^ed. The method of using solvents commonly yields a greater amount of oil than does pressure, but is open to objections. The crude oils obtained by pres- sure or extraction are refined by filtering and the use of chemicals. The residue of the seeds after the oil is extracted is called "oil cake," and is often of great value as a stock food or fertilizer. It is composed of the woody fiber and mineral matter which the seed con- tained, a small per cent of unextracted oil, and, of more value than all else, the proteid or nitrogenous constituents of the seed. This gives it especial value as food, while the high per cent of phosphoric acid and potash in addition to nitrogen makes it a most valuable fertilizer. The exportation of cotton-seed cake from the United States in 1894 was over 600,000,000 pounds, worth over $7,000,000, while that of flaxseed amounted to nearly 128,000,000 pounds, valued at $1,700,000. Three-fourths of this material went to Great Britain. a ■>• tm'/ '\i' >A^V* ^ Pig. 26.— Cotton (Gossypium barbadcnse). a, seed, deliiited, magnified 3 times; 6, seed with coma attached; c, transverse section, showing the crumpled embryo filling the seed coats. COTTON-SEED OIL.^ The cotton plant (various species of Cfossypium) has been culti- vated from time immemorial, x)rincipally for the fiber attached to the seeds. It occurs in Asia, Africa, and tropical America, but is also grown in some parts of Europe, and, as is well known, cotton fiber forms one of the principal products of the Southern States of this country. The black seeds (fig. 26) are almost hidden by a tuft of white fiber which covers their surface. They are irregularly egg-shaped, from 6 to 9 mm, 2 long and 4 to 5 mm. broad. The thick seed coat is filled See Farmers' Bulletin No. 36, U. S. Department of Agi-iculture. For metric system, see Appendix. Consult index. OIL-PRODUCING SEEDS. 187 with tlie coiled embryo, which is sprinkled with brownish resin glands easily seen with the naked eye. The cells composing the embryo are filled with drops of fat and other matter. The seeds contain from 15 to 20 per cent of oil, which for hundreds of years was wasted, for the seeds proper were thrown away after stripping off the fiber. It is only within the present century that they were considered of any value except for planting. In 182G a Virginian was led to experiment with cotton seed. He made a small machine with which he was able to express a dark- red oil that gave a fair light when burned in an ordinary lamp. In the same year, it is reported, an oil mill was constructed at Columbia, S. C, which expressed a good quality of oil from cotton seed. From this beginning there has arisen a great industry, and although cotton is still grown mainly for the fiber, the seeds are now carefully saved for the oil. Great difficulties were experienced at first in extracting all of the oil conta,ined in the seeds, since in the process of delinting a considerable amount of fiber remained attached to the seed coat, and this greedily absorbed a large per cent of the oil. Machines have been invented, however, for removing almost all the lint as weU as the hulls themselves. In Europe the seeds are first pressed cold and then warm, but in America warm pressure is generally used from the first. The crude oil is a thick fluid, of a dirty brown color. By refining it becomes straw colored or nearly colorless. Estimating 2 pounds of seed for every pound of ginned cotton, nearly 4,000,000 tons of seed were produced in the United States in 1894-95. Deducting about one-third of this, required for sowing, there would remain over 2,500,000 tons of seed. Of this amount about 1,500,000 tons were worked at the oil mills, each ton producing 45 gallons of crude cotton-seed oil and 800 pounds of cotton-seed cake. This estimate gives the immense total of 60,000,000 gallons of oil and 600,000 tons of oil cake produced in the United States in a single year. At 30 cents a gallon, this crude oil was worth $18,000,000, while the oil cake exceeds 112,000,000 in value. Of this annual pro- duction of oil about 9,000,000 gallons are used in making "comj^ound lard," while the rest is either exported or mixed with drying oils or used in the manufacture of soap. Cotton-seed oil is also largely used for adulterating olive, lard, sperm, and other oils. During the last two years the exportations of cotton-seed oil from this country have been as follows: In 1892-93, 9,462,074 gallons, valued at $3,927,556; in 1893-94, 14,953,309 gallons, valued at $6,008,405. The principal European country extracting oil from cotton seed is England, the seed being obtained mainly from Egypt, from which country the United Kingdom imported, in 1894, 314,756 tons. Cotton-seed meal makes an excellent fertilizer. In exchanging with farmers, oil mills give 1 ton of meal for 2^^ to 2^ tons of seed. The liulls are used for fuel, paper, or feeding like hay. In Russia oil cake is used to some extent for stock food. In America the cake 188 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. a (ground to meal) is used extensively and with good results as food for cattle and sheep, but has frequently been found poisonous to pigs and calves, especially when it has undergone fermentation. The meal is not infrequently used to adulterate mustard. The prin- cijial States manufacturing cotton-seed oil are Tennessee, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas. Further data concerning xotton seed may be found in Farmers' Bulletin No. 36, published by this Department. FLAX. Next in importance to the cotton seed for oil purposes in the United States is that of the common flax {Liinum usitatissimuTn) , which, like the cotton plant, originated in the far East and has been known since the times of Moses and Homer. Flax is an annual, and at present is cultivated in nearly every country of the globe, especially in Russia and India. The seeds (fig. 27) are flattened elliptical oval, pointed at the lower end, smooth, shining, and of different shades of brown. They are 3 to 4 mm. long, 2 to 3 mm. wide, and about one-half mm. thick. They are produced in a 10-seeded globular capsule, which either remains closed at ma- turity or in some forms oj^ens suddenly, scattering the seeds. Unlike cotton, flax- seed contains beneath the shell a hard layer of endosperm surrounding the embryo. This layer, however, is comparatively thin, and the oil is derived principally from the fleshy, oval, or narrowly heart-shaped seed leaves (cotyledons) which it incloses. The outer layers of the^seed coat become transformed into a mucilage when moistened with water, which gives the seeds their princii)al medicinal value. The seeds contain 30 to 35 per cent of oil, 20 to 28 per cent of which is obtained by pressure or extraction. Cold pressure yields 20 to 21 per cent, and the oil thus obtained is used in Russia and Poland as a substitute for lard and butter in cooking. It is of a pale yellow color, and has a rather pleasant taste and smell. The warm-pressed seeds give 27 to 28 per cent of an amber-colored oil which has a stronger and somewhat acrid taste. The oil from fresh flaxseed is sticky and turbid; hence, as a rule, seeds are pressed when from 2 to 6 months old. Linseed oil is rather thickly fluid, rajjidly absorbing oxygen, and becoming thicker, then dry and hard, when exposed to the air. It therefore belongs to the group of drying oils, of which it is the most important. It is used in large quantities for making paints, varnishes, i)rinter'8 ink, and oilcloth, and to some extent for illumination and in the manufacture of soiips. Fig. 27.— Common flax {Linum usifatissimum). a, seed, mag- nified 6 tijnes ; b, longiUidinal section, sho'wing embryo im- bedded in the endosperm. OIL-PRODUCING SEEDS. 189 The cake left after the oil is removed is extensively used as a cattle food in countries where flax is grown. It contains large amounts of phosi)horic acid (41.98 per cent), potash (25.24 per cent), and magne- sia (14.40 per cent), in addition to its high percentage of nitrogen; hence makes a very valuable fertilizer. In 1894 the United States exported over 127,000,000 pounds of flaxseed cake, valued at more than $1,700,000. According to Sad tier, three-fourths of this went to Great Britain. The supply of flaxseed comes from nearly all countries, principally from India and Russia. According to the United States consular reports, European Russia, in 1890, had 3,780,000 acres sown in flax, and the total crop of seed amounted to 1,800,000,000 pounds, or about 21,000,000 bushels. The flaxseed crop of the United States has decreased from 18,000,000 bushels, in 1891, to 7,000,000 bushels, in 1894. Our seed is exported to Canada and Europe in considerable quantities for crushing purposes, not being considered good enough for sowing. American seed is worth about $40 a ton in Germany, while Russian seed brings $55 to 160 a ton. There is a great dift'erence in the amount of oil contained in flaxseed of different origins. Generallj^ speaking, the colder the climate where flax will thrive the better quality of oil it produces, though this depends fully as much on the fertility of the soil and caro taken in cultivation. The plant does best in a rather moist, warm climate, though it will stand much drier situations when raised for seed, alone. In some countries flax is raised for both seed and fiber, a practice which has its advantages and is apjjroved by the Department. How- ever, the seed is produced to some extent at the expense of the rest of the plant; hence it is claimed by eminent European authorities that the best oil seed is yielded when flax is cultivated for that pur- pose alone. Besides, when both crops are attempted, the flax is har- vested before the seed has attained the degree of ripeness which is said to be necessary to insure a full content of oil. In flax-growing •centers where the processes of manufacture are carried on, the pro- duction of fiber is much more profitable than that of the seed. In this country up to the present time flax has been grown mainly for the seed. Flax requires a deep, rich, loamy soil, well manured and thoroughly cultivated. The seed best adapted to produce a good oil crop in our country comes from Russia. Tlie Baltic region of northern Europe also produces an excellent quality of seed. Flaxseed deteriorates rapidly from year to year, even when careful selection has been prac- ticed; hence constant attention must be paid to this subject. Well- ripened seeti from the previous season is recommended for sowing. There is no doubt that in time, with proper methods of selection and cultivation, the United States, especially the northern portion, 190 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. could i)roduce as good seed, both for sowing and oil, as any part of Europe. The method of cultivation of flax is somewhat different when it is raised for seed from that when fiber is desired. In the former case it is a common American practice to sow 30 to 45 pounds of seed per acre early in the spring upon turned sod of virgin soil without special fertilizing. In Europe the land is cultivated at least 8 inches deep and well fertilized with stable or liquid manure or commercial ferti- lizers. Nothing better can be used for this purpose than flaxseed cake. The seeds should be sown with a drill, and plenty of room allowed for sun exposure. When the young plants are a couple of inches high, they should be carefully weeded, and thinned if necessary. Flax is harvested for seed when two-thirds or more of the stalks have turned yellow and the seed begins to loosen in the capsules. The harvesting should be done when the plants are free from moisture. Before thrashing, the seed is left for some time in the capsules that it may become thoroughly ripe. Various methods are employed for thrash- ing out the seed. If the seed only is desired, an ordinary thrashing machine is sufiicient, but si)ecial machines are necessary when both fiber and seed are saved. From 8 to 20 bushels of flaxseed are pro- duced per acre, the latter amount being considered a large crop, secured only on the richest land with the best cultivation. The seed brings about $1 a bushel, which, added to the value of the straw when grown for fiber, makes flax a very profitable crop. For further information concerning flax the reader is referred to the bulletins of the Department on fiber investigations. ' CASTOR-OIL BEAN. Castor oil is obtained from the seed of the castor bean {Ricinus communis), a member of the family Euiphorbiacese, which furnishes over 20 species of oil-producing plants, most of them indigenous to tropical countries. The castor bean is a native of India, but is culti- vated in many parts of the globe. In Persia it furnishes the chief illuminating oil. The seed is crushed along with raw cotton wool until the oil is expressed. The cotton thus soaked is rolled up into the form of tapers, which furnish the common household illuminant. The seeds of the common large-seeded variety (fig. 28) are oval, smooth, and shining, of a gray ground color, irregularly marked with broAvn. They are 10 to 20 mm. long, 6 to 10 mm. broad, and about 6 mm. thick, slightly pointed at the upper end, which is provided with a whitish fleshy excrescence (caruncle). They are contained in a three-lobed, spiny capsule, each lobe holding one seed. When ripe, the capsules split from the bottom upAvard, throwing the seeds to a considerable distance. The kernel is composed of two thick, fleshy, white lobes of endosperm, which inclose a thin, leaf -like embryo. A small-seeded form is used for medicinal purposes, while the large- OIL-PRODUCING SEEDS. 191 seeded, variety furnishes an oil iiscd for lighting and in the making of soaps. Castor-oil seed is inodorous, and has at first a sweetish taste, becom- ing sharp afterwards. Tlie shell amounts to 20 to 24 per cent of the entire seed. The kernels contain from 50 to 60 per cent of oil. It is viscid, of a pale yellow color, with a disagreeable smell and taste. Castor oil is very readily soluble in alcohol, which, with its density (the greatest of the vegetable oils), renders adulteration easy of detection. It is frequently adulterated with poppy-seed oil, to which a few drops of croton or jatropha oil is added. The best kinds of castor oil come from Italy, Calcutta, and Madras, where the seed is de- prived of its shell before being pressed. This is done by women who pound the seed with wooden hammers. In America and some other countries the shells are re- moved by special machinery. The shelled seed yields from 50 to 60 per cent of oil, which is more than that yielded by almost an}' other plant. The oil is ob- tained by pressing twice cold and a third time warm, by boiling with water, and extraction by the agency of alcohol. It soon becomes rancid upon exposure to the air. The oil is extensively used in medicine as a purgative, also in pomades, for illumination, soap making, for lubricating ma- chinery, in veterinary practice, and, in China, as a condiment. The uses to which castor oil is devoted are constantly increasing, and a very large amount is consumed. In India castor oil is considered the best lamp oil, giving a white light, vjang in brilliancy with electricity, far superior to petroleum and other illuminating oils. It burns slowly, without danger, and gives off scarcely any soot. The railway trains of India are lighted almost entirely with castor oil, and an excellent gas made from the cake is being introduced into the railway stations. The principal shipments are from India and Italy. The former country in 1894-05 exported 2,670,236 gallons. American oil is considered superior to that from India, while the Italian is said to be the best of aU. Fig. 28.— Castor-oil bean (Ricinus communis), a, fruit, magnified 1^ times ; b, seed, front, magnified 2i times ; c, back ; d, longitudinal section. 192 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In Florida and other warm countries the castor bean is a perennial plant, growing from 15 to 30 feet high and as large around as a man's body. In colder climates it behaves as an annual, dying down upon the approach of winter. The seeds are produced in great abundance, and their tendency to scatter when ripe renders the plant a great pest where it grows wild. The castor bean thrives in the sandiest soil, and its culture is very simple. The seeds germinate with difficulty, owing to their thick and impervious coat ; hence nearly boiling water should be poured over them before sowing, and they should remain in this for about twenty- four hours, the temperature of the water in the meantime gradually lowering to that of the atmosphere. They should be planted in hills, 2 inches deep, 8 or 10 seeds to a hill, and afterwards thinned out to 1, or at most 2, plants per hill. The rows are 5 or 6 feet apart> with the hills 2 or 3 feet distant. Between every sixth and seventh row should be left a space of about 8 feet, to permit the passage of a horse and wagon when the beans are harvested. In the South, where the castor bean grows more vigorously, the hills may be 6 or 7 feet apart. Planting should take place as early in the spring as possible, making allowance for frosts, to which the Ricinus is very susceptible. The cutworm, too, is sometimes a serious obstacle to its cultivation. The land should be kept free from weeds and the crop grown much the same as corn or beans, and on very similar soil. In harvesting, the fruiting branches should be cut off as soon as the pods begin to pop open, which is in July in the South. This process must be repeated at least once or twice a week, as fast as the seeds ripen. The fruits are then spread out to dry, either on the floor of a granary or other close room or in a " dry yard " built near the castor-bean fields. This yard is made by cutting away the sod, rolling the ground hard, and building a tight board fence around it to prevent loss from the beans scattering. It is better to make a tight board floor for the dry yard, which should be in a sunny place, sloping to the south. The spikes must be turned over occasionally and kept protected from moisture. After the seeds have popped out they are cleaned from the shells with a common fanning mill. Ricinus seeds should show at least 95 per cent germination and 98 per cent purity. The seeds of commerce are sometimes mixed with those of Jatropha curcas, a tropical plant belonging to the same family. Castor-oil plants have been cultivated to some extent in the United States for over twenty years. According to Simmonds, Kansas, in 1895, produced 361,385 bushels of seed from 24,145 acres, nearly 15 bushels per acre, the seed weighing 46 pounds to the bushel. In Iowa the yield is 15 to 25 bushels per acre, while in the Southern States from 35 to 40 bushels, or more, could easily be raised. The seed sells at about $1.25 per bushel. The pomace is considered UlL-riiODUCING SEEDS. 193 a Pig. 29. — European spurge (Euphorbia lathyris). a, caruncle ; b, raphe. Mag- nified 5 times. valuable for fertilizing pm-poses. This plant would do well on the light, sandy soil of the Gulf States, and might bo made a profitable in- dustry, utilizing land that is now practicallj^ valueless. EUROPEAN SPURGE. Spurge oil is furnished by Euphorbia lathyris, a herbaceous plant indigenous to southern Europe, but found in various parts of the United States, where it is usually an escape from gardens. Charles the Great recommended it to his monks for cul- tivation in their cloister gardens. The seeds (fig. 29) are roundish oblong, with blunt ends, reddish brown, having a roughish surface, with a prominent furrow (raphe) ex- tending the entire length of the ventral side. They are 3 to 5 mm. long by 1.5 to 3.5 mm. wide and 4 mm. thick, with a small caruncle at the upper end like that of the castor-oil bean, to which family the plant belongs. The seeds contain 35 to 45 per cent of a A'erj^ fluid, light yellow to brownish oil, which is at first mild, but afterwards sharp and odorous. The oil is used as a rubefacient and vesicant ; also as a purgative, in doses of 10 to 20 drops. In Europe it is employed to some extent as a luminant and in the manufacture of soaps. It differs from croton and castor oils by its utter insolubility in alcohol. Notwithstanding its valuable ijroperties, spurge oil is employed but little, on account of its high price. There are many species of spurge growing wild throughout the United States, although the seeds of most of them are too small to be of much eco- nomic value. Euphorbia lathy- ris would grow readilj'' in most parts of the country, and its cul- tivation might be worth a trial. SUNFLOWER. The common sunflower {Hel- ianthus aiinuus) is an annual, 5 to 15 feet high, and indig- enous to America. In 1569 it was introduced into Europe, and is now extensively cultivated there, particularly in Russia, where it has been grown for over fifty years, principally for the oil contained in its seed-like fruits (akenes). It grows wild throughout the United States. Tlie akenes (fig. 30) vary a good deal in size, some from southern California being but 5 mm. long and one-half as 4 A 95 7 a o Flo. 30.— Sunflower (Hehan?/u(s«)ijiMMs). a.akene, magnified 2i times; 6, longitudinal section; c, transverse section in outline. 194 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. wide, while in cultivation tliey average from 8 to 10 rnm. long by 6 to 8 mm. wide and 3 to 4 mm. thick. They are obvcrsely egg-shaped, compressed, usually of a gray color striped with black, and in some cases entirely white or black. The gray and striped seeds are pre- ferred by some growers, the smaller ones being said to contain the most oil. The seeds, after the shells are removed, contain 34 -pev cent of oil, of which 28 to 30 per cent is extracted by cold and warm pressure. Sunflower oil is clear, light yellow, nearly odorless, and of a peculiar, pleasant and mild taste. This oil is said to be superior to both almond and olive oil for table purjDoses, and is used in making soaj), candles, and for lighting. The residue, after extracting the oil, is made into oil cake for feeding cattle. The export of this cake forms one of the principal industries of Russia. In Russia the larger seeds are sold in immense quantities to the common people, who eat them much as we do peanuts. The stalks furnish a valuable potash fertilizer, while the green leaves are dried, pulverized, and mixed with meal as food for cows. Sheep, pigs, and especially poultry, fatten rapidly upon the seeds, preferring them to other kinds of food. The stalk is said to produce an excellent fiber by treating it the same as flax. It is said, also, that much of the Chinese silk goods contains sunflower fiber. Five or six cords of stalks are produced per acre, which are sometimes used for fuel, while the flowers furnish a yellow dye. The foregoing remarks apply to the culture and the use of the sun- flower in Europe. In this country attempts at its culture have been made by a few experiment stations and private indi^-iduals. Accord- ing to a newspaper report, a farmer in South Dakota planted, in 1895, 100 acres to Russian sunflowers. The main drawbacks thus far to sunflower raising in America are the lack of machinery and the want of a good home market for the oil. It is likely, however, that these difficulties will be ultimately overcome. In Europe old mortar broken up is said to make an excellent fer- tilizer for sunflowers. Fresh manure, especially horse manure, causes an undue development of the stalks and leaves at the expense of the seeds. It is recommended that old manure be applied to the field in the fall, the seed being sown as early as possible in the following spring. The seeds should be planted about 1 inch deep, 6 inches apart, 18 inches between the rows. When the plants are 8 or 10 inches high, thin them out to 30 inches apart and hill them slightly. Keep them entirely free from weeds. When about 3 feet high, the runners should be cut off, leaving one main stem with four or five flower heads. No further care is needed until harvesting. The soil should be rich, dark mold, with as little shade as possible, since the sunflower, as its name indicates, requires plent}'' of sun. OIL-PRODUCING SEEDS. 195 About 6 pounds of seed per acre is recommended, and it nicjy b© sown in drills. The lieads must be harvested promptly as soon as rii)e, as birds are very fond of the seeds. If the acreage is small, the heads may be taken off one by one as fast as they ripen. Care must be exercised to dry them as rapidly as possible to prevent molding. In Europe the average yield per acre is 2,000 pounds of seed, giving 250 pounds of oil. In America the seed sells from 1-^ to 2^ cents per pound. In thrashing the heads it is best to pile them in a row on the bam floor, i)lacing the seeds uppermost. Continue in this manner until the i)ile is about 2 feet high, placing the last row with the seeds down to prevent breaking them with the flail, this being used in thrasliing. The seeds are then thorouglily dried in the sun and run through a cleaning mill. Tliey are next separated by means of screens into two sizes — one large, the other small. Sunflower seed may be purchased from any prominent seedsman. It should show a germinating per cent of 90 and a purity jjer cent of 99. The price of labor in Russia where sunflower raising is such an industry is so much smaller than in this country that the profit in the business for American farmers is a somewhat uncertain factor at present. MADIA SATIVA. This i)lant, belonging to the sunflower family, is a native of Chile, where it has been cultivated a long time for oil. It is an annual, growing from 1 to 3 feet fig. 31.— Madia (Ma- high, with a large mass of sticky, ill-smelling foliage diasauva) Akene ^ ' ^ *' / o JD magnified 5 times. and yellow flowers. The akenes (fig. 31) are 6 to 7 mm. long, 2 to 2.5 mm. wide, and 1 to 1.5 mm. thick, slightly bow shaped, broadest at the upper end, gray in color, the surface being ridged with fine, longitudinal lines. The seeds contain about 32 per cent of a rich oil, which is used for food, making soap, and illumination, and is said to be as good for cooking purposes as olive oil, which it supersedes in some countries. The fact that it does not readily congeal makes madia oil valuable for lubricating machinery. Madia has been cultivated to some extent in France and Germany and grows wild very abundantly in California. It flourishes on almost any kind of soil, and as it requires but three months to ripen may be so\vn late in the spring if desired. The cul- tivation of madia is very simple, although, as in the case of other crops, it responds to good soil and tillage. In France it is sown broad- cast from the middle of April to the middle of May on well-prepared mellow soil, about 20 pounds of seed per acre. The seed comes up in ton to twelve days, and as soon as the plants have made a stand thej'' are thinned out. At the first hoeing they are again thinned to 1 foot 196 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. apart. The crop is harvested within ninety to one hundred days after sowing. Harvesting should take place as soon as the seeds are well "set," without waiting for them to become thoroughly ripe, as they shell out easily; moreover, they finish ripening after the plants are cut. Har- vesting is done in France with a sickle. It is claimed that if properly cultivated and gathered madia will yield from 1,200 to 1,400 pounds of seed per acre, making over 20 gallons of oil. The plants should be thoroughly dried before thrashing. Madia could be successfully grown in California and other sections of the United States. The principal drawbacks are the disagreeable odor exhaled by the flowers, the greasy nature of the foliage, and the irregular ripening of the seeds. NIGER SEED. Niger-seed oil is made from Guizotia oleifera, another member of the sunflower family and a native of Abyssinia. It is an annual, fur- nisliing the common lamp oil of upper India, where it is cultivated. The akenes are similar to those of madia, but smaller and darker. They are used in this country to some extent as bird food. They yield 35 to 40 per cent of a brownish oil, which becomes jsale yellow after refining. It has a slightly aromatic odor resembling thyme. The cold-pressure oil is used for food, and that obtained by warm pressure for making soap, but it can not be used alone for this purpose, since it renders soap brittle. In India the seed is sown in July or August, after the rainy season, and is treated like a wheat crop, no weeding or manuring being required. It yields about 2 bushels per acre, and is exported to Lon- don and Hamburg principally. This plant could undoubtedly be successfully cultivated in the warmer portions of the United States. PEANUT. ^ The earthnut, groundnut, goober, pindar, or peanut {AracMs hypo- gcBCi), as it is variously called, is a low, somewhat creeping annual belonging to the bean family. It is a native of the tropics, but has been for a long time cultivated very extensively in Africa, India, the West Indies, and warmer portions of America. Only the lowest flowers bear fruit, and after blooming these flowers lengthen their stems, which penetrate the ground several inches, where the fruit ripens. The fruit (fig. 32) is 2 to 3 cm. long and 1 to 1.5 cm. thick, with a furrowed, yellowish pod, which contains from 1 to 4 seeds, 1 or 2 being the common number. In addition to their general use for food ' The peanut is more fiiUy treated of in Farmers' Bulletin No. 25, U. S. Depart- meut of Agriculture. OIL-PRODUCING SEEDS. 197 and eonfectioneiy, the seeds fiirnisli 38 to 50 per cent of oil. The first cold in-essing yields an almost colorless oil, of pleasant taste and smell, which is excellent for table use. After the first pressing the seeds are sprinkled with water and pressed again, cold, to obtain the oil, which is also used to some extent for food purposes, but mostly for illumination. The third oil is extracted by warm pressure, and is in great demand for making various kinds of soaps. The cake is considered an excellent food for stock. The peanuts grown in trop- ical countries are said to yield a much greater per cent of oil than those raised in temperate regions. In the United States peanuts are usually planted after corn, 2 bushels of seed being used to the acre. Planting takes place as soon as all danger from frosts is past. A warm, sandy loam containing some lime is the best soil for peanuts. The crop is from 80 to 120 bushels an acre. The oil is chiefly extracted at Marseilles, France, which annually imports 137,000,000 pounds of peanuts. In this coun- try peanuts are principally used for eating, 3,250,000 bushels being Fig. 32.— Peanut (Arachis hypogcea). o, fruit; 6, seed; c. same with coat removed, showing the fleshy cotyledons. All magnified IJ times. consumed annually for that purpose. In other countries they are not esteemed so highly for food, hence nearly all the foreign product is used for oil. At present the conditions in the United States are not favorable for making oil from peanuts, although it has lately been attempted on a small scale. It is quite likelj^ however, that peanut- oil manufacture will become an important industry in America in the future. SESAME. The oil of benne, or sesame oil, as it is more frequently called, comes from the seeds of Sesamum indicuvi and S. orientale, two almost, if not quite, identical plants belonging to the Pedaliacese. They are indigenous to the East Indies, but are extensively cultivated in Japan and other subtropical countries. Within a comparatively few years their culture has been undertaken by Germany, France, Austria, and England. Sesamum orientale has been cultivated in Asia since the earliest times. The Babylonians and ancient Egyptians used the seeds for food, and the Egyptian women prepared a cosmetic from them. The plants are hairy, sticky annuals, about 3 feet high, and pro- duce an abundanco of small, flat, pear-sha|)ed seeds (fig. 33), th«se of 198 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE. Sesaminn indicum being yellowish white, while the seeds of S. orieiv- tale are black. Sesame seeds are very rich in oil, yielding from 50 to 56 per cent in the black-seeded varieties, and,47 to 52 per cent in the white-seeded varieties. The former are also said by some to produce a better oil than the latter, while others claim the reverse is true. The seeds are also used in confectionery and for making soups. The oil is clear, of a pale straw color, sweet, and nearly tasteless. It is obtained by three pressures, twice cold and the last time warm. The fji'st pressure gives the best oil for food purposes. Sesame oil is frequently used to adulterate almond oil. It is also used for making soaps, for illumination, in perfumery manufacture, and for the toilet. The seeds of commerce come chiefly from the East Indies and the Levant, the oil being pressed at Marseilles and Trieste. The best seed is shipx^ed from Jappa to Mar- seilles, where the oil brings the Fia.d5.-ses^me^sesmmimindicicm). o,seed, iiighest price of any of the many magmned 10 times ; 6, transverse section. •..n.,-,, ••••, kinds m the Marseilles market. The leaves of the sesame plant are considered of medicinal value, from the mucilaginous matter which they contain. Sesame ripens its seeds in most of the Middle States, and might be profitably cultivated in the South. The negroes near Charleston, S. C, are said to have grown sesame in a small way for two hundred years. They plant it in April and harvest the seeds early in Octo- ber. The seed used for planting should show a purity of 98 per cent and germination of 90 per cent. HEMP. Hempseed oil comes from an annual j)lant of the nettle family {Cannabis sativa), which is indigenous in central Asia and the East Indies. It is cultivated in India, Persia, China, North America, Germany, and, more than anywhere else, in Russia. It grows from 4 to 8 feet high in waste and cultivated ground. The odor of the fresh leaves sometimes produces headaches, while the celebrated narcotic, hashish, is prepared from a gelatinous resin contained in the leaves and stems. The latter also furnish the well-known fiber used for cloth and cordage. The male and female flowers are borne on different plants. The nut-like fruits (fig. 34), commonlj'' called seeds, are used in great quantities as bird food. They are nearly egg-shaped in outline, flattened at the margins. Color, dark gray, with fine, net-like, T>^hitish markings on the smooth and shiny surface. Each fruit is completely fiUedwith the seed proper, which is of the same shape and about 4 mm. OIL-rRODUCING SEEDS. * 199 long 1»y o mm. wide and 2 to 3 mm. tliick. The seeds contain no endosperm, but are filled with a whitish embryo which yields 30 to 35 per cent of a peculiar-smelling, mild-tasting oil, greenish yellow when freshly pressed, becoming brownish yellow with age. Ilempsced oil is used to a considerable extent in the preparation of i^aints and var- nishes, although it does not dry as readily as linseed oil. In Europe it enters largely into the composition of soft soaps. Sometimes it is used in the Old World as an illuminant and, rarely, for food. Hemp will thrive in most parts of the United States, and is said to produce from 20 to 40 bushels of seed to the acre, worth about §2. 50 per 100 pounds. With extra good care and soil the yield may reach 50 to GO bushels. The seed should bo planted in drills, early in April in the South, two weeks later in the North. The young plants are thinned out when a foot high, and must be kept free from weeds. The male i)lants should be pulled as soon as they have shed their pollen, so as to allow the seed-producing „ plants x^lenty of room and all of _ o the available soil food. Hemj) should be harvested promptly as soon as the seed begins to drop, which always takes place after a sharp frost, if not before. The seeds scatter easily ; hence hemp should be cut early in the morning when the ^^°- ^-Hemp (Ca7inabis sativa). o, fruit; 6, _ . , . transverse section of seed. Magnified 6 times. dew IS on, and great care exer- cised to prevent waste. When cut, hemp should be set up in loose shocks to dry, a sheet being placed under each one, and some protec- tion afforded from birds, as they are fonder of this seed than almost any other. Drying is completed by spreading the plants out on a tight barn floor, where they are thrashed by hand. Ilemxjseed, nothwithstanding its oily content, loses its germina- tive power quickly, usually by the end of one year; hence only fresh seed should be sown. Neither cracked nor dull-looking seed will ger- minate well. Hemp culture in America is mostly confined to Ken- tucky and Missouri, principally the former State. The value of hemp for fiber, birdseed, and oil would seem to make its cultivation a very profitable one. RAPE, Rapeseed, or colza, oil is obtained from the seeds of different vari- eties of the genus Brassica, rape {Brassica napus) in particular. In Europe the term rapeseed oil is sometimes applied to the product of rape alone, colza being restricted to the oil obtained from the ruta-l)aga, or Swedish turnip {B. campestris), while "Ivtibsen" oil is furnished by the common turnip {B. rapa). There is great confusion among authors in the use both of the common names of 200 YEARBOOK OF THE U S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the oils and the scientific names of the varieties of Brassica which produce them. Since tlie characteristics of the different varieties of rapeseed oil, as well as the methods of culture of the plants themselves, are ijracti- cally the same, we shall include them all under the head of rape. According to Blomej^er, rape originated on the coasts of Holland and England. It has been cultivated extensively in Europe since the middle of the sixteenth centuiy. In France rape constitutes seven- tenths of the acreage of oil seeds in cultivation, though this has decreased somewhat in recent years, owing to the more extensive use of mineral oils. In Germany there were 445,000 acres planted to the different varieties of Brassica in 1882, the value of the crop of rape- seed being over $10,000,000. Besides this, large amounts of rapeseed were imported, so that the value of rapeseed oil from Germanj^ alone was $12,000,000 to $14,000,000, while in addition over 84,000,000 worth of rai)eseed oil cake was produced. The total consumption of rape and colza oil in Europe is estimated at nearly 330,000,000 pounds per annum, valued at over $43,000,000. India annually exports from 2,500,000 to 4,000,000 hundred h weight of rapeseed. A large part of this naturally goes to Great Britain, which imports about 880,000 pounds per year. The seeds of all the varieties of Brassica are spherical and not easily distinguishable from one another. Those of B. 7ia2)us FiG.35.-Rape ( Brassica napus). a, seed ; 6, trans- f^g 35) ^re mOStlv bluish-black, verse section. Magnified 14 times. _^ , . -,,.,, -r-v B. campestris reddish-bro\\Ti, B. rapa almost black. As a rule the seeds of B. campestris are somewhat larger than those of the other varieties, whose seeds average about 2 mm. in diameter. Brassica seeds are more or less pitted when seen under a lens. The seeds of rape contain from 33 to 43 per cent of oil, which when crude is a dark yellow brown and used for lubricating. Refined and freed from albumen and mucilage the oil becomes bright yellow. Rape oil is extensively used for lamps, lubricating machin- ery, and for adulterating both almond and olive oils. It is frequently adulterated with poppy seed, camelina, flaxseed, mustard, whale and fish oils, and with tallow. The refuse cake is a well-known and valu- able cattle food. Brassica campestris (colza) is said to yield one-third more oil than rape. Both rape and colza thrive best on rich, deep soil, especially after barley, wheat, and clover. The soil must be well drained. In a very light or very stiff soil heavy manuring is required, rapeseed cake being excellent for this purpose. Rich liquid manure, such as night soil mixed with water and drainings from barnyards, produces OIL-PKODUCING SEEDS. 201 extremelj' luxuriant plants. Under sneh conditions in Germany rape sometimes grows G feet high, yielding 1,200 to 1,500 pods to each plant, with 40 to 50 seeds in a pod. But such crops as this require the utmost fertility and care. No plant responds more noticeably to manuring and cultivation than rape, the difference often being more than 50 per cent over a neglected crop. The different varieties of rape fall under two heads, summer rape and winter rape. The former comes from seed sown early in the spring and maturing in the same season, the plant 1)eing an annual. Winter rape is a biennial, or, more properly, a Avinter annual, and is considered a better oil plant. In Germany winter rape ripens in three hundred to three hundred and fifty days; summer rape in one hundred and forty to one hundred and eighty days. Summer rape is said to be a more uncertain crop than winter rape, being better adapted to a light soil. The yield is 33 to 50 per cent less than from winter rape. Rape will not withstand severe winters well unless covered with snow; hence, although bottom lands are considered excellent for summer varieties, they are not recommended for winter rape on account of their liability to frosts. When planted for seed purposes, rape should be sown "with a drill or a seeding machine. The seed should show a germinating per cent of 95 and a purity percent of 99. In Germany different methods are used for sowing rape. In some cases it is drilled in rows 14 to 2 feet apart, with the seed 4 to 5 inches apart in the row. Four to 7 pounds of seed is used per acre, winter rape being sown the last of Jul}^ or before the middle of August, summer rape in May or as soon as danger of spring frosts is past. The land should be prepared thoroughly, and it is recommended that the seed be put in the fresh furrow the same day the land is worked. Sow one-half to 1 inch deep, rolling or dragging the land afterwards. About the middle of September the ground is cultivated, and in October hilled once or twice with a hill plow. If seeded too thick, it must be thinned as soon as the seedlings are well established in the soil, and again in the spring. Another common practice in cultivating rape for seed is to sow in large beds and afterwards transplant. The seed bed may be prepared by digging trenches in well-manured, loamy soil. As soon as the plants have five or six leaves they are thinned to 4 or 5 inches apart. One acre of seed bed will furnish enough plants for 10 acres or more in the field. As in the other method, the seed is not sown until July or August, to prevent the plants from running to seed the same year. Transplanting takes place in September or October, great care being exercised not to injure the roots. The plants should be care- fully lifted out of the soil with a foi'k, the earth still clinging to their roots, and placed in flat baskets, tops upward. In planting, the holes should be made Avith a large dibble or narrow hoe. Tlie earth is 4 A 95 7 * 202 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. diTvAvu up to the plant with another hoe, and as the holes are filled the planter firms the earth with his foot as he walks along. Two men with hoes and one boy to insert the i^lants would cover a large space in a short time. In the spring the weeds must be carefully cleaned out, and if the ground has been oversoaked during the win- ter, the rape should be hilled a second time. Rape ripens its seed very unevenlj^ the lower pods beginning to burst before those at the top are filled. The crop should be harvested at the end of June or the 1st of July, when the i)ods begin to turn brown and the plants are fully mature, so as to prevent a waste of the seed, which rattles out easily. It should be cut in the morning when the dew is on. In Euroi^e the cutting is regularly done with a sickle, and continued daily as the pods turn brown. The i^lants are laid on the ground in piles, with the pod ends toward the center. These piles remain in the field several days, until sufficiently dry,' Avhen they are hauled into the barn upon sheets spread in the wagon. To prevent a waste of seed in loading, a large sheet is also spread on the ground bj'' the side of the rows as they are lifted into the wagon. Rape should be harvested in a dry season, else much of the seed ^vill bo lost, some loss being sustained with the best of care. If the weather is favorable, the seed may be thrashed in the field upon a large sheet of canvas. It should be spread out about 4 inches deep on the floor of the granary and turned over daily for a week or so, to prevent heating and molding. The yield varies greatly, being in Germany from 1,800 to 2,600 pounds per acre. One bushel of seed yields 16.4 to 21 pounds of oil and 29.5 to 36.4 pounds of oil cake. In addition to this, 225 pounds of straw and pods are reckoned to every hundredweight of seed. In Europe the straw and pods are mixed with potatoes and used for fodder. In this country some varieties of rape, especiallj'' that known as the Dwarf Essex, are being cultivated to a slight extent for forage, but so far as we know rape has not yet been grown in the United States for seed. Rapeseed could be successfully raised in any of the Northern or Western States; probably in the South also. The only question is whether the industry would be a profitable one on account of the immense extent to which it is carried on in Europe, where labor is cheaper. Considering the great demand for rapeseed as bird food, as well as for oil, and the good price it brings, its culture seems well worthy of a trial. It must be borne in mind that the varieties of rape useful as forage are of no value for seed; hence it must be cultivated solely for one purpose or the other. The seed of the wild mustard, or charlock {Brassica sinapistrum), a serious weed in some parts of the West, yields an oil similar to that of rai)eseed. The same is true of false flax {Camelina sativa), which OIL-PRODUCING SEEDS. 203 is of leu found as a weed iu flax fields. Other members of the mustard family, as black mustard {Brassica nigra), white mustard {Sinapis alba), radish {Rajjhaiius sativus), etc., furnish oil-producing seeds and are cultivated to some extent for this product. POPPY. Poppy-seed oil is furnished by the seeds of the opium poppy {Papa- ver somniferuni), an annual plant, originating in Asia, where it is cultivated very extensively, principally for the juice derived from its capsiiles, but also for its seed. The seeds (fig. 36) are less than a niillii)ieter in length, kidnej'-shaped, with the surface regularly pitted, giving them a beautiful appearance under a lens. There is a black- seeded and a white-seeded variety under cultivation. Fifty per cent of oil is obtained from the seeds by warm and 30 jjer cent by cold pressure. It is pale yellow, with a bland and slightly sweetish taste, totally destitute of narcotic properties. Poppy-seed oil is used for salads, paints, soaps, illumination, and to adulterate olive and almond oils. It is worth 35 cents a pound in this country, the white-seeded vari- ety yielding the best oil. The plant thrives in a dry, warm climate, requiring no more care than corn. It does well in almost any dry soil if it is not too hea\'^'', preferring a light, friable clay containing some lime. Well-rotted stable manure should be applied, but if the soil is rather light, soluble phosphates will be found to greatly increase the seed crop. Sowing should take place early in the spring, since the poppy requires about five months to mature its seed. The seed germinates slowly, often requiring four weeks if the weather is cold, while in warm weather two weeks is sufficient. The seed should be drilled in rows, 12 to 18 inches apart, fresh seed saved from large, plump cap- sules being used. Under no circumstances should the black and white varieties be sown together, as this lessens the value of the crop. On soil which is medium heavy scarcely any covering is needed, and on the lightest soils the seeds should not be sown more than one-half inch deep. After a good stand is secured, the plants should be thinned out to 4 or 6 inches, or even more. They are then treated the same as any hoed crop. The poppy is remarkably free from insect and fungous attacks; hence under ordinarily favorable conditions the seed crop is certain. Fig. 36.— Opium poppy (Papaver somni'/i.'rtim). a, seed ; f<, longitudinal section. Magnified 25 times. 204 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Harvesting should take place wlien the pods become leathery and the seeds begin to rattle in them. Dry weather must be chosen for this purpose, and under no circumstances should the seeds be allowed to get wet. The workman walks along the rows and shakes the ripe seeds into a bag which he carries. This is repeated every six or eight daj\s until the entire crop is harvested. Then the plants are cut, bound in loose shocks, and allowed to dry. In Europe they are used for straw and fertilizer, but are not suitable for fodder. The seeds are carefully dried and are then ready for market. An average crop is said to be from 1,000 to 1,200 pounds per acre, jaelding about one- half this weight of oil. In addition to various portions of Asia, where poppy growing is the principal industry, a considerable amount of seed is raised in north- western France, and some in Germany. It would probably do well in the southern and southwestern parts of this country. The Mexican poppy {Argemone mexicana), which is widely distrib- uted throughout the globe, and an abundant weed in California and other sections of the United States, is grown for oil in some countries. OTHER OIL-PRODUCING SEEDS. Among other plants whose seeds furnish oil, the following may be mentioned as growing in the United States, either wild or under cul- tivation: Melon, soja bean, maize, tobacco, fennel, dill, anise, parsley, caraway, coriander, celery, lovage, and wormseed {Chenopodium antlielminticum). Oils from some of these seeds are used in the prep- aration of medicines, and bring a good price. Whether their cultiva- tion would prove profitable at the present time can be decided only by experiment. The following quotations, from a recent number of the Bulletin of Pharmacy, will afford an idea of the relative value of some of the oils mentioned in this article : Oil: Prlee. Anise per pound. . $2. 35 Caraway ..do 1.80 Castor per gallon . . 1 . 95 Castor (machine) -. do 1. 10 Coriander per ounce. . 1, 25 Cotton-seed per gallon in barrels. . . 43 Croton per pound. . 1. 20 Fennel do 1.65 Linseed (boiled) per gallon in barrels. . . 48 Linseed (raw; do .45 Poppy per pound. . . 35 SOME ADDITIONS TO OUR YEGETABLE DIETARY. By Frederick V. Coville, Botanist, U. S. Departvient of Agriculture. Up to the present time chemistry has shown in a general way what substances are required for building and repairing the body, for keeping it warm, and for making it work. It has shown, too, approx- imately, what amount of lean meat, fat meat, flour, sugar, etc., ought to produce the desired result, but it has not yet shown in detail what kinds of these various types of food will suit the taste, digestion> and physiological needs of particular persons or particular conditions. An exclusive diet of salt meat and beans in the arctic region pro- duces the i)hysiological condition known as scurvy. In some parts of the country a diet of corn bread, bacon, and molasses has been persisted in to such an extent as to produce a widespread and almost chronic condition of biliousness. The conclusion from such cases is that in the selection of foods we must take into account the appetite, power of digestion, and physiological peculiarities of the individual ; in these matters each man is necessarily his own judge. There seems little doubt, in general, that a wider use of green vegetables in the dietaries of most of our people, particularly those with healthy diges- tion, would be a marked benefit. In the year's diet of wild herbivorous animals, the fats and the carbohj'drates, principally stored in seeds in the form of oil and starch, furnish the chief foods in autumn, and on them the animals fatten, jjroviding themselves with the necessarj^ store of bodily fuel for tlie winter. In the spring, when they have usually exhausted this stored fat, their principal food is green herbage, and upon this they renew their muscular vigor and general vitality. A similar yearly routine prevails among savage races, as illustrated by many tribes of our Western Indians. So far as the naturalness of a diet of green vegetables is concerned, there can be no doubt that it formerly was and that it still is adapted to the requirements of the human body. But since the beginning of civilization the food of mankind has come to be more and more artificial in character, until foods are now selected more by custom than by instinct. Tlie habit of eating salads and boiled green vegetables, commonly referred to as pot herbs or 205 206 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. greens, is much more prevalent in Enroi^e than in America, and to the lack of this kind of food, it is believed, is due in large part the reputation of Americans as a bilious race. Of course, like all nations, we eat a large amount of plant food, but by far the greater part of it is derived from seeds, roots, and tubers. All i)ot herbs are properly gathered in the early period of the plant's growth, when the green parts are relatively rich in formative and nutritious materials. The percentage of i^rotein compounds in the dry matter is then large, compared with its later stages, for the plant at this time is engaged in the manufacture of the substances necessary for its own later development, which are largely similar to those required in the building up of the human body. It must be borne in mind, on the other hand, that more than four-fifths, by weight, of the sub- stance of green vegetables is made up of water. Care should always be taken in gathering or selecting pot herbs that the plants are young and have not become tough and stringy by the trans- formation of their formative materials into cellulose or other indigestible and perhaps deleterious substances. In preparing them for the table they should be boiled, the time varying from only a few minutes, in the case of a very succulent and mild plant, to two and even three hours, in the' case of a plant with thick, firm tissues or containing a bitter principle. The latter defect must be removed by long boiling and the repeated changing of the water. The details of cooking are the business of the cook, and in the following pages only such references to this subject will be made as are specially called for by some peculiarity of a particular i3lant. Swiss chard {Beta vulgaris).— This variety of the common beet has been cultivated and selected in such a way that the principal development of the plant takes place in the leaves instead of the root. The plant is sometimes called, therefore, leaf beet and sometimes spinach beet. After sowing in spring the plants are thinned, like beets, and well supplied with water. In late summer, autumn, and, in more southern climates, in early winter, the leaves are in condition for use. The leaves of the ordinary beet are also used as a pot herb, but only in spring and early summer. Beets when raised for their ^ Fio. 37.— Charlock {Brassica sinapistnim). SOME ADDITIONS TO OUR VEGETABLE DIETARY. 207 roots are sowed in drills, and as tlie plants increase in size the rows are thinned to the proper extent, the young plants being pulled from time to time, roots and leaves together, for boiling. Charlock {Brassica sinapistrum). — This plant occurs as a weed across the northern part of the United States, from New England to the State of Washington, and is most troublesome in regions like Wisconsin, Minnesota, and North Dakota, where spring wheat is extensively cultivated (fig. 37). It is a near relative of the black mustard, commonly occurring with it as a field weed, but may be distinguished by its large pods, which when mature are 1 to 2 inches in length, those of black mustard scarcely exceeding half an inch. Charlock was commonl}'- used as a pot herb in northern Europe centuries ago, but in America it has not, so far as known, been employed for that puri)ose. In- deed, in some parts of central New York, where it is distin- guished from its relative under the name "wild mustard," it is commonly reputed to be poison- ous, and is carefully avoided in gathering the J^oung mustard plants. Charlock and black mus- tard must not be confounded with yellow rocket and its rela- tive, winter cress, the latter of which is described hereafter. Chicory {Ciclwrium inty- hus). — This plant, the ground and roasted root of which is used in small amounts to improve the flavor of cofilee and in larger amounts as an adulterant or sub- stitute for it, occurs as a weed in the Atlantic- States and on the Pacific Coast, and locally in the interior (fig. 38). Thus far it is confined principally to the vicinity of cities and towns, and has not yet become generally diffused. It is closely related to the cultivated endive {Cichorium endivia), a com- mon salad plant. Chicory is a biennial, which in its second j^ear throws up a stiff, branching, almost leafless stem 2 to 4 feet high. In late summer and autumn it bears large numbers of blue flower heads about an inch in diameter and similar in shape to those of a dande- lion, which open in the early morning and close after a few hours' exposure to the sun. During the whole of its first j'car it sends up no stem, but its leaves grow in a rosette upon the ground, closely '^-;ecial Agent in Charge of Fiber Investigations, U. S. Department of Agriculture. In the literature of the fiber-producing plants of the world the word licinj) appears frequent!)', applied oftentimes to fibers that are widely distinct from each other. The word is usually employed with a prefix, even when the true hemp is meant, as manila hemp, sisal hemp, Rus- sian hemp, etc. In this article will be considered the hemp plant proper, the Cannahis sativa of the botanists, which has been so gen- erally cultivated the world over as a cordage fiber that the value of all oilier fibers as to strength and durability is estimated by it. In many of the experiments of Roxburgh and others we find "Russian hemji" or "best English hemp" taken as standards of comparison. The Sanskrit name of the plant is bhanga ; in Hindostan it is called ganja; the Arab name is kinnub, from which, doubtless, its Latin name, cannabis, is derived; in Persia it is known as bung, while in China it is chu ts-ao, and in Japan, asa. Its native home is India and Persia, but it is in general cultivation in many parts of the world, both in temperate and more tropical climes, though only in Russia and Poland in large quantities for export. French hemi) is much valued, but the finest quality comes from Italy, and is pronounced fine, soft, light colored, and strong. Hemp grows in all parts of India, and in many districts flourishes in a wild state. It is but little cultivated for its fiber, although Bombay- grown hemp "was proved to be superior to the Russian." In portions of India, as well as other hot countries, it is cultivated for its narcotic products, the great value of which makes the India cultivators indifferent about the fiber. Hemp is largely grown in Japan for the manufacture of cloth. This industry is very old, as prior to the introduction of silk weaving it was the only textile fabric of the country. Its cultivation is an established industry in the United States, Ken- tucky, Missouri, and Illinois being the chief sources of supply, though the culture has extended as far north as Minnesota and as far south as the Mississippi Delta, while California has recently become inter- ested in its growth. Several varieties are cultivated in this country, that grown in Ken- tucky, wliicli has a hollow stem, being the most common. Cliina hemp, with slender stems, growing very erect, has a wider range of 215 216 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. culture, and Smyrna henij) is adapted to cultivation over a still wider range, but is not so well known. A small quantity of seed of the Piedmontese hemp of Italy was distributed by the Department of Agriculture in 1893, but the results of the experiments were not fully successful. Formerly large areas were devoted to the cultivation of the plant in the United States, and thirty-five years ago nearly -40,000 tons of hemj) was produced in Kentucky alone, while now hardly more than a fourth of this quantity is produced in the whole country. There are several reasons for the decline in production in the United States, but it dates back, primarily, to the decline in American ship- building and to the introduction of the PhilipjDine Island hemp {Musa textilis), the manila hemp of commerce, and later to the large importation of jute. Quite recently there has been a further falling oil in production, and it is worthy of note that this is largely due to the overproduction of this same hemp of Manila, brought about by the high jjrices of the latter fiber in 1890-91, a direct result of the manipulation of the fiber market by certain binding-twine manu- facturers. Formerly the hemp of Kentucky was not only used for the rigging of vessels, and in twines or yarns, and bagging, but it was spun and woven into cloth, just as to-da}^ it is manufactured into fabrics in portions of Brittan3^ About 1890, Avhen the Department of Agriculture became interested in extending the cultivation of hemp, and when the consumption of binding twine amounted to 50,000 tons annually, it was shown that, at the prices then prevailing, if one-half of the binding twine were made of common hemp grown at home, and not from manila or sisal, there would be a clear saving to the consumers of 11,750,000 in a year, with the further advantage that American farmers would produce the- raw material. There was a cry that ' ' soft twines " would not work in the self-binders, though the Office of Fiber Investigations was able to show that common hemp twine could be employed quite as satisfac- torily as the stiffer twines, and that the prejudice had no substantial foundation. In the past two years there has been an increasing demand for information relating to hemp culture, and experiments looking to its production have been carried on in localities where previously its culture was unknown, notably in extreme Southern States, which are large producers of cotton. SOIL SELECTION. As ill Brittany, so in Kentucky, limestone soils, or the alluvial soils such as are found in the river bottoms, are best adapted to this plant. Tlie culture, therefore, is quite general along the smaller streams of Brittan}^ where the climate is mild and the atmosi)here humid. In HEMP CULTURE. 217 Kcutucky the best lauds only arc choseu for lieiui), and the most favorable results are obtained where there is an underlying bed of blue limestone. In certain portions of the State, Shelby County for exami)le, it is claimed that a finer and tougher fiber is produced than in other sections, and this is thought to be due to a mixture in the soil of a whitish, oily clay. As a general rule, however, light or dry soils or heavy, tenacious soils are most unfavorable. Hemp is not considered a very exhaustive crop. In a former report it was stated by a successful Kentuckj^ grower that virgin soil sown to hemp can be followed with this crop for fifteen to twenty years successivelj"; sown then to small grain and clover, it can be grown every third year, without fertilizers, almost indefinitely. In France a rotation of crops is practiced, liemp alternating with grain crops, although competent authorities state that it may also bo allowed to grow continuously upon the same land, but not without fer- tilizers. Regarding this mode of cultivation, they consider that it is not contrary to the law of rotation, as by deep plowing and the annual use of an abundance of fertilizers the ground is kept sufficiently enriched for the demands which are made upon it. If the soil is not sufliciently rich in phosphates or the salts of potassium, these must be sui)plied by the use of lime, marl, ground bone, animal charcoal, or ashes mixed with prei)ared animal compost. Even hemp cake, the leaves of the plant, and the "shive," or "boon," maj^ be returned to the land with benefit. This high fertilizing is necessarj', as "the hemp absorbs the equivalent of 1,500 kilos of fertilizers per every hundred kilos of fiber obtained." In Japan, where most excellent hemp is produced, the ground is given a heavy dressing of barnyard manure before it is plowed in November. After the soil has been well pulverized and reduced to fine tilth, the seed is drilled and the land given a toj) dressing com- posed of one part fish guano, two parts wood ashes, and four parts animal manure. The proportions and the quantities used differ, of course, upon different soils. In New York, where hemp was formerly grown, barnyard manures or standard fertilizers are used, as it is considered essential to put the soil in good fertility to make a successful crop. In Illinois, with the method of cultivation in vogue, it is not regarded as in any way exhaustive to the soil, though the refuse must be returned if possible. A Kentucky practice is to burn the refuse and spread the ashes over the land. As in flax culture, a careful and thorough preparation of the seed bed is important, for the finer and more mellow the ground the better will be the fiber. This is better understood in Europe than in America, however, for American hemp is coarse, and its chief use, in a cordage fiber, does not make fineness an essential; in fact, American hemp is more nearly like the hemp of Russia, with which it competes. 218 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Soil preparation in the blue-grass region of Kentucky consists in a fall or early spring i)lowing, and a short time before seeding, -which in general terms is about corn-x^lanting time, the ground is thoroughly pulverized by means of an improved harrow, sucli as the disk harrow, after wliich it is made smooth. The date of planting varies according to whether the soil is wet or drj^ and may range from the last week in March to the last week in April, or even the 1st of May. In Brittany, after the harrow and roller are used, small lines of trenches or furrows are dug about 10 feet apart for drainage pur- I^oscs, after wliich the surface is cleared of weeds and the seed sown in drills. The drill is likewise used in Illinois, though the most com- mon i)i'i^ctice in Kentucky is to sow broadcast, followed by a light harrowing and sometimes by a light drag to level the surface. A correspondent states that many farmers in Shelby County, Ky. , use tlio ordinary grain drill for broadcast seeding. The rubber pipes are removed from the drill, and a board is attached directly beneath the hopper. The seed falling ujjon the board is scattered in front of the di-ill hoes, which do the covering. A light drag passed over the field levels and evens the surface, after which nothing is done until the hemp is ready for the harvest. The quantity of seed sown to the acre varies. One large grower says 33 pounds of seed per acre is the proper amount. Another states that 1 to 1^^ bushels is his rule. In New York 1 to 3 bushels liave been sown (in past time), 1 bushel giving better results than a larger quantity. In Illinois it varies from 1 to 2^ bushels. In France a difference is made regarding the use to which the fiber will be put, a third more seed being so'VYn for spinning fiber than for cordage fiber. On a farm in Sarthe, visited by the writer, a little less than 3 bushels to the acre was the usual quantity sown, but as high as 4 bushels are sown on some farms. There will be little trouble with weeds if the first crop is well destroyed by the spring plowing, for hemp generallj' occupies all the ground, giving weeds but little chance to intrude. For this reason the plant is an admirable weed killer, and in flax-growing countries is sometimes emx;)loyed as a crop, in rotation, to precede flax, because it puts the soil in good condition. In i^roof of this, a North River farmer a few years ago made the statement that thistles heretofore had mastered him in a certain field, but after sowing it with hemp not a thistle survived, and while ridding his land of this pest the liemj) yielded him nearly $G0 per acre where previously nothing val- uable could be produced. HARVESTING. In Kentucky the hemp stalks are considered ready to cut in one hundred days, or when the first ripe seed is found in the heads. The cutting is usually done with a hooked implement, or knife bent at HEMP CULTUKE. 219 right angles about 24 inches from the hand. In recent years, how- ever, the work is sometimes done by machines adapted to the pur- pose, and particularly when the stalks are slender. In France there are two modes of harvesting, dependent upon the use to which the fiber will be put. If the fiber is for cordage, the stalks are cut with a sharp instrument resembling a short scythe, and laid upon the ground in sheaves, where they are left to dry from one to three days. The leaves are then stripped and the stalks removed to the sheds, to be assorted, and then placed in piles horizontally, the lower ends of the stalks being pressed firmly against a wall, so that the inequalities of their length may plainly appear. Upon each pile there is placed close to the wall a weight, to prevent deranging the stems while drawing them out in assorting. This is done by handfuls; first the longest stems, then the medium, and then the short ones. They are bound into sheaves, several of which are put together, form- ing bundles, each containing stalks of equal length. The tops of the sheaves are then cut off, and only the portion preserved that will make good fiber. Vriion the hemp is grown for use in spinning — that is, for fabrics — the stalks are not cut, but are pulled like flax. The operator first removes the leaves by passing his hand from top to bottom of the stalk, it being important to return the leaves to the soil where they were grown. Six to fifteen stalks are pulled at one operation, accord- ing to the ease with which they can be drawn out of the ground, and the earth shaken off. These handfuls are made into bundles about 6 inches in diameter, and the roots and tops are then removed by means of an ax and chopping block. The clipped stalks are then made up into larger bundles a foot or more in diameter, and are sent to be retted at once, as it is claimed that the hemp is not so white if it is dried before retting. Hemp is probably never pulled in this country. When the stalks are cut they are laid in rows, even at the butts, and are allowed to remain on the ground, not over a week, to dry — only long enough, as one correspondent expresses it, to get a rain on the leaves, so that they will drop off readily. Where the rain is too long deferred, how- ever, the hemp should be put in shocks, or small stacks, having been first made into bundles of convenient size for easy handling. Hemp is dew retted in this country; that is, spread evenly over the ground to undergo the action of the elements which dissolve or rot out the gums holding the filaments together. Formerly pool, or water, retting was practiced in a very small way in Kentucky and to a slight extent later in Illinois. It is said that Henry Clay introduced the practice into the former State, but it was not followed. It is true, however, that the manufacturers formerly jireferred water-retted hemp, and the Na\'y' Regulations required it, but the price of cordage hemp liardly warranted the extra labor and consequent exi^ense. 220 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The hemp is allowed to remain in stack until November or Decem- ber, or about two months, when it is sjiread over the ground until retted. No rule can be given regarding the proper length of time tliat the hemp should lie, as this varies according to the weather, sud. den freezing, followed by thaws, hastening the operation. It is usually allowed to lie until the bast separates readily from the woody portion of the stalk. When there is a large crop, there may be an advantage in spreading the hemp earlier than November, in order that the break- ing may be done in the winter months. Winter-retted hemp is brighter, however, than that retted in October. It is usually stacked and spread upon the same ground ujjon which it is grown, and when sufficiently retted, as can be determined by breaking out a little, it is again put into shocks. If the hemp be dry, the shocks should be tied around the top tightly with a band of hemp to keep out the rain. The shocks are made firm by tying with a band the first armful or two, raising it up and beating it well against the ground. The remainder of the hemp is set up around this central support. Bj' flaring at the bottom, and tying well, a firm shock can be made that will stand firmly without danger of being blown over by the wind. Dew retting is practiced to some extent in France, though water retting gives better results. The practice, called "rouissage," is accomplished both in ]30ols and in running streams. The river ret- ting seems to accomplish better results, although taking a little longer time than the pool retting, the duration of immersioij varying from five to eight days. If the weather is cool, it retards the opera- tion two or three days longer than if warm. This accounts, too, for the shorter time occupied when the immersion takes place in pools. This work is usually done in the latter part of August. The bundles of hemp are floated in the water, secured if in a running stream, and are covered with boards kept in place by stones or any weight that will keep them under. There appears to be little pool retting in the Sarthe district, although public opinion is generally against river retting on the score of its rendering the waters of the streams foul and detrimental to health, as well as destructive to all animal life •with which they would otherwise abound. It is understood that there are very stringent police regulations against the use of streams for this purpose, and as long ago as 1886, in a brochure published by M. Bary, a hemp spinner of Le Mans, attention was called to the desirability of introducing an improved method of retting which would accomplish all the beneficial results of retting in running water artificially, and therefore render unnecessary the polluting of streams. While many attemjDts have been made to bring about a better system, none have been successful, and, police regulations to the contrary notwithstanding, the best hemp fiber produced in the Sarthe district is still retted in the running streams. Where pool retting is followed, the pools are sijecially constructed, dug out of the HEMP CULTURE. 221 earth to the depth of n yard or more, Availed up or the sides made solid, and lined and floored with cement usually in order that the water shall remain clean and the hemp retain its color. The stalks are watched very closely after the third or fourth day, the farmer breaking and examining a few at intervals to guard against over- retting, which weakens the fiber. When sufficiently retted, whether the work is done in streams or pools, the hemp bundles are removed from the water, but first agi- tated to remove all waste matter that may be adhering to the stalks. They are then drained, and the bundles, opened at the bottom, are set up in conical sheaves to drj'-, this operation being accomplished in two or three days. Considerable of the hemp groAvn, in the Sarthe district at least, is further dried in brickkilns. The Japanese method of retting differs so materially from the prac- tices followed in western countries that a brief statement will prove interesting. The raw hemp produced in Japan is usually sold in the form of thin, smooth ribbons, which are of a light straw color, the frayed ends showing a fiber of exceeding fineness. Some beautiful samples of this hemp were secured by the writer at the World's Columbian Exposition, with an account of the peculiar treatment of the stalks to produce the fiber. In Japan hemp is ready foi' harvesting about one hundred and twenty days after sowing, or about the 20th of July. In harvesting, the plants are pulled, leaves and roots are cut off with a sickle, and the stems sorted into long, medium, and short lengths and bound in bundles. These bundles are steamed for a few minutes in a steam- ing bath specially constructed, and dried in a sunny situation for three days, when they are fit for keeping to be manipulated according to the condition of the weather, if favorable or unfavorable. If good, settled weather is anticipated, three bundles of the stems above men- tioned are made into one bundle, exposed to the sun by turning upside down once a day for about three days, then dipped into water and exposed again to the sun for a number of days, until they are com- pletely dried, when they are kept in a dry place for future work. For preparing the best quality of hemp fibers, the drjang process takes thirty days, and for second and third qualities, fifteen and twenty-fivo days, respectively, are required. For separating hemp fibers from the stalk, the bundles treated as above mentioned are immersed in water and moderately fermented by heaping them upon a thick bed of straw mats in a barn specially built for the purpose. The number of hours depend much upon the temperature at that time ; in short, tlie fermentation requires great skill. When the stalks are fermented to a proper degree, the fibers are separated by hand and immersed in water, the outer skin is scraped off by hand tools specially constructed, and dried in well-ventilated places by hanging the fibers on bamboo, without exposing to the sun. 222 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BEEAKING THE HEMP. It is said that nearly 300 patents have been issued in the United States for machines for "breaking hemp, many of them having i)roved absolute failures, while none of them have filled the requirements of an economically successful hemp-cleaning device. The fact remains therefore, that the Kentucky hemp grower of to-day relies ui^on the rude and clumsy five-slatted hand brake of his grandfather's time, a device similar in all respects to that used for the same purpose at the present time by the hemp farmers of Brittany. In Kentucky the breaking is an expensive operation, costing $1 to $1.25 per short hundred pounds of fiber. The work is performed in the winter by negroes, and the best workers will not average more than 150 pounds in a day. In a former report on this subject a homemade machine emx)loyed for the purpose in Illinois was described as a very large brake with fluted rollers, the flutes being from 1| to 2 inches deep. Tlie cleaning cylinders were 5 feet in diameter of any desired width, with crossbars alternating with loose wings. In the crossbars were pins that acted as combs, these being about three-quarters of an inch long and bent back slightly. Under the cylinders were slats 2 inches apart through which the refuse fell. One cylinder was used close behind the brakes. The other two cj'linders had each one pair of rollers in front to hold the fiber while the shive, or waste, was being cleaned out. The fiber was not delivered straight, but it was claimed that twine manu- facturers preferred this product to straight Kentucky hemp fiber on account of its superior strength. A number of patented machines possessing more or less merit have been brought to public notice in the past four or five years, several of which have been examined by this Department. In this brief account of the cultivation of hemp it is not important, how- ever, to go into details concerning their merits or demerits, and the subject is left for future consideration. For the same reason no mention has been made of recent experience in the cultivation of hemp in the South and in California, though many facts of general interest might be presented. The market prices for American rough hemp at the present time may be stated at $70 to $80 per ton for Missouri, and $125 per ton for Kentucky. No recent figures are at hand showing cost of produc- tion, but in 1890, counting a man and team worth $3.50 per day, the cost of producing an acre of hemp in Kentucky was shown to be about $24. The average yield is about 1,000 pounds per acre, but this is frequently exceeded by several hundred pounds. CANADIAN FIELD PEAS. By Thomas Shaw, "Professor of Animal Hiisbandiij, College of Agriculture of the University of Minnesota. Tlio term Canadian field peas, or, as it is more commonly expressed, " Canada field peas," is used with mucli latitude in this country. Ask a pea grower in the United States as to the variety of seed which he sowed and the almost invariable answer given is: ''I sowed Canada peas." That may mean that he grew any one of nearly one hundred varieties. The answer is significant. It implies, first, a great lack of knowledge with reference to varieties on the part of those who grow peas, and, second, that much of the seed used in the United States is Imported from Canada, although we have large areas unrivaled in their adaptability to the growing of peas. The pea crop-is one of the most important in Canada. In the Prov- ince of Ontario alone the average area devoted to the iDroduction of peas for the thirteen years ending with 1894 was 691,392 acres. The average annual jield during the period named was 13,982,527 busliels, or an average of 20.2 bushels per acre; the greater portion of this crop ■s fed upon Ontario farms. In striking contrast with the magnitude of the pea crop in Canada is its insignificance in our own country. While the area devoted to peas in Ontario is not far behind that devoted to winter Avheat, the pea crop is so insignificant, relatively, in this country that it has not been given a fixed place in the Government crop reports. In Minne- sota it is not mentioned in the yearbook of statistical returns, and tlie same seems to be true of nearly all the States in the Union. We are to-day importing much of our seed from Canada, in the face of an imjiort duty of 20 cents per bushel. VARIOUS USES OF THE PEA CROP. No other grain crop except perhaps oats can be devoted to so great a variety of uses. The grain is possessed of a relatively high feeding value, and the same is true of the straw, as will be readily api)arent by reference to the chemical analysis of each. As a pasture for cer- tain kinds of live stock, peas may be made to serve an excellent pur- pose. The value of the crop for soiling and fodder uses is very great, and as a fertilizing crop peas are excelled only by clover. 223 224 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. There is no kind of live stock on the farm to whicli peas can not be fed with positive advantage when they are to be had at prices not too high. They are not commonlj^ fed to horses, since they can sel- dom be spared for such a use, but they make a good food for horses at work, and colts during the period of development, if given as a part of the grain food. As a food for fattening cattle, peas are prob- ably unexcelled. Much of the success which Canadian feeders have achieved in preparing cattle for the block has arisen from the free use of peas in the diet. During the first part of the finishing period they will be found peculiarly helpful in making beef, owing to their relative richness in protein, but thej'^ are also a satisfactory food at any stage of the fattening process. During the first half of the finishing period peas will be found superior to corn, but toward the close of the same corn could probably be fed with greater relative advantage. Peas with oats or wheat bran make an excellent grain food for cattle that are being fattened. Speaking in a general way, peas should form about one-third, by weight, of the meal fed, but, as every feeder knows, the relative X)roportions of the meal used should vary somewhat as the season of fattening progresses. Peas furnish a good food for milch cows. They have, been found peculiarly beneficial for building up dairy cows when ' ' out of condi- tion," and for sustaining them in fine form, and they are also excellent for milk production. When given along with oats and bran to cows in milk, they may usually form from one-third to one-half of the grain portion by weight. Peas, when fed with judgment and care, supply an excellent food for swine at all stages of development. They are well adapted to the sustenance of brood sows during the nursing period, for the reasons that have been given for their use with cows giving milk. With shorts, ground oats, or wheat bran, they may be made to form one-third to one-half the grain jjortion. Peas are superior to corn as a food for pigs at any time ijrior to the fattening season ; hence they may be fed to them more freely, but in no instance should they form the sole ration before the finishing period begins. During the fattening period peas are unexcelled when fed as the sole grain food. They promote growth, while they fatten in excellent form, and they furnish a sweet, firm, and excellent quality of pork. Along with oats, in, say, equal parts, by weight, peas make good gi'ain ration for ewes in milk, and also lambs, more especially when the latter are for the early market. They may be used in greater proportion to fatten ewes quickly after the lambs have been weaned. When sheep are being fattened for the block in mnter, no grain food can be fed which will be found more suitable than peas and oats. When fed to sheep or poultry, or to brood sows in winter, peas do not require to* be ground. For all other live stock it is considered advan- tageous to grind them, but in some instances thej'^ are soaked for CANADIAN FIELD PEAS. 225 feeding to swine. When so i)repared, they are frequently fed to growing .swine when on j^asture, and in order to insure due mastica- tion they should be fed on a floor. When pea straw is well cured, it is more relished by horses, cattle, and sheep than the straw of rye, wheat, barley, or even oats. Ani- mals which have never eaten it may not take kindly to it at first, but soon learn to eat it with a relish. The value of the straw, however, depends largely upon the stage at which the crop is harvested, the mode of harvesting, and the perfection of the curing process. Pea straw harvested rather under than over ripe, and then properly cured, will be eaten readily, but when allowed to get dead ripe, live stock will eat little of it unless compelled to do so by hunger. If harvested with the old-fashioned revolving horserake, so much of tlie soil adheres to the straw that it is not relished by any class of live stock; and when rain falls upon the straw while it is curing, it becomes bleached and loses much in palatability. Two or three smart showers falling upon pea straw greatly injure it. "WTien cut ^vith. the scythe or the pea harvester, cured properly, and then housed or carefully stacked, the straw, except that of some of the coarsest varieties, is nearly equal to clover hay in feeding value, especially for sheep. Peas are more commonly used as a pasture when sown in conjunc- tion with some other kind of grain, and since they are more easily injured by the trampling of live stock than other grain crops, it is usual to pasture them only with sheep and swine. When sown with oats or barley, peas make a good summer pasture for sheep. The gi-eatest objection to such pasture is in the earliness of the season at which it is produced. Of course, it may be grown later, but will not produce so abundantly. One-fourth of an acre grown at the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station in the spring of 1895, under the supervision of the writer, furnished pasture sufficient for one sheep for 345f days. The pasture was eaten down three times successively, with a suitable interval between each season of pastur- ing. The plat was then sown with rape, and this in turn was pastured off. The great value of peas as a pasture for SAvine is far too little understood. Peas grown in conjunction with some otlier kinds of grain are of great value as a soiling crop, owing, first, to the larger yields obtained (from 10 to 20 tons per acre mfiy be expected on average soils) ; sec- ond, to the high nutritive value of the food, combined with its palata- bility; and third, because of its timeliness. This crop is ready as soon as the spring grasses begin to fail, and it may be made to con- tinue in season until corn is ready. It is excellent for all kinds of live stock, but especially valuable for dairy cows. The advantages resulting from growing peas in conjunction with other grains for fodder are many. They include the following: First, 4 A 05 8 226 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. larger j^ields raay be obtained from growing these mixtures than by growing the grains used in them singly, and the increased jdeld extends to the grain as well as to the straw; second, when fodder is thus grown it may be fed directly to the animals; it is not necessarj'^, usuallj", to chaff it with the cutting box, and the labor and cost of first thrashing and grinding the grain are avoided; and third, a pasture crop, such as rape or rye, may follow the same season. Such a sys- tem will be found most helpful as an aid in destrojang weeds. As the relative areas adapted to growing these foods far exceeds those adapted to growing peas for the grain, it is probable that in the near future they will be most extensively grown for soiling and fodder uses. Like all leguminous crops, peas have the power of extracting nitro- gen from the air and of depositing it in the soil for the use of other crops which follow. Hence it is that the soil on which a crop of peas has been harvested is richer in nitrogen than before the peas were sown upon it. In this we have one explanation of the practice which became general in Ontario, of following peas with winter wheat. Peas could thus be made to bring more nitrogen to the soils of this country every year than is now purchased annually by the farmers at a cost of millions of dollars. WHY THE PEA CROP HAS BEEN NEGLECTED. That so valuable a crop should not have received more attention is indeed surprising. Chief among the reasons why it has been so neg- lected are the following : The lack of knowledge as to its merits, the difficulty in procuring seed, the want of suitable machinery for har- vesting the crop, and the small measure of attention given to it, rela- tivel}'', by the experiment stations. But little is known of the value of the pea crop by the average farmer. The scarcity and costliness of seed have hindered many from grow- ing peas. The average prices paid to seedsmen in the United States during recent years for good, clean seed have been from $1 to ^1.25 per bushel. The Ontario farmer usually raises his own seed or buys it for about 1 cent per pound. Suppose a farmer should buy but 1 bushel of seed and sow it with care: he may expect in the autumn 10 bushels of seed wherever the conditions are favorable to growing the crop. Why should not farmers generally raise their own seed peas ? The lack of suitable machinery for harvesting peas has probably more than anything else hindered the extension of their growth in the United States. Where peas have to be harvested with the scythe, they are not likely to be grown to any considerable extent; but, as shown elsewhere, pea harvesters are now in use in Ontario which will cut a field of peas as quickly as a field of hay of equal area could be cut. CANADIAN FIELD PEAS. 227 Very littlo attention has been given to this crop by the experiment stations of the continent. But little that can be regarded as of much value to the farmer is to be gleaned from the reports. The Ontario station, at Guelph, is an exception. The wi-iter, when in charge of that station, imported many varieties from Europe and other countries for experimental uses, and the cooperative experiments with the best of these varieties, which have since that time been carried on by the farmers in various parts of Ontario, have been of great value in deter- mining the most suitable kinds for the different sections of the coun- try. Here is a field for exiicrimentation in which the several stations, more especially those of the North, can render most valuable service to the States in which they are located. AREAS ADAPTED TO PEA CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. Without any doubt there are vast areas in our favored country iT'ell adapted to growing peas as a grain crop. But the areas in which the crop can be grown for pasture, for soiling uses, and for fodder are vastly greater, as heretofore intimated; for where they can be successfully grown as a grain crop they can also be grown for the other uses named. In the present state of our knowledge it would be impossible to name exactly all the areas in which peas can be successfully grown for any of the uses mentioned, and it would Ije even more hazardous to specify where they can not be grown. But these areas may be defined in a general way. Peas can be successfully grown as a grain crop throughout New England. They are successfully grown in northern Michigan, north- ern and eastern Wisconsin, and northern Minnesota. They will also gi'ow well in North Dakota, Montana, Idaho, Oregon, and Washing- ton. In northern Ohio, southern Michigan, southern Wisconsin, and southern Minnesota they are not so sure a crop as in the areas named, but sometimes they produce well. Southward from the States just named peas can not always be dciiended on to yield well. The summer temperatures are too warm for thora. Even though they should produce a good crop of straw, if a hot wave should pass over them while in bloom, they would not fruit well. But in all this section of country great use can be made of peas when grown with other crops for pasture, for summer feeding, and for fodder. Still farther to the south the wisdom of giving much attention to this crop is open to question; the Southern cowpea has taken its place there. GROWING PEAS FOR DIFFERENT PURPOSES. In discussing the growing of peas as a grain crop, problems relat- ing to soils, rotation, tillage, seed, varieties, harvesting, storing, and thrashing require to be considered. 228 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Adnptdbility in soils. — Peas may be grown successfully ou a variety of soils, but those designated clay loams, and which are well supplied with lime, are best adapted to their growth. However, good crops may be obtained on the stiffest clays. The potash element in these favors the growth of peas. Light, leachy sands, being deficient in moisture, do not produce enough of growth of vine, and black humus soils produce too much. Overwet soils are whoUj^ unsuited to the growth of peas. Place in the rotation. — Theoretically, peas should not come after meadow or pasture, since they are capable of gathering nitrogen from the atmosphere, and in consequence do not need the sustenance fur- nished in the decay of grass roots so much as other grains; but in practice they serve the end of quickly subduing such soils by pro- moting the rapid decay of the sod and so putting the land in excel- lent condition for the crop which follows. Peas may be assigned any place in the rotation, but the aim should be to have a grain crop fol- low which is hungry for nitrogen. Preparing the land. — In climates where peas can be grown at their best, namely, climates ^vith low winter temperatures, the land for peas, as for nearly all grain crops, should be plowed in the autumn; but peas mil do better than the cereals, relatively, on spring-plowed land. A fine pulverization of the soil is advantageous, but it is not so necessary for peas as for other grain crops, since the pea is a hardy and vigorous grower. Solving the seed. — Some Avriters advocate sowing the seed broadcast and then plowing it under. On heavy soils this method would bury the seed too deeply. On prairie soils it promotes the rapid evapora- tion of soil moisture. On fall-plowed lands the better plan is to pre- pare the seed bed by pulverizing it and then to sow the seed mth the grain drill. When broadcasted and covered with the harrow only and rain follows, much of the seed will be exposed ; but the writer has grown excellent crops on spring-plowed stiff clays from hand sowing without any previous pulverization. When such lands are carefully plowed, the peas fall in the depression between the furrow slices, and the subsequent harrowing covers them. Peas sliould be buried less deeply on stiff clays and more deeply on the soils of the prairie. The depth may be varied from 2 to 4 inches. The pea crop should be sown as soon as the soil can be worked freely ; but it will suffer less, relatively, than the other grain crops if the sowing has to be deferred. In sections where the pea weevil {Bruchus pisi) is prone to injure the crop," late sowing will shield the same from harm, but there remains the danger of loss from mildew. The quantity of seed required will vary with the character and con- dition of the soil and with the variety of seed sown. Rich and moist soils do not require so much seed as where the opposite conditions prevail. The amount of the seed sown should usually increase with CANADIAN FIELD PEAS. 229 the size of the pea. The quantities to sow per acre will vary from 2 bushels with the smaller varieties to 3^ bushels of the larger sorts. One great difficulty to be encountered in growing peas on prairie soils is the usual luxuriance of weed life, but this may be held in check by harrowing the crop before it appears above the surface. Har- rows with teeth which may be set aslant are the most suitable for the work. Varieties to sow. — The most suitable varieties of peas to sow will depend somewhat on soil and climatic conditions; and the best way, probably, to determine which kinds are best suited to the varied con- ditions of eacli State would be through experimentation on what may be termed the cooperative plan, as practiced in Ontario. This lilan in outline is as follows : The station furnishes the seed of a number of proved varieties to farmers in different sections of the country. These varieties are to be grown under similar conditions, and they are also to report the results to the station at a given date. The results are then summarized and made public. The farmer keeps the grain which he grows as his compensation. Several varieties were thus tested in Ontario in 1894. The three which stood first in point of jdeld were the Prussian Blue, Canadian Beauty, and Tall White Marrowfat. The respective average yields were 27.0, 27.1, and 26.8 bushels per acre. The yields of straw were not far different, nor was there much difference in the average time of maturing. The Prussian Blue is one of the most hardy, prolific, and reliable sorts grown in Ontario. The peas are blue in color and they weigh well. This variety also gave the largest average yields in the cooperative experiments of 1895. The Canadian Beauty is a handsome pea, white in color, and somewhat large in size. The Tall White Marrowfat is of large size and it is a vigorous grower. The four best yielding varieties grown at the Ontario experiment station for four years ending with 1894 are the Early Britain, White Wonder, Mummy, and Prussian Blue. The average yields were very similar. The Early Britain, imported from England in 1889, has proved a uni- formlj'^ good yielder, but the peas are a little brownish in color and somewhat irregular in shape. The White Wonder, imported from New Zealand in 1890, is a very promising variety. It is a free grower, a good yielder, and the pea itself is attractive in appearance. The Mummy, a well-established variety, is a strong grower, but the straw is coarse. The pods are much prone to cluster about the top of the vines. Among the other useful varieties grown at the Ontario sta- tion are the Centennial White, Cleveland Advancer, and the Golden Vine. The last named is an old standby, AVhen farmers speak of "Canada peas" they have reference probably to this variety more often than to any other. All the varieties named should do at least fairly well in the New England States, and in northern Michigan and Wisconsin. Through the various States of the Northwest the 230 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. following varieties stand high in favor with the farmer, namely, the Chancellor, the White Marrowfat, and the Black-Eyed Marrowfat. The Chancellor is an early and productive variety. Harvesting the crop. — Until recent years the pea crop was har- vested ^\dth the scji.he or with the old-fasliioned revolving hayrake. The first method is slow; the second shells out many of the peas, and it so covers the vines Avith soil as to render the straw practically unfit for use. Happily a pea harvester has been introduced by the aid of Fig. 4G.— Pea harvester. which the crop may be harvested speedily and in excellent condition on level soils. It is simply an attachment to an ordinary field mower, as shoA\Ti in fig. 46. The guards in front lift up the peas so that the knife can cut them cleanly. The cut peas fall behind the mower in a string-like row, or swath, and two men with forks bunch them and lay them aside out of the way of the horses. Three men and a span of horses may thus Fio. 47.— Pea harvester with platform. harvest 10 acres in a day. This attachment for harvesting peas is made in Canada, and those now in use in the West have all been im- ])orted. On rear-cut mowers a platform is sometimes used, as shown in fig. 47. With this attachment, one man walks behind and with a fork tlirows the peas off in bunches. But tlie ijhitform is of doubtful advantage unless the crop is evenly ripened, not too heavj% and free from standing weeds of strong growth. Where the land has been CANADJAN FIELD PEAS. 231 plowed in ridges, wilh furrows more or less deep between tlieni, the working of the machine ^vlll bo seriously interfered mth. Sfoi'ing the crop. — It is usual to turn tlie bundles over once to facil- itate drj^ing while they lie on the ground. They require hand load- ing. The crop may bo stored under cover or put into stacks, as with other grain, but it sliould be borne in mind that peas when in the stack do not readily shed rain, and therefore the stacks should be carefully topped out with some substance, such as blue grass or native prairie hay. Wlien the thrashed straw is preserved in stacks the same precautions are necessary. Thrashing the crop. — Where only a small quantity is grown annu- ally, and this Avith a xievr to provide seed to sow for pasture, soiling, or fodder iises, there is no better way of thrashing the peas than by using a flail or by treading them out with horses. The seed is not then broken. Where a large acreage is grown, it is necessary to thrash peas with a thrashing machine, and the best work is done by using the "bar concave," as shown in fig. 48. From this concave all the teeth should be removed except four. These hold the straw in check long enough to enable the cylinder teeth to beat out all the peas. The ma- chine should not run at a high rate of speed. 3Iore or less of the seed is likely to be bi'oken. The broken grains, however, may be nearlj'^ all removed when preparing the crop for seed or for market by using fanning mills suit- ably equipped with sieves. When the crop is wanted for feeding uses, the breaking of the peas does not, of course, lessen its value. The great value of peas for various uses has ah-eady been dwelt upon. It only remains, therefore, to speak of the methods by which they are grown. When peas are groAvn in conjunction with other grain for pasture, the mixture should bo sown somewhat thickly. For sheep 1 bushel of peas may be taken as the basis of the mixture, and from 1^ to 2 bushels of other grain. ^Vhen seed drills are used, the seed should be mixed before it is sown. Under other conditions it would be necessary to plow the peas in lightly, and then sow the other grain and cover it with a harrow. Peas and oats or peas and barley may be grown as a pasture for swine in the same manner as for sheep, but it is generally thought better to reduce the i)roportion of peas when (he i)asturing is to begin at an early stage in the growth of the plants, as swine break down the pea vines to a greater extent than Fig. 48.— Single concave thrashing machine with four teeth. 232 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. sheep. Hitherto it has been common to sow peas alone as a pasture for swine, and to defer pasturing them until the peas in the pod are about ready for table use; about 2 bushels of seed per acre will suffice. Swine should be accustomed to such pastures by degrees, because the sudden change of diet might be injurious to them. The season of pasturing may be prolonged by sowing the peas at successive periods, with a due interval between them. When peas are grown as a soiling crop, the relative amounts of seed used are much the same as when they are sown to provide pas- ture for sheep, and they are also sown in the same way. Oats, how- ever, is the favorite grain to mix with the peas, and the j^roportions of seed used per acre are usually 1^ bushels of the former to 1 bushel of the latter; but no definite rule can be laid down as to the rela- tive amounts of seed that should be used when growing these mix- tures for soiling or for fodder uses. The richer the land the larger the proportion of the peas that should be used, lest the oats should unduly overshadow them. Every farmer will have to determine for himself the relative quantities of seed which will best suit his con- ditions. The cutting and feeding of the crop may commence as soon as the heads of the oats begin to appear, and it may be continued until the crop is approaching maturity. When not all wanted for soiling uses, the residue may be cut and cured for winter feeding. Generally the best }delds "svill be obtained from the seed sown earliest in the season. For this purpose the same methods of growing peas may be adopted as when they are grown for soiling uses, mth the difference that more varieties are frequently used. The harvesting should take place when the dominant grain used in the mixture is nearly but not quite ripe. When the respective quantities of seed have been correctly adjusted, the crop can be harvested with the binder in a normal season, but in case it should be thrown down bj'' storms the mower would then have to be used. It has already been stated that the pea crop brings nitrogen to the soil, and is therefore a fertilizer howsoever it may be grown ; but its value in fertilizing and also in improving the mechanical texture of the soil is greatly enhanced when it is grown as a green manure. When soils become so impoverished that good crops can not longer be grown on them, they may be quickly renovated and also cleaned by plowing under a pea crop preceded by winter rye. The rye should, of course, be sown in the autumn, and plowed under in the spring when the heads begin to appear. The peas should be sown immediately, and in turn plowed under when in bloom. Ground thus treated would be fertilized and cleaned in one season. Its tilth would be much improved, and its power to hold moisture would be greatly increased. To a farmer in the dry Northwest the benefit last mentioned would probably be the greatest. The high price of the seed at present stands seriously in the way of growing peas expressly for fertilizing uses. IllRIGATION FOR THE GARDEN AND GREENHOUSE. By L. R. Taft, Professor of Horticulture, Michigan Agricultural College. The success of irrigation in the so-called arid regions of the West, where the rainfall is often less than 10 inches, has led farmers and gardeners of the Eastern and Central States to consider the advisa- bility of securing water artificially to aid in carrying their crops through periods of drought. While much can be learned from West- ern irrigators, the conditions are so different at the East that the processes have to be greatly modified. If water can be supplied artificially at a reasonable exjjense, a sea- son of drought is not without its advantages: (1) There will be no lost time from rainy days; (2) with a proper supply of water in the soil, a better growth can be secured in warm, sunny weather than when it is cloudy or rainy, and not only will the size, numbers, and appearance of the fruits be increased, but the quality will be im- proved; and (3) there will also be less injury by insects and fungi. THE WATER SUPPLY. Some crops evaporate from the leaves an amount of water equal to two hundred to three hundred times the weight of the dry matter which tliej^ contain. It is estimated that the corn crop gives off water to the extent of thirty-six times its green weight, or 540 tons from the crop on 15 acres, which is sufficient to cover an acre of land to the depth of more than 5 inches. There is also considerable loss from the soil by evaporation. This varies with the nature and condition of the soil, the amount of water present, and the character of the sea- son, but experiments indicate that 1 inch per week during the sum- mer season would be a fair average. To this must be added at least 6 inches in an annual rainfall of 35 inches to compensate for the loss by drainage and percolation. It must also be remembered that a large part of the annual rainfall comes in Avinter, when the ground is frozen, and there is a large loss at that time, to say nothing of what runs off at other seasons. In a general way it may be said that, under aver- age conditions, full crops of vegetables and fruits can not be secured with a rainfall of less than 35 inches, one-half of which should be evenly distriluited over the six months from March to August. 4 A 95 8* 233 234 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Since it is profitable in tlie "West to apply water to the full amount required by crops, it will certainly pay in humid sections to supple- ment an occasional deficiency to the extent of from 2 to o inches. If it is desirable to use water with profit for garden crops, a source for the supply should first be fi.xed upon, and while it must be a sup- ply that will furnish the required amount in a time of most severe drought, the cheapness with which the water can be brought upon the land should also have consideration. In some locations water can be obtained from town or city water- works, and, unless a very large quantity is required, it will often be cheaper than to put in an independent pumj^ing x^lant. Artesian Avells or never-failing springs afford a cheap source of water, especiallj'' if the water can be carried to the land by gravity. Lakes or streams from which the water may be conducted upon the land can occasion- ally be found, and, if sufficiently near, will form an extremely cheap source for water supply. As a rule, however, even if the water is available, it is below the land and some method of raising it must be employed, so that the cost of pumping machinery will need to be con- sidered. Driven wells can generally be relied upon in the absence of any of the above sources of water supply. They are in successful use for this purpose in many places, the water in some cases being obtained within a few feet of the surface and in others at a depth of 100 feet. Where the wells need not be more than 60 feet deep, and where the water stands within 40 or 50 feet of the surface, the cost of raising it will not be excessive. If one well does not supply the desired amount, several may be driven and attached to the cylinder of one pump. POWER AND MACHINERY. For irrigating purposes the pumping apparatus must be of such a nature that it will raise the large amount of water required at a small expense, and at the same time be strong and durable. Some of the hydraulic rams comply with the above conditions. They work automatically and without expense, being driven by the force of the water. "Where a suitable water su^Dpl}'^ and a sufficient fall can be secured, enough water can be thus elevated for a consider- ble area if a reservoir for its storage is provided. If running water is at hand and the lift is not great, some form of water wheel which is arranged either for lifting the water directly or for operating some special pumping machinery may be used. The endless-chain-and- bucket machinery also answers well for small lifts. The hot-air pumping engines are also adapted to this work upon small farms. They are cheaply operated, requiring but little attention or fuel, are l^erfectly safe, and will handle from 100 to 1,000 gallons of water per hour, according to the distance it has to be lifted and the size of the engine. "When the water does not have to be raised over 50 feet, the centrifugal pumps may be used with excellent results. They are IRRIGATION FOR THE GARDEN AND GREENHOUSE. 235 comparatively cheap, quite durable, and may be obtained of a capacity to handle any desired quantity of water. While lifting pumps require the \vater to be quite clean, there is less necessity of it in the case of the centrifugals. The rotary pumps have a similar use. Of the lifting pumps there is a great variety, but some of the forms with large cylinders, commonly called irrigation pumps, should be used. They answer well where but a comparatively small amount of water is required and where it has to be drawn from a considerable depth. For very large pumping plants some of the direct-acting steam pumps have been used and they supply the water at a low cost. In a few cases the pumps mentioned above require no outside power, but in the centrifugal and lifting pumps some motive power is necessary. The windmill is generally regarded as the cheapest power for light work where regularity is not essential, and is largely used. The mod- ern galvanized steel mills, upon steel towers, are quite durable, and, provided they are double geared, will run in very light winds. In sections where the wind has a velocity of 8 or more miles per hour, for an average of at least eight hours per day during the summer months, they furnish a cheap source of power for irrigating gardens of from 1 to 3 or perhaps 5 acres in proportion to the distance the water is lifted. They are used principally with lifting pumps. From the fact that the working of the mill is likely to be intermittent, a storage reservoir is necessary in connection with such a plant. Gasoline engines have an advantage over steam in that they do not require regular attention, are perfectly safe, and are less expensive to run. For small pumping plants and up to 10 or 15 horsepower they will be found well adapted. While steam engines will not be desira- ble ordinarily, except perhaps for supplying water for large areas, or when needed for other purposes, there are conditions that would favor their use. For fruit and most other crops it is seldom that more than two or three applications are necessary in a season, and it vriU be clieaper in most cases to hire a portable engine for the few days it will be needed than to buy an engine of any kind. In all of the Western States, traction thrashing engines may be readily obtained, at a small rental, as they usually stand idle except during the thrash- ing season. DISTRIBUTION. 'J'ho method by which water will be carried upon the land will depend largely upon the surroundings. If there is a large amount of water and an easy grade can be secured, it may be carried in open ditches, which can be easily excavated with a plow and scraper. Vitrified sewer pipe may be used if the ground is uneven, but will not be desirable if there is over 10 or 15 pounds pressure. Where the distance is not great, or if the pressure is considerable, particu- larly if the water is pumped, riveted sheet-iron tubing or steel gas pipe can be used. These are readily put together and taken apart 236 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. as desired, and gates and water i^liigs may be attached at will. If arrangements are made to drain the pipes, or if they are taken up in winter, they may be placed upon or near the surface. The size of the i^ipes needed will depend upon circumstances. For tracts of from 5 to 10 acres a sewer pipe 4 inches in diameter is desir- able, although a 3-inch pipe would answer if there is a fair fall. When using iron pipe, the size of the distributing pipes, upon tracts of a half acre or over, should be 2 or, better, 2^ inches. For the main supply pipe from the pump or reservoir a somewhat larger size will lessen the friction and increase the capacity of the sj^stem, but if the distance is considerable it will cause a large outlaj^, and it might be cheaper in the end to use a smaller size and take a little more time. While a 4-inch pipe would be desirable, a 3-inch one would answer for from 20 to 100 acres. The branch pipes in small gardens may be as small as 1 inch, although a larger size is desirable. Wooden or sheet-iron flumes may also be used for carry- ing the water. The supply pipe or ditch should take the Avater to the highest point of the tract to be irrigated, and, if the land is uneven, with several knolls, a branch pipe should be carried to each of them. If there is one point from which the Avater will flow over all others, it can be distributed from that point in flumes or ditches to the furrows and thus spread over the land. While this will lessen the expense if pipes are used, it will be better not to attempt to water more than 1 or 2 acres from a single hydrant. If applied from a hose, it is not desirable to have the hydrants more than 200 feet apart, requiring a hose 100 feet long. For a tract not over 200 feet wide and from 300 to 500 feet long, measuring down the slope, a single hydrant at the middle of the upper side will be sufficient. A regular hydrant can be con- structed if desired, but if there is a T with a gate valve at the point where the hose is to be attached, it will answer every purpose. One of the best methods of distributing the water from tlie hydrants is by the use of wooden troughs (fig. 49). They may be put up per- manently along the head of the rows, or may be made portable in sections of 16 feet. They should be from 6 to 8 inches square inside, or 8 inches deep if triangular. Along one side, at intervals of from 3 to 20 feet, according to the crop for which they are to be used, there should be holes from 1^ to 2 inches in diameter, closed by zinc or gal- vanized sheet-iron gates (fig. 50). The troughs should stand nearly Fig. 49. — Square trough, for distributing water (section), a, sliding zinc on galvanized iron gate. IRRIGATION FOR THE GARDEN AND GREENHOUSE. 237 level. If the land slopes there should, bo an occasional drop in them. To control tlie fhnv of the water wooden sliding gates are desirable at frequent intervals and at the end of each section of trough. By means of the small gates the water can be distributed to a number of rows at a time and the flow can be regulated at will. A 24^-inch dis- tributing pipe under a fair head will supplj' from 6 to 10 rows, using full-sized openings, while if they are only half open from 10 to 20 rows can be watered that are from 150 to 400 feet in length, according to the character of the soil. If the gates are 3 feet apart this will supply water for one-eighth to one-half an acre, and will require, to properly water this area, from one to three hours, reckoning upon a How of 100 gallons per minute and an application of from 900 to 1,000 gallons per acre, or a little more than enough to cover it to the depth of 1 inch.^ When a sufficient amount of water has been applied to any of the rows, the gate can be closed and another opened. In a small gar- den a similar but smaller trough can be employed to good effect, but not over one or two gates can be used at one time from a three- fourths-incli hydrant, or two or three from a 1- inch hydrant. Instead of the trough an ii"on pipe can be run along the head rows and the water applied through small faucets placed at proper intervals. If neither troughs nor pipes are used, an open ditch can be run along the head row and this will serve the same purpose. If ditches are used, it is desirable that small wooden boxes, closed at one end with a sliding gate, be placed at jDoints where the water is to be drawn out, l)ut tlie water is often applied b}^ making openings in the bank through which it can be drawn. RESERVOIRS AND TANKS. For properly irrigating tracts of much size, a large amount of water should be available, in order that it may be turned upon the land in 'It requires 27,154 gallons, or about 850 barrels, to give an inch of water over an acre. The miner's inch, nsed in the West as a nnit of nieasTiremcnt, is the amount that will flow per minute throiigh an opening 1 inch square with a head of 4 inches — about 9 gallons. A cubic foot of water per second-foot, which is also used as a measure for water, represents a flow of about 50 minor's inches, or 450 gallons, per minute. Fig. 50. — V-shaped trough (section). 238 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. considerable quantities; and unless the pumping apparatus will sup- plj^ a steady stream of 100 to 200 gallons per minute; a reservoir or tank is desirable, except in small gardens. "VVliile iron or wooden tanks will be best for small amounts of water, basins can be made for large areas by throwing up embankments of soil, and rendering them water-tight by means of cement, tar, or clay. In most parts of the country care is necessary to keep the cement and tar from cracking in winter; clay will answer nearly if not quite as well. The reservoir should be located upon the highest point of ground near the land to be irrigated. The bottom of the reservoir should be as little as possible below the surface, in order that a fall may be secured, and the walls should not be more than 5 or 6 feet high, with a slope of about 20 degrees. The top of the embankment should be from 2 to 4 feet wide, according to the size of the reservoir. If the soil is not of rather stiff clay, it should be covered to the depth of 3 or 4 inches with clay, and after this has been worked until it is fine, water should be admitted sufficient to form a thick mortar, when it should be thor- oughly puddled over the bottom and sides. The water should be dra^vn out from the reservoir through an iron pipe laid at the bottom of the embankment, this to be provided with a valve by which the flow of the water can be regulated ; and to prevent the water of the reservoir from soaking out along the sides of the pipe, it should be laid in grout where it i^asses through the embankment into the reser- voir. Unless the reservoir is filled with water during the winter it will require puddling every spring. APPLYING THE V^^ATER. Having the water upon the land, it can be applied in various ways. Flooding, or allowing the water to spread over the surface to the depth of from 2 to 10 inches, was formerly extensively used, but it is now employed only for grain and similar crops. The most common method for vegetables and fruits is to make furrows and run the water along in them, so that it can soak into the soil. If properly arranged, the water can not spread upon the surface, and, by turning back the furrows as soon as the water has soaked in and cultivating the soil, the moisture can be prevented from evaporating. For large areas, a shovel plow is the best tool for making the furrows, although if the soil is loose a man with a hand plow can do as good work, while a hoe or shovel will answer in small gardens. Care should be taken to so lay out the rows in the orchard or garden that the furrows for the water can be run at a very slight slope, 2 or 3 inches in 100 feet being all that is desirable, while 1 foot in 100 feet is an extreme slope. With a little care in laying out the furrows water can be used upon land that, at first sight, it will seem impossi- ble to irrigate. If there are slight irregularities in the surface that can be scraped off without materially injuring the land, it will be best to remove them. When the land is rolling, basins or checks may be used, especially in orchards. IRRIGATION FOR THE GARDEN AND GREENHOUSE. 239 Subirrigation is the term aiiplicd to tlio running of water through pipes hiid below the surface of the ground and allowing it to soak out through cracks or holes made for the purpose. The pipes are gener- ally common drain tiles, from 2^ to 4 inches in diameter, laid at depths of from a few inches to 2 or 3 feet. Particularly upon muck or swamj)y land, if they are placed at a considerable depth, they will do good service as drains, besides distributing water in dry seasons. By haviug the ends of the lines of tile open into a ditch, the water can be carried off when there is a suri)lus, while, by damming the ditch and filling it with water, the tiles will carry it back for several hundred feet and moisten a space upon either side of from 15 to 40 feet. Thej' should bo placed 12 inches deep, in garden loam soil at a distance of 12 or 15 feet apart, but in very light sand or stiff clay shorter intervals will be advisable. The tiles should have a very slight slope, for if there is much head the water will break out unless they are laid at a considerable depth. Several lines may be joined. to a larger line laid across their ends, although if each line of tile is supplied inde- pendently, a more even distribution will be obtained. While it will vary considerably with the soil, a half-inch stream will suffice for 100, a three-fourths-inch for 200, a 1-inch for 400, and a 1^-inch for 1,000 linear feet of tile. In laying the tiles a small opening should be left between them at the lower side, and this will allow the water to pass out freely with- out admitting the soil. Under ordinary circumstances there will be no trouble from the clogging of the tiles with roots. It is claimed for this method of watering that it requires less water and that after the tile is in place less attention is necessary. Upon a small garden where the water supply is small, or if it is delivered in small pipes, this method of watering is of value, as the water needs only to be turned on and it will distribute itself without fur- ther attention. "While there is a saving of labor in distributing the water, the cost of tiles and the expense of laying them makes this method much more expensive than furrow irrigation. Except as mentioned above, subin-igation has few, if any, advantages over furrows for fruits and the ordinary garden crops. As water can be applied in furrows for fruits or large areas of vegetables at from 50 cents to $1.50 per acre, according to the crop and the amount of water available, one can not afford to go to the expense of fitting the land for subirrigation, except where the tiles are needed as drains. For flower beds and lawns, where water can not be applied in fur- rows, tiles can often be used to good advantage. Placed at the depth of 1 foot and as nearly level as possible, they will distribute the water quite evenly over a space from 8 to 16 feet in width. For short lengths the flow of the water should be restricted to the amount that can be given off by tlic tiles. 240 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Sprinkling ujion the siii-faee can often be used to good advantage upon sandy loam soils where the surface is so uneven that the water can not be run in furrows. Considerably more water will be required than when the water is run in furrows, as the evaporation will be much greater, and the applications will have to be much more fre- quent. A number of large revolving sprinklers can be operated at one time, and as each will cover a sjDace of 3 or 4 square rods a considerable area can be watered in one day. IRRIGATION FOR THE GARDEN. The artificial application of water to vegetables will be found profitable, not alone because of its use in times of severe drought, but because vegetables have so large a monej'- value that the proper use of water will mark the difference between complete success and entire failure, and will well repay the cost of applying it. For crops grown in rows more than 2 feet apart, the water can be run in furrows made a few inches from each row while the plants are small, and halfway between them when they have filled the ground with their roots. For narrower rows, down to 16 inches, it will answer if furrows are made in every second row, while for crops grown in very close drills irrigation may be provided for by lea%ing a slightly wider space every fourth row in which to run the water. When the crops are sown broadcast, the water may be applied by making fur- rows from 4 to 10 or even more feet apart, and it will be of far more value than when spread upon the surface. This is a far better way than the old plan of throwing the land up into beds about 12 feet wide, with a ditch along the center from which the water could both soak into the soil and run over the edges upon the surface. Upon muck land a fairly even distribution can be obtained when the furrows are several rods apart, but more water will be required and it may take several days for it to soak through the soil. If the ground is so dry in the spring that the seed are not likely to germinate evenly, it will be a good plan to plow furrows every 4 feet and then turn on the water so as to thoroughly wet down the land. This should secure a good stand, and it will seldom be desirable to use water again until the plants have several true leaves. Before transplanting it is quite important to have the soil moist, and if water is run on the previous day in furrows where the rows are to stand, the soil will be in good condition. For plants like tomatoes, which are set at wide intervals, holes may be made with a spade, in which the plants are placed and the soil packed about the roots. The holes should then be filled with water and the planting completed as soon as the water has soaked in. The condition of the plants is the best indication of the necessity for applying water. If in a time of drought the leaves wilt or curl, or take on an unnatural, dark color, water can generally be used to IRRIGATION FOR THE GARDEN AND GREENHOUSE. 241 advantage. Alllioiigli one or more waterings are occasionally neces- sary while the plants are small, potatoes, tomatoes, peas, and similar crops are more likely to suffer from lack of water after the fruits and tubers form, and it should then be used in liberal quantities. For all such crops it is seldom desirable to irrigate while the plants are in blossom, as it tends to start a new growth and prevent setting. After the crop has set, particularly in case of the potato, no check to the growth should be allowed from lack of water, as when it is applied, a new growth will start, a second crop vrill set, and the result will be a large number of small potatoes. In arid sections an approximate estimate can be given as to the number of aiiplications required by the various crops, but in the humid liortions of the country this is not possible. In some seasons the amount of rain may be ample, while in others from one to five applications of 800 to 1,500 barrels per acre can be made to advan- tage. More than this amount should not be applied at one time as, if hea\^^ rains follow, the ground may be saturated. Even with the most thorough cultivation, anywhere from a half inch to 2 inches of water per week can be used to advantage by vegetables during May, June, July, and August, and, unless the natui'al supi^ly available approximates that amount, it should be supplied artificially in pro- portion to the character of the soil and season and the needs of the crop, 1 inch being taken as an average for each application for good garden soils. Care should be taken to prevent the flowing of the water over the surface, and particularly from coming in contact with the stems and leaves of the plants. After each Avatering and after every rain the ground should have a shallow cultivation, and this should be repeated at least once a week. IRRIGATION FOR ORCHARDS. For orchards as well as for other crops it is better to use a number of small streams rather than one or two strong ones, as there will be less washing of the soil, and a more even distribution of the water can be secured. A flume or head ditch will aid verj^ much in secur- ing this. In locating the rows such an arrangement should be made as will secure a proper slope for the furrows, which should be from 1 to 6 inches in 100 feet (fig. 51). While the trees are small a furrow upon either side of each row will answer, but as the roots spread, additional furrows 3 or 4 feet apart should be made, until finallj^ the entire space is irrigated. Too much water and too frequent applications are more likely to be harmful than too little water, and ordinarily there will be no necessity for watering until the fruit is half grown, and from one to three applications, the last one not later than the middle of August, in order to allow the growth to ripen, will usually sufiice. The use of water during a week or two before and continuing until two weeks after blossoming is not desirable. 