Wisn f One) } Wy, sien ap ae wy LONE N RA peace: ee | | Ser Pa PP IOP ODPL Or Oe Ds or sly rpueg 2909i01 si Sit Ad ; AYVYAIT TVIOWAW ATTISIM pouonang & ‘VD ‘A TVIIASUALUVI + SLID} SUIyIE AA SOUTeL "A2Y | 40 AUVUAIT PPO ED OSL SID OS SLO OL OOH: 06$4S666S00S N’ ted DPD DO OCO LOD Se > ad it i ———— PLATE I, 1895 “SYNLINDYSOY JO LNANLYWd3qg ‘S *f) 3H1 JO ONITTIING NIVW (s-3 . 4 Uf Cf 4 uc -, BEAt- J)— YEARBOOK } " : - & Opts tlh I/ OF THE fee eh) STA Pts DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fae ea tee dy WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, 1896. > z \ A 35 lL @as5 cor. 3 [PuBLic—No. 15.] An act providing for the public printing and binding and the distribution of public documents. * * * * * * * Section 17, paragraph 2: The Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture shail hereafter be submitted and printed in two parts, as follows: Part one, which shall contain purely busi- ness and executive matter which it is necessary for the Secretary to submit to the President and Congress; part two, which shall contain such reports from the different bureaus and divisions, and such papers prepared by their special agents, accompanied by suitable illustrations, as shall, in the opinion of the Secretary, be specially suited to interest, and instruct the farmers of the country, and to include a general report of the operations of the Department for their information. There shall be printed of part one, one thousand copies for the Senate, two thou- sand copies for the House, and three thousand copies for the Department of Agri- - culture; and of part two, one hundred and ten thousand copies for the use of the Senate, three hundred and sixty thousand copies for the use of the House of Rep- resentatives, and thirty thousand copies for the use of the Department of Agri-- culture, the illustrations for the same to be executed under the supervision of the Public Printer, in accordance with directions of the Joint Committee on Printing, said illustrations to be subject to the approval of the Secretary of Agriculture; and the title of each of the said parts shall be such as to show that such part is complete in itself. 9 ~ ii Pty da A ome, _ Ever since 1849, when the report of the Department of Agriculture was first published in a separate volume, as Part II of the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Patents, it has been customary to issue large editions for distribution by Congress. Of the report for 1851, 110,000 copies were printed, 100,000 of which were for distribu- tion by Congress. The original edition of 110,000 copies was grad- ually increased with the growth of the population of the country and the development of its various agricultural interests, until it reached in 1892 half a million copies. The volume in the old form was made up of business and executive reports for the use of the President and of Congress, and such statements of the results of scientific work as promised to be useful to farmers. In the belief that a volume de- signed for such extensive distribution among farmers should be specially prepared for them, a provision was incorporated in the act of January 12, 1895 (printed on the opposite page), requiring that future annual reports of the Department of Agriculture should be divided into two volumes: First, an executive and business report, and, second, a volume made up of papers from the Department bureaus and divisions ‘‘specially suited to interest and instruct the farmers of the country.” As the report for 1894 had been prepared before this act became a law, all that could be done last year was to separate the papers submitted and publish them in the new form. While it is hoped that the present volume is somewhat of an advance upon the Yearbook for 1894, it does not fully come up to the ideal which the Department has set before it. The plan has been to prepare a volume consisting of three parts: (1) ‘‘A general report of the operations of the Department” dur- ing the year, by the Secretary of Agriculture. | (2) A series of papers from the different bureaus and divisions of the Department, and from some of the experts of the agricultural _ experiment stations, discussing in a popular manner the results of investigations in agricultural science or new developments in farm practice. These papers are presented in the form of popular essays rather than scientific reports, and with the object of making them attractive as well as instructive they are illustrated as fully as possi- ble. The several topics have been treated in as thorough a manner é 3 4 PREFACE. as space permitted, but no attempt has been made to cover the entire range of subjects that would be included in a handbook of agricul- tural science. As the years go on,it is hoped that the Department will, in successive issues of this work, give farmers a good library covering the applications of science to practical agriculture. No systematic treatment has, however, been possible in planning for this or succeeding Yearbooks, and only such subjects have been taken up as have been reasonably well investigated and seem timely or suit- able for discussion. (3) An appendix. The publications of the United States Govern- ment having more or less bearing upon agriculture have become so numerous that an epitome of their more important contents has become almost a necessity. Scattered through the publications of the Department of Agriculture, for example, are many valuable data, facts of interest, recipes, and directions with regard to agricultural and horticultural practice, which it is desirable to bring together for convenience of reference. Accordingly, in the appendix to the present volume there will be found a large amount of miscellaneous information taken from the reports of this Department and presented with especial regard to the requirements of the agricultural reader. Statistics of agriculture taken from the reports of the Census, and much interesting information relative to the exports, imports, and per capita consumption of agricultural products from the publica- tions of the Bureau of Statistics of the Treasury Department, haye also been compiled in convenient form down to the latest avail- able date. It has thus been sought to make the volume a concise reference book of useful agricultural information based in great part upon the work of this and other Departments of the Government, without making it an encyclopedia of generalinformation. In brief, the effort has been to make a book, and not a mere Government report—a book worthy to be published in an edition of half a million copies and at an expense to the people, if we count both publication and distribu- tion, of over $400,000. Time and space have not been spared in the preparation of an index to the book, which, itis believed, will prove an efficient guide to all who consult it. CHARLES W. DABNEY, Jr., Assistant Secretary. WASHINGTON, D. C,, February 1, 1896. e..N Tae. Eten CeLOnnmyer se 21L.! a eos 03ND see Soil Ferments hnportant in Agriculture. By H. W. Wiley __...-.-.------ Origin, Value, and Reclamation of Alkali Lands. By E. W. Hilgard_____- Reasons for Cultivating the Soil. By Milton Whitney ___._._._.___.__.__- Humus in its Relation to Soil Fertility. By Harry Snyder _____._._______- Frosts and Freezes as Affecting Cultivated Plants. By B. T. Galloway___- The Two Freezes of 1894-95 in Florida, and what they Teach. By Her- MEET ae Sot as eee a eh we ee ae fee eoons at Home, .By.A, J. Pieters... _..2:-.....-..--.22--i2..2-2 Saleerocucma Secds, « By G. H, Hicks. ...-.-.-.../2222 22202 aS Some Additions to Our Vegetable Dietary. By Frederick V. Coville______- Pep Culture. “By Chas. Richards Dodge. ..-.........-.--.2.-L1-2-25.---- manadian, hietid eas, By Thomas Shaw --.....22..2..i00.2-2f. 022022220: 5. Irrigation for the Garden and Greenhouse. By L. R. Taft__..._...-..__-- The Health of Plants in Greenhouses. By B. T. Galloway_._____..____--- Principles of Pruning and Care of Wounds in Woody Plants. By Albert The Pineapple Industry in the United States. By Herbert J. Webber----- Small-Fruit Culture for Market. By William A. Taylor__....-....------- The Cause and Prevention of Pear Blight. By M. B. Waite_........._.__-- Panne aroens. . by FH. Lamson scripner.....<..--.-2--- -~-- su. tobee Ue Forage Conditions of the Prairie Region. By Jared G. Smith_.__.___.___- Grasses of Salt Marshes. By F. Lamson-Scribner-.---_--.-...--..-...------ The Relation of Forests to Farms. By B. E. Fernow_---........---.-.---- Tree Planting in the Western Plains. By Charles A. Keffer__........__--- The Shade-Tree Insect Problem in the Eastern United States. By L. O. The Principal Insect Enemies of the Grape. By C. L. Marlatt-_--_- a SaRes Four Common Birds of the Farm and Garden. By Sylvester D. Judd------ The Meadow Lark and Baltimore Oriole. By F. E. L. Beal_-........--.--- Inefficiency of Milk Separators in Removing Bacteria. By Veranus A. eter oubstitutes. “By E. A. de Schweinitz..2022- 222.220 2-2. - eels. The Manufacture and Consumption of Cheese. By Henry E. Alvord_--__- Climate, Soil Characteristics, and Irrigation Methods of California. By DIET NURS, Speke neh orl, Sees « aoa oes SOE WEL caw ee wees ene Cooperative Road Construction. By Roy Stone___--_.-------------------- A Pioneer in Agricultural Science. By W. P. Cutter_............--------- Work of the Department of Agriculture as Illustrated at the Atlanta Expo- eer Ieee SECNGE tks, V0 GlGhed oucn = <= Sn soda pens nee cneenn dessnee-. ..i2s.22~ — . Diagram showing amounts an . Clefh.erattme~~ =. 2. 52555.-29 a 7 composition of alkali salts at 23. Simple germinating apparatus.... 181 joined oeke ks as ee ee 24. Homemade germinating appa- claimed alkali land on which bar- PARAS S e ae ees 182 ley grew 4 feet high -...........- 107 25. Apparatus for germinating several 4, Diagram showing amounts and varieties at one time .---.--..---- 183 composition of alkali salts at va- 26. Cotton (Gossypium barbadense)... 186 a in noe soil on ee 27. Common flax (Linum usitatissi- Me which barley would not grow -.- 0: CL EE Le EE 5. Diagram showing amounts and . 28. Castor-oil bean (Ricinus commu- composition of alkali salts at va- IVES) ee eee 191 Se depths in alkali land unirri- Hes 29. ee spurge (Luphorbialathy- = ERR ee Dees oo mate cma he = S| RE Rg ee ay TF 6. Diagram showing amounts and 30. Sunflower (Helianthus annuus).- 193 composition of alkali salts at va- | 31. Madia (Madia sativa) ........---- 195 ri r Ee ss F =o uple Eeaka th commaaailer te Mai eer eel non ara na 7. Diagram showing amounts and 34. Hemp (Cannabis sativa) .........- 199 composition of alkali salts at va- | 35. Rape (Brassica napus)....-.-.--. --- 200 os coe in a alkali land | 36. Opium poppy (Papaver somnife- sve where barley would not grow, te | He EE Sp BS 20: irrigated eh paren ate 112 | 37. Charlock (Brassiea sinapistrum).. 206 8. Specimen weather map..---.....-. 147 | 38. Chicory (Cichorium intybus)..-.-- 207 9. Sling psychrometer..-............ 149 | 39. Winter cress (Barbarea praecox). 208 10. teh ee for protecting plants . 40. ge ee dock (Rumezx obtusi- fo Oo Sane Spe 153 | oo SR ree es eee 2 Bi rea — for as plants 41. eel tengo (Chenopodium al- Sie rom hot sun and frosts.......... 154 Cd fe ee ARE RR ES FRE OP 2 12. Pedy bas for protecting epee | 42. — ope a oe eS 2 a co rames, etc., from co 43. Black mustard (Brassica nigra) .. 2 wy tis per LE Ae as Li a 154 44. Pigweed (Amarantus palmeri).... 212 13. Apparatusfor smudging orchards. 156 45. Winter purslane (Claytonia per- 14. ap pea for spraying orchards - # sia aedd naman dbs baaaueae es Sag on RON REE a oce ocak ones none s hi eee eee oS 2 15. Protecting trunks of orchard trees | 47. Pea harvester with platform...... 230 from frost injuries by means of ue 48. ee conenrs hp see? machine sod UE SDRUHEGRS odes 250. Senna Witil LONE BOOGN . acme Jaana pactanne 2 16. = or — groys ee down 49. Square trough for distributing he e cold and throwing u water (section) -....--.-.........- 23 setetaie from the base o in 5@. V-shaped trough (seetion)...... --- 237 trunk. The tops were cut off 51. Irrigating young orchard with ms Pgrenin rie peat freeze .. 18 in ore PR Se phe Ben = ° roperly trained trunk. -........ . Water bench for greenhouse. ...- 2 18, vey rhe sot BS trained trunk..... 166 53. Violet euttings from old wood.... 255 19. Ruby orange bud, put in May 21, 54. Violet cuttings from mature wood. 256 on sprout from old sweet-orange 55. Violet cutting with insufficient trun Pee eee eee eee Ce eee eee ee 168 QUO atic whdaecteunse cde canes 256 ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. Page. 56. Ideal type of violet cuttings from Fie. 99. Amphicerus Vicaudatus. Larva, ANMUUTO WOO0d. 226-5055 Seecescs 256 larval burrow, pupa, beetle (dor- 57. Cross section of trunk of sassafras sal and lateral views), and injury EPO cater e pas dees cdxeRoseeebas 258 to young shoots and canes....... 394 58. Trunk of maple, showing hole left 100. Haltica chalybea. Larva, beetle. by decaying limb..........--...- 262 injury to buds and leaves, an 59. Soft maple, cut back.-..........-- 263 beetles killed by fungus......... 395 60. Oak tree from which some of the 101. Macrodactylus subspinosus. Lar- lower limbs have been properly ya, pupa, beetle, injury to leaves ent and most of the upper ones and blossoms, with beetles, nat- improperly cut.......----------- 267 ural size, at work. «-..cossseeeeee 397 61. Showing where a large limb has 102. Desmia maculalis. Larva, pupa, been cut from a tulip tree ---.--.- 268 male and female moths, and grape 62. Field of pineapples growing under leaf folded by larva-.....5s2.uce 398 shed, showing newly set plants 103. Philampelus achemon. Young and and illustrating the methods of mature larva, pupa, moth, and BOCAS oo oss oon ole cS enemcceee 270 ’ parasitized larva... 2 opepsoeesene 399 63. Field of Porto Rico pineapples at 104. Typhlocyba. Typical form, female West Palm Beach, grown by and male—all allied species; open-field culture.........-.---.- 271 larva, pups and appearance of 64. Instrument for marking a field for injured leaf...-.;.<2a.eeesemeeee 401 pineapples .......--------------- 278 105. Eudemis botrana. Larva, pupa, 65. Pineapple suckers...-...-..--.--- 279 moth, folded leaf with pupashell, 66. Tangle rootof the pineapple....--- 280 and grape showing injury....... 403 67. Spot on the base of a pineapple 106. Catbird (Galeoscoptes carolinen- leaf caused by the pineapple mite Ct) PPE 407 or red spider (Stigmeeus).......-- 282 107. Brown thrasher (Harporhynchus 68. Grass garden at the U.S. Depart- TUSUS) . a0 a0 das 505 ~— nase eee 412 mentof Agriculture. Platofbuf- 108. Mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos). 415 falo grass in the foreground..... 302 109. Heuse wren (Troglodytesaédon)... 417 69. Bouquet of grasses from the grass 110. The meadow fark (Saturnella Ca Re ier once =e 306 TL) ee 70. Buffalo grass (Buchloe dactyloides) 310 111. Baltimore oriole (Icterus galbula). 427 71. Little blue stem (Andropogon sco- 112, A, Microscopic appearance of pure WETTED) 25 occ owen = 630, 191 754, 762 712,662 | 1,007,818.08 | 1,200.993.80 | 1, 136, 199. 02 Germany....-......- 1,199,894 | 2,256,924 | 2,331,922 | 1, 704,085.50 | 3,108,629.83 | 8,055, 242. 22 Belgium ............. 1,167,500 | 2,109,085 | 1,528,905 | 1,984,247.23 | 3,045,246.43 | 2, 200, 231.32 js Ties eee 8,046,727 | 1,804,327) 2,060,535 | 6, 283,576.18 | 8,540,198.68 | 3,859, 153.96 j RD cyahdcass--ce 23, 065 28,277 79, 463 83, 802. 70 37,218. 99 144, 904, 89 i Other countries. .... 138, 413 120, 521 171, 613 247, 719. 45 189, 146. 25 299, 576, 87 Total .......... 7,030,926 | 7,818, 321 be 8, 107, 362 | 12, 317, 157.92 | 12,026, 829.60 | 12, 280,917.00 | “REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 51 HONEY. The English honey market is supplied by the home product, from the United States, and from Chile. There is a large and steady demand, and, though sometimes exceeded by the supply, this is an unusual occurrence. The English honey harvest has been very good this year, and it is selling upon the retailer’s counter at from 20 cents to 25 cents per pound. Wholesale prices at the latest date obtainable are as follows: English : Earthenware pots, finest, per doz.........-.----------__- $1. 45 Earthenware pots, finest, }-pound, per doz_____...._____- . 90 Flint-glass jars, 17-ounce, per doz _..._..........-.__.--- 1.70 Transparent honey, in glass jars, nickel-plated screw top, vo.) (0 })3 aa » AR Reade k Pie Sem Lapel eS) Ua Sake aM hae e ge 1.57 United States: Thurber-Whyland’s white sage, strained, 1-pound darn ey Goren ie CAG. Der GGg 60: it 2.30 Californian, in original cans (about 56 pounds), per cwt. of 112 lbs_ 9.60 (chilean, in otiginal cwt. kegs, per cwt....-.--.---<----.---------. 8.75 The American white sage commands the top price. It is a delicious honey and most attractively put up. All honeys sent to England are strained except a nominal quantity that reaches there in the comb from California. California shipments of strained honey are made in 56-pound tins, two tins inacase. Chilean usually comes in 60-pound kegs, but sometimes in 112-pound barrels. It is nota matter of great importance, as to size of packages, etec., though it would be well to conform to the California practice. It would be ruinous to send adulterated honey to England. Our agent in England has had several inquiries as to honey market this year, especially from Texas, and he has supplied inquirers with names of importers in England, and with information as to how to approach them, and this he will be pleased to do for all inquirers. The Department has knowledge that some years ago a large honey maker in California found in China a profitable market for some 20 tons of honey annually. In this, as in every other branch of industry, only the makes of the best, most genuine products can secure a permanent, profitable trade, ereditable alike to themselves and their country, and they alone deserve to. WEATHER BUREAU. For the fiscal year ended June 30, 1895, Congress appropriated $878,458.84 to maintain the United States Weather Bureau. Ex- penses, however, were reduced while the efficiency of the service in- creased, so that there remains approximately a sum of $55,000 which will ultimately be covered back into the Treasury of the United States out of the appropriated amount. During the same twelve months the Weather Bureau received for condemned property, sale of pub- lications, and seacoast telegraph lines, and deposited in the Treasury 32 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of the United States, the additional sum of $5,498.57, making a total to be covered in by this Bureau of something over $60,000. FORECASTS. Detailed statements as to forecasts published during the year in the different States and Territories of the Republic are contained in the annual report of the Chief of the Weather Bureau. That report also gives approximations of the value of property saved because of those forecasts, and declares that the warnings of cold waves alone secured from freezing more than $2,275,000 worth of perishable agricultural products which otherwise would have been lost. It is proved by the report of the Chief of the Weather Bureau that the degree of accuracy in the forecast division thereof is steadily augmenting. It is now a duty, under orders from the Secretary of Agriculture to the Chief of the Weather Bureau, that reports be made on the first day of each month of all forecasts made for the previous thirty days, together with the percentages of their verifica- tion. Thus every forecaster realizes that his work is to be reviewed at the close of each four weeks and his accuracy tested by mathematical computation and verification. This feature in the administration of the Weather Bureau has been adopted since Prof. Willis L. Moore was appointed chief of that bureau and entered upon his duties, July 4, 1895. Since that date many reforms have been successfully instituted, and thus far the service continues to show a marked and decided improvement as to its management and efficiency. The present Chief of the Weather Bureau began his profession in an observer’s station twenty years ago. He came up from the ranks of the intelligent and industrious workers. In 1894, at a competitive examination, which had been instituted by the Secretary of Agricul- ture, for a $2,500 professorship, it was decided, after a severe contest and examination by Professors Harrington and Mendenhall and Maj. H. H. C. Dunwoody, of the Signal Corps of the Regular Army of the United States, that Prof. Willis L. Moore was entitled, by ability and acquirements, to the place. Thereupon, he was detailed to take charge of the Weather Bureau station at Chicago. He gave an entirely satisfactory and markedly useful service in that city. From there he was called to his present position. His suecess and promo- tion opens the way for advancement, through industr 7, Skill, and attainments, to every observer in the Bureau. The possibilities of usefulness to agriculture, manufacture, and commerce are almost without limit in the increasing accuracy and capabilities of the Weather Bureau. The time is not probably very distant when its records, warnings, and forecasts will be constantly in demand as evidence in the courts of justice and also by those pur- posing large investments in certain kinds of agricultural erops, in x REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 33 perishable fruits, in commercial ventures, and in manufacturing plants. Weather Bureau forecasts in the not distant future will, no doubt, be consulted and awarded credibility just as thermometers, barometers, and aerometers are to-day. The usefulness of the mete- orological branch of the service, wisely and economically administered, is beyond computation. The annual report of the present chief is replete with interesting and practical suggestions. DIVISION OF STATISTICS. The work of the Division of Statistics, in charge of Henry A. Rob- inson, its chief, is, primarily, collecting, through many thousands of unpaid county correspondents in the several States and Territories of the Union, agricultural data as to area, condition, and probabilities of crops. After this data has been tabulated, averaged, and consoli- dated it is given to the general public in the form of approximations as to acreage, condition, and yield. From its origin, the conclusions and reports of this division have been frequently subjected to more or less severe criticism. Public attention is often called to the fact that the annual cost of securing agricultural statistics which are published from time to time by this Department is about $100,000, and that therefore they ought to more nearly attain accuracy. The authors of these criticisms forget that while about that sum of money is exhausted annually in the payment of certain State statistical agents and the employees and expenses of the division in the city of Washington, 10,000 county crop reporters in 2,500 counties throughout the several States and Territories of the American Union perform their duties without any pecuniary remu- neration whatever. Added to the foregoing unremunerated force there are 15,000 mil- lers and elevator men who send in figures and data from month to month relative to cereal and other crops, and also 15,000 township correspondents who do the same thing, and 6,300 agents who report to the several State statistical agents, who condense and send to this Department the results of their inquiries and estimates, and added to this last list are 3,000 special cotton-crop correspondents; and supplementing all the foregoing there are 123,000 American farmers who have been selected because of their large experience and superior intelligence who assist (by making special investigations) in verifying the vast amount of data and figures furnished by the tens of thou- sands of correspondents enumerated. And not a single one of the aforesaid correspondents among the farmers, elevator men, millers, and other intelligent classes of citizens named receives a dollar of salary out of the Treasury of the United States. The marvel, there- fore, is that the data thus patriotically and freely furnished the Divi- sion of Statistics should prove as valuable, reliable, and accurate as it, does. A 95——2 34 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The statistical system of this Department at present, consequently, provides for the payment of collating and disseminating data evolved from facts and figures which have been furnished to its various seetions and officers in Washington as mere gratuities. The fact that some citizens are paid fair salaries for industriously and correetly making computations, averages, and approximations, and determining results from conditions and figures which have been gratuitously collected and sent in by other citizens who were wholly without compensation, is not calculated to inspire great faith or credibility as to the relia- bility of the conclusions reached. During the past year, however, in addition to the usual county and township crop correspondents, gen- erally belonging to the agricultural classes, the Department has secured from month to month data from millers throughout the country, from railroad managers, from railroad station agents, and from bankers, merchants, and nearly every other intelligent source of information. During the last twelve months a visible improvement as to the aceu- racy of figures promulgated has been developed relative to the cotton and some other crops, and yet the condition of the division and the fruits of its labors are not entirely satisfactory. Neither individuals nor governments can, ordinarily, suecessfully and permanently obtain a valuable gratuitous service. Humanity seldom gives, either to citizens or governments, something for noth- ing, except in eases of poverty and distress. It is, therefore, the opinion of the Secretary of Agriculture that no satisfactorily aceurate statistical work can be accomplished for agriculture and ecommerce by this Department until a sufficient permanent appropriation shall have been made to provide for the taking of an annual agricultural census. Others who have made this subject a profound study, and whose judgment is entitled to great consideration and respect, believe that reliable detailed data may be gathered by the assessors of taxes -in the various States and Territories. Others again, of equal experi- ence in statistical research, declare that the collectors of internal revenue and their deputies and other employees could be suceess- fully commanded by the Treasury Department for the colleetion of agricultural statistics. Again, men of great experience in the: cereal and cotton trades claim that if the acreage be accurately ascertained as to each staple product, and that acreage published in the month of June each year, and additionally the climatic conditions in each locality be also offi- cially promulgated each day or week or month during the growing season, more accurate approximations of crops ean be reached than by any other method. It is possible, in the opinion of the Secretary, that the duty of ascer- taining and reporting to this Department accurately the acreage of staple crops in each State on June 1 of each year might be, without working any hardship, imposed by law upon the authorities of our ~ a REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 35 agricultural colleges and experiment stations in consideration of their united annual appropriation of $40,000 each. The acreage being given, the character of soil known, and climatic conditions published daily by the Weather Bureau, approximations of the yields of each erop could be probably computed with more accuracy than under the present methods. Attention is particularly directed to the report of the chief of this division, which in detail and very clearly describes its work during the fiscal year, and likewise reiterates cogently an argument in favor of taking an annual agricultural census. It concludes that if there be value in statistics as now gathered and published there would be infinitely greater value and use for statistics based upon absolutely accurate returns made by the takers of a yearly farm census. If, however, the Congress of the United States finally provides for a permanent census bureau to gather populational, agricultural, com- mercial, and manufacturing statistics each year, instead of once in ten years, the entire business of collecting agricultural data and statistics should be vested in that bureau, which is now proposed and advocated as a permanency by many of the most thoughtful econo- mists and statists of the United States. EXPERIMENT STATIONS. The Office of Experiment Stations continues in charge of Dr. A. C, True as Director. In his report for 1893 the Secretary of Agriculture recommended that he be given authority to supervise the expenditures of agricul- tural stations; this had not been done before. In pursuance of this suggestion the Fifty-third Congress inserted the following sentence in the paragraphs providing the usual appropriation for these stations: The Secretary of Agriculture shall prescribe the form of annual financial state- ment required by section three of the act of March second, eighteen hundred and eighty-seven; shall ascertain whether the expenditures under the appropriation hereby made are in accordance with the provisions of the said act, and shall make report thereon to Congress. The blank schedules for reports and instructions for filling them up were prepared and distributed to fhe experiment stations as soon as practicable after the passage of this act. The new law applied to the appropriations made for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1895. Under the original experiment-station act the reports of these stations are not due until February 1, 1896. A complete report on their work and expenditures during the past fiscal year is therefore not possible at this time. This will, however, be prepared as soon as practicable for transmission to Congress. It is respectfully recommended that the original experiment-station act be amended so as to require the finan- cial reports of the stations to be rendered to the Secretary of Agricul- ture on or before September 1 following the close of the fiseal year. 36 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Thus it will be possible thereafter to include a report on their expendi- tures asa part of the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agricul- ture. In order that the Department might have accurate and complete information regarding the work and expenditures of the stations as the basis for the report to be made by the Secretary of Agriculture, it was decided that the stations should be visited by representatives of the Department. Up to the end of the fiscal year 35 of these stations were thus visited. In connection with these visits inquiries were made regarding the general management of the stations and their relations to the colleges; their methods of keeping accounts and records of their work; the lines and methods of work undertaken, and all other matters which might throw light upon the expenditures as reported. WORK OF THE STATIONS. In regard to the work of the stations the Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, Dr. Charles W. Dabney, jr., says: In a general way it may be said that the investigation af the work of the sta- tions thus far made clearly indicates that even the poorest of our stations have done scientific work of practical benefit to the farmers of their communities, and that in many cases the services of the stations already rendered have been of great value to practical agriculture, far surpassing in the aggregate the total amount of expenditure made for them by the National Government. The greatest hin- drances to successful work have arisen in those communities which have failed to appreciate the fact that the stations are primarily scientific institutions, and that, while they should always keep steadily in view the practical results to be obtained, they render the most permanent benefits to agriculture when they make thorough scientific investigations of problems underlying successful agriculture and horti- culture. The importance of adopting definite lines of work and sticking to them until definite results have been obtained is strongly urged. In order to accomplish this there should be greater permanency in the organization and tenure of office of the stations, as frequent changes in boards of management and station officers have caused corresponding changes in the policy and work of many of the stations, which have either prevented their carrying out any thorough inquiries or discouraged the undertaking of important investigations. In some cases the institutions with which the stations are connected have not received that support from the States which was necessary and was evidently con- templated under the acts of March 2, 1887, and August 30, 1890. In all of the acts from the land-grant act of 1862, providing the first endowment for colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts, down to the act of August 30, 1890, making a hand- some addition to the income of the same institutions, it is clearly implied that the States shall provide the necessary land and buildings for these colleges as well as the experiment stations connected with them. The United States has provided a part of the funds necessary for paying the current expenses of these institutions, but in doing so it places the obligation upon the States to provide the necessary land, buildings, and other things belonging to the plant. In all such cases this Department has sought to bring the local communities to realize more fully the importance of contributing from their own means to build up strong institutions for the benefit of agriculture. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 37 THE NUTRITIVE VALUE AND ECONOMY OF FOODS. The supervision of the investigations on this subject was assigned to the Office of Experiment Stations, with Prof. W. O. Atwater as special agent in charge. In accordance with the terms of the law, the cooperation of the agricultural experiment stations has been sought as far as was justified by their facilities and the requirements of their work. As a rule, only such institutions were invited to join in this work as were in a position to contribute the services of experts, laboratory facilities, and other resources to supplement those provided by this appropriation. In this way work has been carried on under the immediate direction of Professor Atwater at Middletown, Conn.; in connection with the Society for Improving the Condition of the Poor and the Industrial Christian Alliance in New York City; in connection with the New Jersey State Experiment Station at New Brunswick; at Pittsburg, Pa.; at Charleston, 8. C.; at Suffield, Conn. ; in connection with the agricultural experiment station at Auburn, Ala., and the Tuskegee Normal Institute, in Alabama; in connection with the University of Missouri, at Columbia; the University of Tennessee, at Knoxville; Purdue University, at Lafayette, Ind.; the Hull House, at Chicago, Il., and the Maine State College, at Orono, Me. The work has included so far the following lines: Studies of the composition, nutritive value, and cost of food materials; studies of actual dietaries, with a view to learning what are the kinds and amounts of food materials actually consumed by people of different sections, of different occupations, and under different conditions; studies on the digestibility of food; methods of investigation of food subjects, ete. The results of inquiries on food conducted in this country and abroad have been compiled, and already one technical and several popular publications have been prepared and published. A standard table of the results of food analyses is in course of preparation. Many food materials never before analyzed have been analyzed by our agents, and during the year the number of food analyses tabulated has increased from about 1,100 to 3,000. When completed, this standard table of analyses will form an important advance in the study and will furnish a basis for future investigation. An effort will be made to build up centers of inquiry where the more scientific and fundamental problems can be investigated, where workers in this line can be trained, where the importance and useful- ness of accurate information regarding the rational nutrition of man will be taught to large bodies of students, and from which the prae- tical results of food investigations may be widely and efficiently dis- seminated among all the people. The results of this work thus far published have awakened great interest in the subject, especially among physicians, teachers, clergymen, the officers of our Army and Navy, the superintendents of benevolent institutions, and persons 38 YEARBOOK OF THE U. & DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. studying the sociological conditions of modern times. The investi- gations already made plainly show the wastefulness of the dietaries of a large number of people, and the importance of practical instruction in regard to proper methods of preparing and cooking food. The work of the experiment stations is so varied and voluminous that no adequate conception thereof can be obtained except by a eare- ful perusal of the report of the Director of the Office of Experiment Stations, to which you are respectfully referred. FORESTRY. The timber investigations have been continued and have received most of the attention and the largest share of the appropriation for this division, of which Prof. B. E. Fernow is chief. They are the most comprehensive experiments of the kind ever undertaken, and include tests of the average values of strength for the various species, varia- tion of strength in the various parts of the trees, the variation of strength of timbers containing different amounts of moisture, the effects of dry-kiln treatment, ete. Altogether 175 trees, representing 24 species and 5 different sites, have been collected during the year. The total collection to date for this purpose numbers 761 trees, repre- senting 39 species, mainly of Southern timber. Thirteen thousand tests were made during the year, 340 of which were large columns and beams, and a large amount of material was placed in dry kilns for next year’s work. Results referring to the four Southern pines, representing 163 trees and over 24,000 separate values, have been computed and arranged for publication. These results show that the shortleaf and loblolly pine are inferior to longleaf and Cuban pine by about 24 per cent; that the wood near the stump is 25 to 30 per cent heavier and better than that of the upper log; that the wood produced by trees 25 to 60 years of age is the best, and that in old trees there is a variation of 15 to 25 per cent in wood and quality. Special experiments in shrinking and swelling of timber were continued, and it was found that the wood of all pines varies in proportion to its original weight. Treatment with high temperature under pressure does not, as has been claimed by owners of certain processes of wood treatment, do away with shrinkage either in pine or oak. These specimen results show the great practical value of these timber investigations. A series of experiments have also been begun With the object of determining how far the great deterioration of resin, so often noticed by turpentine collectors, is due to unavoidable physiological causes, how far to existing practices, and how these practices may be improved. Aseriesof measurementsof the rate of growth of white pine has been made in Wisconsin and Michigan, comprising detail measurements of over 400 trees and the determination of 13 acre-yields, including =f" ,> Se oe REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39 measurements made in connection with the collection of material for timber investigations. There are now on hand measurements of 1,700 trees, mostly pines, spruce, and a few hard woods, in addition to 57 acre-yields. Over 500 of these measurements have been worked up and tabulated, and the results charted so as to show the growth and development. ‘These results show, for example, that the long- leaf and Cuban pines both grow in height and thickness much faster than had been supposed. ‘Trees of white pine over 200 years old have been found to have made over 1} cubic feet annually for a cen- tury and a half. This work will be made the basis of a discussion of profitable forestry, and shall be continued until the rate of growth and capacity for production of all of our important species is established. A series of experimental plantings in the Western treeless country for the purpose of testing the best varieties of trees suitable for forest planting and the best methods of planting in the conditions prevailing there have been started in connection with the agricultural experi- ment stations in South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, and Colorado. It is proposed to continue these experiments for a number of years in the hope of getting material for a report on Western forest planting. This division has continued most actively its propaganda work. Through publications and by correspondence, and through lectures and addresses before agricultural colleges, summer schools, and pub- lic meetings it has sought in every way possible to further the estab- lishment of a forestry policy among the people of the United States. By the extension of Arbor Day it is endeavoring to educate the children in the schools and the young people in the academies and colleges to love trees and to plant them. ARBOR DAY IN JAPAN. In this connection it is interesting to note that through the agency of Dr. Northrup, of the United States, and of the vice-minister of edu- cation of Japan, Mr. 8. Makino, Arbor Day has been taken up by the teachers of that progressive country, with the prospect of its early establishment as a memorial day in all of its public schools. Through the courtesy of the Hon. 8. Kurino, Imperial Japanese minister to the United States, the Secretary of Agriculture is able to present to you the following translation from a Japanese document, setting forth the movement and a carefully considered plan for Arbor Day, drawn up for the bureau of private revenue in the Imperial household depart- ment. This plan shows such an intelligent appreciation of the rea- sons for Arbor Day, and contains so many valuable suggestions with regard to the method of carrying it out, that it seems to merit special attention: Some time ago Dr. Northrup, of the United States of America, came to Japan ‘and had a talk with Mr. Makino, vice-minister of education, on the subject of 40 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Arbor Day. About the same time the meetings of the presidents of normal schools were being held from time to time at the educational department, and the vice-minister took this occasion to explain at one of the meetings the purport of his interview with Dr. Northrup, recommending the advisability of the adop- tion of this system in Japan. Ever since then the question of Arbor Day has attracted the attention of educators in Japan. The following article is con- tributed to this office, embodying some remarks on the subject by one now living in Shizuoka, who has been in the service of the bureau of private revenue in the Imperial household department and who has had many years’ experience in the forestry business: “There are two objects to be attained by the adoption of a definite day for tree planting by the boys of our school—an Arbor Day—(1) To foster the idea of industry in the minds of schoolboys, divert them from indulging in bad practices, and cultivate among them botanical taste, besides affording intellectual pleasure and teaching them to look upon trees as the embodiment of love of home and country. **(2) In addition, the practice might be made conducive to increasing the resources of the country. “This system, if widely adopted, will be of indirect’ but great benefit, by inspiring dwellers in the country with the love of forests, thereby on the one hand reducing the danger of injury to them, and on the other promoting their growth. Other benefits to accrue, such as the prevention of sand falling, the protection from wind, the preservation of water resources, the addition to natural beauty and to the landmarks, the increase in the supply of fuel, are of vast importance to the country and the people. ‘«To simultaneously attain the two objects indicated above special heed must be given to following points: (1) Plantation fund.—There ought to be a fixed and permanent source of income. This needs noargument. Nothing, however meritorious, can be under- taken without such a fund, and nothing can be maintained unless the fund is stable. Especially is this the case with forestry, as the foundation principle of forestry economy is permanency, and the Memorial Day plantation ought to thrive with the age of the school. ‘*©(2) Selection of ground.—This is the first step to be taken after the source of the fund is determined ; but there will be great difficulty in getting proper ground, as it is at present even difficult to get proper space for school premises. It may, however, be comparatively easy to find a space of ground if we confine our object to those mentioned under A in a preceding paragraph, as we need not then look beyond the school ground, playground, garden, public garden, or roadside. If, on the contrary, we want to attain at the same time economic advantages, a choice must be determined by the following considerations : ‘*(a) Area.—A reasonable area is necessary, otherwise the space will be filled up very soon, which will make it impossible to continue the practice permanently or to utilize the land economically. **(b) Distance.—The ground must be selected as near as possible to the school, otherwise it will be diffieult to induce schoolboys to go there on Memorial Day. It will also entail expense. Moreover, it would be difficult to let the boys visit the grove frequently for future research into the theory of tree growth and to enjoy the observation of the several stages in the growth of the plant. **(c) Location and surface of the ground.—Shrubby or grassy, steep or rocky land is objectionable on various grounds. But level ground being generally better utilized for farming, care must be taken not to employ it for this purpose, except in cases of sandy or poor ground fit only for forestry. ‘*(d) Nature of soil.—Every seed, properly selected, will grow even in poor earth, ———— lL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 4t unless it be rocky. But rich soil should be selected, because, in poor soil, growth being slow, schoolboys will fail to find pleasure in the natural development of the grove and will at last become indifferent. “Above all, it is of the utmost importance to bear in mind that this matter should be so effected as to secure to the boys more pleasure than pain, and this with the greatest possible economical benefit. ** (3) Selection of trees.—The trees planted must be those best adapted to the soil which will produce the greatest possible benefit. To attain the two objects men- tioned under A and B, the tree which will bear beautiful and fragrant flowers, or which will produce fine fruit, should be adopted. I should recommend pine, cedar, oak, camphor, etc. If a poor selection is made, the tree may not grow—may per- haps die—the boys will be disappointed, the teachers disheartened, and the expenses totally lost. **(4) Arbor Day or Memorial Day.—lt is desirable to select for Arbor Day some day especially memorable; but this is very difficult, as planting can not be donein every season, and trees planted out of the proper season generally die. The best way would therefore be to determine the date according to the respective localities and the kind of treesto be planted. The 11th of February (the day when our first Emperor ascended the throne), the 3d of April (the day when the same Emperor died) , in the spring, and the 3d of November (the birthday of the present Emperor), in the autumn, may be good. But thespring season is recommended as most suit- able for planting. **(5) Protection of young trees.—The choice of trees to be planted being made, the means of obtaining the shoots must be determined. The best way would be to let the boys sow the seed and take care of the plants by spading the ground, cutting the grass, manuring, etc.,as may be required, until the plants have grown sufficiently to be safely transplanted. This will enable them to become familiar with the different kinds of seeds and the different stages of their growth, and will promote fondness for the plants. This method is also applicable to small spaces which do not admit of the growth of plantations, and will enable us to obtain the desired plants at the proper time and in desirable places, while giving an immense advantage on the other hand in attaining the object mentioned under A. If, under certain circumstances, it is impossible to let the boys care for the plants, we must depend upon reliable and experienced dealers. **(6) The mode of planting.—This must vary according to the kind of plants, the location and nature of the ground, and special care must be exercised in the trans- portation of the plants, cutting of the grass and prickly shrubs, and the tilling of the ground. Much depends upon the circumstances in each case, whether the boys have to do all the work, or whether they are to have assistance from coolies. If the boys do it all, those who supervise their work must fully consider details as to implements, and apportionment of space to planting, to the various classes of chil- dren, whether any and what distinction shall be made between male and female, between elder and younger, between higher and lower classes; whether shoots and modes of planting shall vary according to such distinctions. The growth of plants and the benefits resulting therefrom will differ greatly according as the manner of conducting the work is based upon the principles of forestry or not. (7) Care and protection after planting.