242 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Great injury is often done by the drying out of the trees in winter, and if the autumn is veiy dry it will be well to irrigate the trees just before tlie ground freezes. The amount of water required by orchards is from 1 to 2 inches at each application, while the f requenej'' of water» ing must depend upon conditions. When a loam soil taken from a dei)th of 5 or G inches will not pack in the hand, it is an indication that water is needed. Ordinarily once in from two to three weeks is as often as water need be applied. While a fair amount of water will increase the size and improve the quality and appearance of the fruit, an excess will lessen the size and injure the quality. Basins or checks can often be used to advantage when the ground is uneven or slojjing. They are formed bj^ scraping the soil away so as to form ring-like depressions about the trees, into which the water is turned. They should have a diameter equal to that of the branches, and the amount of water used should be suf&cient to cover the area occupied by the roots to the depth of at least an inch. Fig. 51. — Irrigatiug yoimg orchard with furrows, a, sluice ; b, head ditch ; c, furrows. AVhere water is not at hand for irrigating, good results can often be obtained by hauling it in tanks or barrels and running it into the basins, using from 1 to 2 barrels for each peach, pear, or plum tree from 5 to 10 years old. As soon as the water has soaked in, the dry soil should be replaced to prevent evaporation. The method of watering strawberries and other small fruits is not unlike that used for vegetables. The water is run down the center of the rows in furrows, or, better yet, close alongside the rows. If the ground is very dry in the spring, a good watering may then be given, but after growth has started no water should be given until the fruit has set, after which the irrigation ma}'' be kept up as needed at intervals of two or three weeks until the fruit is gathered. Aii excejjt the grape may need an occasional application after that time, and if the ground is dry as winter comes on an ax^plicatlon at that time is desirable. IRRIGATION FOR THE GARDEN AND GREENHOUSE. 243 COST OF IRRIGATING. The expense of an irrigating plant and the cost of operating it will depend upon the distance the water has to be raised and carried to get it upon the land, as well as the method of moving it. A windmill, with pump, well, and reservoir, suitable for from 3 to 5 acres, should not cost more than from $300 to $500, if the water does not have to be raised more than 40 feet, and there would be comparatively little expense for ojierating it. A pum^jing plant, operated by a steam or gasoline engine, suitable for 20 acres and capable of supplying oO or GO acres, would cost i)erhaps $1,000. The cost of fuel for the latter would perhaps be 15 cents per acre for elevating the water required for one application, reckoning it at 1 cent per horsepower for each hour operated, while for the steam engine it would be about twice that amount. Using a steam engine and a centrifugal pump, water for one application for 10 acres can be raised 40 feet for about $4, including cost of attendance, and $5 will distribute it upon the land, making the cost, aside from the interest upon the investment, rather less than $1 per acre. With a gasoline engine it would be $1.50 for fuel and $5 for applying the water, or G5 cents per acre for each ai)plication. PROFITS FROM IRRIGATING. At the high estimate of $1,000 for a pumping sj'stem for 20 acres and of 10 per cent for interest and depreciation of machinery, irriga- tion is certainl}'^ a good investment for fruits and vegetables, as num- berless instances could be given where the gains in a single season from the use of water repaid not only the expense of operating, but the entire cost of the plant. The expense for a steam i)ump is figured at 90 cents per acre, and with a gasoline engine at 65 cents, for each application. If water is used three times during the season, it will make the cost for an acre $2.70 and $1.95, respectively'', for the two systems. Adding 10 per cent of the cost of the plant, or $5 per acre, it gives $7.70 for steam and $6.95 for gasoline engines as the entire cost of irrigating an acre of land three times in a season. When steam is used, it costs no more for attendance and but little more for fuel to pump the water for 10 acres per day than for 2, so that the cost for small areas would be slightly more, but $10 per acre would bo a high estimate when the conditions are fairly favorable. Tlio irrigating system at the Michigan Agi-icultural College has the past summer given good illustrations of the benefits of irrigation in a dry season. It covers 10 acres of small fruits and vegetables, and ha* a 3-inch supply pipe from the river, with 2|-inch distributing pipes leading to hydrants at convenient points. The power is supplied from the regular pumping station, so that definite figures as to cost and exi)euse of oi)erating can not be given. 244 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The crop of small fi-uits was greatly injured by frost, but where water was used no ill effects from the drought were observed, although the unirrigated sections Avere so dry that the orop was ruined. Careful records were kept of the yield of the various vegetable crops, and the results from the use of water, as compared with unir- rigated i>lats, showed a decided gain. In every instance the plats without water were given the advantage in soil and location, if there was a difference, and probably profited to some extent from seepage water. The tomatoes and potatoes were irrigated four times, and the other crops received three applications of about 1 inch each. The cabbage croj) suffered most of all, perhaps, as where water was not used less than half formed heads of marketable size, and these were small. Of the Early Jersey Wakefield there were 5,000 more marketable heads per acre obtained by the use of water, and the weight was 11,325 pounds»gTeater. The Henderson Early Summer showed a gain of 4,826 heads and 21,959 pounds in weight. At 2 cents per head the gain per acre would average nearl}^ $100. A gain of 200 bushels per acre was obtained with the irrigated tomatoes, which at 25 cents i^er l)ushel would amount to $50, or five times the expense of applying the water. Snap beans showed a gain of 300 bushels, and early peas of 100 bushels per acre. Some of the potatoes were watered twice before blossoming, others twice after blossoming, and a third lot four times — twice before and twice after bossoming. The gain upon the latter was 129^ bushels; two early waterings gave a gain of 42^ bushels, and two late applications showed a gain of 50^ bushels over unirrigated plats. Particularly in the case of peas, beans, and cabbages, the increase in the quality was nearly as marked as in the quantity. Similar results have been obtained by several of the experiment stations, and in many instances market gardeners and fruit growers who have practiced irrigation have jnade an even better showing. IRRIGATION FOR THE GREENHOUSE. From the very nature of the case, plants grown under glass can not obtain a supply of water either from the clouds above or from the underlying soil, and if they are to maintain their growth it must be applied artificially. The common method of applying it through a hose or from a watering pot requires a man of experience and good judgment, as it is desirable to apply enough to moisten the soil with- out saturating it. Surface watering at the best packs the soil, thus preventing its proper aeration, promotes the develoijment of slime and mosses upon its surface, and, particularly during the cloudy days of winter, keeps the surface of the soil in a damp condition, although the roots may be suffering from lack of water. In many cases, too, the water lodges in the axils of the lower leaves of the IRRIGATION FOR THE GARDEN AND GREENHOUSE. 245 plants, and by keeping them moist promotes the development of the spores of parasitic fungi. To lessen the labor of watering greenhouses, various sprinkling arrangements have been tried. Some of these consist of sprinklers that can be moved from point to point in the houses, while others are arranged at intervals upon pipes so as to water considerable areas at one time. While some of these arrangements maj* be labor savers, thoy have all of the disadvantages of surface watering; while the fact that all parts of the house may not require the same amount of water, and that unless carefully watched a surplus of water is likely to be applied, renders them impracticable. Greenliouse sub irrigation. — During the past four .years various methods of applying the water below the surface have been tried and for many crops have shown decided advantages over surface watering. The first attempt at greenhouse subirrigation was made under the direction of Prof. W. J. Green at the Ohio Experiment Station, in 1890-91, with the hope of preventing lettuce rot. The result upon the gi'owth of the plants was so marked that it was repeated upon a larger scale and with a variety of plants. Similar experiments have been tried and the results published by the West Virginia and the Michigan experiment stations. While applicable to pot plants, it is generally used for those planted out in beds. These may be raised benches made of wood, or of iron supports with tile or slate bottoms, or they may be what are termed solid beds, resting directly upon the soil. In either case they should be practically water-tight. With wooden benches it is desirable that the supports should be close enough to prevent the sagging of the boards. The bottoms were formerly made of clear, matched lumber, laid in white lead, but for several years ordinary barn boards free from loose knots have been used at the Michigan Station. If these are laid close together and firmly nailed to the stringers to prevent their humping, they will, when wet, swell sufficiently to close the cracks. The writer generally lays the boards across the beds upon stringers running lengthwise of the house. To close the remaining cracks and to preserve the lumber it is well to coat the inside of the bed with a cement made of one part of water lime and three of sharp sand. This should be made into a thick paste and spread over the surface about one-fourth of an inch thick. For a bed with tile or slate bottoms a similar covering will render them sufficiently tight (fig. 52). In case a solid bed is used, a tight bottom about 8 inches below the intended level of the bed is necessary. If the subsoil is stiff clay, it may be puddled and will then hold water, but it will generally be better to spread an inch or so of gravel and, after thoroughly ramming it, to place over the surface three-fourths of an inch of cement pre- pared as above. The beds should have sides of the same material 3 inches high. 246 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The best way of distributing tlie water is by means of 2|-incli drain tiles, placed either lengthwise or across the beds at intervals of 3 or 4 feet. If the line is not over 50 feet in length, they may be placed npon a level, but for greater lengths the line should have a slope of 1 or 2 inches in 50 feet. To learn if the water is circulating properly, it is well to make an opening into the tiles once in 20 feet, into which a small flowerpot can be set. In lajdng the tiles care should be taken that the cracks between them are of an even size. As a rule, it will be found that they have become slightly curved in baking, so that the ends are not square, and if the convex sides are placed upper- most there will be a small opening at the under side large enough to allow the water to escape freely. If thought desirable, several lines ^A/\ ^ Fia. 52. —Water Tjencli for greenhouse. of tile can be so connected at one end that they may all be fiUed from o]ie hose, or faucets may bo arranged so as to supply water in any desired amount to the different lines. The water can be admitted through sewer-pipe elbows, or by raising the end of the last tile so that it will show above the surface. One-inch gas pipes with one-fourth-inch holes every foot have also been tried at the Michigan Station. While good results were obtained, the openings frequently became clogged and the water was not given off as freely as when tiles were used, so that a longer time was required to water the beds. Besides being cheaper the use of tiles seems in every way preferable. In a general way subirrigation in greenhouses shows about the same advantages over surface irrigation as are found in the garden, but while the saving in time of watering and in the amount of water required is even greater in proportion, the direct benefits, especially reduction of time (10-25 per cent) required for maturing, are of still more importance. THH HEALTH OF PLANTS IN GREENHOUSES. By B. T. Galloavay, Chief of the Division of Veydahle Physiology and Paiholorjy, U. S. Department of Agriculture. The cultivation of plants in greenhouses, or, using the broader term, under glass, is rapidly assuming large proportions. In 1890 there were 4,659 establishments in the United States devoted to commercial llower growing. These represented a capital of over §30,000,000, and gave employment to nearly 20,000 men and women. ^ Eighty per cent of this business was developed in the twenty-five years prior to 1890; in fact, it may properly be said that commercial floriculture, as existing when the foregoing facts were collected, was practically a creation of the preceding quarter of a centuiy. For the past five years the business has been growing fully as rapidly as dui-- ing any similar period, so that there is probably now no less than $35,000,000 or $40,000,000 invested in this work. It must be remem- bered that this represents only the commercial floral business. When ^\'c take into consideration the capital invested in the growing of veg- etables and fruits under glass, and that expended by amateurs and others not strictly engaged in commercial work, the aggregate sum iuvested will probably reach ^50,000,000 or §00,000,000. As this work has grown and as its imi^ortance has increased, the methods followed in the production of the various crops have under- gone most radical changes. Up to a few years ago the plants grown in nearly all ordinary commercial greenhouses were of a mixed char- acter. Roses, carnations, palms, and ferns might frequcntlj^ be found in one house, where they were watched over and cared for by one or more men, without any systematic attempt at a division of labor, so far as the individual requirements of the plants were concerned. This practice was simply the result of the demands of the times, there being no occasion for a concentration of effort in any particular direc- tion. All this lias changed, however, within the past few years, for with the advent of different ideas the public has become more crit- ical, and as a result specialization is now a marked feature of the business. With this feature becoming more and more prominent, competition is growing keener and keener, and greater energy must therefore be used in producing a crop that will not only hold its own, but will force its way to the front in the market. To accomplish this 'U. S. Census Bull., Floriculture in the United States. 247 248 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. necessitates a thorough knowledge of the requirements of each crop, how to keep each in j^erfect health, and how to manage the conditions so that the maximum of profit will be attained at the minimum of labor and expense. This knowledge can not be gained from books, but must be obtained by long experience and rigid attention to details. There are certain fundamental principles, however, which underlie all work of this kind, and a knowledge of these is often sufficient to make the difference between success and failure. It is of some of these principles that the writer proposes to speak, hoping that what is said will be of value to the ideal type of gardener — the man who can aid, guide, and adA^ance his practical, intuitive skill by intelligence, foresight, and the ability to experiment and to profit by the work. HEALTH AND DISEASE. The growth of every plant is influenced by numerous factors — soil, heat, light, water, and air all having their effects. As the factors vary so does the plant in its habit of groAvi:h, in the quantity and qual- ity of its fruit, leaves, or other parts, and in its ability to survive the influences which are constantly at work tending to destroy that which it has produced. The plant, in other words, is a constructive appa- ratus, governed by surrounding conditions over which it has no con- trol, but to which it can adapt itself within certain limits. If the conditions are properly regulated, an approximately ideal growth is attained. If, on the other hand, they are improperly fur- nished, the plant reacts to the influences and a departure from the ideal development is the result. This departure may be in the nature of a derangement of the functions of the plant and may result in sickness and death. The sickness may be simply due to a combina- tion of influences acting on the vital forces of the plant, or it may be brought on by the presence of living organisms, as, for example, insects, fungi, etc. In the latter case the relation of the host, or the plant attacked, to the organism attacking it is exceedingly compli- cated, but it is not the purpose to enter upon a discussion of that question here. Suffice it to say that the more nearly the ideal condi- tions of growth are approached, the less likelj'^ is the plant to succumb to attacks of such organisms. On the other hand, the departure from the ideal growth may be in different directions; in fact, the remark- able susceptibility of a plant to surrounding influences, or, in other words, its plasticity, is seldom appreciated. For example, an American Beauty rose grown under certain conditions may give buds 3 inches in diameter, with stems 36 inches long. A cutting from the same plant grown under different conditions may give buds only 1 inch in diameter, with stems correspondingly short. In both cases the plants are healthy in the strict sense of the word, but the usefulness of one is so much affected by its size and other characteristics that it may properly be said to have no market value. So far, therefore, as THE HEALTH OF PLANTS IN GREENHOUSES. 249 the commercial grower is concerned, such a plant as the one last men- tioned is lacking in health, for to him health means the most profitable and renmnerative development. It is in this sense that we shall discuss the subject, pointing out, from the standpoint of physiology, some of the more important factors which lead to the highest and best development of the crop. THE SOIL. One of the most important questions with everyone growing plants under glass is the soil, for upon a proper understanding of this de- pends in large measure success or failure in the work. While science luis done a great deal to advance our knowledge of the relation of soils to the growth of plants, there yet remains much to be accom- plished in the practical interpretation and application of the knowl- edge gained. The men to-day most familiar in a practical way with tlie requirements of different plants, so far as soils are concerned, are those actuallj^ engaged in agricultural and horticultural pursuits. By the appearance of the soil to the eye and by the waj^ it feels when taken in the hand, a gardener can tell pretty accurately whether a certain soil will be suitable for a certain kind of crop. This knowl- edge is largely intuitive, and has been gained by long experience and close observation. Speaking generally, it may be said that the perfect development of any plant, so far as the soil is concerned, depends upon two funda- mental considerations: (1) The presence of the necessary amount of suitable food, and (2) the physical properties of the soil — that is, its texture and its relation to heat, air, and water. That growth is dependent on the presence of proper food in the soil is now well understood, but how to supply this food so as to obtain the largest yields at the least expense is a problem of the utmost importance to everyone growing plants under glass for commercial purposes. As the work is now carried on, there are but few crops where it is practicable or desirable to add sufficient food at the start to carry the plant through the full season of growth. Feeding must be done tlirough the entire growing period, and to do this properly is one of the most important problems with which the commercial grower has to deal. The relation of the physical properties of the soil — texture, temper- ature, and moisture — to plant growth is not so well understood noi ai)preciated. It is obvious that these are not intimately connected witli the chemical properties (food supi)ly); in fact, it is a matter of common observation that the mere presence of an abundant supply of food is not sufficient to make a good crop, even though other con- ditions outside of the soil are to all intents and purposes perfect. This is well illustrated in the growing of roses, carnations, and other flowers. Certain varieties of roses and carnations may be grown to a high stale of jierfection in some section.s, using, of course, proper 250 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. judgment and skill in the management of the conditions. In other sections, and they need not be remote, it is difficult to get a perfect crop, although the skill of the grower may bo fully as great as in the former case, and the use of manure as food may have been fully as judiciously made. In such cases the texture and structure of the soil, which involve also the capacity of the latter for heat, moisture, air, etc., may be the basis of the trouble, and all these have a direct influ- ence on food supiDly. By texture is meant the character of the particles which make up a soil, while structure has to do with the arrangement of these particles and their relation to each other. The particles, or grains, of which soils are composed vary greatly in size, and to distinguish them they have received certain conventional names, such as clay, fine silt, silt, fine sand, sand, etc. The clay j^articles are extremely minute, silt grains are larger, and so on until we have coarse sand or gi-avel, with grains 2 mm. in diameter. ^ Upon the amounts of the various constituents present, i. e., clay, fine silt, silt, fine sand, etc., will depend the porosity of the soil, the readiness with which air penetrates it and water moves through it, its water-holding capacity, and, finally, its temperature. "^ It will be seen, therefore, that the texture and structure of a soil have an important bearing on the development of the plant, affecting not only the growth of the roots, leaves, stems, and flowers, but the relative proportion of these and their relation to each other. By varying the texture of a soil, its water content is varied, its capacity for heat is modified, and so on, until every important factor, including food, in the ordinary acceptance of the word, is involved. To these variations the plant adapts itself, and the result may be excessive leaf development, with few or no flowers, or vice versa; a weakened condition of the tissues, making the iDlant subject to the attacks of parasitic enemies, especially fungi, and so on through a list of other possibilities. To illustrate, we may have a rose grown in a soil of a certain texture and structure. The water capacity of this soil is most favorable for growth, and may be represented by 10. The capacity for heat, permeability to air, and the readiness with which water moves through it are also ideal, and may each be repre- sented by 10. These conditions may so act on the food in the soil as to place it at the disposal of the plant in the most suitable form, so that food supply may also be represented by 10. Suppose, now, the texture of the soil is modified by the addition of clay: the water con- tent of the soil is changed, this in turn affects the access of air and also the temperature, and the food supply is involved by the effects of the different changes on certain soil organisms, which play an important part in the matter of food. As a result of these various » Whitney, Bull. No. 4, Weather Bureau, U. S. Department of Agriculture, s Wollny, Experiment Station Record, 1893, Vol. IV, p. 529. THE HEALTH OF PLANTS IN GREENHOUSES. 251 combinations and changes, we niaj^ have the water capacity of the soil rcprosentcd by 12; capacity for heat, permeability to air, readiness with which water moves, 8; food supply, 8, etc. It will thus be seen that the plant in this case has an entirely different sot of factors to which it must adapt itself, and in doing this it may so modify its develoiimciit as to become unprofitable; that is, the new set of factors may give a good leaf development at the expense of flowers, or if a certain leaf development is wanted, as in the case of plants like let- tuce, the color and texture may be changed to such an extent as to make the crop unprofitable. It will, of course, bo recognized that in the growth of i)lants under- glass the conditions surrounding them are under far better control than those outside. Hence the gardener who grows i)lants in green- houses has a wider range in the use of soils than he who grows them outside, for if the texture is not exactly suited to the requirements of his plants, he may partly overcome the difficulty by the judicious use of water and rigid attention to other conditions. There is a limit, however, beyond which even he can not go, and the nearer he ap- proaches this limit the more care he must exercise in his work, other- wise the x>lants will suffer. The nearer the ideal soil conditions for each crop are attained, the less, othe» things being equal, will be the difficulties in the way of successful crop production. Owing to the fact that we have no definite rules to follow in this matter, it would be well for everyone growing plants on a large scale to have constantly under way experiments to obtain light on the sub- ject. Such experiments may be made on a small scale, will cost but little, and would doubtless be the means of bringing many interesting facts to light. Some soils that do not give the best results for certain crops might bo greatly imi)roved by the addition of clay, sand, or silt ; in fact, there is any number of combinations in this direction that might bo used to advantage. WATER, HEAT, AND LIGHT. The importance of water in the gi'owth of plants under glass has already been briefly referred to in discussing the question of soils. It is hardly necessary to say that the proper use of this eleineut is the ke3-noto to success; in fact, it has been truly said that he who does not know how to water plants does not know how to grow them. No absolute rules can bo laid down for the use of this all-important material, as knowledge on such matters can be gained only by expe- rience and the closest observation. As pointed out in discussing the soil, the amount of air it con- tains has an important bearing on the health and vigor of the plant. Water plays a very important part in this matter, for the more water there is in the soil the less space will there be for air. T?y the im- proi)er use of water, therefore, air is excluded from tlie soil and vari- 252 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ous complications are brouglit about, all of Avliich directly affect the health, vigor, and productiveness of the jjlants. One of the results of the improper use of water in a soil naturally heavy is the forma- tion in the roots of plants of alcohol and other substances destructive to growth. The roots in such cases are slowly suffocated, and the gradual decline and death of the plant is the result. The improper use of water may affect plants in another way. The soil may be made a little too wet, and the air in the houses may also be oversupplied with moisture. These conditions are most likely to occur in winter. As a result of this certain changes are brought about in the tissues which make them more subject to the attacks of para- sites, especially fungi, and also render them liable to other injuries, such as burning, scald, spot, etc. Although not generally recognized, the method of applying water may have a decided effect on the growth of the plant by changing the structure of the soil, i. e., the arrangement of the soil grains and their relation to each other. It will be seen that the continuous and more or less forcible application of water to the surface of a soil on a greenhouse bench T\dll have effects similar to dashing rains out of doors, that is, it will compact and puddle the soil and wash the smaller materials to the bottom, thereby changing its capacity for a,ir, heat, etc. , and thus directly influencing the development of the plant. The soil should be kept open at all times to the free access of air. This may be done by keeping the surface stirred, by careful attention to watering, andy as is frequently done, by using a light mulch of manure or some suitable material to break the force of the falling water. The importance and necessity of a proper amount of heat and light in greenhouses are well understood. It is very often the case, how- ever, that the smaller details in matters of this kind are overlooked or neglected, and the plants in consequence suffer. Different plants, as is well known, require different temperatures for their best devel- opment. These differences, as is also well known, vary not only with different varieties and forms of plants, but also with the different stages in the growth of the same. The plant in its relation to heat has been likened to a steam engine.^ When the tension of the steam is slight, the machine is barelj'' able to overcome the friction of its own parts, and under such circumstances can do little or no work. As the tension of the steam is increased, the efficiency of the engine becomes greater and greater, until finally it reaches a point where tlie verj^ best work is done. If the tension of the steam is increased beyond this point, the parts of the machine become strained, and the whole will eventually break down unless relieved of the jiressure put upon it. In the case of a plant there is a point in the temperature barely sufficient to awaken the vital energies of the organism. With increasing heat ' Sachs, Physiology of Plants. THE HEALTH OF PLANTS IN GREENHOUSES. 253 the vital forces of the plant increase, until a point is reached when the best growth is made; beyond this point the plant suffers, and is eventually killed if the temperature continues to increase. In considering the question of heat, the importance of soil tempera- ture and its relation to the temperature of the air must not be over- looked. Unless the proper conditions are maintained in this respect, an ideal development can not be reached, and the plants, in addition to developing characters that make them unprofitable, are frequently made more subject to disease. A striking example of the latter is found in the case of lettuce when forced under glass. At certain stages of gi'owth the plant in question is much subject to burn or scald, and for this reason it is often rendered wholly unfit for market. The burn is primarily brought about by the rapid evaporation of moisture from the leaves at a time when the roots are not able to sup- ply the demand for water. The temperature of the soil has a marked effect on root action, and in this way the supplj^ of water made avail- able to the leaves is influenced. If the soil is cold, or, in other words, if the relation of its temperature to that of the air is improper, the roots can not furnish the water as fast as it is needed, and in conse- quence the tender tissues of the plant above ground simply collapse. The value of light in the growth of plants is not always fully appre- ciated. It is a common occurrence to see plants which require strong light for their development struggling for existence in dark houses half buried in the ground. "Within recent years, however, there has been a marked improvement in the manner of constructing green- houses, and there is no doubt that the improvement in many of the crops now gi*own can be attributed to the recognition of the fact that proi)erly regulated light is one of the fundamental factors in the growth of crops under glass. It must be borne in mind that we can have rapid growth even in feeble light, provided the necessary heat and other necessary condi- tions are present. Such growth, however, is not accompanied by proper nutrition and, if continued, the plant finallj'' grows itself to death, A familiar example of this is found in the case of a potato, which may sprout and grow in a warm, dark cellar, and yet so long as light is excluded there is little or no actual gain in weight. Light, therefore, is the energy which builds uj) the tissues, and unless it is properly regulated the plant will eventually suffer. Although light is exceedingly important in the develoiDment of plants, it may act injuriously if too intense. This is frequently seen in midsummer in the case of i)lants growing out of doors, where the foliage, exposed to the full rays of the sun, fade out and turn yellow, the whole plant having a sick, leathery look, the leaves being smaller and the branches more or less stunted. The same thing may often be seen in green- houses, especially as spring advances and the light becomes strong. The necessity for properly regulating light by shading is here shown, 254 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. but it is too often the case that proper judgment is not exorcised in the matter. Remembering the role of light in the growth of plants, it will bo seen that any attempt at lessening its intensity should 1>e made gradually, so as to give the plant an opjDortunity to accommo- date itself to the changed conditions. SELECTION AS A MEANS OF INCREASING THE VIGOR OP PLANTS. Within every plant there is an inherited disposition to develop along certain lines, and at the same time there are numerous influences operating from without which tend to advance, retard, or wholly restrict such development. It follows, therefore, that there is a constant struggle between the vital forces inherited by the plant and the con- ditions of its environment. In view of this fact, it will be seen how necessary and imjDortant it is to start with a plant having sufficient inherent force to enable it to attain the highest possible develop- ment. This, after all, is the basis of success, for if a plant possesses only sufficient inherent qualities to develop to a certain point, no amount of care, energy, or labor can, as a rule, make it go beyond that point. To understand this matter fully, we must loolc upon the plant not as an individual, but as a community of individuals, each of which is in a certain sense struggling for existence. This is the case with a rose, a carnation, a ^aolet, or any similar plant which the gardener grows. Each joint of the stem with the leaf and bud attached will, as we know, grow into a new plant when placed under the proj^er con- ditions. This, therefore, is an individual, so far as avo are at present concerned, and as such possesses certain characters which may or may not differ from all other similar parts of the parent plant. These characters may be in the nature of a more vigorous constitution, a tendencj'- to throw larger flowers and many of them or the reverse, a predisposition to disease, an imperfect leaf development, and so on through a number of possibilities. It is hardly necessarj'^ to enter upon a discussion as to how these differences are brought about. Suffice it to say that they are not generally recognized ; in fact, it is only when the changes are so great as to bring about an extreme form, or "sport," that attention is called to them. It needs little argument, however, to prove that they exist, for everyone who propagates plants by cuttings knows that hardly any two of them possess exactly the same characters. Starting with two rooted cuttings from the same plant, and growing them under as nearly the same conditions as possible, one may give a plant that will bloom freely, forming flowers of large size, and its loaf development may also be perfect, while the other may be a vegetable runt, lacking in vigor of leaf and utterly unable to give anj^thing but small and imper- fect flowers. The importance, therefore, of proper selection in propa- gating all plants by cuttings can not be too strongly emphasized. THE HEALTH OF PLANTS IN GREENHOUSES. 255 This is especially true in such plants as roses, carnations, violets, etc., grown for their flowers. lu considering this matter, however, our first proposition must not be overlooked, viz, that growth is influenced by two forces, the inherited disposition within and the conditions of the environment. The first effort, then, of the gardener should be to start with cuttings which he knows by observation will fulfill as nearly as possible the ideal condi- tions as regards vigor, the ability to flower, or whatever the require- ments may be. But this is not all, y™K. for the method of treating the cut- ting after it is removed from its vigorous parent ]uay largel3' influ- ence its future growth and value. The cutting, so far as appearances go, when taken ]nay be vigorous, yet its tissues may be immature or too old, and in either case a wealc plant, if one is obtained, will, in all probability, be the result. We may illustrate this matter by the accompanying cuts (half natural size), made from photograjihs of violet cuttings of various kinds. Fig. 53 shows two cuttings, or ratlier two rooted offshoots, one- half natural size, of a i^lant whioli was in good health and was making growtli rapidly. The probabilities are that these cuttings would never make good jflants. The stems, as can be seen from the leaf scars, are liard, their tissues being flxed and almost incapable of further growth. The roots also are tough and hard, and therefore are of very little use to the plant. Such plants when set out may struggle along and live for a year, but will always be stunted and will seldom, if ever, pay for the space they occupy. In fig. 54: is shown anotlier tyi)e of cutting, in this case immature or soft wood being used. Such cuttings are very likely to damp off while being rooted, and are also very subject to spot and gther diseases. If successfully rooted they are apt to make plants that are Aveak, i)rone to disease, and lacking in al)ility to make good flowers and many of them. Fig. 55 shows another typo of cutting, which may have vigor enough at the start, but which, OAving to the way it is made, will never form a good plant. T]iere is not sufficient stem to anchor the plant in the Fig. 5:3.— Violet cuttings from old wood. 256 YEAKBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Fio. 54.— Violet cuttings i'rom mature wood. Fig. 55.— Violet cutting with insufficient stem. ground and in consequence it will roll around, and every time a flower or leaf is pulled some of the roots will be broken. Fig. 56 shows an ideal tj^pe of cutting, one that under proper conditions of soil, moisture, heat, etc., will make a vigorous, free-growing plant. In this case the tis- sues were neither too young nor too old, and the mass of young, active, working roots is ready to begin work as soon as the plant is placed in the soil. In addition to the forego- ing considerations, the im- portant factors of water, heat, air, and light must not be overlooked in deal- ing with cuttings of all soft-wooded plants. The cutting, as soon as it is severed from the i^arent plant, becomes an independent constructive ap- paratus, and as such it must be surrounded with the proper conditions for work. * Light is especially important, for here, as in the growth of the plant proper, it fur- nishes the energy for the m a u u f a c t u r e of food, from which, in this case, the new roots are devel- oped. Briefly, every ef- fort should be made to surround the young plant with the very best conditions for its devel- opment, as a check at this time, while appar- ently a trivial matter, may in the end cut a seri- ous figure ill the returns. We have now briefly reviewed some of the more important factors which may influence the vigor, productiveness, FxG.50.— Ideal type of violet cuttings from mature wood. -i .cj. i i j! and profitableness of plants grown under glass. The man who would succeed in this work must by patience, vigilance, and constant care learn to see and feel what his plants require and spare no effort to meet their every need. PRINCIPLES OF PRUMNO AND CARE OF WOUNDS IN WOODY PLANTS. By Albert F. Woods, Assistant Chief, Diinsion of Vegetable. Physiology and Pathology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. The purpose for which any particular tree is grown must always be kept clearl}' in mind. If grown for wood, it will require one kind of treatment; if cultivated for fruit, it will require another; if grown for sluide and artistic purposes, still another treatment maj^ be needed. The tree, like any other iDlant, is greatly influenced by conditions of environment, such as light or heavj'' soil, the amount of water and air which the soil contaihs, the character of the subsoil, and the gen- eral climatic conditions of the region. It is necessary to know how the plant responds to these various factors, and how different com- binations of conditions i^roduce different effects. Even after the grower has selected a tree naturall}^ adapted to certain conditions, it will still be necessary to more or less control growth, according to the needs in view. Growth may be controlled in a number of ways, one of the most important of wliich is pruning or cutting off certain parts of the plant. Xo popular notion is more erroneous than that any person can prop- erly i)rune a tree, transplant it, or successfully care for it in other ways. The knowledge of the experienced horticulturist is often taxed to the utmost wlien dealing with these questions. It is folly, there- fore, to leave tlie care of trees to inexperienced men. The exjjeri- enced grower does not blindly follow a set of rules in this matter. He has learned by observation to adapt his treatment to the varying needs of his plants, but his actions are governed bj' fundamental principles, and a knowledge of these would be a great help in enabling him to adapt the treatment to varying conditions. The purpose of this paper is to point out some of the principles in phint physiology u])()n wlilch llic practice of pruning depends, for the benefit of those who have not already learned by experience when to prune, how to prune, and how to care for the wounds produced. CiENERAL STRUCTURE OF WOODY PLANTS. In practically all woody plants, except the palms and their relatives, four general groups of tissues may be distinguished in the trunk and brandies, namely, bark, cambium, wood, and pitli. These various A 'JS 9 257 258 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. parts are shown in lig. 57, Avhere it is seen that the bark, b, forms the outer covering; the cambium, e, is a thin, slimj' layer between the bark and wood; the wood, w, forms the greater jjortion of the stem; and the pith, p, makes up the central portion. Tlie cambium is the most imi^ortant of these tissues, from the stand- point of this paper. It is a thin layer, made of brick-shaped cells. These have very thin walls, which are easily torn, especially in the growing season. It is the cambium which gives way when the bark is stripped from the wood. Daring the growing season the cam- bium cells divide, giving rise on the inside to a layer of wood cells, consisting mainly of libers and vessels or their equivalent, while toward the outer side at the same time a layer of bark cells is formed. A thin layer of cam- bium cells is left l)etween the new I) ark and the jiew wood to re- peat the process of forming a new layer during the next period of jvrowth. This or- dinarily occurs the next year, but may take place the same season, accord- ing to circum- stances. Tlu'se layers are read- ily distinguished in most trees and shrubs, and are called annual rings (fig. 57). The l)ark layers are also in rings, l)ut are usually less evident than the layers of wood. In all trees, except some with smooth bark, the outer bai-k lay<'rs soon cease growing, and as successive ones are formed underneath, the outer layers are split and torn, and either peel off, as in the cherry, plum, sycamore, Chinese quince, birch, sassafras, etc., or remain and form roughened projections, as in all rough-barked trees, as shown in fig. 64. Sometimes these outer layers sjjlit with difficulty, thus sub- jecting the growing cambium to great pressure, often so great that it almost stops growth. Trees in this condition are said to be "hide- bound. "' The remedy is to scrape off the old l)ark or cut longitudinal Fii;. u*.— Cross section of trunk of sassafras tree, photographc;! nat- ural .size, b, bark; c, cambium; ic, wood; p, pith. Tlie annual layers or rings show both in wood and bark. PRUNING AND CARE OF WOUNDS IN WOODY PLANTS. 259 slits in it, thus giving the underlying layers an opportunity to form. Only the outer bark should be scraped off, but the slits may be cut down to living tissue. The same end may be reached by fertilizing and cultivating the trees, thus stimulating growth. The cambium thus stimulated is able to break the outer bark. The cambium is the only tissue which retains the power of active growth. Tlie wood and bark layers formed from it remain alive for several years after thej' have completed their growth, but after this they die and become use- less except as protective and supporting tissues. There is an excep- tion to this rule in some smooth-barked trees, where the bark remains alive and retains the power of growth for many j^ears. Except in the youngest twigs, therefore, the heartwood and all except the youngest sapwood is iDractically dead. The same is true of the outer bark layers where they remain attached to the stem during successive sea- sons of growth. Some of the inner bark cells outside the cambium retain the power of growth and produce cork cells. THE ROOT. For the purpose of this jiaper, the root may be considered as sim- ply a branched extension of the stem under ground. The cambium of the stem, being continuous with that of the root, forms at each period of growth a layer of wood cells on the inside and bark cells on tlio outside. An old root, therefore, usually shows concentric layers, similar to those of the stem, the inner and older wood layers being dead, while those bordering on the cambium and a few deeper layers are living, as in the stem. The same is true of tlie bark. All except the younger layers have become corky and have lost the I)ower of growth and of absorbing Abater. It is only the younger roots, with living bark, therefore, that are able to supply the plant with water and what is dissolved in it. If these feeding roots are destroyed or are very greatly injured in transplanting or in any other way, new ones will have to be produced before the plant can make any healthy growth. These new roots start from the cambium layer underneath tlie bark and most readily from the younger roots. In removing large trees or shrubs the feeding roots are often destroyed and the older roots may be ver}^ slow about sending out new ones, especially when the old roots have a strongly develoi^ed bark, when the soil temperature is too low, and when there is not enough mois- ture in the soil. If leaves are formed before tlie new roots are devel- oped, the moisture of the stem is soon exlmusted and the plant dies. The most important point to keep in mind, therefore, in moving any plant is that it must have enough feeding roots to support top growtli when it starts. To insure this, the top is usually cut back to correspond with the quantity of roots left. Some planters seem to think that this is all that is required. They cut the top down to a pole in late winter or early spring, choj) the roots off a few feet f I'om 260 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the trunk, and move the tree to its new locality. If it happens to be a tree like a pear or a peach, which produces new roots readily and has enough nourishment stored up in the trunk to furnish food for it and the new branches when they start, it may succeed in getting established before the hot summer weather comes on. However, if it is one of the harder woods (nut or ornamental trees) the chances are that under such treatment it will either die immediately or succumb after a struggle of a few years. In man}^ such trees the feeding roots are far removed from the main stem, and so are almost entirely lost in taking out the tree, no matter at what time of the year it is removed. It is much better, therefore, to cut some of the main lead- ers back early in the fall, the year before removal, making the cut clean and smooth with a saw, if the roots are large. The new roots will often start during the fall, and if not in too cold a region will make some growth during the winter and a great deal during the following spring and summer. B}^ the next fall a good supplj'^ of feeders will have started, and the tree may be quite safely moved to its new location without such severe cutting back. In the northern United States quite heavy mulching of transplanted trees is benefi- cial as a protection to the ground underneath from severe freezing and thawing. "While what has been said applies particularly to transplanting rather large trees, it also holds good in putting out those kinds of nursery stock in which the root development is inclined to be slow. In moving evergreens greater care is necessary than in moving de- ciduous trees, as the constant presence of the leaves on the former always keeps up a continuous demand for water. In transplanting a tree or any other plant every root that is cut or broken should be pruned smooth, with as little injury to the remain- ing tissue as possible. The cambium layer thus exposed, and often the young wcod and bark cells, grow over the wounded places, forming a cushion, or callus. The cambium layer between the modified bark and wood of the callus gives rise to new roots often more readilj'^ than the cambium of the older parts of the root, possibly on account of the greater resistance of the bark on the older portions. Where it is desired to hasten the development of secondary roots, it might pay to slit or partially remove the old bark at certain points, as in laj^ering. It is always necessary to keep the wounded ends from drying out, because drying kills the cambium and so prevents the healing of the wound. To accomplish this it is only necessary to keep the roots in moist soil or in some place not exposed to dry air. ROOT PRUNING. From what has been said it is evident that root pruning, when prop- erly done, has its uses in connection with transplanting, but even hero it may be looked upon as a necessary evil and is to be a\ oided to the PRUNING AND CAKE OF WOUNDS IN WOODY PLANTS. 261 greatest possible extent. The removal of dead or diseased roots baek to living tissue is, of course, always proper. Such roots are never of any value to the plant, and are always a source of danger. If they are cut back to living cambium and sound wood, th<^ wound will grad- ually heal by the production of a callus. A surface bruise, or wound, if it goes through to the cambium, should be cut back to living cam- bium on all sides with a sharp knife and the wound covered with moist soil. If it does not go through the bark, cork cells will be formed and it will requii-e no attention. Root pruning is souietimes resorted to as a clieck to rapid top growth, especially in young apple trees in the nursery when attacked by twig blight. If carefully done, it maj' ac- comi)lish the end sought Avithout great injury to the young trees. The stimulus which it gives to the production of new roots close to the trunk is valuable, as such roots are a decided advantage to trees which are to be moved. Root pruning to produce fruitfulness depends on the physiological principle which holds all through the vegetable kingdom, that a check to vegetative development induces the ftroduction of fruit. This check may be brought about in two very different waj'^s: One is by giving a check to the whole plant, as is the case in root pruning or severe top pruning, which removes many leaves during the growing season and thus cuts down the food supijly to the plant as a whole; the other way is to check the active growth in length of undesirable parts, thus leaving for other parts the nourishment which they would have used. The total food supply for the plant is not increased or diminished bj^ this process, but the food is more generall}' distributed. The first method, viz, checking the plant as a whole by root pruning or severe top pruning during active growth, must be practiced with great caution, as such a check is liable to result in permanent injury to the plants. Pinching back to secure distribution of growth, how- ever, is a different matter, few leaves being removed in this process. In this ca.se nearl}^ as much sugar is made by the plant as before, and it is left for the use of lateral buds and the annual layer of wood and bark in process of formation. Many of these lateral buds starting at once will usually not make a strong vegetative growth, so that the fruit buds may start with a good supply of available food to draw on. TOP PRUNING. The advisability of controlling the growth of a tree in any way dei)ends upon circumstances. In nature the growth of all plants is modified and controlled to a large extent by conditions of environ- ment. Thus a certain tree in the open field may have a short, thick trunk and a spreading top, while the same kind of a tree in the forest has a tall, slender trunk and narrow top. Vegetation on the liigh mountain sides and dry plains is low and spi-eading, while in the moist valleys and canyons the same kind of plants are large and well 262 YEAKliOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. developed. lu growing trees and shrubs for shade or artistic purposes it is usually most satisfactory to give them the opportunity of doing their best in their own way. In most cases, however, it is not what a plant naturally does, but what it can be made to do, that makes it valuable. It is this making plants do what we want them to do that constitutes cultivation. Prun- ing is one of the most common and valuable methods of directing and controlling the energies of plants. Whether or not it may be necessaiy to control them in any given case depends upon whether or not, under given circumstances, it will increase the effi- ciency of the plant for the purpose for which it is grown. In all pruning the fact should be kept in mind that the leaves make nearly all the food used by the living cells of a tree. If the leaves are removed, the cells must undergo a corre- sponding process of starvation until ucav leaves are formed. NATURAL PRUNING. Natural pruning is always taking place, especially in woodj' plants. The shedding of leaves and tAvigs is a familiar example. The death and gradual de- cay of branches, due to shading, starvation, injuries, may also be Pig. 58. —Trunk of maple showing hole left by decaying limb. various mechanical crowding, freezing, or placed under this head. There can be no question but that the artifi- cial removal of all branches which are dead or dying is beneficial to the plant. In the natural shedding of leaves or twigs a layer of cork- like cells is formed between the part to be cut off and the parent plant, so that when the leaves fall the process of healing is very soon com- pleled. In tlie death or decay of branches, however, no sucli natural cutting off occurs. The old stub remains for a long time, gradually decaying down into the larger limb or trunk, so that when it does fall it leaves a hole, in which water may gather and rot-producing fungi and bacteria develop, and thus spread decay in the sound wood. Fig. 58 shows a hole left by a limb which has decayed in this way. PRUNING AND CAKE OK W0UND8 IN WOODY PLANTS. 263 ir all such limbs were cut oft' close down to the shoulder, or enlarge- ment, at their base, the living cambium and bark would heal the wound ill the course of a few years, and the internal rotting would iisuall>- l)e avoided, especially if the larger wounds were painted over, as soon as di-y enough, witli coal tar. 'Phis kind of ])riminu-, at least, is applicable and beneticial to all trees, no matter for what purpose they are beiiigcultivated, and even if they are not being cultivated at all. It may be all that is required in park, shade, and ornamental trees, especially if the natural habit of the tree in question is suited, as it should be, to the lo- cality in which it is grown. This is not the case very often, however, liarticularly in parks and along streets, where modified conditions may demand a difilerent shaping of the tree. Any modifications necessary should be made here, as in all other cases, while the trees are young. If this precaution has been neglected, the change may liave to be made in older trees. In this case it must be done gradu- ally through a series of years, as severe cutting back at one time is dangerous, and unless carefully followed up by judicious after- pruning scarcely ever results in anything but a brush heai) for a top, and besides it weakens and stunts the future growth of the tree. Fig. 59 shows a soft maple cut off in this way and not properly cared for. PRUNING FRUIT TREES. In fruit trees especially, the object and value of pruning becomes most apparent. A fruit tree is in a certain sense a machine for manu- facturing fruit. The sole objects of its propagation and cultivation are (1) to obtain a plant that will do the best and most work for a given amount of money and labor expended upon it, and (2) to keep it in a condition so that it will continue to do this kind of work. Pruning is one of the most important means by which this is accom- plished. Pruning to shape the tree and keep it in shape is important so far as it relates to ease in culiivation, gathering the fruit, and spraying; also in relation to winds, supporting the weight of the fruit, protection of trunk and limbs from sun scald, etc. This includes Fig. 59.— Soft maple, cut back. 264 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. also pruning to distribute growth from one part to another, cutting out undesirable branches to give room and nourishment to those which are desired, and checking terminal branches to induce the development of laterals. All this is to keep the tree vigorous and well supplied with thrifty, fruit-i)roducing branches, and not allow it to spend more of its energy than necessary in making wood, for which the tree is not grown. The balance between vegetative and repro- ductive growth, or between wood and fruit, must be maintained. It is not, however, the object of this paper to give specific rules for securing these results, but rather to discuss the general principles on which such rules or practice should be based. The effect on the plant of pruning depends very largelj^ upon the time at which it is done. If the new wood growth is checked by removal or in any other way during active development, the growth of flowers and fruit will be stimulated. On the other hand, if the growth of flowers and fruit is checked, vegetative growth will be stim- ulated. The most active and vigorous parts of a plant are the ones which will get the most nourishment. "While these parts are making active growth, other parts will grow very slowly. The relation between vegetative and reproductive growth, however, is not wholly a matter of nourishment. There are two natural, inherent methods of reproduction in plants. The first is the production by the parent plant of vegetative buds, shoots, etc., which maj'^ be separated either naturally or artificially and new plants produced from them. It is this method of reproduc- tion that is stimulated when it is desired to proi)agate a plant rapidly by cuttings. Vegetative growth is therefore nothing more or less than vegetative reproduction, whether the buds and nodes produced are ever separated from the parent plant or not. The second method of reproduction is b}'^ the formation of seeds or fruit. The comparative strength of these tendencies depends on the age and environment of the plant and the purpose for which it is cultivated. In the case of annuals and biennials the life of the plant consists of two stages. During the first, the vegetative reproduction or growth predominates; during the second, reproduction by the formation of fruit predomi- nates, and after fruiting the plant dies. In perennials, such as our fruit trees, the same alternation between vegetative and fruit i-epro- duction may be traced, but it is more obscure, and the i^hases often overlap each other, because the ripening of the fruit is not followed by the death of the tree, but by a period of renewed vegetative growth. In fact, the two tendencies are present and active throughout the life of the plant, the one being predominant and then the other, in more or less regularly alternating periods. This periodicity between vegetative and fruit growth is what must be controlled by the successful cultivator, and pruning is often an important means to that end. If one kind of reproduction is getting PRUNING AND CARE OF WOUNDS IN WOODY PLANTS. 265 too much the advantage of the other, it is only necessary to check the predominant one. Cutting off developing vegetative buds and branclios, therefore, during the period of active vegetative reproduc- tion checks this phase, and the pushing of the fruit buds follows. Pruning to produce fruitfulness consists, therefore, iji pinching or cutting off the terminals of rapidly developing branches. If the tree is a very vigorous one, new vegetative shoots may start from the lat- eral buds, and these will have to be pinched back in the same way. AVhether or not this i)rocess will be necessary in order to regulate bearing will depend largely upon circumstances, such as the kind of tree, soil, climate, etc. The citrus fruits, for example, ai'e not jiinched back or headed in, because the fruit is borne near the ends of the branches and the i^rojier balance between the fruit and wood growth is maintained naturally. The only pruning necessary in California and Florida for these fruits is to keep the inside of the top clean from dead and useless branches. In California most fruit trees are inclined to bear early and overbear, so there pruning during the growing sea- son is seldom practiced, except where it is necessary to check rapid gi-owth. The same is often true with earlier varieties of fruits in the eastern and southern United States. Checking vegetative reproduction by root pruning has been suffi- ciently discussed in the first part of this paper. Another method often resorted to is to cut down the water supply by stopping cultivation and seeding to grass or clover or some deep-rooted crop which will dry out the soil, thus decreasing the supply of water to the trees. Grafting into a restraining stock, so much practiced in pear growing, where the trees so grafted are known as "dwarfs," is a valuable method of retarding vegetative development sufficiently to promote fruit development. OVERBEARING. With some fruit trees grown on a commercial scale the greatest difficulty is overbearing. The direct remedy for this rather desirable defect is to thin the fruit, or to remove it altogether in the case of very young trees, and to stimulate vegetative gi-owth by pruning when the tree is dormant, as described later. The principles under- lying this practice are the same as have been discussed in pruning to produce fruitfulness, but the check in this case is given to the fruit instead of the vegetative growth. It is a common thing, especially in orchards wliich have been allowed to take care of themselves, to find trees bearing a large crop of fruit only every other j'^ear. The large crop exhausts nearly all the food made during the season, so that the vegetative growth following is slow and pi'olouged. The remedy of thinning in connection with pruning usually restores the balance between wood and fruit growth, and fruit of much better quality is produced each year, besides restoring the development of vigorous wood which may continue to bear satisfactorily. 266 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. PRUNING FOR VEGETATI\'E (JROWTH. All the more general pruning for shaping the tree and keeping it vigorous and healthy is done during the dormant period in fall, win- ter, or very early spring. This, of course, does not check either phase of reproduction unless the fruit-bearing wood is all removed, as it sometimes is by inexperienced workmen. The puri)()se is to cut out all undesirable twigs and branches so as to leave all the stored-up food for the use of those left. Trees which have been stunted by overbearing, drought, or by any disease not j^ermanent may be stimu- lated to produce vigorous uewAvood in this way. Careful and system- atic pruning during the dormant season is the means most commonly used to keep the tree well supplied with vigorous bearing wood and to maintain the proper jjroportion between vegetative development and fruit production. It is essentially the renewal system so well known to grape growers. HEALING OF WOUNDS ON STEM AND BRANCHES. Attention has already been called to the point that all limbs and branches removed should be cut close down to the shoulder, so as not to leave a " stump" which will not heal over. Fig. GO shows an oak tree from which many of the upper limbs have been cut, leaving stumps. These ends are not healing, but are gradually dying down into the trunk. Some of the lower limbs have been cut i>roperly and are alreadj^ healed or in process of healing. The direction of the cut will depend largelj^ on the position of the branch, but it should always be sloping as much as possible, so that the water will drain off readily. It is very important that the liealing process start soon after the wound is made, otherwise the cambium will dry out and die quite a distance back from the exposed edge of the wound, and after this healing will be greatly retarded. One of the dangers of winter pruning comes from the freezing and drying out of the cambium on the edges of the wound. This is least liable to occur in fall and very early spring pruning. At these times tlie healing growth of the cambium starts very soon after the wound is made. In cutting off very large limbs it is always difficult to keep the tissues on the lower part of the wound from being bruised and torn. Of course, a tree should never be allowed to get into a condition where it becomes necessary' to remove a large limb. If tlie necessity should occur, however, two cuts should always be made, one several inches or a foot from the shoulder of the limb, to remove the weight and keep it from crushing the tissues which are to heal the wound. The piece left should then be cut close down to the shoulder, so that tlie healing rim may easily grow over the exposed surface. Large wounds should have the exposed surface protected bj^ grafting wax, grafting clay, or burned coal tar. The first two mixtures are best as a protection against drying out; the latter is the best protection against the starting of rot in the wood. PUUNING AND CAKE OF WOUNDS IN WOODY PLANTS. 267 Surface wouiicls in tho Iniiik or large limbs, if they do not extend tlirougli the cambium, Avill heal readily over the whole surface if they are kept from drying out. Grafting clay or grafting wax may be used as a dress- ing for this purpose, though tlie thick coal tar is just as good. Tf the wound ex- tends Ihrougli the cam- bium, it will only lical from the edges. Dead oi- dis- eased tissue must be re- moved and the wound treated as if it were a large limb cut otf, protecting the exposed surface with graft- ing clay or coal tar. If such wounds are not cleared of dead tissues, water collects under the bark, borers make it their starting point, fungi and bacteria develop, and the surrounding tissue rots as a result of their work. AVounds which have reached this condition can not be too quickly cleaned and put in a condition to heal. All holes should be j) lugged with wood. Fig. 61 shows the wood rotting where a large limb has been cut from a tulip tree and the exposed surface left untreated. The rotten wood should be cleaned out, the hole plugged with dry wood, and the surface covered with coal tar. If the coal tar had been put on soon after the liml) was cut, no rotting would have occurred. Knough has been said to show clearly that a tree is a living, resi)onsive organ- ism, and that it requires more careful and considerate treatment than it usually receives, especially in parks and along streets. Pia.CO.— Oak tree from which sotuo of the lower limbs have been properly cut uud tuu.-st of the upper ones improperly cut. 268 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. RECIPES FOR GRAFTING WAX, ETC., USED IN PRUNING. Grafting wax. — One of the best grafting waxes is made by melting together four parts by weight of resin, one part beeswax, one part tallow. AVhen thoroughly melted, pour into cold water; when cool enough, take out and work by molding and pulling until it becomes quite stiff. It is necessary to have the hands well greased with tallow- while handling this wax. Grafting clay. — One-third fresh cow dung, two-thirds clay, with a little plaster hair. Thor- oughh^ mix and al- low to dry until about the consist- ency of fresh putt}'. Coal tar. — Coal tar and pitch mix- tures should be ap- plied to wounds after they have been cleaned, pared, and allowed to dry enough so that the material will stick. Thick tar is one of the most easily applied and best dressings there is. In Florida the coal tar is thick- ened by burning it in an iron kettle until it reaches the desired consistency. It is painted on the wounds while still slightly warm. Thus prepared, it dries quickly, form- ing a hard, glazed surface, which does not crack or peel off, as is the case with pitch, shellac varnish, paint, etc. Shellac varnish. — Shellac in just enough strong alcohol to dissolve it. This is a very good dressing for wounds, but it is more liable to crack and scale off than coal tar, and is more expensive. Showing where large limb has lieeu cut from tulii> THE PINEAPPLE INI)T STRY IN THE UNITED STATES. By Herbert J. Webber, Assi.staiif, Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. The pineapple is indigenous to South America. For many years it has been generally recognized as one of the finest of the tropical fruits, and may be safely said to rank first among those supplied to the mar- kets of tlie United States. It is true that certain other tropical fruits, such as the mangosteen and durian, maj' probably be considered supe- rior to the pineapple, but as yet these have not been sent to American markets. EXTENT OF PRODUCTION. The pineapples consumed in the United States have been and are still largely imported, the AVest Indies and Bahama Islands being our main sources of supply. Three-fourths of the pineapple crop of these islands comes to our markets. It is estimated that Cuba alone sends annually about 1,200,000 fruits. The Bahama Islands export each year about 7,800,000 fruits, most of which are sent to the United States. San Francisco and the markets of the AYest Coast are largely supplied from the Sandwich Islands. For a number of years j)ineapples have been grown to some extent in Florida, but it is only within recent years that the quantity pro- duced lias been worthy of consideration. During the last decade railroad extension and tlie improvement in shipping facilities gen- erally have led to a rapid development of the pineapple industry in the southern portion of the peninsula. In the year 1894, 5G,209 whole or barrel crates, or about 3,000,000 fruits, Avero shipped from the State. In 1875 the number of imported fruits received at the port of New York was 5,785,755, and in 1882 the number received at the same port was only 2,533,320. Tliese figures are a good illustration of the rapid decrease in the number of fruits imported, and the correspondingly rapid increase in home production. The pineapple is a very tender fruit, and therefore easily injured. As the regions where it is grown are mostly isolated fi-om general shipping lines, it is often dilficult and sometimes impossible to secure proper means of transportation, and on this account Europe and North America have lobe supplictl by the pineapple i-egious lying near them. 26U 270 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. With proper refrigeration and fast steamers, however, the pineapple could be shipped safely from any part of South America to the United States or Europe. In Florida the growers have the advantage of being near the principal American markets and of having direct railroad communication with many of them, and notwithstanding the fact that they have to compete with foreign jjineapples, which are now entered free of duty, the industrj'- is considered very profitable in Florida and is rapidly growing. DEVELOPMENT OF THE PINEAPPLE INDUSTRY IN FLORIDA. Pineapple culture, according to the statement of Mr. Reasoner,^ was introduced into Florida about the year 1860. The pineapple, which is strictly a tropical fruit, is very easily injured by low temperatures. Usually it is impossible to grow it in Fig. 63.— Field of pineapples growing under shed, showing newly set plants and illustrating the methods of setting. open field culture outside of the tropics, unless in regions protected by water and tempered by warm ocean currents, as in the case of the Bahama and Azores islands. The pineapple can not stand even a light frost. Selmer, in his Tropical Agriculture, cites Florida as an illustration of a region where light frosts occur and where pineapple culture consequently can not be made successful. However, in view of the thirty-fivo years' experience now had in pineapple growing in Florida, the gradual but very great extension of the industry, and its uniform success in the southern portion of the State, it is safe to con- clude that Selmer was somewhat hasty in his judgment. The pine- apple can not be successfully grown in all parts of the State, and the portions where open culture can be safety adopted are indeed limited. Bull, No. 1, Division of Pomology, U. S. Deioartment of Agriculture. PINEAPPLE INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES. 271 This luethod of ^.rowing the fruit, however, has generally proved suc- cessful south of about 27° 30', below which frost seldom occurs, and has succeeded even 1 degree north of this in certain localities having water protection. If severe freezes were of common occurrence in Florida, pineapple culture would have to be abandoned, but fortunately the freezes of 188G and 1894-05 were the only severe ones which have taken place since the introducticm of the industry. Certain localities have, how- ever, been injured at other times. In general, the Gulf Coast is slightly colder and more subject to injury during the lesser cold spells than the ^Vllantic Coast, and for this reason the industry has si)read almost entirely on the Atlantic Coast. There seems to be no reason, however, why the pineapple should not be extensively grown in the vicinity of JNIyers and farther south, for although light frosts Fig. {>i.— rit-kl ul i'urto Uicu iiiiiecipples at West Palm Beach, grown by opeu-tickl culture. sliglitly injure the leaves, they do not necessarily impair the fruiting of the plants the next year. Til Ihe early period of ])ineapple cultui-e in Florida a considtM-able number of jjlaiits Avei-e grown in the centi'al part of llie State, in Lake, ( )range, and Vol usia counties. Although in this section it is frequently l)()ssible to secure tliree or foui* crops in succession in one season by covering the plants dui-ing the winter, as a whole the industry has proved unsatisfactory and has been largely abandoned. In the vicin- ity of Orlando, however, the pineai)ple is grown bj' a few with appar- ently excellent results. Hero the plants are grown wholly under sheds, which ai-e ample protection against light frosts. Somewhat farther south, at Avon Park and Pabor Lake, in the central part of the State, the industry has spread considerably, nearly 100 acres being 272 YEARROOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. now planted. In this section open culture has proved fairly success- ful, but as yet is in an experimental stage. At present most of the pineapple fields of Florida are located on the east coast south of Fort Pierce, in a strip of comparatively high land. This ridge is 1 to 2 miles wide and forms the west bank of the Indian River and Lake Worth. West of this ridge the land is low, marshy pine, which merges into the Everglades south of Jupiter Inlet. Tliis entire strip of land, running along the east coast for over 150 miles, could be made a compact pineapple field if necessity should demand. Already fields of pineapples, containing from 50 to 100 acres in a block, may be seen here. Considerably north of this, on Merritts Island, which is protected by the broad waters of Indian River, there are some plantations, and these could be greatly extended. Plate IV shows a thrifty pineapple plantation at Jensen, Fla. On the keys the soil on which the pineapple is grown consists of a very thin layer of leaf mold, which usually covers the ever-present coralline rock, although frequently the latter is not covered at all. The method followed here is to make a (jlearing, burn the brush and trees, and set out the plants wherever sufficient soil exists for their support. At about the time of the first planting, some tropical fruit, such as avocado pears, limes, sapodillas, etc., is set out among the pineapples. These reach bearing about the time the fruitf ulness of the pineapple ceases, which is usually in about five or six years. After one planting of pineapples runs out, the soil is no longer fit to grow them, so that year after year the virgin forest is destroyed to give place to the pineapple. From the destructive nature of this method of culture the industry can have only a limited extension on the keys, for soon all the available forest land will have been planted. At present there are about 2,389 acres ^ in the State j)lauted to pine- apples. This area, as may be seen from the above statements, may be greatly extended as the demand for the fruit increases. South Florida is the only region in the United States where pineapple cul- ture has succeeded or is ever liable to succeed. The demand for the fruit is rapidly increasing and can not at present be supplied, and as foreign markets are open to Florida producers an outlet would be found in them should our own markets become overstocked. Our consul at Rheims, France, writes as follows: "Pineapples are almost unknown in France and the price is out of all proportion, but there is sale for them." There seems to be no probability, however, in the near future of an oversupply of this fruit. CONDITIONS INFLUENCING GROWTH. Heat. — The thermal conditions governing the successful growth of the pineai)ple have been discussed above. This fruit can not ' This estimate is based on lists of growers and the acreage cultivated by each, which were kindly furnished by growers in the various localities and may be considered as fairly accurate. Yearbook U. S Dupt of Agriculture. 1895. Plate IV. riNEAPPLE INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES. 273 witlistaiid frcoziiig temperatures, and tlio extension of the industry- depends most largely on this condition. The mean annual tempera- ture must also be high, as a region ma}' seldom have frosts and yet bo too cold for the successful growth of this fruit. The best pineapple regions in the world have a mean temperature of from 75° to 80*^. The moan annual temperature of the Bahamas is about 70°; Key West, off the coast of Florida, has a mean annual temperature of about 70°; and Jupiter, in the midst of the pineapple region, about 73°. The annual mean in a large part of the pineapple section of Florida is tluis comparatively low. Soil. — Some difference of opinion exists among planters as to the quality of the soil best suited to pineapple culture. Selmer, in Trop- ical Agriculture, says: "A light, sandj^ dry soil does not suit the pineapple, and even less a stony or marshy soil. The most suitable soil is a rich humus, with a clayey subsoil." In Niihu and the Philippine Islands, where pineapples succeed Avell, the soil is disintegrated lava covered with a laj'er of humus. There is but little cohesion in such soils, particularly when, as in this case, they contain considerable lime. When clay is present, it is said to bo important that it should not be so abundant as to hinder root penetration or hold the soil water, but a certain amount to increase the water-holding capacity of the soil is apparently- very desirable. Tlio soils in Florida which Iiave urdformly given the best results are composed mainly of fine sand and are extremely i^oor in the ele- ments of i)lant food. Artificial fertilization is used in all places except on the keys, Avhere the soil is a rich humus. It might be sup- posed that the soil in most places acts only as a basis for artificial fertilization, but such is not the case, as all soils will not answer. Coarse, sandy soils and shell lands are not suitable. Many planta- tions have been put out on shell land, but have uniformly failed, and therefore care must be used to select suitable soil. The land in Florida which planters generally consider best is that known as "hickory scrub." The surface soil is fine white sand, from 5 to 6 inches deep, and contains from 94 to 99 per cent of silica; the subsoil is a yellowish sand, of about the same chemical and mechanical con- stitution. The more abundant spruce pine {Pinus clausa) scrub land, v.iiere the soil can scarcely be distinguished from the hickory scrub, also gives good results. The pineapple lands of the Indian River and Lake Worth region are principally scrub lands of the above kind. The so-called high pine land, which is usually a gray surface soil, underlaid Avith a subsoil of yellow sand, is also con- sidered good pineapple land. The flatwoods land, which is probably the most extensive of the various soil formations south of Lake Worth on the east coast and the Caloosahatchee River on the west coast, has been planted to pineapples to some extent and has given fair results. Hammock lands, which of all Florida soils are the richest in humus, 3 A 05 10 274 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. have not proved very satisfactor}' in most j^laces. The rieli humus of the keys, underlaid with coralline limestone, has given good results. Moisture. — The pineajiple requires considerable moisture fot its successful growth, but there are only a few places in Florida vvdier© the lack of moisture can be considered a serious drawback. Some high ridges, however, such as are found in jolaces along the Indian River, are too dr}'^ for the best growth of this plant. There is no doubt that the majority of the plantations would be greatly benefited by more moisture at times, but the effects of its scarcity are usually not very noticeable An average j'carly rainfall of about 100 inches is said to be typical for a pineapple country. The rainfall in Florida is in general about 50 or 60 inches. METHODS OF CULTURE. The climatic conditions existing in Florida have led to the prac- tice of growing the plants under sheds, j)articularl3^ in the case of fine varieties. At present there are about 100 acres of plants grown in this way in Florida. Some of these sheds cover from 7 to 10 acres. This method of growing, it is claimed, jirevents excessive evaporation from the soil and plants, thus conserving the moisture; protects the plants from frosts, freezes, and winds; and j) re vents the fruit from sunburning. When grown in this way, a larger percentage of the plants fruit within the usual time and the fruit is larger and of better quality. Usually the sheds are made about 7 feet high, to allov/ of perfect free- dom in working. Some of the larger varieties, such as the Porto Rico, attain a height of 5 feet or more when grown under cover, and in such cases high sheds are necessar5^ The posts, which are usually of 3 by 3 inch pine, are set a short depth in the soil to give firmness, and are generall}^ placed 9 by 11 feet apart. Stringers of 1 by 8 inch material are attached to the tops of these standards the 14-foot v^ay. These support the cover of the shed and should be braced at each post. A narrower strip, placed below the main stringers, is nailed to the posts the 0-foot way to give greater firmness. The cover is made of 3 by 1 inch pine boards 18 feet long. These are nailed to the stringers, leaving between each board a 3-inch space. The method of growing under sheds is illustrated in fig. 63. Most of the pineapples in the State, however, are grown by open culture; that is, are ]iot covered with sheds. While growing the plants under sheds gives rather better results, open culture has also usually proved profitable. A field of the Porto Rico pineapples grown by the latter method is illustrated in fig. 63. Irrigation is not as yet much practiced, and is not growing in favor. Those who have irrigating plants are usually inclined to believe that growing under sheds is preferable. Both methods, however, would probably be desirable, but Avould be too expensive for general use. PINEAPPLE IXDUSTKY IN THE UNITED STATES. 275 VARIETIES OF PINEAPPLES GROWN IN FLORIDA. Of the many vaiiotios of pineapples which are known, something over 25 liave been introduced into Florida, and are now being culti- vated there. Among these arc many of the best varieties known, so that there is no lack of good varieties from which to select. The variety which is most widelj^ cultivated in Florida, and which is spoken of as "the common" pineapple, is the Spanish, or Red Spanish. The fruits are of medium size, ranging from 2^ to G pounds, and usually sell at from 4 to 10 cents each. Formerly this variety was extensively cultivated in the West Indies, but there it has rapidly given way to other and better varieties. In Florida, it is believed, the majority of intelligent planters are inclined to favor the cultivation of certain other varieties of the so- called fancy sorts, although many still claim that the Spanish is the best variety for general culture. The fruit of the Spanish is admitted by all to be inferior in quality to many others, but growers claim that it is the hardiest, is the easiest to cultivate, and best suited to varying conditions. This claim may bo true, but in general it is as easy to raise a good fruit as a poor one, and the cost is about the same. Fruit grown in Florida can be placed in the New York market in from seven to ten days. Simmonds, in Tropical Agriculture, says that the average time of passage of pineapples from the Bahamas to London is from thirty-one to thirty-five days. As our best varieties are good shippers, enduring transportation to New York or Boston with little loss if ijroperly handled, this can not be urged against the growing of the fine varieties. Of other varieties, the Queen, or Golden Queen, is probably the most commonly grown, and is verj'" good. The fruits are of medium size, weighing from 3 to 5 pounds, and usually sell at from 10 to 25 cents each. Of the so-called fancy varieties, the Abbaka (Abbakaeha), Smooth Cayenne, and Porto Rico are probably the most general favorites. The Abbaka is a tall, robust plant, with large, cylindrical, golden yel- low fruits, wliich usually sell at from 30 to 40 cents each. The only serious fault with this variety is that the slips are so closely attached to the fruit that ifc is difficult to separate them without injuring the fruit. Most Florida planters, the writer believes, consider this the best variety grown. The Smooth Cayenne is a large, broad-leafed variety, almost free from spines, a character which is of no little importance. The fruit is slightly conical, yellow Avlien ripe, and of fine fiavor. It weighs from 4 to 10 pounds, and sells usually at from 30 to 50 cents. This variety seldom produces slips, and this is a serious drawback to its general culture. 276 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPAKTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The Porto Rico is tlic largest and most robust plant and produces the largest fruit of any A^^riety yet introduced and grown in Florida. The fruit usually weighs from 8 to 12 pounds, and packs from seven to nine to the half crate. Although rather coarse and sour, the friiit paj'S well, selling at from 50 cents to 81 each. This variety endures shipping very well, and forms abimdant suckers and slijis. The Enville, or Enville City, Sugar Loaf, Ripley Queen, Lord Car- rington, Moscow, Black Prince, Prince Albert, Giant Kew, etc., are other varieties grown, but with varying success. The Enville is a large fruit, of fine flavor, and is a general favorite. Unfortunately, it is a poor shipper, and is thus not general]}^ planted. The Sugar Loaf, which Selmer says is the most prized of all varieties in the West Indies, has not met with general favor in Florida. The Pinas de Cahuipa, which is said to be the favorite variety in Mexico, and which is largely cultivated in tlie State of Jalisco, has not yet been introduced into Florida, so far as the writer knows. It is claimed that not a trace of acid can be discovered in this fruit. The Ananassa Bracamorensis also has not yet, as far as known hy the writer, been introduced. This variety, which was discovered a few years ago by Warscewicz at a small place known as Jean de Bracamo- ras, situated on the heights of Maraiion, in South America, was first groAvn at Ghent, and from there introduced into England. The fruit is described as being very large, Aveighing 25 to 30 pounds, and of exceptionall}' fine quality and flavor. METHODS OF PROPAGATION. The pineapi)le is propagated principally by offsets from the parent plant. These offsets are of several kinds. Some of the axillary buds near the base of the j)arent plant push out vigorous sprouts, which are known as suckers. Two or more of these are formed, and when broken off and set out form new j)lants. The suckers which spring from buds below the soil are spoken of as "rattoons." These are usu.iliy left attached to the parent, and grow into new x^lants without transplant- ing. Good suckers usually fruit the first year after planting. The so-called slips are produced from buds on the fruit stalk under the frint. They are smaller than the suckers, but are more abundant, from five to fifteen being x)i'oduced on a plant. If many plants are desired, they can be obtained by removing the slips immediately after the harvesting of the fruit. In this way from two to five new slips appear in the place where the first slip was broken off. Not more than two of these slips should be allowed to grow, and when these have attained sufficient size they may be broken off and planted. In general, however, slips should not be removed from the parent plant immediately after cutting the fruit, but should be allowed to remain until they mature. One may judge when to remove them by the turn- ing brown of the stem under the leaves at the base. Thev should be PINEAPPLE INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES. 277 planted as quickly as possible after they mature. Slips fruit usually in twenty months after planting. Althougli tlioy take more time than the suckers, they are said to produce better fruits, and, considering tlie cxpcns(^ involved, are in general preferred by planters. The crowns produced at the apex of the fruit may be used to propagate the ' plant, but these require from two to five years to mature. As they are usually marketed with the fruit, however, tliey are seldom used in jiropagation. Seeds are occasionally i)roduced by pineapples, but seedling plants require so long to mature- (ten to tAvclve years) that they are used only when it is desired to secure new varieties. PLANTING. It requires less care to prei^aro the sandy soils of Florida for plant- ing than is necessary Avith liiimus and clayey soils, which are liable to be lumpJ^ The trees and brush are cleared off and the stumps and roots grubbed out. The pine stumps, however, may be left in, as they rot in a few years. It is best not to burn the brush on tlie ground to be planted, as this destroys the productiveness of the soil by burn- ing out the vegetable matter. After the land is cleared it is plowed and the trash again raked together and carted off. Some jilant the pineapples immediately after clearing the land, while others wait for some months. It seems to make little difference when the land is I^lanted, but w^hen convenient it is probably best to let the land remain idle for a time after clearing, so that small limbs, v\'eeds, etc. , may bo allowed to rot on the soil and form nutrition. The plants are set in beds of varying size. It is important to have patliways at least every 25 or 50 feet to facilitate work in gathering the fruit. Some plant in long beds, about 14 feet Avide, which are narrow enough to allow of cultivation without walking among the plants. In this Avay the leaves are saved from the injury wiiich would otherwise unavoidably result. The distance left between the plants is important. Florida growers set them much closer than English planters. In Florida tlie Spanish variety is usually set from 1 8 to 20 inches ajjart each w^ay, Queen 20 to 22 inches, Porto Rico 30 to 36 inches, and so on with the other varieties, according to size. The ten- dency is to decrease rather than increase the distance. The reason usually given for close planting is that the plants when close together support each other and prevent the fruit from falling over and becom- ing sunburned on one side. It is urged that pineapples do fully as well when set close, and, moreover, in this Avay the difficulty in keep- ing the weeds down is removed. In general the methotrs of growing pineapples are different in Florida from those practiced in other pineapple countries. According to Sel- mer, it Avas formerly the custom in the Bahamas to plant the Spanish about 2 feet apart each Avay, but auiong the intelligent groAvers it is 278 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. now more coniinon to plant them 3 feet apart. Selmer recommeuds planting them 2^^ feet apart in rows 3| feet apart. This would allow of cultivation witli plows or cultivators, and is worthy the considera- tion of the growers in Florida, where labor costs so much. English plantei'S also uniformly insist on giving the plants more space. In defense of the methods followed in Florida, however, it may be said that here planters do not depend on the natural richness of the soil, but on artificial fertilizers. In Florida soils the roots of the plants form in a dense cluster and do not spread to any great distance. Even in the closest planting, 18 inches square, the roots would prob- ably not fully cover the space. Where artificial fertilization is used, the soil should be fully occui)ied to i)revent loss. If crowding the tops iDroduces no injury, but on the contrary is, as claimed, a benefit, there would seem to be no reason why close planting would not be profitable and successful. To facilitate planting, the land is marked with a plow or ' ' marker " such as is used in marking cornfields in the North. The marker may be made by taking a board 13 inches wide, 1 inch thick, and 12 feet long, and attaching to it, at the distances at which the plants are to be set, small runners similar to those on sleds. A tongue attached to tlie center completes the marker. If it is desired to haA^e the plants set exactly the same distance apart — and this is important under sheds, where the space is very valuable — it is probably best to mark the rows by a line run the length of the bed. FIG. 6i.-instrument for mark- rpj^^ distaucc which should intervene be- lug a field for pineapples. tween the i)lants in the row is then easily marked with an apparatus like that represented in fig. G4. This has pegs 1^ inches in diameter and about 5 inclies long, which maj^ be set at the desired distance. This instrument, which is easily made, is used like a spade. Following the marking cord, guide the instru- ment at one end of the row, putting the first mark where desired. Then with the foot thrust the pegs into the soil. Continue down the row in this way, each time placing one of the end pegs in the hist hole made, to guide the distance. Planting is done principally in July, August, and September. The plants should be set out, however, as soon as possible after the fruit is removed, but the slips should be allowed to mature before they are removed from the jDarent plant. It is desirable to plant them early, so that they may have the advantage of as much of the summer rains as possible. Planting is frequently done in the later months also, but in this case the grower is not so sure to obtain good plants. When removed from the parent plant, the slips and suckers usually have contracted, hard ends, covered with reduced leaves or bracts. It is a general practice in Florida, as well as in other pineapple coun- PINEAPPLE INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES. 279 tries, to sti-ip ofC ;i luunbcr of tlic basnl leaves uiid cut off n portion of this liard end before planting tliein. Fig. Go, o, i-eprcsents a sucker trimmed ready to plant, and h the base of a i)ropcrly trimmed sucker. Manj'- claim that it is quite nec- essary to trim the suckers high to prevent wliat may be called tangle root, otherwise roots start out under the bases of the lower leaves and do not penetrate into the soil, but are deflexed by the leaves and Avind around tlie base of the plant, as sliown in fig. CO. Many think tliat this is not at all injurious, and it must be admitted that in general little difference can be seen. However, tlie quite general oeeui'rence of tangle root in connection with the pineapple blight, of which disease it is i^robably a symptom, leads the Avriter to think that it is not a desirable condition. The stem is usually larger above and below vdiere the roots v>'ind around it, which indicates that the wind- ing prevents the stem from growing to its normal size. In general it Fig. &5.— Pineapple suckers, a, pineapple sucker trimmed ready to set; 6, liaso of a properly trimmed sucker. would be well to strip off the leaves sufficiently to cut the base off above where roots have started. Tlic plants when properly trimmed are ready to set. They should be planted deep enough to give them a good hold upon the soil when rooted, so that they will not bo blown over and injured. Usually slips should be set from 2 to 4 inches deep, and suckers fi-om 3 to 5 inches, according to the size. METHODS OF CULTIVATIOX. In Florida the pineapple is cultivated almost wholly with the scuffle hoe, the ground being usually kept as nearly free from weeds as pos- sible. LIulching has been used to some extent, but is not generally thought to be a good practice. The question of how to fertilize the soil to give the best growth is one of great importance to Florida pine- apple growers, but is at present little understood. Cotton-seed meal, ground tobacco stems, and blood and bone are the fertilizers most 280 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. generally used. Althoiigii ijrobabi}^ not tlic best fertilizers, tliey liave an advantage in that they may be si^read broadcast over the beds without injury to the plants. Cotton-seed meal is more used than any other fertilizer, and apparently gives good results. The chemi- cal manurial elements, sulphate and muriate of potash, kainit, nitriite of soda, sulphate of ammonia, etc. , burn the leaves. For this reason these can not safely be spread broadcast, but must be carefully put on the soil between the plants, care being taken not to get them on the leaves to any extent. Some growers claim that acid phosphates are very injurious, while others use them with ap- parently good results. Kainit and sulphate of i^otash are the forms of i3otash most generally used. The ammonia is com- monly derived from cotton-seed meal, blood and bone, tobacco stems, nitrate of soda, and sul- phate of ammoniji; the phos- phoric acid from cotton-seed meal, ground bone, and un- treated p h o s p h a t e rock. Wliere a eoiuplete fertilizer is used, from 1,500 to 2^000 pounds per acre is applied within the 5'ear or twenty months required for the development of the suckers or slips. It is put on at two or three applications and worked in by scuffle hoeing. After the plants have fruited they form suckers from the base. Those coming from be- low the soil (in this case called rattoons) are allowed to grow in order to continue the field with- out replanting, but the others arc removed, to be planted in other fields. In this way fruiting and suckering may be continued on the same field for a number of years without replanting. With the Span- ish variety this method will give good results for six or eight years, and to all appearances longer if j)roper care and proper fertilization are given. Some growers have fields considerably over eight years old. If the suckers are not largely removed, old fields become an almost impenetrable mat of plants. The plants even thus crowded, FiG.CG. — Tanglo root of the pineapple. PINEAPPLE INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES. 281 which soeins to be thoir natural mode of growtli, are said to produce abundant and good fruit. In sueli fields all cultivation becomes impossible, tlie fertilizers used beijig spread broadcast without any attemi)t to Avork them in. In fields thus planted the decay of the old tops furnishes considerable nutrition. GATHERING AND PACKING THE FRUITS. The fruits ripen generall}' in May and June, but are usually gath- ered and shipped before fully nuiture. In gathering, the fruit of the Spanish variety is usually broken off, while the fancy kinds are cut or broken off, a long stem being left attached, which is cut off smooth after breaking. All possible care should be taken to avoid bruising. Before packing, the fruit is usually taken into the packing house and cooled. In the fancy sorts some careful packers coat the cut end of the stem with paraffin. The crowns are left attached and sold with t^ie fruit. In Florida the fruit is packed in crates of a standard size, 1-2 by 20 by 3G inches. These are known as whole or barrel crates. For the fancy varieties half crates, 12 by 10 by 30 inches, are gen- erally used. In packing, each fruit is usually wrapped separately in thin pajier. Shipping in bulk, which is the usual method in the Bahamas and West Indies, is not j^ractieed in Florida. DISEASES OF THE PINEAPPLE. ^'Sanding.''' — The malady known as "sanding," which is caused by sand blowing into the apex of the plant and cx)llectiug around the young leaves, is of frequent occurrence. If the sand is not removed, it checks the growth of the plant. There is not much danger from sanding after the plants have become well rooted and are growing vigorously. It is a very common practice in Florida to put a handful of cotton-seed meal in the apex of the plant shortly after setting to prevent it from becoming sanded. The advantage of this is that the cotton-seed meal catches the sand, and when wet- ted by rain or heavy dews the mass becomes more or less cemented together. AVhen the plant starts to grow, this mass is carried up on the ends of the new leaves, and is finallj' washed off onto the ground, where it serves as a fertilizer. This is a cheap and apparently a very effective preventive. If plants become sanded, they may be taken up and tlie sand removed, or tlie same result may be accomplished by directing, Avith considerable force, a small stream of water into the heart of the plant. Close i:>lanting, shedding, and wind-breaks are other preventive measures. Loiifj leaf, or spike. — The so-called long leaf, or si)ike, is \Qvy abun- dant in many places. Plants affected with it become stunted and dwarfed, and tlie leaves whicli develop are narrow and crowded. The cause of the disease is not known, but is jirobably primarily 3 A 05 10* 282 YEAEBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. due to improper soil conditions. The best tiling to do, so far as at present known, is to destroy tlie plants which become diseased and plant others in their places. BligliL — The pineapple blight, a symi:)tom of which is a gradual withering of the ends of the leaves, is also a serious malady, and one which is at present little understood. It is particularly destructive to Queens and Porto Ricos and apparently affects all varieties to some extent. Different varieties usually assume different colors when attacked, the reddish color of the Queen becoming deeper, and the Porto Rico turning a pale yellow. Blight, as before stated, is fre- quentl}' accompanied by tangle root, which is probably a sj'mptom of this malady. Digging up blighted plants, pruning them thoroughly, removing the basal leaves, and cutting off the end of the stem with all the roots which have started, as in the case of pre- l^aring a sucker for planting, and finally transplanting, are said to restore the plant to health. Whether or not this treatment results in complete recovery of the plant has not yet been definitely proved. Pineapple mite, or red spider. — Prob- ably the most serious disease of the pine- apple in Florida is that caused by the minute red mite, or red spider {Siig- mccus sp.), which works at the base of the leaves near the stem. They work on spots, which become slightly elevated and brownish, feeding around the edges of the spots and gradually extending them until the whole base of the leaf be- comes diseased and the leaf dies. The characteristic spots resulting from the injury of these insects are shown in fig. 67. It is difficult to combat these in- sects, owing to the fact that they are usually below the soil and well protected by the closely overlapping leaves. No careful exi^eriments have as yet been made toward conquering this pest, but sulphur wash poured or sprayed into the apex of the plant, or a small quantity of tobacco dust thrown into the apex, is said to have proved beneficial. Mealy bug. — The mealy bug, which works principally on the leaves and stems, sometimes becomes troublesome by getting under the scales at the base and in the flower eyes of the fruit. They may probably be controlled by spraj^ing with resin wash. Several other diseases besides those above mentioned are known, but are not of common occurrence, and as yet cause only slight damage. Fig. 67 —Spots on the base of a pine- apple leaf caused by the pineapple mite, or red spider (Stif/mceiis). SMALL-FRUIT CULTURE FOR MARKET. By William A. Taylok, Assistant Pomologist, U. S. Department of Agriculture. It is the purpose of this paper to present in compact form the gen- eral principles upon whieli the successful culture of small fruits is founded. It is designed for beginners rather than for experienced growers, and is therefore largely devoted to points which the man without experience is likely to ignore, or at best to regard with insuf- ficient attention. Some of the methods suggested may need modifi- cation to meet the needs of the individual grower, but it is believed that such changes as may be necessarj-- will suggest themselves to the thinking cultivator who carefully considers his particular location and surroundings. The growing of small fruits requires a comparatively large invest- ment of capital per acre and also a better soil than is necessary for the production of most of the tree fruits. It is therefore better suited to the small farm, under the direct supervision of the owner, than to the large estate, whose proprietor cultivates by prox5^ To balance the comparatively large capital required we have the fact that, aside from the value of the land and permanent improvements, the chief outlay is for labor, which may be done bj'^ the grower and his im- mediate family, while the returns are much quicker than from the tree fruits or the grape. In a few sections, so situated that large markets, either near or remote, are accessible, the culture of one or another of the small fruits may be profitably undertaken on a large scale, but these instances only serve to emphasize the fact that small fruit culture is primarily a homestead pursuit. The narrow bed or garden border of fifty years ago, enriched, dug, and weeded by hand, has developed into tlie field, fertilized, plowed, and cultivated by horse power, yet the requirements of the various species remain much the same, the methods of accomplishing the desired results alone dif- fering. As practiced by advanced growers in the United States, the methods followed in the culture of small fruits are peculiarly of American development; while with the exception of the currant, the varieties extensively grown are of American origin. The fruits to be considered are the strawberry, blackberiy, rasp- berry, currant, and gooseberry. 283 284 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CHOICE OF LOCATION. No small-fruit plantation is likel}- to be profitable if located far from a market or convenient shipping point. In selecting a location special attention should be paid to the character of the roads, if the fruit must bo hauled by wagon for any considerable distance. If rail- road or steamboat transportation is to be depended on, the efficiency and enterprise of existing lines should be investigated, as the charac- ter of their service will be of great importance when fruit shipments begin. In any given locality the most important consideration should be the selection of a site reasonably safe from killing frosts in spring. Away from the influence of bodies of water such sites are usually found on small plateaus or gentle slopes terminating in abrupt ra- vines or valleys where prompt and thorough cold-air drainage exists. Flat land, remote from open water and unbroken by ravines or hills, should always be regarded with suspicion, particularly if underlaid by a cold and badly drained subsoil. Bottom lands, in which admi- rable soil for small fruits is often found, are usually too uncertain in their fruit production, owing to frequent frost injury. The soil requirements of the different species varj^ considerably, but all thrive in" a moderately deep loamy soil that holds moisture well at all times without becoming soggy during protracted rainfalL The exposure to be sought varies with the latitude, the climate, and the aim of the grower. If earliness is requisite to secure profitable prices, and the locality one in which late frosts are infrequent, a south- ern slope is preferable; if, on the other hand, a uniform and regular demand exists, regardless of a few daj^s' difference in time of ripening, a gentle northern or northeastern exposure should be selected. In most localities, however, the matter of slope is of much less impor- tance than that of comparative elevation of the site. It should lie higher than the adjacent land without being bleak, and should fur- nish a soil of at least fair fertility. PREPARATION OF SOIL. The selection of the proper j)reparatory crop is a matter of much imj)ortance. In general some hoed crop should precede the planting of any of the small fruits. With the strawberry at least two years of cultivation should intervene between well-established sod and the planting of berries, in sections where the white grub abounds. Corn or potatoes, Avell manured and kept free from Aveeds throughout the season by thorough cultivation, are good preparatory crops. In trucking regions almost any of the annual vegetables will do to pre- cede small fruits. The objects to be attained are (1) to free the ground from seeds of annual weeds; (2) to eradicate established per- ennials of every sort, including grasses ; (3) to get rid of noxious insect SMALL-FRUIT CULTURE FOR MARKET. 285 larvaj, and (-i) to leave the soil in that lively and mellow condition which the grower characterizes as "good tilth." If any portion of tlie field remains wet long after rains during any jiortion of the year, it should be drained before planting. In most soils and locations tile underd rains are preferable, though boards, poles, or stones are some- times used to good advantage. If all of these are impracticable, land naturally wet can sometimes be made to yield fairly good crops by planting on ridges thrown up with the plow and depending upon open ditches to remove surface water. Stumps, loose roots, and stones large enough to interfere with the cultivator should all be removed before the final i^lowing. The gi'ower should bear in mind that thorough preparation of the soil will mate- rially increase the probability of securing a good stand of plants, on the one hand, while it greatly decreases the amount of hand work necessary in hoeing and weeding, on the other. This is particularly true on ncAv ground and on all soils of a claj^ey or tenacious character. The preparatory jDlowiug should be as caref nil}' done as for a garden crop, and in most soils it should be as deep as possible without turn- ing up much of the subsoil. Surface soils less than 8 inches deep should be plowed to their full depth. Where a compact or retentive subsoil is found, its stirring with a subsoiler will benefit the crop in most regions by affording prompter drainage and promoting deeper root growth. If the x^lanting is not done until spring, most soils suit- able for small fruits will be benefited by a deep fall plowing, followed by a shallower cross plowing as early in spring as the land is workable, or by thorough and repeated working with one of the numerous forms of disk or spading harrows now in use. This should be followed by a lighter pulverizer or smoothing harrow before the soil becomes lump5^ The roller or plank clod crusher can sometimes be used to advantage, but if the soil be taken at the proper stage of drjniess the treatment noted above will rarelj' fail to accom- plish the desired result. Too much attention can hardly be bestowed upon this matter of soil preparation, yet it is often slighted by small- fruit planters. Errors in fertilizing, cultivating, or pruning can some- times be corrected by subsequent good treatment, but deficient prepa- ration can not be overcome during the existence of the crop. MANURING. Unless the soil is very rich from previous fertilizing, the crop will be largely increased by the application of well-rotted stable manure, say 20 tons to the acre, applied before the final plowing or thoroughly worked into the soil with a spading harrow. If stable manure is not obtainable, finely ground bone and muriate of potash can be profitably used on many soils. Nitrate of soda can sometimes bo applied in moderalion with profit. If the soil is of a sandy natui-e and known to be deficient in nitrogen, a x>reparatorj' croi) of crimson clover will 286 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. doubtless be advantageous in climates where this plant succeeds, or other leguminous crops may be grown and plowed in. Hard-wood ashes are excellent on most soils and, in general, commercial fertilizers rich in phosphoric acid and i^otash may be profitably used. The selec- tion of the fertilizer that can be most profitably used on any particular soil most be determined by local experiment, however, and upon the very field in question unless tests have been made on similar soils in the immediate neighborhood. It should bo said that among growers who ship their fruit long dis- tances there is an increasing tendency to favor commercial fertilizers rather than stable manure, on the ground that the fruit thus grown is firmer and of better carrying quality. This applies particularly to fruit grown in the humid climate of the South Atlantic and Gulf States, where most fruit plants incline to make a rank grov»'th, which produces watery fruit, and where rains during the ripening season are frequent. A considerable gain results also from the absence of weed seeds from prepared fertilizers, these often proving very trou- blesome in fields enriched with stable manure. PLANTING AND CULTIVATION. The best time for planting small fruits is yet a disputed question, except in the North, where fall-set plants of most species are subject to winterkilling. There are few localities where spring planting is not the safer method, though often the soil can be more thoroughly prepared and the planting be more cheaply done in autumn than in spring. If done in autumn, in regions where the ground freezes to any considerable depth during winter, the newl}^ set plants should be well mulched to prevent winter injury All planting should be in straight rows of equal distance apart. In the case of the bush fruits it is often advantageous to have the rows laid off both ways, so that the cultivator can be run in both directions, at least during the first season. If the land is hilly and inclined to wash, the rows should be laid around the hills, conforming to their curves, but on land reasonably level the rows should, if possible, run north and south and should be as long in that direction as the shape of the field will permit. Overcrowding of plants should be avoided, as fruit of large size is rarely produced by plants having insufficient food, air, and sunshine. If more than one variety of any fruit be planted, or if plants of the same variety be obtained from different sources, each lot should be senarately planted and labeled. Failure to do this often leads to expensive uncertainty in later years when plants are desired for new fields or for sale. jNfany a careless or dishonest plant grower or dealer has escaped responsibilitj'^ for misnamed or damaged stock through the inability of the planter to positively trace the plants to his establishment. Plants should be promptly examined upon receipt, and should be at once heeled in if planting can not be done immediately. In no case SMALL-FRUIT CULTUKE FOR MARKET. 287 should they be permitted to dry out or be left with roots exposed to the snn or to drying winds. If dry when received, they can often be freshened by placing the roots in water for a few hours. If the weather is dry at planting time, the "puddling" of the roots by dip- ping in a thin mud of clay and water to which fresh cow manure has been added will often go far toward insuring their growth. Before setting out, each plant should be carefully examined, and all broken or decayed roots, leaves, or branches should be removed. Plants found diseased or infested with injurious insects should be promptly destroyed, unless the affected portions can be readily cut off and burned. The roots should always be placed in contact with fresh, moist soil, whether the planting be done with the hand or with dibble, spade, or other implement. Cultivation should immediately follow planting, and should be repeated at frequent intervals during the spring and summer. The appearance of weeds should not be waited for, as the cultivation is for the crop rather than for the destruction of weeds. In general it should be shallow rather than deep, though when the soil becomes hardened by the impact of heavy rainfall or the tramping of berry pickers the grower should not hesitate to break it up by running a sharp culti- vator, or even a light one-horse plow, to the depth of 3 or 4 inches be- tween the rows. If the soil is properly prepared and the cultivation regularly kept up, this tearing up will rarelj^ be necessary except after the harvesting of a crop of fruit. Provided the soil is in condition to work, once a week is not too frequent for the shallow cultivation of the small fruits during the growing season, and during the July and August drought that frequently prevails the surface soil should rarely remain unstirred longer than four or five days. Toward the end of summer, particularly on rich and moist soils, cultivation of the bush fruits should be less frequent, and it should entirely cease before the first frosts occur. The use of the hoe in small-fruit plantations should be avoided as far as possible, but when needed hoeing should be promptly done. With land in good tilth and clean at the start, with fertilizers free from grass and weed seeds, the necessity for the expen- sive and laborious use of the hoe as formerly practiced is greatly reduced. But in order to accomplish this the land must be free from clods, sticks, and stones, the cultivator teeth sharp, the horse steady and true, and the man active and careful. PRUNING AND WINTER TREATMENT. Wliere winters are severe enough once in four years to seriously injure unprotected bush fruits, mulching or laying down will often pay well. jMuch depends upon the character and cost of the material used, and its durability. Straw, unless clean thrashed and free from grass seeds, is a most productive source of future trouble to the grower. Forest leaves can bo secured in sufficient quantity in some 288 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. localities to be available for use among the busli fruits. Where obtainable, pine needles also form an admirable mulch, and Avith a little care in removing can be used two or three times. Broken corn- stalks that have been well tramped over in the barnyard are useful, and sorghum bagasse is utilized in some sections. In the colder and drier climate of the Upper IMississippi Valley the only sure protection for blackberries and raspberries is the laying down and covering of tlio canes. This is accomplished by digging away from one side of the plant, toppling it over with a fork, and wholly or partially covering the canes with earth from between the rows. This method involves staking or trellising the bushes when they are raised again in sirring, but it is found profitable because of the insurance against crop failure which it affords. On most heavy soils water furroAvs should be run between the rows with a light one-horse or shovel plow late in fall, in order that surface water may be promptly removed during the winter months. Witli the strawberry the only pruning needed will be the removal of superfluous runners. The raspberry and the blackberry, bearing their fruit almost exclusively on branches from canes of the previous year, are benefited by systematic x^runing, Avhile the currant and the gooseberry need it as urgently as do the tree fruits or the grape, if large fruit is the object sought. Though sometimes subject to serious damage by insects and fun- gous diseases, the small fruits, as a class, are less injured by them than the tree fruits. Most of the serious troubles may be avoided by choosing vigorous and resistant varieties or by spraying with Avell- knov/n insecticides and fungicides.^ VARIETIES FOR MARKET. In the selection of varieties for planting, the best guide Avill ahvaj^s be local experience. If the grower aims to supply a home demand, he may often find it iDrofitable to grow varieties which, because of lack of firmness, would be valueless for shipment. The published bulletins of the experiment stations aft'ord much light on the subject by indicating in a general way what the behavior of varieties is in each State. These should be consulted, and also the reports of tlie State horticultural societies, many of which contain catalogues of the varieties known to succeed within their several districts. But most valuable of all will be found the experience of growers in the imme- diate vicinity. Their conclusions, though not always correct, are safest for the beginner, and he should only plant largelj'^ those varie- ties which they have found successful. The main i)ltinting should rar.ely consist of more than two varieties of each fruit, except in the 'See "Methods of Controlling Injurious Insects, with Formulas for Insecti- cides;" also "Treatment for Fungoxis Diseases of Plants," Yearbook of Depart- ment of Agriculture, 1894, pp. 572-580. SMALL-FRUIT CULTURE FOR MARKET. 289 case of llie strawberry, avIumo four or five sorts ripening in snccession may often be iirofitably grown. Xew and untried sorts, though highl}^ commended elsewhere, should be planted in an experimental Avay only, for but a small percentage of the varieties introduced prove equal in value to the standard market sorts at the time of their intro- duction. The market to be supplied should be studied also, and if some one variety is found to be in special demand, that fact should be considered in making the selection from those known to succeed. SELECTION OF PLANTS. The selection of plants is a matter often slighted, even by growers who have long been engaged in the business, yet it is a most impor- tant item. The ideal method is to use such plants only as have been propagated from vigorous and productive individual plants of the desired variety. The owner of an established plantation can, by propagating from plants marked at fruiting time because of their superior vigor or productiveness, soon provide himself with plants much superior in these respects to those obtainable through commer- cial sources. But the beginner, with no fields to select from, must rely upon the fact that well-grown and accurately named stock is the best that he can get. He should insist that the stock furnished him be true to name, that it be free from injurious diseases and insects, that it be thrifty and from newly set fields, and that it be carefully dug and handled. Whenever i^racticable he should assure himself of the character of the stock hy personal inspection of the plants during the growing season. For stock of this kind he should expect to pay a fair i^rice. He can well afford to pay double the i^rice usuallj' charged for old bed stock of the same varieties. If the varieties desired are fairly healthy there, and reasonably true to name, he will usually find it best to buy as near home as the desired sorts can be found, though plants of all kinds are now shipped in good condition for long distances. HARVESTING AND MARKETING. Before tlie fruit begins to ripen, the size and style of package to be used should be decided on and a sufficient supply to market at least half of the estimated crop should be provided. The demands of dif- ferent markets vary greatly, but in all of them a neat, clean package will outsell a poorly made or filthy one. The essentials are (1) that the packages shall be of the standard size in the markets to be supplied; (2) that they be as light as may be without sacrifice of suHicient stiff- ness and strength to withstand anj^ ordinary pressure; (3) that they be neat, clean, and attractive in appearance. For the small fruits, except the red raspberry, the quart box or basket (packed in crates containing IG to 04) is the supposed standard package in most markets, though degenerate sizes and forms of this cau.se a variation of 25 to 290 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 30 x^er cent in its actual capacity. Red raspberries are commonly marketed in pint cups or boxes (packed in crates), while currants are frequently sold in the climax basket so largely used in shipping grapes. Where a home trade is supplied, the same x>ackages, if carefully handled, can be used several times, but for shipment to any consider- able distance the "gift" package seems destined to soon supjilant the old "return" crate. With packages provided, the necessitj- for some sort of packing house arises. This should be near the berries, and should be large enough to comfortably accommodate the packers and to shelter from sun and rain such quantity of x)icked fruit as is likely to accumulate at any one time. A flat-roofed shed, open to the north and boarded down from the top to near the ground on the other three sides, answers a veiy useful purpose. If a large area is planted, a more expensive building, with storage room above for packages, may be built with profit. Enough hand carriers should be provided, so that each picker may deliver his load, receive credit for it by means of tickets or other sim- ])le method of keeping account, and receive an empty carrier in return without waiting for his own to be emptied. Some distinguishing mark should be placed upon each loaded carrier, however, in order that it may be traced to the pioker at any time previous to the pack- ing of the fruit in the crate. This is easily done by assigning to each I)icker a number and affixing to each carrier as it comes in an inex- pensive tag marked with the picker's number. Inexperienced pickers need instruction when first placed at work, and watchful suj)ervision for a day or two. Old hands often have to unlearn careless or slovenly habits acquired elsewhere, and in this respect are less sat- isfactory than new help. Neatness, thoroughness, and lionesty must be insisted on, and after a picker is known to be reliable on these points his services are worth considerably more to the grower than before. Pickers should be instructed to assort fruit as they pick, or at least should be prohibited from placing decayed, unripe, or imperfect berries in the boxes with marketable fruit. All boxes should be as full as they can be packed in the crates without bruis- ing the fruit, and the berries in the top layers should be placed by hand, so as to present an attractive appearance. It goes without saying that the fruit should be of uniform quality throughout the package if the groAver hopes to build up a desirable reputation in his market. Every package should be branded with his name, and this should be a sufficient guarantee of the uniformity of its contents. Such a brand will often insure against loss during gluts, and cause promi)t sales at advanced prices when the conditions affecting demand and supply are normal. SMALL-FRUIT CULTURE FOR MARKET. 291 STRAWBERRY. Tlio strawberrj' succeeds on a wide rans?e of soil, but does best on a moist, sandy loam. It may be planted at any time of year if pro- tected from snn and frost, but is commercially planted in early spring or in late summer. Only new plants, that is, those less than 1 year old, should be used, and these should be from the first sets rooted from runners. Distance between plants varies, but rows 4 feet apart, with a distance of 15 inches }>etween the plants, requiring 8,712 plants per acre, may be taken as a fair average. Blossom buds should bo removed from spring-set plants, as fruiting lessens plant growth. Runners should be allowed to root early in the season and until a row Avidth of 15 to 18 inches is attained. Those formed later in the season should be cut or torn off with cultivators. To avoid tearing up rooted runners, always cultivate in the same direction; to prevent them from rooting, reverse the operation. Judicious thinning out of weak or crowded plants in the row is advisable. Select tested varie- ties, and if any are pistillate provide bisexual sorts blooming and ripening at same time, and, as nearly as may be, such as produce fruit similar in size, color, and appearance. Plant in separate rows in the proportion of one bisexual to three or four pistillate. Mulching usually pays if clean straw, etc., can be had at a low price. Injury to blossoms by frost can be lessened by pulling mulch up over them with light, broad, liand rakes during the preceding day and removing after the danger is past. In this connection, read the article on Frosts and Freezes in this volume. Cultivation should cease from blooming time until fruit is har- vested; otherwise should be as noted on page 287. For hoeing, a thin tool with both narrow and wide blades will be found advantageous. The most difficult period in strawberry cultivation is that which immediately follows fruiting. Weeds and grass gain a foothold during the fruiting period, and the soil becomes hardened by the tread of pickers. Some growers prefer to plant a new field each j'car, in which case but a single crop of fruit is taken off, the plants being plowed under and followed by turnips, buckwheat, or some other quick-grow- ing crop. Where land is high priced and the season long enough to mature a supplemental crop, this practice is to be commended, but in most localities it is found profitable to fruit strawberries at least two years. In such case it is advisable to mow, dry, and burn the leaves and weeds as soon as the fruit is harvested. Some elements of fertility will be lost, but the destruction of injurious insects and fungi will compensate for this. If a durable mulch, like i)ine needles, has been used, this should be raked off and stacked for future use before the mowing is done. Immediately after the burning, two furrows should be thrown together, midway between the rows, with a light and sharp one-horse plow. Sometimes four furrows are needed to reduce the 292 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. width of the rows to 1 foot or less. This leaves all portions of the rows readily accessible to the hoe, which should follow the plow Avithin a very few days. The frequent cultivation previously mentioned will in a short time level the ridge and reduce the space between the roAvs to a mellow condition favorable to the rooting of runners. Unless the soil is very rich and free from weeds, it will seldom pay to retain a strawberry field longer than two fruiting seasons. Varieties succeeding over a wide range of soil and climate are: Bisexual — Michel, Wilson, Sharpless, Gandy; pistillate — Crescent,' Warfield, Bubach, Haverland. BLACKBERRY. Tlio blackberry can be profitably grown on lighter and drier soils tlian the strawberry, but requires frequent rains during the summer to mature its fruit. It should be planted very early in spring or in fall in the lower latitudes, plants being commonly secured as suckers from newly established fields, though j)lants grown from root cuttings are preferred by many growers. Where i)lanted in hills for cultivat- ing both ways, 6 by 6 feet (requiring 1,210 plants per acre) to 8 by 8 feet (requiring 680 plants per acre) is the proper distance, varying according to vigor and habit of variety. (See PI. V. ) If in rows, they should be about 7 feet apart, with plants 4 feet apart in the row, taking 1,-556 plants per acre. Plants should be set 3 or 4 inches deep, with the tops cut back to 2 or 3 inches in length. Potatoes or other hoed crops may be grown between the blackberries the first j^ear if well fer- tilized when planted. Not more than four or five new canes should be permitted to grow the first year, and after that only such as give evidence of being healthy and vigorous. Superfluous suckers should be treated as weeds. Most varieties yield better and larger fruit if tlie canes are pinched back at the height of 18 to 24 inches in summer. The branches, should there be any, are cut back one-third or more in the spring. Old canes may be cut out at any time after fruit is picked. This is generally done in spring. Varieties not subject to rust or other fungous disease should be chosen. The following are chiefly grown for market: Early Harvest, Wilson, Snj^der, Erie, Taylor, Ancient Briton. The first two varieties named need winter protection Avherever the peach is subject to frequent injury by cold. With good treatment, a well-established plantation may be exijected to continue profitable for six or eight years, though much depends upon the effect of severe winters. RASPBERRY. Tlie three types of this fruit — red, black, and purple — differ consid- erably in their requirements. The red raspberries proper, and of these the market grower need concern liimself only with the varieties of our native species, succeed Yearbook U. 5. Dept. of Agriculture 1895 Plate V Fig 1.— Early Harvest Blackberry, Single-wire Trellis, Benton Harbor, Mich. Fg 2. Eif^^y Harvest Blackberry. Hill bvaiLM- Falls Church, Va. SMALL-FRUIT CULTURE FOR MARKET. 293 through a iiiucli wider range of soil aud climate than the blackcaps. Both (h) Ix^st, however, on a "vvell-drained l)ut moist, rich elay loam. Both Tail on thin sandy or gravelly soils, unless highlj^ fertilized and irrigated during the fruiting season. The reds are commonly grown from 1-year-old suckei'S, though sometimes from root cuttings, and are usually planted in rows G feet apart, with plants 4 feet apart in the row, taking 1,815 plants per acre. As with blackberries, superfluous suckers should be promptly removed with the hoe. With many varieties fully half of the suckers that spring up should be thus destroyed each year. Planting is done in the same manner as with the blackberry, in either fall or spring. Plants may be moved short distances, as on the same farm, at any time during spring or early summer, provided damp, cloud}^ weather is selected for the work. Pruning is commonly limited to heading back canes to the extent of one-third of their growth, in spring before the leaves start. At the same time the old canes are removed, if this has not previously been done. The A'arieties most wadely grown and successful are Hansell, Marlboro, Cuthbert,^ and Turner. The blackcai^s are less popular than the reds for eating fresh, but are considerably grow^n for canning and in recent years for evaporating. They endure shipment well in the fresh state, and by evaporating may be grown with i^rofit at a greater distance from transportation lines than otlier small fruits. Plants are obtained from rooted tips and should be set out the same as the reds, Avith rows running both ways. The canes should be lynched back on reaching the height of 18 to 24 inches, and unless plants are desired for ncAv plantations or for sale the tips should not be allowed to root. Spring pruning should consist in the removal of old canes and the cutting back of branches to a lengtli of 12 to 18 inches. The varieties most widely grown are Ohio, Gregg, Nemaha, and Doolittle. The f)urple class lias never become very popular in market, and onl}^ one variety, Shaffer, is now^ extensively grown. The treatment required is similar to that advised for the blacks, but owing to its larger growth the Shaffer should not be planted closer than black- berries. Raspberries rarely yield more than three or four profitable crops from a single planting. CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY. These allied species require much the same soil and treatment. Botli fail on dry or poor soils, and both thrive on moist clayey or sandy loams. They are essentially cool-climate i)lants and south of the Ohio and Potomac rivers do best if given partial shade. These ' In some sections tlic Golden Qneen, a yellow variety that originated as a sport from the Cuthbert, is gi'own for near markets. 294 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. may be planted in fall with impunity on any soil suited to their growth, and need no winter protection in most latitudes. The site selected should be one where snow does not accumulate to a great depth, for this breaks doT^^l the branches during alternate thaws and freezes, doing much damage to the bushes. Plants 2 years old with good roots, grown from cuttings, should be chosen. Most of the top should be cut away unless symmetrical, and in anj" case the leading branches should be headed back. Thej'^ are essentially low-headed trees, and should be treated as such. If plant- ing be delayed until springy it must be done very early, as these are among the first to start growth. Four by six feet, requiring 1,815 plants per acre, is about the right distance apart. Cultivation must be shallow, as these are surface-rooting plants. On some soils they are frequently grown profitably by substituting a heavy mulch for cultivation. Pruning should be done in fall or very earl)"- in spring, and should consist in the thinning out of weak and old branches, and the head- ing back of those making a vigorous growth. The markets are sel- dom overstocked with these fruits, and though the maximum price per quart is often less than for other berries, they are likely to net the grower as much in the long run. The gooseberry, which is chiefly marketed in this country in the green state, is perhaps the small fruit best suited to planting for market by the general farmer, as it inter- feres less with ordinary farm operations than any other. The fruit is in marketable condition for a longer time, and can be picked with the minimum of outside labor. By protecting the hands and Avrists with leather gloves the green berries may be stripped from the bushes into pails with little injury to either fruit or bush. The fruit is then quickly cleaned of leaves and rubbish by rimning through a common fanning mill, which completes its preparation for market. The varieties of currants commonly grown for market are: Red — Red Dutch, Cherrj'^, Prince Albert, Victoria, Fay; Avhite — White Grape, White Dutch; black — Black Naples. Tlie gooseberries most widely grown are Houghton, Pale Red, and Downing, all of American origin and parentage, though in some local- ities Industry, an English variety, little subject to mildew, is profit- ably grown. THE CAUSE AND PRETENTION OF PEAR BLIGHT. By M. B. Waite, Assititant, Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. There is probably no disease of fruit trees so thoroughly destructive as pear blight, or fire blight, which attacks pears, apples, and other pomaceous fruits. Some diseases may be more regular in their annual appearance, and more persistent in their attacks on the fruits men- tioned, but when it does appear jyeav blight heads the list of disastrous maladies. Again, no disease has so completely baffled all attempts to find a satisfactory remedy, and, notwithstanding the great progress made within the last ten years in the treatment of plant diseases by spraying and otherwise, pear blight has until recently continued its depredations unchecked. It is now known, however, that the disease can be checked by simi)ly cutting out the affected parts. This was one of the first methods tried in endeavoring to combat the disease, but came to be generally regarded as worthless. The remedy which will be discussed in this pai^er is, in a general way, so similar to the old one that at first it may be difficult to see that anything new has been dis- covered. In the process now proposed, however, there are three vital improvements, namely, the thoroughness and completeness with whicli the work is carried out, the time when the cutting should be done, and a thorough knowledge of the disease so as to knoAv how to cut. The method of holding the blight in check was discovered through a careful scientific investigation of the life history of the microbe which causes it. The iuA'estigations were carried on in the field and laboratory, and extended over several years. In the short account which follows no attempt will be made to enter into the details of the work, nor to introduce all the evidence to prove the various state- ments, but simply to give such points as will enable the reader to intelligently carry out the method advocated. WHAT IS PEAR BLIGHT? I*ear blight may be defined as a contagious bacterial disease of the pear and allied fruit trees. It attacks and rapidly kills tlie blossoms, young fruits, and new twig growth, and runs down in the living bark to the larger limbs, and thence to tlie trunk. While the bacteria tliemselves rarely kill the leaves, at most only occasionally attacking the stems and midribs of tlio youngest ones, all the foliage on the 295 296 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. blighted brandies must of course eventually die. The leaves usually succumb in from one to two weeks after the branch on which they grow is killed, but remain attached, and are the most striking and prominent feature of the disease. The most important parts of the tree killed by the blight are the inner bark and cambium layer of the limbs and trunk. Of course, Avlien the bark of a limb is killed, the whole limb soon dies, but where the limb is simply girdled by the disease, it may send out leaves again the next season and then die. All parts of the tree below the point reached by the blight are healthy, no more injury resulting to the unaffected parts of the tree than if the blighted parts had been killed by fire or girdling. Blight varies greatly in severity and in the manner in which it attacks the tree. Sometimes it attacks only the blossom clusters or perhaps only the young tips of the growing twigs; sometimes it runs down on the main branches and trunk; and again it extends down only a few inches from the point of attack. The sudden collapse of the foliage on blighted branches has led many to believe that the disease progresses more rapidly than it really does. It rarely extends fartlier than 2 or 3 inches from the point of attack in one day, but occasionally reaches as much as 1 foot. It is an easy matter to determine when the disease has expended itself on any limb or tree. When it is still progressing, the discolored, blighted portion blends off gradually into the normal bark, but when it has stopped there is a sharp line of demarcation between the dis- eased and healthy portions. CAUSE OP THE DISEASE. Pear lilight is caused by a very minute microbe of the class bacteria. Tliis microbe was discovered by Prof. T. J. Burrill, in 1879, and is known to science as Bacillus amylovorus. The folloAving are the principal proofs that it causes the disease : (1) The microbes are found in immense numbers in freshly blighted twigs; (2) they can be taken from an affected tree and cultivated in pure cultures, and in this way can be kept for months at a time; (3) by inoculating a suitable healthy tree with these cultures the disease is produced; (4) in a tree so inocu- lated the microbes are again found in abundance. LIFE HISTORY OF THE MICROBE. Blight first appears in spring on the blossoms. About the time the tree is going out of blossom certain flower clusters turn black and dry up as if killed by frost. This blighting of blossoms, or blossom blight, as it is called, is one of the most serious features of i)ear blight. One of the most remarkable things about this disease is the rapidity with which it spreads through an orchard at blooming time. This pecu- liarity has thrown much light on the way the microbes travel about. THE CAUSE AND PREVENTION OF PEAR BLIGHT. 297 wiiic'li they do (luilo ixadil}-, notwitlistandiug llie fact that they are suvroiindcd and held together and to the tree by sticky and gummy substances. Tlioy are a1)le to live and multiply in the nectar of the blossom, from whence they arc carried away by bees and other insects, which visit the blossoms in great numbers for the honey and pollen. If a few early blossoms are infected, the insects will scatter the disease from flower to flower and from tree to tree until it becomes an epi- demic in the orchard. We shall see later how the first blossoms are in- fected. From the blossoms the disease maj'' extend downward into the brandies or run in from lateral fruit spurs so as to do a large amount of damage by girdling the limbs. Another way in which the blight gains entrance is through the tips of growing shoots. In the nursery, when trees are not flowering, this is the usual mode of infection. This is often called twig blight, a good term to distinguish it from blossom blight, provided it is understood that they are simply differ- ent modes of attack of the same disease. CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE DISEASE. The severity of the attacks, that is, the distance which the blight extends down the branches, depends on a number of difl:erent condi- tions, some of which are under the control of the grower. It is well known, liowever, that the pear and quince are usually attacked oftener than Julie apple. Some varieties of pears, like Duchess and Keiffer, resist the disease much better than others, such as Bartlett and Clapps Favorite. It may be stated in a general way that the trees most severel}^ injured by blight are those which are healthj^ vigorous, well cultivated, and well fed, or, in other words, those that are making rapid growth of new, soft tissues. Climatic conditions'greatly influ- ence the disease, warm and moist weather, with frequent showers, favoring it; dry, cool, and sunny weather hindering it, and very dry weather soon checking it entirely. The pear-blight microbe is a very delicate organism and can not withstand drying for any length of time, in the blighted twigs ex- posed to ordinary weather it dries out in a week or two and dies. It causes the greater part of the damage in the month or two following blossom time, but twig blight may be prevalent at any time througli the summer Avhen new growth is coming out. In the nursery severe attacks often occur through the summer. In the majority of cases, however, the disease stops by the close of the growing season. At that time the line of separation between the live and dead wood is quite marked, and probably not one case in several hundred would bo found where the diseased wood blends off into the healthy parts and the blight is still in active progress. In the old, dried bark, where the disease has stopped, the microbes have all died and disappeared. It has been claimed that the blight microbe lives over winter in the soil, and for a long time the writer supposed this to be the case, but 298 YEABBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. after careful investigation the idea was aljandoned, for in no instance could it be found there. Unless the microbes keep on multiplying and extending in the tree, thej" soon die out. This is a verj'- impor- tant point, for it affords opportunity to strike the enemj^ at a disad- vantage. In certain cases the blight keeps up a sort of slow battle with the tree through the summer, so that at the close of the season, when the tree goes into a dormant condition, active blight is still at work in it. This is also true of late summer and autumn infections. In these cases the blight usually continues through the winter. The germs keep alive along the advancing margin of the blighted ai'ea, and although their development is very slow, it is continuous. Prob- ably the individual microbes live longer in winter. At any rate, the infected bark retains its moisture longer, and generally the dead bark contains living microbes during a much longer period than it does in summer. It has already been found that this microbe stands the cold well. Even when grown in broth in a warm room they may be frozen or placed in a temperature of 0° F. and not suffer. When root pressure begins in early spring the trees are gorged with sap. Under these favorable conditions the microbes which have lived over winter start anew and extend into new bark. The new blight which has developed in winter and spring is easily recognized by the moist and fresh appearance of the blighted bark, as co"ntrasted with the old, dead, and dry bark of the previous summer. The warm and moist weather which usually brings out the blossoms is particularly favorable to the development of the disease. At this time it spreads rapidly, and the gum is exuded copiously from various points in tlie bark and runs do^\n the tree in a long line. Bees, wasps, and flics are attracted to this gum, and undoubtedly carry the microbes to the blos- soms. From these first flowers it is carried to others, and so on till the blossoms are all killed or until the close of the blooming period. Even after the blooming period it is almost certain that insects acci- dentally carry the blight to the j'oung tii)s and so are instrumental in causing twig blight also. The key to the Avholo situation is found in those cases of active blight (comparatively few) which hold over winter. If they can be found and destroyed, the pear-blight question will be solved, for the reason that without the microbes there can be no blight, no matter how favorable the conditions may be for it; to use a common expression, there will be none left for seed. TREATMENT FOR PEAR BLIGHT. The treatment for pear blight may be classed under two general heads: (1) Methods which aim to put the tree in a condition to resist blight or to render it less liable to the disease; and (2) methods for exterminating the microbe itself, which is of first importance, for if carried out fully there can be no blight. Tlie methods under the first head must unfortunately be directed more or less to checking the THE CAUSE AND PKEVENTION OF PEAR BLIGHT. 299 growth of tlie tree, and therefore are undesirable except in cases where it is thought 'that the blight will eventually get beyond control in the orcliard. Under the head of cultural methods which favor or hinder pear i)light, as the case may be, tlie follo^^'ing are the most important: Pruning. — Pruning in winter time, or when the tree is dormant, tends to nuike it grow and form a great deal of new wood, and on that account it favors pear blight. Withholding the pruning knife, therefore, may not otherwise, be best for the tree, but it will reduce to some extent its tendency to blight. FertiUz'uKj. — The better a tree is fed the worse it v/ill fare when attacked by blight. Trees highlj'^ manured with barnyard manures and other nitrogenous fertilizers are especiallj'- liable to the disease. Overstimulation with fertilizers is to be avoided, especially if the soil is already well supplied. Cultivation. — The same remarks apply here as in the case of ferti- lizing. A well-cultivated tree is more inclined to blight than one growing on sod or unfilled land, although the latter often do blight badly. Generally good tillage every year is necessary for the full development of the pear and quince trees, and is more or less so for the apple in manj' parts of the country, but the thrift that makes a tree bear good fruit also makes it susceptible to blight. Check the tree by withholding tillage, so that it makes a ahori growth and bears small fruit, and it will be in a better condition to withstand blight than it would were it cultivated. In cases where thrifty orchards are attacked by blight and threatened with destruction, it may often bo desirable to plow tliem once in the spring and liarrow soon after the plowing, to plow them only, or to entirely withhold cultivation for a year, mowing the weeds and grass or pasturing with sheep. A good way is to plow the middle of the space between the rows, leaving half the ground untouched. Irrigation. — In irrig.ated orchards the grov/er has the advantage of having control of the water supply. When such orchards are attacked, the i)roper thing to do is to withhold the water supply or reduce it to the minimum. Only enough should be supplied to keep the leaves green and the wood from shriveling. E.r terrain af ion of the blight microbe. — We now come to the only really satisfactory method of controlling pear blight^ — that is, exter- minating the microbe, which causes it, by cutting out and burning every particle of blight when the trees are dormant. Not a single case of active blight should be allowed to survive the winter in the orchard or within a half mile or so from it. Every tree of the pome family, including the apple, pear, quince, Siberian crab apple, wild crab apple, the mouiUain ash, service berry, and all the species of Cratfegus, or hawthorns, should be examined for this purpose, the blight being the same in all. The orchardist should not stop short of 300 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE. absolute destruction of every case, for a few overlooked may go a long v:ay tov/ard undoing all his work. Cutting out the blight may be done at any time in the winter or spring up to the period when growth begins. The best time, however, is undoubtedly in the fall, when the foliage is still on the trees and the contrast between that on the blighted and that on the healthy limbs is so great that it is an easy-iuatter to find all the blight. It is important to cut out blight whenever it is found, even in the growing season. At that time of year, hov/ever, it can not be hoped to make much headv/ay against the disease, as ncAv cases constantly occur which are not sufficiently developed to be seen when the cutting is done. In orchards where there are only a few trees, and the owner has sufficient time to go over them daily, he will be able to save some which would otherv^•ise be lost. However, when the trees stop forming new wood, the campaign should begin in earnest. Of coui'se, the greater part of the blight can be taken out the first time the trees are gone over. If this be in midsummer, the trees should all be again carefully inspected in the autumn, just before the leaves shed, so as to get every case that can be seen at that time. After this a careful watch should be kept on the trees, and at least one more careful inspection given in spring before the blossoms open. It would doubtless be well to look the trees over several times during the winter to be certain that the blight is completel}'- exterminated. In order to do the inspecting thoroughly it is necessary to go from tree to tree down the row, or in the case of large trees to walk up one side of the row and down the other, as in simply Avalking through the orchard it is impossible to be certain that every case of blight has been cut out. The above line of treatment will be even more efficacious in keep- ing unaffected orchards free from the blight. A careful inspection of all pomaceous trees should be made two or three times during the summer and a sharp lookout kept for the first appearance of the blight. It usually takes two or three years for the disease in an orchard to develop into a serious epidemic, but the early removal of the first cases will prevent this and save a great deal of labor later and many valuable trees. In doing this work it must be remembered that success can be attained only by the most careful and rigid attention to details. AVatch and study the trees, and there is no question that the time thus spent will be amply rei^aid. GRASS GARDENS. By F. Lamson-Scribxer, B. Sc, Agrostologist, U. S. Department of Agriculture. WHAT IS A GRASS GARDEN? Gardens devoted exclusively to grass culture and experiment are called grass gardens. Usually their object is to exhibit and test the qualities of gTasses useful or possibly useful for forage, and other plants used for this purpose, the clovers, vetches, etc., have gener- ally been given a place in the gardens with them. These gardens are museums of living plants, and as such the}'^ arc particularlj^ interest- ing, as they contain the plants which form the basis of agricultural pursuits, and are of the greatest importance, directly or indirectly, to man. One of the first and mo.st celebrated grass gardens was that conducted by Mr. George Sinclair, under the patronage of the Duke of Bedford, earh'^ in the present century. Within tlie last few years grass gardens have multiplied, both in Europe and in this country; here particularly, because of the establishment of the State experi- ment stations, many of which make the subject of grass culture an important feature of their work. Grasses and forage plants exist in great variety, and possess great diversitj'^ of character. Some are coarse in growth and harsh in tex- ture, while the growth of others is fine and tender. Some possess the qualities required for making hay; others have characteristics which adapt them for gi'azing. Some possess good turf-forming habits; others will make no turf. Some thrive best under the heat of mid- summer; others flourish only in the cooler seasons of the year. Some present a scanty vegetation at best; others a vigorous and abundant growth. All these points and much besides may be observed and studied in the grass garden. RECOGNITION AND COMPARISON OF SPECIES. An opportunity is afforded for the comparison of one kind with another, and for noting their relative merits for special purposes. We may .also learn to know all plants advertised by seedsmen, and to judge Avhether the varieties advertised are those we would wish to propagate. Again, we may learn to know the native grasses, for these should not be omitted fi'om the garden. They should always have a place, not only for the reason liero suggested — that of becoming 301 302 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. familiar with their appearance and learning to Icnow them — but because they may exhibit under cultivation qualities of usefulness little suspected from what thej'' may exhibit in their native stations. In a grass garden, however limited in extent, one will soon come to recognize by their leaves alone the several species which he may have growing in it. He will not have to wait, as does the botanist, for the plant to come into flower and mature before he can analj^ze it. The leaves of the several species have their peculiarities — slight differ- ences in shape or size, or in the pointing of the tips, but more markedly in the variety of their colors — which the close observer will soon learn to detect and associate with the several forms (fig. 68). Pig. 68. — Grass garden at the IJ. b. Dopaiimeut ui Agiieuiture. Plat of buffalo gra- foreground. (Engraved from photograph. ) The gardener will, if his heart is in the work, soon discover indi- vidual peculiarities in the plants he cultivates, and detect variations which may be found to be as fixed or permanent as those which limit species. He may even become attached to individual plants which he has thus discovered, and which present to him qualities of special excellence, either for the formation of turf, which is what we most need, or for production of a superior hay. There are certain grasses which exhibit more markedly than others these small yet important diiferences. This is true of Kentucky blue grass, redtop, and some of the species of fescue. These are grasses which have a wide GRASS GARDENS. 303 geographical range, grow on a great variety oi soils, and i)i tlieir habi- tats present marked variations in size and general habit of growth, in the lengtli, breadth, and color of their leaves, and to some extent also in their flowers. The variations appear, however, chiefly in the vegetative parts — roots, stems, and leaves — and it is these which give the plants their value in agriculture. By special selection of seed or, better still, rooted plants, these individual peculiarities may become fixed and extended by propagation, and "improved varieties" ob- tained, as in the case of Indian corn, Avheat, and other plants. Tliese are some of the things Avhich may be studied and learned in a grass garden of the simplest form. THE botanist's INTEREST IN THE GARDEN. To the botanist a grass garden may serve many a useful purpose. In it the grtisses of all countries may be grown and so arranged in their natural tribes and subdivisions, giving to each a space propor- tionate to the number of species which it contains, that relationships may bo studied to the best advantage. In no other way can one more readily acquire a knowledge of the grass family as a whole, taking it in at a glance, so to speak, than in a garden thus systematically arranged. He is presented with an opportunity to study individual characters of special interest to him, to test the permanency of these peculiarities, as well as t^ie validity of species or varieties. It is unfortunate that botanists who make a study of grasses can not visit the countries where each and every species grows, but this is impos- sible; one is forced to depend upon the collections of many collectors "who arc not alwaj'S botanists, and who do not always gather material in tlic best shape for study. Not quite so good as seeing the grasses in their native habitat, but far better than viewing dried material alone, is the possession of a grass garden, where one may at least see and study the living j^lants themselves, although they may be in arti- ficial surroundings. There is much to learn from the living plant, which never appears in the dead herbarium sjjecimens, and it is very likely tliat the study of living material in the garden will lead to many cliaiiges or modiflcations of opinions and conclusions drawn from dried and mounted specimens. The grass garden affords its possessor an opportunity to make herbarium specimens whicli can be sent to those less fortunate in this jiossession, and which may also be used in making exclianges with other botanists. Likewise seeds may bo obtained from the grasses grown in the garden, and these maybe dis- tributed to (ither gardens or botanical institutions for the purpose of diffusing a knowledge of these plants through their multiplication at different points. SELECTION OF GRASSES FOR PARTICULAIi LATITUDES. The behavior of the grasses during the various seasons of the year will (Iclentiiiie in some degree tho latitud(^ to wliich they are l)est 304 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. adapted. Tliose which grow and thrive under the direct raj-s of the suniiuer sun suggest an adaptability to summer iiasturage or success- ful cultivation in more southern latitudes. Those which make growth onl}' during the cooler seasons of the yea.r, remaining green through tlie winter months, suggest usefulness in a cooler region or value for winter pasturage in the South, where such grasses are much needed. Again, a protracted iJeriod of drought or a season of excessive mois- ture maj^ bring out or exhibit qualities in the grasses of the garden equally important to know. There are regions in this country in which the climate, generally speaking, is moist and cool. There are others, of equal or greater area, of little rainfall and light dews. Tliose grasses Avhich may have been cultivated showing a marked resistance to long jDcriods of dryness are those most likelj^ to prove successful in cultivation in the dryer portions of our territory. THE GRASS GARDEN AS AN EXPERIMENT STATION. So far, mention has been made only of what may be learned in a garden conducted ui^on the simplest plan. Wo may go further, and make an experiment station out of it. Usually the gardens are of limited extent, because of the care required to maintain them in good condition, and the soil of the garden is practically uniform through- out. The plat assigned to each species is small, and with a little labor Ave can change the soil of these plats and thus test the adapta- bility of a given species to various soils of similar humidity. In the same Avay we may test the various fertilizers, having a number of plats of the same species 'all fertilized in different degrees. If it is desired to test the productiveness of any given variety, it is, of course, a simple matter to do this by the ordinary process of harvesting a spec- ified area and weighing the product. Opportunit}'' is also afforded of procuring specimens for chemical analysis during different jieriods of growth. If it is desired to test the turf-forming capacity of any of the grasses cultivated, this may be done by close and frequent clippings with the lawn mower, and occasional rollings. Turf of excellent quality can thus be produced from a number of grasses, and if the work is well and carefully done from the beginning, a turf garden of exceeding attractiveness may be formed. It is surprising what a large number of grasses Avill submit to this treatment. Many species ordinarily regarded as poor turf formers will, when properly liandled, make excellent turf. For convenience, the grasses which it is desired to test as turf formers should occupy a part of the gar- den by themselves, or, better still, should have a place entirely sepa- rate from the garden in which the grasses are allowed to go to seed. To give this work its highest economic value, cooperative experi- ments should be made. The grasses cultivated at one station should be grown also at another in a different State, or in regions where the climatic and soil conditions are markedly different. Under our system GRASS GARDENS. 305 of State experiment stations it is possible to do this work, where coop- eration can be secured, under the most favorable conditions. In all these experiments too hasty conclusions should be avoided. LAYING OUT THE GARDEN. Much of the success of a grass garden depends upon the location and soil where it is to be established. The garden should have a gently sloping surface, it matters little in what direction. In the Southern States a noi-thern trend is best, while in the Middle and Eastern States an eastern slope is most desirable. If j)ossible, the land selected should be in native turf, and artificialh", if not natu- rally, well drained. Land in native turf is most suitable, for the rea- son that it is likely to be most free from weed seeds, and no fertilizer will equal this turf when plowed under. The plowing should be done in August or September, and by cross plowing and freciuent harrow- ings in the spring the land should be made as fine as possible, and any additional fertilizer that may be required should be applied. In laying off the garden, it is customary to adopt rectangular plats of a definite fraction of an acre, and this is perliaps the best way where it is desired to estimate the product of the scA'eral species cultivated. The plats or beds should not be raised above the walks. Walks may be entirely omitted in gardens devoted to turf culture. If the lieds should run in lines or bands, they should extend at right angles to the slope. A more pleasing garden can be obtained by lireaking u^^ the rectan- gular i)lan to some extent, introducing broader or narrower beds, or longer and shorter ones, or occasionally allowing them to take some other shape. In the grass garden at the Department of Agriculture there is upon each side of the greater length a double series of beds or plats designed for the growth of native and cultivated grasses to be allowed to come into flower. Inside of these bands there is a narrow line of plats in which are grown various fodder plants — clovers, vetches, lupines, etc. — which do not belong to the grass family. Ex- tending lengtliwise through the center is a series of larger beds, in which are cultivated those grasses which are known or supposed to be good foi-mers of tui-f. These are kept closely mown, and are rolled occasionally. It is possible t(j water any part of the garden by artifi- cial means. In the illustration of the garden here presented (fig. 68), some idea of its plan may be gathered. The middle plat in the fore- ground is composed of the true buffalo grass of the plains, live roots of which were planted here late in the spring, and before autumn a very close, compact turf was formed, making a pure culture entirely free from weeds or other gi-asses. It is necessary to cultivate the grasses in pure cultures if we wish to learn all the facts relative to their indi- viduality. Of course, it may sometimes be desirable to test the growth and permanence of known mixtures, or to grow two or three varieties A 95 11 306 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. together in order to determine which will prove the most Adgorous or will survive the longest. It is hardly possible to grow pure cultures over considerable areas without the expenditure of more time and money than the case would probably warrant. If seed is used, whether procured from a seedsman or gathered by hand, it should be most Fig. 69.— Bouquet of grasses from the grass garden. Includes orchard grass, Texas blue gra.ared with the blue stems, furnish ex- cellent pasturage and, when cut in time, a fair quality of hay. The alkaline soils have their salt grass {Dlstichlis) and wild barley {Hor- deum), and a scant covering of lowly annuals. The false redtoj)s {EragrosHs pectinacea and Triodia purijurea) are common autumnal grasses on the upland prairies of eastern Nebraska and Kansas. There are also species of native clovers {Petalostemon), vetches ( Vicia and Lathyrus), shoe strings {Psoralea, Dalea, and Atnorpha), rattle pods {Astra gains), and beggar weeds (Desmodiurn), widel)' dis- tributed through tlie prairie States that add to the value of the wild meadows. One of them, ^vild vetcli {Hosackia purshiana)^ is very abundant in the valleys from the Blue River to the upper Missouri. It is worth as much to the stockmen on the ranges as many of the tame clovers are to the farmers of the Eastern States, This wild vetch thrives under cultivation, and ought to be planted on a larger scale. PRAIRIE HAY. The yield of wild liay in the prairie region is far from uniform, depending as it does upon the amount and distril)ution of rainfall through the growing season. Hay meadows that are cut continuously for a num))er of years deteriorate rapidly, both as to yield and quality of hay. The latter depends upon the relative amount of weeds that the hay contains. Wild meadows are not given the same treatment as tame mead- ows. They are neither reseeded by the farmer nor allowed to reseed FORAGE CONDITIONS OF THE PRAIRIE REGION. 319 themselves. The natural result is that the vitality of the grasses is diminished and they are nnal)le lo hold theii- own aj^ainst the weedy perennials that are so abundant in all prairies. These weeds increase so rapidly that they soon gain the upper hand and become more numerous than the grasses, and the meadow loses its value as hay laud. Good hay land is worth anywhere in the AVest $10 to $20 per acre more than any other class of raw jirairie. An average yield from such meadow land is a ton and n half to the acre. In excep- tional seasons it often amounts to 2 or 2^ tons, while in years of drought it falls to a ton or less. The pi-ice of good prai- rie hay varies from $2.50 to $10 per ton, baled, at the railroad, according as the visible supply of hay varies throughout the United States. With such yearly yields, and at such prices, it will pay to improve the prairie meadows, so that the product shall not decrease in amount or deteriorate in quality. The wild hay grasses should be permitted to reseed them- selves, if not one year in three, at least one in four or five. Cutting the grass early in the season would help to keep down the weeds. It is a matter of observation that the species of weeds which increase most rapidly in the hay fields are those that blos- som and ripen their seeds before the hay is ready to cut. Their increase can l)e checked only by cutting them while they are in fiower, and thus ])i-eventing the seed from ripening. The intermingled mass of weeds and grass along the sloughs and draws or on the ground where old stacks have stood should be mowed and l)ui-ned, or at least raked off the field. Otliei-- wise these weed jiatches will grow in size from year to year and reduce the yield of hay. The hay crop of the West is a money crop that annually brings in hundreds of thousands of dollars. As the acreage of raw pi-airie Fig. 73.— Big blue stem (Andropogon furcatus). 320 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. decreases the value of prairie hay will continue to increase, so that to properly care for the hay meadows and prolong their period of usefulness will become a paying investment. The prairies in theii* natural state were covered with an exceed- ingly rich grass flora. They were superb grazing grounds, clothed from early spring to late autumn with a succession of the most nutri- tious grasses, and in winter with standing hay as good as or better than tame hay. Forage was plentiful and cheap — to be had for the cost of gathering it. The early settler saw no need of cultivating grasses and clovers, for was there not at his very door better pasture and better hay land than he could get with his timothy and clover in many years at much labor and expense ? Those who are interested in better forage conditions for the prairie States have continually to face this argument, even in sections where the best native grasses have been all but exterminated. Farmers in the West say that prairie hay is better and cheaper than tame hay, and if cattle ^vill live through a winter on what the^^ can pick up from the prairies, what is the use of planting all these forage crops ? Such has undoubt- edly been the state of affairs over the entire region, but it can not last much longer, aud if we want to be forehanded and prevent the great losses of live stock that occur every time there is a bad season, we must take time by the forelock. To depend upon the natural hay to carry a herd through the winter, is trusting too much to chance. If there is a mild winter, without heavy snows, the cattle sometimes make a considerable gain in weight by the time grass starts in the spring. The occurrence of such a winter or series of winters always causes a boom in the cattle industry. But if the winter is severe, with heavy snows that do not drift but lie evenly over the ground, cattle can not pick up enough of this natural hay to more than sustain life, and the herd comes out jjoorer in spring by a good many tons' weight of fat and flesh. To make good beef and raise cattle at a profit it is neces- sary to keep the steer growing continuously from birtli until it is readj^ for slaughter. The more rapid the growth the sooner cattle can be turned off; and the quality of the beef will be better, com- manding higher prices. The only natural solution of this problem is to raise grasses and clovers so as to be able to supplement the scanty feed in periods of scarcity. Thus we see that the problem of improved forage conditions in the prairie region, whether looked at from the standpoint of the farmer or from that of the stockman, centers upon the one question. Shall we plant grasses? To this there can be but the one answer: As the cultivation of grasses and forage plants is at the foundation of agri- culture, if we are to improve the quality of our farming lands and increase their capacity for production, we must devote more acres to grass. It is absolutely necessary to impress this fact upon the intel- ligent and progressive farmer. FORAGE CONDITIONS OF THE PRAIRIE REGION. 321 TAME GRASSES AND CLOVERS. Tlie statement is often made that the tame grasses and clovers will not do as well on the rich prairie loam as on the heavier soils of the Eastern Ignited States. We hear farmers say that the reason they do not sow gi-asses is becanse they will not grow. There is no soil better adapted to grass culture than one that has been made by grass. But, as in everything else, one must know how to treat his grass crop to make it succeed. The crops obtained from new land for the first dozen years are so abundant and the yields are so great, compared with the amount of labor that the farmer must bestow upon his field to obtain them, that he often forgets that there may still be some things that require care to produce. Tame grasses will grow in any of the prairie States, but they must be given as much care and culti- vation in Nebraska as they receive in New York. SOILING CROPS. The dairying industry is growing very rapidly in the prairie States, where hundreds of creameries have been started within the last six years. The question of summer forage is therefore becoming an important one, for there is usually a period of from four to eight weeks in late summer when pasturage is scanty. A succession of forage crops is needed, especially such as will furnish green food in early spring and during the August and September drought and in late autumn, when pastures are bare. Very little has been done in this line, so that in recommending such fodder crops we can only draw upon our knowledge of what ought to do well under the known conditions of the region. What is needed is some plant or plants that will send roots down deep in early summer, something that will withstand the heat and drying winds of August and September, when no water is to be had anywhere except in the subsoil. For such forage plants we must look among the deep-feeding clovers and their relatives. Ilaify vetch and field j^eas make excel- lent green foddei- for milch cows, fed alone or with rye. These and crimson clover, sowed in early spring, would furnish an abundance of forage up to the time when green corn and millet are ready. Cow- peas and soja (or soy) beans planted alone in drills or in the corn rows, any time from the middle of May to the middle of June, will be i-eady to feed during August and until the first frost in September. Then, to supplement the pumpkins and root crops that ought to be grown on every dairy farm for autumn feed, there should be more vetches and crimson clover planted in the latter part of August, pro- vided there is moisture enough in the soil to start the seed. Cowpeas do not usually ripen seed farther north than Kansas, but the seed is cheap and easily obtained, and the forage is excellent in quality and quantity. These and the soja beans are among the richest and most nutritious plants of the clover family. A 9o Hi 322 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. To obtain the best results and utilize as much as possible of the food which they contain, these crops should be fed with some coarse fodder, such as corn, millet, or sorghum. They may be called con- centrated foods when compared with the latter, because they approach in their chemical composition wheat bran, linseed and peanut meal, and cotton-seed cake, which are fed ^vith the winter rations. All dairymen and styck feeders recognize that these two classes of forage must be combined to produce milk or meat at the lowest cost, and often the desired nitrogenous food can be produced more cheaply upon the farm in the form of some one of these clovers and beans than it can be purchased as bran or oil cake. Thus it becomes doubly important that the acreage of summer forage crops shall be increased. IMPROVEMENT OF THE RANGES. There has been much writ- ten and said within the last ten years about the deterio- ration of the ranges. Cattle- men say that the grasses are not what they used to be; that the valuable perennial species are disappearing, and that their place is being taken by less nutritious an- nuals. This is true in a very marked degree in many sec- tions of the grazing country. The one great mistake in the treatment of the cattle ranges, the one which always proves most disastrous from a financial standpoint, is overstock- ing. It is something which must always be guarded against. The maximum number of cattle that can safely be carried on any square mile of territory is the number that the land will support during a poor season. Whenever this rule is ignored there is bound to be loss. The present shortage of cattle all through the West is due to the fact that the ranges were stocked up to the limit that they would carry during the series of exceptionally favorable grass years preceding the years of drought. Then followed a series of bad years, Fig. 74.— White grama (Boutelotia oUgostachya) . FORAGE CONDITIONS OF THE PRAIRIE REGION. 323 •when the native perennial grasses did not get rain enough to more than keep them alive. The cattle on the breeding grounds of the West and Southwest died by thousands from thirst and starvation. It may seem like throwing away money not to have all the grass eaten clown, but in the long run there will be more profit if there are fewer lioad carried i^er square mile. The most nutritious grasses are not the annuals, which live only just long enough to produce seed and then die, but the perennial ones, which store ui) in their stems and running rootstocks quantities of starch and gums and sugars, to be used by the plant when growth commences, at the end of the Avinter, or dormant, period. The peren- nial grasses are the ones that furnish the "natural haj'^ " or winter forage. On those prairie pastures which are not overstocked a large X^ercentage of all the grasses produce seed, a condition necessary if the continued existence of any species is to be maintained. But where there are too many cattle on the range, the flowering stems of the grasses are eaten off just as soon as they appear, and the grass is often "eaten into the ground." It is with these wild grasses just as it is with the tame ones. If the perennial species are not allowed to reseed themselves, if every leaf is eaten off just as soon as it peeps from the sod, the plants can not survive. A turf grass like Kentucky blue grass will stand such treatment, but the grasses of the plains and arid prairies are not turf formers. They are for the most part "bunch grasses," and can not quickly adapt themselves to the changed con- ditions which require them to spread by sending out creeping runners beneath the sod. Their numbers have always been kept up by free seeding. Clearly, then, if the grazing quality of the ranges is to be improved, they must be so treated that the nutritious native^ species of grasses and forage plants can spread. by means of the ripened seed. This can be accomplished by dividing the range up into separate pastures and grazing the different fields in rotation. There is a constant succession of species that ripen their seed from June until October, commencing with Kmleria, Eatonia, Sfipa, and Buchloe in June and July, and ending with Andropogon, Sporohohis, and Triodia in Octo- ber. If these grasses are killed out, their places will be taken hy annuals of weedy proclivities, such as the numerous species of Era- grostis und Aristida, which are neither lasting nor nutritious; grasses that spring up with the early summer rains, ripen an abundance of seed, and die. Another result of overstocking the ranges is the injury that comes from the trampling and packing of the soil thi-ough the cattle having to travel long distances to water. In the grazing regions of Australia, which are for the most part as dry or dryer than our ranges, the squatters (ranchmen) depend upon surface water the year round. Each separate pasture or paddock has its artificial pond or "tank," 324 i'EARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. constructed where it will catch the surface flow in the wet season. Such artificial ponds scattered over the ranges would obviate the trouble that comes from cattle having to travel long distances for water. It would be well if this system were more widely adopted in our own country. GRASSES AND CATTLE. The success or failure of the cattle industry all through the prairie States depends upon the question of a sufficient supply of grasses and forage plants. In those sections of the country in which land is in the highest state of cultivation and the soiling method of feeding cattle is employed, three acres of ground will support five head of cattle per annum. This is at the rate of 1,066 cattle to the square mile. If the 300,000,000 acres of arable land in the Mississippi Valley were to be devoted to such an intensive sj^'stem of agriculture, and the productiveness of the land were equal throughout all the prairie States, more cattle could be raised each year than are consumed in the whole world. This gi-and total vnW give an idea of the possibili- ties of the land if the best crops are raised and the best agricultural methods are employed. Such an enormous production of forage and stock would not be warranted. The feeding of cattle for the domestic or foreign market is no more a golden road to wealth than is the cultivation of corn or wheat or cotton. The market can be glutted even with cattle and meat products. The supply must be kept within the limits of demand. We do not recommend that every farmer shall abandon wheat, corn, and cotton to devote his whole farm to the production of grasses and forage plants and of the stock to eat them, but we do recommend that every prairie farmer shall cultivate at least ten acres of grasses and clovers. GRASSES OF SALT MARSHES. By F. Lamson-Scribner, B. Sc, Agrostologist, U. S. Department of Agriculture. No one who has traveled along the shores of New England and the Middle States can fail to have noticed the numerous hive-shaped stacks of hay thickly scattered over the extensive marshes which border these coasts. The character of this hay and the elements of which it is composed can not fail to be of interest, for they are wholly unlike those of other regions ; and the hay itself, while less valuable than that usuallj^ found in our markets, serves many a useful pur- pose and forms a very important item of local trade. In olden times the products of the salt marshes were not forgotten by the coast dwellers of New England in their annual acknowledgment of bless- ings bestowed by Providence, when thanks were returned upon the day which is now one of national observance. AREA OF SALT AND TIDE-WATER MARSHES. The area of the salt and tide-water marshes bordering the ocean and gulf coasts of the United States is roughly estimated at from 0,000,000 to 7,000,000 acres. A considerable portion of this, particu- larly along the river banks of the Southern States, is beyond the reach of salt water, and possesses a different vegetation from that which comes under the direct influence of the sea and which alone is considered here. The salt marshes proper, which are covered by diurnal tides, or at least receive the storm and spring tides, are suf- ficiently extensive to receive special notice. The exact area of this land has never been definitely determined, except in a few States. In eleven of the States bordering the Atlantic there are approximately 2,459 square miles, or more than a million and a half acres. The quality of this land varies considerablj^ and so do the amount and value of the hay it produces. The plants composing the herbage, liowever, differ l)ut little botanically. Except along the shores of the New England and Middle States, this land has received comparatively little attention and been only occasionally utilized. In Connecticut, unimproved marsh is valued at from $5 to $20 per acre. Diked marsh is much more valuable, as it often exceeds in productiveness the adjoining uiDlands. The 325 320. YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. marshes along the Gulf coast are veiy extensive, but their hay prod- uct is deemed of little or no value. Those along the shores of Texas, however, afford in many places extensive and highly prized areas for the winter grazing of cattle. On the Pacific coast the marshes are insignificant in extent, except in the north, along parts of Oregon and Washington, in the region of Puget Sound. Except when diked, practically no care is given to the marshes beyond keeping open the ditches which serve to drain off the tide Avater. Thej^ are fertilized entirely bj^ the deposits of the tides, or, if located near the mouths of rivers, by such fertilizing elements as may be brought down by the streams in season of floods and deposited upon them. Pig. 75. — Carrying salt hay to the stack. HAY PRODUCT AND METHOD OF HARVESTING. The hay pi'oduct of the marshes varies from half a ton to a ton or more per acre, and is harvested at any time from June to December, little attention being paid to the time of blooming of the grasses of which it is composed. When the marshes are firm enough to allow the use of machinery, the grass is cut with a mower, but in many cases this is impracticable and the cutting is done by hand. Occa- sionally it is necessary to take advantage of very low tides to carry on the operation of harvesting. After being cut the hay is raked, and if it can not be dried upon the marsh it is carried to the adjoin- ing uplands, and there spread out to cure. More frequently it is stacked upon the marsh and hauled away during the winter season when the lands are frozen. The hay is taken to the stacks in various ways. One method, observed on the coast of Maine, is illustrated GRASSES OF SALT MARSHES. 327 here (figs. 75-77). These illustrations are from photographs taken on the marsh near Pine Point. The hay was cut and then raked up into small bundles; two poles were run under these bundles, and tlien the hay Avas carried to the stack and placed upon it. In this particular case the hay was cut upon shares, the harvester being allowed two stacks out of three for doing the work. This hay, the value of which was given at $5 per ton, was designed in part to be used for fodder and litter, and in part to be sold in Port- land for packing glassware and croekerj^. This latter is a very com- mon use of salt hay in the vicinity of all the larger seaport towns, immense quantities of it being used in New York Citj^ for this pur- pose; the tine, and rather stilf, wiry stems of the grasses peculiar to iug the stack. the marshes being particularly well adapted for packing purposes, much better than the hay of the uplands. The better quality of marsh or salt hay makes very good feed for growing stock, but possesses little fattening value. Some of the grasses composing the hay impart a disagreeable flavor to the milk or butter of cows feeding upon it. SALT GRASSES. The grasses of the seacoa§t may be divided into three classes: Those growing in the sands along the shore, those upon the marshes pioper, and those upon the sandy and waste lands bordering the marshes. To the first class belong beach or marram grass and a few others to some extent valuable for holding drifting sands. To the third class belong quite a variety of species of value, including switch grass {Panicum virgatimi), slender broom sedge {Andropogon 328 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. scoparius), creeping fescue {Festuca rubra), creeping bent {Agrostis stolonifera) , and sea spear grass {Glyceria maritiina). The last three occasionally extend onto the marshes proper, and add much to the value of the hay product there. The so-called salt grasses, which for the most part are limited to the marshes themseWes, comprise but few species; these are, however, very characteristic, and several of them have an exceedingly wide range, one being found upon both our Atlantic and Pacific coasts, as well as along the Gulf, also along the shores of EuroiDc. The several grasses of the marshes do not usually grow intermixed, as do the varieties which occur upon our meadows and uplands, but each species occupies by itself definite areas of greater or less extent. ■ •?< Fig. 77.— Completed .stack. The most characteristic grasses of the marshes are the Spartinas. (see fig. 78). The most common and most conspicuous of these is what is known as sedge, creek sedge, or thatch {Spartlna stricta var. glabra). Where this grass grows there is usually a daily flow of tide. Along the ditches and creeks this variety grows to the height of 6 or 8 feet, and its yield in bulk is often very great. It has a narrow, spike-like head, and many long and widely spreading shining leaves of a deep-green color. This grass remains green after the other veg- etation of the marsh has been turned brown by the frosts of autumn. It is of little value for fodder, but makes excellent thatch, and is used to some extent for mulching and litter. A finer grass of the same species, called fine thatch, growing to the height of 1 or 2 feet, is found over Iho marshes away from the ditches, and often forms a considerable element of the salt or marsh Jiay. This grass has, in GRASSES OF SALT MARSHES. 329 addition to its smaller growth, narrower, less spreading leaves, and is of a lighter color, often having a pale, yello^vi8h tint when seen in a mass upon the marshes. Red salt grass, or fox grass, is another species of Spartina {Spar- tinajuncea), and is one of the most valuable of this family for hay; in fact, is one of the most valuable of the true grasses found upon the nuirshes. It grows to tlie height of from 1 to 2 feet, has slender, somewhat wiry stems and leaves, witli a few spreading and reddish spikes composing its inflorescence. This is strictly a salt-marsh grass, and is found along our coasts from Maine to Florida and westward to Texas. While one of the most valua- ble of the ha3-producing spe- cies of the marshes, it is also most valuable for packing crockery, glassware, etc. Lo- cally this grass is sometimes known as "black grass," a name which properly belongs to another species, mentioned below. Along the Gulf Coast there is another Spartina {SjMrtina junciformis), which is taller than fox grass, with longer leaves, and the spikes which form the inflorescence or liead are more numerous, shorter, and very closely appressed to the main stem. The head of this is shown to the right in lig. 79, while that of fox grass is on the left. There are two other Spar- tinas which are occasionally found upon the marshes, or at least upon their borders. One of these, the fresh- water cord grass {Spartina cynosuroides), has already been noticed under "Grasses as sand and soil binders," in the Yearbook for 1894; the other, the largest of our Spartinas {Spartina poly stachy a), is less common than the last, and is confined to the coast, ranging from Maine to Alal)ama. It grows to the height of from G to 10 feet, and has the inflorescence composed of from 20 to GO spikes (see centerpiece in fig. 78). It forms a coiisiiicuous feature on portions of the Ilacken- sack marshes near Jersey City. Assotaated with this, upon these Fig. 78. —Salt-marsh grasses— the Spartinas. 330 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. marshes, is the large reed Phragmites communis. This grows to the height of from 8 to 10 feet, with A^erj^ leafy stems and plume-like inflorescence. It is shown in the center of fig. 79. This grass is not confined to the seashore, being widely dispersed throughout the temperate regions of the world, chiefly along margins of rivers and fresh-water lakes. It has remarkably long and ^penetrating roots, and is especially valuable as a sand and soil binder, as has already been noted. A large grass, common also on these marshes and abun- dant in the tide waters of the rivers of the Middle States, notably be- low Philadelphia, is Indian rice {Zizania aquatica) . This is a tall, coarse grass, with rather long, broad leaves, and the seeds are the favor- ite food of the reedbirds. When the seeds are ripe, these birds resort to the marshes in great numbers, making them at such times a favorite resort of sportsmen. Spike grass {Distichlis sjjicata), which also has been noted as an excellent sand binder, is occasionally found upon the marshes proper, sometimes occupying areas of considerable extent, as on the marshes of Cape Cod. It is peculiar in having the male or staminate flowers and the female or pistillate flowers on distinct plants; and while the male and fe- male plants may grow asso- ciated together, they are sometimes found separate, the male plants covering an acre or so exclusively, while in the vicinity a similar area may be found exclusively held by the female plants. This grass has very tough, extensively creeping roots, wiry stems, narrow leaves, and a compact head of flowers, and when abundant may be detected at a distance by its peculiar yellowish hue. Upon tlie higher portions of the marsh, which usually escape the ordi- nary tides, occurseveral fine grasses of excellent quality. Amongthese are the creeping fescue, sea spear grass, creeping bent or browntop. Fig. 79.— Salt-marsh grasses. Sea spear grass, spike grass, large reed, couch grass, browutop, creeping fescue, black-grass. GRASSES OF SALT MARSHES. 331 and black grass. The heads of these are shown to the left in fig. 79. Browntop, or creeping bent, which is common on the marshes of the New England coast and extends southward to New Jersey, is one of the best and most tender grasses for fodder which these lands produce. It is a variet}^ of the well-known redtop, but the stems are creeping at the base and do not rise so high, and the head or panicle is less expanded. It has a decided l^rown tinge, whence the common name "browntop." Sea spear grass is found along the northern coasts as far south as New Jersey, and is in some places quite abundant, occasionally forming an important element in the hay. It is not so common, however, as are the grasses already mentioned. The stems are tender, the leaves comparatively soft, and the panicle has a few erect or spreading branches. By some it is classed with browntop and not recognized as distinct from it. Creeping or red fescue which is more common on the sandy borders and waste grounds near the marshes, not infrequently occurs upon them in considerable abundance. This is particularly true of the marshes along the Jersey coast, although the grass extends north- ward to the shores of Maine. It is a low grass, and, when growing alone, forms an excellent turf; mixed with other species, it adds value to the hay product. Of all the grasses of the marshes there is none more highly prized for hay than black grass {Juncus gerardi), which is common on all the marshes of the New England coast, extends southward to Florida, and is found on the shores of the Pacific in the Northwest. Although popularly classed with the grasses, this is not a true grass, but a rush, its botanical characters being quite distinct from those of the Gram- inese. A couple of heads of this rush are shown in fig. 79, above those of the sea spear grass. Its slender erect stems are from 1 to 2 feet high, are somewhat wiry, yet soft, and apparently palatable to stock. It contains less fiber and has a higher nutritive ratio, as shown by chemical analyses, than timothy or redtop. There are a few other plants of the salt marshes which enter into the composition of salt or marsh hay, but as they belong to other families than grasses and are of comparatively little importance, rarely forming any appreciable amount of the product, no mention will be made of them. The question of reclaiming salt marshes by systems of diking for the purpose of growing better hay or other farm crops has been fully discussed in publications of this Department.^ Usually a better quality of hay can be obtained from the marshes as they exist by paying more attention to the time of harvesting. If the hay is desired for fodder, the harvesting should be done so far as possible when the most valuable grasses are in flower. If it is delayed too long past the season of bloom, much of the nutritive quality which these grasses ' Miscellaneous Special Report No. 7 (1884). 332 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. possessed in their season is lost. It must be remembered that the hay obtained from the salt marshes is their natural product — a free gift, as it were, of nature — no attempt being made to restore what is taken off, nor any effort to increase the growth of the more valuable sorts. Perhaps it is questionable whether it would pay to attempt to do this by collecting and scattering seeds upon the unimproved marsh or to try to destroy or collect the less desirable kinds to make place for the better varieties. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SALT-MARSH GRASSES AND HAY. A sample of pure fox grass {Spartina juncea), collected on the marshes of Cape Cod, Massachusetts, about the middle of August, gave the following anatysis: Moisture, 8.55 per cent; ether extract, 4; fiber, 26.88; ash, 5.41; nitrogen, 0.87; nitrogen as albuminoids, 5.44. A sample of salt hay, composed chiefly of fox grass and spike grass, and collected near Atlantic City, N. J., in the latter part of August, gave the following composition by chemical analysis: Moisture, 7.44 percent; ether extract, 4.02; fiber, 27.04; ash, 9.64; nitrogen, 0.77; nitrogen as albuminoids, 4.81. A sample of salt hay, collected near Pine Point, Me., in the earlj'- part of August and made up of a variety of grasses, including black grass, fox grass, and browntop, analj^zed as follows: Moisture, 8.04 percent; ether extract, 5.44; fiber, 27.25; ash, 5.13; nitrogen, 0.94; nitrogen as albuminoids, 5.88. The following table of analyses of the more important grasses here mentioned with those of the common meadow grasses inserted for comparison is taken from the annual report of the Connecticut Agri- cultural Experiment Station for 1889, page 240. The samples ana- lyzed were gathered just before or at the time of blooming. Timo- thy and redtop. Mixed meadow grasses. Black grass (J uncus gerardi). Red salt grass (Spartina juncea). Creek sedge {Spartina slricta). Ash Percent. 5.5 7.4 34.4 50.4 2.3 Percent. 5.5 7.6 35.6 48.9 2.4 Per cent. 7.9 9.2 29.0 51.3 2.6 Per cent. 9.3 6.0 28.6 53.4 2.7 Per cent. 11.7 Albuminoids 7.2 Fiber 29.4 49.5 Pat .. 2 3 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100. U The average of numerous analyses of the ash of some of these grasses shows that 5 tons of hay made from them contain as much nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash as is contained in a full crop of corn, including stover, from an acre of land. The average amount of salt contained in a ton of hay, according to the investigation at the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, was 54 pounds. THE RELATION OF FORESTS TO FARMS. By B. E. Fernow, Chief of the Division of Forestry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. That all things in nature are related to each other and interde- pendent is a common saying, a fact doubted by nobody, yet often for- gotten or neglected in practical life. The reason is partly indifference and partly ignorance as to the actual nature of the relationship; hence we suffer, deservedly or not. The farmer's business, more than any other, perhaps, depends for its success upon a true estimate of and careful regard for this inter- relation. He adapts his crop to the nature of the soil, the manner of its cultivation to the changes of the seasons, and altogether he shapes conditions and places them in their proper relations to each other and adapts himself to them. Soil, moisture, and heat are the three factors which, if properly related and utilized, combine to produce his crops. In some direc- tions he can control these factors more or less readily; in others they are withdrawn from his immediate influence, and he is seemingly helpless. He can maintain the fertility of the soil by manuring, by proper rotation of crops, and by deep culture ; he can remove surplus moisture by ditching and draining; he can, by irrigation systems, bring water to his crops, and by timely cultivation prevent excessive evaporation, thereby rendering more water available to the crop; but he can not control the rainfall nor the temperature changes of the seasons. Recent attempts to control the rainfall by direct means exhibit one of the greatest follies and misconceptions of natural forces we have witnessed during this age. Nevertheless, by indirect means the farmer has it in his power to exercise much greater control over these forces than he has attempted hitherto. He can prevent or reduce the unfavorable effects of temperature changes; he can increase the available water supplies, and prevent the evil effects of excessive rainfall; he can so manage the waters which fall as to get the most benefit from them and avoid tlie harm which they are able to inflict. The following three illustrations, shown as models at the Atlanta Exposition, are designed to bring graphically before the reader the evil effects of the erosive action of water, the methods by which the farmer may recuperate the lost ground, and the way the farm should look when forest, pasture, and field are properly located and treated. 333 33 1 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cj Tl -J ^ fl a Tl m -a A g ai o >< "S aJ 'S (B (S S a IX r* P. ^ fl be 01 fl bo -a a c8 5 fl ,_ .a CD fl 0 > bo ai § a) ^ a o D =5 C -M CO O 0 'S -fl -S " ,i^ 'ji > «i rO fl 6/0 W ^ 5 9-3 « .a -S I c4 -a , 0) ^ ■5 O 00 ^ 9 h be a fl a fl r« o , (11 q Vi ^ a fl fl 9 ■c 3 0) a ce A =S .fl ® > .3 ^ S g S .2 a o ^ ^ A *" •^^ ^ S THE RELATION OF FORESTS TO FARMS. 335 336 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUkE. M .^ ^ rt 75 o .2 > 1 w 1 3und being use [ivided into cu )f ground bein 3 and grade, an mage caused b s 6* .2 9 dp 0 ,c« o •" CO 3 l>.^ p. " ^^ ^. p ^ © "^ 9 p. p-^ £ .2 P- > a ^ 03 te 4J e3 M o a 1 §1 ^ a 0 o a •iH ■'"• -a m i o iii*pos<- ^^^^ poorest pait of tlie farm. Nor does the wood lot I'cquire much attention; it is to the farm what the workbasket is to the good housewife — a means with which to improve the odds and ends of time, especiallj'^ during ihe Avinter, when other farm business is at a standstill. It may be added that the material which the farmer can secure from the wood lot, besides the other advantages recited above, is of far greater impoi-lance and value than is generally admitted. 340 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. On a well-regulated farm of 160 acres, with its 4 miles and more of fencing, and with its wood fires in range and stove, at least 25 cords of wood are required annually, besides material for repair of build- ings, or altogether the annual product of probably 40 to 50 acres of well-stocked forest is needed. The product may represent, according to location, an actual stumpage value of from $1 to $3 per acre, a sure crop coming every year without regard to weather, without trouble and work, and raised on the poorest part of the farm. It is question- able whether such net results could be secured with the same steadi- ness from any other crop. Nor must it be overlooked that the work in harvesting this crop falls into a time when little else could be done. Wire fences and coal fires are, no doubt, good substitutes, but they require ready cash, and often the distance of haulage makes them rather expensive. Presently, too, when the virgin woods have been still further culled of their valuable stores, the farmer who has pre- served a sufficiently largo and well-tended wood lot will be able to derive a comfortable money revenue from it by supplying the market with wood of various kinds and sizes. The German State forests, with their complicated administrations, which eat up 40 per cent of the gross income, yield, with prices of wood about the same as in our country, an annual net revenue of from II to 14 and more per acre. Why should not the farmer, who does not i^ay salaries to managers, overseers, and forest guards, make at least as much money out of this crop, when he is within reach of a market? In regard to the manner in which the farmer should manage his wood lot, the Yearbook of 1894 gives a fuller account. With varying conditions the methods would of course vary. In a general way, if he happens to have a virgin growth of mixed woods, the first care would be to improve the composition of the wood lot by cutting out the less desirable kinds, the weeds of tree growth, and the poorly grown trees which impede the development of more deserving neighbors. The wood thus cut he will use as firewood or in any other way, and even if he could not use it at all, and had to burn it up, the operation would pay indirectly by leaving him a better crop. Then he may use the rest of the crop, gradually cutting the trees as needed, but he must take care that the openings are not made too large, so that they can readily fill out vnth young growth from the seed of the remain- ing trees, and he must also pay attention to the young aftergrowth, giving it light as needed. Thus without ever resorting to planting he may harvest the old timber and have a new crop taking its place and perpetuate the wood lot without in any way curtailing his use of the same. TREE PLANTING IN THE WESTERN PLAINS. ^y Charles A. Keffer, Assistant Chief, Division of Forestry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE PLAINS. The plains of the West comprise a strip of country of varying width extending from North Dakota to Texas, all portions of which have the same general characteristic features. In the eastern part of this region the country is like the adjacent prairies of Minnesota, Iowa, and Missouri — rolling lands, with numerous streams bordered by woods, from which the surface rises to the open country. In the Dakotas and northern Nebraska these slopes are usually gentle, but in Kansas the surface of the land is frequently broken by outcrops of the underlying limestone. Farther south the woods increase in extent. Through the central area of the Western States (the Dako- tas, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas) the tree growth is greatly reduced in extent and variety, the country is less rolling, and the altitude is higher, these conditions increasing in intensity west- ward until in eastern Colorado there is a vast plain rising by imper- ceptible degrees toward the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. Aside from these generally prevaiKng conditions, the State of Nebraska is crossed east and west by a broad belt of sand hills, which make it necessary to discuss that region separatelj' from the remain- ing country under consideration. A somewhat similar area, though very much smaller in extent and less pronounced in character, lies between the Arkansas and Smoky Hill rivers in Kansas. The soil conditions over this vast area are necessarily variable. The Dakotas and Nebraska outside of the sand hills have what West- ern people recognize as the typical prairie soil — a deep clay loam, underlaid with a subsoil of clay of varying degrees of stiffness. Oftentimes on adjoining farms this subsoil jiresents Avidely varying characteristics; the one being almost impenetrable to moisture (the hardpan of the Northwest), and the other having a considerable admixture of sand and readily penetrated b}" moisture. The surface soil is usually black in color, and, except in cases of extreme drought, can be kept in good condition, so far as moisture is concerned, by very deep plowing and frequent shallow cultivation. In Kansas and the southern country the same loamy surface soil is found, but the subsoil is frequently of a more calcareous nature, being 341 342 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. underlaid Avith limestone not far from the surface. In Colorado the surface soil is brown rather than black, and has the characteristic clay subsoil of the more northern region. The vegetation throughout consists of grasses, composites, and legumes, with a comi)aratively small number of other species, almost exclusively herbaceous, except in the immediate vicinity of streams. Tlie only common woody plants on the uplands are low-growing roses, chcrr}-, and false indigo. The soil cover is less luxuriant, generally speaking, from east to west and from the lower to the higher lati- tudes, being of course largely governed by the presence of moisture in soil and atmosphere. In the moister regions the taller forms of Androi)ogon and Calamagrostis are the characteristic grasses, while in the drier regions the Stipas, Boutelouas, and Buehloes are domi- nant. The annual x;)rairie fires have prevented as large accumula- tions of humus as the grass crop would otherwise have made, but the soil is nowhere lacking in an abundant supplj^ of food elements for trees. In all the Northern i)rairies there is an almost insensible passage from surface to subsoil, the change in color and grain being a very gradual one, evidently dependent on the amount of humus. It not infre- quently happens that a thin stratum of coarse gravel or gravelly clay makes a line of demarcation between surface and subsoil. Tliroughout the plains, too, it is common to find white spots, calcareous in nature, in the clay subsoil from 3 to 10 feet below the surface. By many per- sons in the West these chalky deposits are wrongly considered an indication of hardpan, impenetrable to moisture. There is also a greater or less admixture of fine sand in the clay subsoil; in most cases this sand is sufficient to render the subsoil porous enough to IDcrmit the free passage of moisture. This is proven by the almost universal effect of shallow culture on deep-plowed jDrairie soils. The land so tilled is fresh below the dust blanket even in long periods of drought, while adjacent uncultivated land sIioavs wide cracks on the surface of the baked earth. There are undoubtedly places, local in character and of limited extent, in which the subsoil is too stiff to permit a good growth of forest trees, but these can be regarded as* exceptions rather than the rule, which is that the soils of the plains are of sufficient depth and i^orositj'- to permit the growth of trees. Whatever difficulties are met, then, must be climatic in their nature. The mean annual rainfall gradually decreases from the eastern boundaries of Kansas and Dakota toward the mountains. The great- est rainfall occurs in the southeastern part of the region, and a grad- ual decrease is noticeable both northward and westAvard, being greater in the latter direction. On the unbroken prairies the character of the soil and vegetation has much to do with the moisture conditions. There is usually a good fall of rain during April, May, and June; then there is apt to be very little until tlic autumn months. During this TREE PLANTING IN THE WESTERN PLAINS. 343 long interval tlio onl}^ iDrotection to the soil is the herbaceous vegeta- tion tliat covers it, and this is soon turned brown and sere by the excessive heat and winds. The sun, beating down on the scarcely shaded earth, tends to compact and bake it until it more nearly resembles sun-dried brick than a soil in whieli phiuts can grow. This condition varies in j)roportion to the amount of sand in the soil, and as the greater part of the plains is covered with a clay loam, they dry out badly and have become very compact during the centuries that they have been exposed to existing conditions. When rains fall, the water is not absorbed by such soils to as great a degree as in the prairie loams of Iowa and Missouri. It x)enetrates a few inches, only to be soon evaporated. Under cultivation, however, a decided change in tlie action of Western soils is noticeable. This was impressed upon the Avritor during a visit to the Kansas State forest station at Ogal- lah (00^ IG' W., 390 N.), in October, 1894. In walking from the rail- road station to the forest i)lats, a distance of a mile, it was observed that the ground was cracked by the excessive drought, and it could scarcely have been harder; but in the cultivated soil of the nurseries and tree x)lats fresh soil w^as found a few inches below the surface. The great lesson to be learned from these general observations is that deep plowing and frequent cultivation of the soil until it is shaded by the tree growth is one of the requisites for successful forest jjlanting in these regions. OBJECTS OF TREE PLANTING. Without entering into a discussion of the causes of the failure which, in the majority of cases, has attended the efforts of tree planters in the States west of the Missouri River, it is intended to give practical suggestions on methods of planting and culture, with information regarding varieties of trees and the aftertreatment of cultivated woodlands. Tlie region under consideration is so vast in extent that it will be impossible, in a limited space, to give specific directions for planting or care under all the varying conditions of soil, altitude, moisture, wind, and the many minor items constituting what is known to the forester as locality. Being intended primarilj" for farmers, the subject is treated from the standpoint of the agriculturist rather than that of the forester. The farmer, devoting comparatively small areas to the cultivation of trees, can regard the individual tree as his unit; tlie forester, having to do with thousands of acres, must look to the aggregate growth. Nevertheless, if the fai'mer would have timber from his grove that will best meet his varied needs, he niust follow the same principles of selection, planting, and aftertreatment that govern the operations of the forester in his larger field. In the Western States forest-tree planters have two special objects 344 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in view — protection from winds and a supply of wood. Incidentally the plantations may be made to save much moisture to the tillable area of the farm ; they also furnish a most important means of reliev- ing the otherwise monotonous landscape, making the countrj'' more attractive. The gi*eat benefit derived from grove planting in the West, outweighing all other considerations, is protection from wind. Hence the groves should bo so placed as to afford the most complete shelter to the farm buildings, feeding lots, garden, and orchard. A careful examination of a large portion of the region under dis- cussion emphasizes a belief, founded on several years' experience in tree culture in South Dakota, that over the greater part of the vast area trees can be successfully grown without irrigation. The degree of success will be greatest on the eastern borders of the plains, and will decrease westward, following the general reduction in the mois- ture supply of soil and atmosphere. So, also, trees will be found to grow best on the lower lands near the streams, but as the country is settled and the land is cultivated the line of successful tree growth will ascend to the higher altitudes in every part of the plain region, and ultimately the entire area can be afforested. AVAILABILITY OF SPECIES. The work of tree planting on the plains heretofore has been largely tentative. In the beginning there was no experience that could be used as a basis in the West, because deductions from plantings made under other climatic conditions proved almost valueless. For the first time in the history of the world, a people attempted to transform, almost in a decade, a land that had long been considered an uninhab- itable desert. The iDaramount condition that led to a choice of vari- eties of trees for planting was availability. There was no question on the part of the settler of the necessity for wind-breaks. The need was so urgent that he sought the quickest solution of it and took from the sparse woodlands of the nearest streams the species that seemed to grow most rapidl3^ Hence throughout the West the . cotton wood is the most generally planted tree, and it has served a purpose which probably no other species could have so well filled. It has made a protecting wind-break around thousands of homesteads. Next to the Cottonwood tlie willow, box elder, and maple have been most extensively planted, these being the most rapid growing, during youth, of the native species. Throughout the West, however, hun- dreds of farmers have secured seed of more valuable species and have attempted their cultivation, with varying degrees of success. Throughout the eastern parts of Kansas and Nebraska thrifty groves of black walnut and green ash can be found, and there are many plantings that contain a variety of hard woods, including, in addition to those already named, the black and honey locusts, elm, cherry, and catalpa. TREE PLANTING IN THE WESTERN PLAINS. 345 To a much more limited extent pines and spruces have been planted, but a lack of knowledge regarding their needs has resulted at best in only a moderate degree of success. In these pioneer ijhintings, as in the wild state, trees have grown best nearest the eastern border of the plains, the artificial groves decreasing in number and in size to the westward. The species most easilj- secured, because native along streams in the plains, are cotton wood, box elder, green ash, silver and red maple, willow, and hackberry. Of these the cottonwood and willow may be regarded as the most available, because they grow readily from cuttings, as well as from seeds. The silver and red n\aples are both of common occurrence in Kansas, but northward the red maple becomes scarcer, and is not found in the Dakotas. The maples have a less general distribution, but they grow so readil}^ and strongly from the seed that thej^ have been largely planted. The ash and elm, being slower growers, have not commended themselves to Western planters as their merits deserve, but are now being more extensively planted. In the eastern plain region, especially southward, several species of oak are native, the most useful being the bur or mossy cup ( Quercus macroccwjxi) , also the black wild cherry, honej^ locust, sugar maple (rare), red elm, sycamore, walnut, several hickories, red cedar, bass- wood, and buckeye. It is thus seen that a goodly number of tree species are indigenous, and seeds of all of them can be obtained in greater or less quantity without much difficulty, the most widely dis- tributed being those first named. It may happen, however, through the instrumentality of the nurs- eryman and seedman, that species not native are more available than indigenous trees. The hardy catalpa is particularly available for the southeast plain region, because the seed is cheap and the tree can be grown with ease. For the same reasons the black locust is spe- ciallj' adapted to Kansas, southern Nebraska, and Colorado. Among conifers the Scotch and Austrian pines, red cedar, and white spruce are yearly becoming cheaper, and hence more available to the AVest- ern planter. In addition to these larger trees, smaller woody growths, such as wild plum, choke cherrj^ and sand cherry, can be secured over the greater part of the West, and may fill an important purpose in the groves. ADAPTABILITY OF SPECIES. The adaptfibility of a species is its power to adjust itself to the con- ditions in which it is placed. A great many failures have been made in tree growing by mistaking availability for adaptability. It does not follow l)ecauso the cottonwood is growing along the Arkansas, Republican, Platte, and Niobrara rivers all the way across the plains that it will succeed equally well on the intervening highlands. It 346 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. seems able to stand almost any degree of atmospheric diyness, pro- vided it has a plentiful supply of moisture at the root. This might appear at first thought to be equally true of all arborescent species, but the fact that so few varieties of trees are found between the one hundredth and one hundred and fifth meridians indicates the contrary. The Arkansas is a broad river throughout the driest seasons, but in western Kansas and eastern Colorado almost the only species that grows on its banks is the cottonwood. This tree is much shorter lived on high land, especially where there is a stiff subsoil, and does not live as long when x)lanted closely as when used for street plant- ing— a single row with wide intervening spaces; even where it grows naturally, along rivers, it soon dies out. The black walnut has been more extensively planted than any of the slow-grovdng trees, with the possible exception of green ash, and here again no attention has been paid to adaptability. The black walnut succeeds best in the deep, fresh soils of bottom and second- bench lands, and in such localities there are mau}^ successful young groves in Kansas and Nebraska; on the drier highlands, however, it is mucli slower in growth and often fails entirely. The silver maple has been planted extensively throughout South Dakota, where it almost invariably kills back during its early years, resulting in a coppice form that makes an acceptable soil cover but a poor tree. The box elder succeeds much better in the Dakotas than in Kansas, where it dies in high ground after a few years, and as a nurse tree is never as satisfactorj" as it is farther north. On the other hand, the Russian mulberry attains a good post size in the valley of the Ar- kansas— a thing incredible to those who have only seen the species as grown farther north, where it becomes a spreading shrub. The hardy catalpa ( Catcdpa speciosa) is one of the most rapid-growing trees in the southeastern part of the plains, and thrives as far north as Omaha, Nebr., but it kills back in central Nebraska, even at the south lino of the State, and will not grow at all in South Dakota. The black locust flourishes over a much greater western ra)ige, growing well under irrigation at Denver, Colo., and in the dry plains of west- ern Kansas, but it is not successful north of the Nebraska sand hills. It is seen from these examples that not only considerations of moisture but of temperature also must be regarded in determining the adaptability of a species to any locality. Genorall}" speaking, none of our trees succeed as well in the high- lands of the West as in the valleys, and the reason is evident. Aside from the great difference in soil moisture, the lower lands have, as a rule, a much deeper surface soil, and the atmo.si^here of the valleys is measurably protected from wind action, so that the evaporation is relatively less — a point second only in importance to the moisture supply. AVhile it is true that few. if any, species grow as rapidly on TREE PLANTING IN THE WESTERN PLAINS. 347 the liiy;lior laud, some arc comparatively successful there. Ou deep soils the black wild cherrj'-, cataljxi, white elm, houey locust, black locust, hackberry, bur oak, box elder, bull pine, Scotch pine, Austrian pine, and red cedar do well in places where the temperature is suita- ble. Perhaps no tree in the above list is more widely adapted to varying conditions than the Scotch pine, which seems to be equally at home in the dry prairies of eastern Dakota and northern Nebraska (longitude 100° W.), the clay soils along the Missouri, the limy loams of the Kansas River bluffs, and the sandy loams of the Arkansas Valley. OBJECTIONS TO PLANTING SINGLE SPECIES. Pure i^lanting is a term applied to plantations of a single species. In nature this condition is seldom found in the West, except along rivers where a grove of willows or cottonwoods has sprung up, or in the mountains where the pines or the spruces often form by them- selves dense forests. Pure planting is not to be recommended on the plains for several reasons. In the first i:)lace,»the trees, being all of the same species, have the same form and rate of growth. If any accident or insect injure them on a considerable area, the soil is at once exposed, and a weed growth quickly takes possession of it. In the second place, all the trees demand an equal amount of light, and this causes a crowding that will result in the premature death of many. If the kind selected be a sparsely shading sort, such as Cot- tonwood and the locusts, a rank growth of weeds and prairie grasses will spring up and rob them of soil moisture, thus checking their gi'owth. The ^■arious uses of the farm demand a variety of timbers. A pure grove, even though successful, will not be as valuable to the farmer as a mixed grove. RULES FOR MIXED PLANTINGS. In planting timber trees, whether the area to be covered is 5 or 5,000 acres, certain principles should govern the work. It is desirable that the kinds selected be adapted to a variety of uses, that the plantation make a good wind-break, and that the trees be brought to maturity at tlie least possible cost to the planter. Having determined what varieties are suitable to the locality, the mixing of two or more kinds depends (1) on their relative capacity for preserving or increasing favorable soil conditions, (2) on their relative dependence on light and shade for development, and (3) on their relative height gi-owtli. Based oji these princii)les, tlio following rules have been formuhited : (1) The dominant species, that is, the one occupying tlie most of the ground, must be one tliat improves the soil; in the AVest a shade- making kind. 348 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (2) Shade-enduring (densely foliaged) trees may be mixed together when the slower growing can be protected from the overtopj)ing of the more rapid growing, either by planting the slower growing first or in greater numbers or larger specimens, or by cutting back the quicker growing ones. (3) Shade-enduring kinds may be mixed with light-needing kinds when the latter are either quicker growing, planted in advance of the former, or larger specimens. (4) Thin-foliaged kinds should not be planted in mixtures by them- selves except in very favorable locations, such as river bottoms, marshy soils, etc., where no exhaustion of soil humidity need be feared, or on very meager, dry soils, where nothing else will grow. (5) The introduction of individual light-foliaged trees is preferable to placing them together in groups unless special soil conditions make the occupation by one suitable kind more desirable. ' There are difftculties in the application of these rules to Western planting that will at once suggest themselves. The first is that among the species available to the farmer very few are shade enduring, and a second is that as the trees grow older they change somewhat in reference to their shade endurance. The black wild cherry, for instance, endures much more shade during its youth than after it has attained its princiiDal height growth. It has here been included among the shade-enduring kinds with this understanding. It should also be remembered that moist soils increase the shade endurance of all species, and vice versa. RELATIVE SHADE ENDURANCE. Considering first the species that are most available in the West, a series arranged with reference to shade endurance would read about as follows: (1) Box elder, Russian mulberry (red cedar, Douglas spruce, white spruce, Norway spruce); (2) black wild cherry; (3) hackberry; (4) silver maple; (5) bur oak; (6) green ash, catalpa (Scotch pine, bull pine); (7) black walnut; (8) honey locust; (9) black locust (larch), and (10) Cottonwood. The best shade-enduring variety probably is the sugar maple. In the Dakotas and northern Nebraska the box elder answers tolerably well during youth, and is unquestionably the most available species for this purpose. Farther south the Russian mulberrj'^ may be sub- stituted. The relative shade endurance of the conifers is indicated in paren- theses in the above list, for the reason that the high prices charged for such trees have tlius far prevented their extensive use in Western tree planting. For the same reason they have been given a much less important place in the planting schemes which follow than would otherwise have been warranted. ' See annual report of Division of Forestry, 1886. TREE PLANTING IN THE WESTERN PLAINS. 349 At least two-tliirds of the plantation should be of dense-shading trees, among which the light-demanding species should be planted singly, so that each tree will be surrounded by shade-enduring kinds. To insure the greatest degree of success three-fourths or more of the grove should be shade-enduring kinds. The special importance of completely shading the ground as soon as possible in Western tree culture is the necessity of preventing grass growth. The prairie grasses are exceptionally ^igorous growers, and are all light-demanding species. Once established, it is difficult to eradicate them, and they seriously check the tree growth. Thou- sands of promising cottonwood groves have been ruined by permit- ting the grasses to get a foothold in the plantation. None of the light-f oliaged trees make sufficient shade to prevent grass growth ; so that the planter must either continue cultivation, which is too exj)en- sive a process, or use dense-shading trees for the major i^art of his grove. Indeed, the subject of light requirement is of the first impor- tance in forest tree-culture anj^where. Heretofore it has received practically no attention in the West, and the above placing of species may have to be changed with more extended observation and experi- ment under Western conditions. RATE OF DEVELOPMENT. The varieties to be mixed should be chosen not only with reference to their light requirement, but also to the period of their development or rapidity of growth. To the Western planter shelter from winds is the most important object to be attained, and in order to accomplish this at the earliest possible time the majority of the trees should be quick growers. It seldom happens that rapid growers yield a timber valuable for economic uses, the catalpa and black locust being notable exceptions, and they can only be grown in a restricted territory. The cottonwood grows faster than any other Western species, but it is valueless for home use except as fuel, and it is of the poorest quality even for that purpose. The box elder and soft maple are but little better. These are trees of the earliest maturity, and the two last named are among the most available shading kinds. Cottonwood is almost useless in mixed planting. The plantation, then, should be made up largely of these quickly maturing species, even though the}' are of but slight economic value. Distributed singly among them should be trees of a slower rate of development, chosen also with a view to their light requirement. If one-half or two-thirds of the plantation be of box elder, for instance, a1 least half of the remaining trees should be of a shade-enduring kind, that will continue to keep down weed growth by keeping the soil shaded after the box elders are thinned out. The remainder f)f the species may be of high economic value and slower maturity, sucli as bur oak, black walnut, and asli, or tliey may be rapid growers which demand a great deal of light, such as black locust and catalpa, or they nuiy he pines, or all these may be introduced, ])ut 850 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. under all circumstances their light requirements should be kept in mind, and they should be so distributed as to afford to eacli tlie best opportunity for development. It ^vill be seen from what has been said that the rapid-growing species, like box elder, Russian mulberry (in the more southern regions onlj"), and silver maple, while affording j)rotection from winds almost €is soon as cottonwood, are serving as nurse trees to the more slowly maturing kinds which grow among them, compelling them to reach up for light, and thus forcing them to grow tall and straight and to store the most of their wood in the shaft and form the least possible number of branches during their youth. In this way the value of the more permanent trees is greatly increased, for the trunks at maturity are long, straight, and free from knots, thus making the best possible lumber. According to their rtite of development, our more available species for AVestern planting may be arranged as follows, the most rapid growing being named first : Cottonwood, box elder, silver maple, black locust, catalpa, Euroi)ean larch, honey locust, white elm, hackberry, Scotch pine or bull pine, black wild cherry, black Avalnut, white spruce or Douglas spruce, red cedar, green ash, bur oak. CLOSE PLANTING. One of the principal causes of failure in Western tree planting has been wide spacing. It is not uncommon to see trees set in rows 12 and even 16 feet apart, 1 to 2 feet apart in the rows. This wide spacing of rows requires long-continued* cultivation, otherwise the trees are soon given over to the grasses, which rob them of soil mois- ture and effectively check their development. Or, what is even worse, the forest trees are set as in an orchard, 9 or 12 feet apart both ways. This i^lanting permits a great development of lateral branches, result- ing in verj'' short trunks, which, as the trees grow older, form bad forks near the ground. This plan also demands long-continued culti- vation in order to keep out weeds and grasses. Aside from the more comi^lete protection afforded, close planting is the most economical method of cultivation in the "West. It is true that if trees are purchased, the first cost of material is greater, as also the cost of planting, but these items are more than balanced by the saving in cultivation and the assurance of success. The Western planter is measurably restricted by the number of species of trees that -will succeed in his locality ; but while the climate limits the number of species that he can grow, there is yet a wider range of choice than has thus far been exercised. As already indi- cated, the major part of a Western plantation should be of a dense- foliaged, quick-growing species; and in the choice of this variety the planter is limited to one or two kinds. For the remaining trees of his plantation, however, there is quite a wide range of choice, and the TREE PLANTING IN THE WESTERN PLAINS. 351 plantation sliould T)e sufficiently varied in its forms to meet all possi- ble needs. AVitli careful management, a plat of 20 acres of forest trees, well selected and properly grown, can be depended upon to supply the ordinary Western farm vritli tlie greater i)art of the timber needed upon it, thougli it could not be expected to supply fuel. If the farmer desires to grow post timber, black locust is one of the best trees he can plant; but this tree does not succeed north of Nebraska. It is a light-demanding species, and is subject to borers, and hence should be distributed singly among shade-making kinds. If wood for machine repairs is wanted, green ash is best adapted to the pur- pose. It can be raised throughout the West, but is also a light- demanding species and must be grown among sliade-making kinds. These illustrations will show the importance of including in all planta- tions a number of species of timber trees having varied characteristics. ILLUSTllATIVE TREE MIXTURES. The best distance at which to plant is 3 by 3 feet, and next to this is 4 by 4 feet, the latter spacing being the widest that should be used on the plains. At 3 by 3 feet, 4,84:0 trees will bo required for an acre; at 3^ by 3^ feet, 3,781, and at 4 by 4 feet, 2,722. In the southern part of the plain region, Russian mulberry, catalpa, black wild cherry, black locust, green ash, l)ur oak, white elm, black walnut, and Scotch pine could be used in mixture according to the following diagram: ]\I A M L M A M L M A 11 L c M C BC C M C BC C M C BC ]^.I L ]M 0 M L M P M L M 0 c BC C M C BC C M C BC C M M E ]M L ]\I E M L M E M L C M C BC C M C BC C ]\I C BC M L M W M L M P M L I\I W C BC C M C BC C M C BC C M M A M L M A M L M A M L C M C BC C M C BC C M C BC M, Russian miilborry; C, Hardy catalpa; A, Green ash; E, White ehn; L, Black locust; O, Bur oak; W, Black walnut; P, Scotch pine; BC, Black wild cherry. The number of trees of each species re(iuired for an acre Avould be as follows: Mulberry 1,815 Catalpa 1,210 Black wild cherry ■ 605 Black locust COS Green ash 151 White elm 152 Bur oak 75 Black walnut. 75 Scotch pine 152 Total 4,840 352 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. An inspection of the above diagram will show that the mulberry, catali^a, and black wild cherry, shade-enduring trees, constitute three- fourths of the planting, leaving the remaining fourth to light-demand- ing species; black locust, a rapid-growing tree and one of our very best post timbers, makes up one-half of the light-demanding species ; green ash, white elm, and Scotch pine (for which ash could be sub- stituted) each constitute one-fourth of the remainder, while bur oak and black walnut, at intervals of 12 by 24 feet, fill the remaining places. The mixture has been arranged with reference to the light requirement of the trees. Catalpa and mulberry alternate with each other in the rows, so that at the thinning time, if it is desirable to remove either, the other will protect the soil. The catalpa pushes late in spring and its leaves drop with the first frost, so that alone it is not a good nurse tree; but mixed with mulberry, which has an earlier and more persistent foliage, the defect is measurably over- come. The catalpa, grown close, will make poles in five to ten j^ears, so that if at the first thinning this variety is removed it will give an abundance of room for the other trees — admitting light not only to its own rows, but to the more permanent trees adjoining it — and will yield a good return in sticks large enough for pole fencing, stakes, or stove wood. When the catalpa is removed, the black wild cheny and mulberry will soon close the breaks made in the leaf canoi^y, and thus weed growth will be prevented. At the next thinning, in from fifteen to twenty years, the mulberry will be large enough to make from two to four posts per tree, or, if deemed more desirable, a part of the black locusts will be found large enough for use. By this time the cherries should average 30 to 35 feet in height, and it may be necessarj- to aid the oaks, either by removing the adjacent mulberries and cherries, or by cutting their lateral branches. All the trees will have been forced to grow tall and straight. For the more northern part of the plains the number of species would have to be reduced or substitutions made, as experiments seem to indicate that the shade-enduring species are box elder and black wild cherry, and the light-demanding forms that have proved success- ful are white elm, gi-een ash, bur oak, cottonwood, Scotch i^ine, and Austrian pine. Red cedar and the spruces are shade enduring, and the bull pine {Piiius jionderosa) of the Black Hills will doubtless be a useful addition to this list. The white spruce or Douglas spruce could be substituted for catalpa, box elder for mulberry, and white elm for locust, increasing the num- ber of green ash to 302 in place of the white elm indicated in the mixture; or, if only broad-leafed trees .are to be used, the following mixture could be made: TREE PLANTING IN THE WESTERN PLAINS. 353 B B B B B B B B B B B A B C B E B C B L B B B B B B B B B B B C B L B C B A B C B B B B B B B B B B B A B C B E B C B 0 B B B B B B B B B B B C B L B C B A B C B B B B B B B B B B B, Box elder; A, Green ash; C, Black wild cherry; E, White elm; O, Bur oak; L, Yellow birch. On the basis of this diagram it would require per acre, planted 3 by 3 feet, the following number of trees of each species: Box elder 3, 630 Black wild cherry 607 Green ash 201 White elm 201 Yellow birch . 151 Bur oak 50 In this mixture, lx)x elder is used as the early maturing, dense- foliaged form, and ccmstitutes three-fourths of the trees. They are so j)laced that the alternate trees in the solid box-elder rows may be removed, and the more permanent trees will still be surrounded by good shade-making kinds. Should all the nurse trees be removed, the black wild cherry-, constituting one-half of the remainder of the plat, would become the dominant tree, and, being a shade-enduring kind, would act relatively the same as box elder. The cherries are so placed that if all the box elders were cut out, the lighter- foliaged forms would each be surrounded by cherries. The box elder will not make as useful a timber for any purpose as catalpa, but the latter species is not hardy north of central Nebraska, and grows poorlj^ west of the ninety-ninth meridian in Kansas, so that it is only avail- able in a comparatively small part of the West. The cottonwood is not recommended, as other and better trees can be grown in its place. The box elder grows rapidly onl}'^ during its youth, and within ten or fifteen years the remaining trees may be expected to overtop it; but where fuel is as scarce as on the plains, even the first box- elder thinnings, at seven to ten years from planting, will be found very useful for firewood. The black locust can be grown throughout Nebraska south of the sand hills, but it does not succeed in the northern i)art of the plain region, nor does the honey locust, though this will stand in the south- ern counties of South Dakota. The mixtures here suggested are given not as ideal ones, but to ilhistrate the practice. The important point to be observed is tht; necessity of having a good shade inakei- as the dominant tree in the beginning, and providing for a suitable distri- bution of the light-demanding species among the pernuinent shade- enduring kinds. A 9.') 13 354 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CONIFERS FOR WESTERN PLANTING. The climatic conditions throughout the States between the Missis- sippi River and the Rocky Mountains seem to indicate that the cone- bearing trees are better adapted to the plains than are the broad-leafed species. Tlie excessive evaporation of the plains, due in a great measure to the constant winds, is much more trying to deciduous trees than to evergreens, the foliage of which is especially designed to withstand it. Experiments have been conducted in the cultivation of conifers in the West, but they have been almost invariably attended with only a small measure of success, or have failed entirely. The few exceptions, however, prove that it is possible to make certain of the conifers live, and that, once established, they thrive where broad-leafed trees fail (as in the sand hills). It should be stated that as a people we are unfamiliar with the handling of young cone-bearing trees, l)ut having had large experi- ence, one way and another, with deciduous forms, we have a much better understanding of the requirements of the latter. Undoubtedly most of the failures with conifers in the West have resulted from ignorance on the part of the shipper, the buyer, and the planter. In digging deciduous trees but little care is necessary to protect the roots. Indeed, the writer has received a lot of oak trees the roots of whicli looked so dry that they were planted without any expectation of their growing, but only a small per cent of them failed; and others, notably the green ash and catalpa, will stand a great deal of abuse of this sort. Tlie conifers, however, have a very different root system, and require different handling. Take almost all of the broad-leafed trees that thrive in the AVest, and in their seedling stage they have either a heavy taproot, like the catalpa, walnut, and ash, or several equally strong main roots springing from near the collai', which have but few rootlets. The conifers, on the other hand, have a mass of fine rootlets by the time they have attained a size for transplanting, and even were other things equal, these xcry line roots would dry out much quicker than the larger roots of the broad-leafed trees. The fact that the roots of young cone-bearing trees dry out quicker, with greater resulting injury, than those of other tree forms can easily be established by exposing elm or clien-y and larch seedlings for a few hours and then planting them. The former will be none the worse for its sun bath, but the latter will fail to grow. The roots of cone-bearing plants should not be exposed to the drying action of the air from the time they are taken up until they are trans- planted. As the j^oung conifers are dug their roots should l)e i^lunged in water or puddled in mud. In the storehouse, during the interval of packing, they should be protected by damp moss. In transit they should be so i^aeked as to avoid heating on the one hand, and drying out on the otlier. When received by the ])lanter, they should at once be separated, puddled, or dipped in water, and carefully "heeled in" TREE PLANTING IN THE WESTERN PLAINS. 355 (covered leiuporarily Avilh moist eartli) in a shaded loealioii until they can be set. When the planting season arrives, a moist, clondy day should, if ])(>ssi])le, be chosen for the work, and the young ti-ees should he taken from their temporary resting place and carried in vessels of water to the field. In planting, none but fine moist soil should come in contact with their roots, and this should be tramped very firm, so that the fine soil will be brought into close contact with the rootlets. Then if an inch of loose soil b<' spi'ead over the top, making the surface level and pre- venting drying out, the tree will have been Avell planted. The cone- bearing trees, as a rule, do not start so readily as the broad-leafed species. They have as great, if not a greater, snpply of stored food, and push their buds vigorously, but the roots do not take hold of the soil so readily, new roots are not formed, and as a result the trees frequently perish after a seemingly excellent start has been made. The conifers are of very great utility in Western planting. Being evergreen, they make far better wind-breaks than do the deciduons trees, and herein is their peculiar value. Tree planting on the j^lains, at least under existing conditions, can hardly be expected to assume the proportions of forest planting, and hence the economic value of the wood of j)ines and si)ruces is of minor importance. The^^do not furnish as sti-ong lumber as do the ash and oak, and are not so dura- ble in contact with the soil as black locust and catalpa; hence for the ordinary farm uses the timber of the conifers is not especially desirable. FOREST PLANTING IN THE SAND HILLS. An experiment in the planting of forest trees in the sand hills of Nebraska has been described in the annual reports of the Division of Forestry, and the results thus far attained seem to indicate that the first step in this direction will be the growth of lianksian pine on the sand ridges. These sand hills occupy approximately an area 250 miles long (east and west), and from 50 to 70 miles across. The country is traversed in all directions l)y high hills composed of almo.st pure sand, interspersed with grassy valleys which are good grazing and hay lands. The hills are covered with a sparse growth of grasses and weeds, scarcely enough to bind the sands, which are frequently blown out in large areas, often making great holes a hundred yards in diameter in the sides of the hills. The wind and l)lowing sand make the valleys almost uninhabital)le, and even wei'<' these diflicul- ties removed the soil of the valleys is very shallow, and will not long bear cultivation. The experiment undertaken by the division had for its ()l),ject the detei'inination of what species would grow on these sand hills. Witliout going Into details, which have been already reported, it may be said that of a number of species of deciduous and coniferous trees planted only one sliows decided adaptability to this unfavorable 356 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. locality. The Banksian pine, planted on the highest ridges in the heart of the sand hills four years ago, seems thus far well suited with its surroundings; all the deciduous trees are dead, and only a few ponderosa, Scotch, Austrian, and red pines remain. The land was not ])lowed, as such a procedure would have caused it all to blow away. I''ni-rows 2 feet apart were turned, and the little ti'ees, fi to 10 inches high, were planted in these furrows so as to be slightly shaded by the ridges formed in making them. The Banksian pines are now from 18 inches to 4 feet high, and are each year gi-owing more than the last. The sand of which the hills is composed is fine, like clean river sand, and during the driest seasons moisture can be found only a few inches below the surface. If this gi-eat area, lying almost midway l)etween Texas and the British Possessions, could be covered with forest trees, a noticeable imiarovement in the climate of the plains would result. From the action of the other species of pine noted it is safe to infer that after the Banksian pines are a few feet high, and able to afford slight protection, other and more valuable species can be grown in their shade. The Douglas spruce {Psendofsuga douglasii) has not stood as well as the pines in this experiment, nor is this surprising when the greater shade endurance of this species is recalled. It is leasonable to hope, however, that this valuable species can be estab- lished in the shade of the Banksians, and that once established it will serve as an excellent nurse for the more rapid-growing i^ines. After these have been cut off the spruce will be left as the dominant trees. Evei-y forest experiment in the sand hills should have as its ulti- mate aim an extent great enough to warrant systematic management, conducted on the general ijrinciples laid down in the annual report of the Division of Forestr}- for 1891. Judging by the action of the trees in the l^ebraska sand hills experiments thus far, the following dia- gram illustrates Avhat might be a safe planting scheme: BBBDBBBD BDBPBDBP BBBDBBBD BDBPBDBP BBBDBBBD BDBPBDBP BBBDBBBD BDBPBDBP Distance between trees, 2 feet each way. Number of trees to the acre, 10,840, of which 6,775 are Banksian i)ine, 2,710 Douglas spruce, and 1,355 pines of one or more of the following species: Finns pon- derosa, P. syhwstris, and P. resinosa. The Banksian pines would only be expected to stand until the others were estal)lished, and could be given the start by two or three years. TREE PLANTIMG IN THE WESTERN PLAINS. 357 From tli«> action of tlio trees in the Nel)raska <'xp(M-iin(Mit, it would seem tliat the Douglas spruce, if used at all, should not be set until at least three years after the Banksians. In case the spruce is omitted entirely, the Banksiau should be set in its place. GENERAL CULTURAL NOTES. With the exception of the sand hills, general suggestions may be nuide which will be apj)licable to the cultivation of forest trees throughout the plains. Preparation of the soil. — In the preparation of the soil too much imi)ortance can not be attached to depth of plowing. The "Western prairies, through long exposure to the action of the elements and to the tramping of the countless herds of buffaloes, which for centuries found in them a favorite pasture ground, have become far more com- pact than the forest-protected soils of the East. After a prolonged drought, such as frequently occurs, the autumn rains are not readily absorbed by the hard soil, and much moisture that might be saved to crops runs off and is lost to the fields. This is particular!}^ true of the western parts of Nebraska and Kansas, and eastern Colorado. The same lands under deep tillage act very differently. Not onty is the absorbing power of the soil increased by deep plowing, but the ability of such soil to retain moisture, under jjroper culture, is marked. Land should be gradually' prepared for tree planting by increasing the depth of plowing during three successive years, if so much time can be given to the work. The usual practice in the West is to break the land in June or July, turning as thin a sod as possible, and laying it flat, for which purpose the l)reaking plows are well adapted. Sometimes, on early breaking, a crop of sod corn or flax is grown the same year. After one crop is removed, the land is backset, when an inch additional is turned. For tree planting the depth should be increased from 2 to 3 inches at a time, until at the end of the third year the land may be plowed 10 to 12 inches deep. The advantage of this gradual preparation is in the complete subjection of the native growth of grasses and other herbaceous plants. This is a most imi)ortant point in the economic growing of trees on the plains. If the native growth is entirely subdued, so that no live grass roots are present in the soil when the trees are ]>lanted, a great deal of after- labor is ol)viated. One of the most obvious dilliculties in the way of successfully meet- ing the requirements of the timber-claim law, which resulted, in spite of its defects, in so mucli good to the Western States, was the short time allowed between breaking the prairie sod and planting the trees. It was almost impossible under the methods of farming in vogue in the West to kill out the native vegetation in two seasons, but by gradually increasing the depth of i)lowing and l)y planting hoed crops the season preceding the setting of trees, the land can be completely 358 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. subdued. Deep-i)lo\ved land will absorb inucli more of tlie melting snows and the spring rains than shallow-plowed land with the com- l^act underclay within a few inches of the surface. By tlxe time the planting season oi^ens, in a year of ordinary rainfall, a deep-jilowed field will be in excellent condition to receive the trees so far as mois- ture is concerned. Thorough ijulverizing of the soil is but little less essential, as a preparation for trees, than deep plowing. The particles of the soil should l)e fine in order that they may be In-ought in close contact with the roots of the trees, and thus supply them with uu)isture. If the field is rough and full of clods, the land will dry out rapidly. The thorough use of the disk harrow, clod crusher, pulverizer, and smootliing harrow is quite as important in preparing land for trees as in the prei^aration of a field for a crop of wheat. Xot only will trees start more quickly when set in well-pre])ared soil, but the growth will be more uniform and strong. As in all other hoed or cultivated crops, it is important to keep the surface of the soil in fine tilth until the trees have grown sufficiently to shade the ground. Deep plowing and shallow cultivation should be the rule in all kinds of "Western farming. The deep plowing gives a large absorptive area, and shallow cultivation places over the moist soil a dust blanket that acts as a most effective mulch, checking evaporation and thus retaining the soil-moisture for the use of the trees. The Western planter must keep constantly in mind the neces- sity of saving, by every possible means, the moisture of the soil. In the Eastern States, which have a well-distributed rainfall of from '.iO to 50 inches, this is a point of comparatixely little consequence; but bej'ond the Mississipiji its importance increases as one goes westward. Pkuifing trees. — In planting trees careful alignment will save much labor in cultivation. It will pay to mark the land as carefully as for corn where groves of 10 acres or less are to be set, and to l)egin plant- ing all the rows from the same side of the field, as the slight deviation resulting from pressing the spade forward in planting will thus bring- all the trees in even crossrows. Almost all seedling forest trees can be set with a broad dibble or spade, which is sunk blade deep at the cross mark, the soil pressed forward, the roots so inserted as to avoid turning the tip upward, and the soil pi-essed firmly about the collar with tlie feet, brushing a little loose dii-t over the j^rcssed places to prevent baking. When planting in this way, the seedlings can be car- ried in a i)ail with a little water or moist eartli. In mixed planting it will be found most convenient to set all tlie trees of the prevailing species first, leaving the i^laces for the kinds that are to be used in smaller quantity to be planted afterwards. Where two or three shade makers are used tlie same method can be followed, or each kind may be liandled by a different plauter, all working together. It is also desirable to take all the trees to the plat to be planted TKE1-: PLANTING IN THE WESTERN PLAINS. 