—It is better not to plant the shoots than to leave them without protection. To plant them is easy, but it is difficult to make them grow into large trees. All requisite precaution, such as cutting spreading grass, protection against insects and worms, provision against fire, sup- planting for decay, should be undertaken by the boys. But how boys are to undertake those precautionary measures, how they are to protect the tree for long years until it become fit to be cut as fuel, these are questions calling for special inquiry. A 95——2* 42 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ‘“‘There are many other points to be investigated, such as superintendence, con- trol, keeping of records, utilization of principal and secondary products, ete. “Tt would be improvident if, believing in the system of Arbor Day and approy- ing it as feasible, one should try to at once apply it in practice without full consideration of means and methods. It is not easy, as stated above, to start the plan, and it is very difficult to carry it out successfully. The plan, if undertaken without proper care and full consideration of means and methods, would result in needless trouble and expense, and we should be not only unable to obtain good results but every tree and every plant would die,and both boys and teachers would be disheartened in spite of great encouragement from the other side.” CHEMISTRY. This division, of which Dr. H. W. Wiley is chief, has received 1,420 samples for analysis during the fiscal year. It has completed 613 of these analyses, and the unfinished samples, consisting almost entirely of specimens received from divisions of the Department, can be worked up when time is found. The investigation of food adulterations has been continued, being confined chiefly to the examination of cereal products and the manu- factured articles therefrom. No adulterations of cereal products with gypsum, terra alba, and the like have been found in this country as they have frequently been found in Europe. Active preparations have been made for carrying out “‘Investiga- tions relative to the various typical soils of the United States to de- termine their chemical characteristics, especially the nature of the nitrifying organism contained therein,” provided for in recent appro- priation acts. The methods employed in the chemical and bacteri- ological examinations of soils have been systematized and studied. A vegetation house capable of holding about 200 pots for eultural purposes has been constructed and fully occupied. Through the cooperation of the experiment stations, samples of typical soils have been secured, and the chemical analyses, pot cultures, and bacterio- logical examinations are well under way. PERVERSION OF OFFICIAL ANALYSES. The people are frequently misled by perverted references to the analyses of this division by advertisers of baking powders, food prod- ucts, ete., whose products have been analyzed in the course of inves- tigations of food adulterations or other official work. There can be no objection to advertisers referring to the published reports of the Department in support of the virtues of the wares they offer for sale, but exaggeration, perversion, suppression, and misstatement of facts, attributed to official authority, should not be allowed. In the hun- dreds of advertisements that have been noticed in which the work of this division has been referred to, there is scarcely a single case in which the facts were accurately set forth as officially published. There is, therefore, just reason for complaint. It seems to the ee REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 43 Secretary of Agriculture that there should be some method adopted by means of which advertising misrepresentations of official analyses, intended originally to protect the people, could be prevented. BOTANY. The herbarium of the Department of Agriculture, commonly called the National Herbarium, having outgrown its old quarters, was, by the kind permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, removed and well installed in the fireproof building of the National Museum, where it will be cared for by the botanists of this Depart- ment. This herbarium is steadily being built up and enlarged at the expense of the Department of Agriculture. This division, with Mr. Frederick V. Coville as chief, has continued its investigation upon weeds, pure seed, poisonous plants, and other subjects mentioned in the last report. Several bulletins have been published calling attention to dangerous weeds, and a general bulletin on ‘‘ Weeds; and How to Kill Them” was issued in the series known as Farmers’ Bulletins. In addition to illustrations and special re- marks regarding many of the weeds, it gives a tabular arrangement of the most important facts, from a practical standpoint, concerning about 100 of our common weeds, with brief instructions as to the best method of their eradication. A bulletin has also been prepared on the subject of weed legislation, consisting of the laws now in forcein the different States, and suggestions for similar legislation by other States. SEED TESTS. The seed-testing laboratory of this division is doing much to educate American farmers, seed producers, and dealers in seeds with regard to the best methods of harvesting, cleaning, and preparing for market the various commercial seeds, as well as the simpler means for testing their purity and germinating power. The special investigation of clover seed grown in this country has been continued. The methods of handling and growing seed have been carefully studied, and a report on this subject will be published at an early date, which it is hoped will materially assist the producers of this seed, the demand for which is steadily growing abroad. Seeds purchased by the Department of Agriculture for distribution during the fiscal year 1895 were all sub- mitted to purity and germination tests, but as the number of these seeds was very great few of them could be finished before the seeds had to be sent out. Many of the varieties showed a surprisingly low percentage of germination, and evidences of fraud were detected. The work upon grasses and forage plants has been separated from the Division of Botany and has been placed in charge of a new divi- sion called the Division of Agrostology, which will be spoken of in -. another place. The work on poisonous plants has been continued by a careful study 44 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of laurel poisoning and the Western leatherwood, and a number of medicinal plants have been taken up for investigation. AGROSTOLOGY. In accordance with the recommendations of the Secretary of Agri- culture in his report for 1894, the act making appropriations for the Department for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1896, contained a special provision for the Division of Agrostology. This division was organized July 1, when the act providing for its establishment went into effect, with Prof. Ff. Lamson-Scribner as its chief. The work of this division is devoted to the investigation of grasses and forage plants and experiments in the culture of our native species, as well as those of other countries which may be profitably introduced into the United States. These plants will be studied both scientifically and economically. The nature and the distribution of the various kinds will be considered, as well as their economic value and adapt- ability to special uses or to various soils and climates. The chief aim of the division will be to instruct and familiarize the people with the habits and uses of all forage plants by the publication of cireulars, bulletins, and reports. The importance of this work is attested by the vast interests of our country which are dependent upon the products of our meadows and pastures. EXPERIMENTAL GRASS STATIONS. Two experimental grass stations have already been established for the purpose of enabling this division to effectively prosecute special lines of work in the cultivation of the several kinds and to bring under direct and intelligent observation the numerous native and cultivated grasses and forage plants. These gardens afford opportunity for the proper investigation of the nature and peculiar habits of growth of these plants, and to determine in a large degree their actual or prob- able value to agriculture. About 400 different varieties have been grown upon these gardens during the present season, and some of the native sorts tried have proved of interest. The true buffalo grass of the Western plains is one of these. Its cultivation in the grass garden has been a marked success, the grass forming in a comparatively short period adense and pleasing sod completely covering the plat assigned to it. As this grass is more hardy than the somewhat similar Bermuda grass of the South, if may possess no less value for the Middle and Western States than is claimed for the latter in more southern latitudes. When domesticated it may prove of great value because of its ability to withstand drought and its superior nutrient qualities. It is intended that a larger area of ground shall be set aside for the en- largement and continuation of experiments in grass and forage-plant culture, the results of which may prove of inealeulable benefit to the farmers and stock growers of the United States. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 45 SPECIAL STUDIES—PUBLICATIONS. Special studies have been made of the grasses and forage plants of the Rocky Mountain regions and of the prairie regions of Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas, with a view to preparing a report upon the actual and prospective forage conditions of these sections of our country. A preliminary report has been published, giving the results of the examination of the grasses and forage plants of the Southeastern States, and circulars have been issued upon Hungarian brome grass, flat pea, sachaline, experimental grass gardens, and a Farmers’ Bulletin on alfalfa, or lucern; other papers of a similar nature are in course of preparation, also an illustrated handbook of all the grasses of the United States. © HAY AND FODDER PLANTS—MONEY VALUE. Each year develops more intelligent interest and inquiry in the production of better hay and fodder plants. The money value of the hay crop for 1894 was estimated at nearly a half billion of dollars. With more intelligent selection of hay plants cultivated the average production might have been 2 tons per acre, instead of 1.14 tons. That would have added 41,396,483 tons to the total crop of the year, and increased its cash value, based upon the low average price of $8.54 per ton for 1894, by $353,575,090. The hay crop in the United Kingdom of Great Britain was a disas- trous failure in the year 1893. As a consequence, the United States sold to the British during that year 124,390 tons of hay, while during the year 1895 we have exported to that country only 28,056 tons. On October 15 of this year prices of hay in London were $12 to $20 a ton. Though a superior article from the United States or Canada was sold upon that date at about $20 a ton, it is not expected that this price will encourage exports from this country, where the 1895 crop is below an average. VEGETABLE PATHOLOGY. The work of this division, of which Prof. b. T. Galloway is chief, has been broadened during the year to include plant physiology. It is believed that this will add materially to the value of the investiga- tions. Owing to the crowded condition of the main building and the need of necessary facilities for work, new quarters were secured for the division early in February. The buildings now occupied are sit- uated only a short distance from the Department proper, and are provided with necessary facilities for laboratory investigations. A greenhouse for conducting experimental work has also been provided. This adds greatly to the opportunities for work, especially in matters of interest to florists, market gardeners, and all others engaged in intensive agriculture. Work commenced last year on wilt diseases, which affect the potato, tomato, eggplant, and cotton in the South, and it is progressing satisfactorily. Experiments carried on in the field, 46 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. laboratory, and greenhouse have thrown much light on the causes of the diseases and the best methods of preventing them. Tt is most pleasing to announce that the work on pear blight, which has been under way for some time, has evolved a thorough knowledge of the organism which causes that disease, and also in the discovery of a means to easily and cheaply prevent it. A bulletin on the subject is in the course of preparation, and will soon be ready for distribution. During the year over one thousand varieties of wheats were tested by the division; the object sought being to discover their respective values in the matter of resisting rust and in their milling qualities. Crosses have been made with some of the more promising forms. They will be given a further trial and on a more extended scale. The work on citrus diseases has been continued with very satis- factory results. Remedies and preventives for a number of the most serious have been found, and these findings will soon appear in a bulletin. On the Pacific Coast, diseases affecting the peach, almond, apricot, apple, and grape have been studied. A successful method for the prevention of peach-leaf curl has been discovered, and a detailed account thereof will soon be published. The complete and instructive exhibit of the division at the Atlanta International and Cotton States Exposition will, it is believed, be very useful to farmers, fruit growers, and others. In this exhibit the diseases affecting cotton, citrus fruits, and other crops of special interest to the South, are made a special feature. POMOLOGY. This division has continued, under the direction of its chief, Mx. 8. B. Heiges, the systematic examination and comparison of supposed new varieties of fruits sent to it for identification, and has prepared careful studies and deseriptions of the new specimens, illustrating them in most cases either with water-color sketches or colored models. These descriptions are carefully filed and must in time prove of great value. They will eventually make it possible to publish an authori- tative work on the fruits of the United States. The introduction and distribution of new varieties of fruits have been continued, the effort, however, being confined to the compara- tively few varieties of fruits of great value not at present found in our country, but promising to do well here. Cions of many of these have been placed with experiment stations and sent to private experi- menters for the purpose of determining their adaptability to various sections. NEW VARIETIES OF FRUITS INTRODUCED. Among the more important varieties that have been introduced are 65 new specimens of figs received from the Royal Horticultural Society ee REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 4T of England. For the present these varieties are being propagated in different places for the purpose of testing further their adaptability to our climate and soils and for producing a larger number of cuttings for distribution. It is believed that there is a large area of country within the United States adapted to the growth of figs and that it will be sufficient to supply our entire demand for this delicious fruit. Other important importations consisted of 29 varieties of the choicest apples of Austria-Hungary, which have been grafted upon seedling stocks for the purpose of propagation. It is proposed to distribute these trees to the experiment stations as soon as they are in proper condition. Efforts have also been made to introduce improved and hardy varieties of persimmons from northern China and the citron of commerce from Italy. EXPERIMENTS IN ROOT-GRAFTING APPLE TREES. Considerable experimental work has also been undertaken. Prom- inent among these tests are experiments made with full-rooted and top-cut and lower-cut grafting in the propagation of apple trees. These experiments will be continued, and possibly on a larger scale. It is intended that trees grown from grafts as above described be distributed in different States and localities for testing. Varieties varying in habits of growth and longevity will be chosen. Generally they will be of standard varieties, like the Winesap, Albemarle, Pippin, Ben Davis, Oldenburg, Jonathan, and Northern Spy. Under this system of experimentation a few years will demonstrate whether whole roots, top cuts, or bottom cuts for grafting cions upon are most conducive to vigor of growth and longevity. Special effort is being made to interest the State experiment stations in these and similar subjects and to secure their assistance in collect- ing new and comparatively unknown varieties of fruits. It is desired to develop some regular plan of cooperation by which the horticul- turists of these stations shall collect new seedling varieties or other novelties and forward them to this division for identification, deserip- tion, illustration, and preservation. Some central record office of this kind is absolutely necessary, and should be located in the Department of Agriculture. FRUIT IN COMMERCE. EXPORTS OF APPLES. The economic value of apples for export is becoming more generally known to the horticulturists and farmers of the United States. Each year their exportation to Europe increases in quantity, quality, and value. Good winter apples, carefully selected and properly packed, always meet with a favorable reception and command good prices in Great Britain and on the Continent. Among the best known of Ameri- can varieties on the other side of the water are the Baldwins, King 48 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of Tompkins County, Ribston Pippins, Northern Spy, and various russets. But there is no doubt that the Winesap, Jonathan, Green- ing, Ben Davis, and Vandever Pippin, together with many other well- known varieties from the orchards of the United States, would be very acceptable and always secure for their shippers fair prices and profits. The most successful shipments of apples are made in New York bar- rels, which carry about 3 bushels and weigh about 112 pounds. The freight upon each of these barrels from American to European ports averages less than a dollar. During the fiscal year ended June 30, 1895, we shipped 818,711 barrels of apples abroad, valued at $1,954,318. The following table shows our exports of apples, green or ripe, and dried, for the fiscal years ended June 30, 1893, 1894, and 1895, and the three months ended September, 1895: Green or ripe. Dried. Year. i Barrels. Value. Pounds. Value. BPE ss oo coon marcos adecenaasnee wana ees ene 408,014 | $1,097, 967 7, 966, 819 $482, 085 Meenas st SL oh le Sosa ede oe some eatwaes 78, 580 242,617 2, 846, 645 168, 054 rao oe foe Sa) a Soe S325 oe LR Soe Ee 818, 711 1, 954, 318 7, 085, 946 461, 214 Three months ended September, 1895_--.-....------ 81, 093 74, 127 1, 387, 842 69, 427 Export shipments of apples from any of the States east of the Rocky Mountains can be made remunerative. The apple among fruits is as staple and universally demanded as beef among meats. The variety which has sold for the highest price in British markets is the Albemarle Pippin, which is successfully grown to its greatest per- fection in the State of Virginia. This variety has at times netted the growers $7 a barrel in the orchards. It is a remarkably fine keeper, of delicious flavor and beautiful coloring. The profits of intelligent horticulture along the Atlantic Seaboard can not well be overesti- mated. The success in foreign marts of the Pacific States fruit growers and shippers, laboring under the disadvantage of a rail carriage from the Pacific to the Atlantic, should stimulate all horti- culturists this side of the Rocky Mountains to further secure sales for their products in Europe. The peaches of Delaware, Maryland, and most of the Southern States along the Atlantic Coast would cer- tainly reach the London market in as good condition, if properly put up, as those from California. CALIFORNIA FRUITS IN ENGLISH MARKETS. California fruits haye made marked gains in European markets dur- ing the last year. This trade began three years ago by a shipment on the White Star Line, which consisted of pears, peaches, plums, and grapes. The sale of that invoice at Covent Garden Market attracted public attention at the time, and the prices were so remunerative as to encourage further shipments. The succeeding year, however, REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 49 satisfactory terms could not be made for railroad and steamship trans- portation; consequently no shipments of California fruits were made during those twelve months to transatlantic markets. But in the year 1894 the American Steamship Company carried over quite a number of fruit invoices. The,results were satisfactory gen- erally as to prices and profits upon the pears and peaches, while the traffic in grapes was not such as to induce further shipments of that fruit from the Pacific Coast. A representative of the Department of Agriculture during the past summer attended the California fruit sales at Covent Garden. From that attendane he concludes that the California Fruit Transportation Company has solved the freight problem and that only the finest qual- ity of fruit can be remuneratively sent abroad; even then sound con- dition and careful packing, and their arrival at London between the 1st day of July and the last day of August, can alone secure the best prices in competition with English and continental growers. During the year 1895 the first lot of California fruit arrived in Lon- don on the 1st day of July. It met competing fruits from southern France, the Channel Islands, and Spain, together with fair specimens of English products, in a very propitious season. On that date fine English hothouse peaches sold at 15 cents each, with fair to common qualities at 5 to 3 cents each. All of the California fruit arriving on the date mentioned above consisted of Bartlett pears (in England called the Williams pear) and of peaches. They arrived in fine con- dition; the Bartletts brought from $5 to $6.25 per box of 50 pounds, and the peaches sold at an average of $2.50 per box of 25 pounds. The pears retailed at from 4 to 5 cents each, and the peaches at from 6 to 12 cents. The second arrivalin the same market of California fruit was July 15. At this date the pears brought from $3 to $3.50 per box of 50 pounds, and the peaches and plums from $1.70 to $2 per box of 25 pounds. The third arrival was on August 1, when the peaches and pears com- manded about the same prices asin the previous shipments to the same market. The fourth California fruit invoice was received in London the middle of August. It was an unusually large consignment and con- sisted of 10 carloads. Pears in this lot, in perfect condition, sold as high as $2.80 per box. The peaches brought only $1 to $1.50 per box. The fifth shipment of Pacific Slope fruit arrived in England on the last day of August. The late peaches were in very fine condition and gave the best satisfaction to dealers, but the prices were not as good as expected, as they ranged from $1.20 to $1.80 a box, according to quality. The pears ran from $1.50 to $3 per box. The sixth shipment reached London in the month of September, via Southampton, where it was unloaded from the steamer Paris on Wednesday night and placed on sale in Covent Garden Market on 50 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Friday morning. Buyers were eager to get hold of the late pears, They were in great demand, because of the satisfaction which the fruit of the two previous shipments had given. e. 5 s 3 : SSSSESSLRARKRLKFE ie is 23 | 2RARBERBSBSSEBBSASBESBSSBElE BE &les|® epReereni. | 8|z Jasaesasesse¢en Tn Beep eewree Ser reser ea (oe TTYTISITUTIToTTr aie. Bp £ | ge SESEKRRERRE LES | ¥ |e |aes % RC RR ER EE RES). o = Aa 2 | 58 = S oW/ A RNQERRERSSABRABSSEBVSBser S a SEFESFREEELE SE, - sony 2aer8 ae SAatesgeage SS § |e ANANRRSSRRSBRERBSS ae lo SSsssrxess sion Aq | = 8 BBR eg ee is ae a ae agen oe st RaAans Ro 8 |-sojomom | ABSERBSS APG AERA ie BARSSURESRT Toc oS.. 8 olF I EIEEAT ERATE Poe ~ ° * ame iS) a ak SiR Rl te, a cc a ae a Me E> | | Ps 1S bag eS el a SASRRARKRER g S[2;[s|=#eeeseannaa || uu GEeeEESaEE SEE Loanbes See] ® Gee A iad id ib SCOARRQARSHRARRRR eg 2 83 ° | $$SReaReess 233s S| 38 fi te eaeees eo sas mw OS Ba| * on es S i+: dre Sue Lal SkRHAS2KSnRARHRRRRB 7 & S 89 e | ae — 3 mas aliiiiii@gserae« HQSSSSRQRARRRASBBRE 2 3 ES BSBBSBBERBSSSSBSS A] aS (1 eAeQMQeonornnrangena «& Slesis [28 meee LL Peeae TGs deakknaee eee a BBSSSSSSSS | a | 52 a or SHAH SLAenUaRR 7. | RS | SSsxBSE8S8 =) <4 WAM HwW ROH aig Fas ot @ 3 (A8] & | eeeeeses | fla 2 [eae ae ss = H8SBERBSS3R74S5 Peet RQ 8 *SOAGUIGUr i), ISS bs ee TS wmowomt |S RARAARRH ARR ARR pees = -a0oyg Aug} -10u4 Aaq 7 is ~ = Ve 152 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. as To determine the dew-point, use the instrument as described, mak- ing a note of the readings. Now suppose, for example, that the dry- bulb thermometer stands at 54 and the wet bulb at 45. The difference between 45 and 54 is 9. Find first 54 in the left-hand column of the table, then the number on the same line with it in column 9, table 2. This is 34, the dew-point, or probably the lowest point the tempera- ture will reach during the night. The rule, then, to find the dew-point is: Subtract the reading of the wet bulb from that of the dry; find the reading of the dry bulb in the left-hand column of the table; then on a line with this, in the column showing the same figure as the difference between the wet and dry bulbs, will be found the figures indicating the dew-point. In whirling the psychrometer some precautions are necessary, lest the instrument be broken. It would be well before actually using the instrument to practice whirling a stick of approximately the same weight. The handle on the psychrometer may be removed and fas- tened to the stick if desired. If the sun is shining the instrument should be whirled in the shade of a tree or a house, and always out of doors where there is a free circulation of air. PROTECTION OF PLANTS FROM THE INJURIOUS EFFECTS OF FROSTS AND FREEZES. As already pointed out, the greatest injury to growing crops from frosts occurs in early spring and autumn. It is possible, of course, to prevent these injuries, but it may not always be profitable or practicable to do so. For example, a 300-acre field of young corn might be saved from severe frost injury, but the cost of the saving would be almost as much as the crop would be worth. Where inten- sive cultivation is practiced, however, as in the case of tobacco growing, fruit and vegetable growing, etc., it is often practicable to prevent, at reasonable cost, much of the injury that might result if the plants are left exposed. Some of these methods will now be deseribed. It must be remembered, however, that to profit by them eareful attention to the suggestions in regard to the foretelling of frosts will be necessary. Shielding plants by means of straw, soil, etc.—In low-growing crops, such as strawberries and many kinds of vegetables, it is often prac- ticable to prevent injuries from frost by covering the plants with straw, marsh hay, or similar material. Of course it may not always be possible to obtain straw, but where this material is at hand it can be spread rapidly and may result in saving a very valuable crop. Large plantations of strawberries have been covered in this way, the work being continued throughout the night. Although the last plants covered may be slightly frozen, the covering will prevent rapid thaw- ing, and the crop may in this way be saved. Valuable beds of sweet potatoes, tomatoes, and other plants may often be saved, even after FROSTS AND FREEZES AS AFFECTING CULTIVATED PLANTS. 