359 and heel tlu'iii in where they can he easily reached. Special <;are shonhl he taken to prevent the drying of tlie roots of conifers. Where tlie roots are hirye and lihrons, it will he fonnd hest to dig a hole for the trees, setting them in the same manner that orchard trees are planted. Care should be taken to secure perfect alignment in this method, as when the rows are irregular it is impossible to bring the cultivator close to the trees. Exposure of roots. — It occasionally happens in the West that dur- ing the earlj^ summer, or after the leaves have dropped in the fall, the surface soil will be blown away by the hard winds, exj)osing the roots to the drying atmosphere. To prevent this, the trees should be set an inch deeper than they grew in the nursery, and in autumn, after the leaves have fallen, a shallow furrow should be turned to the trees, so as to throw the dirt against the trunk. This can be done with the shovel attachments of the ordinary wheel hoe, which is one of the most useful implements that can be used in the young tree plantation. CaUical'ion. — The amount of cultivation beneficial to young trees can not be determined by freedom from weeds, nor by the number of times the opei-ation is performed. In seasons of prolonged drought frequent stirring of the surface soil will be found of great benefit, as it will keep over the surface a layer of loose, fine earth, which will quite effectively cheek evaporation from the moist soil below. After rains the stirring of the surface soil will i)revent the formation of a crust, which indicates the too rapid loss of water from the soil. Weeds and grass should be kept out of the trees, because they use the mois- tui-e that will be needed for tree growth. Ordinary shallow cultivation will be found sufficient for annual w'eeds — including the Russian thistle, sunftowx'r, and mustard — if begun early and continued regu- larly, but the only way to get rid of the coucli grass {Agropynim repens) is to carefully dig out its underground stems and remove them. It is well to be on the watch for this pest, for Avhen once established among trees it is almost impossible to eradicate it. Cultivation should cease at midsummer, in order not to encourage too late growth and conse(iuent danger of winterkilling. Thereafter large weeds can be cut out with a hoe, or a thin crop of oats or buck- wheat can be sown anjong the trees to hold the soil during the drying winds of late summer and early autumn. After the leaves fall, a shal- low furrow turned against the trees will prevent exposure of the roots by the late fall and early spi'ing winds. TIk; ix'st implement for cultivating young trees is a harrow-tooth cnlivatoi-. The horse hoe, with its varied attachments, is useful in the tree plantation, as well as in the fruit and vegetable garden. During the first year a two-hoi'se cultivatoi- can be used, but it should always wojk shallow; the result, however, is n<^t so satisfactory as with the finer- toothed machine. 360 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Two or three j'ears, depending on distance and upon the season, shoiihl be sufficient for the cultivation of any carefully designed mix- ture of forest trees. At the beginning of the second season all blanks should be reset, and again the third spring. This should insure a full stand of trees. Thereafter the knife and pruning shears must take the place of the cultivator. Pruning a young plantation. — In a properly designed plantation of forest trees very little x>runing is necessary, though the temptation to use the knife is often great. If in passing through tlie plat a tree of upright habit is found to be forked near the ground, or to be forming two leaders, one of the branches should be cut away. If the shade-enduring trees are found to be overtopping the light- demanding kinds, the former must be headed in. This rule, however, must be used with judgment. It Avill often happen, as with the oaks, that the more valuable species is seemingl}' harmed by its neighbors, when in reality it is making strong root growth, and is none the worse for the temporary overtopping. Many trees, like the black wild cherr^^ form a mass of fine Ijranches while j^oung and look as though they would never make a leader and grow to a single trunk. These should be permitted to grow without pruning in tliick-set plantations. As soon as their neighbors begin to crowd them one of the many branches will take the lead, and the plant will assume tree form, the many lateral branches djdng off as the stem grows upward.' It is no advantage to "trim up" j'oung trees by the removal of their lower i)ranches when they reach a height of from 12 to 20 feet, espe- cially in mixed plantations and on the prairies. The very purpose of close mixed planting is to force the trees to prune themselves, and they can be depended upon to do this as it becomes necessarj'. The lower branches aid very much in making the plantation effective as a wind-break. While small and weak, in the aggregate they make a strong barrier to the wind, and should be left for this puri)ose, if for no other. A i)ossible exception may be named in the catalpa; but even in this tree the lateral branches should only be removed as they show signs of dying, and then only because, being persistent and not shed after a j^ear or so, as with most deciduous trees, they make defects in the timber of the trunk. Thinning. — Thinning trees planted 3 by 3 feet is seldom if ever necessary until from fix a to seven years after planting; and at the first thinning the removal of comparatively few trees will be advis- able. It may be best to head in some of these trees by clipping their lateral branches in the intervals between thinning, but our strong Western soils should be able to carry the full stand until from five to ten years old, and the subsequent thinnings should be at intervals of from seven to ten years. THE SHADE-TREE INSE( T PROBLEM IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES. By L. O. Howard, M. S., Eiitoviologisf. U. S. Department of Agricidtiire. The space at commaiid Avill not admit of a full Ireatnieiit of the problem outlined in the title of this article, and the writer has there- fore brought together at this time some account of three sjiecies which are perhaps the most destructive among shade-tree insects, or which, at all events, have attracted the greatest attention dui-ing the past season. To this he has added a brief consideration of the I'elative immunity of shade trees from insect attack, and some i-emarks on the Fig. 83.— Bagworm (Thyridoptenjx ephemeroiformis). o, larva; 6, head of same: r, male pupa; d, female pupa; e, adult fonialo: /, adult male— all eularfied (original). subject of general work against shade-tree insects in cities and to^^•ns. One of the most striking features of the summer of 1895 has been the great abundance in many Eastern cities of several species of insects Avhich attack shade trees. In almost every low-lying town from Charlotte, N. C, north to Albany, N. Y., the elm leaf-beetle has defoliated the English elms and, in many cases, the American elms. In certain directions this insect has also extended its northern range, notably up the Connecticut River Valley. The authorities in a num- ber of Eastern cities have taken the alarm, and active remedial work will be instituted during the coming season. In cities south of New York the bagworm has been gradually increasing for a number of years until it has become a serious enemy to shade and ornamental 361 362 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. trees for almost the first time since 1870 or 1880 (tigs. 8o and 84). The white-marked tussocic motli, tlie caterpillar of which has been for many years the most serious of the shade-tree pests in Philadel- phia, New York, Brookljai, and Boston, in 1895, for the first time within the recollection of the writer appeared in such numbers as to become of great importance in more southern cities, as Baltimore and Washington. The fall webworm (figs. 91, 92, and 93) was more abundant in Washington and the surrounding country than it has been since the summer of 1886. These four insects are the principal shade-tree defoliators in the Eastern States, if we except the imported gypsy motli, wiiich is at present foi-tunately confined to tlie immediate vicinity of Boston, and is being cared for by a thoroughly capable State commission. While the summer of 1805 may with justice be called an excep- tional one as regards the great increase of numbers, j'et these in- sects are alwa^'S pres- ent and do a certain amount of <1 a m ag e each season, and when an exceptional seasou comes, as it did this year, city authorities seldom find t h e m - selves prepared to en- gage in an intelligent a n d comprehensive fight. In cities farther west other leaf-feeders take the place of those just mentioned. The principal ones are, perhaps, the oak Edema, the Cot- tonwood leaf-beetle, and the green-sti-iped maple worm. Several scale insects or bark lice are occasionally serious enemies to shade trees. Maples suffer especially from their attacks. The cottony maple scale is found everywliere on all \'arieties of maple, and occasionally in excessive abundance. The cotton}' maple-leaf scale, a species imported from Europe, is rapidly gaining in impor- tance, and in several New England towns it has, during the past season, seriously reduced the vitality of many trees. The so-called "gloomy scale" has long been on the increase in Washington, D. C, and every year it kills large branches and even entire trees of the silver maples, which are so extensively grown along the streets of that city. -Bag worm at (o, b, c) successive stages of growth, male bag ; rf, female bag— natural size (original). THE SHAUK-TKEE INSECT PKOliLEM. 363 Certain borers are also oecasionally destructive to many sliade trees, and, in fact, in the northern tier of States, these are the most important of the shade-tree enemies, the principal leaf feeders being either absent or becoming single l)rooded. Where absent their places are taken by less destructive species. In fact, it is safe to say that shade trees suffer especially from insect attack throughout the region of count i-y which is contained in the Upper xVustral life zone. ' Concerning the borers, it may be briefly said that these insects rarely attack vigorous and healthy trees, but should a shade tree lose its liealth througli the attacks of scale insects, through rapid defolia- tion by leaf feeders, or through a leaky gas main or sewer pipe, dif- ferent species of borers will at once attack and destroy it. There is one particular exception to this rule, and that is the European leopard moth, a most destructive species, which is at i)resent of very limited range and conhned to the immediate vicinity of New York City. No certain information is at hand which indicates that it has spread for more than 50 miles from the center of introduction. This insect attacks healthy trees, boring into the trunks of the younger ones, and into the branches and smaller limbs of many shade and fruit trees. It is an extremely dithcult species to fight, and it is fortunate that its spread is not more rapid. THE IMPORTED ELM LEAF-BEETLE. {Galei'Hcella luteola Mtill.) Original home and present distribution. — The imported elm leaf- beetle (fig. 85) is a native of southern Europe and the Mediterranean islands. It is abundant and destructive in the southei-n parts of France and Germany, and in Italy and Austria. This beetle is found, though rarely, in England, Sweden, and north Germany, and gradually be- comes less numerous and destructive toward the north. In middle Germany it is comnKm, though not especiall.y destructive. As early as 1837 it was imported into the Ihiited States at Baltimore, and is now found as far south as Charlotte, N. C. From this point it ranges noi'thward in tiie Atlantic cities as far as Pi-ovideiice, R. T. Inland it has not passed the barrier of the Appalachian chain of mountains, and is practically confined to the Upper Austral region, as indicated in the map on ])age 210 of tlie Yearljook for 1894. Thus, up the Hudson River it has spread to Albau}', N. Y., but on either side of the river, as the land rises into the foothills, it has stopped. In the same way it lias more i-ecently spi-cad up the Connecticut River Valley to a point north of the New Hampshire State line, and also, to a less extent, up the Housatonic \'alley. From our present knowledge it 'Briefly defined by Dr. Merriam in his summary article on "The j^e()}^rai)hic distribution of animals and plants in North America, " in the Yearbook of this 'Department for 1894, page 203. 3G4 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. seems likel}' that its future spread as an especially destructive spe- cies will be limited by the northern border of the Upper Austral region, and that (as may happen at any time) should it once he carried by railway train across the southern extension of the Transition life zone, caused by the Alleghany and Blue Ridge mountains, it will spread unchecked through Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, and other Western States.' Food plants. — No food i:)lants other than elms are known. The common English elm {Ulmiis campesfris) is its favorite food, and the gardener's variety, the so-called Camperdown, or weeping elm, is attacked with equal avidity. , The American, or Avhite, elm ( U. americaua) ranks next among the favored species, with U. montana, U. suherosa, U. fiava, U. racemosa, and U. alata in about the order named. No variety seems absolutely exempt. In the presence of U. campestris other elms are seldom seriouslj^ injured. Where cam- pestris is absent, or where a single tree of campestris is surrounded by many American elms, the latter become seriously attacked. ^ Life hisiorij and habits. — The elm leaf-beetle passes the winter in the adult, or beetle, condition in cracks in fences or telegraph poles, under* the loose bark of trees, inside window blinds in unoccupied houses, in barns, and, in fact, wherever it can secure shelter. As soon as the buds of the trees begin to swell in the spring the beetles issue from their winter quartei^s and mate, and as soon as the buds burst they begin to feed upon the leaflets. This feeding is continued bj^ the beetles until the leaves are fairly well grown, and during the latter part of this feeding period the females are engaged in laying their eggs. The eggs (fig. 85, c) are placed on the lower sides of the leaves, in vertical clusters of 5 to 20 or more, arranged in two or three irregular rows. The}^ are elongate oval in shape, tapering to a rather obtuse point, orange yellow in color, and the surface is covered with beautiful hexagonal reticula- tions. These reticulations, however, can be seen only with a high magnifying power. The egg state lasts about a week. The larvse (fig. 85, d) as soon as hatched feed on the under surface of the leaf, gradually skeletonizing it. They reach full growth in from fifteen to twenty daj's, and then either crawl down the trunk of the tree to the surface of the ground or drop from the extremities of overhanging branches. At the surface of the ground they transform to naked, liglit orange-colored pupsB (fig. 85, g), a little over a quarter of an inch in length, and in this stage they remain for from six to ten days, at the expiration of that time ' Since this was written the writer has learned that this passage of the Blue Ridge barrier has actually taken place during the past season. Mr. A. D. Ho})kins. of the West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, has found that this insect has established itself at Elmgrove. in Ohio County, and at Wellsburg, in Brooke Coimty. W.Va. -The beetles rarely oviposit upon Zelcova carpiniafolia and Z. acuminata on the Department grounds at Washington. THE SHADE-TREE INSECT PROBLEM. 365 Fig. 85. -The imported elm leaf-lx-etle {Oulerucella luteula). a, foliageof Europoan elm show- ing method of work of bi-etlo and larva— natural sizo; />, adult lx>etle; c, egg mass; (/, young larva; c, full-grown larva: een complete and has been followed by a jieriod of sufficient moisture to enable a tree to put out a fresh crop of leaves, the beetles of the first generation will lay their eggs and a second generation of larvae will develoj^ upon this comparatively tender foliage. AVhere similar conditions prevail in Washington and its vicinity, a third generation of larvae may de- velop, though small in numbers, but the writer is convinced that even in Washington late-developing beetles of the first generation may hibernate. Remedies. — The only thoi'oughlj' satisfactory safeguard against this insect consists in spraying the trees with an arsenical solution. The only other remedj'^ which is worthy of mention is the destruction of the larvje at the surface of the ground before or after they transform to pupje. The latter remedy, however, is not complete, and even THE SHADE-TREE INSECT PROHLEM. 367 wliore it is carfiiilly carried out for i'\<'i'y tree in a city it will do uo moro tlian reduce tlio miin])ers of the insects by perliai)s two-thirds. 'J'en years ago a pi'oposal to spray the enormous elms which are to l)e found in many northern towns would liave been received with I'idicule, but of recent years the i)ractica])ility of tlie i)lan has so fre- ([Uently been demonsti-ated tlial there is no hesitancy in commending it to more general city use. Pro])ably the largest elm tree in America, the Dexter elm, at Medford, Mass., has been successfully and eco- nomically sprayed by the (iypsy j\loth Commission. It is necessary to have especial apparatus constructed, and it is equallj'^ necessary to have the work done by men who are accustomed to it or at least are good climbers. The fii'st successful work of this kind was pi-obably that done by Prof. John B. Smith on the campus of Rutgers t'ollege. He liad a strong barrel pump, and carried the nozzle at the end of a long rubber tube, with a baniljoo extension pole, np into tlie center of the trees by climbing a ladder to the main crotch. From this point the spray was thrown in all directions, and the tree was thoroughly coated with the mixture in a minimum of time. The Gypsy ]\[oth Commission, in their earlier spraying work, sent their large tank carts through the streets, stopping at each tree and sending one or more men with hose and extension poles into it, thus covering hundreds of large trees in a single day. If steam sprayers are useEM. 369 locust, box elder, ash, oatalpa, rose, liorse-chestnnt , persimmon, sj^ca- more, mulberry, and a number of other ti*ees. Life hisiorij and liahifs. — This insect passes the winter in the egg state. The overwintering eggs are laid by the female moth in the latter part of September, in a glistening white, frothy-looking mass attached to the outside of the cocoon. They are seen at a glance, owing to their l^ure white color, and remain conspicuously upon the trees until spring. The caterpillars hatch in "Washington in April and May. They are FiG.86.— Orf/T/ta leucostigma. a, larva; 6, female pupa; c, male pupa; d,e, male moth; /, female moth; f/, same ovipositing; h, egg mass, i, mulo cocoons; fc, fcmiilo cocoons, with moths carry- ing eggs— all slightly cnlargctl (original). represented at dilTerent stages of growth in figs. 80, 87, and 88, and in vieM- of the eare wilh Avliieh lliese figures liave been drawn detailed descriptions will be unnecessary. Tliey cast tlie skin five times, exhibiting a dilTerent character after each molt, as indicated in the figures. Tlic newly hatched young feed on the under surface of the leaf, eating olf the parenchyma and producing a skeletonized appear- ance. After the first molt tlie skeletonizing continues, but a few holes are eaten completely through the leaf; after the second molt many A 95 \M 370 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. holes are eaten Ihrougli between the main ribs, and after the third molt the leaf is devoured, except for the midrib and its principal branches. After the fourth molt the caterpillars begin to eat from the edge of the leaf and devour everything except the principal veins. Similar work is done in the last stage upon the full-grown and tough leaves (see fig. 89). A most peculiar kind of damage by the caterpillars of this species has been observed liy Dr. Lintner in Albany, N. Y. There, in the summer of 1883, he found that the tips of many twigs were girdled by the caterpillars, which had entirely removed the bark for a tenth of an inch. Such twigs broke off and fell to the ground, with their leaves. This damage was so common in 1883 that the sidewalks of the streets and public parks wherever the American elm was growing 1 "^ "M' 1^ Fig. 87. — Tussock -motli caterpillar. First, second, and third stages — enlarged (original). were sprinkled with the newly fallen leaves. Dr. Lintner was of the opinion that a cold spring and the sudden advent of warm weather caused an unusually vigorous growth of the terminal twigs, and that the young tips were therefore unusually tender. They thus proved appetizing to the tussock-moth caterpillars, w^hich developed a new habit for the occasion. This peculiar damage was repeated in 1895, but to a less extent. No other observer in any part of the country has ever reported similar damage. The young caterpillars drop down, suspended by silken threads, at even a slight jarring of the tree, and frequently spin down without such disturbance, and are blown to a considerable distance by the wind. When nearly full grown they are great travelers, crawling down the trunk of the tree upon which they were hatched and across THE SHADE-TREE INSECT PROBLEM. 371 a ('()nsi(l(*ra1)l(' strclcli of ground, to asoend another tree. AV hen they occur ill iiiiinl)ci-s, an extensive ini.uration will always take place from a tree wjiich has been nearly defoliated, and the si)ecies spreads mainly, if no-t entirely, in this way. Just as is the case with the j»yi)sy moth, the caterpillars are carried by vehicles, upon which they crawl or di-op, or upon the clothes of passers-by, and in this way man}' trees upon wliich there were no egg masses become infested. 'J'lie larval state lasts, on an average, from a month to five weeks, "When full grown, the larvte spin delicate grayish cocoons of silk mixed plentifully willi liairs. The mixture of hair is brought about by tho fact that the hairs are barbed and rather loosel}'^ attached to tlie body. Fig. 88. —Tussock-moth caterpillar. Third and fourth stages, showing enlarged hairs from different parts of body (original). AVhen a catei-pillar l)egins to spin its cocoon, the hairs of its l)ody and those of the long, black tufts on the prothorax first become entangled with the silken threads and are pulled out. By the time tho cocoon has begun to take shape, the characteristic long, black tufts of hair have entirely disappeared from tho bod}^ of the caterpillar. Later the shorter hairs of the sides of the body become entangled and removed, and finally many of th«^ hairs composing the brush-like tufts upon the fore? i)artof the Ixxly are pulled out, and just before it transforms to pupa the caterpillar bears but a remote resemblance to the individ- ual before it began to spin. 372 VEAKBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICUETUKE. The barbed liairs j'lisl moiitioTicd may occasionally i:)roduce consid- erable irritation of the skin of people upon Avhoni the caterpillars may have ci'awled or droi)ped from the trees. The hairs from the different i)ortions of tlie liody of the full-grown caterpillar are illus- trated, greatly enlarged, in fig. 88, and it is the shorter hairs from the sides which probably cause the irritation. They are verj^ small, fallout readily, and Avhen a caterpillar crawls over the skin of an indi- vidiuil who is warm and perspiring, these very sharj^ly barbed hairs produce an irritation Avhich in some individuals has l)een the cause of much discomfort, creating more or less inflammation and swelling. The larva transforms to pupa within a few hours after the comple- tion of the cocoon, and remains in the pupal condition from ten days to two weeks. The cocoons of this first generation, while mainly spun on the trunk and larger branches, are — reduced (original). sive series of experiments lias therefore been carried on, with a view to securing a liquid Avhicli will penetrate and destroy the egg masses. A satisfactory liquid for this puri)ose has been found in creosote oil, to which turpentine is added to keep it liipiid in cold Aveather, with tar to blacken it so that treated egg masses can be recognized at a glance. The Avorkman is furnished Avith a pole, to the end of Avhicli a small sponge is tied. He goes from tree to tree, dipping the sponge occasional!}^ into the creosote preparation and touching Avith it each egg mass found. This is a simple and A'ery rapid method. It has the advantage of rapidity oA'er the scrajiing method described above, since after the eggs are scraped off they must be collected and carried away for burning. THE SHADE-TREE INSECT PROBLEM. 375 M. f A modifit'titiou of this i)lan may be used to advantage against the tussock niotli. Tlie pure "white color of the e^j:g; mass of the tussock moth, liowever, renders the use of coal tar in the preparation unnec- essary, since the creosote oil alone will discolor it enough to render a treated mass recognizable at a distance. Xo explicit directions for spraying with arsenical poisons against this insect are needed. Tlie same liquid and the same apparatus that are used against the elm leaf-beetle may ])e used against this insect, and the spraying may be done at about the same time of the year. It is essential that tlie caterpillars of the first generation shall be killed, as the second and more destructive brood will thus be prevented. Banding of the trees is j^racticed to advantage with this species. It is the only one of the shade-tree insects, except the bagworm, Avhic^h has a wingless female. All the others, except the gypsy moth, spread from tree to tree by the flight of the female. Many experiments have been made with di lie rent styles of bands, and it has l)een p r a c t i c a 1 1 y proved that a broad, thick strip of raw cot- ton, tied about tlie trunk of the tree w i t h a string, is after all the most efficacious and perhaps the cheapest. Such bands have to be renewed occasionally, as they become more or less matted together and spoiled by rainstorms. Next in point of efficacy will pi-obably come bands of insect lime, several brands of which are on the market. Insect lime is a sticky, coal-tai- i)i-o(luct, which retains its viscidity for a considerable time. A ring made around a tree will remain operative for some w»eks in warm weather. THE FALL WEBWORM. {Hyphantria cunea Drurj' ; figs. 91 to 1)3.) Associated with the white-marked tussock moth in its danuige to the shade trees of the city of Washington during the summer of 1895, were very mauy specimens of the fall webworm; in fact, this insect FiG.90.— Iclineumonid parasite of tussock-moth caterpillar, a. parasit- ized caterpillar; 6, egg of parasite; c, same in situ ; d, parasite larvsB issuing; e, parasite cocfjons— all slightly enlarged, except b andc which are much enlarged (original). 370 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. was more abundant during the summer of 1895 than it lias been in Washington since 188G. It was not as numerous and destructive as the white-marked tussock moth, and the last generation was so exten- sively parasitized as to lead to the anticipation that the species will not be especially abundant during 1806. The fall webworm is a tyi)ical American species. It is found from Canada to Georgia and from Montana to Texas. It is an almost uni- versal feeder, and the records of the Division of Entomology list about 120 species of shade and ornamental trees, as Avell as fruit trees, upon the leaves of which it feeds. In the District of Columbia and north to New York City there are two generations annually, as is the case with the tussock moth. In more northern localities, where it is single brooded, it loses its place as a species of great im]3ortance. It hibernates as a pupa within a cocoon attached to the trunk of its food plant, or to tree boxes, neighboring fences, or to rubbish and sticks or stones at Iho surface of the ground. The different stages of the insect are shown in figs. 91 to 93. The moth, which maybe either pure white or white spotted with black, flies at night and deposits a cluster of 400 or 500 eggs, upon either the uj^per or the under surface of the leaf. The cater- pillars feed gregariously, and each colony spins a web which may eventually include all the leaves of a good-sized limb. Reaching full growth, the caterpillars leave the web and crawl down the trunk of the tree to spin their- cocoons. The caterpillars of the second gener- ation begin to make their appearance in force in August. Rernedies. — On account of the fact that the adult female is an active flier, W'C can use against the fall webworm but two of the remedies suggested for use against the tussock-moth caterpillars, namely, spraying with arsenical poisons and the collection of the cocoons. The gregarious habit of the larva?, however, suggests another remedy which is practical and very efficient if thoroughly cari-ied out. Tliis is the destruction of the webs and the contained larva), either by cut- ting off the twigs which carry them and burning immediately, or burning the webs "without pruning. If this work be done i)roperly and against the early summer generation, the pruning method is un- necessary and inadvisal)lc. By the use of a proper torch the webs and the caterpillars which they contain can T)e burned off at nightfall without necessarily destroying the life of the twigs, and a second croi) of leaves wall be put out a little later, so that the tree does not remain disfigured for any length of time. A bundle of rags wured to the end of a pole and saturated with kerosene makes a good torch for the purpose; or a porous brick wired to a polo and saturated with kero- sene answers the purpose even better. Private persons will find this remedy sufficient. City authorities should apply an arsenical spray. Collecting the cocoons in winter may bo carried on simultaneously with the collection of the egg masses of the white-marked tussock moth, but this, as well as other community remedies, will be referred to at another place. THK SIIADE-TKKr: INSICCT PHOHLKM. 377 THE RELATIVE IMMLNITV EKOM INSECTS OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF SHADE TREES. As ivirui-ds a number of llie principal shade trees tliat are niosl coninionly .^rown, there does not seem to be an}- great i)i-et'eren('e on the part of the fall webworm and the tussock-moth caterpillai-. If a moth happens to lay her ele ( Acer pHfudo-platau u«) American linden ( Tilia americana ) Total rating (Fernow). Insect rating (Howard). 22 2. .5 2^ 2.5 22 2.5 22 1.5 19 2.5 19 2.5 19 3.0 19 1.5 19 2.(» 19 2.0 19 2.0 19 2.0 19 1.5 19 2.0 18 1.5 17 2.0 17 1.5 378 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Variety of tree. Total rating (Feruow). Insect rating (Howard). MEDIUM-SIZED TREES. Red maple {Acer ruhrum) --. Shingle oak (Quercus imbricaria) Willow oak {Quercus phellos). — Slippery elin ( Ulmus jjubescens) Norway maple {Acer platanoides) Box elder {2\egundo negundo) European elm ( Ulmus campestris) _ Scotch elm {Ulmus montana) Hackberry ( Celtis occidentalis) Silver-leafed maple {Acer sacchnrinum) Tree of heaven {Ailanthus glandidosa ) Horse-chestnut ( JEscuJms hippocastanum ) Japanese sophora {Sophora jciponica) -.- Hardy catalpa ( Catalpa speciosa ) . _ _ . Gingko {Gingko hiloba) - Honey locust ( Gleditschia triacanthos) Cottonwood {Populus monilifera) _ . - Balm of GUead {Populus balsamifera v. candicans). Black locust {Robinia x>seudacaciu) - S.O 2.0 2.5 2.0 2.0 .0 .5 1.0 1.5 1.5 2.5 2.0 2.5 2.0 3.0 1.0 The writer has iiiatle ratings of these same trees according to their immunity from the attaclcs of insects, the trees most immune being rated at 3 and those most attacked by insects at 0. The figures relating to insect attack are disphiyed aboA'c in a contrasted column next to the total rating, and in order that the relative importance from the insect standpoint may be seen at a glance the same trees have been rearranged in a separate table as follows: Variety of tree. Gingko {Gingko biloba) Tulip tree {Liriodendron tulipifera) .. Sugar maple {Acer saccharum ) Red oak {Quercus rubra) Ailanthus {Ailanthus glandulosa) Scarlet oak {Quercus coccinca) Yellow oak {Quercus velut inn) Willow oak {Quercus phellos) Black maple ( Acer nigrum ) Japanese sophora {Sophora japonica) . Horse-chestnut {JEsculus hippocasta- num) Red maple {Acer ruhrum) Small-leafed linden {TiUamicropliylla) White oak ( Quercus alba ) Sweet gum {Liquidambar styraciflua). Bur oak ( Quercus macrocarpa) Kentucky coffee tree {Gymnocladus divisus) Sycamore maple (Acer pseudo-platanus) Shingle oak ((^e reus imbricaria) Insect rating. Variety of tree. 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 Slippery elm {Ulmv^ pubescens) Norway maple {Acer j^latanoides) Hardy catalpa {Catalpa speciosa) European linden ( Tilia vulgaris) American elm ( Ulmus americana) Hackberry ( Celtis occidentalis) Silver-leafed maple (Acer sacchari- num) Oriental plane tree {Platanus orien- talis) - American plane tree {Platanus occi- dentalis) - - American linden {Tilia americana) .. Honey loanstiGleditschia triacanthos) Scotch elm {Ulmus montana) Cottonwood i.Pojndus monilifera) Balm of Gilcad {Poindus balsamifera V. candicans) European elm ( Ulmus campestris) Black locust {Robinia pseudacacia) .. Box elder {Negundo negundo) Insect rating. 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5' 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.0 1.0 .5 .5 .5 .5 .0 THE SHADE-TREE INSECT PROBLEM. 379 It will bo nolicc'd llial tlio trees listed by 3Ir. rei-iiow whicli we find to be most immune are the gingko and the tulip tree. Outside of the jjrounds of the Department of Acjriculture at Washincfton and Cen- tral Park, New York, few ginjii^ko trees are grown in this country, except as occasional isolated examples. The tree itself is a very beautiful one, and singularly free from insect attack. In the long double row of these trees, now nearly twenty-five years old, on the grounds of the Department of Agriculture, but one species of injuri- ous insect has ever been found, and the work of this species is very insignificant. It is the little sulphur-yellow leaf-roller, Tortrix sul- jjhureaua. The tulip tree, which is given the same rating, is, for practical pur- poses, almost as exempt as the gingko. Of late years in the District of Columbia it has l)een rather extensively infested l)y a plant louse {Siplionopliora liriodendri), but although the lice occur on the leaves in great numbers, the general appearance of the trees has not suffered. There is a little gall midge which produces little black spots on the tulip tree leaves an. extent, the necessity for a greater or less amount of the summer Avork just described. We have noAv to consider Avhat can be done by citizens where city governments Avill not interest themselves in the nuitter. It is unrea- sonable to expect that a private individual Avill iuA'est in a spraying apparatus and spray the lai-ge shade trees in front of his grounds. Therefore, in spraying op(M'ations wliere large trees exist in numbers there must be combination of resources. This affords an opportunity for the newly invented business of spraying at. so much per tree. A resident of Bridgei>ort, Conn., Avho was formerly, and is yet foj- the 384 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. greater part of the year, a roofer and paver, lias constructed several cart spraj'ers, and during the months of Juno and July (at a time, bj^ the way, wlien the nu'u iu liis employ are apt to be out of work) he sprays trees on the grounds of private individuals and along the streets in front of their grounds, under contract, at so much per tree, guaranteeing to keep the trees in fair condition during the season. His work has been directed solely against the elm leaf-beetle, since that is the only insect of great importance in Bridgeport. In the month of July last the writer, in driving through the streets of Bridgeport, found it easy to pick out the trees which had been treated in this wa}^ Such elms were green, while all others were brown and nearly leafless. The defect of this plan as a general practice lies in the fact that not all property owners or residents can afford to employ a tree sprayer, while others are unwilling, since thej^ deem it the busi- ness of the city authorities, or do not appreciate the value of tree shade. Any effort, therefore, looking toward the arousing of popular sen- timent or the lianding together of the citizens in the interests of good shade is desirable. A most excellent j^lan was urged by one of the Washington newsj^apers the past summer. It advocated a tree-pro- tection league, and each issue of the paper through the summer months contained a coupon which recited briefly the desiral>ility of protecting shade trees against the ravages of insects, and enrolled tlie signer as a member of the league, pledging him to do his best to destroy the injurious Insects upon the city shade trees immediately adjoining his residence. This is only one of several ways which might be devised to arouse general interest. The average city house- holder seldom has more than a half dozen street shade trees in front of his grounds, and it would lie a matter of comparatively little expense and trouble for any family to keep these trees in fair condi- tion. It needs onl}^ a little intelligent work at the proper time. It means the burning of the webs of the fall web worm in May and June; it means the destruction of the larvse of the elm leaf-beetle about the bases of elm trees in late June and July, it means the i^icking olf and destruction of the eggs of the tussock moth and the bags of the bag- worm in winter, and equallj" simple operations for other insects shoidd they become especially injurious. What a man Avill do for the shade and ornamental trees in his own garden he should bo willing to do for the shade trees 10 feet in front of his fence. THE PKIXTPAL INSECT ENEMIES OF THE GRAPE. By C. L. Marlatt, M. S.. First Assistant Entomologist, U. S. Depdrtment of Agriculture. That the .urape is dislinctivelyan American plant is inarticularly to the young shoots; the leaf-hopper, the flea-beetle, rose-chafer with its allies, and leaf-folder, together with hawk moths and cutworms, damaging foliage, and the grape- berry moth, the principal fruit pest. The extent of the loss that frequently results from these insects may be understood by i-efei-ence to a few instances. The i)hylloxera when at its worst had destroyed in France some 2,500,000 acres of vineyards, representing an annual loss in wine products of llic value of !ji! 150,000,000, and the French (ioverniiient had expended up to 1WI5 in ])liylloxera work over |!4:,5()0,000 and remitted taxes to the amount of §;], 000,000 more. The grapevine Mia, on the authority of an Ohio coi-respondent, in a single season in one vineyard killed 400 out of 500 strong 5-year-old vines. Tlie prominent leaf defoliators, as the rose-chafer and flea-beetle, frequently destroy or vastly injure the crop over laige districts, and tlie little leaf-hopper, though rarely preventing a partial crop, is so uniformly present and widely dislril)- uted as to pr()l)ably levy a lieavier tribute on the grape in this country than anv other insect. A !)5 U 385 386 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. These insects are, however, all amenable to suceessfnl treatment, and the loss may be very considerably limited if the proper methods of control are followed out. There are no remedies which apply gen- erally to grape insects exceiit the highly important considerations of clean culture and particularly the promi)t collection and burning of l)runings and leaves in the fall. The latter will ver}: materially check most of the leaf insects and the cane-borer. Other remedies are par- ticularized under each species. THE GRAPEVINE PHYLLOXERA. {Phylloxera vastatrLv Planch.) This insect has always existed on our wild vines, yet it was not until it had been introduced abroad and began to ravage the vine- FiG. 9i.—Piu/llo.rcra vasfatrix. a, leaf witli galls; ?>, s<>cti<)n of gall showing mother louse at center with young clustered about; c, egg; d, larva; <■, adult female; /', same from side— a natural size, rest much enlarged (original }. yards of the Old World that particular attention was drawn to it as a vine pest, or that anything definite was known of its habits. It appears in two destructive forms on the vine, the one forming little irregular spherical galls projecting from the underside of the leaves and the other subsisting on the roots and causing analogous enlarge- ments or swellings. The leaf form is the noticeable one and is very common on our wild and cultivated vines. The root form is rarely seen, but is the cause of the real injury done by this insect to the vine, and while hidden and usually unrecognized, its work is so disastrous to varieties esi3ecially liable to attack that death in a few 3'ears is almost sure to result. It first produces enlargements or little galls on the rootlets. As it extends to the larger roots these PRINCIPAL INSECT ENEMIES OF THE GRAPE. 387 1km'()iim> swollen ami Itrokcii, and linally llu; ouUm* portion decomposes and lots, and the roots ultimately die. With the multiplication of tho root lice and their extension to all parts of the root sj'stem, the vine slops j^rowini;, the leaves become sickly and yellowish, and in the last stages the i)hylloxera disapjiears altogether from the decom- posed and rotting roots, and the cause of death is ol>scure to one not lanuliar with the insect. Many cases of death ascribed to drought, overbearing, winterkilling, etc., are undoubtedly due 1o the ]u-esence of the root louse. The abundance of galls "on the leaves is not an indicalion of the j)resenco of tho root louse in any numbers, l)ut, in fact, the ie\erso of this is usually true; while on the other hand the destructive abundance of the lice on the roots is often, if not usually, accompanied by little, if any, appearance of Uw leaf form. This is particularly noticeable with tho European grapes, which are very susceptible to nhylloxera and rai^idly succumb to it, yet rarely show leaf galls. American grapes, on the contrary, are generally very resistant to the root form, and yet are especially sub- ject to the leaf -gall insect. Certain varieties, as the Clinton, which are most re- sistant to the former, are es- pecially subject to the latter. Distrihidion. — The phyl- loxera was carried to France about 1850, on rooted Amer- ican vines, and has since spread Ihi-ough the principal vine disti'icls of soutliei-n Kni'o])e, extending also into Algei'ia and through southern Russia into the adjoining count i-ies of Asia. It has also been carried to Xew Zealand and south Africa. In this eonntry it was at lii-st known only in tlie i-egion east of the Rocky ^lonntains, but was soon aftei- found in California, where, however, it is confined practically to the vine districts of the Napa and Sonoma valleys. Life liistorij and hnhils. — The life cycle of the pliylloxera is a com- plicated one. It occurs in f(»ui- forms in the following order: The leaf-gall form {(jallicola), the root or destructive foi-m (radiricola), the winged or colonizing form, and the sexual form. Tlie leaf-gall ins<'ct produces from 500 to 000 eggs for each individual, the root- inhabiting insect not much above 100 eggs, the winged insect from 3 to 8, and the last or sexed insect but 1 egg. This last is the winter egg and nuiy be taken as a starting point of the life cycle. It is laid in the fall on old wood, and hatches, the spring following, into a louse, Fio.05.~Phylloxeravastatrix. o, root galls; I>. cnliir^o- ment of same showing disijosition of lice; c, root fjall louse— much enlarged (original). 388 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. which goes at once to a young leaf, in the upper surface of which it plants its beak. The sucking and irritation soon cause a depression to form about the young' louse, which grows into a gall projecting on the lower side of the leaf. In about fifteen days the louse becomes a plump, orange-yellow, full-grown, wingless female, and fills its gall with small yellow eggs, dying soon after. Tlie eggs hatch in about eight days into young females again, like the parent, and migrate 1o all parts of the vine to form new galls. Six or seven generations of these wingless females follow one another throughout the summer, frequently completely" studding the leaves with galls. With the approach of cold weather the young pass down the vines to the roots, where thej" remain dormant until spring. The root is then attacked and a series of subterranean generations of wingless females is devel- oped. The root form differs but slightlj!' from the inhabitant of the leaf galls, and the swellings or ex- crescences on the roots are analogous to those on the leaves. During late sum- mer and fall of the second year some of the root lice give rise to winged fe- males which escape through cracks in the soil on warm briglit daj'S and ^y to neighboring vines. These winged lice lay their eggs within a day or two in groups of two or four in cracks in the bark or beneath loose bark on the old wood of the Aine and die soon after. The eggs are of two sizes, the smaller and fewer in number yielding males in nine or ten days, and the larger the feniales of the only sexed generation developed in the whole life round of the insect. In this last and sexed stage the mouth- parts of both sexes are rudimentary, and no food at all is taken. The insect is very minute and resembles the newly hatched louse of either the gall or the root form. Tlie single egg of the larva-like female after fertilization rapidly increases in size until it fills the entire body of the mother and is laid within three or four days, bringing us back to the Avinter egg or starting point. This two-year life round is not necessary to the existence of the species, and the root form may and usually does go on in successive Pig. W.—Phijlloxera r-astatrix. a, migrating stage, winged adult; ti, pupa of same lateral view; r, mouth-parts with thread-like sucking setae removed from sheath; d and e, eggs showing char- acteristic sculpturing— all enlarged (original). PRINCIPAL INSECT ENEMIES OF THE GRAPE. 389 broods year Mfter year, as in the case with European vines, on the leaves of which galls rarely occur. Under exceptional circumstances all of the different stages may l)e passed thi-ough in a single j'ear. The young from leaf galls may also be easily colonized on the roots, and it is probable that the passage of the young from the leaves to the roots may take place at any time during the summer. The reverse of this process, or the migration of the young directly from the roots to the leaves, has never been observed. The complicated details noted above were only obtained after years of painstaking research, conducted by the late Professor Riley in this country and many careful investigators in France. Means of disjjers ion.— The distribution of phyllo.xera is, first, by means of the winged females; second, by the escape, usually in late summer, of the young root lice through ci-acks in the soil and their migration to neighboring plants; third, by the carrying of the young leaf-gall lice by winds or other agencies, such as birds or insects, to distant plants; fourth, by the shipping of infested rooted plants or cuttings with winter eggs. By the last means the phylloxera has gained a world-wide dislril)u- tion; the others account for local increase. REMEDIES AND PREVENTIVES. Fig. 97.— Phylloxern vastairix. a, sexed stag.i- larviform female, the dark-colored area indi eating the single egg; b, egg, showing the in- distinct hexagonal sculpturing; c, shriveled female after oviposition; d. foot of same; e, rudimentary and functionless mouth-parts (original). The enormous loss occasioned by this insect when it reached the wine districts of the Old World led to the most strenuous efforts to discover methods of control. Of the hundreds of meas- ures devised few have been at all satisfactoiy in i-esults. The more important ones are the use of bisulphide of carbon and submersion to destroy the root lice; and, as preventive measures, the use of resistant American stocks on which to graft varieties subject to ])hylloxei-a and the planting of vineyards in soil of almost pure sand. Bisulphide of carbon. — The use of this liquid insecticide is practi- cal)le only in soils of such consistency as to hold the vajx)!' until it acts on the root lice and yet friable enough to afford it enough pene- tration. It will not answer in compact clay soils, in very light sandy ones, or in soils liable to crack excessively. The li(|uid is comnnmly introduced into the soil by hand injectors at any season I'xcept that of blooming or of ri[)ening of the fruit. Sometimes sulphuring plows are used, or the licjuid is mixed with watei" aii Ihem and facilitate* their collection. They may be gathered from these tra}) i)lants, or the grapes tliem- selves, in large liand beating nets, or by jarring into large funnel- shaped collectors on the plan of an inverted umbrella. The latter apparatus should have a vessel containing kerosene and water at the bottom to wet and kill tlie beetles. All measures must be kept up unceasingly if any benefit is to be derived. Tlie nund>ers of tin's rose-chafers may be considerably limite(l by restricting the areas in which they may breed. All sandy meadow 398 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. land t'specialiy sliould Ix' ln-okcii up and cultivated to annual crops, and the more general the cultivation of all lands the fewer will be the rose-chafers. In this procedure notal)l(^ results may only be secured by the cooperation of a ncighl)orhood. THE (iRAPE LEAF-FOLDEK. (Desniia maculalis Westw.) One of the noticeable features of a vineyard, particularly in mid- summer and later, is the many folded leaves the interiors of which have been skeletonized. This is especially evident with thick-leafed varieties, the whitish under surface contrasting sti'ongly with the dark green of the upper. If the leaf be unfolded, it will be found to con- tain a very active, wriggling, greenish larva, a little less than an inch long, which is apt to spring out of the fold and fall, or hang bj' a thread. The leaf itself will be found to be attached to the folded part by means of numerous little cords of silk. If the larva is full grown, the interior of the leaf Avill be thoroughly skeletonized, and soiled with accumulated ex- crements. The fold almost invariabl}' brings the upper sides of the leaf together, the' larva feeding, therefore, on what would l)e the upper sur- face of the leaf. The larva transforms to a reddish-brown chrysalis usually within a much smaller fold of the edge of the leaf, but sometimes within the lai'ger lai-val fold. Tlie moth, which, during midsummer, issues in a few days, expands about an inch and is a shining opales- cent l^lack, with wings bordered with white and marked with white spots, as in the illustration (fig. 102), a slight variation in maculation being noted between the males and females. The moth is seldom seen, but if tlie vines be shaken it may be frightened up and observed in quick flight seeking other concealment. There are two, or, in the South, three, broods each summer, the last brood hibernating in the leaves very much as does the grape-berry moth, the pupal cases of which are very similar to those of the leaf-folder. It occurs from New England southward to Florida, and westward at least to the Rocky Mountains, and probably is distributed throughout the vine districts of the United States. It affects all kinds of grapes, showing, perhaps, a little preference for the thick-leafed over the thin-leafed varieties. Fig. 102. — Dcsmiamaculalis. a, male moth; 6, female; c, larva; r1, head and thoracic segment of sarue, enlarged; e, pupa; /, tip of pupa, enlarged; g, grape leaf folded by larva (original). PRINCIPAL INSECT ENEMIES OF THE GRAPE. 399 Remedies. — Tlio jipi)oaranco of a leaf folded l)v a lar\ a of this insect renders its detection easy, and if tlie vines are gone over and the hirvje cruslied in the folded leaves early in the season when they are few in number, allowing none to escape, later damage may be almost entii-ely i)revenled. If the vines are sprayed with arseiiieals for other leaf-eating insects, tlie treatment will destroy all larva' folding leaves soon thereafter, but not those already present. The ease with which '^'^NN.S.C Fiii. Vtl.-'j'hiUiiiipehisactietnon. a, moth; 6, egg; c, young larva; rf, mat uro larva; , T. comes Say, male; c, typical form of T. vitifex ; d, larva; e, pupa; /, appearance of Injured leaf; gr, cast pupal skins (original). (fig. 104) represents the most abundant species on the grounds of the Department of Agriculture in the summer of 1895, together Avith Fitch's original type at the right. They begin to appear on the vines in June, and gradually increase in numbers through July, August, and September, remaining on the vines until the leaves fall, and afterwards may be frightened up in swarms from masses of leaves about the vines. The Avinter is passed wherever protection may be secured from storms, particularly in masses of accumulated leaves, and especially where these have been blown up against logs or fences. In such situations the writer has observe as follows: Two- thirds of the bird's food is animal; the vegetable food is mostlj' fruit, but the quantity taken from cultivated crops is offset by three times that volume of insect jjests. In destrojdng insects, the thrasher is helping to keep in check organisms the undue increase of which disturbs the balance of nature and threatens our welfare. A good example of the result of such irregular increase is to be had in the fluctuations of the Rocky Mountain locust. The diet of a bird changes with the food supply. Thus when the thrasher returns in April from its sojourn in the Southern States, it takes three times as much animal food as vegetable. Later in the season, but before much fruit is ripe, insects become more abundant. Consequently during May the animal food attains its maximum, out- stripping the vegetable by 7 to 1. When the fruits ripen in abun- dance, however, the proportion of animal food decreases until in Sep- tember it stands in the inverse ratio of 1 to 2. Although the thrasher takes its maximum of 17 per cent of culti- vated fruit, mainly red and black raspberries, with a few currants, in Jul}', the horticulturist at this time does not mind the loss, because there is plenty; on the contrary, when cherries and berries first com- mence to ripen they bring good prices and the loss is keenly felt. During the first half of July, mulberries form an important element of the vegetable food, but soon buckthorn comes in and continues to play an important part in August until the black wild cherrj^, elder, dogwood, and other fruits become plentiful. Ants attain their maxi- mum during the month of July, and, with equal volumes of May bee- tles and caterpillars, compose one-fourth of the food for the month. Caterpillars, which reach their maximum in June, are almost forsaken in July for the ripening fruits, thus falling to 4 per cent, a proportion which is maintained throughout September. During August the ani- mal matter continues to fall off; nevertheless a great many bees and wasps are eaten, while more ground beetles are taken at this time than at any other. For the month of September two-thirds of the food of the thrasher is fruit. Of the insects, grasshoppers and crick- ets have been steadily decreasing since June, and tlie May beetle has also been decreasing until in September it is no longer found. Bugs which crawl over clusters of fruit, often getting into one's mouth to leave a disgusting taste, rise in September to a maximum of 5 per cent. In October only two stomachs were collected; one was packed with dogwood berries, while the other contained a number of elder berries and the grinder of a grasshopper's jaw. A bird killed on the 22d of November had eaten a grasshopper, several seeds of sumac and poison ivy, and some mast. It is much regretted that no winter birds were examined. The 414 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGKICULTURE. tliraslier and catbird wlien they migrate to the South in autumn be- come very shy, preferring thickets remote from dwellings; and it is probable that in the South these birds not only do no harm, but on the contrarj^ do much good in searching out hibernating insects, which if allowed to live might lay countless eggs, to hatch and threaten next year's crops. If a series of experiments similar to those carried out with the cat- bird could have been performed, the economic value of the thrasher would have been determined with greater accuracy, for only by experi- ment is it possible to ascertain a bird's preferences in the matter of food and the quantity eaten in a given time. Thus, caged catbirds refused bristly caterpillars, were specially fond of ants, and preferred mul- berries to cherries. Birds selected for experiment should be adults recently trai^ped, because those that have been long in confinement usually develop unnatural tastes. A tame thrasher, which was raised from the nest and had been in captivity four years, was equally fond of roast beef and broiled chicken, and ate bi^ead three times a day. Members of the family frequently caught for him flies, grasshoppers, meal worms (beetle larvae), and millers, which he appreciated to the utmost. In order to prove or disprove the statement that leaf -eating beetles are distasteful to birds, ho was offered a spotted squash beetle, which he immediately swallowed. On three occasions potato beetles were put in the cage. These after having been thrashed about on the floor for several minutes were swallowed and then disgorged, but in two instances parts of the beetles were again swallowed. When offered a squash bug, he tore it to pieces and devoured it, but kept shutting and opening his eyes as though disturbed by the nauseating odor. When a ground beetle {Harpalus caliginosus) was placed in the cage, he acted in the same way. Two hairj^ caterpillars were offered him; the first, a fall webworm, was refused; the second, a bristly brown caterpillar, was seized and rubbed on the floor of the cage until devoid of bristles, then swallowed, to be immediately disgorged. Several green caterpillars of the cabbage butterfly were eaten with relish, showing, as with the catbird, that smooth caterpillars were preferred to hairy ones. This thrasher relished blackberries, raspberries, straw- berries, grapes, apples, pears, and peaches. In the woods the writer has seen thrashers feasting on the bitter sour gum berries with the flickers and robins; the thrashers were also eating frost grapes and pokeberries. Some pokeberries and sour gum were picked and offered to the caged thrasher; he seized the stem attached to a sour gum berry, swung it around his head, and let it go across the cage like a hammer thrower. After repeating this athletic feat several times, he ate the berries. When fed exclusivelj^ on mocking-bird food for seven days, the average quantit}'^ consumed in a day weighed, dry, half an ounce. The brown thrasher in its present numbers is a useful bird, and should be strenuouslj^ protected from gunners and nest-plundering FOUR BIRDS OF THE FARM AND GARDEN. 415 boj^s. It is to be regretted tliat a bird of sucli harmonious coloring, coupled with a sweet, ringing voice, is so shy and distrustful. MOCKING BIRD. The mocking bird (fig. 108), famous in both hemispheres, is a South- ern bird, breeding from Virginia, southern Illinois, and Kansas south- Avard, It is found also in Arizona, Utah, Nevada, and southern Cali- foi-nia, and is particularly abundant along the seaboard of the South- ern States, where it often raises three broods a year. The mocker is seldom seen remote from plantations, since, like the robin, it loves the habitation of man. It often chooses as a building site an orange tree in the planter's doorj^ard, where it constructs its inartistic nest of sticks lined with soft materials, in which to lay its clutch of brown- blotched, greenish eggs. During the period of incubation the song of the mocker is at its best, and is heard at night from the male perched Fig. 103. —Mocking bird (Miinus pohjgloftos). on the gable. Despite this token of its confidence in man, a planter in Florida killed over a thousand mockers and buried them under his grapevines because they had taken some fruit. In southern Texas the mocker is so abundant that it is always in sight. Here the bird does some damage to cultivated fruit. Dr. E. P. Stiles, writing from Austin, Tex., states that it damages fruit, chiefly peaclies and grapes, and that to prevent its ravages it is a common practice to tie up the vines in mosquito netting. In southern Cali- fornia Mr. F. SteiDhens reports that mockers eat figs, and from Florida Mr. S. Powers writes, " Mockers eat strawberries to some extent, but it is only when the patch is a small one, or verj'^ early in the season, when the berries are few and worth $3 a quart, that anybody feels the lo.ss from them." On the other hand, the mocking bird is known to destroy many insects. Dr. E. P. Stiles states that in Texas it eata 416 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPAKTME^'T OF AGEICULTURE. large spiders and grasshoppers, and the late Prof. C. V. Riley, in the Fourth Annual Report of the United States Entomological Commis- sion, enumerated it among the enemies of the destructive cotton worm. Only 15 stomachs of the mocking bird were examined, and most of these were taken in autumn and winter, the seasons when the great- est proportion of vegetable food is eaten. In these stomachs the quantity of vegetable matter was decidedly in excess of the animal matter. The former consisted for the most part of the skin and pulp of some large fruit, together with seeds or berries of sumac, smilax, black alder, poison i\'y, Virginia creeper, red cedar, pokeberry, mul- berry, and bayberry. The animal food consisted wholly of spiders and insects. Among the latter were ants, caterpillars, beetles, and grasshoppers. While the available data are far too imperfect to form the basis of any generalization with regard to the mocking bird's food, there is nothing in the facts at hand to indicate that it differs materially from that of its relatives, the catbird and thrasher. HOUSE WREN. The sprightly little house wren (fig, 109), that carols from the fence post while its mate sits snugly on her clutch of reddish-brown eggs in the box on the veranda, is distributed throughout the United States, except in the mountainous districts. After wintering in the Southern States it returns to the Northern States about the first of May, and, like the bluebird, nests in holes. It is nothing daunted by the size of the cavity, and often takes quarters large enough for an owl. In one instance a pair of wrens chose a watering pot hanging on the back porch. To this they carried twigs until the cavity was filled. Then the nest proper, of soft materials lined with feathers from the barnyard, was placed in the midst of the sticks. Six to eight eggs are laid, and two broods are raised in a season. The parent birds hunt through orchards and along fences, peering into every nook and cranny for insects to feed their clamorous youngsters. When the nestlings are fledged, the parents conduct them with the greatest care about the vicinity of the nest and teach them to catch insects. A whole family may often be seen scurrying about in a brush heap. In case of danger they do not fly, but bury themselves in the bottom of the heap for a few moments, and then poke their heads out like mice. The house wren is beloved by everyone, and recognized by the hus- bandman as a destroyer of insect pests. None of the field reports sent to the division contain complaints against the wren, while all speak of it as one of the most useful birds of the farm. In the labora- tory these reports have been substantiated; 98 per cent of insects and their allies was found in 52 stomachs collected from Connecticut to Georgia, and as far west as California. The 2 per cent of material as yet unaccounted for consisted of such rubbish as bits of grass or wood and sand, which in all probability was taken accidentally. FOUR BIRDS OF THE FARM AND GARDEN. 417 Half of the food of the wren consists of grasshoppers and beetles; the other half is made up of approximately equal quantities of cater- pillars, bugs, and spiders. Several of the most important families of beetles were represented. Among them the omnipresent little ground beetle formed 6 per cent; weevils, which amounted to 11 per cent of the food in June, ranked next in importance. Wrens eat about half as many little dung beetles as weevils. The former amount to 10 per cent of the food in May, but are not eaten later in the season. Beetles belonging to other families amount to 8 per cent. One bird had eaten a beetle of the firefly family, another a leaf beetle, and three birds had eaten click beetles. Rove beetles were found in two stomachs. One wren had eaten a longicorn beetle. ^.L'-... r""'' Fig. 109.— House wren (Troglodytes aedon). Common grasshoppers, green grasshoppers, and crickets form the most important part of the house wren's food, reaching a maximum of about 60 per cent in August, and practically excluding many here- tofore conspicuous elements. The catbird and thrasher stop eating grasshoppers when fruit ripens, but the wren keeps right on with the good work. The bugs eaten by wrens include many plant-feeding stink-bugs {Pentatomidcp,), leaf-hoppers, and in one instance plant lice, but this good was more than counterbalanced by the destruction of daddy longlegs, which subsist largely on aphids. The scales of butterflies or moths were found in two stomachs. Flies, though relished by birds, 41 8 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. are too wary to be caught in large numbers. Only five of the "«Tens examined contained flies. AYasps were detected in three instances. From the foregoing detailed account of the wren's food, it is obvious that the bird is very beneficial to agriculture. Such insectivorous birds should be encouraged. It is a pity that the quarrelsome English sparrow can not be exterminated, for if in place of every dozen spar- rows there was one house wren, our churches and statues would pre- sent a more sightly appearance, while in the country the jdeld of crops would be greatly increased. At Cambridge, Mass. , the sparrow has driven the wren away by occupying its nesting places. This is true to a certain degree wherever the two birds have met. To secure the services of the "«Ten, the farmer must put up nesting boxes and declare war against the sparrow. Table shoiving number of stomachs examined and percentages of food constituents. Number of stomachs - Percentages of animal foods : Ants -- - - Caterpillars (Lepidoptera) Beetles (Colcoptera) Grasshoppers, etc. ( Orthoptera) .- - Bugs (TIemiplcra) Spiders and thotisand-legs, etc. {Arachnida and Myriapoda) . Miscellaneous animal food Total animal . Percentages of vegetable foods : Cultivated fruits Wild fruits. Grain Miscellaneous vegetable food- Total vegetable Catbird. 213 44 65 Brown thrasher. 121 63 House wren. 53 1 16 23 So 12 14 I 8 j ^ 3 ....i 1 35 i 1 THE MEADOW LARK AND BALTIMORE ORIOLE. By F. E, L. Beal, Assistant Ornitliologist, U. S. Department of Agriculture. The oriole family includes the true orioles, the blackbirds, and the meadow larks. The different members of the tribe differ greatly among themselves in form, plumage, and habits. While the true orioles are strictly arboreal, hanging their nests among the most inac- cessible twigs of tall trees, the meadow larks are mainly terrestrial, placing their humble domiciles on the ground or even sunken a little below the surface. Between these extremes come the blackbirds, some of which, as the redwing, breed among reeds and in low bushes, while others; as the crow blackbird, nest chiefly in the tops of trees. As might be expected, the feeding habits of these birds differ greatly. The oriole seeks its food almost exclusively in trees, while the meadow lark is a ground feeder. Consequently, the kinds of insects eaten are not the same. The oriole feeds largely on caterpillars and wasps, which live among leaves and flovvers; the meadow lark, on the other hand, eats grasshoppers and other ground insects. After a careful consideration of their food, one can hardly fail to be impressed Avitli the fact that both of these birds must be eminently useful to the farmer. In the case of the meadow lark, insects constitute a large percentage of the food, and even in the winter months, when the ground is covered with snow, they form a very important element. The great bulk of these are grasshopjpers, insects whose ravages have been notorious from earliest times and whose devastations in the Mississippi Valley are still fresh in the minds of the farmers of that region. The number eaten is so enormous as to entitle the meadow lark to rank among the most efficient of our native birds as a grasshopper destroyer. Nor are the other components of its insect food less important except in quan- tity. Some of the most injurious beetles form a considerable percent- age of the stomach contents, while the useful sx3ecies do not appear so often as might be expected from the terrestrial habits of the bird. The other insects eaten — ants, bugs, caterx)illars, and beetle larvae — are almost all destructive, and their consumption by birds is a decided benefit to man. The oriole, altliougli differing radically from tlie meadow lark in food and manner of life, is not the less beneficial from an eco- nomic point of view. It is a most i>otent factor in the destruction 419 ^:20 T EARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of c? t(? q^illars, eating so mau}^ that if no other insects -svere taken it world still be classed as a useful bird. It does not, however, restrict its die t to caterpillars, but eats great numbers of injurious beetles, and a' so laany bugs and grasshoppers. In the matter of vegetable food vhe record is nearly as good, for although corn, peas, and a few fruits are eaten, they appear in • such small quantities as to have little economic significance. FOOD OF THE MEADOW LARK. The common meadow lark is a familar bird of the open country throughout the United States, although it is less abundant in the desert areas. Alike on the meadows of the East, the prairies of the West, and the savannas of the South, its clear pipe may be heard in the spring, announcing the return of the season of mating and nest building. It chooses for its home meadow lands or other level ground free from trees, and, if possible, near a supply of water, for it delights to drink and bathe in clear running brooks. Its nest, usually over- arched to protect the eggs and the sitting bird from the weather, is built on the ground among last year's herbage, and is often so com- pletely hidden as to defy the efforts of the most skillful searcher. The bird's preference for unmown fields, covered with what farmers call "old fog," has given rise to the name "old-field lark," by which it is known in some places. While the great bulk of the species migrate from the Northern States, small flocks sometimes remain throughout the winter. South of the latitude of Pennsylvania the birds may be found at all seasons, though in somewhat reduced numbers during the colder months. Early in March they begin to move northward, and soon spread over the whole northern United States and extend into Canada. The southward migration begins in September, and by the end of October all are gone. The common meadow lark {Sturnella magna) inhabits the eastern United States and ranges as far west as the Great Plains. The West- ern form {S. neglecta) is mingled with it in the Mississippi Valley, and thence to the Pacific Coast replaces it completely. The economic aspects of the two birds are practically the same. As a rule farmers do not look upon the meadow lark (fig. 110) as an injurious bird, though a few complaints against it have been received. It has been accused of pulling sprouting grain and of eating clover seed (presumably newly sown) to an injurious extent. As these are the only charges of any consequence among thousands relating to damage done by other birds, it appears that the food habits of the meadow lark do not materially conflict with the interests of the farmer. This supposition is fully substantiated by the result of examinations of the contents of the bird's stomach, and it is still further shown that, far from being injurious, it is one of the most useful allies to agriculture, standing almost without a peer as a destroyer of noxious insects. MEADOW LARK AND BALTIMORE ORIOLE. 421 In the laboratory investigation of the food of tlie meadow lark, 238 stomachs were examined ; these were collected in 24 States, the Dis- trict of Columbia, and Canada, and represent every month in the year. A summary of the stomach contents for the whole year is as follows: Insect food, 71. 7 per cent; vegetable food, 26.5; mineral mat- ter, 1.8. Excluding the mineral element, which is not food, the record stands: Animal matter, 73 per cent; vegetable, 27. In other words, nearly three-fourths of the meadow lark's food for the year, including the winter months, consists of insects. In August and September the meadow lark subsists almost exclu- sively on insect food, but this is not surprising, as insects are abund- ant at this season. In March, however, insects are not readily found; yet the meadow lark finds enough to make 73 per cent of its entire food. Similarly in December and January the insect food amounts to 39 and 24: per cent, respectively. Fig. 110.— Meadow lark (Sturnella magna). As an illustration of the meadow lark's vigilance in searching for insects, an instructive lesson may be drawn from the examination of the stomachs of 6 birds killed in Virginia when the ground was cov- ered with snow. The smallest quantity of insect food in any one of the 6 stomachs was 8 per cent of the contents, the largest quantity 95 per cent, and the average for all 6 more than 47 per cent, or nearly half of the total food. The insects consisted of beetles of several species, bugs {Hemiptera), grasshoppers, crickets, a few wasps, cater- pillars, spiders, and myriapods. Thus it is evident that insects form an essential element of the bird's diet, and are obtained even under very adverse circumstances. Of the total insect food of the 238 birds examined, grasshoppers, locusts (green grasshoppers), and crickets constitute by far the most 422 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. imiDortant element, averaging 29 per cent of all food consumed during the year. Even in January they form more than 1 per cent, and increase rax)idly until August, when they reach the surprising amount of 09 per cent. They decrease slowly during the autumn months, but in November stiR amount to 28 per cent, but naturally fall away quickly in winter. It is extremely doubtful if any other bird will show a better grasshopper record than this. Professor Aughey, in his report on the insects eaten by the birds of Nebraska (First Annual Report U. S. Entomological Commission, 1877, Appendix II, p. 34), credits the meadow lark with destroying large numbers of grasshop- pers. It should be borne in mind that the birds which form the sub- ject of this paper were not collected in any region especially infested with grasshoppers, but were gathered from nearly all parts of the United States. Out of the whole number of stomachs (238), 178 con- tained grasshoppers, one containing as many as 37. Of the 28 birds taken in August, in seven different States, all but one contained them, and one stomach, from New York, was filled with 30 common grass- hoppers, 14 green grasshoppers {Locustidoi), and 10 crickets. Of 29 stomachs collected in seven States in September, every one contained grasshoppers, and two contained nothing else. Of the 40 stomachs collected in October from ten States, all but two contained grasshop- pers and crickets. Dr. A. K. Fisher has made some interesting calculations upon the amount of hay saved by the destruction of grasshopi^ers by Swainson's hawk, and it would not seem to be out of place to attempt to reduce to a numerical basis the good done by the meadow lark in the con- sumi^tion of these insects. Dr. Fisher gives the weight of an average grasshopper as 15.4 grains, and entomologists place the daily food of a grasshopper as equal to the creature's own weight, an estimate prob- ably much within the limit of truth. Remains of as many as 54 grass- hoppers have been found in a single meadow lark's stomach, but this is much above the number usually eaten at one time. Such food, how- ever, is digested rapidly and it is safe to assume that at least 50 grass- hoppers are eaten each day. If the number of birds breeding in 1 square mile of meadow land is estimated at 5 pairs, and the number of young that reach maturity at only 2 for each pair, or 10 in all, there will be 20 birds on a square mile during the grasshopper season. On this basis, the birds would destroy 30,000 grasshoppers in one month. Assuming that each grasshopper, if let alone, would have lived thirty days, the thousand grasshoppers eaten by the larks each day represent a saving of 2.2 pounds of .forage, or G6 pounds in all for the month. If the value of this forage is estimated at $10 per ton (which is below the average price of hay in the Eastern markets), the value of the crop saved by meadow larks on a township of 36 square miles each month during the grasshopper season would be about $24. Beetles of many species stand next to crickets and grasshoppers in MEADOW LARK AND BALTIMORE ORIOLE. 423 importance, and constitute nearly 18 per cent of tlic annual food, but as these insects vary much in their economic relations it "will be best to consider the different families separately. Among the most impor- tant are the May beetles {Scarahceidce), a family which contains some of our most injurious insects as well as many harmless species. But as the great majority of the members live upon vegetable food, and may at any time turn their attention to useful plants, the whole fam- ily may be classed as potentially harmful, consequently the birds do no harm by eating them. The average consumption of May beetles amounts to about 4 per cent of the entire food of the year. The greatest numbers are eaten in May, when they form over 21 per cent of the food. Most of these are dung beetles, but some remains of the well-known Laehnosterna are found. The snout beetles, or weevils {B]ii/7icopliora), form a small but very constant element, averaging about 3 per cent for the year. June shows the greatest consumption, with over 7 per cent, and, singularly enough, January stands next, with almost 5 per cent. The principal families represented are the curculios {CurculionidcB) and the scarred snout beetles {Otiorhyn- chidcE)^ both of which include some of the most harmful insects known, and no useful ones. The plum curculio {Conotraclielus nenupliar) is a well-known example. Other beetles, belonging to about a dozen families, collectively form about 3 per cent of the whole food. Of these the most interesting are the loaf beetles {ClirysomelidcB), which are supposed to be disagreea- ble to birds, but whose remains were found in 19 of the 238 stomachs examined. The Colorado potato beetle is a member of this family, and while none were actually found, it seems highly probable that meadow larks might eat them if they fell in their way. One of the important questions in regard to the diet of insectivorous birds is the extent to which they eat predaceous beetles {Cardbidce)^ for jnany of these beetles are beneficial. From its ground-feeding habits the meadow lark might be expected to subsist largely upon carabids, as they also live mainly upon the ground and are very abundant. The examination shows that these insects constitute some- thing more than 7 per cent of the food during the year, but are very curiously distributed, attaining maxima of 20, 16, and 17 per cent, respectively, in March, July, and Noveml)er, while the minimum records (less than 1, 2, and 4 per cent) fall in January, May, and Sep- tember. This is certainly a very moderate showing when it is con- sidered that the meadow lark feeds almost exclusively on the ground where these beetles are so abundant, and it seems to indicate that instead of seeking them the bird simply eats such as fall in its way in default of better food. Bugs {Hemiptera) are pretty regularly eaten throughout the year, averaging 4 per cent of all the food. The greater number belong to the family of stink bugs {PentatomidcB) , some of which are familiar 424 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to all who have eaten raspberries from the vines. Those who have by accident tasted the bugs will never forget the flavor and will wonder that any bird habitually eats such highly seasoned food. Most of these bugs are eaten in March, when they constitute 14 per cent of the food of the month. While some of them are harmful as well as disgusting, others do much good by devouring other insects, so that the destruction of the various members of this family is not an unmixed benefit. It is important to note that one stomach con- tained three specimens of the notorious chinch bug, an insect whose ravages in our wheat and corn fields have cost the country millions of dollars. Caterpillars, or the larvfe of butterflies and moths, form a very considerable part of the food of the meadow lark, but the adults are rarely eaten, only three small moths having befin found in the 238 stomachs. Caterpillars were present in every month except Febru- ary, and even the stomachs taken in December contained 4 per cent of this food, while the average for the year is nearly 8 per cent. From the terrestrial habits of the meadow lark, it is evident that the caterpillars eaten must be species that live on or near the ground and feed on grass or other low plants. To this category belong the various species of cutworms. A number of these were identified in the stomachs, and no doubt many more were eaten, but they are so fragile and so soon reduced to fragments by the stomach's action that specific identification is always difficult and often impossible. The larvsB or young of beetles were found in every month except February, and formed more than 3 per cent of the food of the year. They increased to 11 per cent in May, and were sufficiently numerous to be important throughout the season except in August, September, and October, when they amounted to less than 1 per cent. Ants form a fairly constant element of the meadow lark's diet, averaging a little less than 3 per cent for the year. None were found in January, but in April they formed 4 per cent of the food. They decreased during the succeeding months, but increased suddenly to over 16 per cent in September, after which they again fell to an insig- nificant figure. Other Hymenoptera (wasps, etc.) average about 1^ per cent for the year, and are only important in June and July, when they amount to 6 and 4 per cent, resijectively. Spiders and myriapods (thousand-logs) seem to be eaten quite freely, and aggre- gate nearly 5 per cent of the food. The largest number (8 per cent) are eaten in March and December, but the percentage falls oflE during the winter and in midsummer. Besides the insects already mentioned, several were found representing other orders. Flies (Diptera) were contained in a few stomachs, a dragon fly {Odonata) in one, an earwig {Forficulidce) in one, and a common cattle tick (Ixodes) in one. Snails, or fragments of their shells, were found in seven stomachs, sow bugs ( Oniscus) in two, a small crustacean in one, 'meadow lark and BALTIMORE ORIOLE. 425 and the bones of small frogs or toads {Batrachians) in three. These last were from stomachs taken in Florida, and do not appear to be a favorite food. Fiom the foregoing, it is evident that the meadow lark is preemi- nently an insect eater; still it has recourse when necessary to vege- table food. As before stated, the total vegetable food for the year amounts to 27 per cent. Of this, grain (corn, wheat, and oats) aggregates 14.4 per cent, or a trifle more than half. The percentages of the different kinds of grain are: Corn, 11.1; wheat, 1.8; oats, 1.4. The largest quantity of gi'ain was eaten in January, when the stomachs contained 53 per cent of corn, 11 per cent of wheat, and 9 per cent of oats. During the sum- mer months the grain disappears, to appear again as the supply of insects fails. Sprouting grain was not found in any stomach. In April the total amount of grain was a little less than 15 per cent, and this may have been taken from newly sown fields. In May no wheat or oats were found, and only 1.9 j)er cent of corn. Seeds of j)lants classed as weeds were found in every month except May, and it is probable that a greater number of stomachs in that month would have shown at least a few. Excepting the single stom- ach taken in February, which contained 75 per cent of barn-grass seed (Chamceraphis,) weed seeds attain their maximum of over 25 per cent in December. The average for the j^ear is a little more than 11 per cent, or the same as corn. The remaining vegetable food aver- ages less than 1 per cent. Fruit seems to be accidental, each of the varieties named having been found in only one or two stomachs, and in small quantity. The same is true of the articles enumerated in the miscellaneous list. Complaints have been made against the meadow lark on the score of eating newly sown clover seed to an injurious extent; this seed, however, was found in only six stomachs, and each contained but a few seeds. The testimony of the stomachs does not indicate that grain is pre- ferred to other seeds, and it can not be urged that it is less easily obtained than seeds of weeds, for grain is a prominent crop through- out much of the country inhabited by meadow larks, and on account of its larger kernels is picked up more easily than smaller seeds. The meadow larks might be expected to injure grain when they collect in flocks, as they sometimes do, but at the time of harvesting wheat and oats they are not found in flocks, and the record shows that practically no wheat or oats were found in the stomachs, it being the season when insects were most abundant and formed nearly the whole food. As an illustration, the stomach of a bird killed in a field of shocked oats contained nothing but insects. In SeiJtember and October, when corn is being harvested, the amount of this grain found in the stomachs was less than 1 per cent. In November, when insects begin to fail, the vegetable food increases, but it is worthy of note that weeds {Ambrosia, 426 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Cliamcerapliis, etc.) are preferred, for in this month grain amounts to only G per cent, while weed seeds reach 15 per cent. In summing up the record of the meadow lark, two points should be esi)ecially noted: (1) The bird is most emphatically an insect eater, evidently preferring insects above all other food ; and (2) in default of its favorite food it can subsist on a vegetable diet. Prof. S. A. Forbes, in discussing the food of predaceous beetles (Bull. 111. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. I, No. 3, p. 159), calls attention to the fact that species which are able to vary their diet and subsist upon vegetable food when their ordinary supplj'^ of insects fails, are much more valu- able than those which are entirely carnivorous. This is exactly the case with the meadow lark. For this reason a relatively short migra- tion enables it to bridge over periods of scarcity of its favorite food. FOOD OF THE BALTIMORE ORIOLE. The Baltimore oriole, golden robin, or hang-nest (fig. Ill), as it is varioiislj' called, is so well and so favorably known throughout the country that it may seem almost unnecessary to show that its food habits are as beneficial as its song and plumage are pleasing. In most places where this bird makes its home, the people, especially the farmer-folk, would no more think of killing it or destroying its nest than would the Hollander shoot the stork that nests on his roof. Tiie Baltimore oriole {Icterus galbula) breeds throughout the east- ern United States north of Virginia, and reaches somewhat farther south in the Mississippi Valley. It is abundant in New England, and extends west over the tree-covered parts of the Great Plains, beyond which it is replaced by another species of much the same appearance (/. hidlocki). In New England the oriole usually comes with the flowering of the apple trees, in the latter half of May; in the West it appears somewhat earlier. As its food consists largely of insects that live in the foliage of trees, its arrival in the North is delayed until these have become plentiful. It begins to move southward early in August, and is rarely seen in September, though one of the specimens examined was taken in Connecticut as late as November 16; but this must be regarded as a belated straggler. The species passes south of the United States, to spend the winter in the warmer countries beyond. Tlie present preliminaiy report is based on the examination of the contents of 113 stomachs, collected in 12 States, the District of Co- lumbia, and Canada, and ranging from Massachusetts, on the east, to Kansas and North Dakota, on the west. They were all collected dur- ing the months from April to August, inclusive, with the exception of a single specimen taken in November. They are distributed by months as follows: April, 2; May, 45; June, 32; July, 18; August, 15; and November, 1. The food for the whole season consisted of 83.4 per cent of animal matter and 1G.6 per cent of vegetable matter. The mineral matter MEADOW LARK AND BALTIMORE ORIOLE. 427 found ill tlic stomachs is not really food, and was taken in such small quantities tliat it may be disregarded. As April is represented by only two stomachs, and November by one, the results for these months can not be considered as final. Excluding November, the largest amount of insect food was eaten in May, when it formed 92 per cent of the food, and the smallest in April and Julj^, wlien it formed 70 per cent. The single November stomach contained 98 j)er cent of insects. Tlic most important item of the insect food is caterpillars, which aggregate more than 34 per cent of the whole. Contrary to what might have been expected, the Connecticut stomach taken in Novem- ber contained 81 per cent of these insects. This accords with what has been noted by many observers in the field, that the oriole spends a Fig. Ul.— Baltimore oriole (Icterus galbula). grcjit deal of time searching among leaves and branches, where such insects abound. An average of 2o per cent of caterpillars was found in the two stomachs taken in April, and this percentage continued without much variation until July, when it dropped to 12, July being the month when most fruit was eaten. After July the percentage of catcri)illars eaten increases rapidly. Beetles of various families and species rank next to caterpillars in abundance. Those most eaten are the click, or snapping, beetles {Ela- teridce), insects having very hard shells, which would seem to render them undersirable for food. Although eaten during May, June, and July only, click beetles constitute 9 per cent of the food for these months, or 4. 5 j^er cent for each of the six months under consideration. 428 fEATlBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. These beetles and tlieir larva?, known as " wireworms," are among the most destructive insects with which the fanner has to contend. Pro- fessor Comstock says of the click beetles : There is hardly a cultivated plant that they do not infest ; and working as they do, beneath the surface of the gi'ound, it is extremely difficult to destroy them. Not only do they infest a great variety of plants, but they are very apt to attack them at the most susceptible period of their growth, before they have attained sufficient size and strength to withstand the attack, and often the seed is destroyed before it has germinated. Thus fields of corn or other grain are ruined at the outset. As tliere are over 500 species of snapping beetles in North America, it is easy to understand how welcome is any assistance in the struggle against them, and it is gratifying to know that the oriole is especially fond of them. The May beetles {ScarabcBid(E) stand next to the click beetles in importance as food of the oriole. They were found in stomachs col- lected during every month from May to August, but only in May and June was the percentage important, viz, 12 and 7 per cent, respec- tively. The average for the whole season was 3^ per cent. These insects consisted of the common May beetle {Lachnosterna), several species of dung beetles {Aphodius), and a number of the leaf -eating beetles {Dichelonyclia). So far as known dung beetles do no harm, but the other two genera are very injurious. Leaf beetles {Chrysonie- lidce) are not supposed to be a favorite food of birds, owing to their disagreeable excretion, but they were eaten by the orioles in every month except November. In July they amounted to 8 per cent, in August 5, and averaged nearly 3 per cent of the food for the season. More than half a dozen species belonging to this family were identified in the contents of the stomachs. Among them was the well-known striped squash beetle {Didbrotica vittata)^ which in the larval state bores the roots of squashes or cucumbers, and when adult feeds on their leaves. Another member of the same family ( Odontota dorsalis) feeds on the leaves of the locust, and in some places ruins the trees, while another of the same genus (O. rubra) feeds on apple trees. Both of these were identified in the stomachs. Snout beetles or weevils {Rliyncophora) form a small but fairly constant element of the oriole's diet, amounting to a little more than 2 per cent for the season. In May they formed 5 per cent of the food, and then decreased to less than 2 per cent in July, but in August increased a little. All are noxious insects, and belong for the most part to the families of the curculios and the scarred snout beetles {Otiorynchidce). Members of six other families of beetles were found, but not in sufl&cient numbers to be of economic importance, although it is interesting to note that one of the blister beetles was among the number. As most of these beetles contain a secretion that produces blisters, it would seem to us that they must be rather disagreeable as an article of food. MEADOW LARK AND BALTIMORE ORIOLE. 429 Tho predaceous beetles {CarabidcB) constitute an element of great interest in tho food of any bird, since the number eaten is commonly taken as a criterion of tho comparative usefulness of the bird. As these beetles themselves live for the most part on other insects, it is evidently desirable that they should be allowed to pursue this good work as long as possible. That they are not molested by orioles is proved by the fact that in the stomachs examined j^redaceous beetles averaged only one-half of 1 per cent for the season, and the greatest number taken in any month amounted to little more than 1 per cent. Wasps {Hymenoptera) constitute an important element of the food in every month, varying from 20 per cent in April to about 8 per cent in July, and averaging nearly 11 per cent for the season. As these insects spend a large part of their time buzzing about flowers and leaves, it seems only natural that they should be eaten by the oriole. Ants, which also belong to the Hymenoptera, are eaten to some extent through the spring and summer, but are only important in April and May, when they form about 10 per cent of the food. They belong for the most part to the largo black species of Camponotiis, which live on trees and nurse plant lice. Bugs {Hemiptera) of various species are favorites with the orioles, as they are with many other birds, and form about 6 per cent of the food for the season. None were found in April, about 4 per cent in May, after which they increased to nearly 10 per cent in July, but again decreased to 4 x)er cent in August. Many of these are stink bugs {PentatomidcB), which crawl over berries and impart a disgust- ing flavor to them. Others belong to the family of assassin bugs {Reduviidct), which feed on other insects; but the most interesting members of this order are the scale lice {Coccidcz) and common plant lice {Aphides), two of the most destructive families of insects known. They are so minute that it seems surprising that any bird should care to eat them, but scale lice wei-e found in eight stomachs and aphids in four. Flies {Dipiera) make up more than 4 per cent of the food in May, and no less than 7 per cent in the single stomach taken in No- vember. Tlie most interesting are the larvae of the March fly {Bibio), of which one stomach contained about 100. These larvt© feed on roots of grass and evidently must have been obtained from the ground. Several long-legged crane flies {Tipulidce), with their eggs, were also found. Grasshoppers and locusts were eaten in June, July, and August to the extent of 1, 11, and 17 per cent, respectively. In capturing these insects it is evident that the orioles must alight on the ground, attracted no doubt by the abundant supply and the ease with which such food can be obtained, for at this season it can hardly be sup- posed there is a deaith of caterpillars and other insects which they usually find on the trees. Spiders also constitute a favorite food, aver- aging nearly G per cent for the season. In May they form 5 per cent 430 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTURE. of the food, and gradually increase to nearly 12 per cent in August. Some of the stomachs taken during the breeding season in xVpril, May, and June contained bits of snail shells, which were probably eaten for the lime they contain. Vegetable food of the oriole. — For its vegetable food, the oriole pre- fers fruit, but also eats grain and the seeds of weeds. Six kinds of fruits were found in the stomachs. Of these, cherries, raspberries, and mulberries are or may be cultivated. Cherries were identified in two stomachs, and four others contained fruit pulp too much digested for recognition. Assuming that this pulp came from cherries, six stom- achs in all contained this fruit. Raspberries or blackberries were found in eleven stomachs. As this fruit is as likely to be wild as cul- tivated, the record does not necessarily indicate that the bird does much damage. Mulberries were found in only three stomachs, June- berries in nine, huckleberries in one, and elder berries in one. Next to Rubus fruits (blackberries and raspberries), Juneberries seem to be preferred, and it is noteworthy that several orioles shot on or near cherry trees in bearing had no cherries in their stomachs, but some seeds of Rubus and Juneberries. Green corn was found in one stomach and peas in two, hardly enough to establish the bird's reputation as a pilferer of fields and gardens ; and as only one observer has seen it eat peas, and none corn, it may be safely said that the harm done is trifling. No traces of sprouting oats or other grain were discovered, except in one stomach, taken in April, which contained some obscure vegetable substance that may have been sprouting peas nearly digested. If the two stomachs taken in April and the one in November are excluded, the percentage of vegetable food for the season stands about as follows: May, 7 per cent; June, 8; July, 29; August, 12. The sudden rise in July and the falling off in August are very notice- able. Moreover, in July the vegetable food consisted entirely of fruit. "SYhilc the generally harmless character of the oriole is almost uni- versally acknowledged, a few instances of damage to fruit have' been reported. It is accused of eating berries and garden j)eas, and several correspondents say that it injures grapes. Even John Burroughs brands it as an enemy of the vineyard, but the harm it does in this way is probably overestimated. Mr. TV. F. Webster, of Oshkosh, Wis., states that it sometimes punctui'cs grapes to suck the juice, but adds that the bird is worth its weight in gold as an insect destroyer. The stomach examinations show that it destroys immense numbers of cat- erpillars, grasshoppers, bugs, and noxious beetles, and does not prey to a noticeable extent on predaceous or useful beetles. Added to these good qualities, its brilliant plumage, sprightlj' manners, pleasing song, and skill in nest building excite our admiration. Let the farmer con- tinue to hold his good opinion of the oriole, and accord it the protec- tion it so well deserves. INEFFICIENCY OF MILK SEPARATORS IN REMOYING BACTERIA. By Veranus A. Moore, Chief of the Division of Animal Pathology, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. MILK, BUTTER, AND CHEESE AS CARRIERS OP INFECTIOUS DISEASES. Froiii many sources of unquestioned autliority tlie statements liave come tliat milk is a medium through which the contagion of many of the most destructive diseases of man and domesticated animals is sometimes disseminated. It becomes exceedingly important, there- fore, that the methods which have been proposed for the destruction or elimination of the diseasc-iDroducing bacteria should be thoroughly tested before they are advocated as satisfactory and efficient prevent- ives. Certain of these processes, especially those involving the ap- plication of heat, have been tested with much satisfaction, but the efficiency of others, particularly those involving the use of electric- ity or the application of certain mechanical principles, has not been established. Among these it has been suggested that the treatment of milk in separators is sufficient to remove bacteria, thus rendering the cream and by-product harmless even if the milk contained obnox- ious and dangerous microorganisms. While there is much evidence to refute this claim, it can not bo absolutely denied without the evi- dence obtainable by actual experiments. The published results of several recent investigations have shown that certain recognized dangers attending the consumption of raw milk exist, but to a less degree, in butter and cheese. In a recent number of the British Medical Journal, Rowland has called attention to these articles as carriers of typhoid fever and Asiatic cholera. Steyerthal and Konel have also pointed out several cases of these diseases which wore traced to the consumption of butter. Frohnor has shown that a disease of cattle in Europe, known as foot-and- mouth disease, and which is communicable to man, has been trans- mitted through butter made from the milk of cows affected with that malady. It will be shown later that when the bacilli of hog cholera are i)laccd in sweet milk they will appear in the butter aud butter- milk in numbers large enough to destroy experimental animals when inoculated with small quantities of either. It has also been shown 431 432 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE. that when certain bacteria find their way into butter they will remain alive and virulent for a considerable length of time. Lafar found tubercle bacilli alive and virulent after they had been in butter for one hundred and twenty days. Laser found the bacilli of tuberculo- sis, Asiatic cholera, and typhoid fever in a like condition after a week's stay in butter. An experiment ^ in this laboratorj^ shows that tubercle bacilli will remain virulent in butter for more than ninety days. Although the number of reported cases of infectious diseases in which the contagion was introduced through butter is not large, it is enough to show the possibility of contracting disease by the consump- tion of this common article of food. In view of this evidence, a careful inquiry into the character and management of milk used for this pur- pose is of much imiDortance. Up to the present time the investigations into the infectiousness of contaminated milk, and the adoption of methods whereby it may be rendered innocuous and wholesome, have been mainly in connection with human diseases. It is obvious, however, that in the rural dis- tricts the protection of milk-fed animals should not be neglected. If bacteria, such as the bacilli of typhoid fever, Asiatic cholera, and tuberculosis can contaminate milk and render it dangerous to man- kind when these maladies exist on the premises where the cows are kept or where the milking utensils are handled, why can not the bacilli of hog cholera, swine plague, tuberculosis, and other specific microorganisms dangerous to domesticated animals be disseminated among them by means of the skimmed milk from creameries? In certain sections of this country this danger is recognized by the more enterprising of the farmers who refuse to use skimmed milk from creameries to feed their calves and swine unless it has been sterilized by heat. Although the preservation of human health is of the first and highest importance, the i^erfection of sanitary methods demands that the health and thrift of the domesticated animals, upon which mankind depend so largely for food, and which are kept in such close proximity to the human dwelling, should be likewise considered. SIMILARITY OF ANIMAL AND HUMAN DISEASES. Many of the animal and human diseases are found to be so closely related that it becomes impossible in many cases to omit either in a general sanitary consideration of the other. Although there are diseases which appear to be i^eculiar to certain species, many of the most fatal affections, such as anthrax, tuberculosis, and glanders, are communicable from animal to man, and the reverse. There are 'This experiment, which is being made in conjunction witli Dr. C. F. Dawson, assistant in the laboratory, is not completed, but guinea pigs inoculated with a piece of butter the size of a small pea died of tuberculosis ninety-seven days after its infection. During this time tlie butter containing the tubercle bacilli was kept in an ice box. INEFFICIENCY OF SEPARATORS IN REMOVING BACTERIA. 433 others, however, such as typhoid fever of man and hog cholera among swine, which, although distinct, resemble each other so closely in the characters of their specific organisms and in the nature of the i)atho- logical changes which they produce that it seems quite probable that large quantities of the virus of hog cholera would produce ill effects in the liuman species, and likewise the virus of typhoid fever might, under like conditions, affect swine. The specific bacteria of these two diseases live and multiply with equal rapidity in milk, so that the danger of carrying the virus of the swine disease from farm to farm through the medium of the skimmed milk from creameries is quite as great as that of the spread of typhoid fever among the human species through the milk supply, unless some means are provided whereby these bacteria are, if present, either eliminated or destroyed. HOW MILK BECOMES CONTAMINATED. The foregoing statements have anticipated the important fact that milk becomes contaminated with bacteria in two ways, which, for convenience in expression, may be termed the direct and the indirect. In the direct method the contagion of the disease from which the cow is suffering is carried directly from the diseased animal into her milk. This has been found to be the case in tuberculosis whore the udder is affected. ^ Ileusinger has reported anthrax in man, produced by drink- ing the milk of a cow affected with that disease. Nocard has found anthrax bacilli in large numbers in the udder of a cow examined immediately after death. Many cases of aphthous fever are reported in man caused by the consumption of the raw milk of affected cows. Klein has stated that when milch cows are affected with diphtheria the lesions are sometimes located in the milk ducts, in which case the specific bacilli are carried directly into the milk. In the indirect method the organisms gain access to the milk from external sources — either from the hands of the milker, the water used in washing the milk utensils, or from the dust and extraneous material which often find their way into the milk receptacles. The assertion is frequently made by dairymen that the danger of contamination from without is overestimated, owing to the very limited number of bacteria that can gain access to the milk in this man- ner. The error of this assertion rests in the fact that milk is a most excellent medium for the multiplication of many species of bacteria, among which fecal bacteria and the bacilli of typhoid fever and hog cholera should be specially mentioned. Dr. Osier, in his report on • There is good authority for believing that the milk of tuberculous cows, in which the udder is not diseased, sometimes temporarily contains tubercle baciUi. This fact renders the milk of all cows affected with this disease dangerous, as it is impossible to predict when bacilli will be present. This is important, owing to the fact that tuberculosis is widely distributed among cattle and that it usually reaches the advanced stages before it is recognized and the milk rejected. 4 A 95 16 434 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. typlioid fever in Baltimore, makes the following statement concern- ing the infection of milk : Even wlien kept clean, dairies in crowded localities are exposed to very serious dangers. Milk is of all fluids the most susceptible to infection, and forms a cul- ture medium of the very best kind, particularly for typhoid germs, which develop without alteiliig the appearance of the milk. The dust and sweepings blown in all directions from the unwatered streets must very often contain germs which, even in any well-protected city dairy, might reach the open pans. When, how- ever, one sees the condition of disgusting filth in which some of the cow sheds ai'e, with heaps of manure in close proximity, the surface sewage running close by, the whole ground saturated, no adequate provision for properly scouring the pans, the cows ill nourished and dirty, the only food in many instances being dis- tillery refuse, one can appreciate how readily under such circumstances the milk becomes contaminated. While these statements may not apply to countrj' dairies, it is a well-known fact that many dairymen are too indifferent to the sources by which their milk may become infected. Y oo 6 O « o ° n ° ^ ° o ° "o o ^ , o o O' a Fig. 113. — A, microscopic appearance of pure milk; B, microscopic appearance of milk after standing in a warm room for a few hours in a dirty di.^h. It shows the fat globules and many forms of bacteria. (Highly magnified.) Should a very limited number of these objectionable organisms enter the milk, a few hours is suflficient, under the method ordinarilj'^ I)rac- ticed of keeping milk, for them to multiply to such an extent that a single glass of it would contain millions of the bacteria (fig. 112). Another feature of much importance in connection Avith the purity of milk is the view taken by medical writers that the affections of the human species traceable to milk are by no means limited to those brought about by clearly defined pathogenic bacteria. Several investigations have shown that bacteria multiply in the drop of milk left at the end of the teat, and certain of them gradually grow up into the milk ducts, from whence they are washed out in milking; so that, with the most scrupulous cleanliness, freshly drawn milk necessarily contains a considerable number of bacteria. The organisms which are invariably found in the milk ducts usually ferment milk sugar, producing acids without gas. The presence of large numbers of fecal INEFFICIENCY OF SEPARATORS IN REMOVING BACTERIA. 435 bacteria are likewise believed to be the cause of much sickness, especially among children. Similar dangers exist in feeding the bj^-products from creameries and cheese factories to domesticated animals. The literature on the etiology of animal diseases tends to show that Bacillus coli commiaiis and other bacteria, ordinarily con- sidered of a harmless nature, are, under certain conditions, capable of producing disease. It is well known that after eliminating the epizo- otics among animals duo to recognized disease-producing bacteria we are still confronted with many outbreaks which at present can not be attributed to the invasion of recognized pathogenic organisms. METHODS FOR DESTROYING OR REMOVING BACTERIA FROM MILK. Without further discussion of facts already well known, we come to the important question as to how these dangers can be eliminated. To this end the united efforts of physicians, bacteriologists, and sani- tarians have been directed for several years, with the happy result that means have been found by which the danger from the consump- tion of milk can be reduced to a minimum. This consists in steriliza- tion or pasteurization.^ In the latter process the objectionable bac- teria are destroyed without impairing the nutritive properties of the milk. This process, which is exceedingly simple in its application to the small quantity of milk used in private families, is more difficult when it is extended to the by-products from creameries or large dairies. In ' There is much confusion in the use of the terms sterilization and pasteuriza- tion. Sterilization consists in destroying all living organisms. It is usually accomplished by subjecting the material to a high temperature, 110° to 120° C. (230° to 248° F.), for a short time, by boiling for several hours, or by heating to a temperature of about 170° to 200° F. for a short time each day for several con- secutive days. Pasteurization may or may not be sterilization. The term has reference to the method used by Pasteur in 1866 for preserving wine. He found that when wine was heated to a certain temperature, about 165° F., it could be kept without the deleterious after-fermentation. About ten years later this method was used for preserving milk. When it was formd that milk frequently contained disease-pro- ducing bacteria, this method was employed to destroy them. The clinical experi- ence in using pasteurized milk taught that a temperature of 105° to 180° F. rendered it less easily digested. Then followed a long series of experiments to determine at what temperature and for how long a time it is necessary to heat the milk to destroy the pathogenic and fermenting bacteria. From these experi- ments it was learned that a temperature of 150° to 155° F. for one-half hour was as effective as a short exposure to 165° to 170° F. There are writers, however, who claim that 140° F. is sufficient. Pasteurization has come to mean, therefore, the destruction of disease-producing and fermenting bacteria by means of a low temperature applied for a certain length of time. If only the ordinary fermenting and pathogenic microoi'ganisms are present, the milk thus treated would be ster- ilized. If spore-bearing bacteria, or those possessed of a high thermal death point, should be present, this process would not destroy them. (See article in Yearbook, Department of Agriculture, 1894, page 331.) 436 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. certain European countries mucli of the milk used for making butter is subjected to tbis process, tbus eliminating the possible infectious- ness of both the butter and the skimmed milk. In this country, how- ever, methods are not generally provided whereby the consumers of butter and cheese, or the domesticated animals fed upon the by-prod- ucts of their manufacture, are protected against the organisms with which the milk might have become contaminated. As already stated, a few persons in certain sections of the country, especially where infectious swine diseases are prevalent, require that the creameries sterilize their portion of the skimmed milk before it will be accepted. Although the various inquiries which have been made concerning milk as a carrier of disease have awakened a deep and growing interest in this subject, our people have not made a general demand for the adoption of heroic measures to check the spread of disease through the general milk supply. As a rule, in this country, it is left to each individual to use or reject the known methods of ren- dering innocuous milk that is possibly infectious, instead of insisting upon its being noninfectious when it leaves the dairy or the hands of the dealer. Recently there has been a tendency to advocate the efficiency of milk separators in removing bacteria from milk and de- IDOsiting them in the sediment or slime which forms on the inside of the bowl. The frequent discovery of tubercle bacilli in the slime appears to have given rise to the hypothesis that the mechanical treatment of milk in these machines is effective in eliminating the bacteria, thus rendering the skimmed milk and cream free from whatever organ- isms the milk formerly contained. A few experiments to determine the efficiency of this process on certain of the more important patho- genic species have already been reported. Bang has found that tubercle bacilli are very largely thrown out with the slime in milk separators. Scheurlen obtained similar results in the centrifugal machine with tubercle bacilli, but he found that other species of bacteria did not act the same under the influence of the centrifugal process. As the degree of elimination of bacteria, especially the pathogenic forms, from milk by this mechanical process measures the amount of protection against milk infection afforded to consum- ers of dairy products and to animals fed upon the mixed skimmed milk, the results of experiments bearing upon this subject are of great importance. The meager data obtainable prompted a series of FiQ. 113. — A small milk separator. INEFFICIENCY OF SEPARATORS IN REMOVING BACTERIA. 437 experiments which have been carried out in this laboratory with the specific object of determining to what extent this mechanical treat- ment of milk would eliminate the bacilli of tuberculosis, hog cholera, and swine plague. As it was impossible to make tests with all of the different varieties of separators, the work has been done with a single small machine (fig. 113). Directors of several creameries at State experiment stations have been consulted, and so far as I have been able to learn the mechanical treatment of the milk is practically the same in all of the separators. The results obtained are, therefore, believed to be applicable (with slight varia- tions) to all milk sej^arators in general use in this country. The efficiency of centrifugal ma- chines in removing microorganisms from the cream and skimmed milk has also been tested. For this purpose a small hand machine was used. EXPERIMENTS WITH THE MILK SEPARATOR. A. — ON THE REMOVAL OF TUBERCLE MILK. BACILLI FROM While it is not intended to give in detail the various technical steps in these investigations, it is necessary to indicate some of the more important points concerning the methods em- ployed. As it was impracticable, if not impossible, to obtain milch cows so affected with tubercu- losis of the udder that the tubercle bacilli were given off in large numbers, it became neces- sary to use milk artificially infected with these organisms. Much difficulty was experienced in evenly distributing these bacilli throughout the milk on account of their tendency to hang together in clumps when grown in glycorinated bouillon or on blood serum. This was largely overcome, however, by grinding the growth of tubercle bacilli taken from cultures in sharp sand. Before using, the sand was thoroughly washed in water, treated for some minutes with hydrochloric acid, and again washed repeatedly in water. After grinding the growth from artificial cultures for about one-half hour with a pestle in a mortar, a few cubic centimeters of sterilized bouillon were added, and after several minutes of stirring the suspension was filtered through a layer of cotton, which removed the sand and larger clumps of bacilli, but permitted the very small clumps and single bacilli to pass through. This method gave satis- factory and uniform results. A microscopic examination of properly Fig. lU.— a vertical section through the bowl of the sex>a- rator. The milk in the regu- lating reservoir, a, passes through the inlet, 6, to the bottom of the bowl. It is then forced outward and up along the side of the bowl to the exit through small tubes into the skiinmed-milk cov- er, c. The cream is carried up between the disks, dd, to the top of the bowl, where it escapes through a groove into the cream cover. 438 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. stained cover-glass preparations showed that in a drop of the suspen- sion thus prepared there were many tubercle bacilli. Definite quan- tities of this suspension were added to known amounts of fresh milk and thoroughly mixed by pouring repea,tedly from one jar to another. The milk was then passed through the separator, which was run at the rate of 7,200 revolutions per minute. In the first experiment 7 c. c. (about 2 teaspoonfuls) of the sus- pension of tubercle bacilli were added to 4,000 c. c, (over 1 gallon) of fresli milk. The microscopic examination of the milk, after the sus- pension was added and thoroughly mixed, showed tubercle bacilli (fig. 115) in small numbers in about 30 per cent of the prepara- tions examined. After the milk had passed through the separator, tubercle bacilli were not found by the microscopic examination in the skimmed milk, cream, or in the milk left in the bowl of the separator, but a similar examination of the scrapings or slime from the side of the bowl showed a considerable number of them. They ^ 3 were single and Q, /^ , in small clumps. Ly / Judging from O CJ \ r\ f^ /^ )^ the results of r>\ ( r the ^ '0 ,::ri:i' \y ^ examination, it v^ '' — n. ft* 0 ^ '<» ■f< 1*9 Fig. 116.— a, microscopic appearance of a pure culture of swine-plague bacteria in milk; B, swine- plague bacteria as they appear in stained preparations from the liver or spleen of a rabbit; C, in bouillon culture. (Highly magnified.) B. — INEFFICIENCY IN EEMOVINa SWINE- PLAGUE AND HOG-CHOLERA BACTERIA. Although tubercle bacilli will pass in appreciable numbers through the separator and appear in the skimmed milk and cream, it is impossible to predict the same result for other pathogenic bacteria when subjected to the same treat- ment. The difference in the shaj)e of the bacteria would indicate that while the tubercle bacilli, on account of their tendency to grow in masses, and the long slender form of the individual organisms, are liable to be carried in considerable numbers to the surface with the fat globules, shorter organisms might follow the centrifugal influ- ences without being intercepted on their way. To determine this point, experiments were made with the bacilli of swine plague and hog cholera. About 100 c. c. of a twenty-four-hour bouillon culture of virulent ewine-plague bacteria (fig. 116) were thoroughly mixed with 4,000 c. c. INEFFICIENCY OF SEPARATORS IN REMOVING BACTERIA. 441 of fresh milk, after which it was inimediately passed throiigli the sep- arator. Cover-glass preparations were made and carefully examined from the cream, milk, and sediment on the inside of the bowl. Each of them showed a very large number of bacteria. As the milk itself at the time it was used contained a large number of bacteria which could not be positivelj'' differentiated by the microscopic examination from the swine-plague bacillus, it was necessary to inoculate rabbits in order to determine whether or not this bacillus was present in the skimmed milk and cream. Accordingly, a rabbit was injected subcutaneously with 0. 1 c. c. of the skimmed milk and another with a like quantity of the cream. Both of the rabbits died of swine plague within twenty-four hours. A similar experiment was made with a culture of the bacillus of hog cholera (fig. i 117). The rabbits in this case were inocu- lated with 0.25 c. c. of the milk and cream, respectivel3^ They died of hog cholera on the seventh day, the time death would have u Fia. 117.— A, hog-cholera bacilli as they appear in ordinarily Scheurlen ' found stained preparations from cultures; B, when stained In a ., , , , . , , special manner, showing their flagella. ^Highly magnified.) that bacteria acted differently under the influence of this process. Anthrax bacilli (fig. 118) and their spores, the bacilli of typhoid fever (fig. 110) and Asiatic cholera were gathered in the cream, while tubercle bacilli were for the greater part thrown down. The writer has made several tests with tubercle bacilli with somewhat different results. Similar experi- ments with bacteria of hog cholera and swine plague have shown that they, too, are not all thrown to the bottom of the tubes, as the appended notes will show. Milk containing tubercle bacilli^ was treated in the centrifugal machine, running at the rate of 1,600 revolutions per minute for eighteen minutes. Cover-glass preparations were made from the milk before passing through the centrifugal machine, and from the milk, cream, and sediment after such treatment. Six prepara- tions from each were carefully examined, with the following results: Milk before treating. — Each preparation contained five or more tubercle bacilli. ' Arbeiten aus dem Kaiserl. Gesundheitsainte, VII (1891), 269. • Definite quantities of a suspension of tubercle bacilli in bouillon, prepared In the manner described on p. 4.37, were added to the milk. 4 A 95 1(J* the rabbits received 0.1 c. c. of a pure bouillon culture. / EXPERIMENTS WITH N ".-; THE HAND CENTRIF- ^ UGAL MACHINE. > 442 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Cream. — Five preparations contained from one to five single bacilli or clumps. In one preparation they were not found. Sldmmed milk. — Two preparations contained very few tubercle bacilli. In four tubercle bacilli could not be found. Sediment. — Two of the six preparations contained many tubercle bacilli ; two con- tained very few, and in two tliese bacilli could not be found. These experi- ments were twice repeated, with sim- ilar results. Fig. 118.- - Bacilli of anthrax. A, without spores; B, with spores. (Highly magnified.) In testing the be- havior of hog-chol- era bacillus when subjected to this treatment, 150 c. c. of fresh milk was taken, to which 5 c, c, of a twenty-four-hour bouillon culture of the hog-cholera bacillus was added, and thoroughly mixed. The mix- ture was treated in the centrifugal machine for twenty minutes, run- ning at 1,600 revolutions per minute. Cover-glass preparations were made from the cream, central layer of the milk, and sediment, and examined microscopically. Many bacteria 3 were found in each, although the number in the sediment was appreciably larger than in the milk and cream. As there was a large number of bacteria in the milk from which it was impossible to differentiate the hog-cholera bacteria by the microscopic examination alone, rabbits were inoculated subcutane- ously with a small quantity (0.2 c, c.) of the milk and cream. The quantity in- jected Avas so small that the dose would have been in- capable of producing rap- idly fatal results if a large percentage of the hog-chol- era bacteria had been deposited in the sediment. The inoculated rabbits died on the seventh day, with lesions characteristic of hog cholera. This experiment was very carefully repeated, with the same results. Similar experiments were made with the swine-plague bacteria, with the result that experimental animals, when inoculated subcu- taneously with very small quantities of the cream and milk, died of swine plague within twentv-four hours. I Fig. 119.— a, bacilli of typhoid fever; B, the .same stained by a special method showing their flagella. (Highly magnified. ) INEFFICIENCY OF SEPARATORS IN REMOVING BACTERIA. 443 A large number of experiments in removing the bacteria ordinarily found in milk were made witli both the centrifugal machine and the milk separator. The milk used contained a large number of bacteria. Plate cultures made with like quantities of the untreated milk, the skimmed milk, and cream, developed practically the same number of colonies, showing conclusively that the process of separation was incflicient in removing the bacteria ordinarilj^ present in milk. The results of the experiments recorded in the preceding pages show that the physical conditions involved in the mechanical treat- ment of milk do not allow the deioosition of all bacteria in the sedi- ment. Many of the bacteria were carried over into the skimmed milk and into the cream. With this fact before us it is easy to under- stand that the butter made by the use of the separator from infected milk might contain the specific bacteria. This was illustrated by the following experiment with the hog-cholera bacillus. A quantity of fresh milk was obtained and a few cubic centimeters of a bouillon culture of the bacillus of hog cholera were added and thoroughly mixed with it, as in the preceding experiment. The milk was then passed through the separator and the cream collected in a sterile beaker, and allowed to stand in the laboratory until ripe, when it was churned. The butter was carefully worked, washed, salted, and placed in an ice box. The buttermilk was preserved in a sterilized jar, but kept at the room temperature. Four daj^s afterwards a rabbit was inoculated beneath the skin with 0.2 c. c. of the buttermilk, and another with a piece of the butter about the size of a pea. These rabbits died of hog cholera in seven days. These experiments confirm the opinion of many farmers that unsterilized mixed skimmed milk from creameries in those sections of the country having outbreaks of infectious swine diseases, or where there is much tuberculosis among the cattle, is not safe for feeding calves and swine. In Denmark the skimmed milk in creameries, when not used for making cheese, is heated to a temperature near the boiling point. This permits the return of all the milk without souring, and ft also destroys all bacteria with which the milk may be contaminated. It is stated that the farmers in that country recognize the danger of mixed milk coming from many sources, and refuse to use it, before it is sterilized, in their households or for feeding their animals. In this country the necessity for such precautionarj'^ measures is quite as great, but it is not so generally recognized. HOW TO ELIMINATE THE DANGERS. With our present knowledge of the possible infectiousness of milk, the question very naturally presents itself. How can these impending dangers be eliminated? To this the answer is not difficult. The recognized efficiency of the milk separators now in use indicates that from the butter-making standpoint a radical change is not necessary. 444 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. From the experiments mentioned above we can not expect that sepa- rators will remove, to a sufficient extent, the bacteria which the milk may contain. This being the case, we must look for methods whereby the bacteria, especially the fermenting and pathogenic forms, if pres- ent, can be destroyed. The simplest and most effective of those known at the present time is the application of heat, either pasteuri- zation or sterilization. Pasteurization could be applied to the milk, rendering the cream and butter as well as the skimmed milk free from infection. If the skimmed milk only were heated, the danger of its spreading infectious diseases among animals would be removed. Fur- thermore, it could be taken from the creameries to the farms of the patrons in a wholesome condition, thus avoiding man}'^ of the intes- tinal troubles of calves and swine attributed to feeding them the fer- mented skimmed milk. The expense of the necessary apparatus ^ for creamery use would be comparatively slight, a mere trifle compared with the benefit to be derived from the improved condition of the skimmed milk. In considering the obnoxious bacteria in milk, the fact must not be overlooked that this fluid contains many bacteria which are not known to be harmful, and sometimes others whose presence is much to be desired. It is now known that the delicate flavors of the choicest butters are due to the presence of certain species of bacteria in the milk. In a few creameries it is said that the milk is inoculated with these bacteria in order to assure the desired flavor of the product. Recognizing this, the necessity for pasteurizing milk is quite as appar- ent from the butter-making stand point as it is from the sanitary side, as it would destroy all fermenting and other undesirable bacteria which might otherwise interfere with the organisms subsequently introduced to impart to the butter the particular flavor desired. The farmer should recognize the danger to which he subjects his animals when he feeds them with milk coming from dairies in which there are tuberculous cows, or which are on farms where infectious diseases, liable to be carried in the milk, exist. If the enormous losses annually sustained from animal diseases are to be reduced, it is imperative that every interested individual should adopt such pre- cautionary measures as have been demonstrated to be efficient. By pasteurizing or sterilizing milk in creameries, one of the channels through which domesticated animals are liable to become infected would be closed. 1 For a description of the various appliances for pasteurizing and sterilizing milk in large quantities, see article by Dr. E. A. de Schweinitz, Yearbook of Department of Agriculture, 1894, p. 331. BUTTER SUBSTITUTES. By E. A. DE ScHWEiNiTZ, Ph. D., M. D., Biochemic Laboratory, Bureau of Ani7nal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. MANUFACTURE AND SALE OF OLEOMARGARINE. In 1869 Mege Mouries, at the instigation of the French Govern- ment, undertook experiments for the purpose of securing a substitute for butter which could be produced at less cost and might be used by the na\'^^ and by the poorer classes of citizens. This original process was patented in the United States in 1873. Without giving Mege Mouries's patent in detail, the principal points were the preparation of margarine oil by the artificial digestion of the fat taken from animals and the separation of the stearin, which melts at a high temperature, by pressure. This so-called liquid margarine was then churned into milk, finely divided cow's udder and carbonate of sodium being used to facilitate the emulsion. The result was a product which when salted and colored resembled butter in appearance, taste, and general proi)erties. Many modifications of this process were at once sug- gested, the object being to utilize as much as possible surplus animal fats. For this purpose numerous improvements were patented for purifying these fats by fermentation and by the subsequent use of chemicals. The process as at present used, however, is comparatively simple. The oleo oil and "neutral" lard are mixed together, either alone or with the addition of cotton-seed oil or milk and butter, in steam- jacketed vessels provided with paddles, the resulting product being called oleomargarine or butterine, according to the quantity of butter used. The manufacture is a simple one, and the questions of impor- tance are the character of the fats used and the cleanliness in the preparation of the oleomargarine. The two especial points originally claimed for the oleomargarine were, that by a judicious admixture of stearin the product would retain its consistency, even in hot weather, and that it could be readily transported and preserved for a long time without becoming rancid. For cooking purposes the oleomargarine should be quite useful, aa it 445 446 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. is simply the mixture of tlie natural animal fat in sucli proportions as to produce a compound having the consistency of butter; hut for eat- ing in place of butter — an article of food which is made more palata- ble and digestible by its particular aroma and flavor — the results are different. This fact was recognized and acknowledged as soon as its use was begun. As the oleomargarine could be made very much more cheaply than butter, fraud was at once inaugurated by selling the product as pure butter. The development of this trafi&c was not in response to a public demand, but the x)roduct was brought to the public under the guise of genuine butter, so that a continuous fraud was perpetrated. The enormous abuses in this traffic led to the adoi)tion of very stringent laws, on the part of many States, with ref- erence to the manufacture and sale of oleomargarine. On this account its manufacture is at present confined to eight States, there being, according to the report of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, August 10, 1895, five factories in Illinois, two in Indiana, three in Kansas City, Mo., and Kans., one in Nebraska, one in Ohio, one in Pennsylvania, and four in Rhode Island. In the year 1883, 45,000,000 pounds of oleomargarine were sold in the United States, and in spite of restrictive legislation the manufac- ture has slowly increased; in 1894, 69,622,246 pounds were manufac- tured, against 67,224,298 pounds in 1893, an increase of 2,397,948 pounds. The amount withdrawn for export for the fiscal year 1893 was 2,785,494 pounds, and for 1894, 3,406,683 pounds, showing a slight increase in the export trade, but not proportional to the increased manufacture. MATERIAL USED FOE MANUFACTURE. In the Eastern States the larger part of the oleo oil and lard used in the manufacture is purchased, while in the Western factories the materials used are prepared directly in the oleomargarine factories. To prepare oleo oil, the chief product, the selected and ground ani- mal fats, are melted in kettles at as near 150° F. as possible, and the fiber allowed to settle out. The melted fat is then run into chilling vats, where it is cooled until most of the stearin has crystallized. The mixture is then thoroughly pressed, the olein, together with a little stearin and palmitin, constituting the oleo oil, while the re- maining press cake, consisting of stearin, is used in the manufacture of soap, candles, compound lard, etc. The amount of pressure used in separating the stearin is varied at times, leaving a greater or less quantity of stearin in the oleo oil. The fat which is used especially for preparing the oleo oil is that cut from the kidneys and intestines. In the large packing houses, where the manufacture of the oleomargarine is carefully conducted, only the best selected fats are used. As a matter of fact, only clean, fresh fat can be utilized in preparing a really good product. In the BUTTER SUBSTITUTES. 447 smaller factories, however, which are devoted to the manufacture of oleomargarine alone, the oleo oil is rendered from the scraps of the abattoirs, butcher shops, and sometimes from hotel waste. These scraps necessarily include not only the fat of beeves, but of sheep, hogs, chickens, etc. — anything, in fact, which may find its way into the butcher shops. The fat scraps when brought to the factory are first carefully sorted, and washed in large vats. Pieces that have a slightly tainted odor are thrown out, to be used for the manufacture of tallow or for the soajp makers. The good i)ieces are then cut up and ground and used for the preparation of the oleo oil. The lard used for oleomargarine is usually good leaf lard. The cotton -seed oil used in the manufacture of oleomargarine is prob- ably the most healthful of all its constituents, as generally a good quality is selected. The proportions in which the oleo oil lard and cotton-seed oil are mixed vary with the season of the year and the character of the prod- ucts desired. Some manufacturers do not use cotton-seed oil. For the manufacture of butterine, butter, usuallj' of a very good grade, is churned in with the oleo and lard to secure the flavor, while the de- sired color is obtained by the addition of aunatto and turmeric. The oleomargarine proper is made without butter, and is colored to suit the requirements of the trade. The export trade seems to demand a very highly colored product; a brand of a tomato color is in high favor in the West Indies and Central America. HYGIENIC EFFECTS OP OLEOMARGARINE, The important points in connection with oleomargarine are its hygienic effects as compared with butter. First, as to its digestibil- ity. Very few careful and systematic experiments as to the actual digestibility by man of oleomargarine as compared with butter have ever been made. Mayer, a German chemist, reports two series of ex- periments conducted, one upon a man, the other upon a boy, which showed the digestibility of oleomargarine to be about 2 per cent less than that of butter. A number of prominent chemists have placed themselves on record as holding that oleomargarine, if properly and carefully made from good, fresh fat, was quite as healthy and diges- tible as butter. With the exception of the experiments reported, none of these gentlemen, liowever, had made any practical tests as to tlio digestibility of these fats, but based their opinions entirely upon theoretical considerations. Within the last few years the process of manufacture has ciianged considerably, so that tlie results as to digestibility would now differ materially from tliose of the early experiments. All the statements in regard to its use, however, are qualified Mith the proviso that these products are good if made from fresh and healtliy material. 448 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Sell, the authority on foods for the German Government, says: Apart from a somewhat less digestibility, the artificial butter prepared from the fat of healthy aniraals furnishes in general no reason to suppose that it can atfect the health injuriously. There is good ground, however, to believe that a part of the artificial butter is manufactured from fat of diseased animals, or dead animals, and often from material that will have to be deodorized. A committee of the Academy of Medicine in Paris, in 1880, after studying the subject, declared that oleomargarine was not as digesti- ble as butter, on account of the larger amount of stearin and palmi- tin, but, unfortunately, they did not give the experiments leading to these conclusions. To establish some data in this connection, A. Jolles, of Vienna, has recently conducted an experiment upon a dog, feeding the animal during two periods of eight days each with the best butter, and during two other periods of eight days each with oleomargarine, together with sugar, wheat meal, and salt. The analysis of the butter showed — Per cent. Water 10.24 Casein .63 Milk sugar .54 Salts - _ .34 Fat by difference 88.25 Total . ..- 100.00 Reichert No. 28.6. The analysis of the oleomargarine showed — Iodine No 47. 0 Melting pomt fatty acid. 42. 6^ C. Solidification point 39. 5" C. Saponification equivalent 197. 5 The butter was obtained from a Vienna dairy and very carefully made. The oleomargarine was also from a specially prepared lot made by the Vienna Margarine Company. The experiment was carefully conducted. Exact analyses of the constituents of the food used were made, the quantity consumed carefully weighed and the excreta also carefully weighed and analyzed, so as to show the quantity and char- acter of the material actually absorbed. From these data the results wei*e calculated, and the conclusion drawn that under exactly the same conditions the oleomargarine, if perfectly pure, was quite as digestible as the butter. The quality of perfect purity, however, and a sample of the same character as that used by Jolles would be difficult to ob- tain, certainly can not be found in our markets, if the samples we have examined serve for good comparison. And, it may be added, fats which are equally digestible, and which would not affect digestion in the dog, might show an important difference when taken into the BUTTEE SUBSTITUTES. 449 stomachs of people whose digestion under most favorable conditions is not satisfactory. As fat is one of the most important factors in the production of ani- mal heat, the heat of combustion of butter and oleomargarine should throw some light on their relative value. The calories of 1 gram of butter fat are about 300 less than of 1 gram of oleomargarine, showing that more heat is given by the oleomargarine. This also indicates, however, a more complex fat molecule, and probably less digestibility for the oleomargarine. There are a number of interesting cases where dissatisfaction can be traced to the use of oleomargarine. This jiroduct was furnished to the inmates of a certain blind asylum without their knowing its character. They ate less and less every day, and finally altogether refused to use it, saying that it was undesirable. This was the natu- ral rebellion on the part of the digestive organs to the use of a mix- ture of fats which was not adapted for the purpose to which it was applied. While recently engaged in an examination of samples of oleomargarine, an employee of the Bureau biochemic laboratory un- dertook to substitute a good brand of oleomargarine for butter at his meals. After a few days he claimed that this had caused indigestion, and he would not use it any longer. Without entering upon a discussion of the process of digestion in the animal body, the action of the pancreatin appears to be most im- portant in the emulsification of fats. An artificial digestion, imitating as nearly as possible the conditions obtaining in man, shows that but- ter is far better emulsified than either cotton-seed oil, oleomargarine, or suet, and consequently more rapidly digested. The undesirabil- ity of oleomargarine is proved again by the fact that in hotels, board- ing schools, and public institutions where oleomargarine and butter- ine are furnished instead of butter there is less used. POSSIBILITY OF TRANSMITTING INFECTIOUS DISEASES. The j)oint next to be considered is the possibility of the transmis- sion of infectious diseases by oleomargarine made from impure mate- rials. That such can occur is undoubtedly true. A comparison of the germs present in oleomargarine and butter showed three times as many in the one as in the other, with a difference in the character of the germs. The germs in the butter were the harmless ones found in milk and necessary for the production of a good butter. Those in the oleomargarine were fungi and numerous varieties of bacteria. The writer has made a number of inoculation experiments upon guinea pigs with different samples of oleomargarine. The samples were purchased in open market, near the places where they were manufactured. Sample No. 3 (102) proved fatal, causing the death of the animal in the one instance in two months; in the other, in two weeks. An examination showed the lungs congested, the liver soft 450 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and pale, one of the kidneys badly congested, cand five distinct ulcers in tlie intestines, like typhoid-fever ulcers. The bladder was dis- tended and urine albuminous. At the present writing the nature of this disease has not been determined, but the fatal effects were produced by the oleomargarine. Another guinea pig inoculated with a sample (No. 1) of oleo oil, taken from a lot used in the manu- facture of oleomargarine, died within three weeks, the autopsy show- ing badly congested lungs, liver dark, blood vessels congested, and the small intestines containing bloody mucus. Five months after inoculation with another sample (No. 6 i) (105) of oleomargarine the pig which had been used for the experiment was chloroformed for examination. .The animal was in fair condition, but the left lung showed incipient tuberculosis, and this disease was also apparent in the spleen, and there were several calcareous tuber- cular nodules adherent to the sternum. A preparation made from this same sample had shown the presence of a germ which could scarcely be anything but the tuberculosis bacillus. The result of the inocula- tion confirmed this diagnosis. The inoculations of all the animals were made by introducing in the side a bit of fat the size of a small pea. The incision healed rapidly, and at the time of the autopsies there was no evidence of local lesions or any effect which might have been due directly to the mechanical part of the inoculations. ^ A number of other guinea pigs have been inoculated with different samples of oleomargarine, but at this writing (after eight months) have not contracted disease from the oleomargarine inoculation. Two of the samples which caused disease in the animals were made at a factory where the material used may have been questionable in character. O ur inoculation experiments show conclusively that disease may be communicated by means of oleomargarine. The objection might be raised that disease could also be communicated in the same way by butter. It is, however, a veiy simple and easy matter to pasteurize the cream before churning, and use some of the known good butter- flavoring bacteria to develop the aroma; or it might be possible also to flavor the butter with the volatile acids and ethers which the bac- teria produce. In this way butter can be easily made which is per- fectly harmless, even supposing, what has not been proved in this country, that good butter could serve as a source of disease. The temjicrature of pasteurization is, however, unfavorable for oleo-oil manufacture. Another point often urged in favor of oleomargarine is that it will keep longer than butter without becoming rancid. Of course, tallow, 'Two other animals tliat had been inoculated with oleomargarine (No. 4 i and No. 2 III) (103 and 107) were also found dead. One showed evidences of incipient tuberculosis ; the other, digestive derangement. BUTTER SUBSTITUTES. 451 stearin, and lard will keep longer than iDutter without spoiling, but there is no object in using plain oleomargarine, as one might as well at once spread stearin and lard on the bread. Butteriue which con- tains a considerable amount of butter will become rancid almost as readily as butter. Good butter, if carefully made and well washed, will keep satisfactoril}". The statements of most authorities have been to the effect that oleo- margarine is good and digestible and healthful, provided it is made from pure material and the process is properly conducted. The legit- imate and safe manufacture of oleomargarine can be secured, there- fore, only when there is careful and safe control and inspection at the abattoirs and oleomargarine factories of both the finished product and the constituents whicli enter into its manufacture. Then, too, all the oleomargarine should be sold as oleomargarine, and should have something distinctive about its appearance — absence of color, as Mas- sachusetts demands, or a specially bright color; and every pound of it should be carefully inspected at the factories before being shipped, to see that the particular distinctive character is present. FRAUDULENT SALE OF OLEOMARGARINE. Another frequent and serious objection that can be used against oleomargarine is the fact that its sale is usually fraudulent, as the article is not sold under its true name. Recently several butter samjiles were purchased in the open market of Washington City, by a butter dealer, as the best varieties of butter that could be obtained, and submitted to this laboratory for examination. Only one of these was found to be butter. In some of the States the laws are very stringent against the fraud- ulent sale of oleomai'garine, and hea\'y penalties are provided for its evasion. In Massachusetts it is against the law to sell oleomargarine which has been colored. This lack of color renders it possible, as a rule, to distinguish between oleomargarine and butter. In Pennsyl- vania the law forbids the sale within the State of oleomargarine man- ufactured in the State, but that manufactured outside of the State can be sold within its borders. In spite of this restrictive legislation, however, the production of oleomargarine, as shown by the figures before quoted, is steadily increasing. 452 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. To show the comparative composition of oleomargarine of various sources and good butter, the following table is given : Analyses of oleomargarines, butterines, and butters (by James A. Em^ry). OLEOMARGARINES AND BUTTERINES. Serial num- ber. Water. Casein (albu- minoid). Ash. Salt. Volatile fat a«ids (No.cc. ^^ Ba(OH), to2.5gr.). Iodine «,_, num- fP« ber. ^^^ cific vity. Melt- ing point. Combus- tion (calories, per gram). Cotton-seed oil. °C. 100 101 102 103 104 105 107 108 8.09 9.68 10.96 9.32 9.40 9.86 8.52 8.53 1.46 1.43 1.66 .07 4.83 .48 1.41 1.36 4.24 4.68 6.01 4.77 5.95 4.03 2.30 6.60 4.80 6.40 6.80 4.43 5.17 0.30 .17 .25 .15 .17 .20 .65 .42 62.19 0 63.52 66.69 61.44 63.83 63.26 59.11 52.80 8916 8638 8667 8913 8848 8911 8808 8835 None. Considerable. 25.0 2.5.5 24.0 23.0 9.599 110 112 113 7.37 6.86 9.47 1.16 1.77 1.33 5.67 6.18 3.72 6.31 .35 .42 .35 63.12 58.57 66.50 8834 8914 8828 2t.5 23.5 25.0 Do. None. Considerable. 9.795 115 9.00 1.66 3.68 3.68 .30 66.59 8874 23.5 9.649 Do. 118 9.15 1.43 6.21 6.69 .22 60.53 8891 25.0 9.607 None. 119 9.25 .77 4.00 4.04 .26 53.37 8876 26.5 9.574 Do. 120 9.87 2.64 5.70 5.23 .82 58.12 8818 25.5 9.613 121 9.23 1.52 3.68 3.80 .35 61.80 8880 22.5 9.670 None. 124 9.37 1.63 5.42 5.82 .22 64.66 8898 23.5 9.615 Do. BUTTERS. 125 126 127 8.32 11.43 12.98 1.27 1.83 1.30 3.64 4.98 3.94 8.81 4.05 4.04 11.10 8.55 10.82 37.76 41.20 .8935 35.5 36.1 36.5 9.327 9.362 None. As will be seen at a glance, the melting points of the oleomarga- rines are low. The samples were purchased in the spring; some con- tained considerable cotton-seed oil, and were evidently made for the winter trade. A product intended for summer use would contain more stearin. The minute quantity of volatile acids shows the presence of only a trace of butter, or its entire absence, while the high iodine absorption shows the presence of considerable cotton-seed oil or lard. The figures in some of the samples for albuminoids show an unu- sually high percentage. This points to a contamination with animal fiber and indicates that the material used was not pure. THE MANUFACTURE AND CONSUMPTION OF CHEESE. By Henry E. Alvord, M. S., C. E., Chief of Dairy Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. GROWTH OF THE INDUSTRY. Cheese making is not a conspicuous industry in the United States, yet it is a considerable one, cheese being an important article of trade, domestic and foreign. In the early part of tlie present century, cheese was the principal product on many dairy farms in the Eastern and Middle States. It accumulated on the farms and was moved to market only once or twice a year, then creating quite a stir in certain centers of traf&c. Exports of cheese from America began more than a hundred years ago, and in the year 1800 the quantity had reached nearly a million pounds. Production and export then grew quite steadily, both increasing rapidly at times, until about fifteen j'^ears ago. The total cheese production of the country was reported for the census years of the last five decades as follows: Pounds. 1849 105,535,893 1859 103,663,927 1869 162,927,382 1879 243,157,850 1889 256,761,883 The relation of these figures is shown by the following diagi'am, where the entire surface of each rectangle represents the production of the year stated, and these surfaces compared indicate the increase from decade to decade : M'tai .1 1859 1369 m^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 1679 'mmmmmwMmwMmm. M 1669 ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^i ^^ Fia. 120.— Diagram showing increase in cheese production, 1849-1889. This diagram also shows graphically the great change in the system of making cheese, which has taken place during the last half century. The shaded portion of each rectangle represents the cheese made in factories, and the unshaded part that which was made on farms. 453 454 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Prior to 1850, practically all of the cheese of this country was made on the farms where the milk for it was produced; it was simply an article of domestic manufacture. About the j^ear 1860 the cheese factory came into vogue as an improved and economical system for cheese making. "Wherever the idea may have actually originated, it was first fixed upon the public mind and developed in the county of Oneida, New York. Once established, the advantages of the asso- ciated method became manifest, and the spread of the "American," or "factory," system was very rapid. So much so that in 1869, two- thirds of the cheese of the country was made in factories. The jjro- portion of cheese now made, on American farms is insignificant, com- pared with that made in factories. At the present time it requires the entire milk of nearly 1,000,000 cows to make the cheese annually pressed in the United States. This is based upon an annual yield of about 2,800 pounds of milk from a cow, on an average, with a rate of 10 pounds of milk to a pound of cheese. At 9 to 10 cents per pound, the average value of cheese per cow is not over $27 per annum (a little more than the value of the average cow), and the total product of the country is worth from $24,000,000 to $25,000,000. These figures are only approximately cor- rect. To the annual cheese product of the United States, 260,000,000 pounds, may be added 9,000,000 pounds of imported cheese, and 76,000,000 pounds being exported, leaves something less than 200,000,000 pounds yearly consumed by the people of this country. The rate of consumption here is therefore about 3 pounds of cheese per capita of the entire population. In some districts where the supply is abundant and of good quality, there is reason to believe that the maximum rate of cheese consumption for well-to-do com- munities is 7 to 9 pounds per annum, or about 40 pounds for the family of average size. Kine-tenths of the cheese produced in this countr}- is made in the States of New York, Wisconsin, Ohio, Illinois, Vermont, Iowa, Penn- sylvania, and Michigan. These rank as to production in the order named, and no other State produces over 5,000,000 pounds a year. The last four States named produce 5,000,000 to 6,000,000 pounds each, and the others from 10,000,000, for Illinois, up to 124,000,000, for New York. The New York product alone is almost one-half, and this State and Wisconsin together make over two-thirds, of the total of the country. There have been a good many changes in relative production in recent years, Ohio, Illinois, and Pennsylvania having decreased their annual cheese product from one-third to one-half since the census of 1880. For a long time New York State cheese held first place in reputa- tion and market prices, but Wisconsin rose to an equal position in 1878, and maintained it, excepting for a few years, when the manu- facture of imitation or lard cliee.se in this State was so largely carried THE MANUFACTURE AND CONSUMPTION OF CHEESE. 455 on as to greatly injure this reputation. State law having prohibited this industry, Wisconsin factory cheese is now regaining its former standing. These two States have such a preponderating influence that they give character to the entire cheese output of the country. MANUFACTURE AND COMPOSITION OF CHEESE. In America cheese is made of different sizes and shapes, and is of numerous kinds. A number of the varieties commonly associated by name with foreign countries are imitated with more or less success. The great bulk of the American output, however, is of the familiar round form, 14 to 16 inclics in diameter and from 4 to 12 inches thick, ranging in weight from 30 to 80 pounds, with an average of about 60 pounds, and of the same texture and appearance throughout. This form takes the name of Cheddar, from a parish of that name in Som- erset County, England, long famous for producing cheese of the same general character and style, and made in substantially the same way. Clieese may be made from sweet or sour milk. The milk may be in its natural condition or skimmed fully or in part, or it may be enriched by the addition of cream in excess of that belonging to it. The dif- ferent varieties of cheese depend upon the character and condition of the milk used, upon seasoning, upon peculiarities in the different proc- esses of manufacture, and especiall}'' upon the conditions and treat- ment incident to the curing or ripening. The first step in cheese making is to bring the milk into the form of curd. This may be done by allowing it to sour in a natural way. But in most cases cheese is made from sweet milk and curdled with rennet, a ferment obtained principally from the stomachs of calves. If the curdling or coagulation takes place before cream has separated, nearly a,ll the fat of the milk and some of the milk sugar is held in the curd. About two-thirds of the water of the milk, the greater part of its sugar, a considerable part of the ash, and the small quantity of albumen present form whey, which is the only refuse produced in cheese making. Some milk fat may also escape in the whey, but this depends upon the skill of the maker. The component parts of cheese, as well as of milk, are Avater, casein, fat, sugar, and ash or mineral matter. These parts differ much in proportion in the various kinds of cheese. Numerous anal- yses made, principallj'^ by English chemists, give the average compo- sition of several well-known varieties of cheese as stated in the table following. The composition of milk is included for the purpose of comparison. It is thus seen that cheese contains practically all of the casein of the milk from which it is made; .and it is shown that good cheese may be roughly stated to be one-third water, one-third fat, and one-third casein, sugar, and ash (together). It is therefore a strong nitroge- nous or flesh-forming food, and as a food too concentrated to be eaten by itself in quantity. 456 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Composition of varieties of cheese. Variety. "Water. Casein. Fat. Milk sugar. Per cent. Percent. Percent. 3.40 4.00 4.90 25.35 30.25 1.43 27.61 31.03 2.00 28.85 35.39 1.59 24.06 30.26 4.50 14.60 33.70 4.24 27.63 33.16 2.00 25.87 29.91 5.51 41.99 19.22 1.20 Ash. Milk American full cream— Cheddar English Cheddar Stilton Edam Neufchatel Roquefort , Gruyfire Parmesan Per cent. 87.00 38.00 35.41 30.35 36.28 44.47 31.20 34.87 31.34 Percent. 0.70 4.97 8.95 3.82 4.90 S.99 6.01 3.84 6.25 As an article to be included and liberally used in a regular diet, cheese has been found to be very wholesome and very economical. It is worthy of note that statistics of the diet of public institutions show that in those which are in charge of physicians, like asylums and hospitals, the consumption of cheese per capita is large. In many cases the rate is twice as much as in other institutions and with people in general. This is an emphatic and practical testimonial to the value of cheese as food on the part of numerous members of the medical profession. INCREASING THE CONSUMPTION OF CHEESE. The value of cheese as an article of food has long been recognized, and it deserves a much more prominent place among household sup- plies in this country than it has ever received. It has been said that "Americans taste cheese, while Europeans eat it." In Great Britain and most of the countries of Europe cheese is one of the chief articles of diet, replacing butchers' meats to a considerable extent with large classes of the ]3eople. This substitution is found to be very econom- ical and satisfactory to the consumers. In these foreign countries the consumption of cheese per capita is several times as large as in the United States. This low rate of cheese consumption in this country can be explained in part, undoubtedly, by the general supply of meats at compara- tively low prices, and the fact that it has not been regarded as neces- sary to select foods so that every dollar expended would purchase the greatest possible amount of nutritive material. Information con- cerning the relative value of various articles of food has not been general. The subject of human nutrition has received much atten- tion within the last few years, however; facts are rapidly accumu- lating and are being widely diffused. This movement is very certain to lead to a better recognition of the food value of cheese and its comparative cheapness, and to a consequent increase in its use. It seems clear that a taste for cheese has never been generally acquired in this country. In those families where it is liked, it is THE MANUFACTURE AND CONSUMPTION OF CHEESE. 457 ordinarily used in small quantity as a side dish or relish, and at usual retail prices it is regarded as expensive. Further, when a pound or two is cut from a cheese of the common form and size, a very large cut surface is exposed to the air, and, as it is seldom that special attention is given to keeping it fresh and moist, the piece of cheese soon dries out, loses flavor, hardens, and becomes unpalatable. Again, if one forms a fondness for a particular consistency, stage of ripe- ness, and flavor in cheese, it is often found difficult to get just the article desired when more is wanted. There are other minor reasons connected with the retail trade in cheese, as commonly conducted, and with the way in which the article is treated in the household, which tend to dissatisfaction on the part of the seller and buyer, and prevent increase in the traffic and in consumption. It is useless to argue that when compared ^vith meat and many other articles as to actual food value, cheese is rarely retailed at excessive rates. It still remains a fact that the retail price of cheese is usually considerably more than is justified by the wholesale price when com- pared with articles which can be similarly transported and have simi- lar keeping qualities. There seems to be no good reason why cheese which sells at wholesale at 8 to 10 cents per pound should be retailed at 15 to 17 cents, and often at 20. The usual margin between the wholesale and retail price of cheese is far too great, and j^et the net profits of the retail dealer are not unreasonable. When kept by the general grocer, he will insist that there is very little profit in cheese, and proves his claim by showing no inclination to specially increase his sales of the article. When a large cheese is cut, sales must be active to prevent drjdng and other deterioration which results in loss. Altogether, prevailing conditions do not favor an increasing retail trade in cheese of regulation form, conducted in the ordinary way. Manufacturers and merchants should unite in efforts to ' ' tickle the palate " of the consumer, and increase the sale and use of clieese. A very few pounds more consumed by every family every year would give a wonderful impetus to the business, and be a boon to dairy interests in general. There are advantages in the manufacture and transportation of large-sized cheeses, and they are well suited to the export trade as it now exists, or to what there is left of it; but a cheese of 40 pounds and over is not well adapted to the greater part of the retail trade. The ideal cheese for retailer and consumer is one ranging from 4 to 12 or possibly 15 pounds in weight, which is suit- able for family use, to be sold uncut. Difficulties have been encoun- tered in making small cheeses of the standard type which would keep well. When the exterior surface bears too large a proportion to the bulk, they dry out easily. These objections have been gradually overcome, however, and as good a cheese, of as good keeping quality, can now be made of 15 pounds' weight as of 00 pounds. Small sizes encourage customers to buy, if the quality is maintained, and they 458 YEAEBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. can be used up in the family while still good. Retailers delight in a cheese that can be sold " in the original package," and can well afford to reduce the price in such cases. But now, as for j'ears past, these small cheeses of domestic manufacture are so scarce in the markets as to command a premium, and actually sell for more than those of standard size, although the loss to the retailer from handling is less. This is not because of higher quality, but because they are "so handj^" The "Young America," of 7 to 12 pounds, should be mul- tiplied till all can have them. Cheese of the standard American factory, or Cheddar, character, but smaller in size, should be more generally introduced. Even if made so large as to necessitate cutting, the size can well be reduced to from 15 to 25 pounds to the great advantage of a large part of the retail trade. This is shown by the popularity of the "Ponys," "Picnics," "Little Favorites," and others of this character. Such cheeses can be disposed of whole, or sold off quickly after being cut, avoiding the common loss. Several instances might be mentioned of factories which have for years made a specialty of cheese of the standard kind, but of small sizes, and which have secured special prices by the operation. It seems strange that these examples are not followed until in all our American markets small cheeses, in sizes to suit the wants of purchasers, are as common as assorted sizes of shoes. This being done, merchants will be found ready to retail cheese at an advance of 15 or 20 per cent upon the wholesale price. There can be little doubt that good, full-cream fac- tory cheese, retailing at 12 or 13 cents, in packages of convenient size, would result in a very material increase in the aggregate con- sumption of this article. Sufjerior quality is, of course, an absolute necessity. Our people, as a rule, are more particular about the quality of what they buy for their tables than about the price. For activity in trade and increased use of cheese in this country, the makers must be skilled and care- ful, and must produce straight, honest goods, of whole milk of good quality, giving a cheese uniform in character and up to the standard which has been found attainable in our best cheese-making sections for many years. The Southern States have always been large buyers of cheese. There have lately come from that section numerous com- plaints of losses sustained by merchants and consumers by having large lots of adulterated or "filled" cheese palmed off upon unsus- pecting buyers. These goods are put up attractively, in various sizes, are bright in appearance, and the quality when fresh is such that it is very difficult to detect them. Being offered at a few cents below the ruling market price for standard goods, they present to retailers the temptation of large profits. But they soon deteriorate, and dealers and consumers, who have paid from 12 to IG cents, or more, for the stuff, become disgusted and, being unable to protect themselves against like imposition again, decide not to risk further loss of money THE MANUFACTURE AND CONSUMPTION OF CHEESE. 459 on such food, and discontinue the purchase of cheese. A marked decrease in consumption has resulted, and merchants at the principal distributing points note a decided falling off in orders from the South. This adulterated cheese, in which the natural fat of milk is replaced by some cheaper fat, usually lard, is often fraudulently branded "New York State Full Cream," ' ' Herkimer County Fancy," or "Extra Wisconsin Factory." The deception is sometimes but slightly veiled by a "Beaver State" brand, to take the place of "Badger State," the stencil trade-mark representing something which may be a hybrid of these two animals. Vigorous measures are necessary to put a stop to the disastrous effects of these frauds upon home consumption and domestic trade. For the present, the only safe plan is for merchants to buy only such cheese as is plainly branded in accordance with State laws. Every full-cream cheese from New York and Wisconsin is, or should be, branded as such with an official stencil on the cheese itself, includ- ing the number of the factory, which is registered, so that every cheese can be traced to the place where made. In both those States the manufacture and sale of adulterated or ' ' imitation " cheese is pro- hibited. In Ohio, Minnesota, and Colorado there are similar laws for branding. If consumers would insist upon seeing the marks upon the cheese they buy, and the boxes they come in, and buy only of reputable merchants, and if the latter would take the same precau- tions, good cheese could be secured with great certainty. If a case of substitution of counterfeit goods occurred, it could, upon detection, be traced back to the party responsible for the fraud, and damages could probably be recovered. Variety is another very important consideration. By variation in the general cheese-making process, milk can be converted into forms differing greatly in appearance, general character and flavor — and smell also. Cheese can be made to suit all tastes, at least all cheese tastes. Merchants and manufacturers in this country do not avail themselves as they should of the opportunities in this direction. It is true that a considerable number of different varieties of cheese are imported from foreign countries, but in very inconsiderable quantity. Several of the favorite imported varieties are now imitated in this coun- try, with varying success, but not in large quantity. The great mass of American cheese is of a single type. If it be assumed that all of the 9,000,000 pounds of cheese which constitute our average annual importation is in the form of foreign varieties, and that half as much more, of similar kinds, is made in the United States, this would con- stitute but 0 per cent of the yearly cheese supply of the country. Yet variety in forms and kinds of cheese is happily on the increase in America. For more than fifty years the small, somewhat dry and hard-rinded cheese in the favorite pineapple form lias been success- fully made in Connecticut and other places, as well as imported from 460 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. England. Another variation from the ordinary' style, even older than this, is made by an admixture of the leaves of sage. The bright red, spherical Edam, from Holland, is a dry and hard- shelled kind, which is very popular on account of its flavor, and also because of its convenient family size. This variety is made well in Wisconsin. The big cart-wheel Gruyere, with its sallow complexion and peculiar gas holes, is also imitated in Wisconsin, but not so suc- cessfully. The genuine must be a general favorite, for fully half of all our cheese imports are from Switzerland, nearly all being this "schweitzer-kase." This kind of cheese is also to be found in the more convenient form of large bars, weighing about 20 pounds each. Two varieties which may be called especially aristocratic are the rich English Stilton and the French Roquefort, with its characteristic blue mold. These are quite expensive and all imported, although efforts have been lately made to produce "American Stiltons." Some years ago a factory in Maine, which handled only milk from Jersey cows, turned out a cheese at certain seasons which good judges pronounced to be equal to a genuine Stilton. The Parmesan is brought from Italy in large quantities, forming nearly one-fourth of our cheese imports. Our people are not likely to imitate that variety very soon if it should require here, as in its native land, at least three years in the curing. Limburger comes from the Netherlands, standing next to the Parme- san in quantity imported. A very good article under this name is made in numerous places in this country, and a form of lard-cheese substitute is also largely sold in the West. Sapsago, or, more cor- rectly, Schabzieger, is imported to a limited extent. The rich, soft, highly odorous cheeses, in flat, round, and brick forms, from France and Italy, like the Brie and DTsigny, are well made in New York and Pennsylvania, and also imported. The delicate little Camemberts, soft, white, with blue penciling, and sometimes reddish on the out- side, are nearly all imported. The much plainer form of curd, fresh made and sold cheaply in nearly all our markets, in little cylinders wrapped in tin foil, under the name of Neufchatel, has been made in large and steadily increasing quantities for flf teen years or more in New York and Pennsylvania. The same localities place in market a soft, fresh curd, much enriched, which is called cream cheese. This by no means exhausts the list of varieties which can now be found in all good markets in this country, although most of the favor- ites have been named. The standard American Factory, or Cheddar, cheese also appears in several more or less disguised and fancy forms, some quite attractive. The Canadian and American "Clubhouse" cheese, "Meadow Sweet," "Saratoga," and "Delicatesse," sold in 1 and 2 pound jars and in smaller packages neatly prepared, are simply good selections of common factory make, taken at a stage of ripeness, mild or strong, to suit the taste, then worked over, pressed into suitable packages, and sufficiently enriched to make a uniform THE MANUFACTURE AND CONSUMPTION OF CHEESE. 461 smoothness. Flavor is increased in some instances by adding a little wine or brandy. "Cheese Food" is also standard cheese into which has been incorporated the natural whey reduced to a sirup; this gives a sweet taste to the cheese, which some like, and restores the original equilibrium of the milk components. All of these rich and fancy forms of cheese must be recognized as relishes, to be used in small quantity, rather than as a substitute for other food. Variety in form and flavor should be encouraged as likely to please a greater variety of tastes and increase its consumption. Dealers and consumers should cooperate in extending the trade in * ' fancy " cheese. Dealers can create a demand by increased variety and displa3^ If buyers would take a little trouble to properly care for the cheese they purchase, it would keep better, there would be little loss, and housekeepers would be encouraged to use more. Retail merchants would do well to distribute simple directions to this end. Nearly aU kinds of cheese while awaiting use in the household should be kept in a special vessel from which the air is excluded. A stone jar with a tight-fitting cover is a suitable receptacle. This should be placed in a storeroom or dry cellar where the temperature is constant at 50° to 60° F. The air must not be so free from moisture as to dry out and harden the cheese, nor so damp as to promote the growth of mold. Trial will easily determine a suitable place to keep the jar, which should be thoroughly scalded and well aired after being emptied of one lot of cheese before another is put in. This should never be for- gotten. There are some molds, or germs of ferment and decomposi- tion, susceptible of growth in such a vessel if too long neglected, which might prove dangerous. In case a large cheese is bought for family use, instead of cutting off a little at a time, constantly lea\ing consid- erable surfaces to dry, enough should be removed to last two or three days, and the entire surface of the remainder should be rubbed with some heavy oil. A mixture of beeswax and salad oil, worked to the consistency of soft butter, has been recommended for this purpose. Epicures advise cutting cheeses like the Stilton and Young America across one end of the cj^linder and keeping them with the cut surface downward in a soup plate filled with old ale. An Edam may be sim- ilarly cut and preserved. Cheeses of the shapes last mentioned may be cut directly in two, and then used from the cut surfaces, leaving these smooth, so they will fit closely together; the air may thus be largely excluded and rapid drying prevented. If cheese in large pieces or fragments becomes dry and hard, it should not be rejected, but used for cooking purposes, either grated or melted. For such purposes none is better than the common American factory cheese. EXPORT TRADE IN CHEESE. Important as are the home markets and increase in domestic con- sumption to the cheese interests of the United States, the foreign markets, and especially the British market, are even more so. Within 462 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. twenty years, more than lialf the season's cheese product of this country has been taken to meet foreign demands. Recently this export trade has fallen off to less than one-fourth of the total output. This is a very serious matter, requiring examination and explanation. From the beginning of the century, exports of cheese from this country increased, year after year, with no fluctuation of consequence, until the maximum of 148,000,000 pounds was reached in 1881. Great Britain took nearly all of these exports, and, as the trade gi*ew, branches of large Liverpool houses dealing in cheese were established in New York. At one time there were forty foreign cheese buyers located in that city. During this period of increasing trade the quality of the goods steadily improved, until cheese from "the States" stood at the head in English markets for imported products. From 1870 until 1882 the export price of our cheese at New York averaged about 12 cents per pound. Canada was also a very good customer for the cheese made by her southern neighbors. Comparatively little cheese was made in Canada, and under the freedom from commercial restrictions Vvliich prevailed for ten years prior to 1865 the United States found a good market for 500,000 to 2,000,000 pounds of cheese per year north of the St. Lawrence and the Lakes. The past fifteen years have brought great changes in these condi- tions and relations, all detrimental to the cheese interests of the United States. The Canada market (for consumption) has been en- tirely lost, and exports to Great Britain have decreased to little more than one-third of the high- water mark. English buyers residing in New York have almost disappeared. Accompanying this loss of trade has been a disproportionate reduction in prices, owing to a lowering of quality and consequent loss of reputation. Meanwhile, Canada appears to have gained what the United States has lost. Her cheese exports, which amounted to nothing prior to 1865, have grown continuously, until they greatly exceed those of this country, and Canadian cheese now sells in the London market at a higher price than that from the United States. One effect of this condition has been to cause more than 10,000,000 pounds of cheese per year to be shipped across the border, particularly from Wisconsin and New York, to be reexported from Canada under cover of the superior reputation of Canadian cheese. This is humiliating. In a brief dis- cussion of this subject in the current Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture of the United States (p. 29 of this volume) this state- ment is made: Daring the first eight months of last year (1894), Canada and the United States stood side by side in supplying the English market with cheese; but, whereas Can- ada has this year not only held her own but made a slight gain, shipments from the United States have fallen oflE 117,000 hundredweight, an amount about corre- sponding to the increased shipments of Australasia and Canada, and to the fall- ing off in the total imports into Great Britain. In fact, every country shipping cheese to Great Britain has this year enlarged its trade with that country except the United States, which has lost over 21 per cent of its last year's business. THE MANUFACTURE AND CONSUMPTION OP CHEESE. 463 The statistics wliich show this deplorable condition of affairs are given in the table below, and the same facts are i)fesentcd in graphic form by the diagram which follows. Temporary variations in mar- kets make it often misleading to compare the figures for single years, and therefore averages are also used for several consecutive five-year periods. Exjwrts of cheese from the United States and Canada for single years and yearly averages for five-year periods. Periods. United states. Canada. Periods. United States. Canada. 1850 Pounds. 10,381,189 13,513,799 as, 081, 855 47,423,603 90,688,546 113,606,609 Poundt. 17,100 134,320 473,550 3,750,224 20,114,561 40,676,856 1881-1883 Pounds. 118,813,685 88,303,513 75,977,115 81,350,923 73,852,134 60,448,421 Pounds. 61, 502, 949 1860 1886-1890 83,737,133 1861-1865 1891-1895 131,679,207 1866-1870 1893 .... 133, 946, 365 1871-1875 1894 134,977,480 1876-1880 1895 146.004,650 VNITED STATES. CANADA. AVERAGE. AVERA6C f86/-65 — ' iaev-6S f 866 '70 1871 -75 1876-60 l68t-65 1886-90 Jf $66-70 tars-ad f8et-6S^ .t6B6-9ff — . test -95 1893 J89t'9S 1893 t694 J895' J834 t835 , Pio. 12L— Diagram showing exports of cheese from the United States and Canada. 464 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The figures in the table do not include the cheese received in Canada from the United States and reexported. The growth of the Canada cheese trade, almost exclusively with Great Britain, is enor- mous. Since 1860, the increase in quantity is a thousandfold. Then Canada exjjorted less than one-hundredth part of the quantity sent from the United States. Now the cheese export of the former is more than double that of the latter in quantity and nearly 10 per cent greater in value per pound. Another quotation from the report of the Secretary of Agriculture is applicable here : No one can peruse the above facts and figures without arriving at the conclu- sion that unless our shippers of cheese pursue a very different course, the history of our foreign trade in that product will speedily fall, in the face of active, intel- ligent, and honest competition from all parts of the world, to the level now occupied by American butter. We have here a graphic illustration of the disas- trous effects in all trade of disregarding the tastes of consumers and of acquiring a bad reputation. Chief among the causes of the unfortunate condition of the foreign cheese trade of the United States are these : (1) Restrictions placed upon the freedom of trade between the United States and Canada; (2) the energy and success of the Canadian Government in develop- ing and improving the production of cheese in the Dominion; (3) the short-sighted policy of cheese makers in the United States in turning out so many poor goods and ignoring the tastes and demands of for- eign customers; (4) the exportation of so much low-grade cheese, or "skims," and of adulterated goods or " filled cheese" in defiance of the requirements of British markets and the consequent degradation of a well-earned reputation. These leading causes of existing con- ditions may be briefly reviewed. STATISTICS OF DAIRY INTERESTS OF CANADA. During the first six decades of the present century the dairy inter- ests of Canada were undeveloped, production amounted to little, and exports were insignificant, only reaching 100,000 j)ounds of cheese in 1860. Under the operation of the reciprocity treaty of 1854, the United States supplied Canada for ten or twelve years with a large part of the cheese consumed, amounting to some millions of pounds a year, as already stated. Canada was one of our good markets for cheese. The interruption of those advantageous trade relations closed those markets to us and gave a great incentive to dairying in Canada. This was the beginning of the rivalry in foreign trade on the part of Canada which is now causing the cheese interests of this country so much trouble. In a report of the Montreal Board of Trade, dated April 9, 1868, occurs this passage: The repeal of the treaty has stimulated the erection of cheese factories, which are shutting out the products of foreign dairies from the Canadian market and enabling the dairymen of Canada to compete successfully with their American neighbors in sending supplies to the British market. THE MANUFACTURE AND CONSUMPTION OF CHEESE. 465 In 1865 there were less than a dozen cheese factories in all Canada. During the year 1866, 60 factories were opened, and the number trebled in two years. In 1871 the number reported was 353, in 1881 it was 709, and in 1891, the latest report, 1,565 factories were in operation. For fifteen or twenty j'ears the Canadian Government has made stren- uous efforts to develop the dairy interests; grants have been made to associations of dairymen, institutes and local schools have been sup- ported, and an executive department of the Dominion established, with branches in the different Provinces, under which dairy literature is widely distributed and skilled instructors sent from factory to factory teaching the most approved methods of making cheese. One result is seen in the great increase in cheese production — 23,000,000 pounds in 1871, 61,000,000 in 1881, 109,000,000 in 1891, and now, by estimate, 160,000,000 pounds a j^ear — and quality accompanies quan- tity. Canada prohibits by law the manufacture of skim cheese and of filled cheese, and there are no indications of effort on the part of makers or merchants to evade or violate these laws. Government and people have united in the improvement of processes and products, and in studying the tastes of their customers and satisfying them. The result has been to establish a reputation which places Canadian cheese at the head of the foreign markets. The very best cheese from the United States now sells more readily in London if bearing a Cana- dian brand than under the names which, but a few years ago, were accepted as a guarantee of all that was honest and best in cheese. From this plain statement of facts, dairymen, cheese makers, trades- men, and exporters in the United States may find useful material for burnishing a sadly tarnished reputation, a matter which needs imme- diate attention. THE MANUFACTURE OF SKIM CHEESE IN AMERICA. It is impossible to determine exactly how and when some American factories, organized and established with the sole idea of making whole-milk cheese, began to manufacture skim cheese, and to add butter making to their other work. It seems, however, to have re- sulted gradually, from a combination of natural and economic causes, beginning very soon after the factories became numerous. Thus, late in the season, when milk diminished in quantity, grew richer, and kept longer, patrons at a distance from a factory would deliver only every other day, and the cream having separated on the earlier messes, ihGy would remove it, to make butter for home use, and so send to the factory milk with but a half or a third of its cream; yet the factory cheese made from this milk would be apparently equal in quality to the average of the season. Again, factories receiving a part of their milk in the evening, and failing to prevent a separation at night, would try removing and churning the cream of tliat part, and still make good cheese. There were good cheese makers who noticed a 4 A 95 17 466 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. laiTge percentage of butter in the wliey, and they claimed that this might be saved by taking more or less cream from the milk for butter, before making into cheese, and without detriment to the latter prod- uct. Frugal factory managers, too, discovered that they could turn out as many or more pounds of both butter and cheese, from a given quantity of milk, as of cheese alone, and could sell the double product for more than the single one. Facts like these, and the results of such experiments, were soon heard in meetings of dairymen, and became arguments for more or less skimming. Prof. X. A. Willard, of Little Falls, N. Y., the most active and prominent exponent of American cheese-factory practice in the early years of the system, favored skimming within bounds. Prof. L. B. Arnold, of Rochester, was the closest student of the dairj^ and of improvements in cheese making of his time. He did not believe that the usual loss of butter fat in the whey was necessary. He regarded no natural milk too rich for good cheese, and he did not directly advocate skimming. In an article on American dairying, the present writer said, when referring to this subject, in 1880: With such teachers and teaching, and with the balance sheets of .factories adopting this advice showing better returns than those adhering to their whole- milk principles, it is not surprising that skimming became common ; factories produced more or less butter, and changed their plans accordingly. From the outset, however, there were stout opponents to all skimming in connection with cheese manufacture, conspicuous among them being makers whose "marks " had won a high reputation, and merchants who prided themselves on keeping a high standard in the markets. The American Dairj^men's Association, after long consideration and full discussion of the subject, adopted ringing resolutions declaring against all skimming and in favor of maintaining the full-cream standard for American cheese. But selfish motives have caused skimming to continue, and there has been little serious effort to stop the practice. For years the mar- kets have been accustomed to skim cheese, to half skims, and to cheese resulting from skimming in all degrees. The State of Ohio has recognized the practice in law and attempted to grade the prod- ucts. This cheese has found its place in the home trade and has entered into our exports. There is just about the same proportion of skims and part skims in the market the present year that there has been in years past. Two very unfortunate features are associated with American skim cheese: First, unlike the ripe and finely flavored Parmesan, our skims are mostly flat in flavor, hard and horny, so much so as to be familiarly known as ''white oak" cheese; second, the better class of part skims have been unscrupulously sold while at their best for the genuine full-cream article. The general reputation of American cheese at home and abroad has necessarily suffered in consequence. THE MANUFACTURE AND CONSUMPTION OF CHEESE. 467 It can not be denied that skim cheese is a legitimate food product, and if well made it is highly nutritious. There may alwaj's be room for more or less of it in the market, but it should always be plainly marked, sold for exactly what it is, and at prices suited to its kind. OLEOMARGARINE CHEESE. "Filled cheese," which is regarded as having so injuriously affected the cheese interests of this country within very recent years, and especially our foreign trade, is by no means a new article, although this is a comparatively new name. Very soon after oleomargarine began to disturb the makers, merchants, and consumers of butter in America, oleo oil came into use in the manufacture of cheese. Com- bining this oil with skimmed milk, as an emulsion, it was found that an article could be made having, when fresh, the appearance of a good, rich cheese. Patents were issued upon the process and mixing machinery about the year 1871, and the making of "oleomargarine cheese " was begun at Ridge Mills, near Rome, N. Y. One of the oldest and most reiDutable dairy-apparatus establishments in the countrj'- secured control of the special machinery required, advertised it extensively, and a good many factories were fitted up to produce the new cheese. The same firm still controls the patents. In writing upon the subject in 1881, Prof. J. P. Sheldon, one of the first dairy authorities of England, exiDressed these views: There lias been ranch discnssion and controversy on the other side of the Atlan- tic as to the merits of oleomargarine cheese. It has its friends and its enemies. It has been vigorously attacked and vigorously defended, and now awaits the deci- sion of that final court of appeals in such cases, piiblic opinion. Controversy seems to bo useless. This kind of cheese appears to be a perfectly wholesome article of food, and, so long as it is honestly made and as honestly sold, it is a legitimate addition to our food supply that may justly claim to stand or fall on its merits ; but if it comes to be palmed off on the public as pure-milk (full-cream) cheese, it at once forfeits its claim to be treated with fair play. The forfeiture thus suggested has certainly been made. As already stated, this oleo cheese, lard cheese, or filled cheese, comes into mar- ket under every name except its own. Its true character and proper designation are recognized only while in the hands of the manufac- turers' agents, and when it moves from the principal distributing point the various brands upon it give ample evidence of the intent to deceive and defraud. The appeal to public opinion has been made, and the response is emphatic. Reputable merchants and exporters generally refuse to handle the article. New York and Wisconsin absolutely prohibit its manufacture and sale. Other States have fol- lowem\^ 22 ^ Q 11'""""""""'""^ ^ i ^\lli^/i')JllUUUl|| ,? I Sffir f^^ I/: itMlrtWm^ m s |i l./* lb i V 0 li.luilMli,.njy,iiHMIH.|iailll.f 1/ a a Fig, 133.— Irrigation by basins. the water flows from notches c c in the main ditch, and is let into the square basins formed by the system of embankments through notches at the points marked by the curved arrows. The water is made to flow through these notches by means of a shovelful or two of earth thrown into the ditch in the form of a dam. The irregular-shaped dots in the center of the basins represent the orchard trees. This method is used when large quantities of water are to be put upon lands, sometimes to the depth of 4 or 5 feet, as in upper Egypt, where the clear water of the Nile, on its first rise, is used to dissolve out of the surface soil the salts which accumulate between the crop- ping .seasons. The surcharged waters are turned out of the basins into the river, and then the basins are filled with the muddy waters of the high flood, the slimy deposit from wliich furni.shes fertility to the crops. Each of the basins so used incloses thousands of acres. 484 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Irrigation by ditches. — Fig. 124 shows a modification of the basin plan, as applied to ground with considerable slope and consisting of hill- side land, wherein / m is the main ditch on the highest side of the field, of which h c d e mark the boundaries. Its surface slopes in the direction of the arrows; o o and q q are "check levees," or slight em- bankments, built on level lines around the curved surfaces of the field. A supply ditch, i j, leads the water into the "checks" or basins h c, o 0, and q q, etc., and t wlisa waste ditch for discharging the sur- plus water from the checks when no longer Fig. 1^. -Irrigation by checks. needed. The " check levees," o o, q q, are usually constructed so as to be about 6 to 12 inches high, and sometimes higher. Fig. 125 shows the second method of spreading the water over a hill- side field, in which, as in tig. 124, /m is the main ditch and the slope of the hill as shown by the ar- rows ; t o, r p, and s q are small ditches or plow fur- rows cut on a level line around the face of the hill. The water is let into the field bj' the short ditch at i, and is then spread over the space 6 c ^ o by means of a marginal ditch y z, from which it is made to flow in small streams and in a regular manner over the space between it and the lower ditch ^ o. This is done by men wearing rub- — ^^"'"" ber boots and furnished with shovels as in the first method. The surplus water runs down to the ditch t o, and is caught by it and held until it is full and the water Fio \f^, 135.— Irrigation by furrows. CLIMATE, SOIL, IRRIGATION METHODS OF CALIFORNIA. 485 runs over, which it will do all along t o, as it is level from end to end. It is now the work of the irrigationist to cause it to spill evenly across the space to r p, covering every part of it as in the case of flooding first described. This operation must be done by causing the water to flow very slowlj' from one spreading ditch to the other over the whole field, and the supply at i must be shut off before the flow- ing water has quite reached the lower side of the field e d. If this is not done at the right time, the loss by wastage may be very great. ,^ At e and d in K^M- the figure are ^%1'epresented two waste ditches, where- by the sur- _ plus water '^ ^'yW^ may be discharged from the field. Fig. 126 is a sectional view of the or chard shown in PI. VI. This section is taken on a line drawn from the house to the wagon seen in the illustration. It will be observed that the trees stand between embankments, the object of which is to hold water applied in irrigating them until it soaks into the soil about their roots. This is the only method by which sufficient quantities of water can be applied to steep sidehills long enough to accomplish the purposes of irrigation. The plan is the same as that shown in fig. 124. Fig. 127 is a section of the hillside also shown in the same plate, £ beginning at the left side of the picture and running down to ^y /\ the wagon, and shows the method of irrigating steep slopes by terraces. The water is brought to the high- est part of the hillside to which it is to be applied; the sidehill being cut into a regu- PiG. 126.— Irrigation by means of check levees for orchards on sloping hillsides (sectional view). lar system of level terraces, each bench having a small ditch at the foot of the slope on the inside, and a slight embankment on the outside of it. The ditch catches the water as it comes trick- ling slowly down the steep slope above it and causes it to spread evenly over the level bench, and the little ridge on the outside of this bench holds the water back for a time until it has sufficiently soaked into the soil. Care must be taken not to allow the water to cut channels on its way down over the steep slopes of this system. Irrigation by furroius. — The fourth method, by furrows, is used largely in the irrigation of orchards, and is applicable to all crops planted in rows. The furrows are usually made with a plow; there are some contrivances by which several furrows can be made at once. Fio. 127.— Irrigation by means of terraces on Bteop hillsides (sectional view). 486 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. For orchards it is usual to make the furrows 2^ feet apart from center to center and to make the system cover all the space between the rows of trees, going one way through the orchard to within 2^ feet of the trees on either side of the space furrowed. In case of other cro^js and gardens, the number of furrows and their distance apart will be governed by the distance between the rows of plants. This is the most simple and economical method in the use of water for irrigating purposes, and is the one to use in all cases in which the water supply is small. The furrows are filled with water from end to end. That this may be done, they must be level through- out their extent. When the supply given them has been absorbed by the soil, another can be given them, and so on until the proper quantity has been furnished. In all these methods the field irrigated should have a border em- bankment thrown up all around it on its boundary line, to prevent the water from escaping to the lands adjacent, in which case it might cause serious damage. Then, too, there should always be provided an escape ditch through which the surplusage can be carried off to a stream or waste canal. (See PI. VII.) It is usual among irrigationists to use the term ' ' irrigating head " when speaking of the quantity of water to be handled in irrigating a given field. It is found in practice that the smallest quantity of water that can be made to flow far enough to be useful is one-half a cubic foot a second. This quantity is chiefly applied to the irrigation of gardens and very small fields. For field irrigation the quantity for one man to ''handle" varies from 1^ to 6 cubic feet a second, which quantities would be called one and four irrigating heads, respectively. The average of the usage in this regard is about 1^ cubic feet, or one irrigating head, a second. After the water has been applied in any case, and the soil has come into condition to permit of it, a care- ful and thorough cultivation of the surface must be given. In the case of most soils this is imperative, in order to lire vent "baking," that is, a hardening and drying by the sun's heat; also to prevent undue evaporation, which a finely pulverized condition of the sur- face holds well in check. Such cultivation also keeps the ground clear of weeds, which otherwise grow rapidly on irrigated lands. Yeaibook U, S. Dept. of Agriculture. 1895. Plate VI. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 189S Plate VII. COOPERATIVE ROAD CONSTRUCTION. By Roy Stone, Sjiecial Agent and Engineer, U. S. Department of Agriculture. COMMUNITY OF INTEREST IN ROAD CONSTRUCTION. Current thought and feeling in the United States regarding the improvement of highway's is setting steadily toward a recognition of the common interest of all classes of citizens, wherever located, and of all cajjital, however invested, in good roads. The constantly increasing use of country roads by city people, or for their benefit, develops and demonstrates this community of inter- est on the part of the citizen. The common interest of all capital in the subject is well expressed by the following utterance of the Chamber of Commerce of the State of Xew York: The movement for good roads deeply concerns every commercial and financial interest in the land. We are handicapped in all the markets of the world by an enonnous waste of labor in the primary transportation of onr products and man- ufactures, while our home markets are restricted by difficulties in rural distribu- tion which not infrequently clog all the channels of transportation, trade, and finance. The community of interest in the subject being recognized, methods of cooperation in road construction and the proper distribution of the cost thereof, become the ruling questions in the discussion of highway improvement. NATIONAL AND STATE AID. In Europe the public interest in highways is so well known that most of the roads have been built directly by national expenditure and are maintained either wholl)' or partly by national appropriations. In the early days of this Republic the national concern in road im- provement was so well understood that a great sj^stem of national roads, twelve in number, was laid out, and more or less work was done ui)on nearly all of them, although the Cumberland road was the only one finished when the financial crisis of 1837 prostrated all private and public enterprises. Among the States, Kentucky took an early lead in cooperating with counties, municipalities, and private capitalists in the construction of turnpike roads. The State contributed about $1,750,000 to seven of the leading thoroughfares, covering 040 miles, and this was only a por- tion of its total expenditure. In the years 1837 and 1839 the State 488 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUEE. had in its employment an engineering corps, principally engaged in road work, costing an aggregate of 131,675 per year. These improve- ments covered only a trifling percentage of the total mileage of roads in the State, but they have been of such value as to malce the State conspicuously prosperous for the last half century. Tlie State of Ohio, observing the advantages of good roads to her neighbor, has followed with very extensive road improvement, mainly upon the cooperative plan, in which the county pays a portion of the cost and the property within one or two miles of the road is assessed for the remainder. Under these or similar provisions, about one- eightli of the total mileage of roads in the State has been improved. The most noticeable and extended cooperative work, however, has been done in New Jersej', under the State-aid law of 1891. Under this law the property owners along any line of road are assessed 10 per cent of the cost, and in addition to this the State contributes one-third of the total cost, and the countj^ is compelled to furnish the remainder and to construct the road. This law has been so eifective that the appropriation has been almost annually increased and the demand for construction under it has many times exceeded the funds available. It has, moreover, created competition for the benefits of State ex- penditure, and in that way has promoted discussion and education in regard to road improvement more rapidly than any other system. The progress of New Jersey in this direction has been watched by other States, and it may safely be said that the course of legislation in all the States which are studying the question is toward the adop- tion of this method of cooperation. That the State of Massachusetts has adopted a different system is probably due mainly to the nonagrieultural character of the State. There it is necessarj^ that roads be built to connect manufacturing towns and districts where the iiroperty along their lines is of little value for agriculture and the interest of the Commonwealth is inde- pendent of any agricultural conditions. The State has therefore taken upon itself the entire burden of building the principal roads throughout the Cojnmonwealth, though it ultimatel}'^ requires the counties to pay one-fourth of the cost. Connecticut has taken up the cooperative method upon the scale of an equal distribution between the State, county, and the district. The towns in New England having complete government, the policy of the Massachusetts State road commission has been to place all con- tracts for road construction in the hands of the town authorities, to be executed by town officials. The effect of this plan has been excellent. AVhatever profit may be derived from the construction becomes a public fund instead of going to a private contractor, and the officials become thoroughly trained in road construction under the supervision of the State engineering force. COOPERATIVE ROAD CONSTRUCTION. 489 The State of Rhode Island has also fallen into line for cooperation, but includes with the State only towns and cities, leaving out the counties, and leaves the di\'ision of the cost to be prescribed by the general assembly of the State. The State, moreover, undertakes to build sample roads, not exceeding one-half mile in length, in any town, as an educator to its citizens, and the towns are liable to the State for one-quarter part of the expense of construction. California has still another method of cooperation. The State fur- nishes the services of a highway commission of three experts, whose entire time is devoted to the supervision of road construction, and it further provides for the erection and operation of rock-crushing plants at the State prisons, and the distribution of the prepared road mate- rial to the counties at the bare cost of the maintenance of the convicts and the incidental expenses of their work. It has, moreover, arranged with the principal railroads in the State to transport this material at the cost of carriage. LEGISLATION FAVORING THE COOPERATIVE SYSTEM. In the legislation pending in other States the principal feature is the endeavor to perfect the cooperative system, and in this the States of New York and Virginia are conspicuously leading. The assembly of the State of New York, having in the spring of 1894 sent a sti'ong committee to study the New Jersey road system, passed, almost unanimously, an act to provide for the construction of roads by local assessment, county and State aid. Section 1 of this act provides as follows : PETITION OF BORDERING LAND OWNERS FOR SURVEY AND ESTIMATE OF COST OP LOCAL ROAD; SUBSEQUENT PETITION OF RESIDENTS OF BENEFIT DISTRICT. On presentation to the board of supervisors of any county of a petition signed by the owners of not less than one-third of the lands bordering on any section of road already established or proposed to be established in such county asking for a survey and estimate of the cost of building or rebuilding such road in a substan- tial and permanent manner either of stone or gravel as prescribed in such peti- tion, such board of supervisors shall cause such survey and estimate to be made for the information of such petitioners and shall forward a copy thereof to the State engineer. Whenever thereafter the petitioners shall present to such board of supervisors a map or description of the lands which, in their opinion, will be directly benefited by the construction or improvement of such road, together with a written request of the owners of three-fifths of such lands that all the lands so benefited and the personal property in such district be assessed, in proportion to the benefits conferred for such construction or improvement, to the amount of one- third of the total cost thereof, such board of super-vnsors shall cause such road to be constructed or improved. Such lands so mapped or described shall bo known as the benefit district of the said section of road. But whenever the original peti- tion in any case shall set forth that the area to be benefited by the road is pecu- liarly restricted by the proximity of other roads or by other circumstances, an examination and report shall be made by the supervisor of the town and the sur- veyor of the road, and if it appears thereby that such area is less than 3 square miles 490 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. for each mile of the road to be built, then the proportion of cost required to be paid by the benefit district shall be diminished at the rate of 3^ per cent of the whole cost for the first 100 acres of such deficiency and 3 per cent for each additional 100 acres of such deficiency, but shall in no case be less than one-tenth of the whole, and the balance of the cost of such construction shall be equally borne by the county and State. This provision differs from the New Jersey law in extending the local assessment to cover not merely the abutting lands, but, as nearly as can be ascertained, all the lands benefited by the construc- tion of the particular road in question, and in increasing the total local assessment to one-third instead of one-tenth the cost of the road, making exception, however, in cases where benefits are peculiarly restricted by the proximity of other roads or by other circumstances. Whenever counties are able to decide upon a highway system and a general and extended provision of funds by bonds or otherwise for construction, they will be able to secure State aid without the machin- ery and complications of a local initiative. Whenever the county fails to do this, any town in the county may initiate road improve- ment for the whole town, or for any portion of it, and receive the modicum of State aid ; but where county and town both fail, by rea- son of local jealousies or lack of interest, to provide for improvement, any enterprising neighborhood may proceed at once to organize its benefit district and have its road constructed. The plan under consideration in Virginia, as formulated by the State Road Improvement Association, limits the local charge for the entire benefit district to 10 per cent and the State contribution to 25 per cent, leaving upon the county 65 per cent of the cost; but it does not, as in New York and New Jersey, compel the county to construct the road upon application, unless it has the funds avail- able for doing so or decides by a vote of three-fifths of the freeholders to raise them by the issuance of bonds. Both New York and Virginia provide for distributing the local charge over a term of years at the individual option of the payers. The effect of this distribution, over five years in the Virginia plan, and ten years in the New York plan, diminishes the annual tax for the improvement, so that it will be but little felt. BEST ROAD FOR FARMING DISTRICTS. It is generally conceded that the best road for the farming district is a narrow stone road with an earth road alongside. Such a road has been built in Canandaigua, N. Y., for less than $1,000 per mile, and in other places for less than $1,200. Supposing the average cost of such a road to be $4 per rod, or 11,280 per mile, and the benefit district to average 1 mile on each side of the road, and supposing the district is charged with one-fourth of the cost, $320 per mile, this would be only 25 cents per acre on the lands benefited, or 5 cents per acre annually, if distributed over five COOPEKATIVE ROAD CONSTRUCTION. 491 years. This amount is less than half the ordinary road-maintenance tax, and, as the improved road becomes a county road and is main- tained at the county expense, the amount required for the mainte- nance of other roads in the district would be reduced accordingly, and the total tax might not be increased at all. The increase in taxable values due to road improvement will, as it has in all cases lieretofore, prevent any necessity for raising the lax rate, except perhaps temporarily. USE OF CONVICT LABOR. Tlio very successful use of convict labor in North Carolina, and its partial success in some other States, together with the initiative taken in California, has led to the discussion of a more elaborate plan for cooperation by the use of convicts, and the many difficulties found in the cmi:>loyment of convict labor in competition with skilled mechani- cal labor are directing public attention to this plan in many States. The plan proposed for this is, in substance, for the State to buy or lease some of the best quarries of road material within its limits; to make the necessary railway connections, having first secured the per- manent agreement of all the leading railway companies to carry road materials at the bare cost of hauling, on condition, if required, 1;.hat the State shall furnish to them a certain amount of track ballast made from the inferior rock of the quarry; to erect the necessary buildings and stockades and provide the best machinery for quarrying and crushing the rock; to bring to the stockades all able-bodied State con- victs and ijut them at tliis work, the counties to put their jail prisoners and tramps at the work of grading, draining, and preparing the road for macadamizing; and to furnish the crushed stone free on board cars as its contribution to road improvement. Upon this plan the cost to the State in addition to the maintenance and guarding of the convicts, which is a necessary expense in any case, would be only that of the fuel and oil, explosives, use of machinery, etc. , required for carrying on quarry work. This expense, according to tlie report of the Massachusetts commission on highways, amounts to 6.8 cents per cubic yard of broken stone produced. The amount of broken stone required to lay a mile of single track 9 feet wide and 8 inclies deep is, in round numbers, 1,200 cubic yards, and would cost at this rate $81.00. Tlie remaining cost would be the railroad freight, amounting, for an average distance of 100 miles, to not more than 28 cents per yard, I33G; the wagon haul, averaging possibly 2^ miles, 30 cents per yard, $3G0; and the rolling, superintendence, and incidentals (not includ- ing engineering, which would be a general count}' charge), 10 cents per yard, making the total cost, exclusive of the first cost of the stone, whicli is borne by the State, 68 cents per cubic yard, or $816 per mile. The wagon haul is estimated on the basis of the country jirice of 492 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 13 per day for team and driver, and of hauling (over the hard road as it is made) 2 cubic yards at a load, and an average travel for a team of 25 miles a day. This plan brings the expense of road improvement so low that no elaborate scheme of taxation, bonding, or borrowing would be neces- sary, and all its benefits could be speedily and universally realized. The best plan for carrying it out would, perhaps, be to let the "ben- efit district," as heretofore defined, pay one-third of the cost, by installments, and the township one-third, the county to pay the remainder and to advance the amount for the district, with a rebate or discount to all individuals who preferred to pay in cash, so that no one would be put in debt against his will. The cost to the district on this basis of division would be $272 per mile. Taking the average width benefited at 2 miles, or 1,280 acres for each mile of road, the total charge per acre would be 21 cents, or 3 cents per acre annually if spread over seven years. COOPERATION NECESSARY. Heretofore the cost of country roads has been borne by the farmers alone, and no method has been provided whereby the people in towns could contribute thereto. These people are now becoming thoroughly convinced of their interest in country roads, and in many cases are even more willing than the farmers to aid in road improvement. The best plan for starting an improvement is that of the local initia- tive, or benefit district, plan. County road laws have been passed in many States, but they involve the education of a whole county before any work can be begun ; but in every county some neighborhood will be found prompt to avail itself of the opportunity to secure road improvement upon contributing a portion toward its cost. In some States towns have been authorized to issue bonds for road improvement and have done so successfully, but have necessarily paid a higher rate of interest than a county or State would do. The benefit district, as described in the New York plan, being self- defined and of absolutely identical interest, forms the ideal unit for initiating road construction. Any larger district, as a town or countj^ containing a number of roads, is liable to be divided by local interests and jealousies, but the users of any one road can have no cause for division of interest. The benefit district includes, without question, all the users of the section of road in question, and the extent of their individual use of the road can be approximately ascertained, and when ascertained forms the most equitable possible basis for the division of the local share of the cost. A PIONEER IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE. By W. P. Cutter. Librarian, U. S. Department of Agriculture. AGRICULTURE IN COLONIAL VIRGINIA. The existence of the colony of Virginia was dependent to a great extent on the cultivation of a single agricultural product, tobacco, which was not only the staple crop of the colony for nearl}^ two cen- turies, but served as a medium of exchange and as the basis for governmental support by taxation. Soon after the founding of the Virginia settlements, a decree of the English King, James I, legiti- mized the tobacco trade, and every available piece of ground in the village of Jamestown was at once planted to tobacco. The enormous profits made by the planters attracted large numbers of settlers ; new lands were cleared, and growing tobacco soon covered them. The agriculture of colonial Virginia was extremely crude in char- acter. The staple food crops were cultivated orAy to the extent necessary to provide food for the laborers employed in tobacco culti- vation, which was the main end to which everything else was subor- dinated. Although the colony became very prosperous as a result of the enormous demand for tobacco and the comparatively slight cost of raising the crop, much of the depression which followed the war of the Revolution may be ascribed to the continuous growth of this one crop for such a long period of time. The operations of the farm were so similar in character from year to year that little attention was paid to the details of farm management by the planters themselves, who spent the major part of their time in the exercise of the rites of hos- pitality, even now so proverbial a characteristic of Virginians. The agricultural interests of the State suffered from this lethargy of the most intelligent of her citizens, being left in care of plantation over- seers, who were often not much less ignorant than the slaves whose labors they superintended. With the war of the Revolution came the interruptions, to commerce incident to the struggle. The profits of tobacco culture being sud- denly decreased, more attention was paid to the raising of other crops. With the outbreak of the French Revolution and the wars which fol- lowed, the demand for cereals became so great, the price rising in proportion, that every planter abandoned his tobacco fields to the cul- tivation of food stuffs; but the soil, although fertile in the beginning, 493 494 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. had so long been subjected to tlie exhausting demands of the tobacco crop that the yield of wheat was small. In the early history of the colony, land was plentiful. When a field ceased to yield profitably, it was an easy matter to use the laboring force during the comparatively idle winter season in clearing new land for cultivation. A time came, however, when the land covered hj the original forest was scarce, and the fertility once present had been reduced by exhaustive cropping. The great profits of the past had disappeared as a result of careless management. The demand for cereals decreased with the universal peace which succeeded the fall of Xapolcon, and the planters of Virginia found themselves confronted by very depressing conditions; a period of comparative stagnation ensued. Some of the farmers had made attempts to introduce cotton cultivation without great success. Tobacco raising was confined to a large extent to the upland counties, where the land was less exhausted and where special methods of curing still made the crop a profitable one; but in the eastern and middle section there seemed to be no pos- sible method of regaining the former prosperity. Many of the old Vir- ginia families, attracted by the marvelous tales of the fertility of the newly settled prairies of the West, deserted their ancestral homes and sought new fields for their efforts. The price of land decreased, and taxes increased in consequence. CHARACTERISTIC CONDITIONS AND INFLUENCES. The general process of development in the United States was modi- fied in the South by special influences. The institution of slavery had formed a distinct social system, the dominant class becoming a proud aristocracy. There was ample leisure for self-improvement, and the standard of culture was high. The standard works were widely read, and newspapers were abundant; a few magazines of great intellectual excellence but meager circulation were issued. Scant encouragement was given to those who chose the literary profession ; men who were in the front rank of American novelists complained of neglect and lack of financial support. Yet, among the upper classes, education was not backward. There were no common schools, but excellent academies and colleges supplied their place. Little atten- tion was paid to the sciences in the curriculum of these institutions, and technical education was absolutelj^ undeveloped. The whole scheme of training was devised to make orators, who were to move the masses by the charm of the spoken word. The choice of a voca- tion was confined almost exclusively to the pulpit, the bar, and the forum, and on account of the great interest in politics the majority of the educated men preferred to expend their energies in political controversies. The same conditions produced an equally noticeable effect on the material life of the community. There was little in the way of A PIONEER IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE. 495 manufacture or trade with other sections. Tlie methods of transpor- tation were extremelj'^ primitive, and the conservatism of the people created a serious opposition to the building of railways. Each planter liad liis own carriages, wagons, and carts, and a long trip to market was only a pleasant diversion, time being of slight value. As each plan- tation was an economic unit, very little was necessary in the way of trade. The commercial transactions were largelj' conducted by barter, and there was little necessity for ready money. Agriculture was the main pursuit, and its main staples — tobacco, cotton, and rice — were confined to this section. Although so much of the life of the com- munitj^ was devoted to agriciiltural pursuits, the operations of the farm were rarely conducted on business principles, or with any atten- tion to the teachings of sci- ence. The planters could afford to take life easily. Their chief duties were to make long visits to relatives and friends, to ride, fish, and hunt, and, above all, to dis- cuss the affairs of state. EDMUND RUFFIN. It was under such condi- tions as these that Edmund Ruffin lived. He recognized the difficulties inherent in his times, and was not dis- couraged by the conserv- atism against which he labored, being a man of in- dependence and great firm- ness of purpose. Edmund IlufBn was born January 5, 1794, on his father's plantation in Prince George County, Va. His father was a gentleman of fortune, a typical planter of the olden time. From his earliest youth Edmund was an intelligent reader of the literature of the daj^ although hia reading was rather for amusement than for instruction. As was the custom, his father decided to give him the education due him as the son of a wealthy Virginia gentleman, and with this end in view sent him at the ago of 16 to William and Mary College. The change from the quiet life on the plantation to the excitement at college was evi- dently not the best thing for the young i^lanter, for, after an unprofit- able connection with the institution, he finally left under unpleasant circumstances. At this time the war of 1812 broke out, and he enlisted in a volun- teer company, serving from August, 1812, to February, 1813. He left Fia. 128.— Edmund Puffin. 496 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the army probably on account of his father's death, which must have taken j)hice at about this time, for in the year 1813 we find him placed in the possession of an extensive estate at Coggins Point, in Prince George County, and he states that, although not of legal age, the ' ' easy indulgence of his guardian " gave him the control of this property. We must sympathize with Mr. Ruf&n in the diflSiculties under which he labored in his early efforts to make a success of agricultural opera- tions on his estate. He had gained no practical knowledge of the field work of agriculture in his youth, and he had therefore to learn the most rudimentary principles. Yet the farm operations were so simple in his day that he soon mastered their details. In his reading he chose rather the agricultural writings of the time. These were mostly planned to satisfj'^ other conditions, such as existed on the great estates of England, and much of their teaching was inapplicable to the conditions existing in Virginia. But the perusal of these works gave him an insight into the scientific methods used in other coun- tries, which offered a sharp contrast to the slipshod methods in vogue in his own State. He saw that the latter were "wretched in execu- tion and erroneous in system." EFFORTS TO INCREASE THE FERTILITY OF THE SOIL. In the same year in which he began his control of the estate there appeared the first book devoted to the discussion of Virginia agricul- ture. This work, written by Col. John Taylor, a prominent planter of Caroline County, was printed in Georgetown, D. C, in 1813, under the title, "Arator: being a series of Agricultural Essays, Practical and Political * * * by a Citizen of Virginia." It had previously been published as a series of articles in the "Spirit of Seventy-six," in 1809 or 1810. The work at once attained great popularity, and was issued in at least six editions. Colonel Taylor's views may be sum- marized briefly as follows : The secret of success in agriculture lies in the free use of putrescent vegetable matter as a manure. In the ordinary process of handling such materials as are used for this pur- pose, much of the valuable fertilizing material is lost, being of a gaseous nature and passing off into the atmosphere during the process of putrefaction. The manures should be, therefore, incorporated with the soil before the processes of decay are started, so that this valuable matter may be saved. Too much land is used for grazing. This land should be used rather for the cultivation of crops, and the crops fed to the cattle at once (the modern soiling system). The manure made by the cattle should be at once plowed under, together with the waste from the fodder. Clovers should be largely grown and plowed under to add fertility to the soil. Gypsum will increase the clover yield. Deep plowing should be the rule. It was natural that Mr. RufQn should at once become an admirer A PIONEER IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE. 497 of Taylor's system of husbandry, lie recognized the fact that the exhaustion of the fertility of the soil was tlie great difficulty with which he had to contend, and welcomed any system calculated to improve it in this respect; but he at once met with difficulties in the attempt to apply the principles to his own practice. His land was not suited to clover, and he found it impossible to get a crop. The soil was shallow, and the ridge system advocated by Taylor subjected the sidehills to injurious loss from washing. Nor did the land respond to the use of vegetable manures to the extent expected. After six years spent in the attempt to aijply these principles, meeting with nothing but failure, he was compelled to confess that "no part of my poor land was more productive than when my labors commenced, and on much of it a tenfold increase had been made of the previously large space of galled and gullied hillside." At this time Mr. Ruffin had an opportunity of examining a copy of Sir Humphrey Davy's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, and nat- urally sought for a reason for the lack of effect of ' ' putrescent ma- nures" in his particular region. He found the following passages: If on washing a sterile soil it is found to contain the salts of iron or any acid matter, it may be ameliorated by the application of qiiicklime. A soil of good apparent texture from Lincolnshire was put into my hands by Sir Josei^h Banks as remarkable for sterility. On examining it I found that it con- tained sulphate of iron, and I offered the obvious remedy of top-di'essing with lime, which converts the sulphate into a manure. [Ed. 2, London, 1814, p. 203.] Mr. Ruffin at once saw a parallel between the soil mentioned by Davy and that of his own farm. He tested the soil for the salts of iron, but could not detect a trace of the copperas which he expected to find. In studjdng over the matter he was attracted bj^ the expres- sion in the first sentence, "if it is found to contain the salts of iron or any acid matter." While he recognized the intention of Davy to refer to the mineral acids only, which he knew by direct testing to be absent from the soil of his farm, he conceived the idea that the ste- rility might be due to the presence of organic acids in the soil, which acted as a " poison " to the crops. This view was partially confirmed by the character of the vegetation on the worn-out land in question, which consisted largely of sheep sorrel and similar plants known to contain free vegetable acid. He noticed also that those portions of his land did not respond to a test for lime. His more fertile soils, how- ever, were "shelly" in character, and there was no trace of the acid plants growing on them. He could not, however, obtain any evidence of a direct nature that the vegetable acids were ijrcsent in the sterile soils, nor in his extensive reading could he find a single mention of the occurrence of these substances in any soil. The existence of the vegetable or humus acids was not pi'ovod until a much later date. From these meager indications Mr. Ruffin di-ew his theory of the action of lime on the soil, and at once proceeded to put his ideas into 2 A 95 18 498 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPAETMEAT OF AGRICULTURE. practice. He foniul on his own farm extensive beds of shell marl and decided to use this material, which was cheap and easily accessible in unlimited quantities. The existence of these beds had been well recognized, and a large amount had been burnt into lime for struc- tural purposes. Lime in the form of quicklime, limestone, marl, etc., had been used on tlie continent of Europe for many centui-ies. There are several instances of earlier use of marl in America, and in the State of Penn- sylvania the use of quicklime had become almost universal. In none of these instances, however, ha,d lime or marl been used with a defi- nite object in view, or with any other purpose than the general im- provement of the land; nor had any experiments been made except in the application of the lime and a guess or inaccurate statement of the increase in yield. EXPERIMENTS IN THE USE OF MARL. Mr. Ruffin began his experiments with marl in February, 1818, excavating a large amount of the mineral and applying it to a jjortion of a tract of land which had just been cleared of forest growth. The application was made at the rate of 150 to 200 bushels to the acre. From the laud thus treated he obtained an increase of 40 per cent over the crop on similar land untreated. Encouraged by this result, he planned more extensive experiments for future years. Without entering into the details of these trials, the result may be stated as overwhelmingly in favor of the use of marl ; in some instances the crop from the marled fields was more than twice as great as from the same fields before marling. It is not to be understood that Mr. Ruffin advocated the use of marl alone with the expectation of thus building up the fertility of the soil. His object was rather to bring the soil into such condition as would make it respond to an application of organic manures which had been previously' found to be of little value when used on the land in its ordinary condition. He retained as much of the teachings of Tajdor as i)laced great stress on the value of vegetable manures, and used every effort to add as much organic matter as possible to the soil on his farm. The experiments vrere continued for a long series of years, accurate records being kept of the history of each plat of ground, frequent comparisons being made between the measured yields of marled and unmarled fields. Marl was tried witli and without manure, and manure was tried with and Avithout marl. The greater the number of experiments and the more numerous the results obtained the greater proof was given that the use of marl was of great advantage. The careful manner in which the experiments were carried on shows him to rank as one of the most intelligent experimenters of his time. The investigations were not confined to mere field trials. The soil of A PIONEER IN AGKICULTUKAL SCIENCE. 499 his planlation was analyzed, the marls used were analyzed, and the results were carefully studied. He searched the literature of every age for mention of the occurrence of marl and the history of its appli- cation to the purposes of agricultifi-e. He was familiar with foreign jiublications on the subject, not only reading thoroughly, but study- ing, comparing, and making extracts as he found matter worthy of future reexamination. He collected information as to the character and extent of deposits of calcareous substances in his native State, and devoted much time to a study of the best and most economical methods for its exploitation. He figured carefullj- the cost of apply- ing the marl, and estiuuited the financial returns from its use. Every line of inquiry which could possibly add to his general stock of information was carefully followed to the verj- end. HOW MARL INCREASES FERTILITY OF SOIL. His reasons for the use of marl, gained from his experience and study, were two in number. He belicA'ed that the addition of marl corrected the natural acidity of the soil, and that it assisted in the preservation of organic manures from loss of the gaseous j)roducts of decomposition while hastening the decomposition itself. He fore- shadowed to a great degree the discoveries of later years with refer- ence to the action of soil bacteria; for, as is now well known, certain of the nitrifying organisms in the soil are capable of action only in neutral or alkaline soils, and thrive best in the presence of a small amount of alkali. The sterility of manj' of the soils in eastern Vir- ginia was probably due to conditions present which are unfavorable to the growth of the nitrifying organisms, owing to the presence of organic acids in the soil. The richest soils in the Avorld cout;iin large quantities of organic matter, and i)robably some proportion of the humic (organic) acids; but they also contain sufficient lime to unite with these acids, and thus neutralize them to a large extent. Tlic nuirls first used by Mr. Rufiin were valuable only from their content of lime, no phosphoric acid or j)otash being j)resent; but later, and especially after his removal to his estate at Marll)ourne, in Hanover County, he used green.sand, called by him "gypseous earth," which contained certain amounts of potash, and probably also con- tained phosphoric acid. He does not seem to have recognized the value of these ingredients, basing his opinion of the value of these marls on the carbonate of lime contained. We can hardly overlook this mistake, although it was excusable at a time when the knowledge of agricultural chemistry was extremely limited. The first published article from Mr. RufUn's pen was "An essay on calcareous manures," in the American Farmer, Vol. HI, p. 313 (the number for December 28, 1821). This es.say had been prepared and read before a meeting of the Prince George Agricultural Society, of which Rufliu was a member. The essay was afterwards published 500 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ill book form, reaching its fiftli edition in 1852. From a short article of 7 pages it expanded to a book of 493 pages. It is probably the most thorough piece of work on a special agricultural subject ever published in English. The treatment of the subject is historical, scientific, and jDractical, exhausting every source of information avail- able. From the first publication, this essay attracted great attention, and is even now the best authority on certain jihases of the subject. As a result of this and other publications bj'- the same author, a large proportion of the farm owners in the tide-water district of Vir- ginia Avere led to use marl, and, what is more important, were aroused by his example to a sense of the importance of personal attention to the needs of their estates and to details of management. At the time of the publication of the fifth edition of the essay, the effect of his teachings was so plainly evident that attention was called to the matter by the governor of the State in his annual message to the legislature in the following words: The increased value of the lands lying in the tide- water district, as exhibited by the returns of the recent assessment, vindicates the science [of agriculture] . and appeals strongly to you for aid and encouragement in its behalf. In 1819 the lands in this district were valued in the aggregate at the sum of $71,496,997, and in 1838 at $60,704,053.20, exhibiting a decrease in value during the nineteen j-ears that intervened to the enormous amount of $10,792,943.80. And 3'et these same lands were recently assessed at the sum of $77,964,574.52, showing an increase in their value during the last twelve years of $17,260,521.32, This remarkable and gratifying change in the vahie of these lands can not be attributed to any extent to benefits resulting from the works of internal improve- ment, for thus far these improvements have been chiefly confined to other sections of the State. And in vain do we look for a solution of this problem, unless we remember that for several years past the enterprising citizens of this section of the State have been devoting themselves to the subject of agricultural improve- ment ; and by the proper application of compost, marl, and other manures, and the use of other means which a knowledge of this branch of education has placed at their command, they have redeemed, and made prodiictive and valuable, lands heretofore worn out by an improper mode of cultivation, and consequently a,ban- doned by the farmer as worthless and unfit for agricultural purposes, farmers' register. Early in the year 1833 Mr. Ruffin issued, as editor and proprietor, the first number of the Farmers' Register, a monthly agricultural magazine of 64 pages of reading matter. In the editorial column of the first number, after calling attention to the low state of agriculture in Virginia, and discussing the reasons for the same, he announces that the journal is started to serve as a medium of exchange between the farmers of the State, and that this shall be the chief feature. The Farmers' Register was published for ten years, the second volume being printed on the estate of Mr. Ruffin at Marlbourne (Shellbanks) ; the subscription price was So. The influence of this journal on the agriculture of the State was very great, the tone was high, and the articles were carefully written, or selected from the better class of A PIONEER IN AiiRICULTURAL SCIENCE. 501 agricultuiiil publications. Nearly lialf ol the reading matter came from ^Ir. Kuffin's pen, and tho sul).je('ls on which ho expressed him- self \\ere extremely diverse in character. Although much of the matter published in the Farmers' Register had a direct bearing on the marl (question, nearl}^ ever}^ issne con- taiiung something on the editor's favorite hobby, yet it was not by any means the only subject discussed. Every conceivable question in which the farmers of the State miglit be interested, or which could affect their welfare in the least, was carefully treated. ]\Iuch atten- tion was given to the development of roads and railways in the State. Much was written on the slavery question. Agricultural education was disciissed at length. But the operations of a practical character, the field work of the farmer, received the greatest attention. The difficulties attending the publication of such a paper at this period were at best discouraging. 3Ir. Ruffin complains with reason of the delay in the delivery of his paper, which in one instance required fourteen days to reach a subscriber at a distance of 180 miles. The first volume was printed on poor paper, although it is now in far better condition than can be hoped for a copy of the ordi- nary agricultural paper of to-day at the end of a similar period. He suffered from the delinquent subscriber, and from the subscriber who thought that the price should be reduced. He attempted, as has alreatly been stated, to print the paper on his estate in Hanover County, but probably found the task too great, as the third and sub- sequent A'olumes were printed at Petersburg. As appendixes to the Farmers' Register were printed the seventh edition of Arator, in 1840, the AVestover Manuscriijts, in 1841-42, and the third edition of the Essay on Calcareous Manures, in 1842. This was done to insure the wide distribution of these works, and inci- dentally to save cost of transmission. PUBLIC SERVICES OF MR. RUFFIN. At the meeting of the legislature of the State in 1841, a State board of agriculture was organized and Mr. Ruffin was elected a member; in December of that year he was selected secretarj' and held that position for a year. In 1842, the State of South Carolina having made an appropriation for an agricultural surveyor, Mr. Ruflin accepted the position and published, in the following year, his first report, being mostly a statement of the occurrence of beds of marl in the State and a ijlea for the drainage and reclamation of the swamp lands. On his return to Virginia he was instrumental in founding the Virginia State Agricultural Society and was elected the first president. He advocated, willi others, the establishment of a State commissioner of agriculture, with a good salary, and the right to employ certain scien- tifie assistants, but the plan did not meet with the approval of the legislature. At various periods during his life he was connected with 502 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. local agricultural societies, and by liis earnestness and enthusiasm aroused much interest in cooperative "vvork. Mr. Ruffin was an enthusiastic advocate of higher education, sug- gesting the establishment of an agricultural college supported b}' tlie State. In the main, the details of his plan were such as are in opera- tion in the agricultural colleges of the present, except that the stu- dents might pay all their expenses bj^ "vvork in the experimental fields connected with the college. The experience of past j-ears has shown this to be impossible. An essay on the subject of agricultural edu- cation, published at Richmond in 1853, won a prize offered by the State Agricultural Society. As was usual Avitli the prominent men of Virginia, Mr. Ruffin took great interest in the political affairs of his native State. In 1821 he was elected to the senate of Virginia, and served three years. In 1841 he published Observations on the Abuses of the Banking Sys- tem, and in the following year at least six numbers of a periodical publication under the name Bank Reformer. These works were called forth by the financial agitation of the time. In 1855 a collection of the more important agricultural v>'ritings of Mr. Ruffin, previousl}" published in various periodicals, were gathered together in Essays and Notes on Agriculture. This included an essay on drainage, a prize essay on the Southern cowpoa, a discussion of remedies for malaria, and articles on the culture and uses of clover, method of harvesting wheat, the moth weevil, prairies, deserts, peat bogs, usefulness of snakes. This list illustrates the versatility of the man, but can give no idea of the real value of each article or the con- cise and easy style of the author. The good resulting from the agricultural teachings of this man would to-day be more evident had not the war left the State of Vir- ginia in a very depressed condition. The use of marl, once so com- mon, has been displaced to a large extent by comi.nercial fertilizers. The cheap slave labor made it possible to obtain marl at slight cost; it does not now pay to carry it to anj^ distance. Most of the men whose energies were spurred to new effort by his ready pen have passed away; but among the intelligent farmers of the State he is still remembered, and his teachings are often followed by those who liave never heard his name nor read what lie has written. Edmund Ruffin conducted liis experiments with such attention to details and with such a trulj'- scientific method of preparation and planning that we may look on his Avork as some of the best done in the country. He certainly was ahead of the investigators of the day. He proved by experimentation not only that the practice of the fanner is often ahead of the proof of the theorist, but that the work of the theorist is often of great practical benefit to the farmer. UORK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AS ILLUSTRATED AT THE ATLANTA EXPOSITION. By Robert E. Wait, B. A., Private Secretary to the Assistant Secretary of Agriculture. It is but adding to the credit of the whole exhibition to record here the oi)inion expressed by many impartial visitors that the United States Government exhibit was the crowning feature of the Cotton States and International Exposition held at Atlanta, Ga., September 18 to December 31, 1895. It was a recognition of the magnitude and importance of this exposition that the Government, in pui'suance of an act of Congress appropriating $200,000 for the purpose, should go to the pains of sending to Atlanta a collection of exhibits so complete and valuable as to equal in quality, if not in quantity, the Govern- ment display at the AVorld's Columbian Exposition at Chicago. In the Government building, a structure of graceful proportions and in harmony with the prevailing architectural features of the Exposition, containing some 58,000 square feet of floor space, erected at a cost, in round numbers, of 850,000, and occupying a commanding site in a high quarter of the ExiDosition grounds, were gathered together from the eight Executive Departments of the National Government, the Smithsonian Institution and National Mliseum, and the United States Fish Commission, such articles and materials as, in the language of the act, "illustrate the function and administrative faculty of the Govern- ment. " These distinct and varied exhibits, being under the control of a single board of management, were so arranged and disi^laj'cd as to form one attractive and harmonious whole, affording a sufficiently detailed and yet comprehensive ocular demonstration of what our Government has done and is doing for the peoi)le of the United States. One of the most interesting and instructive displays in the Govern- ment building was that of the United States Department of Agricul- ture, the main portion of which occupied 8,000 square feet of floor space near tlie center of the building. The eye of the visitor enter ing at the main door fell first, probably, upon a large facsimile of the seal of the Department, illuminated in colors, held by an Ameri- can eagle, hanging over the main aisle. The Department seal, in letters large enough to be easily read, proclaimed the fact that "Agri- culture is the foundation of manufacture and commerce," a statement the truth of which is at once apparent in the exhibits. Proceeding 503 504 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. on a realization of its importance to the people, the Department's exhibit was collected and arranged with a special view to giving the visitor a clear idea of what the Department of Agriculture is, what it has done, and Avhat it is doing for the agricultural interests of the Models Mode Is MU^FtOOUl Cki-iiBit I n AGROSTO- < LOGY POMOLOGY o to _l <: 1 1 UJo -J o J»,/5 Scf^.^Cr^S !i Modf'-i /lp/jjn3(u; UJ|_ o< UJQ- > t /^^ of O.aasea fru.t,.P:<..-,,^ Fra.t \ Mc^^f/i 1 rrui't ■ ModeU Uodel.n^^' Main \\ Aisle Fig. 129.— Diagram of exhibit of U. S. Department of Agriculture at Atlanta Exposition. country, as well as some hint of the possibilities of the future. It developed the fact that in the performance of the general purposes of the Department, as stated in the organic act creating it, the scope and character of its work have been from time to time enlarged until Yeaibook U. S. Oept. of Agncultuie, 1895. Plate VIII. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AT ATLANTA EXPOSITION. 505 they now embvace man}' subjects not thought of when the Depart- ment was created, but whicli scientific research has since shown to be vitally connected with agriculture. It may, therefore, be possible in this place, without attempting a full report or a complete list of its exhibits, to imj)art some knowledge of the nature and scope of the purpose and w^ork of the Department of Agriculture by glancing at the evidences of some of its actual achievements and its facilities for further usefulness, as they were displayed at the Atlanta Exposition. The complete exhibition by the Department comprised the exhibits (sec diagram, fig. 120) of two bureaus and nine divisions in the Gov- ernment building, a good-roads exhibit on the grounds, and an exhibit of the Division of Forestry in the Minerals and Forestry building, all collected and arranged by the chiefs or representatives of the respec- tive bureaus and divisions, under the personal supervision of Dr. Charles W. Dabney, jr.. Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, who was appointed to represent the Department of Agriculture on the Board of Management of the United States Government exhibit, and later was designated chairman of the Board by President Cleveland. EXHIBIT OF THE WEATHER BUREAU. Man is so dependent upon the weather and so various!}^ affected by it that it is at all times a subject of vital interest to him. Wherever, therefore, he has gathered in communities sufficiently large, the Gov- ernment has provided agencies to inform him accurately not only of the weather conditions immediately surrounding him, but also of those covering the whole country, in order that the coming of a devastating wind, a rain or snow storm, or a cold or hot wave may be announced in time to enable him to prepare for it. All this the Government accomplishes by means of its Weather Bureau, whicli, owing to the popular interest in the subject and the large number of stations and substations and of voluntary observers in all parts of the country, is probal)ly the best-known agency of the Department of .Vgriculture. It is not surprising, then, that its exhibit proved a most attractive one. It embraced charts presenting the important features of the climate of the United States; photographs of cloud effects and lightning flashes; .standard forms of instruments used by the Weatlier Bureau, such as anemometers to measure the velocity of the wind, wind vanes, rain gauges, temperature instruments, barometers, and instruments for measuring the duration of sunshine; methods of foi'ccasting weather, and the printing of a daily weather map. These were all explained to visitors by the officials in charge. (See PI. VIII.) The observant visitor, who had at his home noticed a difference between the temperature reported officially by the Weatlier Bureau on a liot summer day and that indicated by the thermometer at the corner drug store, found the explanation in the "thermometer shelter" exhibited. This consists of a wooden box mtli louvered 3 A 95 18* 506 YEARBOOK OP THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. or slatted sides and double roof, and is emj)loyed by the Weather Bureau for the purx)ose of screening the instruments within from every influence except that of free air that can affect their tempera- ture, such as rain, sunshine, or strongly reflected or radiated heat from any source. A new and improved form of automatic rain gauge, called the "tip- ping bucket," illustrated the practical working of one of the devices used by tlie various Weather Bureau stations throughout the country to measure the rainfall. Another interesting exhibit was a new form of sunshine recorder, which operates on the principle of a differential air thermometer, and by suitable electrical connections produces a record which gives the number of hours and minutes of bright sun- shine. Every day, except Sunday, between the hours of 10 a. m. and 1 p. m., a ijrinting press was in operation, turning off weather charts showing the weather conditions i^re vailing over the country at 8 o'clock in the morning and giving a forecast of the weather for Atlanta and its vicinity for the succeeding twenty-four hours. This was a practical illustration of the principal work of the Bureau, to which all its investigations lead. The observations upon which the forecasts and warnings of the Weather Bureau are based are made at the same moment at all sta- tions; that is, daily at 8 a. m. and 8 p. m,, seventy-fifth meridian time. Reports are immediately telegraphed to the central oifice at Wash- ington, D. C, over a special arrangement of telegraphic circuits set apart each day at these hours for this purpose. In order to show the methods of forecasting, the Weather Bureau exhibit was equipped with complete forecasting and map-iDrinting sections. Copies of the telegrapliic weather reports of the morning observations were received in the forenoon of each week day. The first step in their treatment consisted in the translation of the abbreviated cipher code employed in the telegrams, and the entry of the reports on the map at the point representing the location of the station sending the report. Two sets of lines were then drawn upon the map. The isotherms, or tempera- ture lines, for each 10 degrees of temperature, were in red, and showed in a graphic way the relation between the temjperatures of the several portions of the country. The isobars, or atmospheric-pressure lines, for each tenth of an inch of barometric height, were in blue, and enabled one to perceive at a glance the manner in which the air pres- sure is distributed. A map so prepared constituted the original manu- script weather map for that observation. From it, with reference to similar maps of preceding days, the forecaster prepared the predictions and warnings for his section of the country. At the central office in Washington, the forecast official makes his forecast for the whole countrj'^. In forecasting, the air pressure is probably the most important feature to be considered in arriving at DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AT ATLANTA EXPOSITION. 