153 being frozen, by covering with straw before thawing begins and allow- ing the straw to remain all the next day. Young plants of melons, cucumbers, tomatoes, etc., in the field may frequently be saved by throwing on a light covering of soil with a plow. It requires very little time to run a furrow down the rows of plants, and the soil can be easily and quickly removed by hand the next day or as soon as _ the danger is past. _ Cloth frames are now extensively used by market gardeners and others in protecting beds of young plants in spring from cold and frosts. These frames are usually made of 1 by 3 inch white pine strips. They are 3 feet wide and 6 feet long, and have a brace run- ning diagonally from corner to corner to strengthen them. For a covering, protection cloth, sold by nearly all seedsmen, is used. This consists of oiled muslin of different grades and prices. The best of this material can be bought for about 10 cents a yard. This will make the frames cost about 50 cents _each,and with _goodcare they will last for 3 several years. The frames will be found useful for cov- ering hotbeds and cold frames, and offer nearly as good protec- also very useful for covering hills of young melons, cucumbers, ete., In the field. In crops of this kind earliness is, of course, the all- important consideration. If cut back by frosts, the crop is delayed until it has comparatively little value, hence the importance of using every method to bring it in early. The cloth-covered boxes can be > made for 5 cents each, and in addition to protecting the plants from ‘Tayages of numerous insects which feed on the crop. Sereens and wind-breaks.—In many cases plants can be protected Such sheds serve another purpose, that is, shading plants from the 154 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. plants during summer and for protecting them against early spring and autumn frosts. In this case the laths are fastened to ordinary clothesline wire by means of small staples. When not in use the screens may be rolled up and stored away un- til again needed. Another form of shed is shown in fig: 11. This is made of cheap pine boards 16 feet long and 8 to 12 inches wide. The stringers, as will be seen, are nailed to posts, which are about 74 feet high. Spaces 4 to 6 inches wide are left between the boards. Sheds similar to these, but usually made of nar- row strips, are extensively used in southern Florida for protecting the pineapple against hot sun in sum- mer and cold winds and frost in win- ter. The injuri- ous effects of cold winds may fre- quently be prevented by suitable wind- breaks. In market-car- —-axaaea haa ei Pe, Se a dening opera- Fa. 12.—Board wall for protecting hotbeds, cold frames, etc., from tions, where cold winds. hotbeds are used, such a protection is very important. For this purpose a tight board wall is built, as shown in fig. 12. The wall is made at the north side of the frames and is from 74 to 8 feet high. It DOr ea ts 9) emo FROSTS AND FREEZES AS AFFECTING CULTIVATED PLANTS. 155 is given a slight tip to the north in order to offer better facilities for holding up the straw mats used to cover the glass on cold nights. Natural or artificial groves of trees may frequently be utilized as wind-breaks. Cedar and arbor-vite offer very effective ‘barriers to winds, and where special crops are cultivated in an intensive way such barriers will be found very useful. Smoke and fire as protection against frost.—On still nights, when the temperature barely reaches 32° F., it is often possible to prevent frost injuries by making a smudge, thus eovering the field with a haze, which prevents the rapid loss of heat. Dense smoke can be pro- duced by burning wet straw, wet leaves, sawdust, ete. A mixture of two-thirds sawdust and one-third gas tar makes an effectual material for forming asmudge. The quantities of these materials burned will have to be regulated largely by surrounding conditions. It is prefer- able to have small fires at frequent intervals rather than large ones more scattered. Gas tar alone may be used, and in such cases cheap iron kettles are distributed in the orchard, vineyard, ete., the number of kettles being proportionate to the liability of different parts of the ground to frost. The coal tar is placed in the kettles, and whenever indica- tions of frost appear the contents of the kettles are lighted. This is accomplished by a man passing rapidly from kettle to kettle with a torch and a ean of benzine or gasoline, a little of this inflammable material being poured into the kettle, and the torch applied. The burning of the tar results in the formation of considerable smoke, and there is also sufficient heat to keep the air in motion. The smudge-pot system is not used as much as formerly, as it does not _ protect the fruit from a degree of cold much below the freezing point, _ and furthermore for the reason that the kettles are often burned out before morning, after which time the frost may still prove injurious. A modification of the foregoing system is used to some extent in certain parts of California. In this case, iron drums, holding per- haps 100 gallons, are placed in rows through the orchard about 100 feet apart in the row. The drums are similar to those commonly used for shipping oil and gasoline. In the orchard they are placed horizontally on framework supports so as to lie about 20 inches above the ground. From each end of the drum a line of gas pipe is laid for some 40 feet along the ground toward the adjoining drums. At intervals of about 10 feet along these pipes are placed iron kettles, which are supplied with erude oil from the main drums. The piping is so arranged as to discharge the oil directly downward into the kettles. The pipes leading out of the drums have stopeocks to regulate the flow of oil into the pipes, and each of the small pipes - entering into the kettles is also furnished with a stopeock to control the discharge of oil. When it is apparent that frost is about to ee ee a i _ 156 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. oecur, & man passes from tank to tank, opening the supply pipes and regulating the flow into the kettles, at the same time lighting the oil with a torch in the manner already described. The advantage of this system is that the supply of oil is constant and fire can be maintained as long as required. Fig. 13 shows the method of using the system described for pre- venting frost in- juries. There are also some disadvantages which should be mentioned, chief of which is the expense connected with the work. It is also claimed that the fruit is frequently soiled by the smut which rises from the kettles and settles on all parts of the trees. Flooding, irrigating, and spray- ing.—The free use of water may often save certain crops from de- struction by frosts. The cranberry marshes, for example, are fre- quently flooded when frost is pre- dicted and thus injury is avoided. Where it is possible to irrigate, frost injuries may frequently be prevented to a large extent. Irri- gation in early spring may delay the opening of buds until danger of frost is past. In certain parts of California it is the practice to run irrigating furrows between the trees, and on nights when frost is likely to occur water is run through the furrows. This practice might be followed in other sections where if is possible to obtain water, = ; A method used to some extent in F16. 14.—Apparatus for spraying orchards California, and which might prove bhatt: ° of value elsewhere, is illustrated in fig. 14. This is a system of spray- ing far above the ground, whereby the air is charged with a fine, fog- like mist during the colder parts of the night. ‘To accomplish this, Fic. 13.—Apparatus for smudging orchards. FROSTS AND FREEZES AS AFFECTING CULTIVATED PLANTS. 157 the orchard is first piped below ground with small pipes. From these, perpendicular pipes are carried up to the height of 40 feet. There are 100 of these pipes in every 10 acres of trees under treatment, or an average of 10 to the acre. They are held in position by passing through the center of wooden supports made in the form of a box. This pole-like box is formed of three parts. The lower third is made of four 6-inch boards nailed together at the edges; the second length, which extends downward through the first as well as far above it, is made of four 1-inch boards, also nailed together at the edges; the third and last length is of two 1-inch boards nailed edge to edge, and is supported by extending down for some distance into the middle length of boxing. Across the top of each perpendicular pipe is con- nected a pipe of the same size 4 feet long. Each end of this cross- pipe is furnished with a fine cyclone nozzle, with the discharge turned upward. At the base of each main pipe, just above the ground, isa stopcock for regulating the supply of water. All the ground pipes in the orchard unite in one common supply pipe, which passes through the sleeping house of a watchman and connects with the main of the city. The watchman’s house is located on that side of the orchard most subject to injury from frost. It consists of 2 single room, simply furnished, and is supplied with a telephone connected with the house of the superintendent, as well as with an electric alarm in connection with a thermostat, or alarm thermometer, located in the orchard. When the temperature in the orchard falls to 52° an elee- trie circuit is completed by the contraction of the metallic ther- - mometer, or thermostat, and two alarms are given, one in the room _ of the watchman and another in the residence of the superintendent, there being wires laid from the orchard to both these places. As soon as the alarm is rung, the watchman, by opening the cock in the supply pipe which passes through his house, can at once turn on the _ water to all the pipes and spray nozzles. The result is a fog-like mist thrown upward by 100 ecycione nozzles over the entire 10 aeres in the block of trees thus protected. This mist soon fills the air toa height of 45 feet, and any stir drifts it about like a bank of fog. a PREVENTION OF INJURIES TO TREES AND OTHER WOODY PLANTS. The injury to apple and other fruit trees as a result of the alternate freezing and thawing of the tissues has been pointed out. Such injuries are likely to be more severe in seasons of summer drought followed by copious fall rains. During such seasons every effort should be made to conserve the moisture in the soil. Frequent sur- face cultivation, therefore, is highly important. In planting orchards the importance of properly selecting soils and varieties as resistant as possible to the effects of drought should be kept constantly in mind. Good results have been obtained in pre- venting frost injury to the trunks of fruit trees by fixing a board 158 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. — on the southwest side of the main body. Another very satisfactory method is to train a water sprout on the southwest side of the trunk, - cutting the same back so as to form a bushy growth. Mulching the ground around the trees is frequently practiced with beneficial results. The mulch assists in holding the water in the soil, and also prevents the freezing of the ground around the roots, which latter is frequently the cause of serious trouble to fruit trees, ever- greens, and other woody plants. Under the action of cold, dry winds the parts of the trees above ground lose their water, and the roots (being practically unable to obtain a new supply on account of the frozen condition of the soil), the smaller branches, and frequently the large limbs perish from drought. Fira. 15.—Protecting trunks of orchard trees from frost injuries by means of water sprouts. The effects of fall cultivation, the application in late summer of stimulating manures, and the early defoliation of the trees by the attacks of fungi, have already been briefly referred to. In each of the foregoing cases the tendency is to cause late fall growth, the tissues of which do not have sufficient time to mature, and as a result are killed by the ordinary winter conditions. The remedy, so far as fall cultivation and application of manures are concerned, is plain, viz, to discontinue such methods. In the ease of fungous diseases which cause the loss of the leaves in early summer, spraying with fungicides should be earried on. This work is now so well understood as to require no description here. Suffice it to say that the matter has been very fully discussed in other publieations of the Department,’ to which the reader is referred. ~ 1 Bulletins Nos. 6 and 7 and Farmers’ Bulletin No. 87, Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, THE TWO FREEZES OF 1894-95 IN FLORIDA, AND WHAT THEY TEACH. By HERBERT J. WEBBER, Assistant, Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. RECORD OF FREEZES. The winter of 1894-95 was rendered memorable in Florida by two of the most severe freezes which have taken place since careful records have been kept. The injuries to the fruit industries were very great, orange, lemon, and many tropical trees being generally killed to the ground in all parts of the State except in the extreme southern portion and on the keys. Certain well-protected localities in the central part of the peninsula also escaped without serious damage, but on the whole, latitude was the only modifying influence of importance. As the blizzards swept southward their severity gradually decreased. Judging from reliable temperature records and from the effects of the cold on vegetation, the isothermal lines in both freezes ran almost directly east and west across the State. From experience and observation in these freezes many important points have been noted as to ways in which plants may be protected against the effects of frost, and the best methods for quickly restor- ing fruit trees which have been frozen down. These will be discussed in this paper. On December 27, 1894, the first blizzard began to be felt. This culminated December 29, when the temperature! fell to 14° above zero at Jacksonville, one degree lower than during the great freeze of January 12, 1886. The fall in temperature was accompanied by a strong wind, which, at most stations, reached a maximum velocity of from 25 to 30 miles per hour. At most places throughout the northern and central parts of the State killing frosts and freezing temperatures occurred for three days in suecession—December 27, 28, and 29. Tor several days after this blizzard the weather was gen- erally clear and comparatively cold. _ The seeond blizzard, which was very similar to the first, extended over three days—February 7,8, and 9,1895. The lowest temperature recorded was on the morning of February 8, when at Jacksonville it again fell to 14°. The reports from stations throughout the orange belt showed a temperature ranging from 16° to 19°. This freeze ‘All temperature records given in this paper are according to Fahrenheit. 159 160 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. also was accompanied by a strong wind, the maximum velocity of which was from 30 to 35 miles an hour. Killing frosts were reported from almost all stations in northern and central Florida on February 8 and 9,and in various parts of these sections of the State snow and sleet fell. For several days after this freeze the weather was gener- ally clear throughout the State. The following are the minimum temperatures recorded at various selected stations during the freezes of 1886 and 1894-95, the stations being arranged in order of latitude from north to south: Minimum temperatures recorded during the freezes of 1886 and 1894-95. Minimum temperature. Place. Latitude. January 12, |December| February 1886. , 189: 8, 1895. ° / ° ° °o SRO RBOT YING oe sence casas cues aes ues 30 19} 15 14 14 Re URGING aoe oh 2 o-2 Scot a Len pee eee 29 53} 17 16 16 CSUN ESE Where ed ocr os tg ee 20): 45s loc caee ees 17 16 cNEEYE 7p | RS es een ee eS 29 00} ve 16 17 NU re kee eo robles coos eee 28 514 181 16 16 PMEHLOPGt Ss) ec eh eee eee 28 48 21 18 18 SPIE SWAUO - oo cesousss ose Soucek ude eenee ee eee ses 28 S6E' |... 42 e- oeeee 18 19 risindG 1232-5. ou io sen ccna oe ee eee 28 32) | 19and 20! 18 19 Werritts IGA 2s 2s 3 cota oe Seo eeamdeee ed 28 224 | Le eee 22 22 MIGUBOUTTNO Ss 296 cca b a soe twice sepee saeaseeee ana sees 28. Obk |. ssi2ce aes Pee eomedecaed SSE fee ah ere ee ee See ee oe 2 Sis, (eo Sec eee 19 22 IASON PARES. Js 5502022 wa won w ake waanuoe coun 21 06} | ~<2-25—scne—ee 21 2B WRAMSLOG 27 ooo oc wees as socks are been nema eee Fes) ial Ppetararioee APS, Ste) 19 23 WILY Poses. oe soo! Sb cos Sakccte coe seseueee ee eee 26-58} |<... - oees 24 27 ee clin Beach. tu. Sc. faa eebes eee toe 26 43 321 251 291 Nas ee Nees ok oo Saas eee eee 26. (80) la seen 24 30 PIR DONDERO 224 0x2 525s ce uk = bees a Soe eee 26. Sb: |2censsceseeee 26 32 My WW Oktas- scsi sc cuas ate toondde ah eboeaNeun eee oar 24 38h 41,431 44 49 1 Records are not official. These records will serve to show the comparative severity of the two freezes of last winter and that of 1886, and the gradual abatement of the severity of each as it progressed southward. From a comparison of the locations given in the table above it will be seen that in any given latitude practically the same temperature prevailed in localities whether in the western part of the State, in the interior, or on the east coast. The Manatee region, protected on the north by the broad Manatee River and Tampa Bay, shows almost the same temperature as Avon Park, in about the same latitude, in the interior, and Mel- bourne on the east coast. Again, Myers, on the west coast, protected on the north by the broad Caloosahatchee River, and West Palm Beach, on the east coast, protected on the west by the waters of the Everglades, show nearly the same temperature. Since the blizzards of last winter the fact that killing freezes have occurred before in Florida has been brought prominently to notice, TWO FREEZES OF 1894-95 IN FLORIDA. 161 It is known that severe freezes occurred in the winters of 1747, 1766, 1774, 1799, 1828, 1835, 1850, 1857, 1880, 1884, and 1886, and many lesser freezes are also known to have taken place. ‘Those which were remarkably severe, however, and which are spoken of as “‘the great freezes,” occurred on February 7 and 8, 1835, and January 12, 1886. In the former, the only one which in severity and destructiveness compares with those of last winter, the thermometer, it is said, fell to 8° at Jacksonville. This freeze is reported to have killed orange trees from 40 to 50 years old at St. Augustine and Mandarin. The freeze of 1886 destroyed most of the orange crop, killed young orange trees, and froze all trees back somewhat. Although the damage from this freeze was very great, it was mostly repaired the next year, as the crop that season was larger than ever before. The recorded temper- atures of either of the freezes of the winter of 1894-95 are but slightly lower than those of 1886, and consequently either one alone would not have done much greater damage. Their extremely disastrous effects were due to the fact of their having occurred so close together. From the above statements it appears that many disastrous freezes have occurred in the past, and it is reasonable to assume that similar freezes will take place in the future. It therefore behooves Florida growers to profit by past experiences and take such precautions as are possible to avoid future losses from this source. EXTENT OF INJURY TO THE CITRUS INDUSTRY. Damage caused by the first freeze.—At the time of this freeze, De- cember 27-29, 1894, the orange and other citrus trees were largely dormant and the injury was thus not so great. At the time the blizzard occurred it is estimated that there were about 3,000,000 boxes of oranges still on the trees. These, of course, were almost a total loss. When cut open the morning of the 29th, the fruits were found to be a solid mass of ice, the pulp having the appearance of watery snow. The same was true of all lemons, pomeloes, and other citrus fruits which remained on the trees. The leaves were frozen stiff and rattled in the wind. The vegetation as a whole did not begin to wither until December 30, which was a bright day. Thin, fragile leaves, like the common guava (Psidium guajava) and eastor-oil bean (Ricinus communis), withered very quickly in the sun, but thick- leaved plants, like the eucalyptus, Cattley guava (Psidium cattley- anum), and orange, were slow to show the effect of the frost. When protected from the direct rays of the sun, many orange leaves remained green and apparently fresh for five or six days. All leaves were killed, however, except in a few protected groves on the south side of large lakes, like Lake Eustis and Lake Harris, and in the southern part of the State. The leaves did not fall immediately, as is their wont in case of slight injuries, but remained attached to the tree A 95——6 MS Ae 162 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. until about January 7, at which time they were dry and crisp. After this the dropping was gradual, and was caused entirely by out- side forces, such as the wind. The fruit began dropping about January 10. This was also very gradual, being caused, as in the case of the leaves, by the wind, ete. The frozen oranges and pomeloes remained firm and solid for fully a month after the freeze, and were eaten in great numbers and also shipped to Northern markets. It is safe to say that there has never been a time in the history of Florida or America when so many oranges were eaten in so short a time. The cautions of physicians were un- heeded, but the result was not disastrous, as many feared. Indeed, such sickness as occurred from eating frozen oranges was unques- tionably due to excessive indulgence. Many of the frozen oranges © were sent to Northern markets and placed on sale while still juicy and palatable. In some cities their sale was forbidden by the health authorities, who claimed that they were injurious, but this claim has been thoroughly disproved by their extensive use, as above described. In frozen oranges white specks, frequently as large as half a milli- meter in diameter, form in the membranes between the segments and in the membranes of the pulp vesicles. They are so invariably present in frozen oranges, even where the fruit is but slightly injured, that they may be considered as evidence of the effect of freezing. These specks are apparently masses of hesperidin crystals, separated from the cell sap by chemical changes caused by freezing. These characteristic specks are also found in frozen lemons and pomeloes, and probably in all citrus fruits. The lemon and citron were the first of the citrus plants to show the effects of the freeze. The leaves withered and turned brown in about two days after the freeze, and the fruits became soft and watery, and hung as flabby, misshapen masses as soon as thawed out. Frequently the bark of lemon, citron, and pomelo trees burst open on the trunk, large fissures being formed. Very few sweet or sour orange trees were found to be injured in this manner. Practically all lemon trees in the northern arid central portions of the State were killed to the ground by the first freeze. Many pomelo trees were also killed, but others escaped with the loss of most of their limbs. About January 18 the buds of orange trees began to push, and in a few days numerous sprouts were growing vigorously. By this time the injured wood had become plainly marked in most cases. An examination of many orange groves made at this time showed that small sweet seedlings and budded orange trees were in most cases killed to the ground. The budded trees suffered somewhat more than the seedlings, the point of union between stock and graft being apparently very easily injured. However, it was found that budded or seedling sweet-orange trees which had reached a diameter of from — —— tl - We ee 0 AS Aah Ore Rey a) a EN to eT ot ee TWO FREEZES OF 1894-95 IN FLORIDA. 163 4 to 6 inches or over were seldom seriously injured. It was also found that where budded trees had reached this size, and the point of union of stock and bud was not injured, the tops were, as a rule, not so much injured as those of seedling trees. The small twigs were killed back from 12 to 18 inches, while the seedlings were apparently killed much farther back. The budded trees of the size mentioned also showed much more vigor in reviving than seedlings, starting growth sooner and growing more rapidly. The period for two weeks preceding the second freeze was, unfortu- nately, fine growing weather, the night temperature not falling below 50°, and the day temperature usually reaching 80°. The result was a very rapid growth, especially in budded trees. At the time of the second freeze, commencing February 7, 1895, this growth had reached a length of from 1 to 4 inches, and flower buds were forming on many oh trunk. The tops were cut off shortly after the second freeze. Photographed October 25, of the trees; the orange groves had begun to look promising, and growers felt much encouraged and were quite elated by the fact that the orange tree had shown itself capable of resisting such a low temperature. Disastrous results of the second freeze.