507 an opinion as to what the weather is to be. The force and direction of the wind depend upon this. Under tj'pical conditions, such as exist generally when pronounced wind and rain storms prevail, the air pressure will be low in one jwrtion of the atinosj)here and high in another. These regions constitute the so-called "lows," or cyclones, and "highs," or anticyclones, of the meteorologist. Clear and cool weather Avith light winds is more ax3t to accompany the "high," wliile cloudiness and rain or wanner, windy weather occurs with the " low." "Lows" and "highs" never remain stationary for any length of time, but move in the same general way in an easterly direction. A "low" that appears in the northwest will never cross the Rocky Mountains and m.ove over the Pacific Ocean, but vnll go eastward generally across the Xorthern States and lake region, passing out along the St. Lawrence Valley. "Lows" that sometimes appear in Texas and the eastern Gulf region follow a more northeasterly course, both going out over the ocean near the New England coast. All this Avas demon- strated in the preparation and printing of the map at the exhibit every day. These maps were distributed to the visitors, and were carried away by many as souvenirs. EXHIBIT OF BUREAU OF AXBIAL IXDtSTRY. Probabb.'the next l^est-known work of the Department of Agricul- ture is that carried on by the Bureau of Animal Industry, which is an administrative as well as a scientific agency of the Department, employing nearly 700 persons outside of its central office at Wash- ington. Horses, cows, hogs, and chickens are so closely connected with agriculture, and are, like man himself, so liable to disease, that exhiV>its showing the effect upon the body of the various diseases of domestic animals always prove interesting. But the Bureau of Ani- mal Industry- goes even further than the treatment of diseases in animals, and endeavors to prevent disease in human beings by a care- ful inspection of exported and imported meats and meat-producing domestic animals intended for man's consumption. This work was illustrated by means of enlarged bromide x^rints and photograx)lis and alcoholic specimens relating to the various contagious and infectious diseases, and v.ax models, which not only served to show the changes in conformation resulting from disease processes, but also the color transitions from the normal to the diseased state. That terril)Io disease, glanders, was most strikingly illustrated by means of the stuffed skin of a horse, whicli, during life, liad tlie dis- ease, and by diseased portions taken from other affected animals. Glanders was shown to be i^rimarily a disea.sc of the hor^e, but com- municable to other animals as well as to man himself. To show its terrible effect upon man, there were exhibited casts of the face and of a forearm of a man suffering from it. This disease, when it enters the human system, sets n[) a violent inflammatory process, whicli ends 508 YEARBOOK OP THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fatally in a few days. It has also been found that consumption can be communicated to man by the eating of diseased meat, or moat taken from cattle suffering from pulmonary tuberculosis, or consump- tion. The exhibit, therefore, contained a large collection of specimens and models, showing the ravages which this disease makes in the lungs and other organs of cattle. At one time contagious jileuro-pneumo- nia was quite prevalent in cattle in central and eastern portions of the United States, but owing to the work of the Bureau of Animal Industry in the rigid enforcement of the Federal law concerning it, this dreadful disease has been entirely eradicated. Under this law affected animals were appraised and destroyed, contaminated prem- ises were disinfected, and where this was impossible the buildings were destroyed, and cattle which had been exposed to the contagion were isolated and closely watched. It took just five years for the Bureau to effect this, and in 1892 the late J. M. Rusk, then Secretary of Agriculture, issued a proclamation declaring the United States free from pleuro-pneumonia. Specimens were exhibited showing how this disease affected oattle. Other diseases were graphically illustrated, among them Texas fever, at present one of the most important cattle diseases in this country, existing mainly in the Southern States. A map of the United States was exhibited, which showed the area permanently affected by this fever. Since it has been found that the disease can be communicated by cattle ticks, it has also been shown that the disease can be prevented by keeping cattle free from ticks. A num- ber of insecticides were shown, by the use of which the small farmer can keep the ticks off his cattle. Another interesting exhibit of the Bureau consisted of specimens and models illustrating infectious swine diseases which are indigenous to this country, the chief of these being hog cholera and swine plague. These two diseases were repre- sented hy alcoholic specimens of the intestines of hogs which had succumbed to hog cholera, and by parts of the lungs showing the changes in structure in that organ brought about by the disease proc- ess known as swine plague. It was explained that some success had been attained in finding a combination of drugs which will act as a cure for this disease, and the Bureau now sends out to i)ersons mak- ing proper application samples of the remedies used and the directions for making them. The diseases affecting poultry were also illustrated. Some idea of the general inspection work of the Bureau was given by a bromide print of the inspection room at Chicago, showing 50 or more persons engaged in examining samples of meat from hogs which had been slaughtered for export trade- It is only on a certificate signed by the Secretary of Agriculture, stating that the inspected meat is free from trichinfe and other parasites, that our pork products are admitted to the markets of certain foreign countries. The rules reg- ulating the importation of live stock into the United States are just as rigidly eiiforcod, and it is liardly likely that any of the European dis- eases can ever gain a foothold witli ns here. The work of this Bureau was also illustrated by the exhibition of photographs of its inspectors at work, and the various- tags and implements used in inspection work. The dairy industry was represented bj'^ a large number of photographs of milch cows famous as milk and butter producers, and there were also in this collection, of much interest to horsemen, exhibits designed to illustrate the various diseases and malformations of the horse's foot; as well as to show the proper patterns of shoes to use in such cases. EXHIBIT OF THE DIVISION OF ORNITHOLOGY AND MAMMALOGY. The exposition being held in a cotton State, the Division of Orni- thology and Mammalogy, which is charged with two lines of work — a biological survey of the United States and investigations concerning the economic status of birds and mammals that are injurious or ben- eficial to agriculture — took special pains to make an exhibit of char- acteristic birds and mammals of the life zone of the country embrac- ing the cotton States. It is well known that aninmls and plants are not distributed uniformly over the earth, but are restricted to certaia more or less well-defined areas, outside of which they do not occur; and one of the most interesting of these defined areas, both on account of its extent and its importance agriculturally, is that including the greater part of the South Atlantic and Gulf States. This is the zone of the cotton plant, sugar cane, rice, pecan, and peanut, of the pear and gi'ape, and, in more southern parts, of the citrus fruits. A part of the exhibit, made to represent a scene on the border of a Southern swamp, contained two or three species of herons, a roseate spoonbill, a purple gallinule, and a king rail. A night heron and wood duck were perched on a branch overhead, while a prothonotary warbler, a cardinal, and a painted bunting could be seen in the undergrowljh. In a tree on the bank were several raccoons, the whole making a natu- ral assemblage of species peculiar to the locality, with appropriate surroundings. In striking contrast to this was a case containing a tract of desert, with a group of kangaroo rats and cactus wrens, illus- trating the difference between the fauna of the humid parts of the Gulf States and that of the arid western part. There were also colored relief models, showing the extent and boundaries of all the life zones of the United States, and maps giving in detail the distribution of a number of species of mammals and birds. Conspicuous among the exhibit devoted to animals of economic importance was a coyote in the act of seizing a sheep. In the West the coyote is one of the worst enemies of the sheep owner. There was also a lynx eating a grouse, and groups of weasels, skunks, and minks capturing their prej\ "Weasels and skunks, because of the visits they sometimes pay iwultry yards, are commonly looked upon as enemies of the farmer, but, as a matter of faot, they are among his best friends, their ordinary everyday food consisting mainly of mice, gophers, and 610 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. insects. The same was shown to "be true of hawks and owls, which, though commonly persecuted as enemies, have been shown by this division to rank among the most beneficial of bii'ds, more than 90 per cent of their food consisting of mice, insects, and other vermin. Special prominence was given to the injurious animals of the Missis sippi Valley. A scene familiar to many visitors was a group of rice- birds gorging themselves in the rice field. Close by, the same bird was shown in its summer home in the North, where it is nothing more or less than the well-known bobolink, a harmless inhabitant of the meadows. In its endeavor to find out what birds and mammals are beneficial or injurious to agriculture, this division has found that many which were formerly considered enemies of the farmer are really his best friends in disguise, and the chief aim of its exhibit was to point out to the agriculturist his enemies and his friends among the birds and animals that frequent the farm. EXHIBIT OF THE DIVISION OF AGRICULTURAL SOILS. The exhibit of the Division of Agricultural Soils was neatly ar- arranged in a pagoda and three large cases. The roof of the pagoda was supported by eight glass columns, each filled with a separate grade of sand, silt, and clay, which make up the texture or framework of most agricultural soils. Inside of the pagoda were a number of 3-gallon glass bottles containing water, to illustrate the amount of water in a cubic foot of some of the principal types of soil adapted to different classes of crops. There was also a large cube of soilj, witli a wax model of a tobacco plant and a description of the principal physical properties of the soil.. In other cases were exhibited eight different grades of sand, silt, and clay in the exact proportions in which they are found in soils adapted to certain of the principal crops. All this was intended to illustrate the marked difference m the texture and physical properties of soils adapted to different crops, and to thus enable the farmer or planter to suit his planting to the soil. For instance, the exhibit showed that the truck soils of the Atlantic Coast are composed largely of sand and contain a very small percentage of clay, while the strong grass lands of the Atlantic Sea- board contain a very large percentage of clay and but little or none of the coarser grades of sand. The effect of this was shown in the amount of water maintained by these two tj^pes of soil. The truck soil, owing to its loose, light texture, allows water to percolate through it rapidl}^, and maintains but a small amount for the use of crops, while the strong clay soil, by offering a far greater resistance to the descent of water, maintains a much larger amount for the use of crops. These more moist conditions are found to be favorable to such i^lants as grass and wheat, which require a long, uniform grow- ing season in which to gather from the soil and atmosphere a large DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AT ATLANTA EXPOSITION. 511 amount of food. The drier conditions in the trnck soil arc not favor- able to the i^roduction of so large a crop, hut the crop matures early in the season, ■when there is no competition from the crops on the heavier soils. Different tj^es of tobacco soil were shown, for the i^uriiose of illus- trating the very important influence of the texture and physical prop- erties of soil on the development and tyj)e of tobacco. The bright tobacco soils of the South are found to have a texture very similar to the truck soils of the Atlantic Coast, and produce a small plant Avith a thin-textured leaf which cures to a fine golden color, if j)roperly treated. The heavy shipping tobaccos are grown upon much lieav- ier soils, which contain a considerably larger percentage of clay, and are much more retentive of moisture than the bright tobacco lands. Tlie texture of the sea-island cotton soil exliibited was quite similar to that of the truck soils already mentioned. This soil is now used veiy generally for the trucking interest. The best type of upland cotton soil was shoAvn to be stronger than the sea-island soil, contain- ing from 20 to 30 per cent pf clay. A soil containing less clay than this, or maintaining less moisture than such soil normally does, is found to produce small i)lants, which put on a quantity of fruit in proi^ortion to their size, and give a relatively small yield i^er acre, while a soil containing considerably more clay generally produces large plants and a luxurious growth of the vegetable part of plants, but with little tendency to the production of fruit. The presence of all these samples of soils naturally stimulated a desire to see the methods used by the division for collecting them and separating them into their component parts. The beaker method for separating tlie different-sized grains of sand, silt, and clay, commonly used in the Division of Soils, was shown to consist in allowing them to slowly subside in water, and then pouring off the liquid when grains of a certain size have settled to the bottom of the beaker. Tlie method of determining the amount of moisture in the soil was also illustrated. EXHIBIT OF THE DIVISION OF P.OTANY. It is of the utmost importance to the farmer to know that the seed he plants will grow and th^t he will reap that which he supposes ho is sowing. This the Department of Agriculture has found it pos- sible for him to determine beforehand by a simple seed test. The principal part of the exhibit of the Division of Botany, therefore, represented the working room of a seed laboratory, where seeds were tested to a.scertain their purity and germinating capacity. Commercial seeds, together with their impurities, were weighed in a pair of fine balances in order to find the percentage of good seed, and fi'om the good seed duplicate lots were carefully counted out and placed in a germinating chamber whose temperature was controlled by means of a thermo-regulator. The records of jiurit}'^ and germination 512 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. were kept upon blanks prepared for that purpose. There was also exhibited a simple homemade apparatus for si)routing seeds, by which the ordinary agriculturist can arrive at an approximate idea of the value of the seed he proposes to sow. The necessity for seed-con- trol work in America was emphasized by the exhibition of samples of different commercial seeds purchased in tlie open market, some of which were mere screenings, consisting almost entirely of dirt and weed seeds, offered to American seedsmen by foreign dealers for the purpose of adulterating pure seed. A class of inferior seed which is frequently found in American markets was illustrated by a sample purchased as yellow oat grass at 150 per 100 pounds, which consisted almost entirely of wood hair grass, worth about llO per 100 pounds at wholesale. Of the 25.6 per cent pure seed, only 11.5 per cent germi- nated under the most favorable conditions, or a little less than 3 per cent of the entire sample, involving a loss in this particular instance of 184.72 out of the 1100 invested in the seed, allowing 100 per cent germination for the wood hair grass. In addition to a collection of the seeds of various forage and other economic plants, weed seeds, and seeds used in medicine, in the arts, and for food, was a fanning mill for cleaning small lots of seeds, accompanied by a case containing over 100 sieves of different kinds and sizes of mesh for separating impurities from good seed, since the problem of the best method of cleaning seeds is a very important one; and a seed-scratching machine from Denmark, so constructed as to break the seed coat enough to allow water to enter, without causing injury to the seed. The importance of sowing seeds of large size was strikinglj'- shown. An equal number of large and small seeds from the same sample were counted out and planted under the same conditions of lieat, light, and moisture. The difference was very noticeable, the larger seed pro- ducing a heavier stand and larger plants. Three cases filled with life-size models illustrating the common species of edible and poisonous mushrooms, colored to represent the natural specimens, indicated the results of the investigations of the Department along this line. The remainder of the botanical exhibit was devoted to the illustra- tion of the most troublesome weeds in such manner as to indicate the differences in the character of growth, manner of dispersion, and present geographical ranges of different species and, consequently, the different methods of eradication most applicable. Prickly lettuce and the Russian thistle, which have spread with greater rapidity than any other weeds in this country during the past quarter of a century, were illustrated with full-grown specimens dried in their natural form. These were accompanied by pressed specimens of seedlings so that they might be recognized upon their first appear- ance in new localities. Large maps showed the present distribution DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AT ATLANTA EXPOSITION. 513 of the Russian tliistle, which lins wroujj^ht such damage in the western portions of our country, and of other devastating weeds; and a collec- tion of weeding tools showed the types of most of the implements used for hand weeding, the collection containing also a series of chemicals which have been found most effecti\'e in killing perennial roots. EXHIBIT OP THE DIVISION OP POMOLOGY. The fruit models exhibited by the Division of Pomology were so skillfully made and colored that the visitor found it impossible to distinguish them from the real fruit on exhibition. The exhibit was intended to familiarize growers and the general public with the wide range of fruit species and varieties grown in the United States, and to direct their attention to the importance of selecting proper varie- ties for planting in different sections. To accomplish this end, fruit models of more than 1,300 specimens, together with water-color paint- ings, photograplis, fresh fruit, and living trees, were exhibited. These gave an opportunity for the comijarison and estimation of the rela- tive value of the different varieties for planting in different sections. The process of fruit modeling in the various stages of the work was also illustrated. Experiments in the preservation of fresh fruits in caibonie acid gas and a apor of alcohol were carried on during a por- tion of the time of the Exposition. EXHIBIT OF THE DIVISION OF AGROSTOLOGY. A beautiful collection of grasses admirably illustrated the work of the Division of Agrostology, which has lately been added to the Department, and whose duty it is to investigate the natural history, geographical distribution, and uses of grasses and forage plants, their adaj^tation to special soils and climates, and the introduction of promising native and foreign kinds. But plants, like human beings, must combat obstacles to their growth, both from within and without. They are subject to wast- ing diseases and attacked by insect pests without number until they would soon be exterminated were it not for the work of the entomol- ogist, who strives to protect them from injurious insects, and the plant ijathologist, whose chief endeavor is to i)revent and cure the diseases to which they are liable. This was illustrated at the Expo- sition by the exhibits of the divisions of Entomology and Vegetable Physiology and Pathology. EXHIBIT OP THE DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY. The entomological exhibit covered the principal insect enemies of the leading staples, and comprised, exclusive of cotton insects, ujjward of GOO injurious species. These were grouped according to plants and animals affected, and related to some 30 orchard, field, and garden crops, with parasites of domestic animals and household pests. There 514 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. was also a special exhibit of the more important scale insects affecting fruit trees, and eight large cases representing injuries by insects to forest trees. "With each of the insects illustrated, an effort was mad® to furnish a complete object lesson of its life history, including exam- ples of the injury done by it and an exhibition of its insect enemies and j)arasites, together with brief directions for remedial^ treatment and references to sources of fuller information. Insect enemies of cotton received special attention. This part of the exhibit included uj)ward of 300 insects which occur on cotton and affect it either inju riously or beneficially. Of chief importance were two well-known cotton insects, the cotton worm and the boUworm. These, with other species, including the cotton-boll weevil, which has assumed sx3ecial importance in the last year or two, were grouped together about an enlarged wax model of the cotton plant. In connection with them were wax models illustrating characteristic injury due to the boll- worm and to the cotton worm. The bollvrorm exhibits included a collection of blown larva? illustrating different stages, and a series of moths representing males and females; samples of injured bolls, showing different forms of damage; wax models illustrating injury to blooms, squares, bolls, and leaves; colored figures illustrating the insect in different stages, and its injury; and a wax model of a spray of cotton illustrating different forms of injury already enumerated. There was also a special exhibit of the chief insect enemies of citrus plants, more particularly of those of the orange and lemon. The recent occurrence of the San Jose scale in the East, with the serious possibilities attending it, called for proper recognition and a special exhibit to meet the demand for information in this dii'ection. Supplementing the more important exhibits were models in wax of the host plants and a model of the cotton plant. Indian corn was also the subject of a special model. There was also an interesting collec- tion of silk insects, in response to the general curiosity which has been aroused in these insects, which are widely distributed in this country, Tlie work of the Division of Entomology would be incomj)lete if it simply x^ointed out the enemies to the plant, without furnishing some rcmed}-. Great interest, therefore, attached to its insecticide exhibit, which included full directions for the preparation and application of each insecticide. The range or geographical distribution of imjiortant insects was graphicallj'- shown by means of charts and maps. EXHIBIT OF DIVISION OF VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY, In the exhibit of the Division of Vegetable Phj'siology and Pathol- ogy four plant diseases were selected, the object being to show the steps taken in investigating the various problems connected with the work of the division. For instance, the malady known as "die-back** of the orange was shown to be due to the presence of certain nitroge- nous compounds in the soil, and its peculiar characteristics were DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AT ATLANTA EXPOSITION. 515 illustrated b}'- means of colored plates, drawings, and i^hotographs. Specimens of the disease were also exhibited, so that anyone inter- ested could follow the various stages from beginning to end. Follow- ing tliese were shown the various apparatus used in investigating the disease. Photograplis of the division laboratory and its accessories were included in this i^art of the exhibit. The effects of different amounts of Avater on plants were shown, together with those of differ- ent nutritive matters. The most important class of diseases treated was that produced by bacteria, illustrated by showing the results of investigations in pear bliglit, a disease which has annually caused a widespread damage to tlie x^ear crop for many years past. It was demonstrated that through the efforts of the division the cause of this disease has been deter- mined and means of checking its ravages have been discovered. The pear-blight exhibit showed the general apparatus used in studying bacterial diseases, such apparatus comprising the microscope, the dishes, etc., for making artificial cultivations, gelatin tubes, broths, etc., containing the food supplies for the minute germs. Following this were actual cultures of the pear-blight microbe grown in artificial media. The effects of blight on trees were shown by photographs, colored illustrations, etc. Then the visitor was shown the method of combating the disease. Another type of disease shown in the exhibit was that produced by fungi, a tjT)e of which is the so-called watermelon wilt, which is only too well known in the South. This disease was shown to have been produced by the minute fungus which attacks the stem of the plant and so affects it that it is unable to obtain water. As a result, the vines first wilt and then soon dry up and die. Methods for investi- gating and treating this disease were also shown. In addition to all this the exhibit presented the different fungicides which have been found by long experience to be the most efficacious in the destruction of the fungus and fungous spores which come in contact Avitli cultivated plants, and to effect such destruction without injuring tlie plants themselves. The various ingi-edients of these fungicides were also exhibited. The wax model again came into play to illustrate a hundred or more diseases of leaves, branches, and fruit. In the case of citrus fruits, wax models of diseased and of healthy plants were shown, together with colored maps, illustrating the distribution of the various diseases in Florida. In the cotton exhibit of this division a number of the principal diseases were illustrated by means of colored paintings, which showed different stages of the diseases known as anthracnose, root rot, blight, etc. In this exhibit there were also models of dis- eased and liealthy bolls. There were also enlarged photographs and maps, illustrating the distribution of various diseases in the United States generally and llicii- ('(Tects as seen in the field, and large 516 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. photographs showing machinery at work in applying the fungicides, and illustrating the beneficial effects resulting from the application of such remedies. (See PL IX.) EXHIBIT OP THE OFFICE OF FIBER INVESTIGATIONS. At the entrance to the Department exhibit, the Office of Fiber In- vestigations brought together a collective cotton exhibit, including a series of 320 specimens, illustrating the American fiber industries. A series of cotton samples showed the progressive stages in the farm industrj' from the cotton boll to the baled lint, in the manufacturing industry from the open lint to the cloth, and in the cotton-seed oil in- dustry from the seed to the refined oils, soaps, etc. There was also a large and interesting collection of lint cotton, representing every sec- tion of the cotton area. Samples pertaining to the American fiber industries were so arranged as to show in consecutive series the raw product, the preparation for market, the spun yarns, and a few of the princiijal manufactures. In the flax series the old household industry was fully illustrated. American, Irish, and Belgian straw, as grown and as retted, v/ere placed side by side for comparison, and a score of samples of American flax demonstrated that superior flax can be grown for fiber in this country without sacrificing the seed produced. The hemp and cordage fiber industries were similarlj^ illustrated, and the native, uncultivated, bast fibers that might become hemp or jute substitutes were also shown. The interesting i)roducts derived from the saw and cabbage palmettoes of Florida filled four panels, and the fiber and manufactures from pine needles and from Spanish moss illustrated two peculiarly Southern fiber industries. (See PI. IX.) To the student of the fiber economy the exhibit formed an interest- Ing object lesson, i)articularly when studied in connection with the published reports of the Office of Fiber Investigations, and well illus- trated the work of that office, the purpose of which is to collect and disseminate information regarding the cultivation of textile plants and to investigate the merits of new machines and processes for pre- paring them for manufacture. EXHIBIT OF THE OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS. A very small space was allotted to a very large agency of the Department, namely, the Office of Experiment Stations. The main business of this office is the examination of the work of the agricultural experiment stations throughout the country, and the collation and publication of data regarding experimental inquiries in agriculture for the information of farmers and others interested in the progress of the science and art of agriculture. In the limited space at its com- mand this office showed a number of its i^ublished records of investi- gations, and pointed out to the visitor the location of the various experiment stations throughout the United States, giving the ten. Yearbook U, S. Oept, o( Agricullure, 1895 Plate IX. i@ [InHp^i.'^ 1 H ^S^^^^S^H ■IKt^ JblEMI j ^^^^SI^H^^difSBI^^ H^l r ^^^■*w>^ ^m Wm\ W^m 1 >- .*% 1 «isi5' _ ■> <■ - " •■ Fig. 2. General View of Exhibit of Department of Agriculture at Atlanta Exposition (left of main aisle'. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AT ATLANTA EXPOSITION. 517 pi'iiioipal linos of work piirsuod l\y these stations and tlie lines to which each station especially applied itself. To give a tangible and graphic idea of some of the results attained selections were made of certain important lines of work in dairying, the feeding of farm ani- mals, and entomology. Charts illustrating experiments In feeding farm animals were also shown, and, the most interesting and important of all, an exhibit was given illustrating the investigations of food and diet which have lately been undertaken by the office. The characteristic excess of fat in Southern rations was made evident, as was also the abundant meat diet, while the Northern fare was shown to contain more milk and starchy food. The special objects of the food work of the Depart- ment is to find out what food materials people actually buy, how much they pa J" for them, what nutriment they contain, and what the relation is between actual nutriment and cost. Experiments are carried on in various sections of the country, and are awakening a considerable interest in the subject among the people. This was shown by the in- terest with which the illustrative exliibits were examined by visitors to the Exposition, and by the numerous requests made for the explan- atory bulletins. A pleasing feature of the exhibit was the portraits of Senator J. S. Morrill, of Vermont, and Hon. W. H. Hatch, of ^lissouri, who, as the originators of the bills providing for the establishment and mainte- nance of the agricultural colleges and experiment stations, were re- spectively designated the " Father of the Agricultural and Mechanical Colleges" and the "Father of the Agricultural Experiment Stations." EXHIBIT OP THE DIVISION OF PUBLICATIONS. All this work of the Department, illustrated by the exhibits that have been described, would be of comparatively little service to the people of the country were it not for the fact that it has been em- bodied in a multitude of bulletins, reports, etc., which have, for the asking, been sent broadcast throughout the land. This, of course, makes the number of yearly publications by the Department some- thing enormous, and this work is carried on by the Division of Pub- lications, which had a modest exhibit in connection with that of the Office of Experiment Stations. This exhibit was unique in that it repi'cscnted tlie work not only of the division itself, but of all the divisions, bureaus, and offices of the Department, the preparation of whoso published reports of experiments made and results achieved it is the duty of this division to supervise. A complete set of the publications of the Department in distinctive bindings was displayed in a handsome case, the volumes covering the period from 1837, when the Department of Agriculture had its incep- tion as a section of the Patent Office, to June 30, 189r>. An illustration in practical book making was given, embracing all the work from the 518 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. submission of the manuscript to the complete book, representing in a striking manner the manifold duties of editorial work, proof reading, and the supervision of the printing of reports, bulletins, and pam- phlets of the Department. The objects exhibited comprised the orig- inal manuscript of the Yearbook for 1894 (of which 500,000 copies were issued) as edited and prepared for the printer, the galley and page proofs with the proof readers' marks thereon, the stitched vol- ume, and the completed book, all of which were exposed to view in a glass-top case. In this connection there were also given some samples of the vari- ous methods employed in illustrating the Department publicationSj embracing processes of wood engraving, i)hoto-engraving, half-tone, lithograph, heliotyi)e, etc., in different stages of completion from the drawing, or photograi^h, to the printed picture. This division had on hand thousands of the popular pamphlets of the Department, which it distributed free to applicants. Its exhibit also served as a bureau of information, in which capacity it furnished valuable assistance to visitors by answering inquiries in connection with the exhibit of the Department. EXHIBIT OF THE OFFICE OF ROAD IXQUIRY. Outside the Government builaing, occupying a space about 150 by 300 feet, was an object lesson very gratifj'ing to those interested in the good-roads movement which is spreading so rapidly throughout the country. The Department of Agriculture has, by collecting and disseminating information on the subject, done much to further this movement, and by way of exemj)lifying clearly and concisely the immense advantage afforded by good roads, it built as its exhibit at the Exposition a sj^stem of parallel roadways, about 50 feet apart from center to center, including a modern macadamized road, a sand road, and a dirt road. Th^ grades of all the roadbeds were alike, each being divided into 50-foot lengths, the first of which was level, the gi-ade of the other lengths rising at the rate of 2 feet in every 100, 4 feet in 100, and G feet in 100, respectively, making each road 200 feet long. The macadam road had, in addition, two 50-foot lengths rising 8 feet in 100 and 10 feet in 100, respectively. All the roadbeds were of the natural earth found on the terrace, which was a stiff red clay, with some sand near the surface. No further preparation than that of grading was made on any of the beds except that of the macadam road. After the desired grade of this road was obtained, it was built up into a macadam i)avement 6 inches deej) and 12 feet wide. On these specimen roads experiments were conducted to indicate the amount of draft on the different roads, in such manner that it could be readily observed b^- the spectator, and the difference of draft on good and bad roads jjlainly seen. This was done with the assistance of an instrument called a tractometer, which measured Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1895. Plate X. Fig. 1 .— Monogr.aphic Display of Southern Economic Timbers. Fig. 2.- Botanical Display of Southern Forest Flora. DEPARTMENT OF AGKICULTUEE AT ATLANTA EXPOSITION. 519 tho strain of the load on tlio team on each of the difTercnt roads. A wagon to which the tractometer was attached was drawn up and down the roads. On the smooth road the oscillation of the pointer arm of tho tractometer had a range of some 50 ponnds, while on the rutted dirt road it varied from 0 to 1,500 j)ounds, showing tliat, even while exerting the same average draft, a team is subject to much less fatigue on a smooth road. The experiment also suggested the desir- ability of having springs on the traces, or some other means of mak- ing the change of draft more gradual at the shoulders of the team, instead of subjecting it to the violent jerks which rigid traces trans- mit. In a general way the draft for the same load was found to be about eight times as much on the dirt road as on the macadam, and the draft on the sand road was nearly the same as on the dirt road when muddy. During these experiments a team of small mules readily drew 12 bales of cotton on a hea\^ wagon up the 10 per cent grade of the mac- adam road, the tractometer indicating a pull of 1,000 pounds, and the same team was comi)letely stalled in going down the 6 per cent grade of the sand road, after pulling the indicator to 1,900 pounds. Nine bales of cotton were removed before the load could be got in motion. The driver refused to venture at all on the dirt road with the 12-bale load. The road exhibit also afforded a test of the practical advantages of wide tires. A portion of the clay road was made thoroughly wet and a wagon with 2-inch tires and one with 4 and 5 inch tires were run over it.* Tho result showed how much less wearing on roads are Avide tires than narrow ones. That part of the road which the narrow-tired wagon traversed was cut and rutted to the depth of several inches, while the remainder was rolled by the 4 and 5 inch tires into a smooth surface. EXHIBIT OF THE DIVISION" OF FORESTRY. Owing to its size and importance as illustrating some of our forest resources, the display of the Division of Forestry was separated from the rest of the Department exhibit and housed in a special building known as the Minerals and Forestry building. (See PI. X.) An interesting exhibit of wood production greeted the visitor at the very entrance to this exhibit. It was a statistical pjTamid formed of blocks intended to show graphically the amount of wood material furnisliod by the forest resources of the South for every second in the year. The base block, containing about 300 cubic feet and represent- ing the entire amount of wood of all kinds and for all purposes, such as fuel, fencing, railroad ties, lumber, etc., indicated an annual con- sumption of about 10,000,000,000 cubic feet. A smaller block, of 48 cubic feet content, resting upon the base block, represented the amount of log material for lumber, timber, and bolt-size material cut per second, and indicated an annual output for all kinds of 520 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1,500,000,000 cubic feet of logs, corresponding to over 10,000,000,000 feet, B. M. One of the interesting facts shown by this particular exhibit was that the two hard-wood-producing States, Tennessee and Kentucky, cut a larger proi^ortion than the pine States. It was also demonstrated that the South furnishes so far onlj" one-quarter of the cut timber of the country, notwithstanding it still contains larger areas and the largest amount of standing timber, excepting the Pacific Coast, which is estimated to possess 1,000,000,000,000 feet of standing timber, B. M., while the Southern States possess 700,000,000,000 feet of standing timber. The forest geography of the South was shown bj' a series of maps, each representing one of the Southern States and showing bj^ colors the character of the forest growth in various portions of the State. Each map showed the distribution of broad-leafed and coniferous species, and to some extent the density of existing^ forests. One of the most interesting display's served to show the farmer in a verj^ graphic manner the costliness of a lack of judgment in making his clearings. The unintelligent denudation of the hillsides, in a country of large and precipitous rainfall, has caused, under careless cultivation, an erosion of these lands which has tuined thousands of acres of tillable lands into wastes, furrowed and gullied and denuded of its fertile soil. To bring home an object lesson of such irrational treatment, and to illustrate the methods of reclaiming these waste lands and the possibilities of an improved agriculture on all the eroded soils of the South, a set of three relief models of an eroded farm was shown. (See figs. 80, p. 334; 81, p. 335; 82, p. 33G.)' To accentuate this object lesson, a large relief maj) of the Holy Land, bearing the inscription, "The land where once milk and honey flowed," was hung up over these farm models, and it was further shown that trees so wastefully cut as to destroy the forest in a very few years require manj" years to again i^roduce material fit for the saw. This important fact was illustrated by a section of longleaf pine, the ring growtli of which indicates an age of 372 years. The entire arborescent forest flora of the United States, comprising, among the richest and most varied species on the continent, repre- sentatives of 53 families, 136 genera, and nearly 300 species, were displayed by a series of panels requiring not less than one thousand square feet of wall space, each species being represented by botanical specimens, with flower and fruit, a wood section of the bark, and a label with a map giving the field distribution, the characteristics of growth, and the uses of its wood. One of the most attractive displays was that of ornamental woods. While the beautj' of the tropical and semitropical woods lies in their rich warm colors, as could be seen in the exhibit of Argentina, near by, the beauty of North American woods was shown to lie mostly in tlieir variegated grain. Yet, as the polished Avoods exhibited by the State DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AT ATLANTA EXPOSITION. 521 of Arkansas sliovred, the variety of color of our woods Avoukl suffice even in that respect for all ornamental needs. The one ^reat thing, howevei-, in which our timbers excel those of the tropics Avas shown to be their general serviceableness in construc- tion. AVithin the last four years the Department of Agriculture, through its Division of Forestry, has undertaken a systeniatic study of the properties of our more important timbers, the work being desig- nated "Timber physics." These studies Avere illustrated by a very complete arrangement of specimens in small sizes as well as large beams and columns, which had been tested at the laboratory, and others which were designed to show the relative strength of various timbers. Large tested columns and beams, built up in trestle form, and also tension and cross breaking specimens, were so combined as to illustrate the comparative abilit}^ of the different species to resist the various loads and strains to which timber is subjected. The Division of Forestrj^ has j^roved by a series of careful tests that timber bled for turpentine is in no wa}" impaired in strength or dura- bility. The erroneous notion that it is has not only prevailed for a long time among engineers, architects, and woodsmen in general, but some of them have even gone so far as to claim that they could recog- nize the timber which came from bled trees. To shov/ the imi)ossi- bility of this, a series of sections, selected from both bled and unbled trees, were exhibited for venturesome guessers. The "Story of the Knot" was told on a panel, showing the gradual development of these blem-ishes of lumber. Few lumbermen even know that all knots originate in the very center of the tree, where all branch growth begins, and that, therefore, in order to produce clear timber, trees must be groAvn closely together, so that the side branches may soon die from lack of light and break off, the ver}^ heart only remaining knotty as the result of the broken-off limbs. Other defects commonly found in lumber, such as dry rot, pegginess, moon rings, wind shakes, etc. , w^ere shown in a special collection of cuts. A small section of the exhibit was also devoted to the illustrations of the various by-products which the Southern forests furnish, including sugar production from the maple, and an illustration of the turpen- tine industry, which received the largest share of attention ; all the latest tools and methods emploj-ed at present in securing these prod- ucts of the forest were displayed. In ordei- to illustrate the beauties of grain in the cypress, a large log was cut into unedged boards, half of them 1 inch and the other half 2 inches in thickness. These were arranged fan shape, permitting an examination of tlie material from the slab to the center cut, and illus- trating the usual method of sawing. One surface of each piece was finished smooth; the other was left as it came from the saw. An exhibit of hickory handles was one of the most satisfactory of the entire display. It included sections of hickory logs, showing the 522 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. shape in which the material was received at the factory, with split bolts also. From these raw materials the several stages of manufac- tiire, as turned out by the various machines, were arranged in consec- utive order; ax, -picli, hatchet, and many kinds of hammer handles were thus illustrated, giving the Adsitor a comiDrehensive idea of the methods of manufacture. When it is known that a single handle factory uses fifty cords of the best hickory wood a day, the magnitude of this industrj' becomes apparent. In the same manner the manu- facture of wagon stock and oak furniture Avas illustrated. The man- ufacture of veneer goods was shown, and the use of persimmon and dogwood in the manufacture of shuttles and bobbins, the great oak stave and cooperage industry, the importance of '-vood in organ and piano making, and many other lines of manufacture were suggest- ively displayed, giving to this section of the exhibit an unusual in- terest. In this comprehensive exhibit of the forestry work of the Depart- ment the educational idea was, for the first time in America, made superior to the commercial in an important exhibit showing natural resources and extent of exportation, and the interest excited proA^ed the utility and success of the method. If the foregoing account of some of the most important exhibits of the Department giA'es the reader an idea of the nature, purpose, and scope of the work of the Department of Agriculture, it will haA^e serA^ed its purpose. APPEJN'DIX/ ORGANIZATION OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE [Location, The Mall, between Twelfth and Fourteenth streets.] Secretary of Agriculture, J. Sterling Morton, The Secretary of Agriculture is charged with the supervision of all public busi- ness relating to the agricultural industry. He appoints all the officers and employees of the Department, with the exception of the Assistant Secretary and the Chief of the Weather Bureau, who are ai^pointed by the President, and directs the management of all the di^asions, offices, and bureaus embraced in the Depart- ment. He exercises adWsory supervision over the agricultural experiment sta- tions deriving support from the national Treasury, and has control of the qiiarantine stations for imported cattle, and of interstate quarantine rendered necessary by contagious cattle diseases. AssiST.\JS'T Secretary, Chas. W. Dabney, jr. The Assistant Secretary performs such diities as may be prescribed by the Sec- retary. To his office has been assigned the control and direction of the scientific policy and operations of the following divisions and offices: The Di-visions of Bot^ any. Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, Agrostology, Pomology, Chemistry, Economic Ornithology and Mammalogy, Entomology, and Agricultural Soils; the Office of Experiment Stations, the Office of Irrigation Inquiry, and the Office of Fiber Investigations; and the Department Museum. Chief Clerk, D. MacCuaig. The Chief Clerk has the general supervision of the clerks and employees; of the order of business, records, and correspondence of the Secretary's office; of all expenditures from appropriations for contingent expenses, stationerj', etc.; of the enf(n-cement of the general regulations of the Department, and of the buildings occui)ied by the Department of Agricultvu'e. Librarian, W. P. Cutter. BUREAUS AXD DIVISIONS. "Weather Bureau (comer Twenty-fourth and M streets NW.).—C7i?e/, Willis L. Moore; assigned a >i Assistant Chief, Maj. H. H. 0. Dunwoody, U. S. A.; Chief Clerk. James R. Cook; Professors of Meteorology, Cleveland Abbe, F. H. Big©- low, Charles F. Marvin, Edward B. Garriott. Tlie Weatlier Bureau has charge of the forecasting of weather, the issue of storm warnings; the display of weather and flood signals for the l>enefit of agri- culture, commerce, and naAigation; the gaiiging and reporting of rivers; the maintv'nance and operation of seacoast telegraph lines, and the collection and transmission of marine intelligence for the benefit of commerce and navigation; the reporting of temperature and rainfall conditions for the cotton, rice, sugar, and otlier interests; the display of frost and cohl-wave signals; the distribution of meteorological information in the interests of agricultiire and commerce, and the taking of such meteorological observations as may be necessary to establi>.h and record the climatic conditions of the United States, or as ai-e essential for the proper execution of the foregoing duties. 'For subject-matter of appendix, see under Contents, p. 5. 523 524 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Bureau of Anoial Industry. — Chief, D. E. Salmon; Assistant Chief, G. M. Brtiinbaugh. The Bureau of Animal Industry makes investigations as to the existence of con- tagioiTS pleuro-pneumonia and other dangerous communicable diseases of live stock, superintends the measures for their extirpation, makes original investiga- tions as to the nature and prevention of such diseases, and reports on the condi- tion and means of improving the animal industries of the country. It also has charge of the inspection of import and export animals, of the inspection of vessels for the transportation of export cattle, and of the quarantine stations for imported neat cattle; supervises the interstate movement of cattle, and inspects live stock and their products slaughtered for food consiimption. The work of the Bureaix is assigned to the following divisions: Division of Animal Pathology, Inspection Division, Division of Field Investigations and Miscellaneous Work, and Dairy Division. Division of Statistics. — Statistician, Henry A. Robinson ; Assistant Statistician, Henry Farquhar. The Division of Statistics collects information as to the condition, prospects, and harvests of the principal crops, and of the numbers and status of fann animals, through a corps of count}' correspondents and the aid of a supplementary organi- zation under the direction of State agents, and obtains similar information from Euroi:)ean countries monthly through the deputy consul-general at London, assisted by consular, agricultural, and commercial authorities. It records, tabulates, and coordinates statistics of agricultural production, distribution, and consmni^tion, the authorized data of governments, institutes, societies, boards of trade, and individual experts, and issues a monthly crop report and occasional bulletins for the information of producers and consvimers, and for their protection against com- bination and extortion in the handling of the products of agriculture. Office of Experiment Stations. — Director, A. C. True : Assistant Director, E. W. Allen. The Ofiice of Experiment Stations represents the Department in its relations to the experiment stations which are now in operation in all the States and Terri- tories. It seeks to promote the interests of agricultural education and investiga- tion throughout the United States. It collects and disseminates general informa- tion regarding the colleges and stations, and publishes accounts of agricultural investigations at home and abroad. It also indicates lines of inquiry, aids in the conduct of cooperative experiments, reports upon the expenditures and work of the stations, and in general furnishes them with such advice and assistance as will best promote the purposes for which they were established. It is also charged with investigations on the nutritive value and economy of human foods. Division of Chemistry. — Chief Chemist, Harvey W. Wiley; First Assistant Chemist, W. G. Brown. The Division of Chemistry makes investigations of the methods proposed for the analyses of soils, fertilizers, and agricultiiral products, and such analyses as pertain in general to the interests of agriculture. It can not undertake the analyses of samples of the above articles of a miscellaneous nature, but applica- tion for such analyses should be made to the directors of the agricultural experi- ment stations of the different States. The division does not make assays of ores nor analyses of minerals except when related to general agricultural interests, nor analyses of water. Division of Entomolooy. — Entomologist, L. O. Howard; First Assistant Ento- mologist, C. L. Marlatt. The Division of Entomology obtains and disseminates information regarding Insects injurious to vegetation; investigates insects sent to the division in order to give appropriate remedies; conducts investigations of this character in differ- ent parts of the country; and mounts and arranges specimens for illustrative and musexim purposes. Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy. — Ornithologist, C. Hart Merriam; First Assistant Ornithologist, T. S. Palmer. The Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy studies the geographic distribu- tion of animals and plants, and maps the natural life zones of the country; it also investigates the economic relations of birds and mammals, and recommends meas- ures for the preservation of beneficial and destruction of injurious species. ORGANIZATION OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 525 DiviblON OF FoKESTRY. — Chief, B. E. Fernow; Assistant Chief, Charles A. Keffer, The Division of Forestry is occupied with experiments, investigations, and re- ports dealing with the subject of forestry, and with the dissemination of informa tion upon forestry matters. Division of Botany. — Botanist, Frederick V. Coville; First Assistant Botanist, J. N. Rose. The Division of Botany maintains the National Herbarium, publishes informa^ tion on the treatment of weeds, experiments with poisonous and medicinal plants, tests seeds with a view to their increased purity and commercial value, and inves- tigates other questions of economic botanj'. Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology. — Chief, B. T. Galloway; First Assistant, Albert F. Woods. The Division of Vegetable Phj^siology and Pathology has for its object a study of the normal and abnormal life processes of plants. It seeks by investigations in the field and experiments in the laboratorj'' to determine the causes of disease and the best means of preventing the same. It studies plant physiology in its bearing on patholog}'. Division of Agrostology'. — Chief. F. Lamson-Scribner; First Assistant, Jared a. Smith. The Di^nsion of Agrostology is charged with the investigation of the natural history, geographical distribution, and uses of grasses and forage plants, their adaptation to special soils and climates, the introduction of promising native and foreign kinds into cultivation, and the prepai'ation of publications and correspond- ence relative to these plants. Division of Pomology. — Poinologist, Samuel B. Heiges; Assistant Pomologist^ W. A. Taylor. The Division of Pomology collects and distributes information in regard to the fruit interests of the United States; investigates the habits and peculiar qualities of f rtaits, their adaptability to various soils and climates, and conditions of culture, and introduces new and untried fruits from foreign countries. Division of Agricultural Soils. — Chief, Milton Whitney. The Division of Agricultural Soils has for its object the investigation of the texture and other physical properties of soils and their relation to crop production. Office of Fiber Investigations.— »SfpectaZ Agent in Charge, Chas. Richards Dodge. The Office of Fiber Investigations collects and disseminates information regard- ing the cultivation of textile plants, directs experiments in the culture of new and hitherto unused plants, and investigates the merits of new machines a,nd processes for preparing them for manufacture. Office of Irrigation Inquiry.— C/iiV/, Charles W. Irish. The Office of Irrigation Inquiry collects and publishes information regarding the best modes of agi-iculture by irrigation. Office of Road Inquiry.— SpectaZ Agent in Charge, Roy Stone. The Office of Road Inquiry collects information concerning the systems of road management throughout the United States, conducts investigations regarding the best method of road making, and prepares publications on this subject. Gardens and Grovhh^.— Horticulturist and SupeiHntendent of Gardens and Grounds, William Saimders. The Division of Gardens and Grounds is charged with the care and ornamenta- tion of the park surrounding the Department buildings, and with the duties con- nected with the conservatories and gai'dens for testing and propagating economic plants. Division of Publications.— C'/wV/, Geo. Wm. Hill; Assistant Chief, Joseph A. Arnold. Tlio Division of Publications has entire supervision of the printing and publish- ing of the Department, and is especially charged ^vith the preparation, publication, and distribution of farmers' bulletins. It also has general super^^siou of the work of illustrations. The diWsion issues advance notices and a monthly list of publi- cations, and prepares for publication any information of special interest to agri- culturists. 526 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Division of Accounts and Disbursing Office. — Chief, Frank L. Evans; Assist- ant Disbursing Officer (in charge of Weather Bureau disbursements), A. Zap- pone; Cashier, Everett D. Yerby. This ofi&ce is charged with the adjustment of all claims against the Department; decides questions involving the expenditure of public funds: prepares contracts for annual supplies, leases, and agreements: issues requisitions for the purchase of supplies, requests for passenger and freight transportations, and attends to all business relating to the financial interests of the Department, including payments of every description. STATISTICS OF THE PRINCIPAL CROPS. Acreage, xtroduction, and value of corn and icheat in 1S05. States and Territories. Corn. Acres. Busliels. Value. Wheat. Acres Bushels. Value Maine New Hampshire . Vermont Massachiasetts -.. Rhode Island Connecticut New York- New Jersey Pennsylvania .-. Delaware Maryland Virginia North Carolina . . South Carolina. -. Georgia _.. Florida Alabama Mississippi -. Louisiana Texas Arkansas Tennessee West Virginia Kentucky Ohio Michigan Indiana Illinois -. Wisconsin , Minnesota Iowa Missouri Kansas Nebraska South Dakota... North Dakota... Montana Wyoming Colorado New Mexico Arizona Utah Nevada Idaho Washingt on Oregon California Oklahoma U,212 26,854 47,225 43,078 9,217 46,658 506,016 279,788 1,298,886 203,871 616, 83(> l,75;j,073 2,508,8;56 1,789,271 3,244,037 5.52,379 2,790,974 2.277,036 1,247,198 4,087,332 2,342,305 3,3:25,331 688,545 3,010,876 2,846,110 994, 090 3,702,310 6,821,a33 1,040,676 1,1.52,458 8,504,349 6, 613, 118 8,426,327 7,80t5,526 1,119,229 30,938 1,331 2,483 178,308 26,956 5,105 8,918 596 1,079 2, 153 1,847 284: 1,' 18,014 9,2:33 43,513, 4,281 16,531 33,607 36,378 19,860 43,17 6, 186 44,376 35,977 23,574: 107.905 50,359 8:3,153 16,662 93.9:59 93,783 33,600 121,435 255, 136 33,093 35, 956 298,503 2^8,073 204, 759 155,685 13,433 658 3:3 68, 3,690 733 133 181 1,656 5,454 13,395 65,416 50 93 2,256, $322,328 5.50,561 1,033,661 900,556 159, 491 901, 852 8,106,377 3,877,862 16, 969, 946 1,455,639 6.116,546 12,0<)4,618 13,82:3,797 9,136,018 17,;fflO,n7 2,907,733 16,419,300 13,311,553 9, 039, 714 33,4.50,725 16,11.5,059 23,445,917 6,66.5,116 25.363,619 2.5; 0.51, 460 10,753,077 27,930,227 56,130,042 9,938,049 7, 191, ass 53,730,477 47, 014, 450 38,904,352 22, 633, 312 2, 857, 393 158, 155 24, 956 38,931 1,513,300 410,594 99, .548 88,707 31,. 530 37,305 194,495 L 196, 133 4,366 2,494 6,382 403, 374 108.139 1,232,315 92, 181 458,868 699,525 688,196 134,160 214,630 49, 771 4,64S 365,200 154,500 655,310 406,017 871,673 3,422,234 1,154,379 2,205,933 L 733, 793 5.55, 885 2,851,485 700,245 1,541,064 2, 976. 567 1,33:2,353 2, 4.38, 434 3. 907, 510 44,. 570 7,63:3 119, ,500 39, 669 13 227 109; 086 .5,6.51 68,646 464,2.55 593, 136 3,084,446 227,426 83,808 48.134 185,078 7,301,069 1,340,924 30,456,439 1,009,300 7,800,756 6,505,583 4,748,553 &58,624 1,330,706 373.383 37, 184 2,081,640 1,452,300 5,766,728 4,303,780 9,501,225 32,315,579 15,337,803 20,294,492 19,060,712 8,616.218 65,584,155 13,654,778 IS. 199, 968 23,919,566 14,787.024 39,301, J88 61,0.57,710 1,005,233 198, 198 2,808,350 809,348 250,6*4 2, 443, 526 123, 627 1,2:21,899 7, 195, 953 11,863,730 40, 097, 798 2, 593, 656 $68,723 36,583 127,704 4,964,727 953.056 13,296,678 684,353 4,993,484 4,228,623 3,418,957 755,589 1,091,17» 298,626 23,68S L373,8Sg 856,857 3, .575, 371 2,969,608 5,795,747 19,329,347 9,142,683 11,567,860 10, 103. 177 4,394,371 28,857,028 6,281.198 9, 434, 984 iO. 313, 805 5,914,810 11,119,213 33,201,930 777,613 136,847 1,572,630 590, 751 162,935 1.075,151 60,087 574,293 2.950,340 5, 575, 478 24,058,679 1,244,475 Total . 82,075,830 2,151,138,580 544,985,534 34,047,332 467,102,947 237,938,998 STATISTICS OF THE PRINCIPAL CROPS. 527 Production and cxpoi'tn of corn since 1S03. Year. Total area of crop. Total pro- duction. Total value of crop. Value per bushel. Cents. 36.5 45.7 85.3 Yield per acre. Value per acre. Exports for fiscal years beginning July 1. 1893 Acret. 72.0:i6,465 62,582,26!» 83,075,830 Bushel i l,01<.t,4i4, 719, 162 544,985,534 Bushels. 22. b 19 4 26.2 Dolls. 8.21 8.86 d.64 Bushel*. 66, 489, .529 38,585,405 Per ct. 4.1 1894 2.4 1805 Pi'oduction and exports of ivheat since 1S03, Year. Total area of crop. Total pro- duction. Total value of crop. Value per bushel. Yield per acre. Value per acre. Exports for fi-^cal years beginning July 1. 1893 Acres. 34,629,418 34,882,436 34,047.a33 Bushels. 396,131,725 460,367,416 467,103,917 Dollars 213,171,381 225,903,025 337,938,996 Cents. 53.8 49.1 i30.9 Bushels. 11.4 13.2 13.7 DolU. 6.16 6 48 6.99 Bushels 164,283,129 144,813,718 Per ct. 41.5 1894 31.5 1895 Disposition of the corn crop of 1S95. States and Territories. Maine New Hampshire Vermont Massachusetts . . Rhode Island ... Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania . . . Delaware Maryland Virginia North Carolina. South Carolina . Georgia Florida Alabama Mi.s.sissippi Loui.siaua Texas Arkansas Tennessee West Virginia .. Kentucky Ohio Michigan Indiana Illinois Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri Kansas Nebra.ska South Dakota .. North Dakota .. Montana Wyoming Colorado Now Mexico Ainzoua Utah Idaho Washington Oregon California Total Crop of 1895. Stock on hand Mar. 1,1896. Retained and con- sumed in county where grown. Shipped out of county where grown. Bushels. Bushels. P.ct. Bushels. P.ct. Bushels. P.ct. 597,000 208,950 a5 597 000 100 1,080,0(J0 356,400 33 1 080.000 100 2, l.">3, 000 908, 8.50 45 2, 153, 000 1(X) 1,847,0110 609,510 33 1, 847, 000 100 as"),(KHI 1, 76S, 000 128,250 &>4,160 45 37 385. (XX) 1, 768, 000 100 100 18,014,000 7,56.5,880 43 17,39:5,440 96 720, 560 i 9,233,000 3,877,860 43 8,317,370 89 1,015,630 li 43,513.000 16,970.070 39 36,986,050 85 6, .536, 950 IS 4,281,(X)0 2,054,880 48 2,568,600 60 1,712,400 40 16, ,531, 000 7,273,6.10 44 11,341,080 68 5,389,920 3S 33,607,000 13,3t»,870 41 27,715,950 85 4,891,050 1& 36,378,000 18,5.52,780 51 a3, 4(i7, 760 92 2,910,240 8 19,801,000 10, 129, 110 51 19, 060, .560 96 794,440 1 42,173,000 24,0:58,610 57 39,230.890 93 2,953,110 7 0,187,0(J0 3,093,5iX) 50 5,4.14,560 88 743,440 n 44,376.000 23,188,000 50 39,494,0.10 89 4,881,360 11 3;5,977,OO0 21,5,86,200 60 34,178,150 95 1,798,850 6 2:J. .574,000 13,189.960 54 21,896,780 97 677,220 3 107,906,fX)0 51,794,880 48 94,957.380 88 13,948,720 12 50,300.000 25,180,0(X) 50 47,338,400 94 3,031,600 6 83,1.3;i,(XX) 43,239,160 63 06,506.400 80 16,(!36,600 20 16. 06:). 000 6,831,830 41 1.5,8,39,8.50 95 83:5, 150 S 93,9:59,000 46, 9(i<.l, ,500 50 79,848,1.50 85 14.090.850 IS 93, 78:5. 000 37,113,300 40 70, .515, 080 76 33.367.930 24 33,00O,(KX> 11,0.88,000 m 31,584,000 94 3,016,000 e 131,4:5().000 55, 860, 560 46 91,0:7,fXH) 75 30,a59,000 25 0,55, 1:^7. OfJO 133,671,340 52 16:5, 387. t;80 64 91,849,320 36 3;3,0<)4.(X,H) 11,. 58.3, 900 35 31,10.'<.:560 94 1,98.5,640 6 a5, 957. (XX) 17,018,9:50 49 33, (XII, 730 89 3, 9.5.5, 370 11 298, .50:!. WW 164.176,6.50 5:5 202,9,83,010 68 95, .530, 960 32 2:58,073.000 1.38,081,760 58 180,9:)4,730 76 57,1:37,380 24 301,7f)0. (K)0 100, Si::, 4(X) 49 153, 570, (XX) 75 51,190,000 25 l;i5,(i.'<.5.;i()0 57,815,J0O 46 94,26:5,7.50 75 31,431,350 25 13,4;.':5,0(K) 3,975,:S60 33 11,304,9:50 91 1,118,070 9 65!»,O00 310,880 33 645, 830 98 13,180 2 3:i4, 13, mi. 9, 696, 48(1, 663, 5,904, 215, 4,089. 14,110, 6,639, 305, 967, 10,581, 405, 33, 875, 000 37,096,000 689,415,0(Xt 52.805,000 1,201, 733, (KX) 407,358,000 47,137,000 33,875,000 579,650,000 55,792,000 1,410,588,000 358,948,000 39,731,000 37,096,000 3,433,332,000 2,481,805,000 10,000,000 4, 000, 000 20,274,000 4,014,000 38,288,000 7,a32,(X)0 15,282,000 9,531,000 44.3,000 1,051,000 8,642,000 477,000 42,458,000 87,608.000 253,784,000 45,000,000 22,000,000 16,000,000 2,000,000 425, 392, 000 12,000.000 10,700,000 28,900,000 3,195,000 54,795,000 6,708,000 15,736,000 14,047,000 537,000 800,000 5,046,000 426, (KX) 8:1,499,000 234,-379,000 40,000,000 22,000.000 16, 5'')0, 000 2,200,000 404,578,000 14,000,000 7,500,000 24,800,000 2,542,000 48,842,000 ,203,000 ,807,000 ,037,000 176,000 899,000 ,727,000 562,000 43,300,000 32,401,000 453,782,000 522,8.50,000 538,563,000 81 , 703, OCH) 104, 915, 000 85, 000, 000 1, 514, 298, (.W 1, .521, 02!<. 000 1, Uii, 233, 000 432, 384. OOO 38,288,000 43,458,000 425,393,000 404,578,000 54,795,000 48,843,000 43,360,000 33,461,000 2, 502, 913, 0UUI3, 072, 3-tl, 000 3, 552, 077, 000 STATISTICS OF THE PRINCIPAL CROPS. 531 Acreage, production, and value of potatoes and hay in 1S95. States and Ten-itories. Maino New Hiimpshire Vermont Massachusetts .. Rhode Island Connecticut New York-- New Jersey Pennsylvania . - . Delaware Maryland Virginia North Carolina.- . South Carolina. . Georgia Florida Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas Arkansas Tennessee West Virginia Kentucky Ohio Michigan Indiana Illinois Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri Kansfis Nebraska South Dakota-.. North Dakota... Montana Wyoming Colorado New Mexico Arizona -- Utah ..-. Nevada Idaho Washington Orcffon .- California Total Potatoes. Acres. 48 308 41 IS ■1 0 1 (i r> y u 21 38, 33 45 208, Z^y 10;5. 178, 179 151 201 !I8, im. ii'j: CI, 40, 5: 2: so: ,954,952 Bushels. 10,139,089 3. i;u, 930 5.1:^4,053 4,;50:!,(I82 1,010,712 3, ■l(i2. (156 51,740.3.50 4,()(KI,548 23,193,228 327, 758 2,3(i(i,4^10 3. IK) 1,32.5 1,461.026 4(11.1(10 o(U.(h;6 8'.i. '.125 ■l.sd. ]:>(J 3i;:{. l!t() 82: , 7,^1 1.27<),((82 ],47C).:i(K) 2,443,328 2,2!I7.6:!1 3,908.184 13,1(J7,024 23,916,497 6,945.570 13, 749, 197 19,2;k),040 2:3,!)91.036 21,340,980 10, 76;), 276 7,869,240 7,994.373 4.037.154 5,19.2.418 ;iss. 426 275. ,SIKJ 3.401.820 .50, 3t;o ,■.".•. 118 1,0(U.8.")2 213, (,(H) 41 1.-^, 240 2. 412. 757 1,124.544 1,888.425 ?J7,rr37,370 Value. §3,447,290 1,003,178 l,3:J4,a54 2. (hi5, 479 454, 82(J 1.410,CkK9 11,!H)2,,3.51 1,5(U.186 0. 404, 104 124.. 548 7(10.920 1.1.-.1., 476 58.5,440 82, 216 471, 106 4,873,:520 405. 443 2,843.(111 55. 372 34ii.o:w 6.S5. 4.8,8 1(17.816 144.0,^6 147..S3S 6,710 74. 087 76, no 36. 807 457,214 178, 66;^ 396,314 475. 246 513. 8(;5 1,803,5;5S 1,243,048 1,566,763 1,998,686 1,5,56,961 1,. 570, 591 4,270,910 2. .329, 731 3,372,007 1,829,7.52 1,959,200 412,2.37 311..3;i7 2;>(i.(K!3 810.408 46, 2:n 31,408 170, 575 155,i:!8 178. 8;;2 324. 472 055. 149 1,681,753 Tons. 1,127,031 590, 527 893, 959 649, 8;J8 74,817 40(j, 440 3, .557.524 5i«t, 486 2, 872. 047 68. 1(J8 4;16,298 774, 601 273, .540 144, 986 2:36,541 10, 280 116, 980 118.4:52 74. .5:52 676. 677 214, 396 a50, 870 3:37, 425 093, 718 1,046,064 720,968 955,725 1, 319, 13:3 1,370,1.26 2,041,768 4, 612, ,583 3, 725, 785 4,181,289 1,811,454 1,547,768 585, 377 292. 657 ,254. 883 1.061.187 120, (137 63, 655 459. 713 46'>.9ii5 4.50. ,508 600.273 1.166,lt;5 2, 791, 710 Value. §10, 009, 000 7,381,588 10,0.50.!)08 11,:372, 165 1,29(J,.593 0,447,084 48,7;iS,079 7, ,577, .503 35, 336, 178 &•», 193 5,039,343 8,8.5.3,689 2, 77:3, 696 1,104.793 3, .578, 397 i;36,(K)4 1,194, ,360 1, 4:39, 790 718,488 4, .3.51, 033 1,987,451 5, 965, 987 4,295.420 7, .589, 275 13,347,777 9,437,471 11.497,373 13,521,113 13,194,313 10.453,8,53 29,751,141 18, 5:35. 338 13,631.003 6,448,773 5.092,157 2.0:37,113 3,;!:30,290 1,656,740 11,. 512, 168 tHJ5,09o 572. 8a5 2,422,683 3.1.52.014 .2,872,488 4.0.51,,S43 7,1:36,930 19,709,473 '14,206,453 I 47,078,541 ■ 303,185,615 Acrcarje, production, and value of potatoes and hay in the United States for the years 1SD3-1S05. Year. Potatoes. Hay. Acres. Bushels. Value. Acres. Tons. Value. ]8a3 1894 3,605,186 2,737,973 2,954,953 ia3,034,203 170,787,3:38 297,237,370 $108,661,801 91,526,787 78,984,901 49,613,469 4«,:!21,272 44,206,453 &5, 766, 1.58 54,874,408 47,078,541 S.570, 883, 873 468, 578, 321 1856 393,185,615 No estimates concerning these products were made by the Department of Agriculture for the years 1889-1892. 632 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Acreage, production, etc., of the cotton crop of 189 Jf. States and Territories. Alabama Arkansas Florida Georgia Indian Territory Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Mississippi Missouri North Carolina . Oklahoma South Carolina.. Tennessee Texas Virginia Total Acres. 664,861 483,319 201,621 610,968 2a3,898 168 8,243 313,296 836,272 63,696 296,522 28,992 160, 391 879, 954 854,621 61,128 23,687,950 Bales. 854,122 709,723 48,005 1,183,924 104,887 67 2,685 731, 591 1,167,881 24,114 454,920 13,001 818,330 286,630 3,073,821 12.735 9,476,435 Bales per acre. Movement by rail and water, Sep- tember 1, 1894, to April 1, 1895. 0.32 .48 .24 .33 *45 .40 ,33 .55 ,41 .38 .35 .45 .38 .33 .45 .21 .40 Bales 776, 669, 46, 966, 104, 2, 677, 1,109, 23, 277, 15, 571, 261, 2,976, 12, 8,488,659 Remaining on planta- tions and at interior towns, April 1,1895. Bought by mills from September 1, 1894, to April 1,1895. Bales. 37,639 39, 173 1,433 62, 090 473 34,204 46,013 294 31,120 286 34,328 6,973 90,697 155 384,880 Bales. 39,578 1,088 155,543 9,544 13,746 145,933 213,826 18,563 7,076 602,896 The mill purchases shown in the last column of the foregoing table include only the cotton bought by Southern mills in the States in which they are located. To arrive at the total Southern mill purchases, there should be added 43,232 bales purchased in States other than those in which the mills are situated, and included in the movement by rail and water. Acreage, production, and value of tobacco in 1S05. State. Tobacco. Acres. Pounds. Value. Massachusetts . . Connecticut New York Pennsylvania. . . Maryland Virginia North Carolina. Alabama Arkansas Tennessee West Virginia . . Kentucky.. Ohio Indiana Illinois Wisconsin Missouri All other States Total 1 6 3 15 15 88, 143 2 3 53 3 223 35 13 4 3 10 3 3! 14: 12: 53; 114, 1. 2; 43, 2, 179, 25, 8, 3, 3, 160,000 928,000 722,000 3a5,000 796,000 433,000 .53.5,000 092,000 338,000 220,000 537,000 75.3,000 358,000 760,000 076,000 284,000 718,000 650,000 633,950 491,544,000 $442,400 1,638,120 253,096 1,058,670 742,168 4,274,560 10,636,300 98,280 264,084 3,025,400 283,024 9,636,909 1,318,616 770,880 246,080 213,517 758,466 123,7.50 35,574,220 Average farm price of various agricultural products on December 1 in each year from JSS6 to 1895. Crop. 1895. 1894. 1893. 1892. 1891. 1890. 1889. 1888. 1887. 1886. Corn per bushel.. Wheat do Rye do Oats do Barley do Buckwheat do Irish potatoes do Hay per ton . . Cotton per pound.. Leaf tobacco do $0,253 .509 .440 .199 .3:37 .4.52 .266 8.35 .076 .069 ^0. 4.57 .491 .501 .324 .443 .5.56 .536 8.54 .046 .068 $0,365 .538 .513 .294 .411 .583 .590 8.68 .070 .081 $0,393 .624 .548 .317 .472 .534 .673 8.49 .084 $0,406 .839 .774 .315 .540 .579 .371 8.39 .073 .084 $0,506 .838 .629 .424 .6i8 .577 .777 7.74 .086 .077 $0,283 .698 .457 .230 .427 .518 .403 7.88 .083 .071 $0,341 .926 .591 .278 .590 .6.36 .404 '.'oss' ^.444 .681 .544 .304 .522 561 .685 9. .34 .085 .103 $0,366 ,687 .531 .298 530 .544 .450 7.36 .081 .069 STATISTICS OF FARM ANIMALS. 533 Estimated number of horses and mtdcs on farms and ranches, average price per head, and total value of each kind, January, 1S96. States and Territories. Horses. Number. Average price. Value. Mules. Number. Average price. Value. Maiuo New Hampshire Vermont Ma-s.sachusett3 Rhode Island Connecticut New York New Jersey Penn.'iylvauia .-. Delaware Maryland Virginia North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Florida Alabama Mississijipi - Louisiana Texas Arkansas Tennessee West Virginia Kentucky Ohio Michigan Indiana niinois Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri Kansas -- Nebraska South Dakota North Dakota Montana Wyoming Colorado New Mexico Arizona Utah Nevada Idaho Washington Oregon California Oklahoma Total, 1896 Total, 1895 Decrease Decrease (per cent) 110,593 55,589 91,999 05. 103 10, (729 4;i, 913 6.54, 045 82. m 007.516 29, 974 134, 995 240. 040 144, 095 04,514 109, 185 :35, 103 128,330 183. 777 137.344 1, 18;^, 777 3a5, 018 344.440 101,353 417, r>S3 771,355 454, 010 094, 445 1, 179, 073 443, 853 488, 047 1,183,050 918, 415 857, 789 633,05:3 287,890 170, 104 182, 005 81,699 104,045 83, 803 56,449 71, 897 53, 501 134,705 193, 0.55 219. 115 483.818 38,333 1.5,134,0.57 15, 893, 318 709, 2(Jl $53.57 49.51 44.24 72.49 77.00 60. 55 47.77 6,5.47 47.13 53.68 44.75 39.80 ,54.36 59.01 52.90 50.09 43.53 39.77 35.45 20.73 33.76 39.95 33.93 34.78 37.88 44.74 34.18 29.36 43.19 38.44 28.79 35.09 24.(6 25.70 26.31 34.18 21.94 17.13 21.98 16.08 20.03 13.55 18.68 24.71 29.03 21.11 27.16 10. 17 33.07 30.29 $6,246,147 2,753,306 4,070,201 4,719,255 773, 186 2,932,361 31,24«,088 5,397,256 28, 629, 029 1,578,881 6, 040, 939 9,808,229 7, 833, 392 3,806,977 5, 775, 859 1,701,225 5,4.50,987 7, 209, .55:3 4, 808, 330 24,528,083 7, 719, 845 13,758,944 5,311,241 14,531,7,53 29, 218, 701 20,340,685 23,732,946 34,502,959 18,683,229 18, 783, 990 34,032,583 23,039,549 20, 609, 0.57 16,259,005 7,575,013 5,814,213 4,005,441 1,:?99.000 3, 018, ;J49 1,398, .509 1, 104, 770 903,149 1, 000, 2(J(J 3, 328, 570 5,574,950 4, 625, 783 13,114,264 619,638 500, 140, 186 570, 730, 580 4,674 7,880 36,509 5,209 13,213 38,248 110, 8(iO 95. 9.5.5 106, 040 8,357 137, 195 153,877 90.040 264, 0«;9 145, 519 182, 139 7,601 131,297 19, 475 3,020 50,431 97,453 4,92.5 8,991 34,044 231, 084 87, 520 43,709 6,937 7,607 994 1,445 8,888 3,747 1,221 l,7;i5 1,604 941 1,420 6,183 59,2.51 6,968 2,278,946 2,333,108 $59.43 84.51 60.73 66.07 61.03 55.80 59.31 73.70 67.50 65.09 53.19 51.. 50 50.30 34.50 43.39 43.05 43.38 30.10 41.18 47.19 37.77 36.24 44.04 40.99 30.13 29.84 32.53 35.03 33.20 54.72 26.63 32.23 45. .5() 34.65 27.53 33. .55 27. 99 31.i»0 39.48 27.63 35.03 23.37 45.39 47.55 3.22 70,590,394 54,103 2.20 $277,737 666,480 2,216,993 348,140 806,321 2,134,133 6,574,729 7,071,663 11,207,968 543,916 6,765,543 7,924,027 5,068,858 9,135,296 6,313,361 7,659,823 328,963 4, 740, 184 801,960 143,803 1,904,803 3,531,725 210,880 423,526 1,330,083 6,914,427 2,845,995 1,550,735 230,727 410,233 26,467 48,023 404,907 139,850 33,605 40,865 44,903 30,014 56,064 170,755 2,074,789 155, 167 103,204,457 110,937,834 7,723,377 4.8 13.3 2.3 4.8 7.0 Number and value of horses, mules, and milch cows in the United States for the years 1S91-1S9G. January 1— Hor.ges. Mules. Milch cows. Number. Value. Number. Value. Number. Value. 1891 14,ft56,750 15, 498, 140 16,2()0,8(J3 16.081, i:» 1.5,H93,.3]8 1.-., 121, (157 $941,823,222 l,007,.59;i,f;50 992,225,ia5 7e9,324,7!)9 570, 7;J0. .5H0 500,140,180 2, 296, .5:13 2,314,(iTO 2,3:11,128 2,3)3.2:51 2,:m. 1(18 2,278,940 $178,^47,370 174,8S3,070 104, 70:i, 751 140,3:33,811 11(1, 9,37, 8;U 10:{,30t.tf.7 16, 019, ,591 10.410,351 10,431,087 10,4S7,400 1(),5(H,(!29 10, l:i7,.5S0 $346,397,900 351,378,132 357,299,785 358,998,661 363.601.729 1893 1893 1894 1895 1896 303, 95.5, 545 534 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Estimated number of milch cows and of oxen and other cattle on farms and ranches, average price p^r head, and total value of each hind, January, 1896. States and Territories. Milch cows. Number. Average price. Value. Oxen and other cattle. Number. Average price. Value. Maine New Hampshire Vermont Massachusetts Rhode Island- Connecticut New York New Jersey - Pennsylvania -- Delaware Maryland Virginia North Carolina South Carolina .- Georgia Florida . _ _ - - . Alabama Missi .ssippi Louisiana Texas - - . Arkansas Tennessee - West Virginia - Kentucky - Ohio Michigan Indiana Illinois - "Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri -- Kansas - Nebraska' Sou th Dakota . - North Dakota - , Montana Wyoming Colorado New Mexico - Arizona - Utah -- Nevada Idaho Washington , Oregon California. Oklahoma Total, 189G Total, 1885 Decrease Decrease (per cent) 192,077 137, 694 2.58,471 174,572 24,703 i;j6,206 1,445,232 200, 347 917, 706 34,174 1.50, 477 205, ca5 272, 046 129.388 313, 711 114, a32 308,439 293, 870 100, 889 783,936 295, 827 3:30,690 17.5,029 303. 683 759,597 468,623 037,404 1,018,443 803, 902 00(1, 515 1,202,560 72:3,309 623, 893 534,197 292, 874 150, 571 43,086 18,333 79,975 18,383 15, 622 57,271 18, 196 28,034 117,381 113, 732 335, 646 28,888 10,137,586 16, 504, 629 367,043 $28.14 29.50 21.82 34.63 38.33 29.90 24.30 34.38 24.22 29.00 24.50 18.14 14.40 16.88 16.95 13.82 10. 91 13.81 14.10 17.89 12.87 1.5.53 20.54 20.38 24.25 25.16 24.70 27.46 22.21 21.44 25.78 24.00 23.13 21.93 20. 41 21.63 27.90 24.50 25.00 23.00 2.5.00 15.20 2-4.50 20.25 22.08 18.43 33.75 19.75 $.5,405,047 3,766,973 6,415,250 6,045,428 949,166 4,072,559 a5, 119, 138 0,887,930 22,954,893 991,046 3,686,687 4,818,619 3,917,462 2,184,069 . 5,300,451 1,522,903 3,365,069 4,058,345 2,353,135 14,024,615 3,807,293 5,135,616 3,59.5,096 6,189,039 18,420,237 11,788,039 1.5,743,879 27,966,445 17,8:33,453 13,875,043 31,001,997 17,&59,416 13,778,3n 11,709,598 5,977,553 3, 380, 631 1,174,199 449, 134 1,999,375 432,809 390,550 870,519 445,803 567,089 3,691,773 2,096,081 7,971,593 570,538 117,802 84,723 143,643 80, 476 11,596 69,390 597,428 47,487 610, 776 25,482 116,045 386, 675 363,585 158,450 540,916 361,054 523,329 485, 695 312. 123 5,518,044 610, 095 519. 124 296, 013 506,997 686,285 398,656 798,414 1,430,976 673,260 694,321 2,336,973 1,686,990 1,766,245 1,062,469 399,814 2.55,502 1,153,657 751,849 926,560 793,506 636,512 369,374 2.59, 078 395, 853 331,550 788, 452 888,832 155,645 $34.46 2-4.40 21.20 26.36 23.81 25.15 23.13 26.35 20.70 19.99 19.31 15.88 10.12 10.11 9.11 7.97 6.70 7.49 8.34 12.60 8.49 10.58 15.35 17.33 21.41 17.61 20.60 20.43 17.37 1.5.03 21.46 19.30 19.20 17.88 16.50 19.81 17.24 16.48 17.17 10.15 10.14 11.51 13.07 14.10 15.21 12.64 15.82 15.20 22. ,55 21.97 303,9:55,545 362,001,739 33,085,409 34,364,316 15.86 14.06 '.58 1,353,816 2,278,807 '1.80 $2,880,939 2,067,306 3,044,576 2,121,662 276, 120 1,745,494 13,813,491 1,251,502 12,042,879 509,258 2,241,000 6, 138, 896 3,680,393 1,601,346 4,926,936 2,878,718 3,507,353 3, 630, 691 2, 603. .311 69,520,010 4,388,084 5,493,215 4, ,553, 985 8, 786, 669 14, 693, 645 7,018,495 16,447,970 29,214,530 11,693,824 10,434,540 50,15.9,389 33, 6a5, 492 a3, 903, 604 18,980,269 6,597,768 5,061,518 19,883,720 12,389,717 15,910,331 8,056,069 6,457,164 4,353,114 3, 120, 940 5,583,492 5,803,003 9,962,040 14,057,319 2,365,031 508,928,416 483,999,129 «25,929,287 •2.6 '.4 6.6 >5.4 ' Increase. Progress of dairying in the United States. [From the Reports of the Census.] Milch cows. Butter, total amount made. Cheese, total amount made. Cream- eries aud cheese facto- ries. Milk, Year of Census. Total number. Per 1,000 persons. average yield per cow. 1890 10,511,950 13,443,120 8. 93;-), 332 8,58.5,735 6,385,094 264 248 232 273 275 Pounds. 1,205,508,384 806,672,071 514.092,683 469,681,372 313,345,306 Pounds. 2,56,701,883 243,167,850 102,927,382 103,663,927 105,635,893 Number. 4,712 3,932 « 1,313 »5 >8 Gallons. 315.4 1880 232.5 3870 205 9 1800 174.7 1850. 166.6 ' Cheese factories only. ^ The establishments reported for 1850, 1860, and 1870 were all cheese factories. The figures for 1850 are approximately correct, but those for 1860 are known to be much too small. STATISTICS OF FARM ANIMALS. 535 Estimated number of sheep and stcinc on farms and ranches, average Xirice per head, and total value of each Jcuid, January, 1S06. States and Territories. Maine New HampsLiro . Vermont Massachusetts ... Rhode Island Connoc ticut New York New Jer.sey Pennsylvania Delaware Maryland Virginia North Carolina . . South Carolina .. Georpria - . . Florida Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas - Arkansas Tennessee "West Virginia ... Kentucky Ohio... Michigan Indiana Illinois "Wisconsin Minnesota... Iowa Missoxiri Kansas Nebr:iska South Dakota North Dakota Montana WvoKiing Colorado New Mexico Arizona Utah.. Nevada Idaho Washington Oregon California Oklahoma Total, IfOO . Total, 1895 . Decrease Decrease (per cent) . Sheop. Number. 258, &36 87,111 181,550 4.H,395 11,279 ;!4.520 899,179 45, 089 907, 672 12,a58 129,884 420. 889 343, 194 74,405 378, 709 101, 777 271,111 343.996 140, .571 005.2.56 188, 972 439.466 514. 783 8.58, -nm 7.>t,013 491,079 727,509 094,470 770,350 435,381 505, 137 774,738 258,390 192,620 320,247 a59, 828 001,502 393,093 319.049 738,030 746, .546 998,441 5U,077 011.8.52 7;>0,3t6 O;^), 949 902. 120 38, 298, 783 42,294,004 3,995,281 9.4 Average price. S2.07 2.12 1.93 3.30 3.38 2.66 2.38 4.04 2.16 2.89 2.08 2.10 1.39 1.47 1.37 1.85 1.15 1.23 1.39 1.25 1.29 1.48 1.74 1.87 1.91 1.91 2.30 2.41 1.94 1.94 2.48 1.91 1.00 2.17 1.95 1.98 1..55 1.80 1.71 1.00 1.25 1.58 1.71 2.25 1.74 1.36 1.85 1.65 1.70 1.58 '.12 »7.6 Value. $536,438 184,849 349, .593 1,59, 703 38,067 91,893 2,137,798 182,340 1,957,007 35,739 348, 375 894, 700 478, 009 109,702 519,368 188,573 311.534 4213.115 203,353 3, 839, .540 244,662 051,003 894,281 1,003,2.57 5,247,533 2,843.189 1.069,779 1,070.087 1,498,176 844, 290 1,399,279 1,475,9.53 413, 906 417,234 024, 354 710, TXi 4,740,429 2,513,944 2,2.51.881 2,732,554 930,190 3,157,537 930, 372 3,281.726 1,318,402 3,590,983 5,483,784 36,887 65, 167, 735 60,085,767 Swine. Number. ^^^{^1^ 78,403 .56, 400 78,572 00,726 14,433 53,737 at5, 4;« 103,281 1,03:3,104 .52, 167 3:38,659 9a5, 748 1,427,345 945, 063 1,9.54,241 395,254 1,848,898 1,940,755 888, 720 3, 0.35, 119 1,. 503, 100 1,910,749 375, 042 1,088,594 2,450,020 720, 094 1,054,772 2,:392,98() !K)2, .507 .500, 957 4, a54, 507 3,109,411 1,070,487 1,289,726 100,004 117,949 52,087 15,8*1: 23,419 31, 787 20,095 50,621 11.590 77,518 239,413 252,085 507, 401 02,811 42,812,759 44, 105, 710 1,518,032 1,322,9.57 2.3 3.0 $7.60 7.76 7.42 8.44 9.80 8.94 6.50 7.78 6.26 6.40 5.33 3.82 3.92 4.33 3.55 3.16 2.86 3.09 2.85 3.59 3.53 3.34 4.03 3.59 4.41 5.83 4.73 5.14 6.27 5.11 5.66 3.90 5.07 5.01 5.22 5.14 6.91 7.20 5.73 5.63 7.39 6.95 6.26 5.14 4.35 3.17 4.03 4.77 4.35 4.97 13.5 ' Increase. Number and value of oxen and other cattle, and also of sheep and sicine, trith the total value of all farm animals in the United States, 1S91 to 1S96. Oxen and other cattle. Sheep. Swine. Total value of farm ani- mals. Number. Value. Number. Value. Number. Value. 1891 36,875,648 37,651,239 35.9.54.196 30,008.168 34,361,216 32,085,409 $.544,137,908 570.749,1,55 .547,882,204 536, 7K9, 747 482,9'.I9,129 508,928,416 4.3,431,136 44, 9:iH. ;«>.-, 47, 273, S.--):) 45,048,017 42,2t)4,fl04 38,298,783 ■^lOS .397 447 sn cfl^ lOft '«oin i(n vn '*•> vrt ?»? rrn 189'J 116,]21,2!K) 125.tt()9,204 89,180,110 60,685,707 05,167,735 5:^:5i^H,019 40,(K.M.Hl7 4.5, 201), 498 44, lti5, 716 42,842,759 1893 1894 ;.'95, 420. 4!t2 2ro,:i.«i,tL'0 219,501,207 186,529,745 2.4Si.;5(H;,68l 2,170,816,754 1.819,446,306 1,727,936,084 1895 18% 536 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. •2681 00 iOCOCCr-troiOcCR •t68I •8681 r-INi— imCO O5001O •S68I ^ :D O iO 04 »C1C -^ »i50 oooocoodaocoooccooojcb •1681 'ii -* -* c^ CO CO CO coco t- i.~ l-^ L-^ t-^ t-^ l^ t-^ t- t^ t-i •SCSI •t68I •8681 •S68I •T68I QOOlOOlQOO-*Q«51.0CO-*fflOCOrHO-*CO!--COCO-*Og5CO>.OCONl.7 0'J5 5DOSa?QOl— QOt-U5 ^s-'!2'^''~«ococ<(^ioirt>--io^-^ocoooio556oioc.iooico''>ioa>«io-^cocococ^ 00'^QCOsOOOi^HOC005C^>i^cO»f^r-l^^^lCOt^^t*?C-^30COiOOC5'M»rt^COt^t'0-^OOCO»0 ioino50coi5toccoOi-(coc;i-coc>i».oirH55co-HOiAio253e5 • o i>: »H ti I ■ coococoQococooQOost-Hi^cpiO'^1— iooi~-»^»ocomcD':DOQt^co-<**osi't^^^CiOooo»nt^O rHCOCOCCSlflCO->*-*0»JOrtor-i-^ooi.ocoooit-.-*M-*r-icn^ia55>Scoo £Jcoc;':r:t--^rH--iJcioi^T-HO^i-H^ooioiQdcooooio5c6t^t^t^'«i^o«o-^"^co-^co COOOOTit--O^OOi-^OOi-HOOTONiOt-«?COi-HrHfflC5l:~t-OOI^o55cOr-(e5oiSOO>5 i3o ^i-H 0io-^10-4-*ON-H— -^l:-^t-^03>OW5«6cOC^ |>0>0 •S68I !■* rOCOOQ^COO no I lO CO CO ■* ■* ■* ■^coNW-*T-5i>ii-is5»raM«oSt-co3 ■t68I •868T •S68I , CD CO O CO Ol jt^OOOt- U3 -S »0 i-l rl IS , oo -* "J3 >c oj -j^ in = to I— to t- 00 t- t- :3 :8 poms ) »rt -H C''l t— I 02 iratoc coco- t0DO*O ■ lOt-t- SSl 1— ll~C5mOCOOCOQt-i— ICOi-IOCOCGO(M>CQ iO-^-*'*-^-*coco-^^cococo»ct.^o>;5io^cD » t- OM C5 o ci"o "M "O CO >5 colb"co ■* lo TeJo COi-0 0>0-*lO-*-*-*COCOCi5COCOO>AcO ■U53 •T68T ■ «cico>nio»o->*<-*co^co-<*<'yiiOL-iot-.i-.Si- •S68I iScOCOCOCOCOCOS-lMNClCJCOCO-^-^CO-^COCOOlCOClCOIMNNMr-liHr-d-lr-liHr-lrHi-C^ICOSi-* if6 ■^681 ■8681 ;-*-vi3'*-*-*cocococccoco-*iooffl»o-*-*co^cocococococoojcoco»^Ncococo5icO'3<-9<3 JS K "C CO II ci CO p o o ic oo lO in -f CO « in !-( i^ "f i-i oj r-H 00 -* o '^^ oo t- 1- as CO in i~ w itp 00 1- o {•- - ^-*-*-W-^-o-*-*-WcocococococoMN«w»JWNe^di55co^c^ •S68T lO'*COOp05005r sg^ CC>lC*-*-*l0» CD«Dl^cDOCDOi>.0000 "OOcO •OiC':0C0C0t5o»COO"^M<*0-^^C0C0l^Ol5t-55-^-^ •t68I •8681 5»6ooc UOi—(0005(M:piOi— tOi'OCO'^C:50CO'*CO»000 -*i.o "OCO ^i OCOlO-^i^-^-^O-***!© co-*cnoco-*comoopco»j tooinotoeosiooo l^ L- O O t— CO t- 05 05 OOliCl—OJt^t-^l^COi-H^r-lCSCOCQp^CO — lOS^lOlOPCO •g68T (Moot- ■ £- iC CO r 0-* CD as coo >a>ai ioococooci-t-L-cooios mOCgmt— OOt--7fCO!MrHpcONO^H'MOicpoOOQOC3>r5 L-OOOi,-CDCOCOCOK50COOuO"0»C>raiOCo3lOOOt-CDt- •I68T 'SS2:Sa52S2£Jcso 'OP ■t-pcooooir-ioi-o-t'ooi— lOcoco-MO-^MCOnicmt "OPOOPOOOf-HTH II— to iO0roCiaiC5O5CSCC0000t>»CO00t-l--t-t-00COt--00l:-t-C •S68T ■t68I •888T „-*I-^ooo•10I-ll0^^c>■*l-rl--oop>-(^-.^-t--p^C3^-p^-^-•'^JCO'^loOIOP030co•*lC«^l--lco•oo> ^iou3-*iooo-*-*cocococom-3i-*-*coco^cocON^c*oirowoO00rt-*»O>QOt-t-i000rtC0C5(MCOl~p5b--tlc6Qt-31U0C0U5pc0Pp-*e'!i!Srtu'5PQ0 42l--l'COOl^COCOOlO-<*lO-*'*COOl-lO->( p ■* CD p P O 00 crs in t- -* >C C5 1.0 CO O ".O O r-H i~ -r»" t- o — 1 1~ ■.•? 00 O CO i-( rH CO oo ^CDiCCDOOCDi0O-*-*M<-*Soiac0ini0l-0i0-*C0O-*'*<^C0:0C0C0T!C0C0T!C'JC0t-cDlQt-*3 o •S68I 50ococoSi55<-*oiaiomoibioS^'<*^>o^^-*<-*cococo«icococScS-*S3SSSS •I68I «pf-coooosocDio»-iQcopoooo5 0cocopinpco?jpt-i3poo<^-«rf C5 rli-lOO ideiaot-^ ssgg ,feSSS j CO C 00 —I ■^63 CO "^ s$s 8mS3 I CO CC CC ^ t i5-*-iico > ssss couSio esss" ice" >» (► 4 A 95- CJ5 s ^ W o " § o -19^ ca 0) bi o [x< t^ n o cc ' ^rHX-*'fl-l' ■*-*?^rH.-| OCsSoOCJ Sciciooci comtoSiSS !=i J- 1 -. »J (M O jdsssss °^^^2^ ^^^^^ js^ss^ s" sssff fi'^i^'i iisis fasfil s^Iii ^- 5 c? sSc^s 5^^ g? SSSiS^ g-^^35J3 §§i§SS cococococo ^ss^ss ^5i*3;5^ s?sjo?og? 1:5 b- '-t* '4' 1— ( "S C^l iC ^^ O --I* iS ; fi->i!o5c?S .«^ 88S^g ^S335 Mra -* ) o 1:5 10 1^ ! -^ liS U- -* ooom^^i 00 1— O CO o . « -* J^ 00 ffl ■Q •■£ "-3 O « la M^' ' ' ' . CC t- CO I— 1 •«* COC "Qi- :d O o >o 25 > I'fiSloSS '^ s s? : i-i •* i-i oj ■* «2 riS'H O t— b- CO CO I- »/5 »C If? 10 «=io ^3 il^ .(-COCOC5M "O t- «- O CO I- Is ■ ■ ■ ■ 'ico M S Iff S 5 10 3 - o t- »s lo 8^ •St. 5?$S5 S ^ CCCO-^CCCO '^lO-'^t^O'^ -^cocoww ^'i^?^^ rHr-(«550 OCD-t*'M:D C^b-C^M^ ir5»r5-^-*-* ■^-H'^^-ri* ooioC-5^ ^wc^^to SS5 ^^SSr'ffi 7ii^S.?2ri r-!oc2'^^05 »r-o>-it--t< -*u5ooo5t- ^^^^'^^ OcccD«5o lOiOiftiC-* U!«:~t~iO»ra iSSficfeSsJo . M lO j3 mjo S^'S'-H^ S'^ojcDio* ■* IS'qoo S'^iSTfTin $9c SSuS S5SSSS 0 4) t> o a) O 5) cj ° a? P ff o o a> 538 YEARBOOK OF THE U- S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE. <; -^ t-l r-i r-i r-i cc o ~ o t- ct cc c5 ro 5-1 1- X 00 1~ o oggg^ '=35§8 CC OC t* 30 CS S o ■ • • • "I o •^ «^ ^t- CO ^ ^ 00OSC5 o C^' C-. ^.' O X I- := 5; O S5 e§ 3 -^ r-. 51 X o; •-•;»= o iri >a i- c; X X li c: X 30 M Fsi'ss >^ O CV X X 00 ei X t^ :o N oxxxao ec CO :2 CI (M sss? >.- >~ CI CI X L.-^ t:? O to O -J tscQcet- «~ -I -* >,-; X L* O t-* O O OiCi^kOO o ij rs -*• <- t- 15 la c; C2 OOOlO-Tll-l CO c. c- o: OJ 10 1.*; I— I Q io -f CO 1- c; l^ 'MOt-i c:e5tD«4c OC ^ — . M .-H »r5 ir? o ut o CO o o o ■» ciMi-HiyiA i-Q — xcj l~C5 1--XC3 X c. 0 o o l-l-i-ol- f* O »-•; la O t-- O I'- c5 «o "C o-JrHr-SrH CO X :; rr i^ X I- I- i- 1- 00 1- 1- 1- 1- o to t- o o TJCJO ■* 1- o -js o cj t— N CO .-I j; OOSOO •s o ,M C5 «- CO -^ ■•■5 T3 CJOOOO -*c: CSir^x X l~ i- I- 1- CO «.- I- 1- i.- QCCSNCOO u o t~ o ;o «4« -<»<*-+• gXl-! iCi.Oi 1-ooi-r^ 10 t- sr --= Q IC O to L.0 o --23 lilal i ill al « III a a I ^c25l(S ^c?.c^^^ ^IS;I(^ PRICES 01 5 ?s o>j il a AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. , i ■ • ■ ■ o -^ 9> 00 30 5C C5r-4 o n r5 «l ri 5>l « •3 55 m •3 «» SSJ42S ejt- Q Sr£l'-7'7<- ujiiCi'MO cStjoi.^o ^ i~ «5j5jSm ?iij*l?ic-l ?Scc?j?t?? e? ?i?i CO « M Jl CO WMw??!! S^«Jie3 03 1- -^ ■ Tl 5^ W 01 IJ ' C-5 isa?i?is oi cjS 00 — 3:c-l ll ?5r;S ?i?Si!SJ5 8: s^^sss uc 30 CSC: urrfioioi eJJS M O «> 00 »— 539 w 1^ « eo CO rf o SSei i^ -^ W-» K*v -4« cocj3oa;C3 ■a S ■ ■ ■ ■ rt M; 21 SJ -O coTOrfrtc-3 . r2 '^ — rr 3 cj -* c-j -j i.-s ;rtcor:;coco rfcoc-5c•5^3 JJ -.2 N C5 ej S-! N TO C^ CO 01 H CO CO 0! OJ H « OJ ej?i?j?:71 rt t-l i~ oc ?i ■^-i-corST)) !S^5i ^??5?c=§^ g^ss?? ?^???sr.s "B 5scoSco .!&■■•■ e o ^ ■^co rococo ^ g ■ ■ ■ ■ e?TOc^c?5 c?r.'Coroco cococoHcO SiijoSilSj ScojomS rfScoSrt iiiU^ SSJ^SSSS ?i o • • • • ^ s ■■ ■ .d 5 coS Cfi^rsScO CC?5c?Ctc? 5cOCO?5CO Sfft^lC^iN r4n*4s r^ -4iw iria cqScocc c6 ioioioio ^ §55^53 q:S5:q!5 ^S'«?oS '4??S^S3 ???S??r;a rfc5 "Sciioco ciolojS § ^i^al ^ "Slag •J O 1. &U5 ^ 8 1^2 1 8 1^2 1 8 BSToOij !3aru.05 '^Sja^S® '3co CO cococo IS 01 CO o o CD ir5 O CD CO O OCOOOCO CD lOlO OO O 1 CO M iM CO i CD O CO ^^ ss cocoo • O 00 O O S Qj o o a ao 10 r-l 3 be oo ; ^1 L, III 9 a 3 oj o o a sglaa PRICES OP AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 541 ■§ B ^ SSSSS SS SS 5>^ '"' SSSSS SSSSS 5 — !.■; Jl «■» -^ CO fi N CO 1-i I;! I! o 5 5 ■•■: S _ 0 = 0010 oociajcio Saooo'cicJ ^ O c ^ SSSSS I SSSSS SSSSS ci c: ov — •-■ SSSSS t-^ 06 06 ~ o SSSSS c =3 d c> o' SSSSS CJ CO ci o; oi SSSSS SSSSS 00 O CC 30 06 goooo o o i.-^ o O l-^ t-^ t-^ t-^ Oif30< OOOr SSSSS CS ■* CO CO lO iBOOl-Tl 0600 30 00 00 sooo I— Qooog moo OJCJOO ooSSt t~ot-^t s, CC500 ^ 00000 ■5? ^^^^o SSSSS 00000 00000 OOi-Hr-Jo OQOOO 00000 SSSSS 2 EidSSS S S o o S NCi-ioi-i 00000 co' CO I'i M S'i 00000 00000 r-i O O Oi O SO O '.O 1.0 5 o t- 1- SSSSS ij^sJo'o 00000 o o o c5 o .-< o — • o o S S3 ci i-i,-; SSSSS ^ OOJCJO 00000 • r5 0 0t~0 O .-O CO CO •* SSSSS ^ CO 50 -o o aj SSSSS t^ b.; tj K3 o 0000 00 t-^ O CO t- 80000 o o o O I- O «5 -i l~ SSSSS 1-H -H o' o" ji IM I-J I^ ?! Ji 00 o o' ".O »' C Q O C O . SSSSS 06 ^ O l-^ o oSoo 8SSS ocJoJo a> SSSSS ■S iOCOCO»-ii S »l o o o 00000 ».0 O KO o o t-^ O 1.0 >f5 li SSSSS CO -*' (M' CO TO SSSSS h-' -i' S t-^ b^ - SSSSS r ^ ssss SSSSS Sopoo _oooo CO CO •ri cj ci " _ SSSSS SaSS ft. S SSSSS o ac 00 CO »^' sss SSSSS 00 tc »r; o o SSSSS ti -* o CO :0 SSSSS ^ a: <- cc' 00 W .- rl 1-1 r-< •5 SSSSS O O CO *o « o = o fc, ;:-:s:;;;s 8SS88 06 » t- «^ t- SSSSS 1-1- •^■■6tD SSSSS 06 CO t-^ O CO SSSSS t- I- o o o 00 o o o irioeococo SSSSS »c»ccoccco I !n I ^ Li &*-> o ^; 5; 8 J-lt^-^l Me 88888 i-t rH ?-4 rH ?H ggggg ts ^ ;c Ot-^ M g j-g^;!^ •~ t- 1- ococo 30 = : oocoo cocoo 8gSSJ cooco 888= t- t- OO 1-. b- ooooo r^>-j^ ji>,fr«if^ ooooo o tc i.-r >.'? i-'^ ooooo 8&SSB t-. OD CO 1 -- t- ooo oo ^ ooooo 2 S S •-'' >2 ooooo '8'£\ 00 CO 00 CO b' OOOOO fefeSSJ t; I- « (2 1.-5 oocSo t- OO 00 h-*~ ooooo OOOOO ?SrJ.fo" s ■ ■ ■ ■ Joooo ^ b-. i— t- I^ ooooo sssss s^ss? CO 00 ^ :« CO ooooo r^-e^e-^ 1^. ssssg :SgS • t— CC fc- »-- >o ooo t-fc-trfc- Bfeg ooooo 8SS & tpaog| § S 3S^ 0 o o O o alia « iai'al -( s frj o i-i o i5 ri -^ ICO CO i-H It w ■* o i-H eico jc -2 * l~«) a^^ ;^ I '^f ■§ ■"* :S : 3S cst-L-rsoo {-X '^j7 — r;- >-< C* -i< X X ./5 — O O -5- X 5i 00 33S '4 2S 83 22 SI c5 LT ^< c^ t- i-T-^J'x'Q'y-i' O -»• t~ IJ m C5 -* ■?! — I rH »^ r-i o; i-- c: t-! Ci GO I— o X i-j o ss la t - » -I"* oiir??!^- C^ T! >.~ ri X u- r ; 1- =5 X --s »--^ C7 '■*' c. ;p X 1— t X ■* o c-i X CO « O" 0CC2 ^$5 ® cl O S O CO |rH-.r:Ng ii i-Hl-'J C -* t- ;:;J -* O C2X -*— I'M X--I~ XL-5 SS tSK^SlSS g^J ScTSoS I I '^ OC IM »^ X ^ =3 OWt-Ili-l X?!55»:- l-:2w-H cow e'!2iI!l-».-»- coo «-C5— < — Cit--0 ccCcct-Oi-i «w ■-! c :-; c: 5: cs ^ J! ;.-5 X X iJ r^ O X C^ t~ ri -* r-i -« t-'t-'rs CO -H >3sr '^S »-<" SKfe?*? ^^'-S^ X Jl COC'f Xrrl -* t- =5 C: rH 51 CC CO I-H -H -J t- O X =; M o ;=; o I- CO i.T t- — ft c5 OIl-*XxrH ■*=» l-.r-iCl-5i.O Ci'^-x" rH- co'co" — 'Tf fl rH CO 2X o- SS^ i © i-o -)< CO COt-t^Q cidco^ -^ W ? -t S 5-1 -^# t- X o :c o g^ 1- O X =5 CJ 5 t- -M LO 35 - -^x: XOOi i-'x'co cJi^?i = ?;xS x; gV- -^'g rH- eft ■^^COr-CO rHJO 2^ -* i— O Ol O CO X rH CO r- rH -J O CC t- 1- o -* cc"^-^coq"-h O ^ -J — ts X O t^ 5 & Ci X CO' CO o of '-^■:£ i~^S c^ oS e I -J S 3 r-1 o 13«-* XrHX ^ -H- X « - » rH O 1.0 35 5J O -f i-O lO o -^ t- O OS Sl X 1.0 -i CO 05 o if rH OrH w-jxxmq; h^-o esi-xrocoxt^ c2:ox CS C t~ UO _ C» O rH Ci ci r: CO CO X i- rn co c5 X I ( X <- -H X LO 33 S ii 3 "* O rH O '.O = K i rH O « X l-T l^-x" -jTjg rH* Cfb." ^0000 COO a; '2 o S ^ o> 5 3-. -5 m * " 2.2 ^ 3 Is* j;^ OSS o a " - ."O p i-ji ^ X iS CO I- c5 1.-5 rH X CO » o6~xr!Xc5 xjo i2s2,^3 »o_o>ot;rH ojM o-txcoco 8H'»r-r-H rHO ■*-* rHX ^iS rH 00 rH X XCS 5-3 m "Sddodd do oil p. I'd •S ti "5 ^ '^ 2 o fc C 3 pa-.'.„-. i s , e!^ 5; o o o aP3 c c3— o ~ •„^ P"*;* « o o w o t- CO t- oil- C ^> i-H -^ ffl Mr; i-i 01 o t- « uo ■ ' -^ ir- CO CC 61 lO ^rHOOrH:MCOaOC5CviO oT ic '*' ^ q" cs o CC ic oT Nr-ICC5jt-t-»5 -*CO ^ SS §ii ooo ^ ic 1-^ CC' 01 :d c: cs I— -^ CC' CC LC O O: O I- J ! OJ CO odo-it-'cC.-4cO!C"^"^ COiOCOOIIOCDOt— ICC03 th -* 1-H ecio" IC Ol'- COCCC: O ortooS CC O* cc cs •-ICJCO l>.tr--— IC-JCO 'rfCrcOCOlOlOCDCDCCX) ^ 1.0 -* C5 O O ■-< -^ r-i 55 -H ic o'cToi lo oi 01 oT of in t- tt — ( -* 1- OT O! O: -X! I- I- »0 OS CO UO ■* CC CC 8S T-(OJ QCD1.0-* 05 CO--* CO octree CO CO CCl- ,g2 O" miocsoscoccooir-^o I- 05 ~?H Q t^ O! rH in lO CO O CO CO O C i-l CC i-O CC t~ g'cf i-Tt-Tio x'l-i'-^'o" S -(■■OCCOiOi 00 05 oc-*-*Oi-*o:0 Oii-H N-*>n oTcoi »-^»o T— It-- Oli-H lOrH >T-lS.i ccco ii CC CO »- I- 00 CO r-l IC O"! :0 O-*00l~Or-iC0CCi^f-l 01 CO CO c: i^ CC I— 1 1— t Oi CO O5'QdOlCD''l5'i-<'o'r00p''>.O COCC>i5-*'pOlr-ii-IO!0 CO cB CO Oi ^ 01 Oi -* L- ocoos cc''i-'"co'' 8g O" 05 O CC CC' O CC S -* op - COOr-HOJ'-lt-CC>C'Hci-cccRt-c<5 i-ic ss 'S'S'S 0) "3 "3 'o "a "© '3 S3 ^ 0^ fc.^ S-^ ^-^ H p, -o i-^ - .5 cS -►^ '13 to o W o 53 O O O 0) O n r^cetnOOcSeSt-. XC; S !^ -^ O . c« p. : 6B 0 eS'o II O :S o > tc 5 « S jj CO Mp.a 3 o " § p.p.-S'-'^ Safe Unenumerated articles, amounting to $3fl,.504, make up the total to $553,210,020. SURVEYORS' MEASURE. 7.93 inches 25 links 100 linkg 80 chains 10 sqnaro chains ) or IGO .square rods ) G40 acre.s = 1 link. = 1 rod = 5.V yards. = 1 chain = 4 rods = 32 yards. = 1,760 yards = 1 mile. = 1 acre. = 1 square mile. An acre of ground comprised within four equal sides measures 30.S.TI feet each •waj\ A half acre of ground comprised within four equal sides measures 147.581 feet each way. A circular acre is 235.504 feet in diameter. A circular half acre is ICO-.TJ feet in diameter. 548 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE. ;^i-i t — xu^ CO a> » o -«< -4< i-^ ^ i- O 1— t f— I o; cc Ol 'O C5 lO «■! CO o ro -J ■^ o t~ r-( IS I t^ HO O --C CO -* CO >.-^ CR ^ - 1-1 z-. a oc/Ti CO l- O -^ W ■* ^ « -< CO 5Q w J* eo CR «0 (M O O ■* CI «-- rl >-■; CO CC r-( CO « :-i CO ^j 1.0 -T< lo o o 1^ -3 i- iC 05 C: !M 05 b; l- O rH m C 3: o c: CO ^ r^ t-lCr-lt- OCJ IJuOajC-lIit-lOS C^i-H C5 o5 'O ?2 CO rt CO O rH ii-^c>a>moSxa^ o'o'o >OI-^^^Tlco't-'"^!"oo' -* O 5.! 06 CO 1-- coi-Tco'-^ oT Of UOr-tO s |[2 3 S; i M 00 CO m a CO ; 00" < o 1.0 c; ; > o -t >.c > >r-(CO^ c-ii ^^ t^ c; ^ CO cc CO i^ c3 >c T-» CD cocoi-cp (?i I- uo t- CO ».o ^i o 05 cc i^ C5 ?i o m ri C2 CO t- CD i-i ^- io'qo'''M''o" e-fo'ao^f'*t-ro'ci"i3 -*5CcoM cocooo3>n;Di-(?JO •»CO Oi-O CO>-OCOC010-*?10 in CO CO ir3 QO CO TOcS"^ (JQl^-^t-CCt-COtOt- O CI OS r-H I- ?1 CO i.O r-l c5coSit--*05i-ioioj -*rt''oo''cD''cO>.Oo''03'cO' lOWOi-lr-lCJi-l&aO U5 O •y'l— If-liO m i.o t^ ci 1.0 CO o ;i cc -»■ o u5 CO O'l 00 CO o o ^i-Too-i-ft^t-" O" COrH-* 000 oo"co CSr-; >oco couo 55 1-1 CI •ri CO o S! 00 c= CO C: 00 T— I 00 CO 0-i O 01 cTrt-J'cox'co t-OOCOOCOOii-HOCM CO CO >0 -* l^ rH ?J t- CO ^COOI-Jt-0-*MiO looco oscooocoom^QC Ji-I-H ?lCO-*D0-*--O-^2> 3N-* lOr-IOCOOi-lCCi-*; iS^-S lio liO».o<^J CO -"ti 1.0 N , — . - , CO ■* >C ■* -* N 0* 1.0 -H Kj 15 CO Q -H t- (M o u; CO 00 lO CO --o -*N0i3 COOO t- ■* f! r^uO :Sco ICOiS r-CO=0 00 o gc- cj t- « fo Si ?i cf6 iS CO co'irfo ccfcooT ^i-iNCoOO rH -* -* c/p - CO C-. CO -H ci i-o [-< -■^^:^lCr^C0COC;i' -f — I ffl 1.0 T-l Oi — I CM^ -^CO-MCO-^OCicT^H ■* lO CO CO O L- so X CO O CO —110 .-H 55 M rf €<» - . COrH O (M t- iC »C *- O N t COfMiiOOOOQOSCO-^C CO CO r-1 CO '* ■* e* c CO 39 t-lOrHCO gOOCOOSN COr-l >0 _ ;3 »0 CD O O CI C5 31 i-O 10 CO Oi - JrHCOi-^ £2 00c CO rH Oi O CO' CO t- rH CO CO l^ C5 O IrtrHUi ^ -a. ^< a o .. s ,1: o CO O P( ir CM-(C> .s ^ 0 ® .at? 2 ? d -i to c oJT" 2 o --S 5 CI o P o .2 bets 5^ © C8 't, O O ^ ^ p ci.;= CO CSOOWM a5 ^ p. Ci-M a> cs s 'tJ o-iJ ©id L -' S o o p^ OS 3^2 S 2 H Q ,2 "3 5 » trt c3 O 33 OS >-.S afflOOOPn^ IMPORTS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 549 c??it~ -T 5. r^?5i- 5!0 CO t- a. ^ aa IfhS 0CK5 r-i ?j -^ ^ -« ta J N oo uy X C5 a> L~ ?: 3 poo 00^^*05 "IT t-o I M o r5 si rSl- o t- CO g2 S!3 [-1 o lo -j: ts -« I— Ci •* lO o to ■^i-H-rtToDlOi'-" l6 O » !-< CO t^g^F? ~ g£2 wo eci-H s ■* i-H •»*' Q >n S55SS OCO CQt^XTI-^r^OCO ooo ®oc:sco-*coo-^ r-TpT •"ji'i-T ecfoooi-T ci O X o5 M ^ ^ S CO » O id rl xo to r-iO •-ICO coo as (MM t-c o X o o t- 05 l-HOCO !-:.': c! ■* CC O C-J CO ^1 i-TcT ccrTo o CO cc » 5i o ■* ■* ^ I- COSirH Q X t^ o CJ O t- — --C O ! N M CO O O -HO II CO ss fr-T S - ® ""If C5 COO F-i CO c; X 'i' — c — I I --i fe -? i^ >^ ^ I o O --1 X U- r- -M O l.O r-l O X f i M t~. X t- « OS S « o CO -H u coi-T coo'i-Oi-T xt- Sx esco -<>j-i-o COrH t;3 r-iSiOS CrHr-< i-Tcoco" ej35X Oi— it-it- -Xlr-I O O O O -r -H C5 r— I- 1.- -H X CO^i^CO^C^fo CO^ coo-* a e= lA ^^ *!-• 9Z cs o» t- ?i -f ■* o -f co-5xcot!t-5l?i t-XrHl-COinOX 'S^^2 <^t -H i< C2 CO -H X -I' CO -f »- X Q t- O X l.O l.O t— CO COO Ot- CO --IX 01.- CO CO i^ 01 JO CO ».o CO --) ic o No XCCt-C0XIM-*O cooT *i"r4r-r coco'-^co" COO! -Hi- OlrH CKO oot -*o>ap XI- CO icof-* cS32 WO -t *^ 1- o r-( I J CO ci ift K Ol O -H -H CO t- X oj oj 05 1— CO-H-f est- -HlOOO XrH X co'co ei O-HCOOCOCp cocoococf-5" -H -f -* O -!* X OS-*" I- CO 2 ^ -H (D t-rH-t'l-^-HCOqj X ?? 5 X f; c? 01 -o III CO X es -* CO up 01 CO O i.- 50J -Hi-I 01 -3 o o ro x'crTc:' lo'cT "^ nf S s-J ?3 -*of of O ,' =« o ^^ ■CHOOOOOO fl O'O'Cd'O'3'O 0 " =5, p o " -is^-s IJ H 02a00 S? (D O ft .en if V II ^ CO O c8 Eh ((I'd O =3 Oj3 O ^fe?ll ' tri . - T? ^ Ji -M ; S « woOO <« 550 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. o c'^ 55 o O »-t O lO O -f c5 "^ 01 *^ 1-1 c: 5S 0^ ■* C5 v.-: 1-. o i~ ■* o lA :c X Tj I- o o O iO SI,' i.~ ;<; « M i.'T )n ^^ ^H Cf? 00 CO t^ QO0CC5 Ci wSCi 1- >5 1^ o o o ;N^i-c*50 Mot— -Oi o- §3 CO ;— 1 0(rf) H « l.l CO o 1^ 'C o 2 =2 c-j H -# C2 o -^ t-. I- 1.-5 o 00 la 5r-*CO» CO OiOr- -l f O 00 c: S i~ ^ dscSS ^-r Of— t-t-r-130CO c3-^NC0 5l r-(l--*Oi-( O C5 O i- i-l Ci CO 1-1 O" i-TrH T-H 03 .-III -* 00->(< Co" i-TrH CO r-i CO a O CO C3QOO00^ tS C0 11 o o MiiJOO cSS cp C0OC0C0C3O r-ICO CI CO !■! O CO (M O O O cooi-io o O't-Toi-" CO 00 CO CS O Oi rlr-it-t- ei C* O O CO rH t-S-Jico T-i'lf r-T -C C: i- Oi L- OOl C-^ O O X o o O O O rH Ji 1-1 o 05 cr. ot o t- ^<^g^ O" OO-11J2XC0 c:i-i— ici>V:S'3 i; ototx COS.- cfi-'oicoooo r-< O g rl CO ■«»<-* 00 r-1 M i§ Olr C! M< oo CI CtcD i-l OOO P 5 TO CO c5 c5oxx i- C f-i O 02 CO T-T co'cj" coco; > CO coo — liMCJ ■ -*o . . - . -+ := CI O tH i-tpSOiMCJ C!OC»OC5 ccipoofjco ^-.Or-lcox >OOjlrHCOO OXCir-ir-( i-ooj coco c:t-<-ooj.-i2joo -!< o 01 o o c: CO ci OCO-<"0 00 i-T c'cT'-i'ox'of X X o: .— I X -H CO Ol-O CIIl of T-4-f'-t^ r-T C—l Oi- ox 1-X XtH c o CO o p 01 .o I— 1 01-* .-I I - CO CO c «- o T ?5 X c; c* CI oi ;s -^ t- -M o .-1 ; CO I— o oi o c ;i -a< o 1-1 1- o c-i i- c CO X -* IQ -* -« X t— I-l X Q oococSC^JoQ03 t-ro— ICOOl o p5 X 63 o o t- o S O -HC» o Si >-i CO 5i i. 1-1 ^CO 1-1 00 CO O 1-1 X 01 1— 0 irjcoi-ixxco X01 01 n v. t o 1-1 O 1-1 O Ol 1-1 p O l- C3 MO ft) »l- — O I- P rt ■"'S3 ^'' go oo ox '0'T3'3+^ 3 g^'s 3'0 O Six,' O N P! O cS'd S =S m cj o ,i; 0) c .. c O r^ R CB o ce c3 cs+i"; ^ O cS 0) l<5 o O S ^^ I cdJS I flow, , a s^, -1^ H .3 *J 01 61) U Oo-i SP.O C3.S w ,— _ I' - O fl O (3 ^ O CD S rt o EXPORTS OF COTTON — PRODUCTION OF FRUITS. 551 TOTAL VALUES OF EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC MERCHANDISE SINCE 1890, Year end- ing Agi-icnltural. Other nonmanufac- tured. Manufactured. Total values. June 30— Values. Per cent. Values. Per cent. Values. Per cent. 1890 1891 1892 1803 $029,830,808 043,751,344 799,328,333 615, 382, 986 &38,363,a38 553,210,026 74.51 73.09 78.69 74.05 72.28 69.73 $64,370,044 00,591,624 57,892,843 57,024,681 57,113,091 50,580,830 7.02 6.94 5.70 6.93 6.58 7.13 $151,102,376 KW, 027, 315 1.58, 510, a37 1.58, 0;i3, 118 183,728,808 183,595,743 17.87 19. 37 15. 61 19.03 21.14 23.14 $81.5,293,828 872,270,283 1,015,732,011 a31,030,785 809,204,937 793,392,599 1894 1895 EXPORTS or RAW COTTON FROM THE UNITED STATES SINCE 1890. Year ending June 30— Pounds. Per cent of total crop. Average export price per pound. 1890 - 2,471,799.8.53 2,9()7,a58.795 2,9X5.219,811 2,212,115.126 2, 68:3, ,283, 325 3,517,433,109 68.15 67.30 &5.13 6.5.99 71.20 69.83 Cents. 10.1 1891 10 0 1892 8 7 1893 - 8 5 1894 7 8 1895 5.8 PRODUCTION OF CERTAIN FRUITS AND NUTS, MOSTL? SEMI- TROPIC, IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1889 AND THE QUANTITIES AND VALUES IMPORTED FROM 1890 TO 1895, INCLUSIVE. Products. Oranges ' Lemons. Limes • . . Bananas ' rigs'..-. Dates Cocoanuts .. Pineapples ' Olives Raisins Currants Plums prunes . Almonds. Total value of United States crop in 1889. ■i\ «27, and 5'12i ,002.099 988, 100 fi2, 497 280,6.54 307,272 (*) 251.217 812, 1.59 386,368 195,512 443,900 («) ,719,601 (*) ,525,110 Imported during year ending June 30- 1890. $1,916, 3,374, 2 07, 4,6.53, 5 456, mo, 284, ( 233.5, rlO,9!W, 822, »550, »21], 1,997, »36.914, 5 »875, <5 28,895, 1,789, »58,093, < 813, < '5,715, 1891. $3,339,987 4,a51,970 2.59,867 5,8.54,752 697, 503 « 9, 201, 565 » 061, 590 « 20, 091, 012 918,233 =.5.58,288 2 320, 164 2,018,879 «3i(,.572.f).55 »1,. 577, 852 »42,8)9,814 2.0.>4,4.8r> »34,2S1,;J23 931,007 « 0,813,061 $1,310,338 4, .548, 303 2 37,839 5,000,632 511,142 » 8, 338, 7.59 551.629 '17,084,5.57 917, 504 2 74<1,.561 2417,882 9M. .309 «20, (»7, WO 1,309,119 S30,6f>.5,83.s 4.37,371 nO,Wi9,797 1,028.071 » 7, 629, 392 1393. $1,695,469 4,994,328 2 47, 196 5, .301, 187 548,995 5 10,5a3,928 49,3,910 316,211,906 853, 509 274.3,801 2510, .5;J5 1 , -sr,. :m3 3 27.5t,3,.5(>J 1.1S,5,5,37 ';«,ii!!;,5to 1,10.2,318 »26,414,112 0:}8.()54 » 0,679, 147 1894. 1895. f 1,127, 4,385, 2 48, 5,132, 392, »7,9a5, 387, '13,408, 786, 2753, 2 378, 5.54, » 13, 751, 774, »53, 004, 410, »9,908, 769, »7,430, $1,997,366 3,917,336 2 28,104 4,674.861 587,430 9.59;»11,855,890 .5861 310,593 193,315,186,789 777 471,994 129 2 314039 863 '32.5,352 08l| ft51,430 050-3 15, 931, 278 8O2I 258, 059 843 310,4.50,706 342| 527,615 122 3 14, a52, 057 4.53 8U), 439 784 3 7,903,376 ' Returns from a few districts not quite complete. 2Kntcrod for coiisnniptiou. 3Quaiitity in potiiids. * V.alue of crop Dot ascertained. * Quantity in pounds entered for consumption. 552 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. STATISTICS or FRUIT AND VEGETABLE CANNING- IN THE UNITED STATES. [From the census of 1890.] Capital emploj'ed $15, 315, 185 Average number of employees 50, 881 Wages paid during the year $5, 243, 707 Cost of materials used. $18, 665, 163 Total value of products $39,862,416 The capital employed in this industry was only $701,388 less than was employed in the creamery and cheese-factory business, while the value of the products exceeded the combined value of all the ^vindmills, clocks, watches, firearms, mir- rors, mats and matting, linen fabrics, and enameled goods manufactured in the United States during the same year. AVERAGE PRICE AND CONSUMPTION OP SUGAR. Average price per x>ound of '' Standard A" sugar in the New York market and average consumption of sugar of all grades, per capita of population, in the United States from 1878 to 1894. Calendar year. Average price per pound. Consump- tion per capita of popula- tion. Calendar year. Average price per pound. Consump- tion per capita of popula- tion. 1878 Ceiits. 8.94 8.53 9.48 9,84 8.87 8.14 6.37 6.06 5.81 Pounds. 34.3 40.7 42.9 44.2 48.4 51.1 53.4 51.8 56.9 1887 Cents. 5.66 6.69 7.59 6.00 4.47 4.21 4.73 4.00 Pounds. 53.7 1879 1888 ... 56.7 1880 1881 1889 1890 51.8 52.8 1882 1891 66.1 1883 1892 63.5 1884 1893 1894 63.9 1885 66.4 1886 TEA, COFFEE, WINES, ETC. Consumption of tea, coffee, wines, distilled spirits, and malt liquors in the United States since 1870, per capita of population. Year ending June 30— Tea. Coffee. Wines. Distilled spirits. Malt liquors. 1870 Pounds. 1.10 1.14 1.46 1.53 1.27 1.44 1.35 1.23 1.33 1.21 1.39 1.54 1.47 1.30 1.09 1.18 1.37 1.49 1.40 1.29 i.a-j 1.29 1.37 1.32 1.34 1.38 Pounds. 6.00 7.91 7.28 6.87 6.59 7.08 7.3:3 6.94 6.24 7.42 8.78 8.25 8.80 8.91 9.26 9.60 9.36 8.53 6.81 9.16 7.8:3 7.{t9 9.61 8.24 8.01 9.23 Gallons. 0.33 .40 .41 .45 .48 .45 .45 .47 .47 .50 .56 .47 .49 .48 .37 .30 .45 .55 .61 ..50 .46 .45 .44 .48 .31 .28 Proof gals. 2.07 1.63 1.68 1.63 1.51 1.50 1.33 1.38 1.09 1.11 1.27 1.38 1.40 1.46 1.48 1.26 1.26 1.21 1.26 1.33 1.40 1.43 1.50 1.51 1.33 1.12 Gallons. 5.31 1871 6.10 1873 1873 6.68 7.21 1874 7.00 1875- 1876 . 6.71 6.83 1877 B.58 1878 6.68 1879 7.05 1880 1881 8.36 £.65 1882 1883 1884 1885 10.03 10.27 10.74 10.63 1886 11.20 1887 .. 11.23 1888 13.80 1889 . .. 13.73 1890 13.67 1891 .... 15.23 1893- - 15.10 189:3 16.08 1894 15.18 1895 - .- 14.95 TRANSPORTATION RATES. 553 •Sis n ■9CSI {J JJ li t^l CC 41 (f! c^ rt « I^ *l C« C^-Z^ t^^-jS-w fe^5 « J5 ,1, M a 1^ t, ffi 03 ;^, Ph 03 CQ ^ fin CQ Q u <^ ^« 0 83 O P4 o Co O till. <1« > O cn g 0 M H Pi 00 ao M 0} « o a S '-ja 5 « O § 5 !- ♦i • 02-: ill w a oo o o r> CO '"if '* -^ -* o oo o o '^ o o oo CO -^ ■^ -^ ■^ oooooooo t^oooro^'^^'*!' o o o o o o o o o o o o o o »c o o o* o o o yD CO 50 <0 <0 CO (O oo OOO Q O o oo o ooo ift OJ o o o o o CO ^ CO CO CO CO CO Ift O C^ O t* M o CJ O •* O CO CO o 1-5 lo »n o ■^ 00 lo -^ W C^ CO C^ O OD 0> oococcoooooooooo C4 oo O lA CO ^ O t^ . 00 00 ■^ CO* o jo • lb in W fM O O 00 O CO f-i <-i in lo 00 o ID lb lb '^ 1-H ^ co' in o o 00 CO o in in CO t- CO i-H O -M ci o o m 00 ^ '^ '^ ^ lb CON oirioinoooDo o^oc-ooouo CO* o' lb CO -»* ^ ib CO* ■Htoocoinooinoo 0)OC0^O00t>C0 CO oa lb -i* CO - 06 CO if^ w ^ C42^c^ininooio«o cococot*t^cowt^ oot-mo'^co'o^ '^oocoinoom OOCOr-iMOOC^ *-Jt^O>^«^O»C0«) CI fH > in o •-* M CO "«i > no O 0> Ok ?: ^ }QC 00 00 00 00 «0 564 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE "WEATHER IN 1895. Highest and lowest temperatures, with the highest and lowest ever recorded. Station. Boston, Mass S Philadelphia, Pa 5 Charleston, S. C ) t Jacksonville ,ria S Indianapolis, Ind <, \ Springfield, 111 ( ) Davenport, Iowa. S Memphis, Tenn S New Orleans, La. J Moorhead, Minn \ Des Moines, Iowa \ Springfield, Mo 5 Little Pvock, Ark 5 Lincoln, ISTebr S Wichita, Kans \ Palestine, Tex ( Corpus Christi, Tex 3 Helena, Mont S Denver, Colo \ Walla Walla, Wash ^ Sacramento, Cal .- \ Los Angeles, Cal \ 96 50 97 54 97 64 96 63 100 54 95 55 93 54 98 60 93 68 85 38 89 50 89 56 94 63 101 53 92 63 90 70 89 35 90 40 98 43 102 50 100 47 50 98 56 98 71 97 70 100 53 93 56 94 55 95 63 93 70 91 35 95 51 91 59 95 65 98 53 95 59 98 65 93 73 91 40 94 51 102 47 99 51 88 61 64 — 3 98 13 97 14 100 —14 95 -20 96 -20 98 — 3 94 16 93 —34 93 -18 92 —17 06 101 -13 100 - 1 93 16 94 —17 96 -15 104 11 102 2C 100 lOS - 13 103 - 5 104 10 104 14 101 -35 103 -33 100 - 27 103 - 8 99 15 102 - 48 104 - 30 103 - 17 103 - 6 103 - 1 98 16 103 - 43 105 - 29 108 - 17 108 19 109 28 Monthly and total annual precipitation, in 1S05 (in inches and hundredths) , until the normal for purposes of comj^arison. Station. >> 1 .a pC4 1 S t *5 1 1 A <1> 1 0 1 0 1 S Q i 13 0 !2i 03 .2 >» Boston, Mass 3.79 i.n 3.72 3.ft5 2.71 1.73 3.98 3.31 1.,53 6.19 8.07 2.45 40.17 44.95 ?.% Philadelphia, Pa 4. .52 1.39 2.61 6.14 1.72 3. 15 3.23 0..59 0.61 2.97 2.;^ 1.7(i 31 . 01 X). 89 ?A Charleston, S.C 7.68 4.47 5.22 4.21 5.6;^ 4.35 6.46 5.(»8 6.94 0.77 3.44 2. 03 .5.5.18 ,56.74 2ft Jacksonville, Fla 4.6;^ 3. 61 3.63 4.4(1 3. 26 4.98 11.31 2.54 4.66 0..58 3.13 1.18 46.80 .53.36 35 Indianapolis, Ind 3.12 0.86 1.;^) 1.96 1.07 1.49 2.87 1.91 7.46 0. 811 5.81 4.86 ;53. ,54 43. .34 2i Springfield, 111 1.13 l.(« 1.61 2.49 3. .55 3.49 5. .53 3.76 3.80 0.27 3.28 8.08 35.01 ,38.10 16 Davenport, Iowa 1.2? o.;{8 1.57 (l.;{2 2.28 1 22 5.16 4.79 4.;^) 0.81 2.50 2.54 27.14 ;«. 80 34 Memphis, Tenn 5. 94 1.39 7.01 2.32 0. 46 2.31 6.99 0.64 0. 73 3.17 .5. .54 3.09 ;{8. ,5!) ,5;{. 38 24 New Orleans, La 7.19 3. 92 3.81 2.58 7. 95 9.74 6.07 6.79 1.97 1.21 (Mi9 4. ,52 ;Vi. 44 60. ,5!^ 2fi, Moorhead, Minn 0. X' 0.37 o.o:{ 1.46 1.34 5.62 3.05 1.49 1.45 0.21 1.88 0.15 17. ,38 2:?. 76 Ifi Des Moines, Iowa 1.31 0.6(1 0. ,50 3. 41 2.86 5.26 3.10 3. 57 3.30 0.29 0. 8i5 1.86 26.80 ;^^.34 17 Springfield, Mo 2.;«i 0.81 4.70 1.1(1 3. .54 3.87 7.86 4. .57 3.66 0.78 3.22 11.02 47.46 45.93 9 Little Rock, Ark 7.12 O.dli 7.78 1.47 2. 85 9.25 6.13 3.96 0.41 2 22 5.26 3. ,50 49. ,58 ,5.3.91 Iff Lincoln, Nebr 0.20 0.57 0.71 1.19 0.50 1.81 1.88 0.40 0.76 3.77 "4'47 1.05 3.74 4.00 7.67 0.64 0. 86 0.05 0.81 0.79 1.80 Wichita, Kans 1.37 26.46 28.61 7 Palestine, Tex 2.42 2. .50 2.52 2.a5 11. ;« 5. 2<.> 3. 85 0.06 1.05 3. 73 4.3;^ 4.M 43. 72 4,5.94 15 Corpus Christi.Tex. 0.31 3.49 1.4;i 2.41 5. ,57 3.80 (MKI 1.17 l.(i8 1.08 4.14 0. ()4 25. 72 29.13 R Helena, Mont 1.95 1.69 0.2!» 0.5;^ 0.87 l.W) 1.18 0.14 0..57 0.28 0.77 1.12 10.69 1.3.30 H Denver, Colo 0 -ii' 0 48 1 19 1 19 5^ 86 v; (V> 4 W 0.76 0.98 1 13 0 '>7 0.01 16.12 14 .50 24 Walla Walla, Wash.. 2. 52 O..55 1.17 1.23 2.31 0.04 0.50 0.23 3.13 0.00 1.67 2 M 14.89 16.81 10 Sacramento, Cal 8.42 1.84 1.20 0.86 0. .51 0.(K) 0.04 T. 1.26 0.17 1..54 1..54 17.38 21.11 18 Los Angeles, Cal 5.84 0.46 3.77 0.46 0.19 0.01 T. T. T. 0.24 0.80 0.78 12.55 17.36 18 THE WEATHER BUREAU AXD ITS OBSERVERS. 555 .A. Mean relative humidity, icitli the nor-nial for purposes of comparison. Station. Boston, Mass Philadelphia, Pa Charleston, S.C Jacksoii\nllc, Fla In(li:ina])olis.Ind Sprin^'tiekl, 111 Davenport. Iowa Memphis, Ti-nn New Orli-ans. La Moorhead.Minn Des M'iiuc-s,Inwa Sprintriield, Mo Littlo Kock, Ark Lincoln, Xobr "Wichita. Kans Palestine, Tex Corpus Christi, Tex Helena. Mont Denver. Colo Walla Walla, Wash Sacramento. Cal Los Anjjeles, Cal 71.6 75.8 T9.6 78.5 77.4 71.0 TT.C 73.5 80.2 83.6 73.0 75.8 71.0 74.6 73 87.0 71.0 57.0 85.8 &5.2 76.0 6 72.0 73. ( 71.8 75. 8 77.8 63.6 79. 84.8 73.(1 77.2 70.0 78.0 70.9 83.2 67.8 60.8 73.0 74.9 09. 1 64.2 63.1 78.0 73.0 60.8 Gi.i> 58.8 79.8 77.2 73.6 56.0 66.1 64.2 66.8 08.2 77.4 73.1 63.8 6 59.1 63.8 73.9 63.4 .59.2 59.6 62. 3 58.2 68.4 87.3 63.9 53.6 63.4 70.6 76.8 60.6 6.5 46.6 43.8 .53.3 6.5! 6 73.7 65.2 69.7 78.4 78.6 62.0 63.0 61. 67.4 79.4 64.4 61.0 69.4 70.2 61.6 80.2 85.6 47.2 45.8 51.8 63.7 76.2 75.3 74.5 57.6 67.0 58.5 71 78. 2 73.6 66.8 74.2 75.1 71.6 65.4 77.2 79.8 06.8 67.6 ta a3.5 78.4 74 05.6 84.2 81.3 66.2 84.1 83.6 49.7 51.2 41.7 .50.3 73.01 79.5 73.9 83.8 85.5 43.5 5.5.8 43.7 62.6 68.6 66.0 79.0 81.6 63.4 68.4 0:1 8 75.1 80.8 66.2 66.4 81.0 76.6 80.5 78.2 84.4 39.0 52. 38.5 59.6 79.8 a 71.3 67.3 80 83.8 09.5 73.0 73.3 73.6 74.5 67.3 68.6 77.4 73.0 61.9 73.0 83 49.1 37.8 60. 4 60 67.6 69.5 60.8 70.9 78.4 60.2 5.5.6 62.4 64. 66.4 61.8 55.6 5 65.2 53.6 66.8 78.0 55 53 4 59.4 64.8 81.8 83.4 77.6 83.8 84.0 73.4 74.8 74.3 73.8 77.0 74. 77.8 74.7 78 85.4 62.6 44.9 42.0 67.3 59.0 74.8 69 80 79.8 78.2 77.3 81.2 73.0 74.0 &5.2 73 2 78! 0 76.0 71.0 70. 6 78.6 C-5.9 70.0 69.0 78.0 78.0 68.0 68.0 68.0 73. 77.0 74 6.5.0 73.0 72.0 41.41 50.0 87. 9i 58.0 78.6 67.0 57.4 73.0 68.0 68 75.0 73 83.0 83 55. 0 65 Note. — Normals are for a period of eight years, except for Los Angeles and Wichita, which are for seven years. THE WEATHER BUREAU AND ITS VOLUNTARY OBSERVERS. For the information of persons who may be contemplating the offer of their services as voluntary observers to the Weather Bureau, the folio^viug statement concerning the equipment and dutie.s of a voluntary observer has been prepared by the Chief of the Bureau: Wlien it is considered that of the more than 3,300 meteorological stations in the United States at which observations are being taken and recorded, about 3,900, or nearly yO per cent, are voluntary, it will be realized to what extent those interested in meteorology are indebted to voluntary observers for the material supplied for scientific research. Without the cooperation of voluntary observers it would be wholly impracticable, with the data collected from the regular telegraphic stations of the Weather Bureau, to determine the local climatic features of the various sections of the country, which is being so thoroughly done through the extensive system of voluntary stations now in existence. The great increa.se in the number of voluntary meteorological stations during the past decade of years is due to the rapid extension of the State weather-service system, which now embraces the entire country in forty-two separate State weather-service organizations, which are auxiliaries of the national Weather Bureau in the collection of meteorological data, the distribution of the daily weather forecasts and special warnings, and in the collection and publication of local climatic and weather-crop information thrnxigh monthly meteorological reports and weekly weather-crop bulletins. For several years the national Weather Bureau has encouraged the establish- ment of voluntary meteorological stations by supplying to persons interested in meteorology an instrumental outfit consisting of standard self-registering ther- mometers and rain gauges, a book of instructions to observers, and suitable blank forms for recording observations, upon condition that one observation shall be taken daily, preferably about sunset or thereafter, and that copies of records of obsorvatious made be supplied to the Weather Bureau tlirough the State weather service in who.se territory the station is located. Owing to the limiteil supply of instruments available for distribution to voluntary observers, it has been necessary to impose certain restrictions in their is.sue in order that the instru- ments might be placed where observations would prove of the greatest value. It frequently hajjpens that a per.son offers to cooperate as a voluntary observ^^r and applies for instruments, and then learns tlirough the Weather Bureati tluit a record is already being kept in his immediate vicinity. In such cases the Wwither Bureau is comiielled to decline the proffered services as observer as well as to 556 YEARBOOK OP THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE. furnish tho necessary instruments. Until a few years ago the Weather Bureau in providing instruments for new stations observed the general rule of equipping no station within 50 miles of one already established. With the gradual increase in the namber of stations, this distance limit has been reduced to 25 or 30 miles. Persons occupying eligible locations under the rules now governing the issue of instruments, and willing to comply with the conditions upon which they are fur- nished, will, as far as i^racticable, be supplied with the instrumental outfit before mentioned wpon application to either the Chief of the Weather Bureau, Washing- ton, D. C. , or the director of the State weather service in whose territory he resides. The duties of a voluntary observer consist in taking and recording daily obser- vations of temperature, rainfall, state of weather, and miscellaneous meteorolog- ical phenomena such as the occurrence of frosts, local storms, etc. Observations of air i^ressure and wind Telocity by voluntary observers are not desired by the Weather Bureau. Enough data of this nature for the purposes of the Bureau, in the forecasting of weather, are obtained from the regular, paid meteorological stations, from which daily telegraphic reports are received. Obser- vations of air pressure by voluntary observers are mainly of interest to the observers themselves at the time of the observation in estimating the location of storm centers in vicinities where there is no access to the daily weather map issued by the Weather Bureau. A trustworthy record of the weather is always of interest to any community, and is often of very great practical value. It is one of the objects of the Weather Bureau to foster and encourage the keeping of such records. There are numerous calls for records of the weather, as evidence in courts in important law cases, months, and even years, after the record is made. Contractors and others inter- ested in outside work often want a record of days when there was rain or high winds, when streams were frozen over or swollen with floods, etc. Farmers are interested in the state of the season, whether forward or backward, as regards temperature and rainfall. The Monthly Vv^'eather Review and other publications of the Weather Bureau are sent to voluntary observers in exchange for their observations, together wath the weekly Vv^eather Crop Bulletin and monthly reports of State weather services. TEXTURE OF SOME TYPICAL SOILS. ^ 2 0^ o o 1 Nc, Locality. Description. 51 s 2'« w g 9 ^•a 0'< ■"'a ;sa si 'a ^^ SB 6Bc4 5^ a) > f (DO a Em ^a c2 sa 3 p. ct. P.ct. p.ct. p.ct. P.ct. p.ct. p. ct. p.ct. p.ct. 473 Marley, Mfl Truck 0.3() 0.49 4.96 40.19 37. .59 13.10 7.74 2.23 4.40 Ul Davidsonville, Md Wheat 5.25 .(K) .23 1 71 6.08 30.83 20.93 11 21 23.78 o;i7 Ha^eratown, Md . . Grass 12 88 .00 08 .13 .aS 10.94 19.03 4.67 51.76 16 Cigar wrapper, Habana type 6.85 .06 .40 .93 3.11 11.45 30.55 10.35 36.30 1254 Poquonock, Conn. Cigar wrapper, Sumatra type. 2.18 3.22 7.53 19.63 ;». 76 134. 50 5.93 .78 2.63 759 Granville Co., N.C. Bright tobacco .. 2.13 3.09 7.16 21.74 22.93 10.76 13.17 8.24 4.80 ft53 Lynchburg, Va... Virginia City, 111 . Ogallala, Ne br Shipping tobacco Upland loess Pluina marl 9.8« .35 1.37 5. V3 14.73 10.79 6.70 4.63 45.84 j;U7 5.71 .(X) .(H» .(K) .01 7.(>8 61. ai 9.W 15.16 1803 3.98 .00 .00 .03 1. 05 76.58 13.93 L31 4.22 Note. — The first three samples in the table represent the texture of typical soils of the Atlantic Coast States adapted to truck, wheat, and grass. Their agricul- tural value and adaptation to crops are largely dependent upon tho relative pro- portion of the different grades of sand and clay, as this determines the relation of the soils to water. Soils differ greatly, however, in structure or in the arrange- ment of the soil grains, and as this changes their relation to water the textiire is not always a guide to their agriciiltural value. The texture, together with a record of the moisture content, indicates very clearly the class of crops to which these soils are adapted. The same remarks apply to the four types of tobacco soil shown in the table. The loess soils are characterized by a large content of silt. These likewise differ in structure, and this affects their agricultural value. The plains marl of western Kansas and Nebraska is characterized by a large percent- age of very fine sand. INSTITUTIONS WITH COURSES IN AGRICULTURE. 557 The following table gives the weight of a cnbic foot of soil under different degrees of compactness, together with the amount of space in these soils, and the per cent of water in the saturated soil when all the space is filled with water: Weight of Water in 1 Weight of Per cent by weight or Per cent by 1 cubic foot cubic foot of 1 cubic foot volume of of water- saturated of soil, when space. free soil soil saturated (pounds). (pounds). (pounds). 3.5 107.5 21.8 129.3 16.9 40 99.2 25.0 124.3 30.1 45 90.6 28.1 118.7 22.4 50 83.7 31.2 113.9 27.4 55 74.4 34.3 108.7 31.5 60 6(5.2 37.4 103.6 36.1 &5 58.1 40.6 88.7 41.2 The specific gravity of upland arable soils varies but little and may be assumed to be about 2.65 to 2.70; the former is used by the Department of Agriculture for the mineral constituents of arable soils. The amount of space, therefore, in a cubic Joot of such soil is determined by the compactness, or close arrangement, of the soil grains. As a rule, coarse, sandy soils are the most compact and contain the least amount of intergranular space, rarely containing less than 35 per cent of space, however. The amount of space appears larger, as the grains are large and each individual space is larger, but the aggregate amount of space is less. Clay soils usually contain considerably more space than sandy soils, going as high as 60 or 65 per cent in common arable clay lands. The weight of a cubic foot of dry soil in its natural condition is given approximately in the second column for several conditions of compactness. The weight of water contained in the soil, if all the space is completely filled with it, is given in the third column. Arable Boils in good condition for crops rarely contain more than from 30 to 60 per cent of the saturating quantity. The total weight of a cubic foot of saturated soil and the percentages are given in the fourth and fifth columns. EDUCATIONAL LNSTITUTIONS IN THE UNITED STATES HAVING COURSES IN AGRICULTURE. State. Name of institution. Locality. President. Agricultural and Mechanical College. W. L. Broun. Tucson Howard Billman. Arkansas Arkansas Industrial University College of Agr'turo of the University. The State Agricultural College Fayette ville J. :... Buchanan. Colorado Fort Collins Storrs Alston Ellis. B.F.Koons. Sheffield Scientiiic School of Yale University. New Haven Newark Timothy Dwight. A.N. Raub. State College for Colored Students .. State Agricultural and Mech. College . Florida State Normal School. W.C.Jason. Lake City... Tallahassee O. Clute. T. DeS. Tucker. College of Agr 'turo and Mech. Arts. . . College of Agr'ture of the University. College of Agr'ture of the University School of Agriculture, Horticulture, and Veterinary Science of Purdue Univer.sity. College of Agr'ture and Mech. Arts . Kansas State Agricultural College... Agricultural and Jlechanical College. H.C.White. Idaho Moscow F. B. Gault. A. S. Draper. Indiana Lafayette Ames J. H, Smart. Iowa W. M. Beardshear. Kansas Manhattan Lexington Frankfort Baton Rouge New Orleans — Geo. T. Fairchild. Kentucky J.K. Patterson. J. H. Jack.sou. Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College. Southern University and Agricul- tural and M( chanieal College. The Maine State College J. W. Nicholson. H. A. Hill. A. W. Harris. Maryland Massachusetts. . Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Maryland Ain'icultural College Massachusetts Agricultural College . Michigan Agricultural College College of Agriculture of the Univ.. Agricultural anil ]Mechanical College. Alcorn Agr'tural and Mech. College . College Park Amherst Agricultural Col- lege Minneapolis Agricultural Col- lege. Westsido R.W.Silvester. H.H.Goodell. J.L.Snyder. Cyrus Northrop. S.D.Lec. T.J.Calloway. 558 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN THE UNITED STATES HAVING COURSES IN AGRICULTURE— Continued. State. Name of institution. Locality. President. Missouri College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts of the University. College of Agr'ture and Mech. Arts.. Industrial College of the University. School of Agriculture of University. College of Agriculture and the Me- chanic Arts. Columbia Bozeman Richard H. Jesse. James Reid. Reno J.E. Stubbs. Now Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico Durham C. S. Murkland. New Brunswick. MesillaPark College of Agr'ture and Mech. Arts.. S. P. McCrea. North Carolina. North Dakota.. Ohio College of Agr'ture and Mech. Arts... North Dakota Agriciiltural College.. Ohio State University Raleigh Fargo Columbus Stillwater Corvallis A. Q. Holliday. J. H. Worst. J.H.Canfieia. Oklahoma Oregon . Agr'tural and Mechanical College Oregon State Agricultural College .. Pennsylvania State College G. E. Morrow. John M. Bloss. State College Kingston Glemson College . Orangeburg Brookings Knos\aire College Station . . Prairie View Logan George W. Atherton. Rhode" Island . . . South Carolina. South Dakota . . Tennessee College of Agr'tui'e and Mech. Arts. . Clemson Agricultural College College of Agr'ture and Mechanics' Institute of Claflin University. South Dakota Agricultiiral College.. State Agr'tural and Mech. College State Agr'tural and Mech. College Prairie View State Normal School.. . Agricultural College of Utah State Agricultural College of the Uni- versity. Agr'tural and Mechanical College Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute. Agric. College and School of Science. J. H. Washburn. E. B. Craighead. L. M. Duntoa. L. McLouth. C. W. r»abney, jr. L. S. Ross. Utah L.C.Anderson. Joshua H. Paul. Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia -- Burlington Blacksburg Hampton Pullman Morgantown Farm. Madison M. H. Bnckham. J. M. McBryde. H.B.Frissell. E.A.Bryan. J. L. Goodknight. J.H.Hill. C. K. Adams. The West Virginia Colored Institute- College of Agr'ture of the University. College of Agr'tm e of the University. Wyoming.. Laramie AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES, THEIR LOCATION, DIRECTORS, AND PRINCIPAL LINES OF VTORK. Station. Director. Lines of work in addition to chemistry, horticulture, and field experiments. Alabama (College), Auburn — Alabama (Canebrake), Union town. Arizona. Tucson Arkansas, Fay ctteville California, Berkeley Colorado, Fort Collins Connecticut (State), New Haven Connecticut (Storrs), Storrs... Delaware, Newark... Florida, Lake City... Georgia, Experiment Idaho, Moscow Illinois, Urbana W. L. Broun- H. Benton W. S. Devol.. R.L.Bennett E.W.Hilgard— . Alston Ellis S. W. Johnson. W.O.Atwater. A. T.Neale... O.Clute R. J. Redding C.P.Fox T.J.Burrill.. Meteorology; botany; diseases of plants. Diseases of animals. Entomology; forestry; irrigation. Analysis of fertilizers and feeding stuffs; entomologj'; diseases of plants; diseases of animals. Meteorology; physics and chemistry of soils; composition and cultivation of grapes and orchard fruits (especially olives); composition of feeding stuffs: entomology; technology, drainage, and irrigation; reclamation of alkali lands. Meteorology; botany; entomology; irriga- tion. Analysis and inspection of fertilizers; chem- istry of feeding stuffs; chemistry of milk and its pi'oducts; diseases of plants; pot experiments with organic nitrogen. Chemistry of feeding stuffsand food of man; digestion experim<>nts; dietary studies; bacteriology of mUk and Its products; dairying. Diseases of plants; entomology; feeding ex- periments; dairying; diseixscs of animala. Dairying. Botany; soils and water; feeding experi- ments (pigs); drainage and irrigation. Bacteriology; forestry; diseases of plants; entomology; feeding experiments; dairy- ing. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS — LOCATIONS. 559 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES, THEIR LOCATION, DIRECTORS, ETC.— Coutiuued. Station. Director. Lines of work in addition to chemistry, horticulture, and field experiments. Indiana, Lafayette . Iowa, Ames Kansas, Manhattan , Kentucky, Lexington.- Louisiana (Sugar) , New Orleans. Louisiana (State), Baton Rouge. Louisiana (North), Calhoun. Maine, Orono Maryland, College Park Massachusetts (Hatch), Am- her.st. Michigan, Agricultural College. Minnesota, St. Anthony Park .. Mississippi, Agricultural Col- lege. Missouri, Columbia . Montana, Bozeman. . Nebraska, Lincoln .. Nevada, Reno New Hampshire, Durham . Now Jersey (State), New Bruns- wick. New Jersey (College), New Brunswick. Now Mexico, Me.silla Park New York (State), Geneva.. New York (Cornell), Ithaca. North Carolina, Raleigh North Dakota, Fargo Ohio, Woostor Oklahoma, Stillwater Oregon, Corvallis Pennslyvania, State College. Rhode Island, Kingston South Carolina, Clemson College. South Dakota, Brookings Tennoa.9ee.Knoxville .. Tuxa.s, College Station. Utah, Logan Vermont, Burlington . Virginia, Blacksburg C. S. Plumb James "Wilson. - G. T. Fairchild. M.A.Scovell— W.C.Stubbs... do do "W.H.Jordan R. H. Miller . H. H. Godell C.D.Smith W.M.Liggett- S.M.Tracy P.Schweitzer.. S.M. Emery ... Q. E. MacLean. J.E. Stubbs C. S. Murkland E. B. Voorhees-. do S.P.McCroa L. L. Van Slyko. I.P.Roberta H. B. Battle . J. H. "Worst . C. E. Thome . G.E.Morrow... J.M.Bloss H. P. Armsby... C.O.Flagg E.B.Craighead. L. McLouth C.P.Vanderford. J.H. Counell J. H. Paul . J. L. Hills . J.M. McBrydo.. Pot and field experiments; feeding experi- ments (cows and sheep); diseases of ani- mals. Diseases of plants; entomology; feeding experiments; dairying. Diseases of plants; entomology; feeding experiments; diseases of animals; irri- gation. Soils; fertilizer analysis; diseases of plants; entomology; dairying. Soils; sugar making; drainage and irriga- tion. Geology; soUs; diseases of plants; ento- mology; diseases of animals. Feeding experiments. Diseases of plants; digestion and feeding ex- periments; diseases of animals; dairying. Soils; entomology; feeding experiments; drainage. Analysis and control of fertilizers; diges- tion and feeding experiments; meteorol- ogy; diseases of plants; entomology; dis- eases of animals. Botany; soils; diseases of plants; entomol- ogy; feeding experiments: diseases of animals; dairying; irrigation. Chemistry of foods; soils; weeds; entomol- ogy; feeding and breeding experiments; diseases of animals; dairying. Botany; soils; entomology; digestion and feeding experiments: diseases of animals; drainage and irrigation. Diseases of plants; entomology; feeding experiments; drainage. Diseases of plants; feeding experiments; diseases of animals; irrigation. Botany; meteorology; forestry; feeding and breeding experiments; diseases of animals. Botany; soUs; entomology; irrigation. Feeding experiments; diseases of animals; dairying. Analysis and control of fertilizers; horti- culture. Botany; diseases of plants; entomology; diseases of animals. Botany; disea.ses of plants; entomology; feeding experiments. Meteorology; analysis and control of ferti- lizers; diseases of plants; feeding experi- ments; poultry experiments: dairying. Fertilizer investigations; disea.ses of plants; entomology; feeding experiments; poul- try experiments; dairying. Meteorology; analysis and control of ferti- lizers; seed testing; composition of feed- ing stuffs. Disea-ses of plants; feeding experiments. Soils; disea.ses of plants: entomology; breed- ing and feeding experiments. Soils and watei-s; feeding experiments; entomology. Soils: diseases of ])lants; entomology; feed- ing experiments. Meteorology: fertilizer analysis; feeding experiments: dairying. Pot experiments: di-seases of plants; poul- try experiments. Soils; analysis and control of fertilizers. Chemistry of waters; diseases of plants; dairying. Botany; entomology. Diseases of plants; entomology; feeding experiments: di.seasos of animals. Feeding experiments; diseases of animals; dairying: irrigation. Analysis and coiitrolof fertilizers; diseases of plants; entomology; feeding experi- ments; diseases of animals; dairying. Diseases of plants: feeding experiments; diseases of auiiuals; entomology. 560 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES, THEIR LOCATION, DIRECTORS, ETC.— Continued. Station. Washington , Pullman West Virginia, Morgantown Wisconsin, Madison Wyoming, Laramia Director. E. A. Bryan . . J.A.Myers .. W. A. Henry. A. A. Johnson Line.? of work in addition to chemistry, horticulture, and field experiments. Soils; forestry; feeding experiments. Meteorology; analysis and control of fer. tilizers; entomology. Soils; feeding experiments (pigs and! sheep); diseases of animals; dairyings drainage and irrigation. Botany; waters; food analyses; irrigation. FEEDING STUFFS (FOR ANIMALS). EXPLANATIONS OF TERMS USED IN THE TABLE. Water. — All feeding stuffs contain water. The amount varies from 8 to IE pounds per 100 pounds of such dry materials as hay, straw, or grain to 80 pounds in silage and 90 pounds in some roots. Ash is what is left when the combustible part of a feeding stuff is burned away. It consists chiefly of lime, magnesia, potash, soda, iron, chlorine, and carbonic, sulphuric, and phosphoric acids, and is used largely in making bones. Part of the ash constituents of the food is therefore stored up in the animal's body; the rest is voided in the manure. Protein (or nitrogenous materials) is the name of a group of materials contaia= ing nitrogen. Protein furnishes the materials for the lean flesh, blood, skin, muscles, tendons, nerves, hair, horns, wool, and tlie casein and albumen of milk, etc., and is one of the most important constituents of feeding stuffs. Fiber. — Fiber, sometimes called cellulose, is the framework of plants, and is, as a rule, the most indigestible constituent of feeding stuffs. The coarse f odderSj such as hay and straw, contain a much larger proportion of fiber than the grains, oil cakes, etc. Nitrogen-free extract includes starch, sugar, gums, and the like, and forms am important part of all feeding stuffs, but especially of most grains. The nitrogen= free extract and fiber are usually classed together under the name of carbohy= drates. The carbohydrates form the largest part of all vegetable foods= They are either stored up as fat or burned in the body to produce heat and energy. Fat, or the materials dissolved from a feeding stuff by ether, is an impure prod- uct, and includes, besides real fats, wax, the green coloring matter of plants, etc. The fat of food is either stored up in the body as fat or burned to f xu'nish heat and energy. Average composition of American feeding stttffs. Feeding stuff. Water. Ash. Pro- tein. Fiber. Nitro- gen-free extract. Fat. Per ct. Per ct Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. 