—Such were the conditions when, on February 7, 8, and 9, 1895, the second blizzard swept over the State. No fruit was now left to be destroyed, but the rapidly growing trees, stripped of their normal dense foliage, were exposed to the full strength of the cold blast, and the little life left was entirely destroyed in many of them. The oldest and youngest trees, whether sweet or sour, were alike killed to the ground throughout the greater part of the State. In many groves this was true of large budded and seedling orange trees from 20 to 40 years old or more (fig. 16), while in 164 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. other groves, frequently in the same vicinity, sprouts have been thrown out on the old trunks for some distance up. This is paraaGhea true of hammock groves, which seem to have suffered least. The extent of the damage to orange trees did not become apparent for some months after the freeze. Many of the large trees threw out sprouts on the trunks some distance up. These struggled along for a time, making considerable growth, but in many cases subsequently died back entirely, the bark having been killed below. This sprout- ing out and dying back continued more or less throughout the summer, but the growth which remained healthy until July has in most instances continued to the present time (November 1, 1895). The effect of water protection was in many cases very noticeable. In groves on the south side of Lake Harris and Lake Eustis, for instance, several rows of trees nearest the water retained some of their leaves, and the effects of the protection afforded was apparent for about half a mile back from the lakes. On Terraceia Island, in Tampa Bay, even lemons escaped unhurt, and in some groves on the mainland bordering on the bay orange trees were almost entirely unharmed and lemon trees only slightly injured. Passing away from the bay, however, the effect of even this broad expanse of water gradually disappeared, being hardly noticeable 2 miles distant. The orange groves south of Braidentown and Manatee, and 2 miles distant from the broad Manatee River, were about as badly injured as groves in the interior of the State in the same latitude. The effects of the freezes were also considerably ameliorated by forest protection. This was particularly noticeable in groves where large numbers of palmettoes and some oaks and magnolias were allowed to stand among the orange trees. Again, thick wind-breaks perceptibly protected a few rows of trees nearest to them. Orange trees not protected were injured as far south as Myers (26° 39’). The damage south of the twenty-seventh parallel of latitude, however, was not serious, consisting merely of injury to a few of the top leaves and young branches. The mandarin, tanger- ine, and Satsuma oranges (Citrus nobilis) in general suffered about the same as the common sweet orange. The pomelo and shaddock (C. decumana) are much tenderer than the orange. The large pomelo trees which were not killed by the first freeze were almost invaria- bly split open and killed to the ground by the second. It is difficult to find a tree where any portion of the trunk was saved. In well- protected regions, like Palmetto, trees which lost all leaves and many branches are in some cases bearing fruit this year. At Bartow the trunks of some of the large trees were saved, and in the town of Myers, which has good water protection, the trees were practically uninjured. East of Myers, and farther away from the river, they were injured, but not seriously. At Jensen buds 3 years old were killed down. The latitude below which the pomelo eseaped serious TWO FREEZES OF 1891-95 IN FLORIDA. 165 injury can hardly be determined, owing to lack of trees from which to judge. It can’probably be placed at about 26° 30’. Lemons (C. lim- onwm) and limes (C. limeita) throughout the northern and central parts of the State were killed to the ground. In the Manatee River region the trees, when near the water, were not seriously injured; at Myers they suffered but little; at Palm Beach they escaped injury; and south of the twenty-sixth parallel they evidently were not severely affected. Every citron (C. medica)' and kumquat (C. japonica) in the State, so far as known to the writer, was killed. In the extreme southern part of the State they would probably have escaped serious injury. The trifoliate orange (C. trifoliata) is the only citrus species which escaped injury from the two freezes. lt i eal LESSONS TAUGHT BY THE FREEZES. The experience of last winter has taught some valuable lessons as to ways by which the extent of damage caused by severe freezes may be lessened. In a few cases where growers had banked their trees up some distance around the trunk with earth, covering the union of bud and stock, it was found that the buds and a portion of the trunk weresaved. This shows that it would unquestionably be a wise policy to make a practice of banking up the trees every winter in this way, say by the middle of December, removing the soil about the 1st of March. The expense of doing this would be very slight, probably not more that one-half cent per tree. Care should also be taken to have the point of union between the stock and bud or graft near the soil. On thoroughly drained, porous soils there is no objection to having the union slightly below the surface. This would insure the safety of the buds in the most severe freezes, especially if the trees were slightly banked. On poorly drained soils, where the trees are subject to foot rot, sour-orange stocks, budded above the ground, should be used. When lemon or pomelo stock is used, the union should by all means be placed low, as these stocks are very easily injured by cold. Careful observations have shown that the method of training the trunk is also important. Trees having a single main trunk were much less injured by the cold than those of the same size growing under similar conditions but having several trunks. This was quite noticeable in protected regions after the first freeze, but of course the two freezes in most places were enough to kill almost any trunk. This shows clearly that where possible it is very desirable to train the trees so that a single main trunk is formed up as high as is con- sistent with a well-shaped tree. By following this rule a much larger trunk can be saved in case of a severe freeze (figs. 17 and 18). Dividing groves into small plats of 4 or 5 acres and leaving wind- breaks between and surrounding these has also proved to be a good practice. This can easily be done by leaving strips of the original —_. « = i. pie ce hy Pe iit a ee el pete ‘Since this paper was written uninjured citron trees have been seen by the writer at Cocoanut Grove and Elliotts Key. 166 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. = forest when clearing the ground. In many hammock groves in which — palmettoes, magnolias, and other forest trees were allowed to stand among the orange trees, the protection they afforded was plainly noticeable. Where the soil is rich enough to allow of this method of culture, it should be adopted as a protection against cold and frosts. Several groves, in various parts of the State, were protected to some extent by fires distributed through them at regular intervals. These fires were made by lighting brush piles already in the grove, or by distributing and igniting pots of resin prepared for this purpose. The trials made of these methods were fairly successful, and indicate that much can be gained even from the little protection thus afforded. During light freezes in the northern part of the State the fruit has often been saved by such fires. The well-recognized slight differences in hardiness shown by vari- eties of oranges was scarcely perceptible in the last hard freeze. In re We ik Ai vy { Ty ZK aN Hy hie ‘ hy a. oe rn SN ON es LHS 4 is IZ ae A iM Ba Si an Fig. 17.—A properly ‘+r ained trunk. Fia. 18.—An improperly trained trunk. protected regions, like Palmetto and Braidentown, and in the southern part of the State, however, some difference could be observed. Harts Late is reported by most growers to have withstood the cold better than any other variety, and the Jaffa and Majorica were also found to be quite hardy. The Mediterranean Sweet proved to be very tender, and the Satsuma, which was supposed to be very hardy, usually suf- fered as much as the tangerine. When on Citrus trifoliata stock, however, the Satsuma is reported to have withstood the cold better. RESTORATION OF FROZEN ORANGE GROVES. After it became apparent that most citrus trees were killed back nearly or quite to the ground, the question as to what treatment was best under the existing conditions came to be an important one with TWO FREEZES OF 1894-95 IN FLORIDA. 167 growers. The experience gained in the freeze of 1886 was of little -yalue, as at that time the trees were not, as a rule, severely injured, and the lessons taught by the freeze of 1835 had been largely for- gotten and were too indefinite. The result was that many different treatments were followed. The time and manner of pruning the frozen trees were puzzling questions. From the experience in the freeze of 1835, it was claimed by some growers that if the dead top was not cut off the fermenting sap would pass down and kill the living portion of the trunk and the roots. This belief, however, has been disproved by extensive experi- ence since last winter’s freezes. As yet hundreds of groves remain unpruned, and in no ease do the trees show any injurious effect that can be traced to this cause. Indeed, many growers claim that the protection and slight shade afforded by the old top has been decidedly beneficial. The sprouts on such trees have unquestionably grown higher than on pruned trees, but are usually slender and unbranched, probably due to the effect of the shade. Trees which were pruned back into the living wood early in the season have made a more gen- eral and bushy growth, and will probably ultimately make the best- shaped tops. As a whole, little difference can be seen between early , pruned trees and those left unpruned. The sprouts in unpruned . trees have grown so large now (November 1, 1895), however, that many will be destroyed or injured by even the most careful pruning. Probably the best practice is to prune the trees as soon as the sprouts have started and show a healthy growth, cutting the trunk below the upper sprouts down to a short distance above where the most healthy, ; vigorous growth appears. Where the trees were killed to the ground, many cut them off below the soil and covered the cut surface with earth to protect it from the hot rays of the sun. In general this did not prove as satisfactory as allowing the tops to remain until the sprouts started. Where the trees were slow in sprouting, removing the dirt from around the trunk and crown roots, thus exposing them to the sun and air, proved efficient in inducing sprouts to start. The practice most generally followed throughout the State with trees killed below the buds was to allow sprouts to come up from the base of the trunks or from the roots and bud them as soon as they reached sufficient size. The budding of the sprouts was commenced in May and continued throughout the season as the sprouts attained sufficient size. The buds put in during May have now, as a rule, reached a height of from 4 to 7 feet (fig. 19). Many growers have allowed all the sprouts to grow that started, intending to dormant bud the largest this fall or bud early next _ spring. In cases where the trees sprouted early, and the necessary _ buds could be secured, this would seem to be a waste of valuable time. _ The practice of crown grafting trees killed to the ground has been followed to some extent, and when properly done has proved an | . ; ; 168 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. excellent method. In this case the trees were cut down below the sur- face of the soil to where the wood was sound, and the scions inserted. The scions should be of sound, mature wood, about 5 inches long, sharpened by a long, slanting cut on one side, as shown in fig. 20, a. Several grafts should be inserted on each stock to make sure that at least one will grow. The grafts should be pushed down between the wood and the bark, as shown in fig. 20, b. The best place to insert the grafts is in the concave portions of the trunk, as here the bark can be pressed out without breaking in order to allow the insertion of the scion. The bark will hold the scion firmly against the stock, and in this way no wrapping is required. Moist dirt is then thrown up over the grafts, allowing simply the upper end to protrude. The use of grafting wax on scions inserted in this way is said to be unnecessary. If the trees are not cut below the ground it would probably be desirable to place small strips of waxed cloth over the cavity formed between the bark and the wood. In the use of this method, however, many failures have been made, evidently due to eutting the trees too high. Cutting below the soil, even though some of the large crown roots had to be sacrificed, seemed to be the best way. The benefit derived from the use of this method is that of securing in the graft all the Fia. 19.—Ruby orange bud, put in May 21, on growth made. The grafts may sprout from old sweet-orange trunk. Photo. be put in promptly after a Be ee ee freeze, or as soon as the bark can be made to part for their insertion. The graft heals on before growth usually starts and has buds formed ready to push in the spring, while if the trees are allowed to start of their own accord adventive buds must be formed before the sprouts start. Grafts properly inserted started earlier than the sprouts, and as a rule made a much larger growth than sprouts which grew from the roots of sim- ilar stocks. Cutting back the sprouts to foree the buds, in the prac- tice of sprout budding, puts the growth back and again weakens the roots, already nearly dead. This is prevented by grafting, by which means all the growth made is thrown into the grafts which are to ] 4 = | | TWO FREEZES OF 1894-95 IN FLORIDA. 169 remain. Crown grafts put in immediately after the second freeze are as a whole six months in advance of the best growth made by buds put in on sprouts from the roots, and are fully a year in advance of many of the groves of the State which have been slow to start sprouts and thus could not be budded. Grafts on old and young stocks take equally well (fig. 21). Nursery stock and small trees killed down by the freeze were apparently built up with the least loss of time by cutting them down below the soil 1 or 2 inches immediately after the freeze, and cleft grafting them by the common method, as illustrated in fig. 22. This method was not practiced sufficiently to warrant a positive statement that it is the quickest. The almost universal practice was to allow sprouts to grow from the roots and to bud them as soon as they had ‘ TAN Ae he it ‘ ) ‘ Af it" { A cna k ! 4x] Vek fy” j iS an Fia. 20.—Method of crown grafting old orange stocks. a, base of scion showing form of slant- ing cut; b, method of inserting scion. reached sufficient size. The greater handiness of this latter method recommends it in this case, where at best little difference can be expected. By means of inarching, many growers are throwing the strength of several sprouts into the one whichis budded. Although tedious, this practice is desirable to hasten development. It necessitates rather high budding, however, which should be avoided if possible. DAMAGE WHICH THE FREEZES CAUSED TO PINEAPPLES. The pineapple industry, which in southern Florida has reached considerable importance and probably ranks second among the fruit industries of peninsular Florida, was also severely injured by the A 95 6* 170 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. freezes of last winter. In the northern part of the pineapple section all plants, covered and uncovered, were killed to the ground, and as far south as Biscayne Bay all uncovered plants were injured. The damage to the pine- apple industry was proportionally less than to eitrus fruits, as at the time of the freezes the pineapple crop had been market- ed, and, besides, it does not take the plants so long to re- cover. Moreover, the expense and delay in budding or grafting necessary in citrus trees are not required in these plants. This season the crop was very small and the fruit formed was of inferior size and quality. During the season of 1894 Fia. 21._Ruby orange graft on old sweet-orange stock, put in March the J acksonville, 1 by crown-graft method. Photographed October 23,1895. (Com- Qf, Augustine and ele hy Indian River, and the Savannah, Florida and Western railroads carried 82,708 whole or barrel crates, while in 1895, the season following the freeze, the same roads carried only 17,093 erates. From present indications the yield of the summer of 1896 will probably be as heavy as ever before. The only loss, how- ever, even in these exceptionally severe freezes, was one crop of fruit and the cultivation for one year. During both freezes ice was formed in the cen- ters of almost all the pineapples as far south as Palm Beach, and the leaves were frozen stiff; most plants grown outside of sheds were killed to the ground as far south as West Palm Beach and Myers. _~_ “ Ee COcOANUT GROVE NEAR PALM BEACH, FLORIDA, SHOWING EFFECTS OF FREEZE. TWO FREEZES OF 1894-95 IN FLORIDA. 173 Rockledge, were considerably frozen back as far south as Palm Beach and Myers. The gumbo-limbo (Bursera gummifera Jacq.) and satin wood (Xanthoxylum pterota) were also among the seriously injured plants. Water lettuce (Pistia spathulata) and water hyacinth (Hich- ormia speciosa), which are very abundant in many ponds and sluggish streams, were frozen down to the water level. Considering the severity of the freezes of last winter, it is indeed remarkable how slightly the majority of the native plants were injured. The plants of Northern origin growing in the high pine lands, flat woods, scrubs, and hammocks of the interior were almost all unharmed. SUMMARY. (1) The first freeze, December 27-29, 1894, caused a loss of some 3,000,000 boxes of oranges and lemons, killed many young citrus trees, and seriously injured old trees. Guavas, pineapples, and many tropical fruit trees were frozen down throughout the northern and central portions of the State. (2) At the time of the second freeze, which culminated on February 8, 1895, the citrus trees which were not killed by the first freeze had started to grow vigorously. The result was that trees of all varieties and sizes were killed to the ground throughout the State, except in the extreme south and in a few protected localities. (3) The frozen oranges and pomeloes were eaten in great numbers and large quantities were also shipped to Northern markets, and the fact that no injury resulted from the unprecedented comsumption disproves the claims of many physicians and health authorities that such frozen fruitis unhealthful. In the membranes between the seg- ments of frozen oranges white specks were so invariably present as to be satisfactory evidence of freezing. (4) Where orange and other citrus trees had been banked with earth around the base before the freezes, a portion of the trunk was saved. This practice is thought very desirable in order to protect the point of union in trees budded or grafted near the ground. Bud- ding or grafting trees near the ground or below it is a good preventive against loss by cold, and should be invariably followed, except on low, poorly drained soils, which are subject to foot rot. When the point of union is placed below the soil the bud is generally safe from injury, even in the most severe freezes, and if near the ground it can easily be protected by covering with earth. (5) Citrus trees having a single main trunk were found to endure the cold much better than trees of the same size having several trunks, and therefore wherever possible trees should be trained so as to form but one trunk as high up as would be consistent with a well- shaped tree. Wind-breaks and forest trees scattered amung the fruit trees proved beneficial. Protection of this kind can be provided for when clearing the ground, by leaving strips of the original forest 174 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. around plats of, say, 4 or 5 acres, and a tree here and there through the plats. Fires scattered through the groves were also markedly bene- ficial. Losses from freezing can also be overcome to a slight extent by planting hardy varieties, as some kinds withstand low temperatures better than others. (6) Little difference was apparent in frozen trees whether pruned soon after the freeze or left unpruned. Apparently no injuri- ous effects resulted from leaving the frozen tops attached, but it is thought that in general early pruning gave rather the best results. Probably the best time to prune the trees is when the sprouts have started and show a healthy growth. The trees should be cut below the upper sprouts down to a short distance above where the most healthy and vigorous growth appears. In restoring orange and lemon groves frozen to the ground, the method of cutting the trees off below the soil and crown grafting has proved much better and quicker than waiting for sprouts to grow from the base and budding them when they had reached sufficient size. What appeared to be the quickest way to build up nursery stock and small trees killed down by the freeze was by immediately cutting them 1 or 2 inches below the soil and cleft grafting them. (7) Pineapples were injured as far south as Biscayne Bay. Plants which were grown under sheds were not seriously injured south of the twenty-seventh parallel. The pineapple plants will entirely recover from the injuries of the freezes in one year. (8) Strictly tropical fruits and plants were badly injured in all places in the State except in the extreme southern part, that is, at Biscayne Bay and on the keys. The native vegetation, particularly plants of Northern origin, was but slightly injured. (9) Large bodies of water afforded great protection to citrus trees growing in their vicinity. Except in the southern part of the State the first freeze killed the foliage on all trees outside of those growing on the south side of large lakes, where the results of the tempering influence was perceptible for half a mile from the water. On Terra- ceia Island, in Tampa Bay, even lemons escaped unhurt, and orange groves bordering on the mainland of this bay were almost entirely unharmed. The beneficial influence of this large body of water extended 2 miles. Pineapples, guavas, ete., grown in regions having extensive water protection escaped much of the damage sustained by such fruits when grown in the same latitude but away from any body of water. a TESTING SEEDS AT HOME. By A. J. PIETERS, Assistant, Division of Botany, U. S. Department of Agriculture. THE IMPORTANCE OF HAVING GOOD SEED. The importance of seed testing is recognized not only by profes- sional seedsmen, but also by intelligent farmers. The necessity for testing seed arises from the fact that not every seed contains a living germ. The absence of a living germ makes the seed useless for the reproduction of its kind. To find out what proportion of the seeds in a sample contains germs capable of growth is therefore the object of all seed testing. Good seed is essential to successful agriculture. No matter how well the farmer prepares his land; no matter how much time, labor, and money he spends on it, if much or all of his seed fails to ‘‘come up” he will either have a poor crop or will be obliged to reseed, thus losing time and labor. Many causes may contribute to prevent him from getting a good stand, but if he can eliminate any one of these he is by so much the gainer. Poor seed is a great cause of poor stands. The farmer and the gardener get seed from one of two sources— they either grow it themselves or buy it. If the former, there is less danger of its being poor. The chief source of poor seed is careless handling in harvesting and storing. If seed gets too damp, mold will destroy much, or the seed will begin to sprout, then dry out, and the germ will be killed. If seed is bought, the chance of getting a poor quality increases many fold. If all seed was bought from relia- ble dealers, there would be far less cause for complaint, but farmers too often buy seed where they can get it the cheapest. They pay their money for trash that is either full of harmful weed seeds or has a liberal admixture of old and dead seeds. Whenever large quantities of seed are purchased, they should be tested for purity and germination. The table on the following page gives the result of a few tests out of the many that were made in the Department seed laboratory last year of seeds bought from sup- posed reliable seedsmen. 175 176 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The old adage that a dollar saved is a dollar earned will apply to the purchase of seeds. It is an easy matter to waste a dollar on seeds, and when profits depend upon cutting down useless expenditure, the use of inferior seed can not be too strongly condemned. Germination tests of seeds. Per cent Percent of | of germi- Kind of seed. germina- nation tion was— should Bean, Burpee’s bush lima..--2. 2.22 a2c--c scene nse 30-205 Se -- se santinw nner 72 95 Bean, Dwarf, pink-eyed wax ....- -----22-sccccb. cen none nn oe sea w cos emnnns 77 . 95 Cabbage, Drumhead .--.-...2. -.-.------<5-- 00-2522 nono enna enone neae= 67 95 Cabbage, Lixemboure: .--2.--20e6sn< -225 sar ode eee ene sae 2 veneers 67.5 95 Gurrot-Mastodon ....< s.-.ac-soeea 658205868 eee ced sadoe ieee 58. 8&5 IOVEPOBCATICU es << nc onip ocnn se oe se se cette name San See a a 4 90 WRDHN Goo oe 2. sete sae cete geet nee ne ween een ee eck oman ee 5 76 Gorn, beeyptian sweet:-...- -.-..- 22220 cece sec cnee meee secre eens seaeees 7 92.5 WDOMRAIHO Ss. 320 6 o025 soe nn2 PS eee ee he ah eee eae 39 80 Gent bDEr, White Wonder: o-2_.se2e—5t2- 6 cs see at eee G2 92 Eggplant, New York improved thornless -----.--------------------------- 62 85 RPS RC OTILUCE. YU .552 2-22 nsec oe coos sane esa See em ora an 10 50 Oranardis v.25 2 ese ae es cea eee 31.3 80 exzas Dla: << Assis: = eshe= Seesaw eet eae aes ant pcb si. tate 1 50 Waccbace: Golden. Dall: =-.2.- a. ss San ea eee secon ae e nee 64.5 90 Muskmeion, Shumway s)eiant..-.. 25-2 Sn a seee woe oe noe cee eee 69 92 Muskmelon; Surprise: - 2222.25. (0 soos te cone c ac oe sence een ce ans eee 64 92 Onion, Marly round white Dutch2::...2.22.222.222-222 22-622 eee eeeee 58.5 85 Mats. Scotch whites «2... 