79.3 1.2 L8 5.0 12.2 0.5 76.6 L8 2.6 11.6 6 8 .6 62.3 2.6 3.4 11.2 19.3 1.4 65.3 2.3 2.8 11.0 17.7 .9 69.5 2.0 2.4 9.4 15.8 .9 73.0 2.0 2.6 8.2 13.3 .9 69.9 1.8 2.4 10.8 14.3 .8 73.2 2.5 3.1 6.8 13.3 1.3 61.6 2.1 3.1 n.8 20.2 1.2 65.1 2.8 4.1 9.1 17.6 1.3 71.1 1.7 3.1 9.2 14.2 .7 70.8 2.1 4.4 8.1 13.5 1.1 74.8 2.0 3.9 7.4 11.0 .9 80.9 1.7 3.1 5.2 8.4 .7 71.8 2.7 4.8 7.4 12.3 1.0 79.5 3.2 2.7 5.4 8.6 .7 83.6 1.7 2.4 4.8 7.1 .4 75.1 2.6 4.0 6.7 10. e 1.0 84.2 1.3 2.8 4.9 6.5 .4 66.7 2.9 8.7 7.9 12.2 1.6 84.5 2.0 2.3 «Sw 2.6 le grass edish cl 8.4 aver. .5 ew Yor k. •Lu jern. GitEEN FODDER. Corn fodder, all varieties Rye fodder Oat fodder , Redtop (Agrostis vulgaris)^ in bloom Tall oat grass (Arrheyiatherum avenaceu7n)^ . Orchard grass (Dactylis glomeratd) Meadow rescue {Festuca pratensis) Italiim rye grrass (Lolium italicum) Timotiiy {Phluani pratense)^ Kentuclry b'.r.o grass (Po a pratensis)* E[urr;a;-;au f;'"a-ss (Setaria) Red oiGver (Trifolium prateiise) Alsike clover (Trifolium hybridum)^ Crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum) Alfalfa (Medicago safiva)* Scrradclla (Ornithopus sativiis) Cowpea Boja beau (Soja hispida) Horse bean (Viciafaba) Flat pea (Lathynis si/lvestris) Rape ' Herd's grass of Pennsylvania. ' Meadow oat grass. » Herd's grass of New England and New York. FEEDING STUFFS. Average composition of American feeding stuffs — Continued. 561 Feeding stuff. Water. Ash. Pro- tein. Fiber. Nitro- gen-free extract. Fat Corn silage Red-clover silage . . Soja-bean silage — Cow pea- vine silage . HAY AND DRY COARSE FODDER. Corn fodder, • field cured Corn leaves, field cured Corn husks, field cured Corn stover," field cured Hay from— Red top Orchard grass Timothy Kentucky blue grass Hungarian grass Meadow fescue Italian rye grass Mixed grasses Rowen (mixed)* Mixed grasses and clovers Red clover Alsike clover White clover (Trifolium repens) . Crimson clover Japan clover {Leapedeza striata). Vetch Serradella - Alfalfa^ Cowpea Soja bean Flat pea Peanut vines (without nuts) Sojabcan straw Hi Tse-bean straw Wheat straw . Ryo straw Oat straw Buckwheat straw ROOTS AND TUBERS. Sugar beets Maiiu'cl-wurzels- Ivuta-ltagas Carrots Artichokes GRAINS AND OTHER SEEDS. Com, kernels - Barley Oats H5 Wh. ■at. Sunflower seed (whole) Cotton seed (whole, with hulls) . Peanut kernels (without hulls) . IIorsH }>ean Siija bean Cowpea MILL PRODUCTS. Corn meal Corn and cob meal . Oatmeal Barley meal Pea meal Per ct. 79.1 72.0 74.2 7'.>. 3 42.3 30. 0 .50.9 40. 5 8.9 9.9 13.2 21. 2 7. 7 20.0 8.5 15.3 16.6 12.9 15.3 9.7 9.7 9.6 11.0 11.3 9.2 8.4 10.7 11.3 8.4 7.6 10.1 9.2 9.6 7.1 9.2 9.9 WASTE PRODUCTS. Oat feed, average 7.7 Barley scre.^u ings, average 12. 3 Malt sprouts, average 10.2 Brewers' grains (wet) 75.7 ' Entire plant. * What is loft after the ears are harvested. 86.5 88.6 79.5 10.9 10.9 11.0 11.6 10. 5 8.6 10.3 7.5 11.3 10.8 14.8 15. 0 15.1 7.9 11.9 10.5 Per ct. 1.4 2.6 2.8 2.9 5.5 1.8 3.4 5.2 6.0 4.4 6.3 6.0 6.8 6.9 5.5 6.8 5.5 6.2 8.3 8.3 8.6 8.5 7.9 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.2 7.9 10.8 5.8 8.7 4.3 3.3 5.1 5.0 .9 1.1 1.2 1.0 1.0 3 4 3.0 1.9 1.8 2.6 3.5 2.4 3.8 4.7 3.2 1.4 1.5 3.0 2.6 2.6 3.7 3.6 5.7 1.0 Per ct. 1.7 4.3 4.1 2.7 4.5 6.0 2.5 3.8 7.9 8.1 5.9 7.8 7.5 7.0 7.5 7.4 11.6. 10.1 12.3 12.8 15.7 15.2 13.8 17.0 15.3 14.3 16.6 15.4 33.9 10.7 4.6 8.8 3.4 3.0 4.0 5.2 1.8 1.4 1.2 1.1 2.6 10. r, 12.4 11.8 10.6 11.9 16.3 18.4 37.9 26.6 34.0 20.8 9.2 8.5 14.7 10.5 20.2 16.0 12.3 23.2 5.4 Per ct. 6.0 8.4 9.7 6.0 14.3 21.4 15.8 19.7 28,6 32.4 29.0 23.0 37.7 35.9 30.6 27.2 22.5 27.6 24.8 25. 6 24.1 27.2 24.0 25.4 21.6 25.0 20.1 22.3 26.3 33.6 40.4 37.6 38.1 38.9 37.0 4^.0 1.3 1.3 .8 2.1 2.7 9.5 1.7 1.8 29.9 23.2 7.0 7.2 4.8 4.1 1.9 6.6 6.5 14.4 Per ct. 11.0 11.6 6.9 7.6 34.7 35.7 28.3 31.5 47.5 41.0 45.0 37.8 49.0 38.4 45.0 42.1 39.4 41.3 38.1 40.7 39.3 36.6 39.0 36.1 44.2 42.7 43.2 38.6 31.4 42.7 37.4 at. 3 43.4 46.6 42.4 35.1 5.5 7.6 7.6 15.9 69.6 69.8 59.7 72.5 71.9 21.4 24.7 15.6 50.1 38.8 55.7 68.7 64.8 67.4 66.3 61.1 6.1 7.3 10.7 3.8 ' Second cut of hay * Lucern. 59.4 61.8 48.6 13.6 Per ct. .8 1.8 2 8 1.6 4 A 95- -20 562 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Average covxposition of American feeding stuffs — Continued. Feeding stuff. vrASTE PRODUCTS — Continued. Brcvrers' grains (dried) Rye bran Wheat bran Wheat middlings Wheat shorts Wheat screenings Rico bran Rice hulls Rice polish Buckwheat middlings Cottou-seed meal Cotton-seed hulls Linseed meal (old process).. Linseed meal (new process) . Peaniitmeal Peanut hvills Hominy chops Refuse from cornsta rchfactories. Corn germ * Corn-germ meal Gluten meal: Early analyses Recent analyses Chicago Buffalo - Cream gluten Gluten feed Chicago maize feed Glucose feed aud glucose refuse . . Dried-starch feed and sugar feed . Starch feed (wet) Water. Ash, Pro- tein. Fiber. Nitro- gen-free extract. Fat. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. 8.2 3.6 19.9 n.o 5L7 5.6 11.6 3.6 14.7 3.5 63.8 2.8 11.9 5.8 15.4 9.0 53.9 4.0 12.1 3.3 15.6 4.6 60.4 4.0 11.8 4.6 14.9 7.4 56.8 4.5 11.6 3.9 12.5 4.9 65.1 3.0 9.7 10.0 12.1 9.5 49.9 8.8 8.2 13.2 3.6 aj.7 38.6 .7 10.0 6.7 11.7 6.3 58.0 7.3 13.2 4.8 28.9 4.1 41.9 7.1 8.2 7.2 42.3 5.6 23.6 13.1 11.1 2.8 4.2 46.3 33.4 3.8 9.2 5.7 33.9 8.9 35.4 7.9 10.1 5.8 33.2 9.5 38 4 3.0 10.7 4.9 47.6 5.1 23.7 8.0 9.0 3.4 6.6 64.3 16.1 1.6 11.1 2.5 9.8 3.8 64.6 8.3 10.7 4.0 9.8 4.1 64.0 7.4 8.1 1.3 ILl 9.9 62.5 7.1 8.8 .8 29.7 2.2 49.8 8.7 8.2 .9 29.3 3.3 46.5 n.8 10.1 1.1 30.1 L6 48.7 8.4 8.2 .8 23.3 6.1 60.4 n.2 8.1 .7 36.1 L3 39.0 14.8 7.8 LI 24.0 5.3 5L2 10.6 9.1 .9 23.8 7.6 53.7 6.9 6.5 LI 20.7 4.5 56.8 10.4 10.9 .9 19.7 4.7 54.8 9.0 65.4 .3 6.1 3.1 23.0 3.1 DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDING STUFFS. The preceding tables give the total amounts of nutrients found by analysis in different feeding stufiEs. Only a portion of these amounts is of direct use to the animal, i. e., that digested. The rest passes through the animal and is excreted as manure. The amotmts of the different food constituents of feeding stuffs digested have been determined by careful experiments on different classes of ani- mals. The results thus obtained in American experiments have been used in cal- culating the amounts of digestible protein, fat, and carbohydrates contained in 100 pounds of different feeding stuffs shown in the table below. These are the figures which m^^st be consulted in determining the food value of a given material aud in selecting feeding stuffs for making up a ration. Calorie. — The lastcolumn of the table, headed " fuel value," indicates the value of the food for producing heat for the body and energy for the work. It is stated in calories, a calorie being the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a pound of water 4^ F. Dry matter and digestible food ingredients in 100 pounds of feeding stuffs. Feeding stuff. Green fodder: Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pound*. Calories. CornfodderJ 30.7 1.10 13.08 0.37 26,076 Rye fodder 23.4 3.05 14.11 .44 3L914 Oat fodder 37.8 3.69 23.66 1.04 51,624 Rodtop, in bloom 34.7 3.06 31.24 .68 45,786 Orchard grass, in bloom 27.0 1.91 15.91 .68 35,593 Meadow tescue, in bloom.. iW.l 1,49 16.78 .42 34,755 Timothy^ 38.4 2.38 23.71 .77 51,591 Kentucky blue grass 34.9 3.01 19.83 .83 45,986 Hungarian grass 28.9 1,92 15.63 .36 84,168 Redclovor 29.2 3.07 14.82 .69 36,187 Crirasonclover 19.3 2.18 9.31 .44 23,191 Alfalfa" 28.3 3.89 11.20 .41 29,798 Cowpea 16.4 1.68 8.08 .25 19,209 Sojabean 28.5 2.79 1L82 .63 29,833 > Corn fodder is entire plant, usually sown thick. * Herd's grass of New England and New York. ' Lucern. Fuel value. DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDING STUFFS. 563 Dry matter and digestible food ingredients in 100 pounds of feeding stuffs— ConVd. Feeding stuff. Corn silapo Com rodder,' field cured Corn stover, field cured Hay from— Orchard grass Rt'dtop Timothy 2 Kentucky bluo grass Hungarian grass Slpadow f f scuo Mixed grasses Eowon (mixed).. Mixed grasses and clover Red clover Alsiko clover Wliito clover Crimson clover Alfalfas :; Cowpea So.i a Dean "WTieat straw Rye straw Oat straw Soja-bean straw Roots and tubers: Potatoes B.;-cts Mangel-wurzols Turnips Rutabagas Carrots Grains and other seeds: Corn (dent and flint) Barley Oats... Rvo Wheat Cotton seed (whole) Mill products: Corn meal ." _. Corn-and-cob meal Oatmeal Barley meal Ground corn and oats, equal parts. Pea meal Waste products: Gluten feed Gluten meal Hominy chops Malt sprou ts Brewers' grains (wet) Brewers' grains (dried) Rye bran Wli'-at bran Wlieat middlings ". . Wheat shorts Bin kwheat middlings Cotton-seed meal Cotton-seed hulls Linseed meal (old process) liinsecd meal (new process) Pea.n n t moal Milk and its by-products: Whole milk Skim milk— Cr.'am raised by setting Cream raised by separator Buttermilk Whey " Dry matter. Potinds. 20.9 57.8 59.5 90.1 91.1 92.3 80.0 87.1 83.4 87.1 84.7 90.3 90.3 91.4 91.6 89.3 88.7 90.4 93.9 ■JO. 8 89.9 21.1 1.3.0 9.1 9.5 11.4 11.4 89.1 89.1 89.0 88.4 89.5 89.7 85.0 84.9 92.1 88.1 88.1 89.5 92.2 91.2 88.9 89.8 24.3 91.1 88.4 88.5 84.0 88.2 86.8 91.8 88.9 90.8 89.8 89.3 13.8 9.6 9.4 9.9 6.6 Protein. I Carbo- hydrates. Pounds. Pounds. .56 I 11.79 2. 49 33. 38 1.98 33.16 4.78 4.83 2.89 4.76 4.50 4.20 4.22 7.19 6.16 6.58 8.15 11.46 10.49 10.58 10.79 10.78 .80 .74 1.58 2.30 1.27 1.21 1.03 .81 .88 .81 7.92 8.69 9.25 9.13 10.23 11.08 7.01 6.49 11.53 7.36 7.39 16.77 30.40 26.49 7.45 18.72 4.00 14.73 11.45 13.01 12.79 12.23 17.31 37.01 .43 28.76 27.89 42.94 3.48 3.13 2.94 3.87 .84 41.99 46.83 43.73 37.33 51.67 43.34 43.26 41.20 43.71 35.35 41.70 41.83 38.13 37.33 38.40 38.73 37.94 43.71 41.63 15.59 8.81 5.65 6.46 7.74 7.83 66.69 64.83 48.34 69. 73 69.21 33.13 65.20 56.28 53.06 63.88 61.30 51.78 43.76 43.33 55.24 43.50 9.37 36.60 50.28 41.23 53.15 49.98 26.58 16.52 30.95 32.81 36.38 22.83 4.77 4.69 5.24 4.00 4.74 Fat. Pound.i. .t>5 1.15 .57 1.40 .95 1.43 1.95 1.34 1.73 1.3;i 1.4;^ 1.46 1.66 1.36 1.48 1.29 1.38 1.51 1.54 .46 .35 .74 1.03 .05 .11 .11 ,11 4.28 1.60 4.18 1.38 1.68 18.44 3.25 2.87 6.93 1.96 3.73 .65 8.69 10.38 6.81 1.16 1.38 4.83 1.96 2.87 3.40 3.83 4.54 13.68 1.69 7.06 2.73 6.86 3.70 .83 .29 1.06 .31 > Corn fodder is entire plant, usually sown thick. « Herd'; ' Lucern. s grass of New England and Now York. FEEDING STANDARDS. Attompts havo been made to ascertain the food reqnirementa of various kinds of farm animals under different conditions. From the results of experiments feeding standards have been worked out which show the amounts of ditreatible protein, fat, and carbohydrates supposed to bo best adapted to different animals 564 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. when kept for different purposes. The feedinj? standards of Wolff, a Grerman, have been most widely used. They are as follows : Wolff's feeding standards. A.-PER DAY AND PER 1,000 POUNDS LIVE WEIGHT. Kind of animal. Total organic matter. Digestible food materials. P-tein. Carbohy- Pat Fuel value. Oxen at rest in stall Wool sheep, coarser breeds Wool sheep, finer breeds... Oxen moderately worked . Oxen heavily worked Horses moderately worked Horses heavily worked Milch cows Fattening steers: First period Second period Third period Fattening sheep: First period Second period Fattening swine: First period Second period Third period Pounds. 17.5 20.0 22.5 24.0 26.0 22.5 25.5 24.0 27.0 26.0 25.0 26.0 26.0 36.0 31.0 23.5 Pounda. 0.7 1.2 1.5 1.6 2.4 1.8 2.8 2.5 2.5 3.0 2.7 3.0 3.5 5.0 4.0 2.7 Pounds. 8.0 10.3 11.4 11.3 13.2 11.2 1.3.4 12.5 15.0 14.8 14.8 Pounds. 0.15 .20 .25 .30 .50 .60 .80 .40 .50 .70 .60 15.2 14.4 27.5 24.0 17.5 .50 Calories. 16,815 22,235 3.5,050 24,260 31,126 26,712 33.508 29,590 34,660 36,062 35,082 a5.962 35,826 60,450 53,080 37, 570 B.— PER DAY AND PER HEAD. Kind of animal. Growing cattle: Age— 2 to 3 months.. 3 to 6 months.. 6 to 12 months. 12 to IS months 18 to 24 months Growing sheep: Age— 5 to 6 months.. 6 to 8 months. . 8 toll months - 11 to 15 months 15 to 20 months Growing fat swine: Age— 2 to 3 months. . 3 to 5 months. . 5 to 6 months. - 6 to 8 months. . 8 to 12 months. Average live weight per head. Pounds. 150 300 500 700 850 60 100 125 170 250 Total Organic matter. Pounds. 3.3 7.0 12.0 16.8 30.4 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.1 3.4 3.9 4.6 5.3 Digestible food materials. P-tein. C-bohy- p,,. Pounds. 0.6 1.0 1.3 14 1.4 .18 .17 .16 .14 .13 .38 .50 .54 .58 .63 Po^mds. 2.1 4.1 6.8 9.1 10.3 Pounds. 0.30 .30 ,30 .38 .26 .W5 .040 .037 .032 .035 1.50 2. .50 2.96 3.47 4.a5 Fuel value. Calories. 5.116 10, 750 16,332 30,712 22,859 2,143 2.066 2,035 2,051 1,966 3,496 5,580 6,610 7,633 8,686 CALCUL.A.TIOX OF RATIONS. In order to explain the use of the preceding tables, let us calculate the daily ration for a cow, assuming that the farmer has on hand clover hay. corn silage, corn meal, and wheat bran. Wolff's standard for a cow of 1,000 pounds calls for 2.5 pounds of protein, 12.5 pounds of carbohydrates, and 0.4 pound of fat, which would furnish 29,590 calories of heat. From the table showing the amounts of digestible nutrients we find that 100 pounds of clover hay furnishes 84.7 pounds of dry matter, 6.58 pounds of protein, 35.35 pounds of carbohydrates, and 1.66 pounds of fat, equivalent to a fuel value of 84,995 calories. Twelve pounds would have 10.16 pounds of dry matter, 0.79 pound of protein, 4.34 pounds ot carbohydrates, and 0.20 pound of fat, giving a fuel value of 10,199 calories. CALCULATION OF RATIONS. 565 In the saino way the amounts fnrni.slied by 20 pounds of corn silage, 4 pounds of corn meal, and 4 poiinds of wheat bran are found. The result would be the fol- lowing table : Method of calculating ration for dairy coic. Ration. 12 pounds of clover liaj- 2(i pounds of corn silage 4 pounds of corn meal . 4 p~us pratensis) Perennial rye grass Italian ryegrass Japanese buckwheat Red clover Mammoth red clover {TVifoUum medium) , White clover Crimson clover^ Alsiko clover , Alfalfa Blue melilot (Melilotus cceiideus) Bokhara clover (Melilotus alba) , Sainfoin ( Onobrychis sativa) Sulla {Hi'dijsarum coronarium) Lotus villosus , Soja bean ( whole plant) Soja beau (straw) , Cowpea (whole plant) Serradella , Cotton (entire plant) Oxeyo daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum.) . . . Dry carrot tops Barley straw Barley chaff Wheat straw Wheat chaff Kyo straw Oat straw Buckwheat hulls Per ccn t. 4.84 7.85 9.13 6.06 9.75 10. 45 7.69 11.99 18.53 7.71 7.53 8.84 10.35 15.35 15. as 9.13 8.71 1L33 11.41 18.30 9.94 6.53 8.23 7.43 13.17 9.39 11.53 6.30 13.0(3 10.95 7.39 7.30 9.65 9.76 11.44 13.08 12.56 8.05 7.61 9.09 11.90 1..31 3.09 2.15 2.60 2.84 3.27 1.47 2.25 1.47 1.83 .96 1.93 1.94 2.45 1.05 4.91 3.74 6.53 5.80 6. IS 6.34 9.67 4.59 4.93 6.42 4.16 8.08 4.92 5.24 6.79 6.93 8.73 7.70 11.11 7.07 13. (« 7.70 7.55 8.23 6.47 8.40 10.60 5.81 6.37 12.62 5.30 3.81 7.18 3.25 4.76 Per cent. 0.41 .23 .33 .49 .61 .53 .39 .43 .48 .47 .54 .91 .53 .56 .44 .43 .73 .27 .41 .29 .68 .44 .51 1.13 .59 .42 .28 .33 1.78 1.-04 1.46 1.28 1.11 1.20 1.41 1.61 1.16 1.28 1.31 1.19 .99 1.16 1.54 1.23 1.19 1.63 2.07 2.23 3.75 2.05 3.34 3.19 1.93 1.98 2.63 2.46 2.10 3.33 1.75 1.95 2.70 1.46 .28 3.13 1.31 1.01 .59 .79 .46 .62 .49 Per cent. 0.15 .09 .15 .13 .19 .30 .16 .16 .28 .28 .20 .23 .13 .20 .11 .13 .13 .10 .14 .15 .33 .35 .11 .18 1,19 .11 .11 .15 .44 .56 .56 .86 .38 .56 .52 .40 .67 .51 .54 .66 .76 .46 .59 .67 .40 .53 .78 .44 .44 .61 .30 .27 .13 .70 .28 .20 .07 'Dietrich and Konig: Zusamensctzuug und Verdaulichkeit der Futtermittel. 'Dietrich and Kcinig. FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS. 567 FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF FEEDING STUFFS AND FABM PRODUCTS— Contmuea. Material. ItOOTS, BULBS, TUBKRS, ETC. Potatoes -- - Rod lK?ots Yellow f t'dder beets Suga I- IxL-ts Miint;(4-\vurzels .-. Turnips Ruta-liatjas Carrots --. GKAIXS AND OTHER SEEDS. Corn kernels Sorghum seed Barley 1 Oats Wlieat (spring) Wheat (winter) Rye Common millet Japanese millet Rice - Buckwheat Soja beans Cotton seed MILL, PRODUCTS. Corn meal - Coru-and-cob meal Ground oats Ground barley Rye flour Wheat flour Pea meal BY-PRODUCTS AND WASTE MATERIALS, Corncobs ' Hominy feed Gluten meal Starch feed ( glucose refuse) Malt sprouts Brewers' grains (dry) Brewers' grains (wet) Ryo bran Rye middlings' Wheat bran Wheat middlings Rice bran Rice polish Buckwheat middlings i Cotton-seed meal Cot ton seed hulls Linseed meal (old process) Linsi'eil nioal (new process) Peanut-cake meal Apple pomace VEGETABLES. Articliokog Asparagus stems Eteaus, adzuki Beets, red Cabbages Carrots Cauliflower Chorogi tubers Cucun>l><^rs Horse-radish root Kohlrabi Lettuce, whole plant Onions Parsnips Peas: Garden Small {Lathyrus sativus), whole plant .. > Dietrich and Konig. Water. Per cen f. 79.24 87.73 90.60 86.95 87.29 89.49 89. 13 89.79 .43 12.95 8.96 11.17 13.43 14.20 9.83 8.85 12.09 8.93 8.59 8.10 18.38 9.14 75. 01 12. 50 12.54 11.74 9.18 10.20 10.30 14.70 7.81 10. 17 8.88 7.77 10.40 80.50 81.50 93.96 15. 86 88.47 90.53 88.59 90.82 78.90 95. 99 7ii. (W 91.08 93. m 87.55 80.34 12. C3 5.80 A.sh. Percent. .89 1.13 .95 1.04 1.23 1.01 1.06 8.23 1.53 3.48 2.98 1.57 4.99 3.78 1.41 "§."37' 1.23 2.68 .82 2.21 .73 'i3."48" 3.93 4.60 3. .52 6.25 3.30 13.94 9.00 1.40 0. 95 2.40 6.03 5.37 3.97 .27 .99 .67 3.53 1.04 1.40 1.03 .81 1.09 .40 1.87 1.27 1.61 .57 1.08 3.11 5.94 Nitro- gen. Percent. .33 .24 .19 .33 .19 .18 .19 .15 1.82 1.48 1.51 2.06 3.36 2.36 1.76 2.04 1.73 1.08 1.44 5.30 3.13 1.58 1.41 1.86 1.55 1.68 2.21 3.08 .50 1.63 5.03 2.63 3.55 3.63 .89 2.32 1.84 2.67 2.63 .71 1.97 1.;^ 6.79 .69 5.43 5.78 7.56 .33 .38 .20 3.29 .24 .38 .16 .13 1.93 .16 .36 .48 .23 .14 .23 3.53 2.50 Phos- phoric acid. Percent. .12 .00 .09 .10 .09 .10 .13 .09 .70 .81 .79 .70 .89 .83 .85 .69 .18 .44 1.87 1.27 .63 .67 .77 .66 .86 .57 .06 .98 .33 .29 1.43 1.03 .31 3.28 1.36 2.89 .95 .29 2.67 .68 2.88 .25 1.66 1.83 1.31 .02 .17 .06 .95 '.09 Ml .09 .16 .19 .12 .07 .27 1.07 .04 .19 .84 .69 » Wolff. 568 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF FEEDING STUFFS AND FARM PRODUCTS— Continued. Material. VEGETABLES— continued. Pumpkins, whole fruit - Ehubarb: Roots Stems and leaves... Ruta-bagas Spinaoh Sweet corn: Cobs._ Husks Kernels Stalks Sweet potatoes: Tubers Vines Tomatoes: Fruits Roots Vines Turnips FRUITS AND NUTS. Apple leaves: Collected in May Collected in September _ . Apples, fruit... Apple trees (young): Branches Roots Trunks Whole plant Anricots, fresh Blackberries .r Blueberries Cherries, fruit. Cherry trees (young): Branches Roots - Trunks China berries Cranberries: Fruit Vin es Curran ts. Grapes, fruit, fresh Grapes, wood of vine Lemony Nectarines Olives : Fruit Leaves ; Wood of larger branches Wood of small branches Oranges: California Florida Peaches: Fruit Wood of branches .-. Pears, fruit Pear trees (young): Branches Roots Trunks Plums. Prunes Raspberries Strawberries: Fruit Vines Chestn uts, native . Peanu ts : Hulls Kernels Tines (cured) Water. Per cent. 92.27 74.35 91.67 88.61 92.42 80.10 86.19 82.14 80.86 72.96 83.06 93.64 73.31 &S.61 90.46 89.59 83. Ash. Per cent. .63 2.28 1.72 1.15 1.94 .59 .56 .56 1.25 .95 2.45 .47 11.72 3.00 .80 2.33 3.46 .39 Nitro- gen. Per cent. '.11 .55 .13 .19 .49 .21 .18 .46 .28 .23 .42 .16 .24 .32 .18 .74 .89 .13 .65 1.59 1 1.17 1 ! .35 .49 I .19 .58 .15 .16 .14 .58 ! .18 .78 1.22 .81 4.13 .18 2.45 .53 .50 2.97 .56 .50 1.42 2.51 .94 .96 .43 .32 1.93 .54 .76 1.40 1.71 .54 .49 .55 .60 3.34 1.62 3.00 3.20 15.70 1.19 .16 .90 .18 .16 .15 1.18 1.14 4.51 1.76 Phos- phoric acid. Per cent. 1.16 .06 .02 .12 .16 .05 .07 .07 .14 .10 .07 .05 .06 .07 .10 .19 .01 .04 .11 .06 .05 .06 .09 .05 ».00 .05 .08 .04 .43 .03 .27 .11 .09 .42 Potash. Per cent, '.09 .12 .26 .11 .12 .05 .08 .05 .22 .03 .04 .07 .07 .02 .07 .48 .11 .48 .17 1.24 .29 » Wolff. * Dietrich and Konig. FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS. 560 FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF FEEDING STUFFS AND FARM PRODUCTS— Contiuucd. Material. Water. Ash. Nitro- gen. Phos- phoric acid. Potash. DAIKY PRODUCTS. Whole milk . Skim milk . . Croam Buttermilk . Whey Butter Cheese Ash, wood Chestnut : Bark Wood Dogwood: Bark Wood Hickory : Bark Wood Magnolia: Bark Wood Maple, bark Oak: Leaves, mixed. Post, bark Post, wood Rod, bark Red, wood White, bark ... White, wood... Pine: Burr Georgia, bark . Georgia, wood . Old field, bark . Old field, wood Straw, mixed . Yellow, wood .. Black, wood Sycamore, wood. .. Per cent. 87.00 90.25 74. a5 90.50 92.97 79.10 33.25 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 lU.OO 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 Per cent. .75 .80 .50 .70 .60 .15 2.10 .32 3.51 .10 9.87 .68 3.97 .48 2.98 .36 9.49 4.70 12.10 .77 6.29 .57 5.95 .26 1.09 .37 .33 1.94 .18 L65 .23 .21 Per cent. .53 .56 .40 .48 .15 .12 3.93 Per cent. .19 .20 .15 .17 .14 .04 .60 .013 .114 .011 .140 .057 .061 .058 .095 .032 .421 Per cent. .18 .1» .13 .16 .18 .04 .12 .14& .278 .029 .341 .ig» .141 .138 .192 .071 L197 .116 .070 .103 .060 .074 .025 .013 .012 .095 .007 .010 .009 .121 .249 .Wi .178 .140 .135 .106 .024 .050 .077 .006 .046 .030 .230 FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS CONTAINED IN A CROP OF COTTON YIELDING 300 POUNDS OF LINT PER ACRE. [J.B.McBryde.] Fertilizing constituents (cal- culated). Nitrogen Phosphoric acid, PjOe P')ta'ih, KjO rioda, NajO Lim.-, CaO Magnesia, MgO Sulphuric acid, SOg .. Insoluble matter Pounds per acre. In 300 pounds lint. 0.72 .18 2.22 .08 .46 .41 .28 .08 InC54 pounds seed. 20.08 6.66 7.63 .12 1.22 3.26 .84 .15 In 404 pounds bolls. 4.50 1.14 12.20 .19 3.75 1.01 1.75 1.14 In 575 pounds leaves. 13.85 2.57 6.57 1.61 31.57 5.73 3.38 6.43 In 658 pounds stems. 5.17 1.22 7.74 .65 5. ."iO 2.4.3 .74 In 250 pounds roots. 1.62 .38 2.75 .38 1.36 .80 .28 .66 In 2,841 pounds total crop. 46.94 13.15 30.11 3.03 43.05 13.ft4 7.26 ».2i 4 A 95- -20=* 570 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ANALYSES OF FERTILIZERS. Mois- ture. Nitro- gen. Pot- ash. Phosphoric acid. Lime. Mag- nesia. Sul- phuric acid. Chlo- rin. Fertilizer. Solu- Re- ble. verted Total. COMMERCIAL, FERTILIZERS. Ashes: Per ct. 15.45 .SO. 23 12.50 40.09 7.00 4.60 Per ct. Per ct. 1.2<) Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. 1.14 1.51 1.70 3.80 35.89 28.28 17.00 33.25 17.60 20.10 29.90 1.75 8.85 2.88 3.10 1.91 8.25 Perct. 48.50 28.08 34.00 Perct. 2.60 2.66 3.40 Per ct. Per ct. Wood, leached "■8.'20' 1.27 5.25 1.31 0.14 Wood, unleached 2.37 1.24 Bone ash 44.89 " \" Bone black 1 1 Dissolved - .-. 15.40 -[.am ! Bone meal 7.50 4.05 2.60 6.20 1.70 5.50 6.79 4.30 10.53 7.25 .40 1 7.60 13 ."53 Dissolved Free from fat "i'io 22.75 1.77 1.50 Castor pomace 9.50 7.80 7.81 1 1.25 6.50 9.60 10.75 1 Cotton -seed meal: Decorticated Undecorticated Dried blood 13. .W 13. 75 22.28 3.20 13.09 13.33 50.00 2.00 7.m 1.93 1.40 1,5.00 81.95 1.47 .55 2.60 Gas lime - - 43.66 1.15 8.30 9.80 20.73 20.25 13 .^ 33.35 Meat scrap - 10.44 .76 1.10 2.07 21.88 .10 Mona Island gnano 7.55 37.49 Muck - .15 .M 4A Muriate of potash 1 48.80 r ■" 34.27 37.45 Nitrate of potash 13.09 15.70 "V29" 45.19 1 Nitrate of soda -. Oyster-shell lime ' .05 .40 .93 .18 .08 .30 15.20 38.03 5.5.00 .35 .60 Seaweed -. 6.06 4.37 2.98 6.60 South Carolina rock: Dissolved 11 .27 60 .07 Ground- -. 1.50 1.00 2.54 10.00 1.45 6.18 10.00 41.87 3.03 Sulphate of ammonia 20.50 ""e.'ro' "'3.'7i' 2.35 .29 .58 1.10 .44 1.55 1.00 .60 3.20 .80 .55 1.95 .50 .60 .43 .49 60.00 45.73 Sulphate of potash (high errade ) 33.40 8.20 .10 .49 .56 .35 1.50 .25 .20 1.00 .30 .15 2.26 .60 .13 .83 .43 Tankage .30 5.10 3.06 11.80 23.49 .65 .70 .17 Thomas slag 48.66 3 33 4^20 3.43 .59 .80 Tobacco stalks Tobacco stems .65 .65 FARM MANURES. Cattle excrement (solid, fresh') Cattle urine (fresh) Hen manure (fresh) GO. 00 .85 .17 Horse excrement (solid) Horse urine (fresh) Human excrement (solid). . 77.20 95. W 1.09 .17 1.90 1.40 .31 .01 .30 .41 .07 .33 Human urine Pigeon manure (dry) 10.00 50.00 3.10 .80 .80 .60 .60 .40 .50 Poudrette (night soil) .08 Sheep excrement (solid, fresh) Sheep urine ( fresh ) Stable manure (mixed) 73.27 Swine excrement (solid, fresh) Swine urine (fresh) Barnyard manure (average) 68.87 ' 18.5 carbonate. BARNYARD MANURE. Barnyard manure contains all the fertilizing elements required by plants in forms that insure plentiful crops and permanent fertility to the soil. It not only enriches the soil with the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, which it con- tains, but it also renders the stored-up materials of the soil more available, improves the mechanical condition of the soil, makes it warmer, and enables it to retain more moistui-e or to draw it up from below. On the basis of the prices charged for commercial fertilizers, the fertilizing value of the manure produced by the farm animals of the United States last year was upward of $2,000,000,000. The average for each horse is estimated at §27, for each head of cattle $19, for each hog $12, and for each sheep $2. BARNYARD MANURE. 571 Amount and value of manure produced by different farm animals, [New York Cornell Experiment Station.] Animal. Sheep. . Calves . Pigs.... Cows .. Horses. Value of Amount Value per Value per manure per day. day.* year.' per ton. Founds. Cents. 34.1 7.3 $26.09 $3. .30 67.8 6.3 34.45 3.18 83.6 16.7 60.88 3.39 74.1 8.0 29.27 2.02 48.8 7.6 27.74 2.21 ' Valuing nitrogen at 15 cents, phosphoric acid at 6 cents, and potash at 4} cents per pound. Barnyard manure i.s a very variable substance, its composition and value depend- ing principally upon (1) age and kind of animal, (2) quantity and quality of food, (3) proi^ortion of litter, and (4) method of management and age of manure. Mature animals, neither gaining nor losing weight, excrete practically all the fertilizing constituents consumed in the food. Growing animals and milch cows excrete from 50 to 75 per cent of the fertilizing constituents of the food; fattening or working animals from 90 to 95 per cent. As regards the fertilizing value of equal weights of manure in its noimal condition, farm animals probably stand in the following order: Poultry, sheep, pigs, horses, cows. The amounts of fertilizing constituents in the manure stand in direct relation to those in the food. As regards the value of manure produced, the concentrated feeding stuffs, such as meat scrap, cotton-seed meal, linseed meal, and wheat bran, stand first, the leguminoiis plants (clover, peas, etc.) second, the grasses third, cereals (oats, corn, etc.) fourth, and root crops, such as turnips, beets, and man- gel-wurzels, last. Barnyard manure is a material which rapidly undergoes change. When it is practical to haul the maniire from the stalls and pen and spread it on the field at frequent intervals the losses of valuable constituents need r.ot be very great, but when (as in winter) the manure must be stored for some time the difficulties of preservation become gi-eatly increased. The deterioration of manure results from two chief causes, (1) fermentation and (2) weathering or leaching. The loss from destructive fermentation may be almost entirely prevented by the use of proper absorbents and preservatives, such as gypsum, superphosphate, and kainit, and by keeping the manure moist and compact. Amounts of different preseirvatives to he used per head daily. Preservative. Superphosphate Gypsum Kamit Per horse, 1,000 pounds' weight. Per cow, 880 pounds' weight. Lbs. Ozs. 1 0 1 9 1 2 Lh.t. Ozs. 1 2 1 12 1 5 Per pig, 230 pounds' weight. Ounces. Per sheep, 110 pounds' weight. Ou7ices. If both superphosphate and gypsum are n.sed, the above proportions of these materials should be reduced from one-third to one-half. Kainit should be applied to the fre.sh manure and covered with litter so that it does not come in contact with the feet of the animals. Loss from leaching may bo prevented by storage under cover or in pits. Ex- tremes of moisture and temperature are to be avoided, and uniform and moderate fermentation is the object to be sought. To this end it is advisable to mix the manure from the different animals thoroughly in the heap. Barnyard manure is justly held in high esteem as a general fertilizer, but it has a forcing effect when fresh, and is therefore better suited to grasses and forage plants than to plants grown for seed, such as cereals. Direct apjvlications, espe- cially to root crops, such as sugar beets, potatoes, or tobacco, often prove injurious. This resiiltcan, as a rule, bo avoided by appljnng the manure some mouths before the planting of the crop or by using only well-rotted manure. Barnyard manure is not applied to fruit trees with the same good results that attend its use in the case of field crops, garden truck, etc. It does not stimulate fruiting to the same extent as do the mineral fertilizers. Its tendency is to produce a large growth, but a poor quality, of fruit. Oranges, in particular, become coarse, thick skinned, and sour under its influence. As a rule the best results are likely to be obtained by using commercial fertilizing matei-ials in connection with barnyard manure, either in compost or separately. 672 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CUTS OP MEATS. The methods of cutting sides of beef, mutton, and veal and pork into Darts and the terms used for the "cuts," as these parts are commonly calleTvary indifferent ocahties The terms iised in the table whicli follows and generallyTn piiE- tions of this Department will be made more clear by the following dia-rams- ^ Fig. 131.— Diagram of cuts of veal. Fio. 132.— Diagram of cuts of mutton Fig. 103.— Diagram of cuts of pork. ' From Farmers' Bulletin No. 34. HUMAN FOODS. 573 HUMAN FOODS. Within recent years analyses of a large number of samples of food materials have been made in this country. In the table given below the average results of these analyses are shuwn. Brief explanatory notes regarding the nutritive ingredients of food and their Tises in the body are also given, which may serve to make the table more intelligible, NUTRITIVE INGREDIENTS OF FOOD AND THEIR USES IN THE BODY, Food as purchased contains— Edible portion: Flesh of meat, yolk and white of egg.s, wheat' aour, etc. 'Water. [Protein. iNutrients. |^,^tf^l^^r^tes. (.Mineral matters. All serve as fuel and yield energy in form of heat and muscular strength. Refuse: [ Bones, entrails, shells, bran, etc. USES OF NUTRIENTS. Protein - Forms tissue (muscle, (White (albumen) of eggs, curd tendon, fat), (casein) of milk, lean meat, gluten of wheat, etc.) Fats - Form fatty tissue. (Fat of meat, butter, olive oil, oils of corn and wheat, etc.) Carbohy drates - Transformed into fat. (Su.^^-ar, starch, etc.) Mineral matters (ash) - Aid in forming bone, (Phosphates of lime, potash, assist in digestion, soda, etc.) etc. Tlicfuel value of food. — Heat and musciilar power are forms of force or energy. The energy is developed as the food is consumed in the body. The unit commonly used in this measurement is the calorie, the amount of heat which would raise the temperature of a pound of water 4° F. The follo^ving general estimate has been made for the average amount of poten- tial energy in 1 pound of each of the classes of nutrients : Calories. In 1 pound of protein 1, 860 In 1 pound of fats 4, 220 In 1 pound of carbohydrates 1, 860 In other words, when we compare the nutrients in respect to their fuel values, their capacities for j-ielding heat and mechanical x^ower, a pound of protein of lean meat or albumen of egg is just about equivaleiit to a jjouud of sugar or starch, and a little over 2 pounds of either would be required to equal a pound of the fat of meat or butter or the body fat. Average composition of American food j^rodiicts.^ Food materials (as purchased). Num- ber of analy- ses. Ref- use. Water. Pro- tein. Fat. Carbo- hy- drates. Ash. Fuel value per pound. AN1.MAI. FOOD. Beef, fresh. Brisket : 1 9 7 3 23 1 4 1 6 2 4 2 11 Per c^ 14.3 33.7 17.0 14.7 19.9 9.8 13.8 1.5.0 13.3 2.1 3.8 5.0 3.8 Perct. 40.6 54.3 56.3 53.3 64.1 59.7 49.3 43.6 m.i 64.9 57.5 51.5 64.4 P(r ct. 13.5 1.5.2 15.7 15.4 15.3 16.3 lo.O 13.0 15.0 19.3 17.3 15.6 16.7 Per ct. 31.9 6.0 10.3 15.9 9.9 13.3 21.1 27.3 30.8 13.7 20.7 37.3 34.3 Per ct. Per ct. 0.7 .8 .8 .7 .8 .9 .8 .6 .8 1.0 .8 .7 .8 Calories. 1,680 (Z!huck, including shoulder: 635 730 Fat 955 All analyses 705 Chuck rilis: 865 1,170 Fat 1.400 1,155 Flank: Lean 895 1,196 Fat 1,436 All analyses 1,336 > Condensed from detailed tables in Bulletin No. 38 of the Office of Experiment Stations of this Department. 574 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Avei^agc composition of American food products — Continued. Pood materials (as purcha-sed). Num- ber of analy- ses. Ref- use. "Water. Pro- tein. Fat. Carbo- hy- drates. Ash. Fuel value per pound. ANIMAL FOOD— continued. Beef, /res?i— Continued. Loin: 11 28 6 48 1 2 1 6 1 2 1 6 2 4 6 1 2 1 3 6 1 10 12 3 6 14 6 14 7 38 3 4 2 11 7 2 11 1 2 23 15 1 44 2 8 4 19 5 5 13 5 6 1 13 2 13 3 19 1 Per ct. 13.1 13.0 10.3 13.6 3.3 57. 6 38.0 46.6 48.8 39.0 27.6 38.4 17.3 15.3 16.5 16.7 33.6 20.8 16.1 20.3 34.8 34.0 34.1 13 3 13! 5 8.8 7.7 """8."5' 20.2 31.4 23.2 18.5 36.5 36.9 36.5 66.6 53.9 51.6 54.8 8.1 16.4 11.9 14.6 35.8 Per ct. 58.2 53.6 49.2 53.3 66.3 58.1 53.6 60.7 68.5 63.1 58.6 63.5 63.4 57.1 59.3 40.9 28.1 33.7 35.7 37.9 50.4 45.9 46.3 54.4 45.4 37.3 46.0 53.6 43.8 39.5 44.9 69.0 63.9 51.5 64.8 37.4 31.5 35.7 38.6 48.0 64.3 60.7 57.8 63.0 5L7 44.5 36.9 47.3 45.4 42.9 44.1 31.6 3L3 29.7 31.3 66.9 56.8 52.8 57.9 36.7 Per ct. 16.7 15.9 15,8 16.9 30.5 31.0 16.8 18.9 19.8 19.7 17.1 18.9 17.2 14.8 15.6 13.9 8.0 9.9 7.8 8.3 14.2 13.9 13.9 12.3 13.3 n.6 12.7 14.8 13.4 12.6 13.6 19.5 18.5 16.4 18.7 10.9 9.3 10.5 12.0 14.1 18.9 18.1 18.9 18.7 1.5.7 13.3 11.4 14.4 13.6 13.3 13.1 9.1 9.1 9.3 9.3 18.8 11.1 16.7 16.8 10.7 Per ct. 11.1 17.6 34.0 17.3 J9 2 19! 8 28.8 19.5 10.7 17.3 23.5 17.7 18.5 37.3 24.4 42.3 5.9 17.8 19.5 14.7 5.7 n.9 10.7 15.5 25.5 34.0 23.9 9.3 21.3 31.2 20 6 10.5 16.7 31.3 15.6 16.3 24.8 19.2 36.5 24.7 7.1 12.6 33.3 8.8 11.6 30.3 37.9 19.0 3.9 7.3 5.7 2.2 5.3 9.1 4.3 5.2 9.8 17.7 9.7 16.2 Per ct. Per ct. .9 .9 .8 .9 LO LI .8 .9 LO LO .8 .9 .9 .8 .8 .7 .4 .6 .4 .4 .7 .7 .7 .6 .7 .6 .7 .7 . 7 .6 . 7 LO .9 .8 .9 .6 .4 .5 '.7 LO .9 LO LO .8 .7 .6 .8 .C .6 .6 .5 .4 .4 .4 LO .9 .9 1.0 .6 Calories. 780 Medium fat .- 1,040 Fat 1,305 All analyses 1,026 Loin, boneless strip: Lean 895 Medium fat 1,230 Fat 1,530 All analyses Loin, sirloin butt: 1,175 820 1,095 Fat 1,310 All analyses Loin, tenderloin: Lean 1,100 1,100 Medium fat 1,430 All analyses . ... 1,330 Loin, top of sirloin: Medium fat .. 3,025 Loin, trimmings: Lean 400 935 Fat 9ft5 All analyses 775 Neck: 505 Medium fat 760 All analyses . .. 710 Plate: Lean 880 Medium fat L330 Fat -.. 1,650 All analyses . 1,345 Ribs: Lean 670 Medium fat 1,150 Fat 1,550 All analyses 1,120 Eib rolls: Lean 805 Medium fat 1,050 Fat 1,630 All analyses L005 Rib trimmings: Mediiim t'at 890 Fat All analyses 1,230 1,005 Ribs, cross: Medium fat 1,765 All analyses . . 1,305 Round : 650 Medium fat 870 Fat 1,295 All analyses 720 Rump : Lean 780 Medium fat 1,095 Fat 1.390 All analy.ses- 1,070 Shank, fore: Le;in 430 Mediiim fat 535 4-S5 Sbank, hind: 2G0 Mpf1iii7Ti fat 395 IVt 555 All analyses. Shoulder clod: ' 355 570 716 Fat 1,060 725 Socket 880 > Including, in most cases, some bone. COMPOSITION OF FOOD PRODUCTS. 575 Average composition of Avierican food products — Continued. Food materials (as purchased). Num- ber of analy- ses. Ref- use. Water. Pro- tein. Fat. Carbo- hy- drates, Ash. Fuel value per pound. ANIMAL, FOOD— continued. Beef, /rcs/i— Continued. Fore quarter: Lean Medium fat Fat All analyses Hind quarter: Lean Medium fat Fat All analyses Side Liver Sweetbreads Tongue Beef, canned. Boiled Corned, cooked: Medium fat Fat All analyses Dried --. Roast Steak, rump -- Tongue, whole Tripe Beef, corned and pickled. Corned beef: All analyses Mess Tongue, i)ickled Tripe, pickled Beef, dried, etc. Dried, salted, and smoked ... Veal, fresh. Breast: Lean Medium fat All analyses Chuck : Medium fat Flank: Medium fat Fat All analyses Leg: Lean , Medium fat All analyses Leg cutlets Lorn: Lean Medium fat Fat All analyses Loin, with kidney Neck: Medium fat Bib: Medium fat Fat All analyses Bump Shank, fore Shank, hind: Medium fat Fat All analyses Shoulder and flank Shoulder Forequarter Per ct. 21.8 19.3 21.7 19.8 16.5 16.4 14.1 16.3 18.3 69.8 15.1 9.4 10.5 6.0 23.4 20.6 21.4 18.9 6.6 15.6 10.5 4.0 20.3 17.3 18.3 18.6 9.1 31.5 26.9 23.4 26.4 30.3 40.1 62.7 51.4 61.1 24.3 16.6 24.6 Per ct. 53.8 48.6 41.9 49.3 55.9 50.4 50.0 52.0 .50.4 21.6 70.9 53.9 51.8 53.1 51.6 51.2 44.8 58.9 56.3 51.3 74.6 49.6 33.0 58.9 87.4 50. 54.0 52.7 53.1 59.5 08.9 57.0 66.9 69.3 59.4 &5.0 65.6 58.1 57.2 50.4 56.2 66.7 49.9 53.0 62.6 53.0 43.7 44.1 27.8 33.1 28.6 49.7 57.2 54.2 Per ct. 14.1 14.1 13.4 14.1 16.0 14.9 14.8 15.3 14.6 5.4 15.4 14.8 24.4 28.5 24.7 2.5.9 38.6 25.0 23.5 21.5 16.4 14.2 10.7 11.6 10.9 31.8 15.7 14.9 15.1 15.0 19.7 18.0 19.4 19.6 16.9 18.5 20.0 16.1 16.0 1.5.1 15.9 12.8 13.3 14.7 15.5 14.8 14.0 11.8 7.4 9.7 7.7 14.9 16.6 14.6 Per ct. 9.7 17.3 23.4 16.1 10.8 17.5 20.4 15.6 16.0 1.8 12.1 15.3 14.0 20.7 18.9 5.4 14.8 18.7 23.2 8.5 23.8 39.9 19.2 1.2 6.2 n.o 9.6 5.2 10.4 24.1 12.7 3.4 7.2 5.0 9.5 4.6 8.6 15.4 8.4 10.7 4.6 5.0 11.3 3.1 L7 5.2 2.2 10.2 8.7 6.0 Per ct. Per ct. 6 7 6 7 8 8 7 L3 4.4 3.0 4.0 11.2 1.3 1.5 4.0 .5 4.0 5.9 4.3 .2 10.0 7 8 8. Calories. 670 990 1,230 940 576 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Average composition of American food products — Contimied. Food materials (as purchased). Num- ber of analy- ses. Ref- use. Water. Pro- tein. Fat. Carbo- hy- drates. Ash. ANIMAL POOD— continued. Veal, /res/i— Continued. 6 6 2 1 3 1 4 4 1 1 1 1 3 1 6 3 9 7 9 3 10 1 14 11 3 15 9 10 1 6 1 9 9 9 25 9 1 1 2 3 4 3 1 1 11 3 15 3 5 3 3 3 3 3 Per ct. 20.7 22.6 19.1 17.4 13.4 13.8 14.8 17.7 20.3 18.8 15.7 19.3 2.6 21.3 16.5 19.4 16.8 18.0 12.4 17.4 15.3 11.7 14.2 28.4 27.3 25.3 21.7 19.5 31.5 31.1 16.7 18.1 19.0 18.1 71 3 42^4 68.4 12.1 23.5 15.8 14.6 16.0 71.2 32.5 59.6 Per ct. 56.2 55.2 73.1 45.5 52.9 47.3 50.3 45.3 46.7 41.3 44.7 51.3 47.0 65." 7 39.9 33.8 37.0 45.8 42.0 66.1 51.4 48.2 53.3 43.3 38.3 40.5 41.6 41.0 50.3 48.5 43.7 47.0 40.6 45.6 45.4 43.0 45.8 47.6 41.8 17.0 35.7 13.7 42.3 46.1 43.8 35.7 42.3 13.8 35.9 19.1 65.1 7.7 13.8 9.1 Per ct. 15.7 15.1 20.4 15.5 15.2 14.8 15.3 15.0 14.4 14.0 14.7 16.0 14.2 13.9 11.5 11.5 11.1 14.8 13.9 15.9 14.9 14.8 1.5.1 13.2 12.5 1^.8 11.7 11.7 14.2 13.5 12.8 13.4 11.9 13.5 12.7 12.7 27.2 23.6 13.8 5.1 10.7 3.8 18.6 15.1 14.1 10.4 13.5 4.3 10.4 5.3 19.5 2.3 4.1 2.7 Per ct. 6.6 6.3 5.3 19.1 13.6 23.7 19.7 24.1 20.4 2:3.6 21.0 16.1 18.7 17.3 26.7 37.5 31.8 38.7 43.4 10.3 14.9 23.8 14.5 28.6 36.8 31.9 17.6 19.4 9.6 1.5.6 24.4 17.4 25.7 33.5 23.1 24.6 22.8 24.0 25.5 6.4 10.6 13. 9 24.0 14.5 2.J.6 38.7 27.5 10.6 20.7 15.7 14.4 89. 9 81.9 88.0 Per ct. Per ct. 8 .8 1.2 Lamb, fresh. 8 Leg, hind : 9 Fat 8 9 Loin, without kidney and tallow: 8 .8 Shoulder .8 Fore quarter 8 .9 Side, without kidney and tallow. Lamb, canned. .8 5 Mutton, fresh. Chuck: 6 Fat -- 7 .7 Flank: 7 7 Leg, hind: 9 8 Fat 8 All analyses 8 Loin, without kidney and tallow: 7 Fat 7 6 Neck: Medium fat 7 Shoulder: 7 Medium fat 7 Fat s 7 Fore quarter , and kidney .7 7 .7 Side, not including tallow Mutton, canned. Corned .7 4 2 4 8 Pork, fresh. Chuck ribs and shoulder: Medium fat.- 8 Flank cut 3 Ham 6 Head 2 Head cheese 3.0 Loin: Lean 8 7 Fat .6 7 Middle cuts .3 Shoulder 5 .3 Tenderloin 1 0 Back fat .1 BeUy fat .2 Ham fat .2 COMPOSITION OP FOOD PRODUCTS. 577 Average composition of American food products — Continued. Food materials (as purchased). Num- ber of analy- ses. Ref- use. Water. Pro- tein. Fat. Carbo- hy- drates. Ash. Fuel value per pound. ANIMAL FOOD— continued. Pork% salted, cxired, and pickled. Ham. smoked: Lean 3 13 2 8 4 3 2 5 2 2 6 4 3 1 12 13 3 4 1 6 9 3 2 3 1 3 2 1 2 3 1 1 2 2 3 1 1 2 1 1 2 3 3 4 3 2 6 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 5 Per ct. 11.5 14.4 3.4 12.7 15.2 20.0 18.9 8.1 8.2 """ii.'2' 35.5 9.6 8.0 8.1 11.2 3.3 3.9 "'""7."6" ""i's 34.8 22.3 22.7 64.8 56.1 48.6 52.5 29.9 61.5 .51.0 17.7 42.6 44.6 40.7 62.5 62.7 35.1 47.1 42.7 6.3.3 40.1 45.3 39. 2 Per ct. 47.2 34.9 25.2 35.9 50.1 30.8 21.4 30.7 1.5.9 16.3 7.3 17.6 44.6 29.6 16.8 17.8 26.1 55. 2 23.3 55.5 38.7 20.9 96.5 93.8 96.0 85.7 89.8 87.8 85.1 90.0 86.6 95.7 48.5 33.1 42.4 57.7 66.9 34.6 34.8 40.3 .38.7 .58. 5 33.1 40. 0 01.9 41.7 40.4 43.7 28.4 30.0 ,50.7 42.3 4.5.7 29.7 43.0 4.3.7 39.4 Per ct. 17.9 13.3 14.3 14.1 15.4 12.9 11.8 12.4 6.5 0.3 1.8 6.5 10.0 14.9 9.3 9.6 7.5 18.0 36.3 21.7 12.8 23.0 2.0 3.6 2.5 4.5 ■ 5.2 3.8 4.3 1.8 6.1 2.9 14.8 10.3 15.7 22.4 31.8 9.3 8.3 9.8 8.0 10.6 5.6 8.2 15.1 10.9 10.0 11.4 7.3 6.7 12.6 9.8 10.7 6.4 10.6 10.0 13.4 Per ct. 18.5 33.4 53.8 33.3 38.5 36.6 43.6 33.0 m 8 06.2 87.3 .59.6 9.3 40.8 61.8 60.3 54.8 19.7 40.4 18.8 45.4 43.1 .1 .1 " "'3.5" .9 .5 .5 1.1 1.9 1.1 33.8 18.4 10.3 8.0 .8 3 '.& 2 '.'Z .3 .2 4.4 3.9 4.3 3.5 1.5 .2 .7 2 .3 .3 .6 .3 8.1 Per ct. ."4" .8 2 1.5 .4 5.1 3.8 4.3 9.0 5.6 3.9 .5 7.6 1.7 Per ct. 4.9 4.0 3.4 4.1 6.0 5.5 4.3 5.0 3.7 3.2 3.7 5.1 .6 5.1 4.2 4.3 .4 3.8 7.3 3.6 2.3 7.0 1.3 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.9 1.2 1.5 1.5 .9 .8 .6 .8 2.1 1.6 Calories. 1.115 1,656 2,635 1,665 1,49Q 1,360 2,016 1,625 Medium fat Fat All analyses Ham. boneless, raw, without case Shoulder, smoked: Fat Dry salted backs 2 940 Dry salted belly 2 910 Salt pork 3,716 Salt pork, lean ends 2 636 Feet 580 Bacon, smoked: 2,000 2 780 Medium fat 2,720 2 465 Pork side ' Sausage. B()lo{jna 1,166 2,196 1,206 3 170 Farmer Frankfurt Pork Summer 2; 300 4& Soups. Bouillon Chicken 100 Consomme 56 Meat stew 326 Mock-turtle 186 Ox-tail 170 Pea 265 185 Turtle, CTeen 270 Vegetable 65 Poultry and game, fresh. Chicken 336 Goose 1 620^ Turkey 1,070 990 Oame, canned. Plover Quail 776 Fish, fresh. Ba.ss, black, whole 206 Bass, sea, whole 6 7 6 8 5 6 9 9 7 7 4 4 9 7 6 4 7 7 9 160 Bluoflsh, entrails removed Cod, whole 205 165 Cod, dressed 205 Flounder, whole 116 Hadiluck, entrails removed Halibut, 8t(>aks or sections Herring, whole 160 '465 370 Mackerel, whole 370 Mackerel, entrails removed Pcrf^h, white, whole 360 195 Perch, yellfiW, whole 135 265 Pickerel (pike ) , whole Pickerel (piko), entrails re- 190 210 130 £90 Bed snapjier, entrails and gills 200 Salmon, whole 670 * Lard and other fata included. 678 YEAKBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGKICULTURE. Average composition of A7nei'ican food products — Continued. Food materials (as purchased). ■Num- ber of analy- ses. Ref- use. Water, Pro- tein. Fat. Carbo- hy- drates. Ash. Fuel value per pound. ANIMAL FOOD— continued. Fish, fresh — Continued. Salmon, entrails removed.. Shad, whole.- Shad roe .- .-. Spanish mackerel, whole Sturgeon, anterior sections . Trout, brook Fish, preserved and canned. Cod, salt Haddock, smoked , Halibut, smoked , Herring, smoked, entrails re- moved Mackerel, salt, dressed Salmon, canned..- , Sardines Shellfish, etc., fresh. Clam.s, in shell Crabs, hard, whole... Lobsters, whole. Oy-sters in the shell.. Oyster, "solids" Terrapin Turtle, green, whole. Per ct. 39.5 50.1 S4.6 14.4 48.1 24.9 33,2 7.0 44.4 19.7 14.3 15,0 41.9 53.4 61.7 81.4 75.4 76.0 Shellfish, canned. Lobsters Shrimps Hens' eggs. Eggs. no, 5 Per ct. 48.1 35.3 71.3 44.5 67.4 40.4 40.3 49.3 46.0 19.2 34.8 56.8 63.6 49.9 36.7 30.7 16.1 88.3 18.3 19 3 77.8 70.8 66.0 Dairy products, etc. Butter Whole milk Skim milk Buttermilk Cream Cheese, Cheddar Cheese, Neufchatel Cheese, Roquefort Cheese, Swiss _ Cheese, whole milk* Cheese, partly skimmed''. Cheese, skim rnilk^ Miscellaneous. Gelatine Animal and other fats, except butter: Tallow, refined Lard, retined Cottf )lene Oleomargarine 35 Per ct. 13.5 9.3 30.9 13.7 15.4 9.8 16.0 16.1 19.1 20.3 13.9 19.5 34,0 5.0 7.9 5.9 1.3 6.1 5.3 4.4 18 1 35,4 13.1 87.0 90.5 91.1 74.0 35.6 50.0 39.3 31.4 33.7 38.3 45,7 13.6 9.3 3.3 3.4 3.0 2.5 38.3 18.7 23.6 37.6 26.0 25.4 31,5 84,3 1.3 Per ct. 8.1 4.8 3.8 6.3 1.6 LI .4 .1 14.0 21.3 7.8 12.1 .7 3 L4 .9 .1 1.1 10 9.5 •83.4 4.0 .3 .5 18.5 33.0 37.4 29.5 ai.9 34.3 29.5 16.4 100.0 100.0 100.0 82.7 Per ct. 3.6 Per ct. .8 .7 L5 LO L3 .6 18.4 3.4 13.9 7.4 10.4 2.0 6.3 1,1 .6 .3 .7 3.3 .5 L5 L8 1.3 3.3 3.6 3.3 2.5 2 6 5.0 .7 5.1 .7 4.8 .7 4.5 .6 4.3 8.4 6.8 4.8 3.8 3.3 4.2 6.7 VEGETABLE FOOD. Flours, meals, etc. Entire wheat flour 5 13.1 14.3 1.9 70.6 1.2 Graham flour 6 U.8 13.7 2.2 70.3 2.0 Roller-process flour 100 13.5 11.3 1.1 74.6 .6 Spring-wheat flour 19 11.6 11.8 1.1 75.0 .5 Winter-wheat flour 13 12.5 10.4 1.0 75.6 .5 Macaroni and vermicelli 25 10.8 11.7 1.6 73.9 3.0 Barloymeal 3 11.9 10.5 2.2 73.8 2.6 Barley, pe.arled 2 10.8 9.3 1.0 77.6 L3 Buckwheat flour 10 14.3 6.1 1.0 77.2 1.4 Corn meal, bolted 9 12.9 8.9 2.2 75.1 .9 1 Refuse, oil. ^ Average per cent shell in several determinations. 3 Average per cent butter fat found in the ninety-day Colambian butter test. * American. Calories. 590 375 600 515 355 230 COMPOSITION OF FOOD TRODUCTS. 579 Average composition of American food products — Continued. Food materials (a-s purchased). VEGETABLE FOOD— continued. Flours, meals, efc— Continued. Corn meal, unbolted. Corn hominy Oatmeal Oats, rolled Pop corn, popped Rice -. Rye meal or flour Bread, crackers, and pastry. Broad, white Bread, brown Bread, corn Bread , graham Bread, rye Cake Crackers, Boston.. Crackers, graham. Crackers, oyster . . Crackers, soda Doughnuts Pie Sugars. Honey, strained Molasses Sugar, granulated . Sugar , ma))le Sirup, maple Starches. Tapioca. Starch . . Vegetables. Asparagus Beans, dried Beets Cabljage Carrots Cauliflower, head Celery Citron melons . . . : Cowpea.s, d ried- Cue u m bur s Eggplant Lettuce Lima1)ean8, dried Lima beans, green Mnskmelons Okra Onions Par s n ins Peas, dried Peas, green Pickles (cucumber) Potatoes, raw. Pu m 1 ik ins Radishes Rhubarb Sauerkraut Spinach Squash String lieaus Sweet corn, edible portion. Sweet i)c.tat(x!S Tom.Ttocs, fresh Turnips Wutormolons Fruits, berries, etc., fre.ifi. Apples... Apricots. Num- ber of analy- ses. 108 1 3 4 8 1 1 2 1 5 10 Ref- use. Per ct. 110.5 20.0 1.5.0 20.0 15.0 18.0 50.0 10.0 20.0 "50.0 15.0 50.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 l.j.O .30.0 68.0 25.0 «.0 Water. Per ct. 10.3 11.9 7.2 7.2 4.3 12.4 12.7 oo.i 40.0 38.0 33.3 3L8 20.4 8.2 11. G 94.0 13.3 70.0 7(5.8 70.5 90.8 94.4 25.6 13.0 81.6 92.9 77.1 11.1 68.5 44.8 87.4 78.0 63.9 10.8 39.0 89.0 67.1 46.6 6:1.6 56.6 86.3 92.4 4;}. 3 87.3 81.3 58.9 94.4 63.2 39.0 61.5 79.9 Pro- tein. Per ct. 7.3 8.2 1.5.6 16.9 10.7 7.8 7.1 9.5 5.0 8.5 8.5 10.1 7.0 10.7 9.8 11.0 10.3 22.3 1.3 1.8 .9 1.6 L4 .4 2L3 .7 1.2 1.1 1.5.9 7.1 .3 2.0 1.5 1.3 24.1 2.3 1.0 .4 1.5 3.1 .8 2.2 2.8 1.5 .8 1.0 .2 .4 1.0 Fat. Per ct. 4.1 .6 7.3 7.2 5.0 .4 1.3 2.4 2.7 L8 .7 8.1 9.9 13.6 8.8 9.4 21.9 9.5 .3 1.8 .1 .3 .3 .8 .1 .6 1.4 3 !3 .3 .4 .4 .5 1.1 .3 .5 .1 .5 .3 .4 1.1 Carbo- hy- drates Per ct. 66.7 78.9 68.0 66.8 78.7 79.0 78.5 52 8 50.7 47.3 55.9 55.9 63.4 68.8 69.7 74.2 70.5 53.6 39.6 75.1 (W.O 100.0 82.8 70.1 3.0 3.3 59.1 7.7 4.9 7.4 6.0 3.0 72.5 60.9 3.1 5.1 2.7 67.1 22.0 4.6 9.5 8.9 12.9 61.5 8.0 5.4 15.3 2.6 4.6 2.2 4.4 3.1 6.2 9.4 14.1 23.1 3.9 6.1 2.7 12.4 12.6 Ash. Per ct. L2 .4 1.9 L9 1.3 .4 .8 1.1 1.9 3.5 L5 1.5 1.1 2.4 1.9 1.7 1.8 LO L5 3.6 .7 3.6 1.2 1.1 .9 3.4 .4 .5 .8 4.1 L7 .3 .7 .6 1.4 2.5 .5 4.6 .7 .3 .7 .4 7.0 L9 .4 .7 .7 .9 .5 .6 .1 • Refuse bran removed by sifting. » Refuse pods. 580 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE. Average composition of American food products — Continued. Food materials (as purchased). Num- ber of analy- ses. Ref- use. Water. Pro- tein. Fat. Carbo- hy- Ash. drates. Per ct. Per ct. 13.7 .6 7.5 .6 11.4 .6 10.1 .3 13.3 .3 13.5 .4 5.8 .4 14.8 .6 7.1 .4 10. 6 .4 9.7 .3 19.1 .5 17.4 .5 12.6 .6 6.1 .6 57.6 1.8 63.3 1.4 56.4 .7 13.0 .4 54.4 .5 61.9 1.4 70.0 3.4 5.3 .3 36.4 .7 58.6 1.3 74.7 4.1 65.7 3.2 37.7 1.4 54.6 2.1 31.5 1.3 16.3 1.3 36.8 3.3 37.7 7.3 Fuel Talue per pound. VEGETABLE FOOD— continued. Fruits, berries, etc., fresh — Con. Bananas Blackberries Cherries, edible portion. -. Cranberries Grapes Huckleberries Lemons Nectarines Oranges Peai s - Pineapples, edible portion Plums - Prunes, fresh RaspV)erries Strawberries Fruits, dried and canned. Apples, dried - Apricots, dried Blackberries, canned . Blueberries, canned . . Crab apples, canned.. Dates, dried Figs, dried Peaches, canned Pineapples, canned . . . Prunes, dried Raisins, dried , 2iante currants Nuts. Chestnuts, fresh Chestnuts, dried Cocoanut, prepared Peanuts Miscellaneous. Chocolate Cocoa Per ct. 40.0 25.0 'so.'o' 27.0 25.0 4.8 5.8 10.0 12.0 15.0 16.0 23.0 33.0 Per ct. 44.5 88.9 86.1 88.5 59.1 82.4 63.5 77.4 64.5 62.9 89.3 74.6 75.6 85.8 81.8 36.3 33.4 40.0 85.3 42.4 18.3 23.5 93.7 61.8 22.4 14.0 27.9 33.4 4.5 3.6 6.2 10.3 4.6 Per ct. .7 .9 1.1 .5 1.0 .7 .7 .6 .6 .5 .4 1.0 .7 1.0 .9 1.4 2.9 .8 .6 .3 1.9 6.1 .5 .4 3.0 3.5 1.3 6.8 8.1 6.3 17.3 12.5 21.6 Per ct. .5 3.1 .8 .7 1.3 3.0 .6 3.0 2.1 .7 3.4 4.5 .7 4.7 3.0 6.7 7.7 57.4 35.9 47.1 28.9 Calories. 290 245 265 225 320 890 145 285 160 235 200 370 835 255 155 1,225 1,230 1,150 280 1,120 1,375 1,395 115 715 1,1.S5 1,635 1,370 1,090 1,490 3,125 1,718 2,720 2,320 METHODS OF CONTROLLING INJURIOUS INSECTS. REMEDIES FOR IMPORTANT INSECTS. Angoumois GRAIN MOTH (Sitotroga cerealella Oliv.). Prompt thrashing of grain after harvesting; bisulphide of carbon in bins and granaries. Apple-leaf skeletonizeh {Canarsia hammondi Eiley). Spraying with arsenic- als (paris green and london purple) in June; hand-picking of leaves with larv£B. Apple-root plant-louse {Schizoneura lanigera Hausui.). Kerosene emulsion under and above ground: scalding water poured freely about roots; bisulphide of carbon under ground about roots; ashes around trunk. Apple-tree borer, Flat-headed (Chrysohothris femorata Fab.). Painting trunk and larger branches in June with strong soap solution, washing soda, or mixture of whitewash and paris green; placing bars of soap in crotches of trees, to be washed down by rain. Army worm (Leucania iniipuncta Haw.). Burning over fields in winter; ditch- ing; paris green. Asparagus beetle (Crioceris asparagi Linn.). Prompt marketing of all canes; dusting with lime ; arsenical mixtures (paris green and london purple) ; jarring larvae to ground on hot days, especially if soil be sandy. Bean weevil (Briichns obtcctus Say). Treating with bisulphide of carbon in air-tight vessels. Blister beetles {Epicauta vittata Fab., E. cinerea Lee, E. pentisylvanica DeG., Macrobasis unicolor Kb.). Arsenicals, 1 pound to 100 gallons of water. METHODS OF CONTROLLING INJURIOUS INSECTS. 581 Boll worm. {See Corn ear worm.) Buffalo gnat {Simuliinn pecuariuu Riley). Smudges; oil, grease, etc., applied to stock. Cabbage bug, Harlequin (Murgantia histrionica Hahn). Spring collecting from trap mustard ; hand-picking. Cabbage worms (Fieris rapie Sch., Plutella cruciferarum Zell., Plusia brassicat Riley). Pyrethrum ; kerosene emulsion ; paris green, dry, with flour or lime — 1 part of the poison in 50 to 100 of the dilvient. Cankerworm, Spring (Paleacrita rcrnata Peck). Arsenical mixtures in spray; trapping female moth in oil troughs or tar bands about trunk of trees. Carpet beetle, or buffalo moth {AntlivcnHs scrophularioe L.). Benzine; hot ironing of carpets over damp cloth ; killing by steam. Chinch bug (Blissusleucopterus Say). Burning wild-grass land and all rubbish in early winter ; kerosene emulsion ; contagious disease ; trap crops ; ditching. Clothes moth. Southern {Tinea hiNelliella Hum.). Airing and sunning; ben- zine ; naphthaline ; packing in paper bags. Cockroach, German; Croton bug {Phyllodromia germanica L.). Pyrethrum or buhach ; bisulphide of carbon in tight rooms or compartments away from fire. Codling moth; Apple worm {Carpocapsa pomonellaljiun.). Arsenicals; first application as soon as blossoms fall ; second, one or two weeks later, just before the fruit turns down on the stena ; trapping larvae by applying bands to th» tree ; prompt destruction of infested fallen fruit. Cotton worm {Aletia xylina Say). Paris green dusted on as dry powder. Corn root-worm {Diabrotica longicornis Say). Rotation of corn with oats or other crop. Cornstalk borer, Larger {Diatrcea saccharalis F.). Plowing tinder or burn- ing stubble. Corn ear worm; Bollworm {Heliothis armiger Rhn.) . Late fall plowing; poi- soned baits; for cotton, planting corn as trap crop. Currant WORM, Imported (iVema^Ms rtbesu . . . ). Hellebore, 1 ounce to 2 gal- lons water, in spray. Cucumber beetle, Striped [Diabrotica vittata Fab.). Protecting j'oung plants with netting; arsenicals. Cutworms (Agrotis, Leucania, Mamestra, Hadena, Nephelodes, etc.). Distribu- tion of poisoned green bait; late fall plowing; burning waste tracts and rubbish. Elm leaf-beetle. Imported {Galeruca luteola'M.vW.). Arsenicals, 1 pound to 100 gallons water. Flea-beetle, Striped {Phyllotreta vittata Fab.). Kerosene emulsion; arsenicals. Fluted scale {Icerya purchasi Mask.). Introduction of its ladybird enemy, Novitis cavdinalis; hydrocyanic-acid-gas treatment; soap, 1 pound to 2 gallons hot water. Fruit bark-beetle {Scolytus rugulosus Ratz.). Burning trap trees and infested trees at any time, but preferably in winter. Grain weevils {Calandra granaria Linn., C. onjza Linn.). Bisulphide of car- bon in bins and granaries. Grape phyi.l,oxt.rx (Phijlloxeravastatrix 'Planch.). Submersion; bisulphide of carbon, kerosene emulsion, or resin compound about roots; use of resistant stocks. Grapevine leaf-hopper {Erythronexira vitis Harr.). Spraying with kerosene emulsion in early morning; catching on tarred shield; cleaning up all leaves and rubbish in fall. Gypsy moth {Omci-ia dispar h.). Spraying with arsenicals; hand collecting of cocoons and eggs; poisoning egg masses; trapping larvfe. Hessian fly {Cecidoviyia destructor Say). Late planting; selection of wheat less subject to attack; rolling; jjasturing to sheep; rotation of crops. Hop plant-louse {Phorodonlimnidi Schr.). Destroying all wild plum trees in vicinity; spraying others in fall or spring with strong kerosene emulsion; spray- ing vines with kerosene emulsion or fish-oil soap; destroying vines after hops are picked. Horn fly {Hcematobia .serrata R.-D.). Application of strong-smelling greases and oils to cattle, or of lime or plaster to dung. Locust, California devastating {Melunoplus devastator Scudd.). Poisoned bait of bran, sugar, and arsenic. Locust, Lesser migratory {Melunoplus atlanis Riley). (See Rocky Mountain locust.) Locust, Red-legged {Melanoplus feviur-rubruvi DeG.). (See Rocky Mountain locust.) 682 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPAETMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Locust, Rocky Mountain {Melanophis sprdus Thos.). Catching witli lioi^per- dozers; ditching; burning; rolling; plowing under of eggs. Ox EOT {Hypodemna lineata Vill.) • Strong-smelling fats and oils applied to cattle. Oyster-shell bark-louse {Mytilaspis xiomomm louche) . Kerosene emulsion; strong soap or alkali washes. Peach-tree borer {Sannina exitiosa Say) . Cutting out the larvae or scalding them with hot water in late autumn or early spring; painting trunk with arseu- icals in thick whitewash; wrapping trunk with grass, paper, etc. Pear-tree PSYLLA (Psylla ]vjri cola For st.) . Kerosene emulsion: First, a winter application diluted seven times; second, in spring as soon as leaves are unfolded, diluted nine times. Pear-tree slug (Erioeampa cerasi Peck. ) . Hellebore, 1 ounce to 2 gallons water in a spray; whale-oil soap, 12 pounds to 50 gallons water; arsenicals. Pea "WEEVIL (Briichus pisorum Linn.). Keeping seed over to second year; bisul- phide of carbon in tight vessels. Pluji curculio (ConotracJielus nenuphar Herbst). Arsenical spray: First, before the bloom appears or as soon as foliage starts; second, immediately after blos- soms fall; third, a week or ten days after the last; collection of adults from trees by jarring. Potato beetle, Colorado (Doryphora lO-Uneata Say). Arsenicals, 1 pound to 100 gallons water. Purple scale of the orange {Mytilaspis citricola Pack.). Kerosene emulsion, applied immediately after appearance of new brood. Rice water weevil {Lissorhoptrus simplex Say). Draining. Rose chafer {Macrodactylus suhspinosus Fab.). Planting spiraeas, etc., as trap plants, and collecting beetles in special pans; arsenicals; kerosene emulsion; San Jose scale {Aspidiotus perniciosus Conast.). Soap wash (2 pounds to the gallon) as soonas leaves fall in autumn; in warm, dry climate, winter resin wash. Screw worm (Compsomyia macdlaria Fab.). Prompt burning or burying of dead animals; smearing wounds with fish oil; washing with carbolic acid. Squash borer {Melittia ceto Westw.). Planting early summer squashes to be destroyed; late planting of main crop; destruction of all vines attacked as soon as crop can be gathered ; collecting moths. Squash bug (Anasa ti-istis DeG.). Early burning of vines and all rubbish in fall; biweekly collection of eggs. Strawberry weeyil. (Anthonomiis signatus Sa,j) . Trap crops; protecting beds with cloth covering; using staminate varieties as fertilizers only and as few plants of the former as necessary; spraying with paris green. Sugar-cane borer (Diatroea saccharalisFah.). Burning trash and laying down seed cane xmder ground. Webworm, Fall {Hyphantria ciinea Dr.). Prompt removal and destruction of webs with larvte; arsenical spraying. Wheat isosoma {Isosoma grande Riley), Buraing stubble; rotation of crops. Wheat plant louse {S iphonojyJiora avence F&h.). Rotation of crops. White grub; June beetle {LacJmostenia spp.). Luring the beetles by lights over tubs into water with skim of kerosene. Against larvae: Kerosene emul- sion; liberal use of potash fertilizers; collecting after the plow. WiREWORMS (Drasterius elegans Fab., Melanotus fissilis Say, and Agriotes spp.). Fall plowing; poisoned baits; rotation of crops. PREPARATION AND USE OF INSECTICIDES. Arsenicals: Paris green and london purple. — These two arsenicals i^rac- tically take the place of all other insecticides for biting and gnawing insects living or feeding on the exterior of plants. Paris green Is a very fine crystalline powder, composed of arsenic, copper, and acetic acid. London purple is a waste product in the manufacture of aniline dyes, and con- tains a number of substances, chief of which are arsenic and lime. It is not as effective as paris green and is apt to scald foliage unless mixed with lime. It costs about 10 cents a pound, while paris green costs twice as much. Both these arsenicals may be used as follows: The tcet method. — Make into a thin paint a small quantity of water, adding powdered or quick lime equal to the amount of poison used. Strain the mixture into the spray tank. Use either poison at the rate of a pound of dry powder in from 100 to 200 gallons of water. The stronger mixtures are for resistant foliage, such as that of the potato, and the weaker for sensitive foliage, such as that of the peach and plum. PEEPARATION AND USE OF INSECTICIDES. 583 The dry method. — It is ordinarily advisable to use tbe poison in the form of a Bpray, but in the case of cotton and some other low crops it may be dusted on the phtnts. Make the application preferably in early morning or late evening, when the dew is on, to enable the poison to better adhere to the plant. In cotton fields the powder is usually dusted over the plants from bags fastened to each end of a polo which is carried on liorso or inulo back. The motion of the animal is suffi- cient to cause the distribution over the foliage. Garden vegetables may be dusted by hand from bags or powder bellows. For vegetables which are soon to be used as food, mix the poison with 100 times its weight of flour or lime, and apply merely enough to show evenly over the surface. When to sp)'a;/. — Spray for the codling moth very soon after the blossoms fall and again a week or two later, just before the fruit turns down on the stem. This treatment reaches at the same time other leaf-eating insects. For the Curculio, spray as soon as the foliage is well started and again at the time of the exposure of the young fruit by the falling of the blossoms, and a third time a week later, particularly if rains have intervened after the last treatment. For loaf -feeding insects, spray at the earliest indication of injury, and repeat as often as necessary. •■=<*■ Fruit trees should never be sprayed when in bloom, on account of the liability of poisoning honeybees or other insects useful as cross fertilizers. AusENATE OP LEAD. — This arsenical has advantages over paris green, in that it has the merit of showing on the leaves, indicating atonce which have been sprayed; remains much more easily suspended in water, and may be used in large propor- tions \\'ithout danger to foliage. The insecticide results are not better, however, than in the case of paris green; but for sensitive foliage, or where no risk of scald- ing may be taken, it will prove useful. it is prepared by combining, approximately, 3 parts arsenate of soda with 7 parts acetate of lead. From 1 to 10 pounds arsenate of lead are used with 150 gallons of water, 3 quarts of glucose being added to cause it to adhere better to the leaves. From 3 to 5 pounds will answer for most larvae. The arsenate of lead costs 7 cents a pound wholesale, and glucose $16 a barrel. AusEXic BAIT. — It is not always practicable to apply poison directly to plants, and in such cases the use of poison bait is valuable, particularly for cutworms, wire worms, and grasshoppers or locusts. Bran-arsenic bait. — This is made by combining 1 part by weight of white arsenic, 1 of sugar, and 6 of bran, to which enough water is added to make a wet mash. For gi'iisshoppers or locusts place a tablespoonful at the base of each tree or vine, or lay a lino of it at the head of the advancing army, placing a tablespoonful every 6 to 8 feet, and following this up with another line in front of the first. For baiting cutworms distribute the mash in small lots over the infested territory. Green bait. — For the destruction of cutworms and wireworms use preferably poisoned green succulent vegetation, such as freshly cut clover, distributing it in small bunches about the infested fields. The bunches of green vegetation should be dipped in a strong solution of arsenicals, and prevented from rapid drying by bemg covered with stones or boards. Renew as often as the bait becomes dry. In the use of poison bait care must be exercised against its being eaten by domestic animals. Carbon bisulphide,— This substance, used in tight receptacles, is the cheapest and most effective remedy for all insects affecting stored food and seed material, natural-history specimens, etc., and is one of the best means against insects affect- ing the roots of plants in loose soils. It is a colorless liquid, with an offensive odor, which soon passes off. It readily volatilizes, and is deadly to insect life. The vaiior is highly inflammable and explosive, and should be carefully kept from fire, even a lighted cigar in its proximity being a source of danger. Wholesale, it costs 10 cents a i)ound; retail, of druggists, 25 to 30 cents a pound. For root lice of grape, apple, etc., put one-half ounce of bisulphide into holes about plants 10 to 16 inches deep, 1 is feet apart, and not closer to trunk than 1 foot. Make the holes with iron rod and close with foot, or use hand injectors. For root maggots put a teaspoonful into a hole 2 or 3 inches from the i^lant and close immediately. For ant nests pour an ounce of the liquid into each of several holes in the nests; close the openings with the foot or cover with a wet blanket for ten minutes, and then explode the vapor at mouth of holes with torch. For stored-grain insects distribute in shallow dishes over the bins; with open bins cover with oilcloth or blankets to retain the vapor. Keep bins or buildings closed for from twenty-four to thirty-six hours; then air them well. Disinfect infested grain in small bins before placing for long storage in large masses. The bisulphide is applied at the rate of 1 pound to the ton of grain. 584 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Hellebore. — White hellebore is used extensively as an insecticide, particularly as a substitute for the arsenites. It kills insects in the same way as an internal poison. It is less dangerous to man and the higher animals than the arsenical poisons, but if sufficient quantity be taken it will cause death. It is particularly useful against the larvfe of sawfiies, such as the cherry slug, rose slug, currant worms, and strawberry worms. It may be applied as a dry powder, preferably diluted with from 5 to 10 parts of flour, and dusted on the plants through a muslin bag or -with powder bellows. The application is preferably made in the evening, when the plants are moist with dew. Used as a wet application, it should be mixed with water in the proportion of 1 ounce to the gallon of water and applied as a spray. In most instances where hellebore is used, the same results may be more cheaply accomplished by using either a soap solution or the arsenicals. Hydrocyanic acid gas. — This substance is chiefly used to destroy scale insects on fruit trees and mu-sery stock. The treatment consists in inclosing the tree or nursery stock with a tent and filling the latter with the poisonous gas. The tents should be of blue or brown drilling, or 8-ounce duck, painted or oiled to make air-tight. The tent may be' placed over small trees by hand and over large trees with a tripod or derrick. A tent and derrick for medium-sized trees cost from $15 to $25; for a tree 30 feet tall by 60 feet in circumference, about $60. Fused potassium cyanide (58 percent pure) , commercial sulphuric acid, and water are used in generating the gas, the proportions being 1 ounce by weight of the cyanide, slightly more than 1 fluid ounce of acid, and 3 fluid ounces of water to every 150 cubic feet of space inclosed. Place the generator (any glazed earthenware vessel of 1 or 2 gallons' capacity) on the ground within the tent, and add the water, acid, and cyanide, the latter in lumps, in the order named. Allow one-half hour for large trees or fifteen minutes for small ones. Bright, hot sunlight is apt to cause injury to foliage and may be avoided by working on cloudy days or at night. One series of tents will answer for a county or large community of fi'uit growers. Kerosene. — Kerosene, or coal oil, is occasionally used directly against insects, although its important insecticide use is in combination -^^th soap or milk emul- sion. Under exceptional conditions it may be sprayed directly on living plants, and it has been so used in the growing season without injury. Ordinarily, how- ever, when applied even in the dormant season on leafless plants, it is liable to do serious injury or to kill the plant outright. It is now being used to a certain extent mechanically combined ^vith water in the act of spraying, and is less harm- ful in this way than when used pure, as it is broken up more finely and somewhat distributed; but the danger of use on tender plants is not avoided by this means. Many insects which can not be destroyed by ordinary insecticides may be killed by jarring them from the plants into pans of water on which a little kerosene is floating, or they may be shaken from the plants onto cloth or screens saturated with kerosene. For the mosquito, kerosene has proved a very efficient preventive. Applied, at the rate of an ounce to 15 square feet, to the surface of small ponds or stagnant water in which mosquitoes are breeding, it forms a uniform film over the water and destroys all forms of aquatic insects, including the larvae of the mosquito and the adiTlt females which come to the surface of the water to deposit their eggs. The application retains its efficiency for several weeks. Kerosene emulsions. — The kerosene emvilsions applj' to all such sucking insects as plant bugs, plant lice, scale insects, thrips, and plant mites, and to such biting insects as can not be safely poisoned. Kerosene and soap emulsion formula. Kerosene - gallons . . 2 Whale-oil soap (or 1 quart soft soap) pounds. . 1-3 Water gallon. . 1 Dissolve the soap in water by boiling, and add boiling hot, away from the fire, to the kerosene. Agitate violently for five minutes by pumping the liquid back upon itself with a force pum^) and direct-disch;irge nozzle throwing a strong stream, preferably one-eighth inch in diameter. The mixture will have increased about one-third in bulk, and assume the consistency of cream. Well made, the emiilsion should keep indefinitely, and should be diluted only as wanted for use. In limestone or hard- water regions "break" the water with lye before using to make or dilute the emulsion, or use rainwater. Better than either, use the milk emulsion, with which the character of the water does not affect the result. PREPARATION AND USE OF INSECTICIDES. 585 The kerosene and milk emulsion formula. Heating is unnecessary ; churn as in the former case for three to five minutes, or until a thick, buttery consistoncy results. Prepare the milk emulsion from time \o time for immediate use, unless it can be stored in air-tight jars ; otherwise it will soon ferment and spoil. flow to uxe the emulsions. — For summer applications for most plant lice and other soft-bodied insects, dilute with 15 to 20 parts of water; for the red spider and other plant mites, the same, with the addition of 1 ounce of powdered sulphur to the gallon ; for scale insects, the larger plant bugs, larvte, and beetles, dilute with 7 to 9 parts water. For subterranean insects, such as root lice, root maggots, •' white grubs," etc., use either kerosene emulsion or resin wash, wetting the soil to the depth of 2 to 8 inches, and follow with copious waterings, unless in rainy season. Naphthaline. — This substance is used principally for the repellant action due to the vapor it exhales at the ordinary temperature of the air. In the form of cubes, cones, or globes it is used to protect clothing from the ravages of moths. Placed with stored-seed products it will protect them from various weevils and stored-grain pests. It has no effect on the germination of the seed. Naphthaline is also quite universally employed to preserve natural-history specimens from museum posts. The vapors of naphthaline are fatal to insects, but the vapor of bisulphide of carbon is much quicker in action, and to be preferred. Oils: Fish oil, train oil, and cotton-seed oil. — These are sometimes used on domestic animals to rid them of vermin, and fish oil is one of the best-known repellants for the horn fly, buffalo gnat, and ox bot fly. Any of these oils or any grease, the more strong smelling the better, thinly smeared on animals at the points of attack by flies, will afford great protection. They are also valuable against lice affecting live stock, but must be used carefully or they may cause the hair to fall off. Pykkthrum, or insect powder. — This insecticide is sold under the names of buhach and Persian insect powder. It acts on insects externally, through their breathing pores, and is fatal to many forms. It is not poisonous to man or the higher animals, and hence may be u.sed where poisons would be objectionable. Its chief value is against household pests, such as roaches, flies, and ants, and in greenhouses, conservatories, and small gardens, where the use of poisons would be inadvisable. It is used as a dry powder, pure or diluted with flour, when it may be puffed about rooms or wherever insects may occur. When used on plants, it is prefera- bly applied in the evening. As a preventive, and also as a remedy for the mos- qiaito, burning the powder in a tent or room will give satisfactory results. It may also bo used as a spray, at the rate of 1 ounce to 3 gallons of water, but in this case should be mixed up some twenty-four hours before being applied. For immediate use a decoction may be prepared by boiling in water from five to ten minutes. Resin wash. — This is valuable for scale insects wherever the occurrence of comparatively rainless seasons insures the continuance of the wash on the treea for a considerable period, and as winter washes in very mild climates, as soutliern CaliforTiia, or wherever the multiplication of the insect continues almost without interruption throughout the year. Formula for resin ivash. Resin pounds. . 20 Caustic soda (70 per cent) do 5 Fish oil pints.- 2^ W ater to make gallons. . 100 Ordinary commercial resin is used, and the soda is that put up for soap estab= lishinciits in large 200-pound drums. Smaller quantities mav be obtained at soap factories, or the gi-anulated caustic soda ('.»3 per cent) used, 3i pounds of the latter being the equivalent of 5 pounds of the former. Place these substances with the oil in the kettle, with water to cover them to a depth of 3 or 4 inches. Boil from one to two hours, occasionally adding water, until the comjiound resem- bles very strong black coffee. Dilute to one-third the final bulk with hot water or with cold water added slowly over the fire, making a stock mixture, to be diluted to the full amount as used. When sprayed, the mixture should be per- fectly fluid and without sediment, and should anv appear in the stock mixture reheating should be resorted to. For a winter wash dilute one-third or one-half less. 586 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Soaps as insecticides. — Any good soap i3 effective in destroying soft-bodied insects, such as plant lice and young or soft-bodied larvse. The soaps made of fish oil, and sold under the name of whale-oil soaps, are especially valuable. For Ijlant lice and delicate larvte, such as the pear slug and others, a strength obtained by dissolving half a pound of soap in a gallon of water is sufficient. Soft soap will answer as well as hard, but at least double quantity should be taken. As winter washes the fish-oil soaps have proved the most effective means of destroying certain scale insects, and have been of especial service against the very resistant San Jose scale. For winter applications, use the soap at the rate of 3 pounds to a gallon of water, maldng the application with a spray pump as soon as the leaves fall in the autumn, repeating, if necessary, in spring before the buds unfold. Sulphur. — Flowers of suliihur is one of the best remedies for plant mites, such as the the ' ' red spider, " six-spotted orange mite, rust mite of the orange fruit, etc. Applied at the rate of 1 ounce to a gallon of water, or mixed with some other insecticide, such as kerosene emulsion, it is a very effective remedy. For the rust mite, sprinkling the powdered sulphur about under the trees is sometimes siifQ- cient to keep the fruit bright. Sulphur is often used to rid poultry houses of ver- min, and when fed to cattle is said to be a good means of ridding them of lice; or it may be mixed with grease, oil, etc.. and rubbed into the skin. Bisulphide of lime. — This chemical is even better than sulpliur as a remedy for mites, but it is a liquid and can be diluted easily to any extent. It can be made very cheaply by boiling together in a small quantity of water equal parts of lime and flowers of sulphur. For mites, take 5 pounds of sulphur and 5 of lime, and boil in a small quantity of water until both are dissolved and a brownish liquid results. Dilute to 100 gallons. Tar. — This substance is commonly used as a repellant by dissolving in water and sprinkling the plants with the solution. It is also sometimes smeared in and about the nostrils of sheep, to prevent the bot fly from depositing its eggs. Painted on paper bands Avi-apped around the bases of fruit trees, and renewed before becoming dry, it Aviii entrap the wingless female cankerworm moths in their attempts to ascend the trees for the purpose of depositing eggs. Pine tar is preferable to coal tar, but neither kind should be applied directly to the bark. A prei)ared grease, kno-\vn as insect lime, is now generally employed instead of tar. A CHEAP ORCHARD-SPRAYING- OUTFIT. Spraying to control various insect pests, particularly those of the orchard and garden, has reached so satisfactory and inexijensive a basis that it is recognized by every i)rogressive farmer as a necessary feature of the year's operations, and in the case of the apple, pear, and plum crops the omission of such treatment means serious loss. The consequent demand for spraying apparatus has been met by all the leading pump manufacturers of this country, and ready-fitted apparatus, consisting of iiump, spray tank or barrel, and nozzle with hose, are on the market in numerous styles and at prices ranging from $30 iipward. The cost of a spraying outfit for orchard work may, hov.'ever, be consi dei'ably reduced by purchasing merely the pump and fixtures and mounting them at home on a strong barrel. An apj)aratu3 of this sort, rep- resenting a style that has proved very satisfac- tory in practical exx^erience, is illustrated in the accompanying figure. It is merely a strong jDump with an air-chamber to give a steady stream provided with two discharge hose pipes. One of these enters the barrel and keeps the water agitated and the poison thoroiiglily in- termixed, and the other and longer one is the spraying hose and terminates in the nozzle. The spraying hose should be about 20 feet long and maj' be fastened to a light pole, preferably of bamboo, to assist in directing the spray. The nozzle should be capable of breaking the water ui^into a fine mist spi'ay, so aa to wet the plant completely with the least possible expenditure of liquid. A suit- able pump with nozzle and hose may be obtained of any hardware dealer. Fig. ISt.— Orchard-spraying apparatus TREATMENT FOR FUNGOUS DISEASES OF PLANTS. 587 ca SL tr V3 o 0) f-l^ C3 fl 2 3 rt .ti c3 u ? o •• p fV, © 5 - ® ^1 a s. 'O O 1— I -t-J -tJ O a/ 52 03 -2 ?s g rt C aj a ° to -I! Oi O •-' 60 .2 a ® a cS c3 t3 yi la**? 11 g fell 9; 01 a ® a (1< .a^ ^ 5 ^ M "M p,ti 2 s^S ft u rt K 3 . i; t» iSgS&Sf-ft .ja 9 tr oo 0) _ rrt +i C8 w » Q,0 =^ » fc- la 2 o ^ .iS o a 3 ^-S^ ■S "S o S ■= 3 5^ fe a 2 s-^ s in O P n c« c3 oci«4 ^5^" o] O d ID « 9Q !§ © a ^ s © m o © © on CO 50^ ^2^ -art o'« . Ill cc •SgoS . a ""-I " w-i S ® © © ce s-w H © a o © a a g$^=S a|2 o »- © ►! © o o "O u ■« o §.2.3 ©*§ a.^ o § I OQ o © © t' © >a © tH © B 3 ©J P ft 5 ^ « « iA O S©2 Cj * O Sig fl a c © VI © aS-S © !» o © 'So® o 5! a^l ^1 si's Hi a — a © O bA © > t« o r-t ;h ;3 " tt II u M ^A © ©'d IS i^^> lo.9 tc cj g ^«a P^© o a5« .2 ? M III?.! ^ o ft*;=^ ftcS 3 Sh tn •SOS lis UN © £ -t^ «i c ^ P^ ■^ '' ©3 m tH fe <^ id © K © K o S-^ 3-^ © o '3 © c8 o M© 'ti© •r-t g^ c > ft B '^ a ii 32 CO cc CO CO g a->i © 00 © M 0) OQ © ffi © 10 © I ^ts 0 o "O^ 'O^ !^fi<1 "S-^ '^^ 1 00 5 o © '3)© © © '3d© '3 (c 'S © © © 'Eic© © © 'So© "S. gfe 1^ 1^ 3 "^ © CS_ 9 fe^ ft **-< ate !« **-" 4h cS o ;h 0 ^I O (^ 0 '-> C 1^ _:s2h s g Sfe-2 © ^ © 2>S tc O) CO CO CO . w CO o , •S° A fl o ©as © K q © © © 01 © to © cc Sll :« o ^^ • ;C © ^ 'S »- s-« ^^ T3^ 1 2®" o >■ o s ® ™ o © 'C © '5)© ]3 © 'tao© f^ 3 03 H -5 si S © © ^iai S| © ' . ■22ft «ao aS^ M 0 8-g§ ©- 0 111. 2S»2 m © , © -^1 p^g© ^1 drH ail d S -oa^ s 1 Sfc. §■9 •3(- © o C cs"o M 2 fl •3 3 3 H fci ») ©,2 © lis 111 a o^" H^2 5g§ .a as a|2 M OS 53 . «as H a ill O 6£.0 s © C as ©J aii^ 5 Mft ?855 M « CQ « DQ <) « o m c» id ■d ■S-rt -►i . txi "o d ^a "5 (8 © © % 5ft -S c4 3 O o .gcS o O c Oh a (^ Oh Ph C ^ 1 FORMULAS FOR FUNGICIDES. 589 FORMULAS FOR FUNGICIDES. (1) Ammoniacal copper carbonate solution : Copper carbonate - - - ounces. . 5 Ammonia (26 per cent) -- pints.. 3 Water gallons. . 50 Place the copper carbonate in a wooden pail and make a paste of it by the addi- tion of a little water. Then pour on the ammonia and stir until all the copper is dissolved. If the 3 pints of ammonia is not sufficient to dissolve the copper, add more until no sediment remains. Pour into a barrel and dilute with 45 or 50 gal- lons of water, and the mixture is then ready for use. (2) Bordeaux mixture : Copper sulpliate pounds. . 6 Strong fresh hme do 4 Water - gallons . . 22 In a barrel that will hold 45 gallons dissolve the copper sulphate, using 8 or 10 gallons of water, or as mxich as may be necessary for the purpose. In a tub or half barrel slack the lime. When completely slacked, add enough water to make a creamy whitewash. Poiir this slowly into the barrel containing the copper sul- phate solution, using a coarse gunny sack stretched over the head of the barrel for a strainer. Finally, till the barrel half full of water, stir thoroughly, and the mixture is ready for use. The 50 or 60 gallon formula is made in the same way, except that 50 or 60 gallons of water is added instead of 22 gallons. For further directions in making large qiiantities see Bulletin No. 6, Division Vegetable Phys- iology and Pathology, pp. 8-11. (3) Potasniuni sulphide: Potassium sulphide ..oimces.. 2i Water ...gallons.. 5 Dissolve the potassium sulphide in water, and the mixture is ready for use. (4) Hot-water treatment : This treatment is used for smuts of oats and wheat. Place two large kettles or two wash boilers on a stove; provide a reliable thermometer, and a coarse sack or basket for the seed. A special vessel for holding the grain may be made of wire or perforated tin. The vessel should never be entirely filled with gi'ain, and in the kettles there should be about five or six times as much water by bulk as there is grain in the basket. In the first kettle keep the temperature of the water at fi'om 1 10' to l;50 , and in the other at 132' to 133% never letting it fall below 130^ lest the fungous spi>res may not be killed, nor rise above 135° lest the grain be injured. Place the grain in the basket and then sink it into the first kettle. Raise and lower it several times or shake it so that all the grain may become wet and uniformly warm. Remove it from the first kettle and plunge it into the second, where it siiould receive fifteen minutes' treatment. Shake about repeatedly, and also raise the basket containing the grain completely out of the water five or six times during tlie treatment. If the temperature falls below 132°, let the basket remain a tVw luumeuts longer; if it rises, a few moments less. Have at hand cold and boiling water witli which to regulate the temperature. At the expii-ation of fifteen minutes remove the grain and plunge into cold water, after which spread it out to dry. The seed may be sown at once, before thoroughly dry, or may be dried and stored until ready for use. In treating oats keep them in water at 132° for only ten minutes and spread out to dry without plunging into the cold water. (5) Resin wash: Resin pounds. . 30 Cau.stic soda (98 per cent) do 4i Fish oil (crude) pints.. 3 Water to make gallons. . 15 Place the resin, caustic soda, and fish oil in a large kettle. Pour over them 13 gallons of water and boil until the resin is thoroughly dissolved, which requires From three to ten minutes after the materials begin to boil. While hot add enough water to make just 15 gallons. When this cools, a fine, yellowish precipitate settles to the bottom of the vessel. The preparation must therefore be thoroughly stirred each time before measuring out to dilute, so as to uniformly mix the precipitate 690 YEAEBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. with the clear, dark, amber-brown liquid, which forms by far the greater part of the stock preparation. When desired for use, take 1 part of the stock preparation to 9 parts of water. If the wash be desired for immediate use, the materials, after boilin"- and while still hot, may be poured directly into the spray tank and diluted with old water up to 150 gallons. (6) Corrosive sublimate sohdion: Corrosive sublimate ounces . . 2|- Water gallons . . 15 This solution ia used for potato scab. The corrosive sublimate is dissolved in about 2 gallons of hot water, and after an interval of ten or tv/elve hours diluted with 13 gallons of water. The potatoes to be planted are immersed in the solution for one and one-half hours, after which they are spread out to dry, then cut and planted as usual. A half barrel is a convenient receptacle for the solution. The potatoes may be put into a coarse sack and suspended in the liquid, first washing the tubers. Corrosive sublimate is very poisonous and should be kept out of the way of children and animals. All treated tubers should be planted or destroyed. ERRONEOUS IDEAS COISTCERNING HAWKS AND OWLS Much misapprehension still exists among farmers as to the habits of birds of prey. Examination of the contents of the stomachs of such birds, to the number of several thousand, has established the fact that their food consists almost entirely of injurious mammals and insects, and that .accordingly these birds are in most cases positively beneficial to the farmer, and should be fostered and pro- tected. Among those uiholhj heneficial are the large, rough-legged hawk ; its near rela- tive, the sqiiirrel hawk, or ferruginous roughleg, and the four kites — the white- tailed Irite, Mississippi kite, swallow-tailed kite, and everglade kite. The class that is heneficial in the main — that is, whose depredations are of little consequence in comiDarison v/itli the good it does — includes a majority of the hawks and owls, among them being the follo'^dng species and their races: Marsh hawk, Harris's hawk, red-tailed hawk, red-shotildered hawk, short-tailed hawk, white- tailed hav%'-k, Swainson's hawk, short- winged hawk, broad-winged hawk, Mexican black hawk, Mexican goshawk, sparrow hawk, Audiibon's caracara, barn owl, long-eared owl, short-eared owl, great gray owl, barred owl. Western owl, Rich- ardson's owl, Acadian owl, screech owl, flammulated screech owl, snowy owl, hawk owl, burrowing owl, pygmy owl, ferruginous pygmy owl, and elf owl. The class in which the harmful and the heneficial qualities about balance each other includes the golden eagle, bald eagle, pigeon hawk, Richardson's hawk, Aplomado falcon, prairie falcon, and great horned owl. The harmfnl class comiu-ises the gyrfalcons, duck hawk, sharp-shinned hawk, Cooijer's hawk, and goshawk. The investigations upon which the foregoing statements are based were described at considerable length in the Department's Yearbook for 1894. TIMBER— LUMBER— WOOD. QUALITY. Sapwood is light and weak if from an old tree, but heavy and strong if from a young tree. Sapwood shrinks more and decays more easily than heartwood. A young tree makes heaWer and stronger wood than an old tree, hence second growth is often better than old timber. The butt cut of hard pine weighs 20 per cent more and is 30 per cent stronger than the top cut. The heaviest stick of the same kind, when seasoned, is the strongest; a piece of seasoned pine weighing 45 iwunds to the cubic foot is one-third to one-half stiffer and stronger than one weighing 30 pounds. Broad-ringed oak and pine, with broad, dark bands of summer wood, are strongest. Crobsgrain and knots reduce both stiffness and strength. A crossgrained piece will scarcely support one-twentieth of the load that a straight-grained piece of the same kind will supi^ort. TIMBER — LUMBER — WOOD. 591 EFFECTS OF SEASOXIXG. A cord of green •wood weighs 50 per cent moro than when air dry. A cord of well-dried wood still contains 600 pounds of water. In the burning of green wood, nearly one-half the heat is lost in evaporating the water contained in it. One-half the weight of fresh, sappy pine is dne to water. The kiln-drying of lumber, at a small exiiense, saves 1,000 to 1,500 i^ounds of freight per 1,000 feet, B. M. Seasoning increases stiffness and strength by about 50 per cent. Checks produced in drying decrease the value of timber; seasoning, therefore, always injures as well as benefits. Wood always swells and shrinks — that is, takes up and gives off water — hence the periodic recurrence of cracks in floors, etc. Split wood shrinks more evenly, sheds water and wears better than if sawed. Good hard pine shrinks about G inches per 100 inches width of flooring when laid green; good red oak about 9 inches. A "quarter-sawed" board shrinks only one-half to two-thirds as much as a bastard-sawed one. Wood shrinks inappreciably in length, 3 to 6 per cent in radial direction (across the rings), and 4 to 10 per cent in tangential direction (with the rings). Quarter-sawed boards and bastard-sawed boards neither shrink nor wear alike; hence they should not be used side by side for best floors. STIFFXESS AND STREXGTH. Doubling the length of a board or timber reduces the stiffness eightfold and the strength one-half. Doubling the width of a board doubles the stiffness and strength. Doubling the thickness of a board or the depth of a timber increases the stiffness about eightfold and the strength fourfold. If, therefore, it is desired to double the length and retain the same stiffness, it is necessary to double the thickness or depth. Weight for weight, a stick of pine is sti'onger and stiffer than a solid iron or steel of same shape. A joist 2 by 6 inches is three times as stiff as one 2 by 4. A joist 2 by 8 inches is eight times, and one 2 by 12 is twenty-seven times, as stiff. A good hard pine joist 2 by 4 inches and 10 feet long may support 2,000 pounds in the middle, but it can safely be trusted only to the extent of 400 pounds. If loaded suddenly, a timber bends much more than if loaded gradually with the same load. A timber projecting from the wall and loaded at the end (a cantilever) supports only as much as a timber twace the length resting on both ends and loaded in the middle. MEASUREMEXT. A cord of body wood closely piled contains 100 cubic feet of solid wood; if one- third limbs, not more than 80 cubic feet. A cord of good oak wood contains 175 to 200 billets, requires about a dozen small-sized trees (8 to 10 inches diameter) or one good-sized tree (20 to 24 inches) to make it, and weighs about 2 tons. To obtain, approximately, the volume of a standing tree, measure the circum- ference breast-high, square it, divide by 25, and multiply by the estimated height. For saw timber, take estimated length of log instead of height of tree. To obtain volume of standing timber per acre, count and classify trees of same diameter and height, measure one of each class, multiply by the number of trees in the claiss, and add the results. Summary of log-booJc esthnatcsfor memorizing. Diameter of log in inches 10 13 14 16 18 20 22 24 Number of feet, B. M., contained in 10 feet of length 20 40 60 90 120 160 200 250 Difference in feet-... 20 20 30 30 40 40 50 It will be observed that the increase in diameter from 10 inches to 12 and from 12 inches to 14 is accompanied, in each case, by an increase of 20 feet in the con- tents of the log; that the increase from 14 inches to 16 and from 16 inches to 18 la accompanied, in each case, by an increase of 30 feet in the contents of the log, 592 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and that the increase from 18 inches to 20 and from 20 inches to 22 represents, in each case, an addition of 40 feet to the contents of the log. The reader can follow out this ratio of increase as circumstances require. DISTANCE TABLE FOR TREE PLANTING. Number of trees that may he set upon a piece of land 100 yards or feet square on a side, in right-angled roics of equal and unequal distances ajiart. ill Yards or feet between rows. O (Dtp 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 0.5 30,000 13,33310,000 8, 000 6, 6fi7 5,714 5,000 4,444 4,000 3,636 3,333 2,857 2,5002,222 2,000 1.0 10,000 6,667 5.000 4,000 3, 3;« 2. 8;)7 2, .500 3,232 2.(X)0 1,818 1,666 1,438 1,2.501,111 1,000 1.0 6,667 4,444 3.333 2,667 2 323 1,905 1.667 1,4811,3.33 1,212 1,111 953 8*3 740 666 2.0 5,000 3,333 2,500 2, 0()01,()(i7 1,429 1,350 1,111 1,000 909 mi 714 625 5.5.5 600 2.5 4,000 2,667 2,000 l,60oi,3:5;j 1,143 1,000 889 800 727 666 571 500 444 400 3.0 3,aS3 2,222 1,667 1,3331,111 952 8.33 741 667 606 5.55 476 416 370 a33 3.5 2,857 1,905 1,429 1,14;^ 9.53 816 714 635 571 519 476 408 357 317 285 4.0 2,500 1,667 1,250 1,000 a33 714 635 556 500 455 416 &57 312 277 2.50 4.5 2,222 1,481 1,111 8S9 741 636 556 494 444 404 370 317 277 246 223 5.0 2, (XM) 1,333 1,000 800 667 571 500 444 400 364 333 285 2.50 222 300 5.5 1,818 1,212 909 737 606 519 455 404 364 333 303 259 227 202 181 6.0 1,667 1,111 833 667 5.56 476 417 370 333 303 277 238 208 185 166 6.5 1,-538 1,026 769 615 513 440 385 342 308 280 2.56 219 192 170 153 7.0 1,429 9.52 714 571 476 408 357 317 286 260 238 204 178 158 142 7.5 1.333 889 667 533 444 381 333 296 267 242 222 190 166 148 133 8.0 1,250 8.33 625 .500 417 a57 313 278 350 227 208 178 1.56 138 1^5 8.5 1,176 784 588 471 392 336 294 2t;i 235 219 196 168 147 130 117 9.0 1,111 741 556 494 370 317 278 347 232 202 185 158 138 12:3 HI 10.0 1.000 mi 500 400 a33 286 250 222 200 100 166 142 125 111 100 In order to find number of trees needed per acre divide the a])ove figures by 2, if they have been read as referring to feet; multiply them by A\ if they have be«n reafl as referring to yards. This will give the number needed within an unap- preciable error. TWO HUNDRED WEEDS HOW TO KNOW THEM AND HOW TO KILL THEM. The following table presents the common and technical names of 200 weeds, which seem to be those that are most troublesome in the United States. It does not include all the plants which are deservedly classed as weeds, but omits many which are less aggressive, or only locally abundant and troublesome. A few of the species, such as Bermuda grass, Johnson grass, crab grass, and sweet clover, are valuable for forage, but are so tenacious of life and so prolific as to become persistent weeds in cultivated land. Some of the species ranking among the worst weeds could doubtless be made useful. False flax and some of the mustards con- tain valuable oils; burdock, curled dock, dandelion, pokeweed, and purslane are good pot herbs, while many species have a market value as medicinal plants that would at least compensate in part for the labor expended in cutting or destroy- ing them. Common names. — The first common name given in each instance is regarded as the best for general use. Technical ?jo??ie'.s.— Technical names in italics indicate native species; those in capitals, introduced species. Duration. — The duration of life in a weed is of special importance as affecting methods of eradication. A few species which are perennial in the Southern States are killed by the severe winters in the North and there become annuals. Some that are biennials or winter annuals in the Central States are strictly annual in the colder Northern States. The duration in the region where the weed is most troublesome is here indicated. Where injurious. — In this column is indicated the region where a species is most injurious, and not its complete geographical distribution. For example, the brake or eagle fern is found in every State, but is really troublesome as a weed only in the States of the Pacific Coast. TWO HUNDRED WEEDiS IDENTIFICATION, ETC. 593 Time of flowering and time of seeding. — The seasons of floweidng and seeding vary considerably in different latitudes. The dates here given are intended to cover the region where the species is most troublesome. Color, size, and arrangement of floicers. — The most iirominent color and the approximate diameter of a single flower, or of a head in the case of composites, are given. Methods of propagation and distribution of seed. — Nearly all weeds are repro- duced abundantly by seeds, and their spread is effected almost exclusively by these, or by bulblets or spores which perform the same office. But some are i)rop- agated also by runners, roots, bulbs, or rootstocks, and a knowledge of these methods is important for determining methods of eradication. Only the natural means or the most important artificial methods of distribution can here be given. Phice of groivth and products injured. — The places mentioned indicate under what conditions the plant occurs as an injurious weed. Nearly all weeds abound in waste places, along roadsides and in vacant lots, where they grow unmolested and produce seeds to propagate themselves in fields and gardens. Only the crops or products that are especially injured can be given here, as a complete catalogue of the injuries produced by a single species would in some instances cover almost the entire list of agricultural productions. Methods of eradication. — The trouble and expense of weed eradication may in many cases be avoided by the use of pure seed in the operations of the farm or gar- den. Especial care should be exercised in regard to those weed seeds which are indicated as distributed in grass, grain, or clover seeds. Annual weeds seldom thrive in strong sod and they are choked down by dense crops of grain, clover, or cowpeas. Therefore, as a matter of prevention, land not in use should be seeded with forage or soU-renovating crops, while cornfields, potato fields, and gardens should where practicable be covered during fall, winter, and spring with crops of winter wheat, rye, or crimson clover. To put a stop to the production of seeds is a necessary part of the process of eradication. An average full-grown plant of button weed produces about 1,500 seeds; of pennycress, about 5,000 to 10,000; of prickly lettuce, 8,000 to 15,000, and a medium-sized Russian thistle about 20,000, while a single plant of purslane has been estimated to bear 1 ,3.')0,000 seeds. Weeds bearing mature seed should be burned and under no circumstances plowed under. Most weed seeds will retain their vitality several years in the ground, and when buried at different depths by the plow some are likely to germinate and produce plants each year for ten years or longer. If the land is cultivated shallow first, then successively deeper so as to bring all the seeds near the suf-face, they will be induced to either germinate or decay. In most cases this work can be done as well with hoed crops as with summer-fallow. Biennials and winter annuals may be eradicated by cutting the root below the crown with a spud, hoe, or plow. Mowing biennial plants at frequent intervals will destroy them, but an occasional mowing usually induces them to branch low and send up several stalks which, if not cut, will come to maturity and produce seeds. The roots or rootstocks of perennial weeds may be killed by the following meth- ods: ( 1 ) They may be dug up and removed, a remedy that can be practically applied only in small areas. (2) They may be killed by applying chemicals either to the freshly cut root or at the base of the main stem. Salt, strong brine, coal oil, crude sulphuric acid, and carbolic acid have been successfully used for this purpose. A few drops of carbolic acid applied at the base of the main stem with an ordinary machine-oil can is the best method that has yet been devised for killing weeds with chemicals, (3) Rootstocks or perennial roots may be starved to death by preventing any development of green leaves or other parts above ground. This may bo effected by building straw stacks over small ])atches, by persistent, thor- ough cultivation in fields, by the use of the hoe or spud in waste places, and by salting the plants and turning on sheep in permanent pastures. (4) The ])lant3 may tisually be smothered by dense sod-forming grasses or by a crop like clover or millet that will exclude the light. (5) Most rootstocks are readily de.stroyed by exposing them to the direct action of the sun during the summer drought, or to the direct action of the frost in winter. In this way plowing, for exainjile, becomes effective. (6) Any cultivation which merely breaks up the rootstocks and leaves them in the ground, especially during wet weather, only multiplies tho plant and is worse than useless, unless the cultivation is continued so as to prevent the growth above ground. Plowing and fitting corn ground in April and May, and cultivating at intervals until the last of June, then leaving the land unculti- vated during the remainder of the season, is one of the best methods that could be pursued to encourage tho growth of couch grass, Johnson grass, and many Other perennial weeds, 4 Alio 21 594 YEARBOOK OF .THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table of two Common names. Barnyard grass, bam grass,cocksfoot, water grass. Beggar ticks, bnr mari- gold, pitchforks, stick seed. Bermuda grass, dogs- tootli grass, scutch grass, wire grass. Big root, man -in -the - ground, wild gourd. Bindweed, bear bind, English bindweed, morning glory. Bitter dock, broad- leaved dock, yellow dock. Black mustard, brown mustard, grocers' mustard. Bladder ketmia, flower- of-an-liour, good-night- at-noon. Blue vervain, simpler's joy. Boneset, ague weed, fever weed, thorough- wort. Bouncing Bet, hedge pink, soapwort. Bracted plantain, "West- ern plantain. Branched broom rape, broom rape. Broom sedge, sedge grass, Virginia beard grass. Broom weed, flaxweod.. Buffalo bur, beaked horse nettle, Rocky ' Mountain sand bur, sand bur, spiny night- shade. Bugseed Bull nettle, horse nettle, blue top, trompillo. Bull thistle, bird thistle, boar thistle, pasture thistle. Bur clover, toothed medick. Burdock, beggar's but- tons, gobo, great dock. Bur grass, bear grass, hedgehog. Rocky Mountain sand bur, sand bur, sandspur. Bur ragweed, rosetilla. . Button weed, compass weed, poor weed. Technical name, origin, and duration. Panicum crus(jalli; Old "World; annual. Bidensfrondosa; east- ern United States; annual. Capriola dactylon ', Tropics; perennial. Megarrhiza oregona; Pacific Coast; peren- nial. Convolvv.lxis arveiiisis; Old World ; peren- nial. R u m c X obtusifolius; Europe; perennial. Brassica nigra; Eu- rope; annual. Hibi'scus irionuin; Old World; annual. Verbena hastata; east- ern "United States; perennial. Eupatorium perfolia- tum; eastern United States; perennial. Saponaria officinalis', Europe; perennial. Plantago aristata; prairie States; per- ennial. Orohanclie ramosa ; southern Europe; annual. Andropogon virgini- cus ; southeastern United States ; per- ennial. Gutien'czla saroth- rso; prairie States; perennial. Solanum rostratum ; Rocky Mountains ; annual. Corispermum hyssop- ifolium; central Uni- ted States; annual. Solanum elreagnifo- lium ; southern United States ; per- ennial. Cardxius fanceolatus ; Europe ; biennial. Medicaqo deiiticulata: Old "World; annual or biennial. Arctium lappa: Eu- rope; biennial. Cenchrus tribuloides; eastern United States; annual. Qsertneria acanthl- carpa; western United States; an- nual. Diodia teres; south- eastern "United States; annual. "Where injuri- ous. Wisconsin to Montana. New England to Texas. "Virginia to Texas. Washington to California. New England to Texas, Utah, and California. New England to Wisconsin. New England to California. Michigan to Illinois. New England to Wisconsin. New England to Illinois. Ohio to Kan- sas. Kentucky and Illinois. Maryland to Texas. Kansas to Texas. Illinois to Col- orado. Wisconsin to No braska and Oregon. Kansas to New Mexico. New England to Kansas. Washington to Arizona. New England to Wisconsin and Texas. In sheep-rais- ing localities in all States. Minnesota to California. Maryland to Texas. Time of flow- ering. June to Au- gust. July to Sep- tember. July to Octo- ber. April to May. Juno to Sep- tember. July to Au- gust. June to Sep- tember. July to Sep- tember. June to Sep- tember. July to Sep- tember. do June to De- cember. June to Au- gust. July to Au- gust. July to Sep- tember. June to Au- gust. August to September. July to Sep- tember, Juno to July. May to June. July to Sep- tember, May to Octo- ber.' August to September. July to Sep- tember. Time of seed- ing. July to Sep- tember. September to N ovember. Does not seed in United States. September to November. August to November. Septemberto November. July to No- vember. Septemberto November. August to November. Septemberto December. Septemberto November. July to De- cember. July to Sep- tember. August to September. Augxtst to November. -do. September to November. August to October. July to Sep- tember. do August to October. June to No- vember. Septem"ber to October. August to November. TABLE OF TWO HUNDRED WEEDS: 595 hundred uveds. Color, size, and arrangement of flowers. Green; i inch; panicle. Yellow; ^nch; head. Purple; -ft inch; spikes. "White; i inch; racemes. "White; 1 inch; solitary. Green; i inch; racemes. Yellow; iinch; panicle. "White; linch; solitary. Blue: i inch; spike. White; tinch; heads in clus- ters. Pink; 1 inch; cymes. Green; } inch; spike. "White or pur- ple; 4 inch; spike. Green; } inch; racemes in clusters. Yellow; iinch; heads in cymes. YcIIdw; > inch; solitary. Green; 4 inch; spikes. Purple; 1 inch. Purple; 2 inches; head. Yellow; Jinch; raceme. Purple; i inch; head. Green; i inch; bur. Yellow; ^inch; heads m ra- cemes. Purple; i inch; in pairs, axil- lary. Method of propaga- tion and distri- bution. Seeds; in grain seed and by wind. Seeds; by animals... Rootstocks carried by cultivating tools and in nurs- ery stock. Seeds; roots Seeds ; rootstocks; grain and hay. Seeds; clover seed.. 5; m gi'i ver, ana grain seed. Seeds: blown by wind from, flower gardens. Rootstocks; seeds; hay, clover, and grass seeds. Seeds; carried by the wind. Seeds: rootstocks; escape from gar- dens. Seeds; in clover and grass seed. Seeds; with seeds or stems of hemp and tobacco. Roots, seeds; seeds carried by wind. -do. Seeds; by wind as a tumbleweed, i n baled hay, and by animals. Seeds: by wind as a tiimbleweed. Roots, seeds; in hay and grain. Seed.s ; wind. Seeds; carried by animals and in alfalfa seed. Seeds; carried by animals. do Place of growth and products injured. Seeds; burs carried by animals. Seeds; in grain and clover seed. Moist soil, fields ; spring wheat. Moist soil, pastures; hoed crops. Sandy soil; hoed crops. Sandy soil; culti- vated crops. Sandy soil; grain and hoed crops. Cultivated land and pastures; all crops. Cultivated fields; grain and clover. Cultivated fields; grain and hoed crops. Lowland; p.astures; grain and hoed crops. Lowland; pastures.. Road.';ides, lawns, and fields: pastures and grain crops. Pastures and grain fields; pastures and grain. Parasitic on roots of hemp and tobacco. "Worn-out fields; grain and hoed crops. Roadsides and fields; pastures and hoed crops. Open fields ; grain and hoed crops, wool. Sandy land ; grain and hoed crops. River valleys and Slains ; grain and oed crops. Cultivated fields and meadows; grain and hay. Pa.stures and grain- fields; wool, grain. Pastures, fence rows, grainfields; [ wool, grain. ' Sandy pastures, r .she(>p tr.ails, shoep- \ wasliing places; wool, pastures. t Sheep trails and over feds hoop ranges; wool. Cultivated f i o 1 d 3 ; ; hoed crops. Methods of eradication. Prevention of seeding ; use of clean .seed; improved drainage. Prevention of seeding; improved drainage. Repeated plowing to expose root- stock-s to frost, or to the sun in dry weather. Repeated spudding; killing roots with salt, coal oil, or carbolic acid. Frequent spudding; thorough cultivation; application of coal oil or carbolic acid. Frequent spudding; thorough cultivation with hoed crops. Hand pulling while in flower; cultivation with hoed crops. Prevention of seeding in flower gardens; late summer cultiva- tion. Repeated cutting in pastures; thorough cultivation. Repeated cutting in July and Aixgust. Prevention of seeding in gardens and waste places; cultivation. Mowing or cultivation to prevent seeding; spudding in lawns. Cultivating other crops in in- fested fields ; burning stems of tobacco or hemp from in- fested field.s. Increased fertilization ; summer cultivation ; seeding with clo- ver or cowpeas. Prevention of seeding ; cultiva- tion ; reseeding worn-out pas- tures. Prevention of seeding; burning mature plants; cultivation with hoed crops. Prevention of seeding ; burning mature plants. Repeated spudding; cultivation with hoed crops ; coal oil or salt. Spudding in fall ; summer culti- vation ; repeated mowing. Burning tion. mature plants; cultiva- Repeated spudding, or mowing: burning mature plants. Cultivation; hoeing or burning plants about snoep-washing yards. Summer cultivation; mowing or burning plants. More thorough cultivation; seed- ing with winter annuals after corn and potatoes. 696 YEAEBOOK OFfPHE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaiJe of two hundred Common names. Technical name, origin, and duration. Where injuri- ous. Time of flow- ering. Time of seed- ing. Callirrhoe, poppy mal- low. Canada thistle, creej)- iug thistle, cursed thistle. Caraway, garden cara- way. Careless weed, pigweed. Carpet weed, Indian chickweed. Catnip, catmint, catnep Chainy brier, bamboo, china brier, saw brier. Charlock, wild mustard, yellow mustard. Chess,cheat, wheat thief, Willard's brome grass. Chicory, succory Chickweed, common chickweed. Chondrilla, devil's greens, gum succory, nog bite, skeleton weed. Climbing false buck- wheat, bindweed. Clover dodder, devil's gut, dodder. Cocklebur, clot bur . Corn cockle, bastard nigella, cockle, rose campion. Cornflower, bachelor's button, bluebottle, French pink. Corn grorawell, field gromweU, pigeon weed, '•ed root, stone seed, wheat thief. Conch grass, devil's grass, durfee grass, quack grass, quick grass, witch grass. Cow herb, cockle, cow basU, cow fat, glond. Cow parsnip, mastor- I wort. Grab p-ass. finger grass, Polish millet. Callirrhoe involu- crata; prairie States; perennial. Carduus arvensis; Eu- rope; perennial. Carum carui; Europe; biennial. Amaranthus hybridus; tropical America; annual. Mollugo verticillata; Tropics; annual. Nepeta cataria; Old World; perennial. Smilax glauca; east- ern United States; perennial. Brassica sinapistrum; Europe; annual. Bromus secalinus ; southern Europe; annual. Cichorium intybus; Eu- rope; perennial. Alsine media; Europe; annual or winter annual. Chondrilla Juncea; Eu- rope; biennial. Polygonum scandens; northern United States; perennial. Cuscuta epithymum; Europe; annual. Xanthium canadense; northern United States; annual. Agrostemrnn githago; Europe; annual. Centaur ea cy anus ; southern Europe; annual. Lithospermum a r - vense; Europe; an- nual. Agropyron repens; northern United States; perennial. Saponaria vaccaria; Europe; annual. Heracleum lanatum: northern United States; perennial. Paniciim sanguinnle; Old World; annual. Nebraska to Texas. New England to Missouri and Wash- ington to California. New England-. New Jersey to Texas. ....do New England to Michigan. Pennsylva n i a to Tennessee. New England to Oregon. In all grain- raising re- gions. New England to Alabama and in Cali- fornia. New England to Texas and California. West Virginia, Maryland, and Virginia. Now York to Minnesota. All States where red c 1 o v er or alfalfa is grown. AU States All wheat-rais- ing States. Atlantic and Pacific States. New York to Michigan. New England to Minnesota. Colorado to Cal i f o r n i a and Wash- ington. New England to Iowa. New Jersey to Wisconsin and south- ward. June to Sep- tember. June to Au- gust. June to July July to Sep- tember. May to Sep- tember. June to Sep- tember. June to July May to Au- gust. June to July. July to Sep- tember. January to December. June to Sep- tember. June to Au- grust. June to No- vember. June to Sep- tember. May to July - July to Sep- tember. May to July. July to Au- gust, June to July. July to Au- gust, June to Sep- tember. July to No- vember, July to Sep- tember, -do. August to October, June to No- vember. August to November, July to Sep- tember. June to Sep- tember. July to Au- gust, September to November. February to Decemoer. July to Octo- ber. July to Sep- tember. July to No- vember. August to December, July to Au- gust, September to November, July to Au- gust. August to September (seldom seeds). July to Au- gust. August to November, July to Oc- tober, TABLE OF TWO HUNDRED WEED&i )(J 597 weeds — Continued. Color, size, and arrangemeut of flowers. Red or purple; 2 inches; soli- tary. Purple; J inch; head. White; i inch; umbel.s. Green; 1 lino; spikes in pan- icles. White; 1 line; in umbel-like axillary clusters. Purple: i inch; crowded spikes. Green; i inch; um'ijels. Yellow; i inch; racemes. Green; 1 line; spikelets in panicles. Blue; I inch; head. White; i inch; cymose. Yellow; ^inch; heads. Green; J inch; panicles. Yellow; ilnch; clusters. Green; J inch; head. Purple; 1 inch; solitary. Blue; 1 inch; heads. Purple; iinch; axillary. Green; 1 line; spike. Pink: f inch; cyme. White; ^ inch; umbel. Green; i line; spikes. Method of propaga- tion and distri- bution. Seeds Running roots, seeds; seeds car- ried by wind. Seeds; escaped from gardens. Seeds; in clover, grain, and grass seed, and in hay. Seeds; in grass seed; blown over snow. Rootstocks; seeds; in hay and grass seed. Tuberous roots car- ried by cultivating tools :seeds carried in hay and grain. Seeds; in clover, grass, and grain seed. Seeds; seed. in gram Seeds and roots; es- caped from culti- vation. Seeds; blown over snow and carried in grass seed. Seeds; blown by wind. Seeds, and roots; seeds carried in grain and clover seed. Seeds; in clover and alfalfa seed. Seeds; burs carried by animals. Seeds; in grain seed Seeds; in grass and grain seeds; from gardens. Seeds; ingrrain seed. Rootstocks carried by cultivating tools; seeds in hay. Seeds; in grain and alfalfa seed. Seeds; blown over snow. Seeds: grass seed and bay. Place of growth and products injured. Cultivated fields; grain and mead- ows. Cultivated fields; grain, pastures, meadows, and muck-land crops. Cultivated fields and meadows; grain, hay, flour. Cultivated fields; corn, potatoes, cot- ton. Cultivated ground; hoed crops. Sandy soil; hay and gram. Meadows;cultivated land; hay, grain, hoed crops. Grain fields and meadows; spring wheat, oats,barley and clover. Grain fields; wheat, oats, and barley. Grain fields and gar- dens; grain and hoed crops. Moist soil, orchards, vineyards, lawns, and gardens. Worn-out fields; pas- tures, grain. Moist land, grain Clover and alfalfa fields; clover and alfalfa hay and seed. Fence rows, pas- tures, and mead- ows; wool. Grain fields; wheat, flour. Pastures, lawns, g^rain fields. Grain fields; wheat. Fields; all crops ex- cept hay. Fields; grain Low meadows and pastures; hay and pastures. Gard»»ns; hood crops and lawns; hoed crop.s, orchards. Methods of eradication. Cultivation throughout the sum- mer; repeated spudding or mowing. Frequent gi'ubbing or mowing; plowing three times in August; salting the plants and pastur- ing sheep on them: application of kerosene or carbolic acid. Prevention of seeding in gardens; cultivation; hand pulling In grain fields. Late summer cultivation; burn- ing seed-bearing plants before plowing. Summer cultivation; sowing winter annuals after corn, pota- toes, and cotton. Repeated mowing in July and August; cultivation. Thorough cultivation with hoed crops; repeated grubbing. Hand pulling in grain fields; cultivation with hoed crops. Cultivation with hoed crops; cleaner seed grain. Prevention of seeding in gardens; repeated grubbiag; cuItiTation with hoed crops. Seeding with winter annuals; early spring cultivation; re- seeding lawns. Cultivation with hoed crops and increased fertilization; spud- ding or mowing. Cultivation with hoed crops; use of cleaner grain seed. Use of clean seed; l»urning small patches; cultivating other cropa m infested fields. Cultivation; burning mature plants before plowing. Use of clean seed; hand pulling; cultivation with hoed crops. Prevention of seeding in flower gardens; repeated spudding; cultivation. Use of clean seed; burning wheat stubble in infested fields. Repeated plowing in July and August, followed by neavy seeding with rye. Use of clean seed; hand pulling in g^ain; cultivation. Repeated mowing or grrubbing; cultivation. Cultivation; hand pulling In lawns. 598 YEARBOOK -OT^THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table of two hundred Common names. Creeping bur ragweed, I'rauseria. Curled dock, sour dock, yellow dock. Daisy flcabane, sweet scabious, white top. Dandelion -.%.. Devil weed, golden hawkweed, king devil, paint brusli. Dog fennel, mayweed, stinking chamomile. Drop-seed dock, sorrel dock. Eagle fern, bracken, brake. Evening primrose . False flax, gold of pleas- ure, Siberian oilseed, wild flax. Fetid marigold, stink- weed. Field peppergrass, Eng- lish pep per grass, aiithridate mustard, yellowseed. Fireweed Five finger, NorwayS cinquefoil. Galiugale, sedge. Giant ragweed, hog- weed, horseweed, tall ragweed. Green pigeon grass, bot- tle grass, green fox- tail. Ground cherry, lance- leafed ground cherry. Gum plant, rosinweod, sunflower. Hedge bindweed, bract- od bindweed, devil's vine, Rutland beauty, wild morning-glory. Hedge mustard Hen bit, dead ncttlo Hogweod Horse nettle, bull net- tle, radical, sand brier. Technical name, origin, and duration. Gcortneria discolor; Rocky Mountains; perennial. Riimex crispus; Eu- rope; perennial. Erigeron anniTUs: eastern United States; annual. Taraxacum taraxa- cum; Europe; bien- nial. Hieraciwn prccaUurn ; Europe; perennial. Anthcmis coiula; Eu- . rope; annual. R u m o X hastatulus: southern United States; perennial. Pteris aquilina; cos- mopolitan ; peren- nial. CEnothera biennis; eastern United States; biennial. Cunielina sativa; Eu- rope; annual or bi- ennial. Dyosodia papposa; central United. States; annual. Lepidium campesfre; Europe; annual. Erechtites hieracifo- lia; northern United States; annual. Potentilla monspoli- ensis; northern United States; per- ennial. Cyperus phymatodes; central United States; perennial. Ambrosia trifida; eastern United States; annual. Scto7-ia viridin; Old World; annual. Physalis lanceolata; central United States; perennial. Grindclia .squarro.sa; prairie States; per- ennial. Convolvulus sepium; northern United States; perennial. Si.li/mbrhan officinale; Europe; annual or biennial. L a m ill m amplexi- caule; Europe; an- nual. Bcerhaavia ere eta; Texas; annual. Solanum carolinense; southeastern United States; perennial. Where injuri- ous. Wyoming t o New Mexico. All States ex- cept South- eastern. Maine to Min- nesota and southward. AU States Now York . In all States . - . South Carolina to Florida. Pennsylvania, Washington to California. New England to Wisconsin and south- ward. Ohio to North Dakota. Nebraska to Texas. New England to Michigan. Pennsylvania to Wisconsin. Ohio to Minne- sota. New Jersey to Mich i g an and south- ward. New York to North Da- ko t; a a nd southward. Ohio to Iowa and south- ward. Illinois to Kan- Minnesota to Montana and southward. New Jersey to Iowa. New England to Ohio and southward. New England to West Vir- ginia. Texas to Lou- isiana. New .Jersey to Iowa and southward. Time of flow- ering. June to Au- gust. June to Sep- tember. June to Au- gust. May to Octo- ber. June to Sep- • tember. June to Au- gust. May to July. June to Au- gust. May to Sep- tember. July to Sep- tember. May to July. June to Au- gust. -do. .do. July to Sep- tember. .do. ..do...- July to Octo- ber. May to Sep- tember. A p r i 1 June. to June to No- vember. June to Sep- tember. Time of seed- ing. July to Sep- tember. July to Octo- ber. July to Sep- tember. May to No- vember. July to Sep- tember. do June to Au- gust. September to December. July to No- vember. September to November. May to Au- gust. July to Sep- tember. -do. .do. August to November. August to October. August to November. do September to December. July to Octo- ber. May to July July to De- cember. August to December. TABLE OF TWO HUNDRED WEEDS. 5&9 weeds — Continued. Color, size, and arrangement of flowers. Yellow; iinch; heads. Green; i inch; panicle. White: { inch; heads. Yellow;! inch; head. Yellow; {inch; head. ^Yhitc; J inch; head. Greenish white; i inch; pani- cle. Flowerless Yellow; 1 to 3 inches; spikes. Yellow; iinch; racemes. Yellow; J inch; heads. "Wliite; 1 line; crowded ra- cemes. Pnrple; Jinch; heads in pan- icles. Yellow; iinch; solitary. Green; i line; spikes in um- bels. Yellow; Jinch; racemes. Green; 1 line; spikes. Yellow;! inch; racemes. Yellow; Onch; heads. White: Sinches; solitary. Yellow; i inch; racemes. Piirplo; iinch; axillary whorls. Whit(!:i'oinch; cyme. Purple; lincb; raceme. Method of propaga- tion and distri- bution. Seeds, carried b y sheep; rootstocks, carried by cultivat- ing tools. Roots, seeds in hay and grain; blown over snow. Seeds; in hay, clo- ver, and grass seed, Seeds; carried by wind. Running rootstocks; seed carried by wind. Seeds; in hay and grass seed. Seeds, by wind and in grass seed; rxm- ning rootstocks. Rootstocks; spores; carried by wind. Seeds; carried by wind. Seeds; carried in flaxseed, clover and grass seed. Seeds; carried in hay and by winter winds. Seeds; in hay, clo- ver, and grass seed. Seeds; carried by wind. Running rootstocks ; seeds. Tubers carried by cultivating tools; seeds carried in grass seed and hay. Seeds; carried by water and blown over snow. Seeds; in clover and grass seed. Running seeds. Roots; seeds. roots; Running roots; seeds. Seeds; inclovqrand grass seed and hay. Seeds; running root- stocks. Seeds; in grass and grain seed and hay. Running roots; seeds in hay ana clover seed. Place of growth and products injured. Methods of eradication. Meadows, pastures, grain liefds; wool and all crops. Meadows and grain- fields; all crops. Meadows and grain- fields. Meadows, pastures, and lawns. Meadows and pas- tures. Roadsides, mead- ows, pastures. Bleadows and pas- tures. Recently cleared land, pastures and meadows. Sandy land; mead- ows; grain and hoed crops. Sandy land; flax and grain. Meadows and pas- tures. Sandy land; mead- ows, grain. Recently cleared land, cultivated marshes; grain, marsh-land crops. Cultivated marshes; onions, pepper- mint, and celery. Moist land ; mead- ows, pastures, and lowland crops. Moist or sandy land; meadows and pas- tures. Meadows and grain fields. Sandy land; mead- ows; grain and hoed crops. Meadows and pas- tures. Rich prairie soil; corn and grain. Dry fields; pastures and grain. Moist lawns, pas- tures, and mead- ows. Rich bottom lands; in e a d o w s , and hoed crops. Meadows, pastures, and culti vatod laud; all crops. Thorough cultivation in dry weatlier ; burning mature plants. Alternate cultivation and heavy cropping; mowing or grubbing in pastures. Cultivation with hoed crops; mowing early. Cultivation; repeated spudding in lawns. Cultivation; salting plants in sheepfcpastures. Mowing roadsides, mowing or cultivating fields. Cultivation with hoed crops; early mowing in meadows. Alternate cultivation and heavy croijping. Cultivation in fall or spring; burning mature plants; re- peated mowing. Cultivation in autumn;, pulling or mowing plants in bloom. Cultivation with hoed crops. Thorough cultivation with hoed crops; increased fertilization. Hand pulling or cutting in early summer. More thorough cultivation. Repeated spudding; frequent cul- tivation throughout the season; thick seeding with timothy or rcdtop. Heavy seeding or cultivation; mowing young plants or burn- ing mature ones. Cultivation throughout the sea- sou with hoed crops. More thorough cultivation. Repeated mowing; cultivation. Burning seed-bearing plants be- fore plowing; late cultivation in hoed crops. Cultivation with hoed crops; in- creased fertilization. Spudding or hand pulling In lawns; cultivation with hoed crops. Thorough cultivation; heavy seeding. Alternate cultivation and heavy croppinfj; repeated spudding; application or carbolic acid. 600 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table of two hundred Coinmou names. Technical name, origin, and duration. Where injuri- ous. Time of flow- ering. Time of seed- ing. Horseweed, butter- weed, colt's tail, flea- bane. Hound's-tougue, dog bur, wool mat. Indian mallow, Ameri- can jute, butter print, stamp weed, velvet leaf. Indian tobacco, asthma weed. Ironweed Jjmson weed, James- town weed, purple thorn apple. Joe-Pye weed, trumpet- weed. Johnson grass, Austra- lian millet, Cuba grass, ev e r g r e e n millet. Means grass. Knot grrass, doorweed, goose grass. Lamb's quarters, goose- foot, pigweed. Live-forever, Aaron's rod, garden orpine. Loco weed Low amaranth, pros- trate amaranth, spreading amaranth. Low hop clover Marsh elder, false rag- weed, false sunflower, high-water shrub. Mexican poppy, devil's flg, prickly poppy, thistle poppy, yellow mS! exican tea, American wormseed. Milfoil, yarrow. Milk purslane, spotted spurge. Milk thistle, holy this- tle, our lady's thistle. Milkweed, silkweed, wild cotton. Morning-glory. Moth mullein. Motherwort . Moiise barley, wall bar- ley, wild barley. Erigeron canadense; eastern United States; annual. Cynoglossum ojpci- nale; Europe; bien- nial. Atnitilon abxdilon; In- dia; annual. Lobelia inflata; east- ern United States; annual. Vernonia novebora- - censis; eastern United States; an- nual. Datura iatula; Trop- ics; annual. Eupatorium purpur- eum; eastern United States; annual. Andropogon halepen- sis; Old World; per- ennial. Polygonum aviculare; cosmopolitan ; an- nual. Chenopodium album; Old World; annual. Seduni telephium; Eu- rope; perennial. Astragalus moUissi- mus; Bocky Moun- tains; perennial. Amaranthus bli- toides ; prairie States; annual. Trifolium procumbent; Europe; annual. Iva xanthiifolia; Rocky Mountains; annual. Aruemone viexicana; West Indies: annu- al or biennial. Chenopodium avibro- sioides: tropical America; annual. Achillea millefolium; cosmopolitan ; per- ennial. Euphorbia maculata; North America; an- nual. Silybum marianum; Europe; annual. Asclepias s y r i a c a; northeastern United States; per- ennial. Iponicea purpurea; tropical America; annual. Verbascum blattaria; Europe; biennial. Leonuriis cardiaca; Europe; perennial. Hordeum tnurinum; Europe; annual. In all States . N«w England toWiscon- sin. Ohio to Iowa... New England to Virginia. Pennsylva n i a to Iowa. Pennsylva n i a to Texas. Pennsylva n i a to Missouri. North Caroli- na to Texas and Califor- nia. In all States . . . do. New York and Penns y 1 v a - nia. Montana to New Mexico. Minnesota to Texas. New England to Ohio. Minnesota to Idaho and southward. Florida to Cal- ifornia. Maryland to Texas. New England to Missouri. In all States... California . New York to Wisconsin. Delaware and California. New York to Iowa. New England to Michigan. California July to Sep- tember. June to Au- gust. July to Sep- tember. July to No- vember. July to Sep- tember. .do. August to September. June to Au- gust. June to No- vember. July to No- vember. July to Au- gust. June to Au- gust. July to Sep- tember. June to Sep- tember. August to September. July to Octo- ber. August to November. June to Au- gust. May to No- vember. June to July June to Au- gust. July to Octo- ber. June to Sep- tember. June to Au gust. May to July. August to October. July to Sep- tember. August to November. August to December. Sentember to Ifovember. September to December. September to November July to Sep- tember. July to De- cenaber. August to December. August to September. July to Sep- tember. August to October. Juno to Oc- tober. September to November, do September to December. July to Sep- tember. June to De- cember. July to Sep- tember. July to Octo- ber. September to November. July to De- cember. July to Sep- tember. June to July. TABLE OF TWO HUNDRED WEEDS. 601 weeds — Continued. Color, size, and arrangement of flowers. "White; i inch; heads in cymes. Purple; Jinch; racemes. Yellow; i inch; solitary. Blue; i inch ; racemes. Purple; J inch; heads. Purple; 3 inches; soli- tary. Purple; Jinch; heads in cymes. Green; ^inch; panicle. Pink; 1 line; axillary. Green: 1 line; panicle. Purple; iinch; cyme. Violet; i inch; spikes. Green; 1 line; spikes. Yellow; 1 line; hiads. Green; i inch; heads. Yellow; 3 inches; soli- tary. Green; 1 Une; panicle. White: i inch; heads in um- bels. Red: i line ; axillary clus- ters. Red or pur- Ele: 2incnes; eads. Puri>le; iinch; umbels. Purjjle to white; 1| inches; soli- tiiry. Yellow or white; 1 inch ; ra- cemes. Purjile; J inch; axillary clus- ters. Green; i lino; spikes. 4 A 95- Method of propaga- tion and distri- bution. Seeds: carried by wind and in hay. Seeds: carried by sheep. Seeds; in clover seed; blown over snow. Seeds: in hay and grass seed; pods blown over snow. Perennial roots; seeds carried by wind. Seeds; pods blown over snow in win- ter. Running roots; seeds carried by wind . Running rootstocks, seeds; in hay and grass seed. Seeds: blown over snow. Seeds; in grain and grass seed. Tubers; carried by cultivating tools. Perennial seeds. roots Seeds; in clover seed. Seeds Seeds: blown over snow, and carried by streams. Seeds: carried by wind. Seeds; blown by winds in winter. Perenn ial roots, seeds, clover, and grass seeds. Seeds Seeds: carried by wind. Running root- stocks; seeds car- ried by wind. Seeds; escaped from gardens. Seeds; in hay, clo- ver, and grass seed. Running rootstocks; seeds. Seeds; hay, sheep, and wind. -21'' Place of growth and products injured. Meadows and grain fields. Sheep pastures; wool. Sandy fields; grain and hoed crops. Meadows, Jiastures, and grain-fields ; poisonous. Meadows and pas- tures. Waste ground, pas- tures, neglected gardens. Moist or sandy meadows and pas- tures. Moist or sandy land; all crops except hay. All places where turf has been broken. Grainfields and neg- lected cornfields. Slaty hills; all crops. Dry prairies: poison- ous to stock. Broken land; neg- lected hoed crops. Sterile soil: neg- lected gardens. Rich prairie land ; all crops. Neglected gardens and fields; poison- ous if eaten. Fields and neglect- ed gardens; all crops. Meadows, pastures, and grainfields. land; all Broken crops. Broken land; mead- ows and grain. Rich soil; all crops.. Cultivated fields ... Meadows and pas- tures. Sandy land; mead- ows and gardens. Sandy pastures; awns mjurious to mouths of animals. Methods of eradication. Mowing; cultivation; burning stubble before plowing. Spudding, jjulling, or repeated mowing early in the season. Thorough cultivation with hoed crops; burning mature plants before plowing. Cultivation: increased fertiliza- tion; hand pulling in meadows and pastures. Cultivation with hoed crops; fre- quent mowing. Cutting while in flower; cultiva- tion. Cultivation with hoed crops; fre- quent mowing or spudding. Close grazing induced by salting the plants: alternate cultivation and heavy cropping: plowing to expose roots to frost or hot sun. Increased fertilization: thorough cultivation with hoed crops. Thorough cultivation with hoed crops. Infection with fungous disease; close grazing by sheep induced by salting the plants. Cultivation; repeated spudding. Late cultivation with hoed crops; seeding land not in use. Increased fertilization; cultiva- tion or seeding. Repeated mowing: cultivation; burning seed-bearing plants be- fore plowing. Repeatofi mowing: cultivation. Thorough (;ultivation; increased fertilization; seeding land not in use. Cultivation; mowing while in blossom. Thorough cultivation ; heavy seeding. Mowing when the first blossoms appear: burning mature plants. Mowing while in blossom; alter- nate cultivation and heavy cropping. Prevention of seeding; thorough cultivation. Spudding in autumn; pulling or cutting while in flower; culti- vation. Cultivation. Cultivation ; heavy seeding; burning mature plants before plowing. 602 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table of two hundred Common names. Technical name, origin, and duration. Where injuri- ous. Time of flow- ering. Time of seed- ing. Mouse-ear cress , Mullein, Aaron's rod, black mullein, flannel plant, velvet dock. Musky alfilerilla, ground needle, musky eronbill. Kapa thistle, Malta thia- tle, tocalbte. Narrow-leafed stick- seed. Narrow- leafed vervain, low vervain. Neckwced, purslane speedwell. Nightshade, black-ber- ried nightshade. Nonesuch, black me- dick, medicago. Nut grass, coco, coco sedge, nut sedge. Orange hawkweed, devil's paint brush, golden hawkweed, ladies' paint brush. Oseye daisy, bull's eye, sheriff pink, white daisy, white weed. Paraguay bur Paroquet bur , Partridge pea Passion flower, May pop fenny cress, French weed, Sargent weed. Peppergrass . Perennial ragweed. Perennial sow thistle, field sow thistle, sow thistle. Pigeon grass, pussy grass, summer fox- tail. Pigweed, redroot, rough amaranth. Pimpernel, poison chick- weed, poor man's wea- ther glass. Plantain, white man's foot. Sienophragma thalia- lui; Euroije; winter annual. Veri>ascum tJutpsus; Europe; biennial. Erodium moschatum; Europe; annual. Centaurea melitensis; Europe; anuuaL Lappida lappula; Eu- rope; annual. Verbena angustifolia- eastern United States; perennial. Veronica peregrina; cosmopolitan; an- nual. Solanum nigrum; cos- mopolitan; annuaL Medicaqo hipulina; Old World; annual. Cuperns rotunduB ; Tropics; perenniaL Hieracium auranti- acum; Europe; per- ennial. Chrysanthemum leu- cant hem uni ; En- rope; perennial. Acant ?iosp>er m w ni brasihun; Brazil; annual. Sida stipiilata; south- eastern Un ited States; annual or perennial. Cassia chamsecrista; southeastern United States; annual. Passiflora incarnata; southeastern United States; perennial. Thlaspi arvense; Eu- rope; aunual. Lepidium virginicnm; eastern United States; annual. Ambrosia psilo- 8 1 a c h y a ; central United States; per- ennial. Sonchus arvensis; En- rope; perennial. Setaria glauca ; Old World; annual. Amaranthus retro- flexus ; tropical America; annual. Anagallis arvensis ; Eurox>e; annual. PLantago major; North America; per- ennial. Maryland to Tennessee. Maine to Wis- consin and southward. California t o Ai'izona. California New England to Minne.sota and south- ward. Ohio to Ala- bama. New Jersey to Texas and California. Maryland to Arkansas. Now England and Florida to the Missis- sippi River. Virginia to Texas. Vermont to Ohio. Maine to Vir- ginia and Ohio. North Carolina to Florida. Alabama to Florida. Virginia to Florida. North Carolina to Florida. Ohio, Minne- s o t a, and North Dako- ta. New England to Wisconsin and Boath- ward. Minnesota to Texas and Arizona. New York to Wisconsin. In every State. Innearlyevery State. Atlantic States and Califor- nia. New England to Michigan. April to May July to Sep- tember. April to No- vember. .....do June to Au- gust. May to Sep' tember. May to July.. May to Sep tember. June to Sep- tember. July to Sep- tember. June to Au- gust. May to July. March to De- cember. Juno to No- vember. July to At> gust. July to Sep- tember. April to No- vember. May to July - June to Sep- tember. June to Jtily. June to Sep- tember. July to Sep- tember. May to Sep- tember. June to Sep- tember. May to June. August to November. May to De- cember. .....do July to Octo- ber. .do. June to Au- gust. June to Oc- tober. July to Octo- ber. August to November. June to Sep- temljer. July to Sep- tember. May to Jan- uary. July to De- cember. August to November. do June to De- cember. . June to Au- gust. July to Octo- ber. July to Au- gust. July to Octo- ber. August to November. May to Octo- ber. July to Octo- ber. TABLE OF TWO HUNDRED WEEDS. 603 tveeds — Continued. Color, fizo, and arrfingement of flowers. Method of jiropaga tion and distri- bution. Place of growth and products injured. Methods of eradication. White; i inch; racemes. Yellow; j inch; spiko. Pink; i inch; umbels. Yellow; linch; heads. Blue; i inch; racemes. Purjile; i inch; spikes. Blue; i inch; axillary. White; } inch; u m 1) o 1 - like clusters. Yellow; iinch; spikes. Green; \ line; spikes in um- bels. Orange; i inch; heads. White; 1 inch; heads. Yellow; i inch; heads. Yellow; 1 inch; .•solitary or in clusters. Yellow; 1 inch; racemes. Purple; 2 inches; soli- tary. White; i inch; racemes. White; 1 line; racemes. Yellow; i inch; racemes. Yellow; } inch; heads. Green; 1 lino; spike. Green; 1 line; spikes in panicles. Red, purple, or white; 4 inch; axillary. Green; 1 lino; spike. Seeds Seeds; in hay and clov^er seed. Seeds; in hay, and carried by ani- mals. Seeds; carried by wind. Seeds; carried by animals. Running rootstocks Seeds do Seeds; in hay and clover seed. Tubers carried in nursery stock; seeds carried in hay and grass seed. Roots, runners; seeds carried by wind and in clover seed; escape from gardens. Perennial roots ; seeds; in clover seed and hay. Seeds; carried by animals. Seeds; carried by animals. Seeds Seeds; perennial roots. Seeds; in clover seeds; pods blown by wind. Seeds; in hay, clover, and grass seed. Running rootstocks, seeds; in hay and clover seed. Running rootstocks; seeds carried by wind Seeds; in grain and grass seed. Seeds; in grain and grass seed; blown over snow. Seeds; in grain and grass seed. Perennial roots; seeds. Meadow."? and jias- tures. Meadows, pastures, and winter grain- fields. Rich soil; pastures, and all crops. Pastures; meadows and all crops. Everywhere ; all crops, wool. Dry or sandy land; meadows and pas- tures. Moist land; lawns and marsh crops. Moist or rich sandy land. Sterile soil. All soils; hoed crops. Sandy land; mead- ows and all crops. Meadows and pas- tures. Cultivated land; hoed crops. Cultivated land; hoed crops, wocl. Sandyfields; corn, cotton, and pota- toes. Sandy fields; hoed crops. Rich, sandy land; all crops, flour, beef, and dairy products. Sandy fields; all crops. Rich prairie soil; all crops. Rich soil; all crops.. Broken land, espe- cially grain fields; all crops. Broken land; hoed crops. Sandy land; poison- ous. Meadow.s, neglected gardens and lawns. Early sxjring cultivation; heavy seeding with winter annuals. Spudding in autumn; pulling or cutting in grain and clover. Cultivation with hoed crops; heavy seeding. Spudding or repeated mowing as often as heads appear; cultiva- tion. Cultiv.ation with hoed crops; burning or mowing grain stub- ble soon after harvest. Cultivation; repeated mowing. Cultivation. Cultivation; cutting before th« berries mature. Increased fertilization; scedinj; with clover or cowpeas. Thorough cultivation alternat- ing with heavy crops of cow- peas or Japan clover. Close grazing by sheep induced by salting plants; alternate cul- tivation and heavy cropping; prevention of seeding in gar- dens. Mowing early in June; cultiva- tion with hoed crops. Cultivation; burning matura plants before plowing; heavy seeding. Cultivation. Moro thorough cultivation; de- stroying jilauts in flower; burn- ing mature ones before plowing. Alternate cultivation and heavy seeding with cowpeas. Thorough cultivation with hoed crops; burning mature plants before plowing. Increased fertilization; burning plants before plowing; cultiva- tion; seeding land not in use. Deep cultivation during dry wea- ther. Close grazing induced- by a.alting Slants; deep cultivation during ry weather; heavy seeding. Mowing or burning stubble; use of clean seed; cultivation throughout the soa.son. Later cultivation in hoed crops; burning seed-bearing plants. Burning thick patches; cultiva- tion and increased fertilization. Hand pulling or repeated spud- dinjj: in lawns; cultivation; re- seeding bare spots in meadows, ood pastures. 604 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE. Table of two hundred Common names. Technical name, origin, and duration. Where injuri- ous. Time of flow- ering. Time of seed- ing. Plantain- leafed ever- lasting, Indian to- bacco, lamb's tail, mouse ear. Poison ivy, poison oak, poison vine. Poison weed Pokeweed, garget, pig- eon berry, skoke. Polanisia Porcupine grass, needle grass. Poverty weed Prickly lettuce, com- pass weed, milkweed, wild lettuce. Prickly pear, Indian fig. Pur.slane, garden piirs- lane, pursley, pusley. Rabbit' s-foot clover, stone clover. Ragweed, bitterweed, hogweed, little rag- weed, richweed, Ro- man wonnwood. Ramsted, butter and eggs, devil's flax, im- pudent lawyer, snap- dragon, toadflax. Rattlebox Red chess. Rib grass, black plan- tain, buck horn, buck plantain, deer tongue, EnglL^h plantain, lance-loafed plantain, ripple grass. Rougn- stemmed flea- bare. Round-leafed mallow, cheeses, mallard. Running brier, dew- berry, low blackberry. Russian thistle, Russian cactus, Russian salt- wort, Russian tumble- weed. Bt. Barnaby's thistle, Barnabas, prickly tar- weed, yellow -flow- ered centaury. St. John's wort Shepherd's pur.se, moth- er's heart, pickpurse, toothwort. Antennaria plantagin- ifolia; North Amer- ica; perennial. Rhus radicans; east- ern United States; perennial. Delphinium bicolor; northern United States; perennial. Phytolacca decandra: eastern United States; perennial. Polanisia graveolens; northern United States; annual. Stipa spar tea; prairie States; perennial. Iva axillaris; Rocky Mountains; peren- nial. Lactuca scar tola; Eu- rope; annual. Opuntia hum i f u s a ; southeastern United States; perennial. Portulaca ol eracea; Old World; annual. Trifolium arvense; Eu- rope; annual. Ambrosia a r t e m i s- iaefolia; eastern United States; an- nual. Linaria linaria; E u - rope; perennial. Crotalaria sagittalis; eastern United States; annual. Bi-omus ntbens; south- ern Europe; annual. Plantaqo lanceolata; Europe; perennial Erigeron r a m o s u s ; eastern United States; perennial. Malva rotumUfoUa; Europe; perennial. Rubus canadensis; eastern United States; perennial. Sal so la kali tragus; Russia; annual. Centaurea solstitialisi Europe; annual. Hypericum perfora- tum; Europe; peren- nial. Bttrsa hursa-pastoris; Old World, annual. New England to Michigan and North Carolina. New England to Arizona. M o n t a n a to Colorado. Pennsylvania to Alabama. Iowa to Colo- rado. Minnesota to Wyoming. Montana to New Mexico. Ohio to Iowa, and Utah to Oregon and California. Florida to Mis- souri. In all States . . . New Jersey to Michigan and south- ward. All States east of the Rocky Mountains. New England to Wisconsin and south- ward. Iowa to South Dakota. Oregon and California. In all States where c 1 o - ver or intro- duced grass- es are culti- vated. Maine to Ken- tucky. New England to IVIichigan. Maryland to North Caro- lina. Michigan t o Colorado, Idaho, and California. California New York to North Caro- lina. In all States ... April to June May to July. .do. July to Sep- tember. June to Au- gust. May to June June to Au- gust. June to Oc- tober. June to Au- gust. May to No- vember. May to July. July to Sep- tember. July to Oc- tober. July to Sep- tember. June to July June to Oc- tober. June to Au- gust. May to Octo- ber. May to July July to Sep- tember. May to Sep- tember. May to Au- gust. January t o December. May to July.. July to Au- gust. June to Sep- tember. September to December, July to Sep- tember. June to July July to Sep- tember. July to No- vember. July to Sep- tember. June to De- cember. June to Au- gust. August to December. August to November. .do. June to Au- gust. July to No- vember. July to Sep- tember. June to No- vember. June to Au- gust. August to November. June to Oc- tober. June to Sep- tember. March to De- cember. TABLE OF TWO HUNDRED WEEDS. 605 toeeds— Continued. Color, size, and arrangement of flowers. Method of propaga- tion and distri- bution. Place of sjrrowth and products injured. Methods of eradication. White ;.i inch; hoada in short spikes. Yellow; J inch; racemes. Yellow and purple; } inch; ra- ceme. White; i inch; racemes. ....do Green; 1 line; panicle. Yellow; J inch; heads. Yello'w; I inch; heads in pan- icles. Yellow ; 3 inches; soli- tary. Yellow; iinch; axillary. Gray: i inch; heads. Yellow; ^inch; heads in ra- cemes; pistil- late, greon; axillary. Yellow; iinch; racemes. Yellow; i inch; racemes. Red; | line; spicate pan- icle. White; A inch; spike. White: i inch; heads. White: i inch; axillary. White; 1 inch; solitary. Purplish; i inch; axil- lary. Yellow; linch; heads. Yellow; iiuch; cymes. White; A inch; racemes. Running rootstocks; seeds blown by wind. Running rootstocks; seeds. Perennial roots, seeds; in hay and grass seed. Perennial roots, seeds. Seeds; in hay and grass seed. Perennial roots, seeds; in hay. Running roots, seeds. Seeds: carried by wind. Perennial seeds. Seeds roots; Seeds; in hay and clover seed. Seeds; in grain, clover seed, hay; blown over snow. Rootstocks; seeds in grass seed. Seeds; pods blown over snow. Seeds; in grass seed, hay, and wool. Perennial root ; seeds: in hay, clo- ver, and grass seed. Perennial roots; seeds; in hay and grass seed. Running rootstocks ; seeds. Perennial roots Seeds; blown as a tumbleweed. Seeds; carried by wind and by ani- mals. Running rootstocks; seeds; in hay, clo- ver and gi'ass seed. Seeds Hilly pastures and meadows. Moist, rich land, along fences; poi- sonous by contact. Dry hills: poisonous to stock. Waste land, grain- fields; root poison- ous. Meadows and grain- fields. Meadows and pas- tures; awns injur- ious to stock. Cultivated land; all crops. Everywhere; all crops. Sandy or sterile soil. Cultivated land; garden crops. Sandy land; mead- ows, and grain. Everywhere; all crops. Meadows and p a s - tures. Sandy or moist land ; poisonous to stock. Sandy land, sheep pastures; awns in- jure sheep. Everywhere; all crops. Meadows and pas- tures. Cultivated land; grain and neg- lected gardens. Old fields; all crops- Broken land; small grain. Cultivated land; all crops. Meadows, pa.stures, and neglected hoed crops. Everywhere; all crops. Increased fertilization, cultiva- tion, and seeding. Cultivation with hoed crops; re- peated grubbing. Cultivation and reseeding; spud- ding or pulling. Spudding; repeated mowing; cul- tivation. Cultivation with hoed crops; early mowing; burning grain stubble. Mowing in May; cultivation. Late cultivation with hoed crops; heavy seeding. Cultivation; heavy seeding; burning mature plants. Burning; cultivation; fertiliza- tion; heavy seeding. Closer cultivation late in season; seeding with winter annuals after hoed crops. Cultivation; increased fertiliza- tion; heavy seeding. Late cultivation in hoed crops, followed by seeding with win- ter annuals; Ijurning or mow- ing wheat stubble. Cultivation and heavy cropping. Cultivation with hoed crops; burning the plants in August. Cultivation; burning the grass as soon as the panicles form. Cultivation and heavy cropping; repeated spudding in lawns. Cultivation; pulling from mead- ows while in blossom. Thorough cultivation with hood crops: persistent spudding in lawns. Alternate cultivation and hpavy cropping; increased fertiliza tiou. Cultivation until August in hoed crops; burning wheat stubble; harrowing fire breaks. Cultivation with hood crops; burning patches of mature plants. Th tember. July to Sep- tember. May to Octo- ber, June to Au- gust May to July.. July to No- vember. July to Octo- ber. Juno to Sep- tember. June to Au- gust. July to Au- gust. May to July.. July to Octo- ber. August to November. Juno to July July to Sep- tember. Time of seed- ing. July to No- vember. June to Oc- tober. July to Sep- tember. Juno to Sep- tember. July to No vomber. May to June. July to No- vem.ber. Juno to Au- gust. July to No- vember. August to October. June to No- vember. Juno to Sep- tember. do August to December. .do. July to Octo- ber. July to Sep- tember. August to September June to Au- gust. Se/ptember to December, .do. July to Au- gust. July to Octo- ber. TABLE OF TWO HUNDRED WEEDS. 607 weeds — Continued. Color, size, and airangement of flowers. Method of propaga- tion and distri- bution. Place of growth and products injured. Methods of eradication. White; i inch; umbel. Yellow;} inch; axillary. Pink; } heads. inch; Blue; J Inch; axillary. Green; 1 line; clustei'ed in panicled spikes. White; Ainch; umbels. Green; 1 line; heads in ra- cemes or ax- illary. Pink: i inch; axillary. Purple; iinch; solitary. Yellow; finch; heads. Bod ; k inch; panicle. Yellow; ^inch; heads. Rose; } inch; racemes. Green; I'a inch; spikes. Green; i inch; heads. White; 1 inch; raceme. Yellow; }inch; axillary. White; 1 line; umbels. Green; i line; spikes. Purple; iinch; heads. White; i inch; heads. Blue; 1 line; racemes. Green; 1 line; spikes in pan- icles. Running roots; .seeds; in hay and grass seed. Perennial roots; seeds. Perennial roots; seeds; carried by wind. Seeds Running rootstocks; seeds. Seeds; carried by wind and animals. Seeds; bnrs carried by animals. Seeds; v clover and grass seed. Seeds Rootstocks; seeds... Running rootstocks, seeds; in clover seed. Seeds; carried by wind. Seeds; carried by animals. Seeds; in clover seed. Seeds; burs carried by animals. Seeds . do. Perennial roots; seeds. Seeds; hay, animalB, and wind. Seeds Rootstocks; seeds; carried by wind. Seeds; carried by animals. Seeds in grass and clover seed. Rich or sandy soil; pastures, mead- ows, grain. Sandy land; mead- ows and pastures. Pastures and mead- ows. Broken land; hay and grain injured by its odor. Moist land; marsh f)astures and muck- and crops; sting- ing when touched. Everywhere; all crops. Broken land; all crops, wool. Sandy land; mead- ows, pastures, and lawns. Clay soil; all crops .. Meadows and pas- tures; injurious to stock. Meadows, pastures, and grainfields. Meadows and grain- fields. Sandy land; wool... Pasturos, meadows, and grainfields. Pastures and mead- ows; wool. Pastures and hoed crops. Meadows, pastures, and grainfields. Moist pastures and meadows; poison- ous when eaten. Meadows and pas- tures; awns inju- rious to animals. Meadows and pas- tures. Old fields, meadows, and pastures. Along fences, in pas- tures; wool. Sandy land; hay and all crops. Thorough cultivation until mid- summer; mowing in July, fol- fowed by deep plowing in Au- gust. Deep cultivation in dry weather; increased fertilization. Cultivation; mowing or grubbing as often as flowers appear. Cultivation with hoed crops; re- peated cutting; burning mature plants. Mowing in June and again in Au- gust; burning mature plants. Cultivation in autumn or early spring; seeding with winter annuals. Cultivation with hoed crops; burning mature plants. Cultivation and increased ferti- lization. Late cultivation with hoed crops; heavy seeding on land not in iise. Cultivation with hoed crops; pulling or repeated spudding in pastures and meadows. Cultivation; increased fertiliza- tion; reseeding worn-out pas- tures. Cutting or pulling when the first blossoms appear; burning ma- ture plants. Cultivation; cutting and burning mature plants. Cnltivatiou with hoed crops. Thorough cxiltivation with hoed crops during two or three suc- cessive seasons; burning ma- ture plants. Thorough cultivation; burning mature plants. Cultivation with hoed crops; cut- ting plants when they begin to blossom. Repeated spudding or grabbing. Cultivation; early mowing; burn- ing patches of the grass. Cultivation; seeding with winter annuals. Late cultivation with hoed crops; increased fertilization. Cultivation with hoed crops; spudding or pulling. Thorough cultivation with hoed crops. 608 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table of two hundred Coxaxnon names. Technical name, origin, and duration. Wliere injuri- ous. Time of flow- ering. Time of seed- ing. Stramonium, j i m s o n weed, thorn apple. Stubble spurge, hyperi- cum spurge. Sunflower Swamp beggar ticks, marigold. Sweet clover, bokhara clover, white melilot. Tall buttercup, acrid buttercup. Tall thistle Tarweed, California tar- weed. Teasel, barber's brushes, English this- tle. Fuller's card, In- dian thistle, water thistle. Texas thistle, American centaury, star thistle. Three-seeded mercury, copper leaf. Tumble weed, white pigweed. Velvety gaura, small- flowered gaura. Venus looking-glass Viper's bugloss, blue devil, blue thistle, blue weed. "Water hyacinth, gama- lote. Water smart weed. West India bur grass, cockspur, sandspur. White mustard Whitetop, June grass, old fog, wild-cat grass. White vervain, nettle- leafed vervain. Wild buckwheat, black bindweed. Wild carrot, bird's nest, devil's plague. Queen Anne's lace. Wild gourd, calabazita.. Datura stramonium; Old World; annual. Euphorbia nutans; eastern United States; annual. Helianthus annuus; central United States; annual. Bidens connata; east- ern United States; annual. Melilotus alba; Old World; perennial. Kanun cuius acris; Eu- rope; perennial. Carduus altissimus; northern United States; perennial. Madia sativa; Pacific Coast; annual. Dipsacus ^Ivestris; Europe; biennial. Centaurea americana; southern United States; annual. Acalypha virginica; eastern United States; annual. Amaranthus a 1 b u s ; central United States; annual. Gaura parviflora; southern prairie States; annual. Legouzia perfoliata; eastern United States; annual. Echium vulgare ; Europe; biennial; Eichhornia crassipes; South America; per- ennial. Polygonum omersum; eastern United States; perennial. Cenchrus echinatus; Tropics; annual. Sinapis alba; Europe; annual. Danthonia s p i c a t a : eastern United States; annual. Verbena urticifolia; eastern United States; perennial. Polygonum convolvu- lus; Europe; annual. Daucus carota; Old World; biennial. Cucurbita perennis; southwestern United States; per- ennial. New Jersey to Texas. Maryland t o Missouri. Nebraska to Louisiana and Texas. New England to Minnesota and south- ward. Maryland to Michigan. New England to New York. Wisconsin to Missouri. Washington to California. Ohio to Ten- nessee and California. Texas to Kan- sas. Pen nsylvania to Texas. Illinois to Kan- sas. K a n sa s to Texas. Michigan to Georgia. New York to North Caro- lina. Florida and Louisiana. New York to South Da- kota. Florida to Texas. New England to Ohio. Vermont to Tennessee. New Jersey to Wisconsin. Ohio to North Dakota. New England to Ohio and s o u t h w ard to Georgia. California t o New Mexico. July to Octo- ber. do July to Sep- tember. do June to Au- gust. May to July. July to Sep- tember. May to Octo- ber. July to Sep- tember. May to July.. July to Sep- tember. August to September. July to Sep- tember. May to July May to Octo- ber. July to Sep- tember. July to Octo- ber. May to Sep- tember. May to Au- gust. May to July- June to Au- gust. July to Sep- tember. April to July. September to December. August to November. August to October. August to November. July to Sei)- tember. June to Au- gust. August to September. June to No- vember. August to October. June to Au- gust. August to November. August to October. do June to Au- gust. June to No- vember. August to November. June to No- vember. June to Sep- tember. June to July. July to Sep- tember. do August to December. July to No- vember. TABLE OF TWO HUNDRED WEEDS. 609 weeds — Continued. Color, sizo, and arrangemeut of flowers. Method of propaga- tion and distri- bution. Place of growth and products injured. Methods of eradication. White; Sinches; solitary. White; J inch; cymes. Yellow; 2 inches; neads. Yellow; iinch; heads. White; 1 line; racemes. Yellow; iinch; solitary. Purple; U inches; heads. Yellow; linch; heads. White; 1 inch; head. Purple; 2 inches; heads. Green; i line; axillary clus- ters. Green; | line; Bpikos. Rose; i inch; spikes. Blue; i inch; spikes. Blue; i inch; thyrsus. Purple; }inch; racemes. Pink; 1 Line; spikes. Green; 1 line; in burs. Yellow; j inch; racemes. Gray; 1 line; spikeleta in panicles. White; 1 line; spikes. White; 1 lino; racemes. White; 1 line; umbels. Yellow; 3 Inches; soli- tary. Seeds do do Seeds; carried by animals. Perennial roots, seeds; in hay and clover seed. Rootstocks, seeds; in hay. Perennial roots, seeds; carried by winds. Seeds -do. Seeds; carried by winds. Seeds Seeds; weed blown as a tumbloweed. Seeds Seeds; in clover seed. Seeds Offshoots; floating in currents and blown by wind. Running rootstocks; seeds. Seeds; burs carried by animals. Seeds Seeds; in grass seed. Running rootstocks; seeds. Seeds; in grain seed. Seeds; carried Viy animals and wind. Waste land and neg- lected gardens; poisonous. Meadows and grain- fields. Broken land; all crops. Moist land; pas- tures, wool. Clay soil; meadows and hoed crops. Moist land; pas- tures and mead- ows. Meadows and pas- tures. Everywhere; viscid excretion injures everything com- ing in contact with it. Meadows and pas- tures. Cultivated land; all crops. Moist land; grain and hay. Broken prairie land ; all crops. Meadows and gi'ain, fields. Grainfields and thinly seeded meadows. Meadows and pas- tures. Slow-running wa- ter; obstructs drainingand navi- gation. Moist land; lowland pastures, mead- ows, and muck- land crops. Grantee groves and broken land ; wool. Meadows and grain- fields. Dry, hilly pastures and meadows. Moist meadows, pastures, and muck-land crojjs. Grain and corn fields; injures grain and ob- stru'-ts harvesting machinery. Meadows and pas- tures. Perennial roots; , Cultivated lands, seeds. Mowing or spudding in July. Mowing stubble; cultivation. Thorough cultivation; mowing or burning sunflowers along rivers. Cultivation; mowing. Plowing in July and August. Early mowing; repeated spud- ding; cultivation. Repeated spudding or mowing m often as heads form. Cultivation. Cultivation with hoed crops; burning mature plants; mow- ing as often as heads are formed. Thorough cultivation. Thorough cultivation until mid- summer with hoed crops. Late cultivation in hoed crops. Cultivation with hoed crops; pull- ing or mowing plants when first blossoms appear. Thorougli cultivation and in- creased fertilization. Cultivation; thick seeding; spud- ding in permanent pastures. Fishing plants out; prevention of spreading from gardens. Thorough cultivation in dry weather, and heavy seeding with lowland grasses. Thorough cultivation. Cultivation with hood crops; hand pulling. Increased fertilization; cultiva- tion; early mowing. Repeated mowing; cultlTatlon. Thorough cultivation with low- growing hoed crops. Cultivation: increased fertiliza- tion; hand pulling; repeated mowing while in blossem. Killing the roots with coal oil or strong brine. 610 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table of two hundred Comnion names. Technical name, origin, and duration. Where injuri- ous. Time of flow- ering. Time of seed- ing. Wild licorice. Wild oats . Wild onion, crow garlic, field garlic, wild gar- lic. Wild parsnip, queen weed Winged pigweed, eyclo- loma. sand-hill tumble- weed. Yard grass, dog's tail, crab grass, wire grass. Yellow bur weed, fire- weed, yellow tarweed. Yellow daisy, brown- eyed Susan, cone flow- er, niggerhead, ox-eye daisy. Yellow dog fennel, fen- nel. Yellow melilot, yellow sweet clover. Yerba mansa Glycyrrhiza lepidota; northwestern U. S.; perennial. Ai:ena fatua; Old World; annual. Allium viiiealc; Eu- rope; perennial. Pasfinaca sativa; Old World; biennial. Cyclolonia atriplici- tolia; prairie States; annual. Elcusine inclica; Trop- ics; annual. Amsinclcia intermedia; Pacific Coast; annual. Budbeckia hu-ta; cen- tral United States; biennial. Helenium tenuif o- lium; sovithern U. S; annual. Melilotus officinalis; Europe; annual. Anemopsis calif or- nica; southwestern U. S.; perennial. Minnesota to California. Wisconsin t o Utah. Pennsylva n i a to South Car- olina. New England to Ohio. Nebraska to Texas. New Jersey to Texas. California New England to Ohio. Georgia to Texas. Maryland to Michigan. California and Arizona. June to Au- gust. July to Au- gust. Juno to July. June to Sep- tember. July to Sep- tember. July to Octo- ber. May to July.. June to Au- gust. July to Octo- ber. June to Sep- tember. May to Sep- tember. August to November. July to Au- gust. do July to Octo- ber. August to December. Augtist to November. June to Au- gust. July to Sep- tember. August to November. July to Octo- ber. June to Oc- tober. IRRIGATION. A water right is the right or privilege of iTsing water for irrigating purposes, either in a definite quantity or upon a prescribed area of land, such right or privi- lege being customarily acquired either by priority of use or by purchase. In many parts of the arid region a water right is an exceedingly valuable property. The average value of the water rights of the entire arid region, as determined by the census of 1890, was $20 per acre, and there are fruit-growing districts in Cali- fornia where water rights have been sold at as high as $1,500 per miner "s inch, or from §100 to §500 per acre, according to the amount used on any given area of land. The duty of water is the extent of the service it ^vill perform when used for irrigating purposes; that is, the number of acres a given quantity of water will adequately irrigate under ordinary circumstances. This is usually from 100 to 200 acres for each second-foot. "Where water is abundant, the duty has been known to be as low as 50 acres, and, where very scarce, as high as 500 acres to the second- foot. A miner's inch is theoreticallj' such a quantity of water as will flow through an aperture 1 inch square in a board 2 inches thick under a head of water of 6 inches in one second of time, and it is equal to 0.19-1 gallon, or 0.0259337 cubic foot per second, or to 11.64 gallons, or 1.556024 cubic feet, per minute. The amount of water flowing through a given aperture in a given times varies, however, with the head of water over the opening and also with the fonn of the opening. In Colorado the miner "s inch legalized by statute equals 11.7 gallons per minute. The California miner's inch, however, equals only 9 gallons per minute, 100 Colorado inches being, accordingly, equal to 130 California inches. One hundred Colorado inches will cover an acre to a depth of 5.2 feet in twenty -four hours; 100 California inches will cover the same area only to a depth of 4 feet in the same time. Fifty California inches are, therefore, approximately equal to 1 second-foot, and 50 Colo- rado inches to about three-tenths more. An acre-foot of water is the amount required to cover an acre of ground to a depth of 1 foot. This is 43,560 cubic feet, or 325,851.4513 gallons. Its weight is 1,213 tons 2,113 pounds, at 2,240 pounds to the ton. The amount of water required to cover an acre of ground to a depth of 1 inch is 3,630 cubic feet, or 27,15-1.2876 gallons. Its weight is 101 tons 3621 pounds, at 2,240 pounds to the ton. IRRIGATION. 611 ivecds — Continued, Color, size, nnd arrangement of flowers. Method of propaga- tion and distri- bution. Place of growth and products injured. Methods of eradication. Bluish white; i inch; ra- cemes. Green; 1 lino; panicle. Wliitc; 1 line; umbel. Yellow; 1 line; umbel. Green; i inch; axillary. Green; } line; spikes. yellow; J inch; racemes. Yellow and brown; 1 inch; head. Yellow; iinch; head. Yellow; lline; racemes. • White; i inch; spike. Enuning rootstocks, seeds; burs car- ried by animals. Seeds; in seed oats.. Bulbs, offsets, bulb- lets; bulblcts car- ried like seeds in prain. Seeds Seeds; carried by wind as a tumble- weed. Seeds; in grass seed. Seeds; carried by animals. Seeds; in hay .do. Seeds; in hay and clover seed. Rootstocks, seeds,* Open prairie; burs very injurious in wool. Oat fields; awns in- jurious to stock. Everywhere; dairy products, grain. Meadows, pastures. Broken land; grain and hoed crops. Lawns, pastures, and meadows. Grainfiolds and vineyards. Meadows and pas- tUl'CS. Meadows, pastures, and graiuflelds. Clay soil; dry mead- ows and pastures. Moist land, culti- vated crops. Subsoiling in dry weather; per- sistent cultivation during three successive seasons. Pulling and burning before har- vesting oats; cultivation with hoed ci'ops. Alternate cultivation and heavy cropping; application of car- bolic acid Cultivation with hoed crops; fre- quent mowing. Thorough cultivation until mid- summer in hoed crops; burning mature plants. Spudding or hand pulling in lawns; cultivation; increased fertilization. Cultivation with hoed crops. Cultivation with hoed crops; hand pulling; repeated mow- ing. Cultivation, increased fertiliza- tion. Cultivation, increased fertiliza- tion; resecding meadows. Alternate cultivation and heavy cropping; drainage. A second-foot is the most satisfactory, bocanse the most definite, iinit of meas- urement for flowing water. It is used by the United States Government in the gauging of rivers and streams, and i.g rapidly superseding the miner's inch in the measurement of water for irrigation. It is the quantity represented by a stream 1 foot wide and 1 foot deep, flowing at the average rate of 1 foot per second. In other words, it is 1 cubic foot per second, (JO cubic feet per minute, 8,000 cubic feet per hour, and so on. A stream flowing continuously at the average rate of 1 second-foot would carry in one day of twenty-four hours 80,400 cubic feet, or 040,310.928 gallons, sufficient to covering acres to a depth of 1 foot. Flowing continuously for one year of three hundred and sixty-five days, such a stream would carry 31,5,10,000 cubic feet, or 235,905,078.72 gallons, sufficient to cover 723|lf acres to a depth of 1 foot. The subhumid region is the strip of country running north and south between the arid region, where irrigation is absolutely necessary to the successful prosecution of agriculture, and those portions of the United States in which the rainfall is usually sufficient for agriculttiral purposes. It includes portions of North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska. Kansas, and Texas, and may be described as a region where irrigation is not ahvays necessary, but where agricultural operations can not. with any assurance of success, be undertaken without it. The average value of the irrigated land in farms in the United States was ascer- tained by the census of 1890 to be $83.28 per acre, and that of the nonirrigated land in farms §20.95 jier acre. . The average annual value of the agricultiiral products of the irrigated land was ascertained to bo §14.89 per acre irrigated, and that of those of the nouii-rigated land §0.80 for each acre improved. The average first cost of the irrigated land, including purchase money, water rights, etc., was ascertained to have been §8.15 per acre, and the average annual cost of the water sup])ly §1.07 per acre. The total value of the irrigated farms of the United States, as reported by the fanners themselves, was, in round figures, §290,8,50.001), an increase of §219,300,000, or 283.08 per cent, upon their cost, including land, water rights, fences, and prepa- ration for cultivation. The total value of the productive irrigating systems was found to be §94,412,000, an increase of §04,801,000, or 218.84 per cent, upon their cost. 612 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE. <1 '8 CO S **• , ^'O*'- o « 5 ^' ■^ O r^ O i> ^ a S..S ,„• "^ a . m o ^ « 'S c ts a> a izi o c o "> t^ o fl 3 p. t»p-3 £1^ CO rt „ ?a^ p.-sg •320 O bcSuD .So© " g m «" o 23-3 t> n la g§ ^ ' ci r-H^sa a pt " 29 -ss-a S^ ?^ os ?i <* to >"2 MM *^M" S O f. >.© .So Sen o5 Pan 2a * p. fl to 1^ CI ? to "a 0'-" na-gp-. ^ j^^ ) m to d T7 » ^ r^ f* as ^g 02 -M 25 •S ** ■f" OS O C to o .■e !* 2 <*> "»8S.2ogfl5t^ ~ g CO a TS oj 2 '*' .Q a s" OS'S f =«3-S-2S.5o?5eS§3« .*f>.S ^ « £^^ p s.a ftSvOS h5 W t> >- W i-l ci i-l 00 fl s s ^ i I-l I-l r^l CO 3 S 3 ?J 3 3 S S o s •O . , o *" ^ ^ rf '^ *^ 2s< =^* ^^Sii -0.9 "o >^'^ ga^^g,a>.§^ -g >T- 3 C« o o ^ X >>p'r ^ 2,^- =3 arSmfl ^-C O jacsccsogWoBOHti; H > O! W W .« 0)^ o-n cs OS go a 'Br' c-2 « 31=!, O 5b a-" g s-S t, o w ° " O oii? O "- li (- 1' /.; ■^ ^ ^ ^ so ^3 .CO C £ C ra 3 o ^ •' ■J g.S-2^i3g".1 ggs ^ -2 R^ (Dai "Pi Oa „'cn ro a ;.:;: a O es o ; ^ -- 5; a .^ o .3- S .S Wlr CD rir-f „ §|2^l|>^^>>"^ii^ !Hoa=s»^doS n-i^a"" o a i; rs a i^'a^ « o a>-3 ,/ai'-'°aa^"Srt'^. •s* I: fe.-S 5; a t, g b o^ a-c g-^.S; g-^s g-g ^-^ £ >.^ 5 £ ^ &g5«2 g Sfa g^g g>£« a-a g So ^ a ?^ C5W O WccEhU C5 <; p o .2 -^ S O >"j,SrS 0^3 t>CT3--r g -2=2 Q o o.g« ^ aj o aiQi g >■ !>''3 — r— o-r a o ^ — " ^ os o a 3 3 3 ^ '^ ?5 i^ t~ CO ^ i.-; M 1- g g £ S s s s « 8 S 8 cS S s ^1 0 3 ;:!: CO 0 I- CJ ?; ^ « »0 0 ffi N "* M '* 2 2 s s s ^ S ?i 00 10 »:-■ CO -* -* o Q p in CO 00 >n o o t- g o I- irj « -^< 5 J? ?, ?? ?? S v« ".^.j \^^ ^— ' »— »;,■ uu r^ v^ i S s 3 e-i i-H ,-1 fcc •^ ft ej :. cj C ^ »; iS S ?5 5) t-. fe *** .■'^ o ~ J -Jo >H t> H 5 e ^ I S o £ c8-i ■»^ « S * _t/i c a 'r* 'O ?^ Jfcl .53 C 53 3 CQ O 614 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table sliowing weight and cost of the seed of four mixtures, each designed to cover an acre, upon the basis of 10,000,000 plants, compiled from Table 1. Number of seeds. Pounds. Cost ( Timothy A.^ Alsike. ( White clover. Total. fTimothy I Kentucky blue grass . B. \ Orchard grass I Alsike , I White clover Total. C. 'Timothy Kentucky blue grass Orchard grass Meadow foxtail Alsike -.- White clover Total. iRed clover Alsike Timothy ... Redtop Total - 6,700,000 1,650,000 1.050,000 10, 000, 000 5,000,000 1,000,000 7(X),000 1,6.50,000 1,650,000 10,000,000 4,000,000 1,200,000 1, fWO, 000 500,000 1,6.50,000 1,650,000 10,000,000 2,790,000 2,131,000 3,089,000 2,000,000 10,000,000 6.73 2.33 2.23 10.28 4.27 .41 1.21 2.33 2.23 10.45 3.42 .50 1.73 .55 2.33 2.23 10. 70 10 2.64 3.31 18.95 fO.57 .30 1.49 .43 .05 .19 .30 .63 .34 .06 .28 .15 .30 .63 1.75 1.40 .39 .28 .40 2.45 THE JMETRIC SYSTEM. The entire metric system of weights and measures is based upon a fundamental unit called a meter, which is the ten-miilionth part of the distance from the equator to the pole, and is the principal unit of linear measure. The are, or unit of square measure, is a square whose side is 10 meters. The stere, or unit of cubic measure, is a cube whose edge is a meter. The liter, or unit of all measures of capacity, is a cube whose edge is the tenth of a meter. The gram, or unit of weight, is the weight of a cube of pure water at its greatest density, the edge of which is the hundredth part of a meter. Elements of the system. Length. Surface. Capacity. Weight. Notation. Metric ton. 1,000,000 Quintal. 100,000 Myriamcter. Kilometer. Mvriagram. 10,000 Kiloliter. Kilogram. 1,000 Hectometer. Hectare. Hectoliter, Hectogram. 100 Decameter. Decaro. Decaliter. Decagram. 10 Meter. Are. Liter, Gram. 1 Decimeter. Deciliter. Decigram. 0.1 Centimeter. Centiare. Centiliter. Centigram. 0.01 Millimeter. Milliliter. Milligi-am. 0.001 The metric system has been made compulsory in France, Germany, Austria- Hungary, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Noi-way, Sweden, Switzerland, Servia, Roumania, Mexico, Brazil, Peru, Veneziiela, and Argentina. In Great Britain, Japan, and the United States the system is legalized, but its use is not compulsory. Russia and Denmark stand alone in not having taken any action, but even these countries are contributors to the International Bureau of Weights and Measures. In all the different countries in which this system has been adopted the change from the systems previously in use was made without the slightest difficulty, but it is hardly necessary to point out that unless the metric system had been distin- THE METRIC SYSTEM. 615 giiishcd by great .simplicity it would not have commended itself to so large a num- ber of the nations of the world, with all their various peculiarities aud preju- dices. Its superior character, both as regards simplicity and scientific precision, was recognized in the United States at an early day, and as long ago as 186G Con- gress legalized the system in this country and authorized the Secretary of the Treasury to distribute to each State of the Union a set of metric standards of weights and measures, which was done. It has since authorized on different occasions the participation of the United States Government in the various oper- ations that have Ijeen advocated by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures. Our present system has for its sole recommendation that it has been in common use for many years. It is irrational in theory and irksome in practice, and is almost entirely without authorization in the history of Congressional legislation. Linear, or long, measure. Meters. Inches. Feet. Yards. Milos. Millimotf^r 0.001 .01 .1 1 10 100 1.000 10,000 0.03937 .3937 3. 937 >39.37 0.00338 .oaaw .a:808 3.3«083 3:i.S0833 328.0S33 3,280.833 0.00109 .01093 .10936 1.0936U 10.93611 109.3611 1,093.611 Centimeter 0 00008 .(KX)63 00621 .06213 .62137 6 2137 >39.3" inches is tho legalized equivalent of the meter in the United State.«. The exact equiva lent is 39.37079 inches. Square measure. Square meters. Square inches. Square feet. Square yards. Acres. 0.1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 155 1,550 1.0764 10.764 107.64 1,076.4 0.1196 1.196 11.96 119.6 1,196 CeiitiaTe, or sqnarf' mpt'^r 0. 0034 .0;?47 .2471 2.471 A square contimeter equals 0. 155 square inches, a sqiiare docimotor 13. 5 square inches square kilometer 0. 333 square miles. Cubic measure. and a Millistere, or cubic decimeter Centistere Decistere Stero, or cubic meter Decast^^re Hectostere Cubic meters. 0.001 .01 .1 1 10 100 Cubic inches. 61.023 CIO. 23 Cubic feet. 0.035314 .35314 3. 5314 35.314 353.14 Cubic yards. 0.013(« .1308 1.308 13. 08 130.8 Measuix of capacity. Liters. Fluid ounces. Quarts. Gallons. Bushels. 0.001 .01 .1 1 10 100 1,(K)0 10,000 0.0338 .338 3.38 33.8 338 0.00106 .01057 . 10fi«7 1.0567 10.567 105.67 0.00364 .(RM43 . 2tU17 2.tH17 26.417 264.17 2,641.7 Deciliter 0. 0(t»38 Liter, or cubic decimeter .02s;J77 Decaliter .. .. .2*;774 2. 8;5774 Kilolitor .... 28. 3774 Myrialiter 283.774 A liter is the weight of a kilogram of water at its maximum density. 616 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Weight. Grams. Grains. Ounces | Pounds avoirdupois, avoirdupois. Tons of 2,240 pounds. Milligram Centigram Decigram Gram Decagram Hectogram Kilogram Myriagram Quintal Millier, or tonne 0.001 .01 .1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 0. 01543 .15432 1.54324 15. 432::^ 154.32&5(5 1,543.2:352 22.0462 220.462 2,204.62 0.000984 .009842 .09842 9843 NOTES REGARDING DEPARTMENT PUBLICATIONS. The publications of the U. S. Department of Agriculture are of three classes : (1) Serial publications, (2) scientific and technical reports, and (3) popular bulle- tins. The first two classes are issued m limited editions and are distributed free only to persons cooperating with or rendering the Department some service. Sam- ple copies will be sent if requested, but miscellaneous applicants to receive the same regularly or for occasional copies must apply to the Superintendent of Docu- ments, Union Building, Washington, D. C, to whom all publications not needed for official use, except circulars and bulletins printed by law for free distribution, are turned over in accordance with the following provision of the act providing for the public printing and binding and distribtition of public documents, viz : "Sec. 67. All documents at present remaining in charge of the several Execu- tive Departments, bureaus, and offices of the Government not required for official use shall be delivered to the Superintendent of Documents, and hereafter all pub- lic documents accumulatmg in said Departments, bureaus, and offices not needed for official use shall be annually turned over to the Superintendent of Documents for distribution or sale." _ The popular circulars £ind bulletins treat in a practical way of subjects of par- ticular interest to farmers, are issued in large editions, and are for free distribu- tion. Under this class are included the Farmers' Bulletins, of which the follow- ing are available, and for which applications should be addressed to the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, stating both the number and title of the pub- lication desired : No. 3. The Culture of the Sugar Beet ; No. 6. Tobacco: Instructions for its Cul- tivation and Curing; No. 11. The Rape Plant: Its History, Culture, and Uses; No. 14. Fertilizers for Cotton; No. 15. Some Destructive Potato Diseases: What They Are and How to Prevent Them; No. 16. Leguminous Plants fur Green Ma- nuring and for Feeding; No. 17. Peach Yellows and Peach Rosette; No. 18. Forage Plants for the South; No. 19. Important Insecticides: Directions for their Prepa- ration and Use; No. 20. Washed Soils: How to Prevent and Reclaim Them; No. 21. Barnyard Manure; No. 22. Feeding Farm Animals; No. 23. Foods: Nutritive Value and Cost; No. 24. Hog Cholera and Swine Plague; No. 25. Peanuts: Cul- ture and Uses; No. 26. Sweet Potatoes: Culture and Uses; No. 27. Flax for Seed and Fiber; No. 28. Weeds, and How to Kill Them; No. 29. Souring of Milk and Other Changes in Milk Products; No. 30. Grape Diseases on the Pacific Coast; No. 31. Alfalfa, or Lucern; No. 32. Silos and Silage; No. 33. Peach Growing for Market; No. 34. Meats: Composition and Cooking; No. 35. Potato Culture; No. 3(5. Cotton Seed and Its Products; No. 37. Kafir Corn: Characteristics, Culture, and Uses; No. 38. Sprajdng for Fruit Diseases; No. 39. Onion Culture; No. 40. Farm Drainage. The Department has no list to whom all publications are sent. The Monthly List of Publications, issued the 1st of each month, will be mailed to all who apply for it. In it tlie titles of the publications are given, with a note explanatory of the chai-acter of each, thus enabling the reader to make intelligent application for such bulletins and reports as are certain to be of interest to him. For the maps and bulletins of the Weather Bureau, requests and remittances should be directed to the Chief of that Bureau. For all publications to which a price is affixed, application must be made to the Superintendent of Documents, Union Building, Washington, D. C, accompanied by the price thereof, and all remittances should be made to him and not to the Department of Agrictilture, and such remittances should be made by postal money order and not by private check or postage .stami^s. The Superintendent of Documents is not permitted to sell more than one copy of any public document to the same person. PUBLICATIONS OF THE YEAR. 617 PUBLICATIONS OF THE YEAR. The following publications were issued by the U. S. Department of Agriculture during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1895: OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY. Copies. Suggestions Regarding the Cooking of Food. By Edward Atkinson. With Introductory Statements Regarding the Nutritive Value of Com- mon Food Materials. By Mrs. Ellen H. Richards. Pp. 31, figs. 3. August, 1894. 10,000 Special Report of the Assistant Secretary of Agriculture for 1893. By Edwin Willits. Pp. iv, 53-86. (From the Annual Report of the Sec- retary of Agriculture. ) August, 1894 100 Report of the Secretary of Agriculture for 1893. Pp. 608, pis. 29, figs. 7. October, 1894 500,000 Report of the Secretary of Agriculture for 1894. Preliminary. Pp. 75, fig. 1. November, 1894. (Including reprint. ) 20, 000 Washed Soils: How to Prevent and Reclaim Them. Pp. 23, figs. 6. Farmers' Bulletin, No. 20. November, 1894. (Including reprint. ) 68, 000 Supplement to the General Index of the Agricultural reports for the Years 1877 to 1885, Inclusive. Pp.113. March, 1895. (Reprint.) 200 A General Index to the Agricultural Reports of the Patent Office for Twenty-five Years, from 1837 to 1876. Pp.225. April, 1895. (Reprint.). 200 The Worlds Markets for American Products. — Great Britain and Ireland. Pp. 93, fig. 1. Bulletin No. 1, Section of Foreign Markets. May, 1895_ 10, 000 Report of the Secretary of Agriculture; being part of the Messages and Documents Communicated to the Two Houses of Congress at the Begin- ning of the Tliird Session of the Fifty-third Congress. Pp. 220, figs. 2. May. 1885 . 3, 000 Peaches and Other Fruits in England. Pp. 4. Circular No. 1, Section of Foreign Markets. June, 1895 10,000 The World's Markets for American Products. — The German Empire. Pp. 91,pl. 1. Bulletin No. 2, Section of Foreign Markets. June, 1895 10,000 Report of the Special Agent for the Purchase of Seeds for 1894. By Enos 5. Harnden. Pp. iii, 211-213. (From the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture.) March, 1895. 500 DIVISION OF ACCOUNTS AND DISBURSING OFFICE. Report of the Chief of the Division of Accounts and Disbursements for 1893. By F. L Evans. Pp. iii, 411-415. (From the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture. ) August, 1894 100 Report of the Chief of the Division of Accounts and Disbursements for 1894. By F. L. Evans. Pp. iii, 189-194. (From the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture. ) March, 1895 500 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. Additional Investigations Concerning Infectious Swine Diseases. By Theobald Smith, Ph. B., M. D., and Veranus A. Moore, B, S., M. D. Pp.117. Bulletin No. 6. July, 1894 3,000 Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry for 1893. By D. E. Salmon. Pp. iii, 123-168. (From the Report of the Secretary of Agriculture.) August, 1894 100 Wheat as a Food for Growing and Fattening Animals. By D. E. Sal- mon, D. v. M. Pp. 4. Circular of Information No. 2. August, 1894. ( Including reprints. ) 25, 000 Investigations Concerning Bovine Tuberculosis, with Special Reference to Diagnosis and Prevention. Conducted under the direction of Dr. D. E. Salmon, Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry. Pp. 178, pis. 6. October, 1894 5,000 618 YEARBOOK OB^ THE U. S. DEPAETilENT QF AGRICULTURE. Copies, Hog Cholera and Swine Plague. By D. E. Salmon, D. V. M., Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry. Pp. 16. Farmers' Bulletin No. 24. December, 1894. (Including reprints. ) 90, 000 Regulations for the Inspection of Live Stock and their Products. Pp. 8. Circular. June, 1895 3, 000 DIVISION OF BOTANY. Report of the Botanist for 1893. By Frederick V. Coville. Pp. iii, 235- 244. (From the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture.) August, 1894 2,100 Nut Grass. Pp. 4. fig. 1. Circular No. 2. October, 1894 5, 000 The Russian Thistle. Pp. 8, figs. 3. Circular No. 3. January, 1895... 10,000 Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, Vol. I, No. 9. Report on a collection of plants made in the States of Sonora and Colima, Mexico, by Dr. Edward Palmer, in the years 1890 and 1891. By J. N. Rose, Assistant Botanist. Pp. v, 293-434, viii, frontispiece, pis. 24-35, figs. 10. January, 1895 2, 500 American Ginseng: Its Commercial History, Protection, and Cultiva- tion. Pp. 22, figs. 2. By George V. Nash. Bulletin No. 10. Febru- ary, 1895 3,000 The Flat Pea. Pp. 7, figs. 2. Circular No. 4. March, 1895 3, 000 Giant li^notweed, or Sachaliue. Pp. 4, figs. 3. Circular No. 5. March, 1895. 3,000 Weeds; and How to Kill Them. Lyster H. Dewey, Assistant Botanist. Pp. 31, figs. 11. Farmers' Bulletin No. 28. May, 1895 20, 000 Report of the Botanist for 1894. By Frederick V. Coville. Pp. iii, 161- 166. (From the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture.) . May, 1895 500 GARDENS AND GROUNDS. Papers on Horticultural and Kindred Subjects. By William Saunders, Horticulturist and Landscape Gardener, Superintendent of Gardens and Grounds. Pp.124. November, 1894. (Reprint.) 5,000 OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS. Forage Plants for the South. By S. M. Tracy, M. S., Director of the Mis- sissippi Agricultural Experiment Station. Pp. 30, figs. 17. Farmers' Bulletin No. 18. August, 1894. (Including reprint. ) 70, 000 Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Convention of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, held at Chi- cago, 111., October 17-19, 1893. Pp.100. Bulletin No. 20. August, 1894. 4,000 Report of the Director of the Office of Experiment Stations for 1893. By A. C. True. Pp. iv, 417-464. (From the Annual Report of the Secre- tary of Agriculture. ) August, 1894 1, 100 Handbook of Experiment Station Work. A Popular Digest of the Pub- lications of the Agricultural Experiment Stations in the United States. Prepared by the Office of Experiment Stations. Pp. 411. Bulletin No. 15. November, 1894. (Reprint.) 3,000 Barnyard Manure. By W. H. Beal, of the Office of Experiment Stations. Pp. 32, figs. 7. Farmers' Bulletin No. 21. November, 1894. (Includ- ing reprints.) 165, 000 Milk Fermentations and Their Relations to Dairying. Prepared in the Office of Experiment Stations from Bulletin No. 9. Pp. 24. Farmers' Bulletin No. 29. January, 1895. (Including reprints.) _ 35,000 Foods : Nutritive Value and Cost. By W. O. Atwater, Ph. D. , Professor I of Chemistry in Wesleyan University. Pp. 32, charts 2. Farmers' Bulletin No. 23. January, 1895. (Including rcpiint.) 65,000 Tobacco: Instructions for its Cultivation and Curing. By John M. Estes, Special Agent. Pp. 8. Farmers' Bulletin No. 6. February, 1895. (Including reprints.) _ 53,000 The Feeding of Farm Animals. By E. W. Allen, Ph. D., Assistant Director of the Office of Experiment Stations. Pp. 32. Farmers' Bul- letin No. 22. February, 1895. (Including reprints. ) 150, 000 Peanuts : Culture and Uses. By R. B. Handy, of the Office of Experi- ment Stations. Pp. 24, fig. 1. Farmers' Bulletin No. 25. February, 1895. (Including reprints.) 40,000 PUBLICATIONS OF THE Y£AR. 619 Copies. Fertilizers for Cotton. By J. M. McBrj-de, Ph. D. , President of Virginia Agi-iciiltural and Mechanical College and Director of Virginia Agri- cultural Experiment Station. Pp. 31. Farmers' Bulletin No. 14. Feb- ruary, 1895. (Including reprints. ) 25, 000 A Compilation of Analyses of American Feeding Stuffs. By E. H. Jenkins, Ph. D., and A. L. Winton, Ph. B. Pp. 155. Bulletin No. 11, February, 1895. (Reprint.) .. 1,000 Leguminous Plants for Green Manuring and for Feeding. By E. W. Allen. Pli. D., Assistant Director of the Office of Experiment Stations. Pp.24. Farmers' Bulletin.No. 16. March, 1895, (Including reprints.) 55,000 The Rape Plant : Its History, Culture, and Uses. By Thomas Shaw, Professor of Agriculture in the Ontario Agricultural College, Pp. 20, figs. 4. Farmers' BulletinNo.il. March, 1895. (Including reprints.). 15,000 Sweet Potatoes : Cultiire and Uses, By J. F. Duggar, of the Office of Experiment Stations. Pp.30, figs. 4. Farmers' Bulletin No. 26. March, 1895. (Including reprints.)... 58,000 Report of the Director of the Office of Experiment Stations for 1894. By A. C. True. Pp. iii, 123-131. (From the Annual Report of the Secre- tary of Agricultiu-e.) April,1895 1,000 Organization Lists of the Agi'icultural Experiment Stations and Institu- tions with Courses in Agricvdture in the United States. Pp. 88. Bul- letinNo.23. May,lS95 3,000 Methods and Results of Investigations on the Chemistry and Economy of Food. By W. O. Atwater, Ph. D., Professor of Chemistry in Wesleyan University, Director of the Storrs (Conn.) Agricultural Esiperiment Station, and Special Agent of the United States Department of A.gri- culture. Pp. 222, figs. 15, charts 8. Bulletin No. 21. May, 1895 3,000 Statistics of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, 1894, Pp. 18. Circular No. 27. June, 1895 5,000 Experiment Station Record. (A condensed record of the contents of the bulletins and reports issued by the Agricultural Experiment Stations of the United States, and also a brief review of agricultural science of the world.) Vol. V, No. 6. Pp. viii, 547-666. June, 1895. (Reprint. ) 500 Vol. V, No. 7. Pp. vi, 667-744, July, 1894. (Reprint. ) 1, 000 Reprint, May, 1895 500 Vol. V, No. 11, Pp. V, 395-444, July, 1894. 8,000 Reprint, May, 1895 500 Vol.VI.No.l. Pp.vi,88. September, 1894 8,000 Vol. VI, No. 2. Pp. vi, 89-174, November, 1894. 8,000 Vol. VI, No. 3. Pp. V, 175-254. December, 1894 8,000 Vol. VI, No. 4. Pp. vi, 255-348. February, 1895 8,000 Vol. VI, No. 5. Pp. viii, 349-488. March, 1895 8.000 Vol. VI. No. 6. Pp. vii, 489-584. April, 1895. 8,000 Vol. VI, No. 7. Pp. vi, 585-678, figs. 3. May, 1895 8,000 Vol.VI,No.8. Pp. V, 679-758. May, 1895 8,000 Vol.VI,No.9. Pp. vi, 759-850. June,1805 8,000 Vol.VI,No.lO, Pp. vi, 851-944. June,1895 8,000 DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY. Tlie ^Manufacture of Sorghum Sirup. Pp. 3. Circular No. 1. Jnly. 1894. 10, 000 Report of the Chemist for 1893. By H. VT. Wilej'. Pp. iv, 169-198. (From the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture.) August, 1894... 100 Report on the Extent and Character of Food and Drug Adulteration. By Alex. J. Wedderbum, Special Agent. Published by order of Congress. Pp.64. Bulletin No. 41. October. 1894 2,500 A Compilation of the Pharmacy and Drug Laws of the Several State."? and Territories. By Alex. J. Wedderburn, Special Agent. Published by order of Congress. Pp.152. Bulletin No. 42. November, 1894.. _ 2,500 Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Convention of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, held at Washington, D. C, August 25, 24, and 25, 1804. Edited by Harvey W. Wiley, Secretary of the Asso- ciation. Pp. 403. Bulletin No. 43. December, 1894 3, 500 Experiments with Sugar Beets in 1892. By Harvey W. Wiley, Chief Cliemist of tlio United States Department of Agricxilturo and Director of the Dei>artment Sugar Experiment Stations at Schuyler, Nebraska; 620 YEARBOOK OP THE U. S. DEPAETMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Copies. Runnymede (Narcoossee P. O.), Florida, and Sterling and Medicine Lodge, Kansas. With the collaboration of Dr. Walter Maxwell, Assist- ant in charge of the Schuyler Station. Pp. 74. Bulletin No. 36. De- cember, 1894. (Reprint. ) 500 Experiments with Sugar Beets in 1890. By Harvey W. Wiley, Chief Chemist of the United States Department of Agriculture and Director of the Department Sugar Stations at Schuyler, Nebraska; Rimnj-mede (Narcoossee P. O.), Florida, and Sterling and Medicine Lodge, Kansas. Pp. 9.3. Bulletin No. 30. December, 1894. (Reprint.) 500 I*roceedings of the Ninth Annual Convention of the Association of Offi- cial Agricultural Chemists, held at the National Museum, Washington, D. C. , August 25, 26, and 27, 1892. Edited by Harvey W. Wiley, Secre; tary of the Association. Pp. v, 243, xvii. Bulletin No. 35. December,' 1894. (Reprint.) 500 Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Convention of the Association of Offi- cial Agricultural Chemists, held at the United States National Museum, August 28, 29, and 30, 1890. Methods of Analysis of Commercial Ferti- lizers, Foods and Feeding Stuffs, Dairy Products, Fermented Liquors and Sugars. Edited by Harvey W. Wiley, Secretary of the Associatioa. Pp. 238, figs. 21. Bulletin No. 28. December, 1894. (Reprint.) 600 Experiments with Sugar Beets in 1893. By Harvey W. Wiley, Chemist of the United States Department of Agriculture and Director of the Department Sugar Experiment Stations at Schuyler, Nebraska; Runny- mede (Narcoossee P. O. ) , Florida, and Sterling and Medicine Lodge, Kansas. With the collaboration of Dr. Walter Maxwell, Assistant in charge of the Schuyler Station. Pp. 59. Bulletin No. 39. December, 1894, (Reprint.) 500 Foods and Food Adulterants. Fermented Alcoholic Beverages, Malt Liquors, Wines, and Cider. By C. A. Crampton, Assistant Chemist. Pp. 261-399, figs. 2. Bulletin No. 13, Part HL December, 1894. (Reprint.). 500 Sweet Cassava: Its Culture, Properties, and Uses. By Harvey W. Wiley, Chemist of the United States Department of Agriculture. Pp. 16, pis. 3, fig.l. Bulletin No. 44. January, 1895 5,000 The Sugar Beet Industry. Culture of the Sugar Beet and Manufacture of Beet Sugar. By H. W. Wiley, Chemist. Pp. 262, pis. 11, figs. 49. Bulletin No. 27, January, 1895. (Reprint.) 500 Nostrums for Increasing the Yield of Butter. By Harvey W. Wiley, Chemist of the United States Department of Agriculture. Pp. 16. Farmers' Bulletin No. 12. January, 1895. (Including reprints.) 27,000 Record of Experiments with Sorghum in 1892. By Harvey W. Wiley, Chemist of the United States Department of Agriculture and Director of the Department Sugar Experiment Stations at Schuyler, Nebraslia; Runnymede (Narcoossee P.O.), Florida, and Sterling and Medicine Lodge, Kansas. With the collaboration of Messrs. A. A. Denton, Glen. O'Brien, C. I. Hinman, Wibray J. Thompson, J. L. Fuelling, and Oma Carr. Pp.100. Bulletin No. 37, February, 1895. (Reprint.) 500 Foods and Food Adulterants. Spices and Condiments. By Clifford Rich- ardson. Pp. ii, 129-259, pis. 13-28, figs. 5-13. BuUetin No. 13, Part II. February, 1895. (Reprint.) 500 Chilture of the Sugar Beet. By H. W. Wiley, Chemist of the Department of Agriculttire and Director of the Department Sugar Experiment Station in Nebraska. Pp. 24, figs. 9. Farmers' Bulletin No. 3. April, 1895. (Reprint.) 15,000 DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY, The Army Worm (Leucania unipuncta How. ) Pp. 5, figs. 3. Circular No. 4, second series. July, 1894 5, 000 Important Insecticides: Directions for Their Preparation and Use. By C. L. Marlatt, First Assistant Entomologist. Pp. 20. Farmers' Bulle- tin No. 19. July, 1894. (Including reprints.) 50,000 Reports of Observations and Experiments in the Practical Work of the Division Made under the Direction of the Entomologist, Pp, 59, Bul- letin No. 32. August, 1894 2,500 Report of the Entomologist for 1893. By C. V. Riley. Pp. iii, 199-226, ii, pis. 4. (From the Report of the Secretary of Agriculture.) Sep- tember, 1894 100 PUBLICATIONS OF THE VEAR^' aOOdii 621 Copies. Insect Life. (Devoted to the economy and life habits of insects, espe- ciallj' in their relation to agi-icultm-e, and edited by the Entomologist and his assistants. ) Vol. I, No. 1. Pp. 33, figs. 4. January, 1895. (Reprint.) 2.")0 Vol. I, No. 2. Pp. ii, 33-62, figs. 5-9. February, 1895. (Reprint.) 250 Vol.I.No.3. Pp. ii, 63-92, figs. 10-11. February, 1895. (Reprint.). 200 Vol. II, No. 3. Pp. ii, 61-90, tigs. 7-10. February, 1895. (Reprint.).. 200 Vol. II, No. 5. Pp. ii, 125-162. figs. 19-27. February. 1895. (Reprint.) 200 Vol.II,Nos.7-8. Pp. ii, 199-262, figs. 36-56. February, 1895. (Re- print.) -- - 250 Vol. III. No. 1. Pp. ii, 41, viii, 891-418, figs. 3. February, 1895. (Reprint. ) 250 Vol. Ill, No. 2. Pp. ii, 43-87, figs. 4, 5. February, 1895. (Reprint.).. 250 Vol. Ill, No. 3. Pp. ii, 89-129, figs. 6-19. February, 1895. (Reprint.). 250 Vol. III. No. 4. Pp. ii. 131-178, figs, 20, 21. February, 1895. (Re- print. ) 250 Vol. Ill, No. 5. Pp. ii, 179-250. February, 1895. (Reprint.) 250 Vol. Ill, No. 6. Pp. ii, 251-304, figs. 22-26. February, 1895. (Re- print. ) 250 Vol.III,Nos. 7-8. Pu. ii, 305-357, figs. 27-29. February, 1895. (Reprint. ) 250 Vol. Ill, Nos. 9-10. Pp. ii, 359-432, figs. 30. February, 1895. (Re- print. ) 250 Vol. IV, Nos. 1-2. Pp.iv,86,fig.l. March, 1895. (Reprint.) 250 Vol. IV, Nos. 3 4. Pp. iv, 87-162, figs. 2-12. March, 1895. (Reprint.). 250 Vol. IV, Nos. 5-6. Pp. iii, 163-230, figs. 13-26. March, 1895. (Reprint.) 250 Vol. IV, Nos. 7-8. Pp. ii, 231-592, figs. 27-39. March, 1895. (Reprint.) 2.50 Vol. IV. Nos. 9-10. Pp. iii, 293-353, figs. 40-56. March, 1895. ( Reprint. ) . . : 250 Vol. IV, Nos. 11-1^. Pp. iii, 353-441, viii, figs. 57-76. March, 1895. (Reprint. ) 250 Vol. VI. No. 5. Pp. iii, 347-405, vii, figs. 23-31. September, 1894 5,5U0 Vol. VII. No. 1. Pp. iii, 54, figs. 17. October, 1894 5,500 Vol. VII. No. 2. Pp. iii, 55-315, figs. 18. November, 1894 5,500 Vol. VII, No. 3. Pp. iii, 216-280, figs. 19-28. January, 1895 5,500 Vol . VII, No. 4. Pp. iii, 281-360, figs. 39-36. March, 1895 5, 500 The Carpet Beetle, or "Buffalo Moth " (Anthrenus serophidarlce). Pp. 4, fig. 1. Circular No. 5, second series. October, 1894 4,000 Legislation Against Injurious Insects: A Compilation of the Laws and Regulations in the United States and British Columbia. By L. O. How- ard. Entomologist. Pp.46. Bulletin No. 33. March, 1895 1,000 Report on the Mexican Cotton-Boll Weevil in Texas {Anthonomiis grandis Boh.). By C. H. Tyler Townsend, Temporary Field Agent. Pp. 295-309, from Insect Life, Vol. VII, No. 4. March, 1895 2, 000 The Mexican Cotton-Boll Weevil. Pp. 5. Circular No. 0, second series. April, 1895 f... .•... 10,000 The Pear-Tree Psylla {PnyUa 2}yricola Foerst.). Pp. 8, figs. 6. Circular No. 7, second series. May, 1895 5, 000 Bibliograpliy of the More Important Contributions to American Eco- nomic Entomology. By Samxtel Henshaw. Part IV, The More Im* portant Writings of Government and State Entomologists, and of Other Contributors to the Literature of American Economic Entomology. A-K. Pp. 167, May, 1895 1, 000 Further Notes on the San Jose Scale. By L. O. Howard, Entomologist. Pp. 283-295, from Insect Life, Vol. VII, No. 4. May, 1895 1, 000 Cankerworms. Pp. 4, figs. 4. Circular No. 9, second series. May, 1895. 5. 000 The Harlefiuin Cabbage Bug, or Calico Back {Mavgantia histrionica Hahn.). P. 1, Circular No. 10, second series. May, 1895 5,000 The Imported Elm Leaf-Beetle. Pp. 4, fig. 1. Circular No. 8, second series. June, 1895 5,000 The Rose Chafer. Pp. 4, fig. 1. Circular No. 11, second series. June, 1895 5,000 DIVISION OF FORESTKY. Report of the Chief of the Division of Forestry for 1893. By B. E. Fer- now. Pp. iii, 303-364, i)Is. 3, figs. 4. (From the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture. ) October, 1894 10, 100 622 YEAEBOOK OJ Tfli: U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Copiae. Report on the Use of Metal Railroad Ties and on Preservative Processes and Metal Tie Plates for Wooden Ties. By E. E, Russell Tratman, A. M. Am. Soc. C. E. [Supplementary to Report on the Substitution of Metal for Wood in Railroad Ties, 1890.] Prepared under the direc- tion of B. E. Fernow, Chief of the Division. Pp. 363, pis. 5. Bulletin No. 9. May,1895 8,000 OFFICE OF FIBER INVESTIGATIONS. A Report on the Uncultivated Bast Fibers of the United States, including the History of Previous Experiments with the Plants or Fibers, and Brief Statements Relating to the Allied Species that are Produced Commercially in the Old World. By Charles Richards Dodge, Special Agent. Pp. 54, pis. 5. Report No. 6, July, 189-i 6, 000 Annual Report upon Fiber Investigations for 1893. By Charles Richards Dodge, Special Agent. Pp. iii, 537-584, fig. l,pl. 1. (From the Report of the Secretary of Agriciilture. ) August, 1894 100 Flax for Seed and Fiber in the United States. By Charles Richards Dodge. Special Agent for Fiber Investigations. Pp. 16. Farmers' Bul- letin No. 27. March, 1895. (Including reprints. ) - 25, 000 LIBRARY. Library Bulletin No. 2. Pp.8. July,'l894 750 Library Bulletin No. 3. Pp. 11. September, 1894 _ 750 Library Bulletin No. 4. Pp. 9. January, 1895 750 Library Bulletin No. 5. Pp, 7. February, 1895 750 Library Bulletin No. 6. Pp, 12. May, 1895 750 DIVISION OF MICROSCOPY. Report of the Chief of the Division of Microscopy for 1893. 'By Thomas Taylor, M. D. Pp. iii, 297-302, pis. 7. (From the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture. ) October, 1894 '. 5, 100 DIVISION OF ORNITHOLOGY AND MAMMALOGY. Report of the Ornithologist and Mammalogist for 1893. By C. Hart Mer- riam. Pp. iii, 227-234, pi. 1. (From the Annual Report of the Secre- tary of Agriculture. ) October, 1894 600 North American Fauna No. 8. Monogi-aphic Revision of the Pocket Gophers, Family Oeoonyidce (exclusive of the species Thomomys). By Dr. C. Hart Merriam. Pp. 258, frontispiece, pis. 19, maps 4, figs. 71. - January, 1895 5,000 The Pocket Gophers of the United States. Prepared under the direction of Dr. C. Hart Merriam, Chief of Division, by Vernon Bailey, Chief Field Agent. Pp. 47, frontispiece, figs. 6, map 1. Bulletin No. 5. May, 1895 5,000 DIVISION OF POMOLOGY. Report oi the Assistant Pomologist for 1893. By W. A. Taylor. Pp. iii, 2T7-296. (From the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture.) September, 1894 10,200 DIVISION OF RECORDS AND EDITING. Report of the Chief of the Division of Records and Editing for 1893. By Geo. Wm. Hill, Pp. iii, 395-408. (From the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture. ) AugTist, 1894 200 Report of the Chief of the Division of Records and Editing for 1894. By Geo. Wm. Hill. Pp. iii, 171-184. (From the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture.) March, 1895. (Including reprint.) 1,300 OFFICE OF ROAD INQUIRY. Infonnation Regarding Roads and Road-making Materials in Certain Eastern and Southern States. (Furnished by oflBcials of the various railway companies.) Pp. 29, maps 5. Bulletin No. 7. July, 1894 5,000 PUBLICATIONS OF THE YEAB,' HOOU; 623 C'opiea. Stalo Aid to Road Building in New Jersey. By Edward Burrongh, Chair- man of the New Jersey State Board of Agriculture, and State Com- missioner of Public Roads. Pp. 20, frontispiece. Bulletin No. 9. July, 1894. (Including reprint.) 10,000 Report of the Special Agent and Engineer for Road Inquiry for 1893. Bjr Roy Stone. Pp. iii, 580-593. (From Report of the Secretary of Agri- culture.) August, 1894 - 100 State Laws Relating to the Management of Roads, enacted in 1888-1893. Compiled bv Rov Stone, Special Agent in Charge of Road Inquiry. Pp. 95. Bulletin No. 1 . November, 1894. (Reprint. ) 5, 000 Improvement of the Road System of Georgia. By O. H. Sheffield, C. E., University of Georgia. Pp. 31, figa. 6. Bulletin No. 3. November, 1894. (Reprint.) - 5,000 Addrossos on Road Improvement. Pp. 15. Cii-cular No. 14. November, 1894 - 10,000 Proceedings of the National Road Conference, held at the Westminster Church, Asbury Park, N. J. , July 5 and 6, 1894. Pp. 63, figs. 3. BuUe- tin No. 10. December, 1894. (Including reprint. ) _ 10, 000 An Act for the Construction of Roads by Local Assessment, County, and Stnte Aid. Pp.3. Cii-cular No. 15. December, 1894. 10,000 Highway Taxation: Comparative Results of Labor and Money Systems, Pp. 5. Circular No. 16. December, 1894 10,000 Proceedings of the Virginia Good Roads Convention, held in Richmond, Va.. October IS, 1894. Pp. 62, fig. 1. Bulletin No. 11, February, 1895. (Including reprint.) 10,000 Wide Tires. Laws of Certain States Relating to Their Use, and Other Pertinent Information. Compiled by Roy Stone, Special Agent in Charge of Road Inquiry. Pp. 16. Bulletin No. 12. April, 1895. (In- cluding reprint. ) - 10, 000 Kentucky Highways. History of the Old and New Systems. By M. H. Crump, C.E. Pp.24. Bulletin No. 13. April, 1895 5,000 Good Roads. Extracts from Messages of Governors. Compiled by Roy Stone, Special Agent and Engineer. Pp. 24. Bulletin No. 14. June, 1895 5,000 Earth Roads. Hints on their Construction andRcpair. Compiled by Roy Stone, Special Agent in Charge of Road Inquiry. Pp. 20, figs. 11. Bulletin No. 8. June, 1895. (Reprint.) _ 5,000 Notes on the Employment of Convicts in Connection with Road Building. Compiled bv Roy Stone, Special Agent and Engineer. Pp. 15. Bulletin No. IG. June, 1895 5,000 SEED DIVISION. Report of the Chief of the Seed Division for 1893. By M. E. Fa^an. Pp. iii , 389-393. (From the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture. ) August, 1894 500 DIVISION OF STATISTICS. A Manual of Instructions to Crop Correspondents. By Henry A. Robin- son, Statistician. Pp.28. Issued April, 1895 ._ 20,000 Report of the Statistician for 1893. Pp. iii, 465-566. (From the An- nual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture. ) August, 1894 _ 100 Report of the Statistician, No. 117 — July, 1894. Contents: Crop report for July ; Notes on foreign agriculture ; Reports of United States con- sular officers ; Transportation rates. Pp. 395—144 _ 19, 500 Report of the Statistician, No. 118 — August, 1894. Contents: Crop report for August ; Notes on foreign agriculture ; The production and con- sumption of rice in the United States ; Commerco between the United States and Mexico for the years 1873, 1873, 1883, 1888, and 1893 ; Trans- portation rates. Pp. 445-536 - 19,500 Report of the Statistician, No. 119— September, 1894. Contents: Crop report for September ; Stock hoga; Notes from reports of State agents ; Table showing condition of crops September 1 , 1894 : Urban population in the .South ; Notes on foreign agriculture ; Transi)ortation rates. Pp. 587-004 19,500 624 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Cop!«s. Report of the Statistician, No. 120 — October, 1894. Contents: Crop re- port for August; Notes from reports of State agents ; Table showing yield per acre and condition, by States, October 1, 1894 ; Rice pro- duction in the United States ; Notes on foreign agriculture ; Transpor- tation rates. Pp. 605-660 19; 500 Report of the Statistician, No. 121 — November, 1894. Contents : Novem- ber crop report: Notes from reports of State agents; Table showing estimated jield per acre of certain crops November 1, 1894; Notes on foreign agriculture ; Transportation rates. Pp. 661-702 20, 000 Report of the Statistician, No. 122 — December, 1894. Contents: Crops of the year ; Crop review ; Principal crops of 1894 ; Farm prices and mar- ket quotations ; Agricultural exports and imports ; Official statistics of foreign croi^s ; Transportation rates. Pp. 708-778 SO, OOO Report of the Statistician, No. 123— January-February, 1895. Contents: Report on farm animals ; The cotton crop ; Live stock in Great Britain and Ireland ; The cotton crop of India for 1894 ; A French congress on popular credit; The wheat crop of Victoria (Australia); Notes on for- eign agriculture ; January transportation rates ; February transporta- tion rates. Pp. 58 $5, 000 Report of the Statistician, No. 124— March, 1895. Contents: Distribution and consumption of corn in the United States ; Consumption of wheat per capita in the United States ; The wheat crop of the world ; Prices of wheat since 1865 ; Wholesale prices of principal agricultural prod- ucts, etc.; Report of European agent; Transportation rates. Pp.ii, 59-106 95,000 Report of the Statistician, No. 125 — April, 1895. Contents: Condition of winter wheat; Farm animals; Number of families occupying farms owned, free and unincumbered; Amount of incumbrance on farms; Health of the people; Production, imports, and exports of i^otatoes; Production and price of wool in Italy; Potatoes and hay in Great Britain in 1894; Cotton crop of India for the year 1894-95; Rice crop of India for 1894; Report of European agent; Transportation charges. Pp. ii, 107-168 25,000 Report of the Statistician, No. 126 — May, 1895. Contents: Condition of winter grain; Condition of cotton; The cotton crop of 1894; Prices of wheat in England; Report of European agent; Notes on foreign agri- culture; Transportation charges. Pp. ii, 169-230 25, 000 Report of the Statistician, No. 127— June, 1895. Contents: Crop report for June; Cotton, increase and decrease of acreage, 1895; Temperature and rainfall; Report of European agent; Notes on foreign agriculture; Transportation charges. Pp. ii, 231-284 25, 000 Monthly Crop Synopsis. (A four-page summary of the condition, pros- pects, yields, price, distribution, and consumption of crops, and the number and value of farm animals. Issued soon after the 10th of each month for prompt and wide circulation in advance of the more extended monthly crop rejjort from which it is condensed. ) July, 1894, synopsis. (From Report No. 117. ) 126, 700 August, 1894, synopsis. (From Report No. 118.) 126, ?00 September, 1894, synopsis. (From Report No. 119.).. 130, 000 October, 1894, synopsis. (From Report No. 120.) 187 000 November, 1894, synopsis. (From Report No. 121. ) 127, 000 January, 1895, synopsis. (From Report No. 122. ) 137, 000 February, 1895, synopsis. (From Report No. 123.) 132, 000 March, 1895, synopsis. (From Report No. 124.) 132,000 April, 1895, sjTiopsis. (From Report No. 125.) 132, 000 May, 1895, synopsis. (From Report No. 126. ) 132, 000 June, 1895, synopsis. (From Report No. 137. ) - 132, 000 Total 1,423,000 DIVISION OF VEGETABLE PATHOLOGY. Effect of Spraj-ing with Fungicides on the Growth of Nurserv Stock. By B.T.Galloway. Pp. 41. figs. 17. Bulletin No. 7. August, 1894 5,000 Some Destructive Potato Diseases : What They Are and How to Prevent Them. By B. T. Galloway, Chief of the Division. Pp. 8. figs. 3. Farm- ers" Bulletin No. 15. September, 1894. (Including reprints,) 175,1®! PUBLICATIONS OF THE YEAR. 625 Copies. Bordeaux Mixture as a Fun,2:icide. By D. (x. Faircliild. Prepared under the direction of B. T. Galloway, Chief of the Division. Pp. 55. Bulle- tin No. G. October, 1894 5, 000 Report of the Chief of the Division of Vegetable Pathology for 1893. By B. T. Galloway. Pp. iii, 245-27(5, fig. 1. (From the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture. ) August, 1894 100 Journal of Mycology. (Devoted to the study of fungi, especially in their relations to'plant diseases. ) Vol. VII. No. 4. Pp. v, 333-478, v, pis. 32-37. October, 1894. (Including reprint. ) 2, 800 Peach Yellows and Peach Rosette. By Erwin F, Smith, Special Agent, under the direction of B. T. Galloway, Chief of the Division. Pp. 20, figs. 7. Farmers' Bulletin No. 17. January, 1895. (Including reprint.). 44,000 Spraying Fruits for Insect Pests and Fungous Diseases, with a Special Consideration of the Subject in its Relation to the Public Health. Pp. 20. Farmers' Bulletin No. 7. January, 1895. (Reprint.) 20,000 Treatment for Sooty Mold of the Orange. Pp.4. Circular No. 15. Janu- ary, 1895 - - 5, 000 The Pollination of Pear Flowers. By Merton B. Waite, Special Agent. Report on experiments made under the direction of B. T. Galloway, Chief of the Division. Pp. 110, pis. 12. Bulletin No. 5. March, 1895. (Reprint.) - --- 2,00a AVEATHER BUREAU. Instructions for the Use of Combined Maximum and Minimum Soil Thermometers. Prepared by Profs. C. F. MarWn and Milton Whitney, under the direction of the Chief of the Weather Bureau. Pp. 8, figs. 2. Circular G, Instrument Room. July, 1894 _ 500 Instructions for the Use of Maximum and Minimum Radiation Thcriuom- eters. Prepared by Profs. C. F, Marvin and Milton Whitney, under the direction of the Chief of the Weather Bureau. Pp. 10, figs. 5. Circular H, Instniment Room. Jvily, 1894. 500 Protection from Lightning. Alexander McAdie. Pp.21, figs. 11. Cir- cular of Information. July, 1894. (Reprint.)--. 15,000 Reprinted with revision as Bulletin No. 15. June, 1895 2, 500 Protection of Fruits, Vegetables, and Other Food Products from Injury by Heat or Cold during Transportation. Pp.7. Circular. August, 1894 2,000 Report of the Chief of the Weather Bureau for 1893. By Mark W. Har- rington. Pp. iii, 89-122, pis. 4. (From the Annual Report of the Sec- retary of Agricultiire. ) September, 1894 13. 100 Rainfall and Snow of the LTnited States, Compiled to the End of 1891, with Annual, Seasonal, and Other Charts. By Mark W. Harrington, Chief of the Weather Bureau. Maps 23 (size 19 by 24 inches) . Bulle- tin C— Atlas. October, 1894 5, 000 Instructions to Special River Observers of the Weather Bureau. Pp. 49, figs. 7. December, 1 894 , 1 , 000 Instructions for Obtaining and Transcribing Records from Recording Instruments. Prepared under the direction of the Chief of the Weather Bureau by C. F. Marvin, Professor of Meteorology. Pp. 40, figs. 3. (Revised edition.) Circular A, Instrument Room. December, 1894. _ 500 Report of the Third Annual Meeting of the American Association of State Weather Services, Cooperating with the Weather Bureau, United States Department of Agriculture. Pp. 31. Bulletin No. 14. Feb- ruary, 1895 10, 000 Rainfall and Snow of the United States, Compiled to the End of 1891, with Annual, Seasonal, Monthly, and Other Charts. By Mark W. Har- rington, Chief of the Weather Bureau. Pp. 80, fig. 1. Quarto form. Bulletin C. February, 1895... 5,000 Wreck and Casualty Chart of the Great Lakes, 1894. (Size, 26 by 36 inches.) February, 1895 6,000 Report on the Condensation of Atmospheric Moisture. By Carl Barua. Pp. 104, pis. 4, figs. 27. Bulletin No. 13. April, 1895 15,000 Information Relative to the Investigation of the Influences of Climate on Health. Pp.7. Circular No. 4— Sanitary Climatolo.gy. April, 1895.. 5,000 Surface Currents of the Great Lakes, as Deduced from the Movements of Bottle Papers during the Seasons of 1892, 1893, and 1894. By Mark W. Harrington, Chief of the Weather Bureau. Pp. 14, charts 6. Quarto form. (Revised edition. ) April, 1895 7, 500 4 A 95 22 626 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Copies. Circular of Information Relating to the Display of Wind Signals on the Great Lakes. Pp. 13, pL 1. April, 1895 2,000 Report of the Chief of the Weather Bureaii for 1893. (Devoted chiefly to tables recording climatological data for the year 1893.) Quarto. Pp. .S19, figs. 4. June, 1895 . 5,500 Parts II to VI, inclusive, of the Report of the Chief of the Weather Bureau for 1893, printed separately. Quarto: Part II. Hourly Averages of Atmospheric Pressure, Temperature, and Wind from the Records of Self-recording Instruments at Twenty-eight Stations. Pp. 21-69. May, 1895 100 Part III. Monthly and Annual Meteorological Summaries for One Hundred and Sixty-one Weather Bureau Stations. Pp. 71-155. May, 1895 100 Part IV. Monthly and Annual Mean Temperature, Together with the Dates of First and Last Killing Frost. Pp. 157-190. May, 1895. - 100 Part V. Monthly and Annual Precipitation. All Stations. Pp. 191-228. May, 1895 100 Part VI. Miscellaneous Meteorological Tables and Reports: Hourly Records of Self-registering Instruments at Pikes Peak and Colorado Springs, Colo. ; Pressure, Temperature, and Wind; Snowfall 1892- 93, and 1893-94; Sunshine 1893; Height of Water in Rivers; De- structive Windstorms and Casualties by Lightning. Pp. 229-319; figs. 4. May, 1895 200 Monthly Weather Review. (A summary by months of weather condi- tions throughout the United States, based upon reports of nearly 3,000 regular and voluntary observers. Quarto size.) Vol. XXI, Supplement to No. 12. (Annual summarv for 1893. ) Pp. vi, 377-390, charts 7 1 3,600 Vol. XXII, No. 5, May, 1894. Pp. 193-234, charts 4 3, 000 Vol. XXII, No. 0. Jime, 1894. Pp. 235-272, charts 4 8, 050 Vol. XXII, No. 7, July, 1894. Pp. 273-310, charts 4 3,050 Vol. XXII. No. 8, August, 1894. Pp. 311-350, charts 4 3, 050 Vol. XXn, No. 9, September, 1894. Pp. 351-392, charts 6 3, 050 Vol. XXII, No. 10, October. 1894. Pp. 393-439, charts 6 3, 050 Vol. XXII, No. 11, November, 1894. Pp. 441-485, charts 7 3, 050 Vol.XXn,No.l2, December, 1894. Pp. 487-533, charts 7.... 3,050 Snow Charts. Dec. 3, 1894, to March 25, 1895 (17 issues) 9, 275 Storm Bulletin N o. 2 of 1894. September, 1894 450 Storm Bulletin No. 3 of 1894. Tropical Hurricane of October 8-10, 1894. Oc t ob er , 1 89 4 450 Storm Bulletin No. 1 of 1895. Storm and Cold Wave of February 5-8, 1895. (Size 19 by 24 inches. ) 700 Temperatures Injurioiis to Food Products in Storage and During Trans- portation, and Methods of Protection from the Same. By H. E. Williams, Chief Clerk Forecast Division. Pp. 20. Bulletin No. 13. December, 1894. 5,000 Report of the International Meteorological Congress, held at Chicago, II]., August 21-24, 1893, under the auspices of the Congress Auxiliary of the World's Columbian Exposition. Edited by Oliver L. Fassig, Secretary. Pp. xi-xv, 207-583, pis. 11-25. Bulletin No. 11, part 2. June, 1895 500 Weather Crop Bulletin Nos. 16 to 32, 1894, and 1 to 15, 1895 (32 issues) . . . 40, 800 IJSTDEX. Pago. Abattoirs, number where meat is inspected .- 10 Accounts and Disbursing Office, Division, comments on operations by Sec- retary 61 ori>:anization and duties 52G Acer gra ndidentattim, tree suitable for alkali soils 121 Achras sapofa (sapodilla), injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95 173 Aeration, benefit to soil ferments 77 Air, importance of free access to soil in gi-eenhouses 252 observations on its moisture to foretell frosts 149 Agricultural census, annual, advocated 34 College of Michigan, experiments with irrigating system 243 croiDS, statistics - 526 water supjtly required, remarks 233 Experiment Station of Iowa, experiments in manufacture of cheese 470 stations, locations, directors, and lines of work 55S remarks on work by Dr. Chas. W. Dab- ney, jr . 36 products, exiwrts 1891-1895 543 imports 1891-1895 548 science, a pioneer, article by W. P. Cutter 493 Soils, Division, comments on operations by Secretary 53 exhibit at Atlanta Exposition 510 organization and duties 525 Agriculture, Department. (See Department of Agriculture.) ferments inimical 83 important soil ferments — 69 in colonial Virginia, general remarks 493 institutions having courses 557 neces.sity of scientific knowledge 68 Secretary. (See Secretary of Agriculture. ) Agrnpifriim sp. (wild wheat grass) , analysis - 315 Afjrostis stolonifera (creejnng bent), note 328 Agrostology, Division, comments on operations by Secretary 44 exhibit at Atlanta Exposition 513 organization 44 and duties. .- -- 525 subjects of publications 45 Agrotis inesso7'la, notes 400 fin iicia , notes 490 Alfalfa, crop suitable for alkali soils 121 Alkali grass crop suital)le for alkali soils 119 how it injures plants 194 in .soils, chemical antidotes..... 116 land, origin, value, and reclamation, article by E. W.Hilgard 103 salts, composi tion 196 determination of distribution 196 total amount compatible with ordinary crops 115 soils, alkali, chemical antidotes 116 counteracting evaporation important 114 crops suitable 119 diagram showing composition at various depths. 107,108,110,111,112 effects of irrigation - 105 how to remove the salts 117 627 628 INDEX. Page. Alkali soils, occurrence and characteristics 103 utilization and reclamation 113 will it pay to reclaim them? 118 Alvord, Maj . H. E. . appointment as Chief of Dairy Division 14 article on " The manufacture and consumption of cheese " 453 Amarantus palmeri (pigweed) , suggested use as a pot herb 213 American cattle in Glasgow, remarks on importation and sale 21 horses. {See Horses, American.) lard, wholesale prices in London in 1894 and 1895 18 meat i^roducts in foreign markets 14 stocks, use to prevent grapevine phylloxera 390 Ammonia, formation in the soil 73 Amphieerus bicaudatiis (grape cane-borer), description and methods of in j ury 393 Analyses , official, perverted references by advertisers 42 Andropogon fvrcatns and A. nutans, description and analysis 314 hallii (turkej^-foot) , value as a forage plant 318 scoparhis (little blue stem, or bunch grass), value as a forage plant 314 (slender broom sedge) , note 327 Animal and human diseases, remarks on similarity 432 food, average composition 573 Industry, Bureau. (See Bureau of Animal Industry.) matter, exports, 1891-1895 543 Animals exported, number of head lost in transit 12 imported from Canada, number 13 insijection and (juarantine 13 inspection for exportation 11 live, first large shipment from Australia to London 20 number inspected in 1895 and 1894 9 quantity and value of imports, 1891-1895 548 vahie of exports to different countries 546 Aniseed oil, price per pound 204 use for producing oil . . 204 Ano7ia cherimolia (cherimoya, or Jamaica apple) , injury by freezes in Flor- ida in 1894-95 172 miiricata (soiu- sop) , injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95 172 squamosa (sweet sop) , injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95 172 Anthonovuts grand is, investigations of Division of Entomology 51 Antidotes, chemical, for alkali in soils 116 Appendix to Yearbook 523 Apple trees, experiments in root-grafting 47 Apples from Austria-Hungarj^ testing adaptability to our climates and soils. 47 ripe and dried, exports, 1893-1895 48 Aracliis hypogxa (iieanut) , use in production of oil 196 Arbor Day in Japan, methods of observation 39 Argemone mexicana (Mexican poppy) seed, use in producing oil. . - 204 Argentina, cattle exported to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 _ 23 mutton exported to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 25 shipment of cattle to Europe, 1893-1895 20 sheep to Great Britain 25 Arid prairies, general remarks 312 Aristida and Stqxt spp. (needle grasses) , value as forage plants 318 Artichoke, Jerusalem, crop suitable for alkali soils. 120 Ash, i:»er cent in different varieties of cheese 456 Ashes and lime, action iipon nitrogen of humus 134 Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, duties 523 Atlanta Exposition, exhibit of Bureau of Animal Industry 507 Division of Agricultural Soils 510 Agrostology 513 Botany 511 Entomology 513 Forestry 519 Ornithology and Mammalogy . . 509 Pomology 513 Publications - 517 INDEX. 629 Atlanta Exposition, exhibit of Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pa- thology 514 Office of Experiment Stations 516 Fiber Investigations 516 Road Inquiry 518 Weather Bnrean. 505 work of Department of Agriculture illustrated, article by Robert E. Wait 503 Atriplex horten.te (orach) , use as a pot herb 213 spp. (saltbushes), crop suitable for alkali soils 119 Attorney-Greneral. opinion on seed distribution 58 Australasia, exports of butter to United Kingdom, 1898-1895 30 cheese to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 29 mutton exported to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 25 Australia, first large shipment of live animals to London 20 Australian saltbushes, crop suitable for alkali soils 119 Bacillus cnnt/lovorus, microbe causing pear blight 296 Bacon and hams, wholesale jjrices in Loudon 16 imports into Great Britain, average price per 100 pounds . _ 24 United Kingdom for 1893-1895 17 in Great Britain, remarks on prices and consumption 15 number of pounds exported to Great Britain 15 Bacteria, experiments with haiid centrifugal machine for removing 441 how milk becomes contaminated 433 inefficiency of milk separators in I'emoving, article by Veranus A, Moore 431 methods for destroying or removing from milk 435 of swine plague and hog cholera, inefficiency of separators in re- moving - 440 Bahama Islands, estimated annual export of pineapples to United States.. 269 Baltimore oriole. (See Oriole, Baltimore.) Banana, injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95 172 Banking trees with earth a protection against freezing of citrus fruits 165 Barbarea prtxcox (\\inter cress) , cultivation and use as a i>ot herb 208 Barley, average farm prices December 1 , 1886-1895 532 - changes in crop area in 18T9 and 1889 528 effect of different temperatures on germination 178 exports, 1891-1895 544 farm prices December 1, 1891-1895, by States 536 quantity, acreage, and value, by States 529 and value of imports, 1891-1895 548 value of exports to different countT'ies . . 546 wholesale prices at leading cities of United States, 1891-1895 540 wild, value as a forage plant 818 Barnyard grass, crop suitable for alkali soils 121 manure. (.See Maniire, barnyard.) Beal, F. E. L., article on " The meadow lark and Baltimore oriole " 419 Bean, castor. (Se*: Casttn* bean.) soja, VLHQ in producing oil. 204 Beans and peas, exports, 1891-1895 545 to different countries 547 imports, 189 1-1895 550 Beef, American, price per 100 pounds in Europe 21 average Avholesale price per 100 pounds in Liverpool, Berlin, and Paris. 24 chilled, shipment to Europe 21 diagrams showing cuts of meat 572 imported into Great Britain, average price per 100 pounds 24 pn)ducts, exports to different countries .. 546 quantity and value imported into United Kingdom, 1893-1895 22 Beeswax, exports to different countries 547 imports, 1891-1895 548 Beet-seed balls, special care needed in testing 181 Beets, crop suitable for alkali soils 120 Beggar weeds, value as forage plants 318 Belgium, amount of sodium nitrate used for mannrial purposes 90 export of eggs to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 30 630 INDEX. Page. Belgium, export of pork to United Kingdom, 1893-1895. 17 Benne (sesame) oil, prodiTction and use 197 Bent, creeping (brown-top) , notes 330 note 328 Berlin, average wholesale price per 100 pounds of beef and mutton 24 Berry moth, grape. (See Grape berry moth.) Beta valgaris, culture and use as a pot herb 206 Bird, mocking. {See Mocking bird.) Birds, common, of the farm and garden, article by Sylvester D. Judd 405 of prey, list and notes 590 Bisulphide of carbon, remedy for grapevine phylloxera 389 Blackberry culture, general remarks 293 varieties usually grown for market 293 Black grass, characteristics 331 locust, tree suitable for alkali soils 121 mustard. (.S'ee Mustard, black.) walnut, growth on the "Western i^lains 346 Blight, disease of the iiineapple 283 pear. (5f(?e Pear blight.) Blue stem, value as a forage plant 318 Botany, Division, comments on operations by Secretary 43 exhibit at Atlanta Exposition 511 organization and duties 525 BoutcJoua curtipenduJa (grama grass) as a forage plant 315 hirsuta, characteristics 316 oligostachya, characteristics 316 Box elder, growth on the Western plains 346 utility on the Western plains 344 Branches and stem, healing of wounds 266 Brassica na2nis, production and use of oil from seed 199 nigra (black mustard) seed, use in jiroducing oil 203 use as a pot herb. 211 oleracea acephala (kale) , use as a pot herb 210 rapa (turnip), use as a pot herb_. 210 sinajnstruvi, culture and use as a pot herb 207 (mustard) seed, use in producing oil similar to rape- seed oil 203 Breadstuffs, exports, 1891-1895 544 to different countries 546 imports, 1891-1895 - 548 Broom corn, exports, 1891-1895 544 sedge, slender, note 327 Brown thrasher. {See Thrasher, brown.) Brown-top (creeping bent) , notes 330 BiieJiIoe dactyloides (buffalo grass) , value as a forage plant 316 Buckwheat, average farm prices December 1 , 1886-1895 532 changes in crop in 1879 and 1889 528 effect of different temperatures on germination 178 Buffalo grass and grama grass, analysis 317 success in grass garden of Department 44 value as a forage plant 316 Bug. niealy, injury to pineapples 283 Bunch grass, or June grass, value as a forage i)lant 317 value as a forage plant 314 Bureau of Animal Industry, exhibit at Atlanta Exposition _. 597 organization and duties 524 of Dairy Division 14 outline of scientific work, 14 review of work by Secretary 9 total expenditures of the j-ear 14 Burrill, Prof. T. J. , discoverer of the microbe causing pear blight 296 Bursera gummifera (gumbo-limbo), injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95. 173 Butter, analysis by James A. Emery 453 in Vienna 448 as carrier of infectious diseases 431 exports to different countries _ _ . 547 imports into United Kingdom from various countries, 1893-1895... 36 INDEX. 631 Pago. Butter, imports 1801-1895 518 substitutes, article by E. A. de Schweinitz 441 Butterine, analysis by James A. Emery 453 Cabbaire seed, effect of different temperatures on germination 178 Cake, cotton-seed, exported from United States in 1894 186 oil. (See Oil cake.) Calamagrostis antcKhvisia (blue Stem) , value as a forage plant 318 confiuis and C'cdaiiioi'ilfa longifolia (sand grass), valu« as forage plants 318 California, amount of water used for irrigation 480 climate and soil characteristics, and irrigation methods 475 fruits in English markets, remarks by Secretary 48 how irrigati(jn is practiced 483 rainfall of the valleys 477 white oak, tree suitable for alkali soils 131 Caltha xialnstris (marsh marigold) , use as a pot herb 210 CameUna sativa (false flax) , seed iised in producing oil similar to rapeseed oil 203 Canada, exports of bacon to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 17 butter to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 30 cheese to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 29 eggs to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 30 hams to United Kingdom , 1 893-1 895 17 number and value of cattle exported to United Kingdom, 1893-1895. 23 of animals imported 13 shipment of sheep to Great Britain 25 statistics of dairy interests 464 Canadian field peas, area adapted to the culture in United States. 337 article by Thomas Shaw. 323 extent of cultivation and production in Canada 233 growing for different purposes 237 harvesting methods and machinery 230 varieties tested in Ontario in 1894 239 to sow 229 various uses of the crop 224 why the crop has been neglected _ 226 Cane-borer, grape. {See Grape cane-borer.) Cannabis sativa (hemp) , article on culture, by Chas. Richards Dodge 215 Ijroduction of oil from seed 198 Caraway-seed oil, price per pound; use in producing oil 204 Carbon bisulphide, remedy I (ir grapevine phylloxera 389 Carcasses of hogs. (See Hogs, carcasses.) Casein, per cent in different varieties of cheese 456 Castor beau, average yield per aero in different States 193 nativity and description of seed 190 soil adapted and cultivation 193 various uses of the oil . 191 oil bean as an oil-producing seed 190 jn-ice pev gallon 204 Catalpa, growth on the Western plains 346 .s'^)c'c/o,sa (catalpa) , growth on the Western plains 346 Catbird, distribution and food habits 406 remark's on food habits 405 table showing stomach contents 418 Cattle, Ainerican, in Glasgow, remarks on imijortation and sale 21 and grasses, relative importance 324 meat trade with Great Britain 18 domestic, average price i>er 100 pounds in English and Scotch mar- kets in 1 894 and 1895 24 exports from Ireland to Great Britain for eight months in 1895. 23 189 1 -1895 543 from Mexico, number of head inspected 13 live, average jjrice per 100 pounds in Great Britain in 1895 18 number anenmpnts with irrigating system 243 Ohio, and West A^irginia cxiioriuient stations, experiments vsdth greenhouse subirrigation 245 644 INDEX. Microbe causing pear blight, life history 296 Microscopy, Division, abolishment 57 Milch cows. {See Cows, milch.) Milk and kerosene emulsion formula 585 as carrier of infectious diseases 431 experiments on removal of tubercle bacilli 437 how it becomes contaminated with bacteria 433 to eliminate the danger of infection 443 methods for destroying or removing bacteria 435 quantity and value of imports, 1891-1895- - 548 separators, experiments 437 inefficiency in removing bacteria, article by Veranus A. Moore 431 sugar, per cent in different varieties of cheese 456 Milkweed, suggested use as a pot herb 214 Mill products, fertilizing constituents 567 Mimus pohjcjlottos (mocking bird) , distribution and food habits 415 Mineral food of plants, remarks 70 matter in humus 135 plants, translation 71 Minnesota Exi)eriment Station, experiments on increasing humates in soil.. 137 with humates 136 Mite, pineapple (red spider) , disease of the pineapple 283 Mocking bird, distribution and food habits 415 remarks on food habits 405 Moisture as affecting pineapple culture 274 of the air, observations to foretell frosts 149 Molasses and sugar, exports, 1891-1895 545 quantity and value of imports, 1891-1895 549 Mold, sour, effect of application of lime and wood ashes 134 Moore, Prof. Willis L., appointment as Chief of Weather Bureau 32 at Chicago weather station 32 Moore, Veranus A., article on "IneflBciency of milk separators in remov- ing bacteria " . 431 Moose, number imported from Canada 13 Morton, .J. Sterling, duties as Secretary of Agriculture 523 report to the President 9 Moth, grape berry. {See Grape berry moth.) white-marked tussock. {See Tussock moth, white-marked.) Moths, hawk, species injurious to grapes 400 Muck, means of maintaining humus of the soil 140 Mules, exports, 1891-1895 543 number and vaUie January 1 , 1891-1896 533 price and value January 1 , 1896, by States 533 value of exports to different countries 546 Musa (banana) , injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95 172 Muskmelon seed, effect of different temperatures on germination 178 Mustard, black, seed, use in producing oil 203 use as a pot herb 21 1 (charlock) seed, use in producing oil similar to rapeseed oil 203 white, .seed, use in producing oil 203 wild. (Same as black mustard.) Mutton, amount of British consumption 25 average price per 100 pounds in Liverpool, Berlin, and Paris 24 diagram showing ciits of meat 573 imported into Great Britain, average price per 100 pounds 24 quantity and value imported into United Kingdom, 1893-1895 25 value of exports to different countries 546 Needle grasses, value as forage plants 318 Nettle, common, suggested use as a pot herb 214 New Zealand spinach, introdiiction into United States; use as a pot herb .. 214 Niger-seed oil, production and use 196 Nitrate of soda. {See Sodium nitrate.) Nitrates, absorption by plants 91 impregnation of soils 87 in the soil, methods of preserving 90 INDEX. 645 Page. Nitrates, remarks on storage in the soil 84 Nitric acid in the soil , conversion of nitrous acid 74 Nitrification important to soil fertility 133 of soil, diagram showing relation of temperature 100 favorable conditions 75 noting the progress 97 Nitrifying ferments of the soil - 73 organisms for seeding soil 78 numbers and kinds 80 vitality infliienced by position in soil 76 Nitrogen, free, methods of oxidizing 83 oxidizing ferments 81 in humus, amount contained in different soils 133 of the soil, effect of fall plowing 134 Nitrous acid in the soil, conversion into nitric acid 74 production 74 Nutritive value and economy of foods, remarks by Secretary 37 Nuts and fruits. {See Fruits and nuts. ) Oatmeal, exports, 1891-1895 544 quantity and value of imports, 1891-1895 - - _ 548 value of exports to different countries 546 Oats, average prices December, 1886-1895 532 changes in crop area in 1879 and 1889 538 effect of different temperatures on germination 178 exports, 1891-1895 544 farm prices, 1891-1895, by States •. 536 production, 1893-1895 539 quantity, acreage, and value, by States 539 and value of imports, 1891-1895 548 value of exports to different countries 546 wholesale prices at leading cities of United States, 1891-1895. 539 Observers, voluntary, of Weather Bureau, remarks 555 Ocean contribution of nitrogenous matters to soil 94 Office of Experiment Stations. {See Experiment Stations, Office.) Fiber Investigations. {See Fiber Investigations, Office.) Irrigation Inquiry. {See Irrigation Inquiry, Office.) Road Inquiry. {See Road Inqviiry, Office.) Ohio, Michigan, and West Virginia experiment stations, experiments with greenhouse sul nrrigation 245 Oil cake, exports, 1891-1895 545 meal, exports, 1891-1895 545 quantity and value of imports, 1891-1895 549 cotton-seed, how extracted 186 from castor bean, various uses 191 seeds, how obtained 185 producing seeds, article by Gilbert H. Hicks 185 prices of different kinds. 204 quantity and value of imports, 1891-1895 548 value of exports to different countries 546 Oleomargarine, amount exported in 1893 and 1894 446 sold in 1883 and 1894 446 analysis by James A. Emery 452 cheese (filled cheese) , remarks 467 hygienic effects 447 material used for manufacture 446 possibility of transmitting infectious diseases; experiments. 449 remarks on fraiidulent sale 451 manufacture and sale 445 value of ex])orts to different countries 547 Olney, Richard, Attorney-General, opinion on seed distribution 58 Onions, exports, 1891-1895 545 value of exports to different countries 547 Opium, (juantity and value of imports, 1891-1895 550 Oracli. use as a pot herb 212 Orchard, apparatus for spraying in high air as a protection from frosts 156 description of apparatus for smudging 155 646 INDEX. Page. Orcliard, groves, frozen, metliods of restoration 166 how irrigated in the valleys of California 479 irrigation, general remarks 241 trees, injuries from alternate freezing and thawing 157 Organisms, different kinds in the soil 73 nitrifying. (See Nitrifjdng organisms.) Orgyia Icucostigma (white-marked tussock moth) shade-tree insect 3G8 Oriole, Baltimore, and meadow lark, article by F. E. L. Beal 419 distribution and food habits 426 examination of food of 113 stomachs 426 vegetable food 430 f amilj-, characteristics and food habits 419 Ornithologj' and Mammalogy, Division, exhibit at Atlanta Exposition 509 organization and duties 524 Otaheite gooseberry, injury by freezing in Florida in 189-1-95 172 Oxen and other cattle, number and value January, 1891-1896 535 l^rice and value January, 1896, by States 534 Palm, cocoanut, injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95 171 Panicum criis-gaUl (barnyard grass) , crop suitable for alkali soils 121 virgatum (switch grass) , note 327 value as a forage plant; analysis 314 Pajwver somniferum (poppy) seed, use in producing oil 203 Paris, average wholesale price per 100 pounds of beef and mutton 24 Parsley seed, use in producing oil 204 Pasture, adaptability of Canadian field peas 225 Pathogenic ferments in the soil 84 Peanut, notes on culture 197 use in production of oil 196 Peanuts, annual consumption by eating in United States 197 Pear blight, cause and prevention, article by M. B. Waite 295 of the disease 296 conditions affecting the disease 297 definition and description 295 duration of the attack. 298 extermination of microbe the only method of controlling 299 life history of the microbe causing it 296 methods of treatment 298 Peas and beans. {See Beans and peas. ) Canadian field. {See Canadian field peas.) PhilavipeJns achemon , notes 400 Phragmites comviitnis (reed), description and characteristics 330 Phylloxera, grapevine. (See Grapevine phylloxera.) injiii-y in France --. _ 385 vastatrix (grapevine) , description 386 Phytolacca decandra (pokeweed) , description and use as a pot herb 213 PiETERS, A. J., article on "Testing seeds at home" 175 Pigweed, suggested use as a pot herb 213 Pindar (peanut) , use in production of oil 196 Pineapple culture, parts of Florida where adapted 271 date of introduction into Florida 270 development of the industry in Florida 270 industry in the United States, article by Herbert J. Webber 269 recent development in Florida 269 mite (red spider) . disease of the pineapple 282 remarks on diseases 281 Pineapples, acreage in Florida 273 conditions influencing growth 273 description of varieties grown in Florida 275 extent of consumption and production in United States 269 gathering and packing -. 281 in Florida, damage of freezes of 1894-95 169 extent of the inj ury 169 methods of culture - . 274, 279 planting 277 propagation 276 Pistia sjjathidata (water lettuce), injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95 __ 173 INDEX. 647 Page. Plains, Western, general character of soil 341 vegetation 343 remarks on rainfall. 342 ontline description 341 planting of conifers 354 tree planting, article by Charles A. Keffer 341 Plant cuttings, importance of proper selection 254 food of the imported elm leaf -beetle, list --. 364 value of humates 136 Plants, absorption of nitrates 91 cultivated, frost and freezes as affecting, article by B. T. G-alloway. 143 food, of tho white-marked tiissock moth 368 health in greenhouses, article by B. T. Galloway 247 how affected by frosts and freezes 144 injured by alkali 104 list of fungous diseases and methods of treatment 587 method of protection from frosts and freezes 152 reproduction 264 remarks on mineral food 70 selection as a means of increasing the vigor 254 translation of mineral matter 71 woody, general remarks on structure 257 injuries from alternate freezing and thawing 1.57 method of controlling growth . . 257 princii^les of priming and care of wounds, article by Albert F. Woods 257 Plow, necessity for improvement 126 Plowing, fall, effect on humus and nitrogen of the soil 134 principal objects 124 principles discussed 125 Pods, rattle. A-alue as forage i^lants 318 Pokeweed, description and use as a pot herb 213 Pomology, Di^^sion, comments on operations by Secretary 46 exhibit at Atlanta Exposition 513 organization and duties 525 Poppj', method of culture : 203 Mexican, seed, use in producing oil 204 seed oil, price per pound 204 use in producing oil 203 Pork, diagram showing cuts of meat 573 imports into Great Britain , average price per 100 pounds . , 24 United Kingdom, 1893-1895 17 number of pounds exported to Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain in 1895 10 inspected in 1893-1895 10 report of microscopic inspection 10 Portnktca oleracca (purslane) , use as a pot herb 213 Potatoes, average farm prices December 1 , 1886-1895 532 exports, 1891-1895 545 quantity, acreage, and value, by States 531 1893-1895 531 and value of imports, 1891-1895 550 value of exports to different countries 547 Pot herbs (greens) , prevalent use in Europe 206 Prairie fires a cause of loss of humus 135 hay, remarks on value 318 region, area, and general considerations 309 forage conditions, article by Jared G. Smith 3C9 Prairies, arid, general remarks 312 remarks on improving ranges 323 Product of .'^alt marshes, method of liarvesting 336 Pruning and care of wounds in woody plants, principles, article by Albert F. Woods 257 winter treatment in small-frtiit culture 287 f I >r vegetative growt!i of woody plants 266 fruit trees, reasons and methods 263 in winter favors pear blight 299 648 INDEX. Page. Pruning natural, in woody j)lants, general remarks 262 of tops, general remarks 261 recipes for grafting wax, etc 268 roots, general remarks 260 in transplanting trees 260 young forest trees 360 Psychrometer, sling, description and how to use 150 Psydium cattleyaniim (Cattley guava), injury by freezes in Florida in 1 894-95 171 guajava (guava) , injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95 171 Publications, Division, comments on operations by Secretary 57 exhibit at Atlanta Exposition 517 organization and duties ... 525 gratuitous distribution condemned 57 of Department, notes regarding 616 of fiscal year 1895, list 617 Division of Agrostology, subjects 45 Purslane (pusley ) and winter purslane, use as pot herbs 213 Pusley. (Same as purslane.) Quarantine and inspection of animals imported. 13 season against Texas fever 12 Quercus lobata (California white oak) , tree suitable for alkali soils 121 Radish seed, effect of different temperatures on germination 178 use in producing oil 203 Rainfall in the valleys of California. 477 1895, by months 554 of California, remarks 475 Rains, seasonal, in California 475 Ranges, cattle, remarks on improvement 322 Rape and colza, method of culture 200 description of varieties of seed 200 nativity and extent of present cultivation 200 Rapeseed, annual ex^^orts from India 200 (colza) oil, production and use 199 oil and colza oil, estimate of annual consumption in Europe 200 value of crop in Germany in 1882 200 Raphamis sativus (radish) seed, use in producing oil 203 Raspberry culture, general remarks 292 Rates, freight. {See Freight rates.) Rations, calculations for cows 564 Rattle pods, value as forage plants 318 Rattoons (suckers) for propagating pineapples. 276 Recipes for grafting wax, etc. , used in pruning 268 Red salt (fox) grass, characteristics and uses 329 spider (pineapple mite) , disease of the pineapple 282 Redtop, false, or switch grass, value as a forage plant 814 value as a forage plant 318 Reed, description and characteristics 330 Register, Farmers', agricultural magazine edited by Edmund Ruffln . 500 Reservoirs and tanks, employment in garden irrigation 237 Resm-wash formula 585 Rhizophora mangle (mangrove) , injury bv freezes in Florida in 1894-95 172 Rice, exports, 1891-1895 ! 545 Indian, description 330 quantity and value of imports, 1891 -1895 550 value of exports to different countries 547 Ricinus communis (castor-oil bean) , seed for producing oil 190 Road, best for farming districts. 490 construction, community of interest 487 cooperation necessary 492 cooperative, article by Roy Stone 487 favorable legislation 489 national and State aid 487 use of convict labor 491 Inquiry, Office, comments on operations by Secretary 55 INDEX. 649 Page. Road Inquiry, Office, exhibit at Atlanta Exposition 518 organization and duties 535 Robin, golden (Baltimore oriole ) , distribution and food habits 426 Rocks, remarks on decay at high altitudes 71 Root grafting of apple trees; experiments 47 of woody plant, its structure and office 259 pruning, general remarks 260 Roots, composition of different kinds 561 fertilizing constituents 567 pruning in transplanting trees. 260 Rose chafer, description and distribution ; remedies 396 Rotation, a place for Canadian field peas. 228 of crops, means of maintaining humus 140 Rubber, or wild fig trees, injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95 172 Ruffin, Edmund, brief record of public services 501 efforts to increase fertility of the soil 496 experiments in the use of marl. 498 pioneer in agricultural science; sketch of life 495 Rumcv spp. , use as a pot herb 209 Russia, exports of eggs to United Kingdom, 1893-1895. 30 Rye, average farm prices December 1 , 1886-1895 532 changes in crop area, 1879 and 1889 528 effect of different temperatures on germination 178 exports, 1891-1895 544 grass, crop suitable for alkali soils. 121 seed , effect of di fferent temperatures on germination 178 wild, value as a forage plant 318 quantity and value of imports, 1891-1895 548 value of exports to different countries 5 16 Saltbushes, Australian , crop suitable for alkali soils 119 Salt and tide water marshes, area 325 grass, value as a forage plant 318 grasses, general remarks 327 marsh grasses, article by F. Lamson-Scribner 325 hay, chemical composition 332 marshes. (See Marshes, salt.) red (fox) , gi-ass, characteristics and uses 329 Salts, alkali. {See Alkali salts. ) how removed from alkali soils 117 Sand grass, value as a forage plant 318 hills, scheme for tree planting 356 trees for planting 355 " Sanding," disease of the pineapple 281 San Jose scale, investigations of Division of Entomology 51 Sapodilla, injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95 172 Satin leaf, injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95 173 wood, injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95 173 Sau.gagc skins, quantity and value of imports. 1891-1895 548 Scale, San Jose, investigations of Division of Entomology. 51 SciiwEiNiTZ, E. A. DE, article on " Butter substitutes" 445 Science, agricultural, a pioneer, article by W. P. Cutter 493 Scotland, number of head of cattle in June, 1895 18 Screens, use in protecting plants from frosts 153 SCRIBNER, F. Lamson, appointment as Chief of Division of Agrostology 44 article on ' ' Grasses of salt marshes " 325 ' ' Grass gardens " 301 Sea grape, injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95 173 spear grass, notes 328, 330 Seaweed, value for manurial purposes ' 94 Secretary of Agriculture, Assistant, duties . 523 duties. 523 report to President 9 Sedge (creek sedge, or thatch) , characteristics and uses 328 slender broom, note . . _ 337 Seed balls of beet, special care needed in testing 181 cotton, various uses of its products 187 650 INDEX. Page. Seed distribution by Department, opinion of Attorney-General 58 Division, reasons for not distributing seeds 58 germination, time required for test 180 testing, descrii)tion of apparatus used 183 standard necessary for germination 183 tests 1 )y Department, remarks by Secretary 43 Seeds, effect of different temperatures on germination 178 exports, 1891-1895 545 germination of various kinds 176 how oil is obtained from them 185 to select samples 179 importance of having good quality 175 keeping a record of germination tests 180 method of testing 177 notes on loss by adulteration 177 oil-producing, article by Gilbert H. Hicks . 185 ntimber of different species used in the arts 185 proper conditions for testing 178 quantity and value of imports, 1891-1895 550 table of germination standards 184 testing at home, article by A. J. Pieters 175 value of exports to different countries 547 weight and cost ; list and remarks . . 613 of four mixtures 614 Separators, milk. (See Milk separators.) Sesame (benne) oil, i>roduction and use 197 Sesamnvi indicum and ,S'. orientaJe, i^roduction of oil from seed 197 Sewage, use as a fertilizer 84 Shade, relative endurance of trees 348 tree insect prol>lem in the eastern United States, article by L. O. Howard 361 insects, abundance in Eastern cities in 1895 361 general remarks 363 in cities and towns, general work against them 380 trees, insect rating of 50 varieties by L. O.Howard 377 list, relative immunity from insects 378 rating of 50 varieties by B. E. Fernow 377 relative immunity from insects 377 Shaw, Thomas, article on " Canadian field peas" 323 Sheds, emj^loyment in the culture of iiineaiiples 274 Sheep, exports from Ireland to Great Britain for eight months in 1895 23 1891-1895... 543 inspected for exportation, 1895 11 number and value January 1 , 1891-1890 535 imi)orted from Canada 13 in Great Britain in 1895 35 lost in transit in 1895 and 1894 13 price and value Januar j' 1 , 1890, by States 535 quantitj^ and value of imports 1891-1895 548 shipments, dangers and difficulties 11 use of Canadian field peas for food 334 value of exports to different countries 546 Sheldon, Prof. J. P. , remarks on oleomargarine cheese 467 Shellac varnish , used in pruning 368 Shoe strings, value as forage plants 318 Silage, composition of different kinds . . 1 560 Silk, quantity and value of imports, 1891-1895 549 Silver maple, growth on the Western plains 346 Sina2:)i.f alba (white mustard) seed, use in producing oil 203 Sisal grass, quantity and value of imports, 1891-1895 549 Slender broom sedge, note 337 Sling psychromcter, description and how to use 150 Small-fruit culture, choice of location 284 general requirements 383 planting and cultivation 286 preparation of soil 284 remarks on manuring 285 INDEX. 651 Page. Small-fruit culture, selection of plants 2SU fruits, harvesting and marketing 289 varieties for market 288 Smith, Jared G.. article on "Forage conditions of the prairie region" 300 Sinitli, Prof. John B., experience in spraying against imported elm leaf- beetle - 367 Smoke and fire as a protection against frost 15.") Smudging orchards, descriiition of apparatus l.j.j Snvdeu, Harry, article on "Humus in its relation to soil fertility" 141 Soap and kerosene emulsion formula 584 Sodium nitrate, commercial value. 90 consumption for manurial purposes 89 need in the soil 89 properties 88 Soil adapted to culture of Madia sa tiva 195 sunflower culture 194 characteristic^, climate, and irrigation methods of California, article by Charles W. Irish 475 cultivation, meaning of the term; when practiced 128 different kinds of organisms 72 efforts of Edmund Ruffln to increase the fertility 496 ferments. (.See Ferments of the soil.) fertility, relation of humus, article by Harry Snyder 131 for i^lants in gieenhniises, chemical and mechanical conditions 249 how marl increases its fertility 499 water enters 123 humus and the heat 138 influences of different systems on farming 140 in greenhouses, importance of free access of air 252 injurious compacting by plowing 125 means of increasing the humates 136 maintaining the humus 139 nitrates, methods of jireserAing 90 nitrification. {See Nitrification of soil.) of irrigation districts of California, character 478 particles in solution for use of plants 70 jjreparation for growing Canadian field i)eas , 228 small-fruit culture 284 tree planting in the Western plains 357 reasons for cultivating, article by Milton Whitney 123 remarks on use for protecting plants from frosts 152 vitality 69 wick action 105 sampling for ferments, precaiitions 96 seeding with nitrifying organisms . 78 suitable for hemp culture 216 pineapple cultvtre 273 Soils, adaptability for Canadian field peas 228 Agricultural, Division. (,S'ee Agricultural Soils, Division.) alkali. {See Alkali soils.) btirning over a source of loss of hnraus 135 containing different amounts of humus, water capacity 138 inij»regnation with nitrates 87 local, study by Division of Agricultural Soils 54 typical, texture at dift\'rent localities, with notes. 5.56 Soiling crops, general remarks 321 Soja bean, xise in producing oil 204 Sorghum, crop suitable for alkali soils _ 121 Sour sop, injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95 173 Sowing Canadian field peas, methods _ 228 Spain and Italy, amount of sodium nitrate used for manurial purposes 90 ]H)rk imported from United States in 1895 10 Spaniish lime, injury by freezes in Florida in 1894^95. 172 SxHxrtina cynosuroides (cord grass) , value as a forage plant. 318 (fresh-water cord grass), description 329 iuncea (fox grass) , chemical composition 332 (red salt grass) , characteristics and uses 329 652 INDEX. Page. Spartina juncifonnis, notes 329 polystachya, description 329 stricta var. glabra (creek sedge), characteristics and uses 328 Spear grass, sea, notes 338, 330 Spices, quantity and value of imports, 1891-1895 550 Spider, red (pineapple mite) , disease of the pineapple 283 Spike grass, description and characteristics 330 (long leaf) , disease of the pineapple 381 Spinach, New Zealand, introduction into United States, use as a pot herb.. 314 use as a pot herb 214 Spinacia oleracea (spinach) , use as a pot herb 214 Spraying apparatus for use in high air in orchard as a protection from frosts. 156 as a means of protection from frosts 156 outfit for the orchard 586 remedy for imported elm leaf -beetle 366 work of the GjT)sy Moth Commission of Massachusetts 367 Spurge, European, seed for producing oil 193 various uses of the oil _ 198 Statistics, Division, comments on operations by Secretary 33 methods of obtaining information 33 organization and duties 524 Stem and branches, healing of wounds 266 Stigmceus sp. , disease of the pineapple 282 Stock yards, inspection by Department 12 Stone, Roy, article on ' ' Cooperative road construction " 487 Strawberry culture, general remarks 291 varieties which succeed generally 293 Straw, remarks on use for protecting plants from frosts. 152 Stui'nella magna (common meadow lark) , distribution 420 neglecta (Western meadow lark) , distribution 420 Subirrigation, gi-eenhouse, experiments at Ohio, "West Virginia, and Michi- gan experiment stations 245 of the garden, remarks -.. 239 Subsoiling, principles discussed 127 remarks on advantages 53 Suckers of pineapples, importance of removing 280 (rattoons) for propagating pineapples 276 Sugar and molasses, exports, 1891-1895 545 average price and consumption, 1878-1894 552 milk, per cent in different varieties of cheese 456 quantity and value of imports, 1891-1895 549 value of exports to different countries 547 Summer fallowing for increasing nitrogen in the soil 134 Sunflower seed, effect of different temperatures on germination 178 for producing oil 193 oil , various uses 194 soil adapted 194 Sunflowers, crop suitable for alkali soils 120 how to plant and ciiltivate 194 Surveyors' measure, table 547 Sweden, exports of butter to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 30 Sweet sop, injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95 173 Swine. (Sec also Rogs.) number and value January 1, 1891-1896 535 imported from Canada ..... 13 price and value January 1, 1896, by States 535 plague bacteria, inefficiency of separators in removing 440 Swiss chard, culture and use as a pot herb 206 Switch gi'ass, note 327 or false redtop, value as a forage plant 314 Sycamore, tree suitable for alkali soils 121 Taft, L. R., article on "Iri-igation for the garden and greenhouse" 323 Tanks and reservoirs, employment in garden iiTigation 237 Taraxacum taraxacum (dandelion) , extensive use as a pot herb 208 Tar, coal, use in pruning - - 268 Taylor, William A., article on " Small-fruit culture for market " 283 INDEX. 653 Fago. Tea, consiTinption in the United States. 1870-1895 503 quantity and value of imports, 1891-1895 549 Temperature, diagram showing relation to rate of nitrification 100 effect on activity of soil ferments 76 influence of forest 338 Temperatures, different, effects on germination of seeds 178 minimum, in Florida during freezes of 1886 and 1894-05 160 Tetragnnia expansa (New Zealand spinach), introduction into United States as a pot herb. - - - - . 214 Texas fever, cost and export inspection. 18 onlj' disease controlled by inspection 13 quarantine season 13 Thrasher, brown, distribution and food habits 411 remarks on food habits 405 table showing stomach contents 418 Tide-water and salt marshes, area 825 Tillage, favorable to nitrification 77 Timber belt, influence on crops 888 investigation , work of Division of Forestry 38 — lumber — wood, useful notes 590 notes on effects of seasoning 591 measurement 591 quality 590 stiffness and strength 591 Timothv seed, effect of different temperatures on germination 178 Tobacco, exports, 1891-1895 545 leaf, average farm prices December, 1886-1895 583 quantitv, acreage, and value in 1895, by States 583 and value of imports, 1891-1895 550 seed, effect of different temperatures on germination 178 use in producing oil 204 value of exports to different countries 547 Top pruning, general remarks 261 Town and cities, general work against shade-tree insects - 380 Transplanting woody plants, importance of proper root development 259 Tree i>lanting, distance talde 593 in the Western plains, article by Charles A. Keffer 341 availability of species 344 illustrative mixtures of species 851, 358 objects sought ... 342 scheme for the sand hills 356 shade, insect problem in the eastern United States, article by L. O. Howard 361 Trees, citrus, banking with earth a protection against freezing 165 training of trunk a protection against freezing 165 forest, protection against freezing of citrus fruits 164 for the Western plains, adaptability of species 345 directions for planting 358 general culture notes 357 objections to planting single species 347 remarks on close planting 350 rules for mixed plantings 347 fruit. (.9ec Fruit trees.) list relative to immunity from insects 878 orchard, injuries from alternate freezing and thawing 157 priming roots in transplanting 260 rate of development of species 349 relative endurance of shade 348 rubber, or wild fig. injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95 173 rating of 50 varieties, by B. E. Fernow 377 relative immunity from insects 377 shade, insects, rating of 50 varieties, by L. O. Howard 377 Trenching, the best m(>thods of loosening the' soil 136 TYof/lndytrs a'pilon (house wren), distribution and food habits 416 TubiTcle bacilli, experiments in removing from milk 437 Turkey-foot, value as a forage plant 318 Turnip, use as a pot herb 210 654 INDEX. Page. Tussock moth, white-marked, food plants 368 life history and habits 369 original home and present distribution 368 remedies 373 shade-tree insect 368 Typldociiha vitifex (grape leaf hopper), description and methods of injiirj', 400 Underdrainage, antiquity of the practice 129 principles discussed 139 United Kingdom, imports of butter from various countries, 1893-189.J 30 cheese from various countries, 1893-1895 29 eggs from various countries, 1893-1895 30 number and value of cattle imported. 189;3-1895 23 quantity and value of beef imported in 1893-1895 22 mutton imported, 1893-1895 25 source of honey supply 31 States, amount of sodium nitrate used for maniirial purposes 90 exports of bacon to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 17 beef to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 22 butter to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 30 cheese to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 _ _ 29 hams to United Kingdom. 1893-1 895 17 lard to United Kingdom , 1893-1895 17 pork to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 17 number and value of cattle exported to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 23 Varnish, shellac, used in pruning 268 Veal, diagram showing cuts of meat 572 Vegetable and fruit canning ia United States, statistics 552 dietary, some additions, article by Frederick V. Coville 205 food, average composition 578 of meadow lark, percentage 425 oriole 430 Physiology and Pathology, Division, comments on operations by Secretary 45 exhibit at Atlanta Exposition 514 organization and duties . 525 Vegetables, exports, 1891-1895 545 fertilizing constituents 567 value of expoi-ts to different countries 547 Vegetation, native, of Florida, injuries by freezes in 1894-95 172 Vessel inspection by Department 12 Vetch, wild, value as a forage plant 818 Vetches, value as forage plants 318 Vinegar, quantity and value of imports, 1891-1895 550 Virginia, colonial, characteristics, conditions, and influences 494 general remarks on agi*iculture 493 Vitality of the soil, remarks 69 Wait, Robert E.. article on " Tlie work of the Department of Agriculture as illustrated at the Atlanta Exposition " 503 W AiTE, M. B. , article on ' ' The cause and prevention of pear blight " 295 Wales, number of head of cattle in June. 1895 18 Walnut, black, growth on the Western plains 346 Warnings, cold- wave, value to agricultural products 82 Water, amount used for irrigation in Califoi'nia 480 as a protection for oranges and lemons against freezes 164 capacity of soils containing different amounts of humus 138 for the farm , influence of forests in providing 337 how it enters the soil 123 hyacinth, injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95 173 lettuce, injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95 173 method of applying in garden irrigation 238 distribution in irrigating the garden 235 per cent in different varieties of cheese 456 INDEX. 655 Page. Water, remarks on use in greenhouses 251 supply of crops, and humus - - 138 various methods of obtaining 234 required for crops, remarks 233 "Wax, grafting, etc., used in pruning, recipes 268 Weather Bureau and its voluntary observers, remarks 555 appointment of Prof. Willis L. Moore as Chief 33 forecaster at Chi- cago station . . 33 comments on operations by Secretary 31 exhibit at Atlanta Exposition 505 its future importance. 33 organization and duties . _ 533 forecasts, comments by Secretary _. 33 in ISO.*), statistics, by months 554 map, daily, use in foretelling frosts 146 description 147 Webber, Herbert J., article on "The pineapple industry in the United States " 2G9 " Two freezes of 1894-95, and what they teach " 159 Webster, W. F.,note on oriole puncturing grape 430 Webworm, fall. (See Fall webworm.) Weeds. beggar, value as forage plants .._ 318 list of 200 ; how to know them and how to kill them 593 Weevil, Mexican cotton-boll. (See Cotton-boll weevil, Mexican.) West Virginia, Ohio, and Michigan experiment stations, experiments with greenhouse irrigation 245 Wheat, average farm prices December 1 , 1886-1895 533 changes in crop area in 1879 and 1889 538 crop of the world, 1891-1895, by countries 530 dispo.sition of crop of 1895, by States 527 effect of different temperatures on germination . . . 178 exports, 1891-1895 544 farm prices December 1, 1891-1895, by States 536 flour, exports, 1891-1895 544 prodiiction and exports, 1893-1895 537 quantity, acreage, and value, by States, for 1895 _ _ . 536 and value of imports, 1801-1895 548 value of exports to different countries 546 v/holesale i)rices at leading cities of United States, 1891-1895 538 White-marked tussock moth. (See Tussock moth, white-marked.) mustard seed , use in i^roilucing oil 203 oak of California, tree suitable for alkali soils 121 Whitney. Milton, article on '-Reasons for cultivating the soil " 123 Wick action of the soil, remarks 105 Wild barley, value as a forage plant 318 fig, or rubber trees, injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95 173 mustard. (Same as black mustard.) rye grass, value as a forage plant 318 vetch, value as a forage plant. 318 wheat grass, value as a forage plant 315 Wiley, II. W. . article on ' ' Soil ferments important in agriculture " 69 Willow, utility on the Western plains 344 Wind-breaks among citrus trees a protection against freezing 165 influence on crops 338 use in protecting plants from frosts 153 Wine, exports, 1891-1895 545 value of exports to different countries 547 Wines, consumption in United States, 1870-1895 553 (luantity and value of imports, 1891-1895 550 Winter cress, cultivation and use as a pot herb 208 pruning favtn-s pear blight 299 imrslane, use as pot herbs. 213 treatment and pruning in small-fruit culture 287 Wolff's feeding standards, tables 564 Wood— timber— lumber , useful notes 590 r 656 INDEX. Page. Woods, Albert F., article on "Principles of pruning and care of wounds in woody plants" . 257 Woods, fertilizing constituents 569 Wool, value of exports to different countries 547 Wools, quantity and value of imports, 1891-1895 549 World's market for American horses 26 Wormseed, use in producing oil 204 Wounds in woody plants, care and pruning, article by Albert F. Woods. -. 257 on stem and branches, remarks on healing 266 Wren, house, distribution and food habits 416 remarks on food habits - 405 table showing stomach contents 418 Xanthoxylum pterota (satin wood) , injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95. 173 Zizania aquatica ( Indian rice) , description 330