22.208 55 hes Se - cee eee a rane ce eee eee 79.3 95 Parsley, Beauty of the Parterre -...--.--------------- «-------2----- -<--<- 53 75 eH MCIMORN) «22 oo escc bacnse wen sae e oo mete CS aaa ae eee aie eer 88 98 Penper/Cranberry.- --22..212222. 22336 ee oe se eke an Aen 42 85 Pumpkin, Winter luxury: - 2225 =--1-+- 42226. -ae5-- 2 s5-0e heen 65 92 IR ORAPCIO? oc cc odo tacos asc monnee acs eee a eee ee eee 63 95 Reaper WAll WSSOK «sacs vaca cate wae ars ob anes ose cee eae soe eane ener 79.5 95 Rainieg. SanGwich ISIGNOS;25-- sons 5-22 tien ce dada eon enone ee 49.5 83 Spinach, Mett’s crumpled leaf ....52-. 2.052 05.60 822-2 eee ena eee eeene 43.5 89 DACRAy WiILO DUDICV sew atiecls akaasiel a dar Hie os een on weep ieee Cee need 0. 25 88 POMALO; AsOTIMOrG . 306) Suc .s ce poche oo ad mmnen grapes ese ccnanen en cake ep aaaeee 72.5 pe 90 Watermelon, Cole’ siGArly - ot o2. 085 oo ssc see see ee aces cane n cu seeeaeeeaneee 88 92 The standard of germination in oats is 95. This places the normal loss from nonviable seeds at one-twentieth part. In the sample of oats reported in the table the loss was slightly more than one-fifth. There was four times as much waste in this sample as there should have been. The White Dutch onion seed germinated 58.5 per cent. The loss in this case was 1 pound in every 24, while the normal waste should have been less than 1 poundin 7. The loss on Egyptian sweet corn reached 14 pecksin 5. The normal loss should not exceed 1 peck in 15. A farmer sowing a meadow to Kentucky blue grass and buying such seed as that reported in the table would pay for 9 bushels of dead seed out of every 10 bushels purchased. There is always a great deal a a aaa > . TESTING SEEDS AT HOME. 177 of loss in this as in most grass seeds, but it should not exceed 5 bush- els in 10. Here is a clear loss of 4 bushels out of every 10 bought, which, at $1.65 per bushel, is worth considering. The normal waste in orchard grass seed is 1 bushel in 5, but the sample tested contained almost 34 bushels of worthless seed out of 5. At present orchard grass brings about $2 per bushel. This makes a net loss of about $7 on a purchase of 5 bushels of seed. It is unnecessary to give other examples of the loss which farmers suffer by purchasing poor seed. The table affords ample illustration. METHODS OF TESTING SEEDS. Many seedsmen and a few farmers test their seeds. The method generally followed is to throw a handful of seed into a box full of earth, and decide by the way it comes up whether the seed is good. This is better than no testing at all, but it is impossible to get accu- rate results in this manner if the seeds used are not counted. _ Another method is to make a shallow trench in sand, seatter in the seeds as thickly as is recommended for the variety, and wet with warm water. The seeds germinate rapidly, and the merit of the sample is judged by the stand in the row. When the seeds are not counted, no accuracy is possible. Besides, it is well known that the amount of seed thought necessary per running foot of drill, or per acre, is from two to four times as much as would be required if the seeds used had a high vitality. Some people think that if seeds are thrown into water the good ones will sink and the dead seeds will float, but this notion is not sup- ported by facts. When seeds float it is often because an air bubble has become attached to them or because they have not become wet ail over the surface. Several experiments were made to test the germination of seeds that sink and those that float. Wheat was used in one set of experiments, and the average of all tests showed a germination of 68.3 per cent for the sunken seeds and 72 per cent for those that floated. In another set of experiments lentil was used, and it was found that 75.4 per cent of the sunken seeds and 86.7 per cent of those that floated germinated. The germination of seeds depends on a proper supply of heat and moisture. For accuracy in testing, darkness is also essential. Seeds will germinate through a considerable range of temperatures, but the number of germinating seeds decreases as we depart from the optimum, or most favorable, temperature. If seeds are subjected to temperatures higher or lower than the optimum, germination will proceed more slowly, and when either extreme is passed it will cease. All seeds do not have the same temperature limit. Seeds of tropical plants need more heat to germinate than those from plants growing in northern latitudes or on high altitudes. Certain seeds have been known to germinate upon ice. Nobbe records an observation by 178 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. © Uloth on the root of a maple seedling which penetrated a short dis- tance into solid ice. Wheat has been known to germinate at the freezing point. The following table, showing the effects of given temperatures upon the germination of seeds, is taken from Nobbe’s Handbuch der Samen- kunde. The column under a indicates the number of seeds germi- nated; that under b shows the number of hours required to germinate that number under the fixed temperature. 16° C. | 25° ©, | ale C. 37.5° C. 44° ©, (60.5° F.). 72 (88° F.). (100° E25 | GES ey Seed. | a b | a b a b a b a b Detley 2. 1s 5 00 ok ak 100 72 | 92 72 24] 144 eee TP a se ae Ses 100 72 | 100 24} 100 24 | 100 [oe eras |. ee Cabbage, early, small-_........-.-.---- 100 56 | 100 32 | 100 48 | - 22222) -2 a eee Cabbage, late, large.....--.----------- 100 48 | 100 24 | 100 48 |... -22)-55en) ee Mover BCaMmOe CLL seo st cdc ltleeons 100 32 | 160 24} 100 24} 100 DE Soha ees Mbrver TOd: 232 2n5 .. sa5 Ske doe h deed 100 32 | 100 24} 100 24} 100 ees Rae (ONAIAG)| 2 conosco ccna on moaees 80} 144 68 56 | 100 48 | 100 48 12 89 DIPEMIIDO? 52-68 cco ce ee doe ees 76} 216} 100 96 | 100 82 | 100 48 60; 120 ULES cat DS a ne oe See 100 32} 100 23} 100 AT |. 2.222} -h Sade eee Vins (6c gis 1S See ee oe ee ey ae 100 32; 100 24} 100 24) 100 Oh So eee ee WEBRING LON <6 2 apoio nae wo sas 4} 280} 100} 120} 100 48 | 100 48 20 ROCCE amie oa ti ewe Ce 100 80} 169 48 | 100 80: (ok es ee Radish, round, white .--.-...--.------ 100 382} 100 241 100 82] 100 48 86 95 Radish, long, white.......----------.-| 100 | 192] 100 48 84 96. }2 2 See eee Be OR Se hac ine 100} 56] 100| 82| 100:| 90 |_.o))eseueseneeenneuen Byeprass, Pnplish.... 22-7... sssao-- 100 | 216} 100} 120} 100 12.4 we =o nie ee NE eae eae Rae tbe | 100/ 32{ 100] 32] 100} 24] 100|~48}___...|___. MOUS So hoe Sure ade oe Dee ae dj 168 | 100} 144 88 |} 148/22. 38) ieee eee SPOUACED +. Seen inch. Conca caeouasee 100 | 192} 100) 108 88°} 168 | .-.iiles ssa See RINE. ene aS cies Son ete eee 100 56} 100 32} 100 48 | mance) ate wepare eeee PROPER CONDITIONS FOR TESTING SHEDS. The best temperature for the germination of most seeds is shown to be 25° C. (77° F.), while for a few this optimum is 31° C. (88° F.) and 37.5° C. (100° F.). But seeds germinating under natural condi- tions seldom have the advantage of this optimum temperature. In testing seeds, therefore, since it is necessary to get as near the natural conditions as possible, the temperature should be kept at between 18° and 20° C, (64° and 68° F.). This has been found to be the normal temperature for germination. Usually the heat of an ordinary living room will be sufficient for home testing, but if the temperature is likely to fall very low during the night it is better to provide a little heat during that time. More harm will result from a considerable decrease of temperature than from a slight increase. In the European seed-control stations seeds are tested at a constant temperature of 18° to 20° C. (64° to 68° F.). For grass seeds the temperature is foreed up to 30° C, (86° F.) during six hours of the twenty-four, this variation in the heat being found advantageous, TESTING SEEDS AT HOME. 179 Moisture is as important as temperature. Before a seed can sprout it must absorb water and swell. Though the swelling of a seed is a necessary preliminary, it is not always followed by germination, for the absorption of water is a purely mechanical process and does not imply vitality in the seed. The entrance of water into the seed is dependent upon the structure of the seed coats. When these are hard and impervious, as is often the case in leguminous seeds and in nuts, water gains admission slowly and germination is retarded. In cereals and in most garden seeds the seed coats are easily penetrated by water, the seeds swell rapidly, and germination is prompt. Experi- ments have proved that seeds will absorb moisture and swell ina damp atmosphere, but that for germination, contact with water is necessary. An atmosphere saturated with water vapor is not suffi- cient to induce germination. Flaxseed kept in a saturated atmos- — phere for nine days, and seed of kohl-rabi kept under the same conditions for twenty-two days, did not germinate (Nobbe, Handbuch der Samenkunde). Too much water is equally injurious. As a gen- eral rule, seeds will not germinate well when immersed in water. It is necessary to have the seeds in contact with some medium from which they can obtain an abundant supply without allowing water to stand around them. Light exerts a harmful influence upon germination. Experiments have shown that seeds placed under colored glass did not germinate as rapidly as those which were in complete darkness. Even-more important than the exclusion of light is the free access of air and the escape of the noxious gases generated by germinating seeds. When germination has commenced, carbonic acid gas is given off, which must be allowed to escape, or growth will be checked. SELECTING SAMPLES. Selecting the sample to be tested is a matter of great importance. It must be a fair sample, including both good and bad seeds. If the quantity to be tested is considerable, small amounts should be taken from different parts of the mass. These small samples, thoroughly mixed, form the larger sample out of which the proper number of seeds is to be counted. In case the quantity of seed is small, say one-haif pound of clover seed, pour the seed from the package into a pan, taking a small spoonful occasionally from the stream. From the quantity thus secured a sample for testing is taken. The number of seeds used in testing depends upon the size of the seed and upon the quantity at disposal. If the sample is large enough, 100 seeds of the larger kinds and 200 to 400 of the smaller seeds are taken. The increased number is a check upon error in counting small seeds. In counting out the seeds a fair number of small and immature ones should be selected as well _ asthe large and plump ones. There is reason to suspect that in some —— =". 180 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tests only fine-looking seeds are used. These would, of course, give a higher percentage of germination than could be sustained by the entire sample. In sclecting grass seeds for testing, care must be taken to use only such as contain a grain. In some kinds of grass seeds there are many empty glumes which it is difficult to distinguish from those containing a grain. A simple way to separate them is to wet the seed, spread it out on a plate of glass, and hold the plate up to the light. The empty chaff will appear translucent, while the good seed will be opaque. KEEPING A RECORD. Although for the results usually desired in home seed testing it is not absolutely necessary to keep a record, yet such a record, if well made, will be found to contain much valuable information. A few items will always need to be recorded, in any event, such as the date of beginning the test, the name of the variety, the number of seeds, and the number of germinated seeds removed from day to day. It is dangerous to trust anything to memory. Mistakes are sure to occur, and the test will then be useless. LENGTH OF TIME REQUIRED. The length of time a test should continue depends upon the seed. In the seed-control stations ten days has been accepted as the proper time for most seeds, but a few require a longer period, namely: Days Esparsette, serradella, beet-seed balls, rye grasses, timothy, carrots...--.--- 14 Grasses, except meadow and rye grasses, and timothy----_.-.------------- 21 Meadow grasses (Poa), conifersee (except white pine), birches, alders, acorns, beeches, and: hornbeams ....2.--2065----5--24-0-—-'s Jone er 28 White pine and stone fruits_........2..--...-------- =~ ssueeee eee 42 The seeds should be examined each day, and those that have ger- minated should be removed and the number recorded. A seed is con- sidered as germinated as soon as the root breaks through the seed coats. Under favorable conditions more than one-half of the seeds in a good sample will germinate in a much shorter time than that given above. The rapidity with which the seeds germinate is some indica- tion of the vigor of the embryo, and determines the germinative energy. The number of days in which more than one-half of the seeds in a good sample should germinate has been fixed as follows: Days. Cereals, clovers, peas, vetches, flat peas, flax, dodder, poppy, cabbage, radish, epurry, chicory -.2..8. 2262. sce ct soc a E 3 Squashes and pumpkins, cucumbers, beans, spinach, lupine, buckwheat, bur- TC be sei a oe a ans wn ope ie we ld on ws whee hele wh ill nae aa 4 Beet, timothy, serradella, bird’s-foot clover, rye grasses, meadow foxtail, reed i a es wow ema eee e eens «hn ninh win mmo om oes 0 6 Sree enn 5 } : - TESTING SEEDS AT HOME. 181 Days Redtop, hair grass, chervil, carrots, fennel, esparsette, sorghum_.....-____- 6 Spruce, fox-tail grass, sweet vernal grass, canary grass, Deschampsia, Trise- tum, Poa, crested dog’s tail, velvet grass, red and sheep’s fescue __._______ 7 my pines (except white pine), maple .-........2.2-.--2i 22222-22222 10 Cente Bree 26h ess, Ee Oe ele Se eb db peo 14 In nearly every test, especially of leguminous seeds, there will be some that remain hard. These can not be regarded as dead seeds, because their condition is due to the hardness of the seed coats. The number of such seeds should be recorded. SPECIAL CARE NEEDED IN TESTING BEET-SEED BALLS. In testing beet-seed balls special care is necessary in recording the number of germinated seeds. The balls must be left in the test —S—— Fia. 23.—Simple germinating apparatus. A, closed; B, open. during the entire period of fourteen days, but whenever a seed has sprouted it must be cut out with a sharp knife; or the root may be allowed to grow two or three days and then broken off and counted. The roots will either not grow out again, or, if they do, can not be mistaken for fresh ones. Either operation is very simple, and can be done by any one without the least trouble. The removal of the ger- minated seed or of the young roots is the only sure way of making an accurate test of the germination of beet-seed balls. One hundred seed balls should produce at least 150 seedlings. !' Yearbook, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1894, p. 399. 182 YEARBOOK OF THE U. & DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. APPARATUS. The apparatus used for home seed testing should be as simple as is consistent with a reasonable degree of accuracy. Any method that complies with the conditions given aboye—a proper amount of heat, moisture, air, and the exclusion of light—will give good results. For- tunately, these conditions are so easily fulfilled that the most inex- pensive apparatus will answer. Perhaps the simplest and at the same time the most satisfactory is the following: Take two plates and place in one of them a folded cloth; wool or flannel is preferable, since it remains moist for a long time, but any cloth will do. The cloth should be free from dyes that will come out in water, since they may contain chemicals that would be injurious ——— * i BZ» 4 Sox qe Ss = LLLLLLS LLL LLOLLLLL LA OLLI Fia. 24.—Homemade germinating apparatus. A, complete; B, section. to the seed. Wet the cloth, pressing out the surplus water, leaving it very damp, but not soaked. Place the seeds between the folds of cloth, put in the number of the record, marked in pencil on a piece of paper, with date and number of seeds, and cover with the second plate, inverted. Plenty of air will get in between the plates, and the upper one will prevent too rapid evaporation of moisture. If the tests are to be made during the winter, keep the apparatus in the living room, as the heat of such a room will be sufficient for most seeds. During the night the seeds should be put in a warm place. Instead of the cloth, old newspapers, well soaked, ean be used. These need to be moistened more frequently, however. (See fig. 23.) Another apparatus that will give good results, especially for seeds not larger than wheat, is the one shown in fig. 24. Here the seeds are placed free on the bottom of a porous saucer and the latter put inside of a tin basin. The basin should have at least two coats of | | | TESTING SEEDS AT HOME. 183 mineral paint to prevent rusting. Water is poured into the basin up to about one-half the height of the saucer. The water will soak through the saucer and supply the seeds. For larger seeds this method is slow, since the seeds do not get water rapidly enough.’ A very simple apparatus is a glass or porcelain dish or tin pan with a little water in the bottom, and a handful of cotton batting, soaked, and placed in the dish. Put the seeds on the cotton and cover the dish with a plate of glass. If it is desired to test a number of samples in the same apparatus, a convenient form is the following: Take a large dripping pan or an ordinary frying pan. Paint it to prevent rusting. Put four sup- ports in the pan (inverted porous saucers are good) and place a tin or wire frame upon them, as shown in fig. 25. The seeds are laid .between folds of blotting paper or cloth, which are then placed on the frame. A flap of paper or cloth hangs down into the water, which half fills the tray and keeps the folds moist. Fic. 25.—Apparatus for germinating several varieties at one time. If glass can be had to put over the pan, evaporation will not be so rapid; otherwise the water will need replenishing frequently. The tin or wire tray need not be expensive, and can be replaced by _ anything the operator may have. It is only necessary that a flap should dip into the water to provide moisture. In testing seed some trouble will be experienced from the growth of mold. If the cloths and dishes are used many times, this trouble will become worse unless the spores of the fungi are killed. This ean easily be done by boiling all cloths and washing the dishes in boiling water after each test. In testing seeds it is necessary that there should be a standard of germination with which the germination of the sample can be com- pared. If the percentage of germination falls far below the standard, the seed is not fit for use, and its value decreases for every per cent Qe (ont = ‘An improvement on the above is described in the Yearbook of 1894, p. 405. _ Here folds of blotting paper or flannel cloth are placed in the porous saucer and the seeds laid between the folds. 184 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of difference between its germination and that required by the standard. : The following table is offered provisionally, having been made up from original data and the most reliable outside sources. A great deal of experimenting will be necessary before a permanent table of germination standards is offered: Table of germination standards. Per- Per- Per- Seed. cen t- Seed. cent- Seed. cent- age. age. age VEGETABLE AND GRAIN | | VEGETABLE AND GRAIN VEGETABLE AND GRAIN SEEDS. SEEDS—continued. SEEDS—continued. Na ae: 4 1: a 90 DGGE, Sp ccaneeoae aaa 85 || Turnip-...-2 22a 95 Teo Ew che Oe Saeed Se eee 159 || Lupin, yellow ---------- 90. || Wheat... S225 95 Benesela sprouts .-:.52--2| 95 || Gheérkin) 2222-5 -22-2. 222. 92 UL ae eee 95 Melon, musk............ 92 GRASEES £02 ae BSPOGCOM 2c. ce ceussa sees 85 |' Melon, water --........-- 92 — Beans, bush -—=.---- 2... - 05) | Wusturd: - 2222. 2scsee ae 95 ae > A 2 Beans, lima ........------- PME oss Means eee 95 |) Soret. 2 va Buckwheat .....:.-.-...-- idles ste ee 65 ||| SPUN ——- eee 2 (OE Oe: Hives neh ie hes a 95 || Cover, red.--aees = Sa aA Se Ee a ee 85 Paraleyco.cooscete soe we 75 aaihin. white pagar 2 oe 6 DE oie eee are See oe 65 | Parsnip cco he sicen 75 ae ne eae E is DOIBTIAG: Sasa ec un cosas 65 Pens te oar soe cee 98 : ees =~ salem Gorn, held. -. = [ae 025'|| 'Peppere- cence ee senseee 85 || Grass: Gornjsweete: ne cee PAA |b Barbi ye) ate bee ee ee 92 Fowl meadow ---... % @neumber 2-20...2.022---2 92 Radish! 222. 2422-2 Seee = 95 Johnson -----2h----- 75 SE 1 en i pad % || Rhubarb. 85 Kentucky blue -..-- 50 Ganliflower _.2:.22200 222.) 85° | Salsify =.=: ees 83 Meadow fescue ----- 80 nes aa es A 65. ||| ipinach=>....22.0 ose 89 Orchard -......----- 80 JSD a aes eee 90 Squash, winter -.....--. 92 Texas blue-.....---- 50 CEST a ee Sale 85 || Squash, summer ....--- 92 Timothy -----.---<-. 90 LOIN Eh CSE cee er Se 94 Sunflower == -0ss<--o5.22 90 || Millet: TS nS ie 90 POMALO 2 eas-85205-ese a 90 Common ...2ciensaue Coie C7 eR Sek a Ses 90 DGhsceOks::-ssseeoseees 88 Pearl... 85 Nothing has been said in this article about testing seeds for purity. This is an important matter, but could not be properly treated in a few pages. Garden and flower seeds ought always to be nearly pure, but those of grasses and forage plants, especially clovers, frequently contain a considerable amount of foreign matter. The seeds of harm- ful weeds are often found in quantity in clover seed. Farmers should be on their guard against impure seeds. ap De. “OP Atte OIL-PRODUCING SEEDS. By GILBERT H. HIcks, Assistant, Division of Botany, U. S. Department of Agriculture. GENERAL REMARKS. There are over 200 species of plants whose seeds are used in making oil for illumination, medicine, food, soap, and lubricating machinery. A large proportion of these plants are natives of tropical regions, many of which will not thrive in colder climates. On the other hand, there are many plants which could be profitably grown in the United States for the oil contained in their seeds. A few such plants are now cultivated in this country, principally, however, for other pur- poses than the use of their seeds for oil, as in the well-known cases of cotton, peanuts, ete. The object of this article is to collate from reliable sources infor- mation concerning some plants which now are or which might be grown with profit for oil, thus developing a new line of agricultural activity which may in many cases prove profitable. Oils are divided into three classes: Fatty oils, mineral oils (such as kerosene, benzine, etc.), and volatile, or essential, oils (oil of turpen- tine, camphor, ete.). Oils of the first group are subdivided into those of vegetable and those of animal origin. Of the former, seeds furnish the main supply, although no part of the plant seems to be entirely wanting in fat. That found in the organs of vegetation, however, is more wax-like. The oily matter in seeds is stored up as food to be used by the young plant during the early stages of germination, before it is able to absorb food materials for itself from the earth and air. All seeds store up oil or starch for this purpose. The amount of fat in plants is said to be in nearly an inverse ratio to the amount of starch and sugar which they contain, ranging from 67 per cent in _ the brazil nut to only 1 per cent in barley. Oil is obtained from seeds by first crushing and then pressing them in cloth bags, or by boiling them in water and skimming off the oil which rises to the surface, or by using some chemical solvent, such _ as carbon disulphide, which extracts the oil. The first method is that generally employed, although the chemical process is coming into use to a large extent. Seeds are either pressed cold in mills con- structed especially for that purpose, or heat is used to coagulate any albumen present and to render the oil more liquid. In many ; 185 aed He * 2 186 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. instanees both cold and warm pressure are used, but in the ease of the best medicinal or table oils no heat is employed. The method — of using solvents commonly yields a greater amount of oil than does — pressure, but is open to objections. The crude oils obtained by pres- sure or extraction are refined by filtering and the use of chemicals. The residue of the seeds after the oil is extracted is called ‘‘oil cake,” and is often of great value as a stock food or fertilizer. It is composed of the woody fiber and mineral matter which the seed con- tained, a small per cent of unextracted oil, and, of more value than all else, the proteid or nitrogenous constituents of the seed. This gives it especial value as food, while the high per cent of phosphoric acid and potash in addition to nitrogen makes it a most valuable fertilizer. The exportation of cotton-seed cake from the United States in 1894 was over 600,000,000 pounds, worth over $7,000,000, while that of flaxseed amounted to nearly 128,000,000 pounds, valued at $1,700,000. Three-fourths of this material went to Great Britain. ‘ : ~~ 4 KZ = eee 7 ¢ ZG —" BE PSY Te Py y Qaim ‘7: “Gah: 46°) Sigg Le & -T Aare i . Aten : Da Si ye ge ay Fic. 26.—Cotton (Gossypium barbadense). a, Sat delinted, magnified 3 times; b, seed with coma attached; c, transverse section, showing the crumpled embryo filling the seed coats. COTTON-SEED OIL.! The cotton plant (various species of Gossypiwm) has been eulti- vated from time immemorial, principally for the fiber attached to the seeds. It occurs in Asia, Africa, and tropical America, but is also grown in some parts of Europe, and, as is well known, cotton fiber forms one of the principal products of the Southern States of this country. The black seeds (fig. 26) are almost hidden by a tuft of white fiber which covers their surface. They are irregularly egg-shaped, from 6 to 9 mm.? long and 4 to 5 mm. broad. The thick seed coat is filled ce _ ——— — — \ See Farmers’ Bulletin No. 36, U. S. Department of Agriculture. * For metric system, see Appendix. Consult index. OIL-PRODUCING SEEDS. 187 _ with the coiled embryo, which is sprinkled with brownish resin glands easily seen with the naked eye. The cells composing the embryo are filled with drops of fat and other matter. The seeds contain from 15 - to 20 per cent of oil, which for hundreds of years was wasted, for the | seeds proper were thrown away after stripping off the fiber. It is _ only within the present century that they were considered of any value except for planting. In 1826 a Virginian was led to experiment with cotton seed. He made a small machine with which he was able to express a dark- red oil that gave a fair light when burned in an ordinary lamp. In the same year, it is reported, an oil mill was constructed at Columbia, 8. C., which expressed a good quality of oil from cotton seed. From this beginning there has arisen a great industry, and although cotton is still grown mainly for the fiber, the seeds are now carefully saved for the oil. Great difficulties were experienced at first in extracting all of the oil contained in the seeds, since in the process of delinting a considerable amount of fiber remained attached to the seed coat, and this greedily absorbed a large per cent of the oil. Machines have been invented, however, for removing almost all the lint as well as the hulls themselves. In Europe the seeds are first pressed cold and then warm, but in America warm pressure is generally used from the first. The crude oil is a thick fluid, of a dirty brown color. By refining it becomes straw colored or nearly colorless. Estimating 2 pounds of seed for every pound of ginned cotton, ’ nearly 4,000,000 tons of seed were produced in the United States in 1894-95. Deducting about one-third of this, required for sowing, there would remain over 2,500,000 tons of seed. Of this amount about 1,500,000 tons were worked at the oil mills, each ton producing _ 45 gallons of crude cotton-seed oil and 800 pounds of cotton-seed _ eake. This estimate gives the immense total of 60,000,000 gallons of oil and 600,000 tons of oil cake produced in the United States in a single year. At 30 cents a gallon, this crude oil was worth $18,000,000, while the oil cake exceeds $12,000,000 in value. Of this annual pro- duction of oil about 9,000,000 gallons are used in making ‘‘ compound lard,” while the rest is either exported or mixed with drying oils or used in the manufacture of soap. Cotton-seed oil is also largely used for adulterating olive, lard, sperm, and other oils. During the last two years the exportations of cotton-seed oil from this country have been as follows: In 1892-93, 9,462,074 gallons, valued at $3,927,556; in 1893-94, 14,953,309 gallons, valued at $6,008,405. The principal European country extracting oil from cotton seed is England, the seed being obtained mainly from Egypt, from which country the United Kingdom imported, in 1894, 314,756 tons. - Cotton-seed meal makes an excellent fertilizer. In exchanging _ with farmers, oil mills give 1 ton of meal for 2} to 24 tons of seed. The hulls are used for fuel, paper, or feeding like hay. In Russia oil cake is used to some extent for stock food. In America the cake 188 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ground to meal) is used extensively and with good results as food for cattle and sheep, but has frequently been found poisonous to pigs and ealves, especially when it has undergone fermentation. The meal is not infrequently used to adulterate mustard. The prin- cipal States manufacturing cotton-seed oil are Tennessee, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas. Further data concerning cotton seed may be found in Farmers’ Builetin No. 36, published by this Department. FLAX. Next in importance to the cotton seed for oil purposes in the United States is that of the common flax (Linum usitatissimum), which, like the cotton plant, originated in the far East and has been known since the times of Moses and Homer. Flax is an annual, and at present is cultivated in nearly every country of the globe, especially in Russia and India. The seeds (fig. 27) are flattened elliptical oval, pointed at the lower end, smooth, shining, and of different shades of brown. They are 3 to 4 mm. long, 2 to 3 mm. wide, and about one-half mm. thick. They are produced in a 10-seeded globular capsule, which either remains closed at ma- turity or in some forms opens suddenly, - scattering the seeds. Unlike cotton, flax- seed contains beneath the shell a hard layer Fic. 27.—Common flax (Linum of endosperm surrounding the embryo. usitatissimum). a, seed, mag- P = : z nified 6 times; b, longitudinal This layer, however, is comparatively thin, section, showing embryo im- and the oil is derived principally from the bedded in the endosperm. fleshy, oval, or narrowly heart-shaped seed leaves (cotyledons) which it incloses. The outer layers of the seed coat become transformed into a mucilage when moistened with water, which gives the seeds their principal medicinal value. The seeds contain 30 to 35 per cent of oil, 20 to 28 per cent of which is obtained by pressure or extraction. Cold pressure yields 20 to 21 per cent, and the oil thus obtained is used in Russia and Poland as a substitute for lard and butter in cooking. It is of a pale yellow color, and has a rather pleasant taste and smell. The warm-pressed seeds give 27 to 28 per cent of an amber-colored oil which has a stronger and somewhat acrid taste. The oil from fresh flaxseed is sticky and turbid; hence, as a rule, seeds are pressed when from 2 to 6 months old. Linseed oil is rather thickly fluid, rapidly absorbing oxygen, and becoming thicker, then dry and hard, when exposed to the air. It therefore belongs to the group of drying oils, of which it is the most important. It is used in large quantities for making paints, varnishes, printer’s ink, and oilcloth, and to some extent for illumination and in the manufacture of soaps. : OIL-PRODUCING SEEDS. 189 The cake left after the oil is removed is extensively used as a cattle — food in countries where flax is grown. It contains large amounts of phosphoric acid (41.98 per cent), potash (25.24 per cent), and magne- sia (14.40 per cent), in addition to its high percentage of nitrogen; hence makes a very valuable fertilizer. In 1894 the United States exported over 127,000,000 pounds of flaxseed cake, valued at more than $1,700,000. According to Sadtler, three-fourths of this went to Great Britain. The supply of flaxseed comes from nearly all countries, principally from India and Russia. According to the United States consular reports, European Russia, in 1890, had 3,780,000 acres sown in flax, and the total crop:of seed amounted to 1,800,000,000 pounds, or about 21,000,000 bushels. The flaxseed crop of the United States has decreased from 18,000,000 bushels, in 1891, to 7,000,000 bushels, in 1894. Our seed is exported to Canada and Europe in considerable quantities for crushing purposes, not being considered good enough for sowing. American seed is worth about $40 a ton in Germany, while Russian seed brings $55 to $60aton. There is a great difference in the amount of oil contained in flaxseed of different origins. Generally speaking, the colder the climate where flax will thrive the better quality of oil it produces, though this depends fully as much on the fertility of the soil and care taken in cultivation. The plant does best in a rather moist, warm climate, though it will stand much drier situations when raised for seed alone. In some countries flax is raised for both seed and fiber, a practice which has its advantages and is approved by the Department. How- ever, the seed is produced to some extent at the expense of the rest of the plant; hence it is claimed by eminent European authorities that the best oil seed is yielded when flax is cultivated for that pur- pose alone. Besides, when both crops are attempted, the flax is har- vested before the seed has attained the degree of ripeness which is said to be necessary to insure a full content of oil. In flax-growing centers where the processes of manufacture are carried on, the pro- duction of fiber is much more profitable than that of the seed. In _ this country up to the present time flax has been grown mainly for the seed. Flax requires a deep, rich, loamy soil, well manured and thoroughly cultivated. The seed best adapted to produce a good oil crop in our country comes from Russia. The Baltic region of northern Europe also produces an excellent quality of seed. Flaxseed deteriorates rapidly from year to year, even when careful selection has been prac- ticed; hence constant attention must be paid to this subject. Well- ripened seed from the previous season is recommended for sowing. There is no doubt that in time, with proper methods of selection and cultivation, the United States, especially the northern portion, SE —— - S eV eS a T 190 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. could produce as good seed, both for sowing and oil, as any part of Europe. The method of cultivation of flax is somewhat different when it is raised for seed from that when fiber is desired. In the former case it is a common American practice to sow 30 to 45 pounds of seed per acre early in the spring upon turned sod of virgin soil without special fertilizing. In Europe the land is cultivated at least 8 inches deep and well fertilized with stable or liquid manure or commercial ferti- lizers. Nothing better can be used for this purpose than flaxseed cake. The seeds should be sown with a drill, and plenty of room allowed for sun exposure. When the young plants are a couple of inches high, they should be carefully weeded, and thinned if necessary. Flax is harvested for seed when two-thirds or more of the stalks have turned yellow and the seed begins to loosen in the capsules. The harvesting should be done when the plants are free from moisture. Before thrashing, the seed is left for some time in the capsules that it may become thoroughly ripe. Various methods are employed for thrash- ing out the seed. If the seed only is desired, an ordinary thrashing machine is sufficient, but special machines are necessary when both fiber and seed are saved. From 8 to 20 bushels of flaxseed are pro- duced per acre, the latter amount being considered a large crop, secured only on the richest land with the best cultivation. The seed brings about $1 a bushel, which, added to the value of the straw when grown for fiber, makes flax a very profitable crop. For further information concerning flax the reader is referred to the bulletins of the Department on fiber investigations. CASTOR-OIL BEAN, Castor oil is obtained from the seed of the castor bean (Ricinus communis), a member of the family Euphorbiaces, which furnishes over 20 species of oil-producing plants, most of them indigenous to tropical countries. The castor bean is a native of India, but is eulti- vated in many parts of the globe. In Persia it furnishes the chief illuminating oil. The seed is crushed along with raw cotton wool until the oil is expressed. The cotton thus soaked is rolled up into the form of tapers, which furnish the common household illuminant. The seeds of the common large-seeded variety (fig. 28) are oval, smooth, and shining, of a gray ground color, irregularly marked with brown. They are 10 to 20 mm. long, 6 to 10 mm. broad, and about 6 mm. thick, slightly pointed at the upper end, which is provided with a whitish fleshy excrescence (caruncle). They are contained in a three-lobed, spiny capsule, each lobe holding one seed. When ripe, the capsules split from the bottom upward, throwing the seeds to a considerable distance. The kernel is composed of two thick, fleshy, white lobes of endosperm, which inclose a thin, leaf-like embryo. A small-seeded form is used for medicinal purposes, while the large- OIL-PRODUCING SEEDS. 191 seeded variety furnishes an oil used for lighting and in the making of soaps. Castor-oil seed is inodorous, and has at first a sweetish taste, becom- ing sharp afterwards. The shell amounts to 20 to 24 per cent of the entire seed. The kernels contain from 50 to 60 per cent of oil. It is viscid, of a pale yellow color, with a disagreeable smell and taste. Castor oil is very readily soluble in alcohol, which, with its density (the greatest of the vegetable oils), renders adulteration easy of detection. It is frequently adulterated with poppy-seed oil, to which a few drops of croton or jatropha oil is added. The best kinds of castor oil come from Italy, Calcutta, and Madras, where the seed is de- prived of its shell before being pressed. Thisisdone by women who pound the seed with wooden hammers. In Americaand some other countries the shells are re- moved by special machinery. The shelled seed yields from 50 to 60 per cent of oil, which is more than that yielded by almost any other plant. The oil is ob- tained by pressing twice cold and a third time warm, by boiling with water, and extraction by the agency of alcohol. It soon becomes rancid upon exposure totheair. The oilis extensively used in medicine as a purgative, alsoin pomades, for illumination, soap making, for lubricating ma- chinery, in veterinary practice, and, in China, as a condiment. Fic. 28.—Castor-oil bean (Ricinus communis). | a, fruit, magnified 1} times; 6, seed, front, ° magnified 2} times; c, back; d, longitudinal section. The uses to which castor oil is devoted are constantly increasing, and avery large amount is consumed. In India castor oil is considered the best lamp oil, giving a white light, vying in brillianey with electricity, far superior to petroleum and other illuminating oils. It burns slowly, without danger, and gives off scarcely any soot. The railway trains of India are lighted almost entirely with castor oil, and an excellent gas made from the cake is being introduced into the railway stations. The principal shipments are from India and Italy. The former country in 1894-95 exported 2,679,236 gallons. American oil is considered superior to that from India, while the Italian is said to be the best of all. 192 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In Florida and other warm countries the castor bean is a perennial plant, growing from 15 to 30 feet high and as large around as a man’s body. In colder climates it behaves as an annual, dying down upon the approach of winter. The seeds are produced in great abundance, and their tendency to scatter when ripe renders the plant a great pest where it grows wild. The castor bean thrives in the sandiest soil, and its culture is very simple. The seeds germinate with difficulty, owing to their thick and impervious coat; hence nearly boiling water should be poured over them before sowing, and they should remain in this for about twenty- four hours, the temperature of the water in the meantime gradually lowering to that of the atmosphere. They should be planted in hills, 2 inches deep, 8 or 10 seeds to a hill, and afterwards thinned out to 1, or at most 2, plants per hill. The rows are 5 or 6 feet apart, with the hills 2 or 3 feet distant. Between every sixth and seventh row should be left a space of about 8 feet, to permit the passage of a horse and wagon when the beans are harvested. In the South, where the castor bean grows more vigorously, the hills may be 6 or 7 feet apart. Planting should take place as early in the spring as possible, making allowance for frosts, to which the Ricinus is very susceptible. The cutworm, too, is sometimes a serious obstacle to its cultivation. The land should be kept free from weeds and the crop grown much the same as corn or beans, and on very similar soil. In harvesting, the fruiting branches should be cut off as soon as the pods begin to pop open, which is in July in the South. This process must be repeated at least once or twice a week, as fast as the seeds ripen. The fruits are then spread out to dry, either on the floor of a granary or other close room or in a ‘“‘dry yard” built near the castor-bean fields. This yard is made by cutting away the sod, rolling the ground hard, and building a tight board fence around it to prevent loss from the beans scattering. It is better to make a tight board floor for the dry yard, which should be in a sunny place, sloping to the south. The spikes must be turned over occasionally and kept protected from moisture. After the seeds have popped out they are cleaned from the shells with a common fanning mill. Ricinus seeds should show at least 95 per cent germination and 98 per cent purity. The seeds of commerce are sometimes mixed with those of Jatropha curcas, a tropical plant belonging to the same family. Castor-oil plants have been cultivated to some extent in the United States for over twenty years. According to Simmonds, Kansas, in 1895, produced 361,385 bushels of seed from 24,145 acres, nearly 15 bushels per acre, the seed weighing 46 pounds to the bushel. In Iowa the yield is 15 to 25 bushels per acre, while in the Southern States from 35 to 40 bushels, or more, could easily be raised. The seed sells at about $1.25 per bushel. The pomace is considered OIL-PRODUCING SEEDS. 193 valuable for fertilizing purposes. This plant would do well on the light, sandy soil of the Gulf States, and might be made a profitable in- dustry, utilizing land that is now practically valueless. EUROPEAN SPURGE. Spurge oil is furnished by Euphorbia lathyris, a herbaceous plant indigenous to southern Europe, but found in various parts of the United States, where it is usually an escape from gardens. Charles the Great recommended it to his monks for eul- tivation in their cloister gardens. The seeds (fig. 29) are roundish oblong, with _ blunt ends, reddish brown, having a roughish . surface, with a prominent furrow (raphe) ex- tending the entire length of the ventral side. They are 3 tod mm. long by 1.5 to 3.5 mm. wide and 4 mm. thick, with a small caruncle at the upper end like that of the castor-oil bean, to which family the plant belongs. The seeds contain 35 to 45 per cent of a very fluid, light pice yellow to brownish oil, which is at first mild, (£uphorbia lathyris). a, but afterwards sharp and odorous. ape: eae Mag- The oil is used as a rubefacient and vesicant; also as a purgative, in doses of 10 to 20 drops. In Europe it is employed to some extent as a luminant and in the manufacture of soaps. It differs from croton and castor oils by its utter insolubility in aleohol. Notwithstanding its valuable properties, spurge oil is _ employed but little, on account of its high price. There are many i species of spurge growing wild throughout the United States, although ; the seeds of most of them are 4 b too small to be of much eco- nomievalue. Huphorbialathy- ris would grow readily in most parts of the country, and its cul- tivation might be worth a trial. LO, SUNFLOWER. The common sunflower (Hel- is ianthus annuus) is an annual, _ Fig. 30.—Sunflower (Helianthusannuus). a,akene, 5 to 15 feet high, and indig- magnified 2} times; b, longitudinal section; c, enous to America. In 1569 it transverse section in outline. - 3 was introduced into Europe, and is now extensively cultivated there, particularly in Russia, where it has been grown for over fifty years, principally for the oil contained in its seed-like fruits (akenes). It grows wild throughout the United States. The akenes (fig. 30) vary a good deal in size, some from southern California being but 5 mm, long and one-half as A 95 7 194 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. wide, while in cultivation they average from 8 to 10 mm. long by — 6 to 8mm. wide and 3 to4 mm. thick. They are obversely egg-shaped, compressed, usually of a gray color striped with black, and in some cases entirely white or black. The gray and striped seeds are pre- ferred by some growers, the smaller ones being said to contain the most oil. The seeds, after the shells are removed, contain 34 per cent of oil, of which 28 to 30 per cent is extracted by cold and warm pressure. Sunflower oil is clear, light yellow, nearly odorless, and of a peeuliar, pleasant and mild taste. This oil is said to be superior to both almond and olive oil for table purposes, and is used in making soap, candles, and for lighting. The residue, after extracting the oil, is made into oil cake for feeding cattle. The export of this cake forms one of the principal industries of Russia. In Russia the larger seeds are sold in immense quantities to the common people, who eat them much as we do peanuts. The stalks furnish a valuable potash fertilizer, while the green leaves are dried, pulverized, and mixed with meal as food for cows. Sheep, pigs, and especially poultry, fatten rapidly upon the seeds, preferring them to other kinds of food. The stalk is said to produee an excellent fiber by treating it the same as flax. It is said, also, that much of the Chinese silk goods contains sunflower fiber. Five or six cords of stalks are produced per aere, which are sometimes used for fuel, while the flowers furnish a yellow dye. The foregoing remarks apply to the culture and the use of the sun- flower in Europe. In this country attempts at its culture have been made by a few experiment stations and private individuals. Accord- ing to a newspaper report, a farmer in South Dakota planted, in 1895, 100 acres to Russian sunflowers. The main drawbacks thus far to sunflower raising in America are the lack of machinery and the want of a good home market for the oil. It is likely, however, that these difficulties will be ultimately overcome. In Europe old mortar broken up is said to make an excellent fer- tilizer for sunflowers. Fresh manure, especially horse manure, causes an undue development of the stalks and leaves at the expense of the seeds. It is recommended that old manure be applied to the © field in the fall, the seed being sown as early as possible in the following spring. The seeds should be planted about 1 inch deep, 6 inches apart, 18 inches between the rows. When the plants are 8 or 10 inches high, thin them out to 30 inches apart and hill them slightly. Keep them entirely free from weeds. When about 3 feet high, the runners should be eut off, leaving one main stem with four or five flower heads. No further care is needed until harvesting. The soil should be rich, dark mold, with as little shade as possible, since the sunflower, as its name indicates, requires plenty of sun, OIL-PRODUCING SEEDS. 195 About 6 pounds of seed per acre is recommended, and it may be sown in drills. - The heads must be harvested promptly as soon as ripe, as birds are very fond of the seeds. If the acreage is small, the heads may be taken off one by one as fast as they ripen. Care must be exercised to dry them as rapidly as possible to prevent molding. In Europe the average yield per acre is 2,000 pounds of seed, giving 250 pounds of oil. In America the seed sells from 14 to 2$ cents per pound. In thrashing the heads it is best to pile them in a row on the barn floor, placing the seeds uppermost. Continue in this manner until the pile is about 2 feet high, placing the last row with the seeds down _ to prevent breaking them with the flail, this being used in thrashing. The seeds are then thoroughly dried in the sun and run through a cleaning mill. They are next separated by means of screens into 4 two sizes—one large, the other small. Sunflower seed may be purchased from any prominent seedsman. _ It should show a germinating per cent of 90 and a purity per cent of 99. The price of labor in Russia where sunflower raising is such an industry is so much smaller than in this country that the profit in the business for American farmers is a somewhat uncertain factor at present. MADIA SATIVA. This plant, belonging to the sunflower family, is a _ native of Chile, where it has been cultivated a long time foroil. Itis an annual, growing from1to3feet Fie. 31—Madia (fa high, with a large mass of sticky, ill-smelling foliage eae mera and yellow flowers. The akenes (fig. 31) are 6 to 7mm. long, 2 to 2.5 mm. wide, and 1 to 1.5 mm. thick, slightly bow shaped, broadest at the upper end, gray in color, the surface being ridged with fine, longitudinal lines. The seeds contain about 32 per cent of a rich oil, which is used for food, making soap, and illumination, and is said to be as good for cooking purposes as olive oil, which it supersedes in some countries. The fact that it does not readily congeal makes madia oil valuable for lubricating machinery. Madia has been cultivated to ‘some extent in France and Germany and grows wild very abundantly in California. It flourishes on almost any kind of soil, and as it requires but three months to ripen may be sown late in the spring if desired. The eul- tivation of madia is very simple, although, as in the case of other crops, it responds to good soil and tillage. In France it is sown broad- east from the middle of April to the middle of May on well-prepared mellow soil, about 20 pounds of seed per acre. The seed comes up in ten to twelve days, and as soon as the plants have made a stand they are thinned out. At the first hoeing they are again thinned to 1 foot 196 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. apart. The crop is harvested within ninety to one hundred days after sowing. Harvesting should take place as soon as the seeds are well “‘set,” without waiting for them to become thoroughly ripe, as they shell out easily; moreover, they finish ripening after the plants are cut. Har- vesting is done in France with a sickle. It is claimed that if properly cultivated and gathered madia will yield from 1,200 to 1,400 pounds of seed per acre, making over 20 gallons of oil. The plants should be thoroughly dried before thrashing. Madia could be successfully grown in California and other sections of the United States. The principal drawbacks are the disagreeable odor exhaled by the flowers, the greasy nature of the foliage, and the irregular ripening of the seeds. NIGER SEED. Niger-seed oil is made from Guwizotia oleifera, another member of the sunflower family and a native of Abyssinia. Itis an annual, fur- nishing the common lamp oil of upper India, where it is cultivated. The akenes are similar to those of madia, but smaller and darker. They are used in this country to some extent as bird food. They yield 35 to 40 per cent of a brownish oil, which becomes pale yellow after refining. It has a slightly aromatic odor resembling thyme. The cold-pressure oil is used for food, and that obtained by warm pressure for making soap, but it can not be used alone for this purpose, since it renders soap brittle. In India the seed is sown in July or August, after the rainy season, and is treated like a wheat crop, no weeding or manuring being required. It yields about 2 bushels per acre, and is exported to Lon- don and Hamburg principally. This plant could undoubtedly be successfully cultivated in the warmer portions of the United States. PEANUT.! The earthnut, groundnut, goober, pindar, or peanut (Arachis hypo- gea), as it is variously ealled, is a low, somewhat creeping annual belonging to the bean family. It is a native of the tropics, but has been for a long time cultivated very extensively in Africa, India, the West Indies, and warmer portions of America. Only the lowest flowers bear fruit, and after blooming these flowers lengthen their stems, which penetrate the ground several inches, where the fruit ripens. The fruit (fig. 32) is 2 to 3 em. long and 1 to 1.5 em. thick, with a furrowed, yellowish pod, which contains from 1 to 4 seeds, 1 or 2 being the common number. In addition to their general use for food 1 The peanut is more fully treated of in Farmers’ Bulletin No. 25, U. 8. Depart- ment of Agriculture. OIL-PRODUCING SEEDS. 197 and confectionery, the seeds furnish 38 to 50 per cent of oil. The first cold pressing yields an almost colorless oil, of pleasant taste and smell, which is excellent for table use. After the first pressing the seeds are sprinkled with water and pressed again, cold, to obtain the oil, which is also used to some extent for food purposes, but mostly . for illumination. The third oil is extracted by warm pressure, and isin great demand for making various kinds of soaps. The cake is considered an excellent food for stock. The peanuts grown in trop- ical countries are said to yield a much greater per cent of oil than those raised in temperate regions. In the United States peanuts are usually planted after corn, 2 bushels of seed being used to the acre. Planting takes place as soon as all danger from frosts is past. A warm, sandy loam containing some lime is the best soil for peanuts. The crop is from 80 to 120 bushels an acre. The oil is chiefly extracted at Marseilles, France, which annually imports 137,000,000 pounds of peanuts. In this coun- try peanuts are principally used for eating, 3,250,000 bushels being Fic. 32.—Peanut (Arachis hypogea). a, fruit; b, seed; c, same with coat removed, showing the fleshy cotyledons. All magnified 1} times. consumed annually for that purpose. In other countries they are not esteemed so highly for food, hence nearly all the foreign product is used for oil. At present the conditions in the United States are not favorable for making oil from peanuts, although it has lately been attempted on a small seale. It is quite likely, however, that peanut- oil manufacture will become an important industry in America in the future. i q a SESAME. The oil of benne, or sesame oil, as it is more frequently called, comes from the seeds of Sesamum indicum and S. orientale, two almost, if not quite, identical plants belonging to the Pedaliacezw. They are indigenous to the East Indies, but are extensively cultivated in Japan and other subtropical countries. Within a comparatively few years their culture has been undertaken by Germany, France, Austria, and England. Sesamum orientale has been cultivated in Asia since the earliest times. The Babylonians and ancient Egyptians used the seeds for food, and the Egyptian women prepared a cosmetic from them. The plants are hairy, sticky annuals, about 3 feet high, and pro- duce an abundance of small, flat, pear-shaped seeds (fig. 33), those of 198 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Sesamum indicum being yellowish white, while the seeds of S. orien- tale are black. Sesame seeds are very rich in oil, yielding from 50 to 56 per cent in the black-seeded varieties, and 47 to 52 per cent in the white-seeded varieties. The former are also said by some to produce a better oil than the latter, while others claim the reverse is true. The seeds are also used in confectionery and for making soups. The oil is clear, of a pale straw color, sweet, and nearly tasteless. It is obtained by three pressures, twice cold and the last time warm. The first pressure gives the best oil for food purposes. Sesame oil is frequently used to adulterate almond oil. It is also used for making soaps, for illumination, in perfumery manufacture, and for the toilet. The seeds of commerce come chiefly from the East Indies and the Levant, the oil being pressed at Marseillesand Trieste. The best seed is shipped from Jappa to Mar- seilles, where the oil brings the Fic. 33.—Sesame (Sesamum indicum). a, seed, highest price of any of the many magnified 1) times; ?, transverse section. —_indsin the Marseillesmarket. The leaves of the sesame plant are considered of medicinal value, from the mucilaginous matter which they contain. Sesame ripens its seeds in most of the Middle States, and might be profitably cultivated in the South. The negroes near Charleston, S.C., are said to have grown sesame in a small way for two hundred years. They plant it in April and harvest the seeds early in Octo- ber. The seed used for planting should show a purity of 98 per cent and germination of 90 per cent. HEMP. Hempseed oil comes from an annual plant of the nettle family (Cannabis sativa), which is indigenous in central Asia and the East Indies. It is cultivated in India, Persia, China, North America, © Germany, and, more than anywhere else, in Russia. It grows from 4 to 8 feet high in waste and cultivated ground. Theodor of the fresh leaves sometimes produces headaches, while the celebrated narcotic, hashish, is prepared from a gelatinous resin contained in the leaves and stems. The latter also furnish the well-known fiber used for cloth and ecordage. The male and female flowers are borne on different plants. The nut-like fruits (fig. 34), commonly ealled seeds, are used in great quantities as bird food. They are nearly egg-shaped in outline, flattened at the margins. Color, dark gray, with fine, net-like, whitish markings on the smooth and shiny surface. Each fruit is completely filled with the seed proper, which is of the same shape and about 4mm, : OIL-PRODUCING SEEDS. 199 long by 3 mm. wide and 2 to 3 mm. thick. The seeds contain no endosperm, but are filled with a whitish embryo which yields 30 to 35 per cent of a peculiar-smelling, mild-tasting oil, greenish yellow when freshly pressed, becoming brownish yellow with age. Hempseed oil is used to a considerable extent in the preparation of paints and var- nishes, although it does not dry as readily as linseed oil. In Europe it enters largely into the composition of soft soaps. Sometimes it is used in the Old World as an illuminant and, rarely, for food. : Hemp will thrive in most parts of the United States, and is said to produce from 20 to 40 bushels of seed to the acre, worth about $2.50 per 100 pounds. With extra good care and soil the yield may reach 50 to 60 bushels. The seed should be planted in drills, early in April in the South, two weeks later in the North. The young plants are thinned out when a foot high, and must be kept free from weeds. The male plants should be pulled as soon as they have shed their pollen, so as to allow the seed-producing plants plenty of room and all of the available soil food. Hemp should be harvested promptly as soon as the seed begins to drop, which always takes place after a sharp frost, if not before. The seeds scatter easily; hence hemp should be cut early in the morning when the dew is on, and great care exer- _ eised to prevent waste. When cut, hemp should be set up in loose shocks to dry, a sheet being placed under each one, and some protec- tion afforded from birds, as they are fonder of this seed than almost any other. Drying is completed by spreading the plants out on a tight barn floor, where they are thrashed by hand. transverse section of seed. Magnified 6 times. Hempseed, nothwithstanding its oily content, loses its germina- tive power quickly, usually by the end of one year; hence only fresh seed should be sown. Neither cracked nor dull-looking seed will ger- minate well. Hemp culture in America is mostly confined to Ken- tucky and Missouri, principally the former State. The value of hemp for fiber, birdseed, and oil would seem to make its cultivation a very profitable one. RAPE. Rapeseed, or colza, oil is obtained from the seeds of different vari- eties of the genus Brassica, rape (Brassica napus) in particular. In Europe the term rapeseed oil is sometimes applied to the product of rape alone, colza being restricted to the oil obtained from the ruta-baga, or Swedish turnip (B. campestris), while ‘‘Riitbsen” oil is furnished by the common turnip (B. rapa). There is great confusion among authors in the use both of the common names of 200 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the oils and the scientific names of the varieties of Brassica which produce them. Since the characteristics of the different varieties of rapeseed oil, as well as the methods of culture of the plants themselves, are practi- cally the same, we shall include them all under the head of rape. According to Blomeyer, rape originated on the coasts of Holland and England. It has been cultivated extensively in Europe since the middle of the sixteenth century. In France rape constitutes seven- tenths of the acreage of oil seeds in cultivation, though this has decreased somewhat in recent years, owing to the more extensive use of mineral oils. In Germany there were 445,000 acres planted to the different varieties of Brassica in 1882, the value of the crop of rape- seed being over $10,000,000. Besides this, large amounts of rapeseed were imported, so that the value of rapeseed oil from Germany alone was $12,000,000 to $14,000,000, while in addition over $4,000,000 worth of rapeseed oil cake was produced. The total consumption of rape and colza oil in Europe is estimated at nearly 530,000,000 pounds per annum, valued at over $43,000,000. India annually exports from 2,500,000 to 4,000,000 hundred b weight of rapeseed. A large part of this naturally goes to Great Britain, which imports about 880,000 pounds per year. The seeds of all the varieties of Brassica are sphericaland not easily distinguishable from one cures another. Those of B. napus Fia.35.—Rape (Brassica napus). a, seed ; b, trans- (fig. 35) are mostly bluish-blaek, verse section. Magnified 14 times. ; S B. campestris reddish-brown, B. rapa almost black. ‘ 208 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. resembling those of a dandelion, but larger. In the spring of the second year the plant bears a still larger tuft of these leaves, which is soon followed by the flowering stem. The root leaves in their young state are the parts used as a pot herb. They contain a bitter principle and require the same process of cooking as the dandelion. . . WINTER CRESS (Barbarea praecox).—This plant and the yellow rocket (Barbarea barbarea) often pass under the general name of mustard, but the two species may be easily distinguished from the true mustards by the form of their leaves, as well as by the technical difference shown in the cross section of the seed (fig. 39). Yellow rocket is a well-established weed in the Eastern States, having been introduced from Europe. It occurs also as a native plant upon the higher mountains from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Winter cress is in common cultivation from the vicinity of New York City southward, and to some extent reseeds and maintains itself without assistance, but it can hardly be considered under these conditions a real weed. In the city of Wash- ington it is marketed extensively as a winter salad and pot herb. The seed is sowed in late summer after some early crop, or at the time of the last cultivation of an early fall crop, such as cabbage. Itis usually sowed broadeast and is given scarcely any cultivation except the pulling of weeds. Yellow rocket itself is rarely used in this country as a pot herb. DANDELION (Taraxacum taraxa- cum).—The dandelion is too well known to require any description. Although, like the yellow rocket, it grows as a native plant on our higher mountains, its occurrence as a weed in lawns and pastures is due, as with most of our other com- mon weeds, to its introduction from Europe. While if occurs in almost all parts of the United States, it is not a common plant in and west of the Great Plains, nor in the extreme south, though it has ob- tained a strong foothold at a few points on the Pacifie Coast. In lawns it is an objectionable weed, not so much on account of its un- sightliness as because, from its spreading habit, it chokes out the proper lawn plants. It is not generally known that the market gar- deners in the vicinity of Paris have been cultivating the dandelion Fic. 39.—Winter cress( Barbarea praccox). SOME ADDITIONS TO OUR VEGETABLE DIETARY. 209 for the past twenty-five years, and that at least three horticultural varieties have been developed within that time. In the United States, however, the dandelion is seldom cultivated, though eaten almost everywhere. The customary use of the dandelion in Paris is as a salad, the plants being eaten either green or blanched. When used as a pot herb the water in which the plants are boiled is changed two or three times during the process in order to remove the bitter taste. Dock (Rumex, of various species).—Two species of dock, the broad- leafed (Rumex obtusifolius) (fig. 40) and the curled (R. crispus), are common weeds in pastures, meadows, and cultivated fields, the former extending from New England to the Great Plains, the latter quite across the country. Both are perennials whose root leaves in spring are often used as a pot herb, sometimes alone, sometimes mixed with dandelions or other plants. Patience dock (R. pa- tientia) is widely cultivated in Europe as a pot herb, and is grown in America also to some extent for the same purpose, but it seldom appears in our markets. In many places in New England and New York it has escaped from old gardens, where it was often known as ‘‘herb patience,” and has become established as a weed in meadows. Sorrel dock (R. acetosa), or simply sorrel, as it is usually called in England, has appeared in the United States as a weed in only a few places, the plants commonly known here as sorrel being our native R. hasta- tulus of the Middle Mississippi Fia. 40.—Broad-leafed dock (Rumex obtusifo Valley region, and the introdueed ers R. acetosella which occurs on poor soils everywhere east of the Great Plains. Neither of these two species appears to be used as a pot herb, and they would probably not be satisfactory for such a purpose. But the true sorrel dock is in common cultivation in Europe, being grown either from seed or by root propagation. This is the most acid of the _ plants used as pot herbs, nearly all the docks containing, in greater or _ less amount, an acid principle similar to that of the common pie plant orrhubarb. The fact that the young leaves of one of our native docks, R. berlandieri, were used as a pot herb by the American aborigines, more particularly the Pimas and Maricopas, is not generally known. 9210 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The leaves are gathered when the plant is a few inches high and eaten either boiled or raw. They have an acid taste, in this respect resem- bling the sorrel dock. Growing as it does in the arid region of Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, where succulent vegetation is searee, it is well worth a trial as a table vegetable. KALE (Brassica oleracea acephala).—Kale, essentially a cabbage plant that does not form a head, is a common market pot herb. It bears several names, including borecole, German greens, Georgia collards, Gallega cabbage, in addition to many descriptive names of varieties. Like cabbage, it requires thorough cooking, and is less easily digestible than many other pot herbs. The young leaves of the turnip (Brassica rapa), either green or blanched, are frequently used as a pot herb, particularly in the South. They closely resemble some of the varieties of kale in both appearance and taste. LAMB’S-QUARTERS (Chenopodium al- bwm).—This is a common weed in eulti- vated fields and gardens, extending almost throughout the United States (fig. 41). It is more commonly known as pig- weed, or sometimes as goosefoot, and is to be distinguished from the true pigweed described hereafter not only by technical botanical characteristics but by the fact that the herbage, particularly when young, bears a more or less abundant mealy coating, giving the whole plant a pale bluish-green color. In its young stage, when 6 or 8 inches high, the plant is very tender and succulent, and in Europe, as well as in some parts of our \ own country, has often been employed as Reco a pot herb. Indeed, its botanical rela- Fic. 41.—Lamb’s-quarters (Chenopo- tionship would indicate its adaptability dium album). ° . to such a use, since it belongs to the same family as the beet, spinach, orach, and mercury. This is perhaps the most widely diffused and commonest of the weeds which might be used for human food. The plant is an annual, and as a weed is not difficult to keep in check. In cooking, boil for about twenty minutes. MARSH MARIGOLD (Caltha palustris).—This plant, which in the United States bears more commonly the name ‘‘ cowslip,” is a native of the northern United States and British America, extending from New England to Minnesota and northwestward to Alaska (fig. 42). It grows in cold swamps and wet meadows, shooting up in the spring through the shallow water. Locally it is used among the country 104 -, : SOME ADDITIONS TO OUR VEGETABLE DIETARY. 211 4 people as a pot herb, the plants being gathered when they are in bud or just as the flowers begin to open. By many it is considered superior to any other plant used in this way. From the surroundings in which it grows it is almost sure to be free from dirt or sand, and to this fact, in part, is doubtless due its popu- larity, for it is very much more easily handled by the cook or house- wife than are plants which require repeated washings. Mercury (Chenopodium bonus- henricus).—Mereury, more com- monly pronounced ‘‘markery,” one of the common cultivated pot herbs of Europe, and to some extent, has been introduced into our gar- dens. It shows little tendency to spread as a weed, and is not likely to become generally abundant in ‘ the United States. Its value as a Fic. 42.—Marsh marigold (Caltha palustris). pot herb is about the same as the related species, lamb’s-quarters. Besides these two species of Cheno- podium, or goosefoot, the use of which for food has been taught us by Europeans, we have in our Western country several other species, among them C. fremonti and C. leptophy!- lwm, both of which are native to the United States. There is little doubt that either of these, gathered at the proper season and suitably cooked, would be equally palatable. BLACK MUSTARD (Brassica ni- gra).—This plant, from which the condiment known as mustard is chiefly derived, has long been culti- vated in Europe for its young leaves (fig. 43). In our own country it was introduced many years ago as a weed in fields, and in some regions, more particularly in California, where it passes under the general name Siro. 43.— Black mustard (Brassica nigra). of ‘‘wild mustard,” it has become a thorough pest in wheat fields. So easily does it seed itself that it ‘s 212 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. rarely, if ever, really cultivated in the United States, although small areas in the corners of gardens are often left without cultivation as a ‘‘mustard patch.” Its value asa honey-producing plant has added further to its desirability on farms. In hoed crops it is not difficult to keep in check. ORACH (Atriplex hortense).—This is an occasional garden substitute for spinach, though it rarely appearsin market. Several varieties are grown in Europe, which differ principally in color, the stem and leaves | varying from the ordinary bright green to a pale yellowish green with white stems or to a dark reddish purple. The plant is a native of Tartary and shows no tendency to become established as a weed. PIGWEED (Amarantus palmeri).—None of the common pigweeds introduced from tropical Amer- ica and common in our cultivated fields, such as A. retroflecus and A. chlorostachys, appear tohaye come into use as pot herbs, although a variety of A. gangeticus is commonly cultivated by the Chi- nese in California for this purpose. Among our Southwestern Indians, both in Arizona and in north- ern Mexico, as well as among the Mexicans them- selves, a native species, A. palmer, is used largely in a similar manner (fig. 44).° In the markets of Guaymas, in the State of Sonora, it is sold in large quantities, the young plants growing each year from — seed and being gathered when they are from 6 to 10 inches high. No attempt seems to be made to cultivate the plant, the Mexicans trusting entirely to the natural supply. From the suggestive use of these species of pigweed among the Chinese and the Mexicans, a trial of some of our other species may well be made. POKEWEED (Phytolacca decandra).—This is a native plant of the United States, growing through- Fic. 44—Pigweed out almost all parts, except the extreme north, as (Amarantus pal- . meri). far westward as the Great Plains. It occurs com- monly in rich, uncultivated ground, in open places in woods, or in almost any neglected spot. The stems reach a height of from 4 to 8 feet and bear drooping clusters of purple berries. The root is perennial, shaped somewhat like a beet, and in age becomes very large. It contains a deadly poison, which is used medicinally, and in some cases has caused accidental death. The berries, while reputed to be poisonous, are often eaten by birds, and are presumably quite harmless. In early spring the stout stems push out from the ground and are cut when only 2 to 4 inches in height. They are thick and succulent like the stems of asparagus, and are not only used by coun- try people, but are commonly brought into the city markets, where a eee ee ee SOME ADDITIONS TO OUR VEGETABLE DIETARY. 213 they are sold under the name of ‘“‘sprouts.” From the extremely poisonous nature of the root it is evident that care should be taken in using the plant. But the fact that they are always cooked practically removes any danger from this source, as the poisonous principle of the roots is dispelled in the boiling process. The roots, however, are bitter, and if portions remain attached to the stem the taste of the boiled herb is often disagreeable. In Mexico the plant occurs frequently about old missions, suggesting a former use ‘of some kind, but at the present time it does not appear to be employed there asa pot herb. In the United States it is not cultivated, in the proper sense of the word, although those who bring if into the mar- kets are careful to allow it to main- tain itself in the areas in which it becomes established. The French, however, always apt in testing and making use of every kind of food, have introduced the plant into — eultivation in Europe. PURSLANE (Portulaca olera- cea).—The common garden purs- lane, more commonly known as *‘pusley,” occurs aS a weed in almost every garden in the United States, yet rarely does one meet with a person who has ever eaten it or who knows of its use as a pot herb. The plant is a native of India, has been cultivated from the earliest times, and was such an early accompaniment of civili- zation as to have a Sanskrit name. It was carried westward to Europe, and has there been in use for — centuries as a salad and pot herb. 16. 4.—Winter purslane (Claytonia per Indeed, several varieties are now tear known in cultivation. In the United States, however, it is known only as a weed, its principal economic value being supposed to be as a food for hogs, a purpose to which large quantities of it are devoted. Notwithstanding this use, it is treated as a weed, not asa forage plant. Asa pot herb, however, it is very palatable, still retain- ing, when cooked, aslight acid taste. It can be heartily recommended ‘to those who have a liking for this kind of vegetable food. WINTER PURSLANE (Claytonia perfoliata).—In mountain regions from the Rocky Mountains westward to the Pacific occur several varie- _ ties of Claytonia more or less resembling the two well-known species of the eastern United States called ‘‘spring beauty.” The most widely 4 214 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, diffused and representative among the western species is C. perfoliata (fig. 45). For many years this has been in use as a pot herb, though a knowledge of its employment for this purpose appears to be econ- fined to restricted localities. The same species or a closely related one is reputed to occur in Mexico and in Cuba, and from the latter country it has been introduced into cultivation in Europe. The mem- bers of the Death Valley expedition in California in 1891 used large quantities of this plant when they came out of the desert and ascended the mountains to the west, having lived for several months without green vegetables of any kind. SPINACH (Spinacia oleracea).—The common garden spinach eulti- vated everywhere in Europe and the United States may be considered the typical pot herb of these two countries. The plant, which was unknown to the Greeks and Romans, is believed to have originated in Persia and to have been carried both westward and eastward, ulti- mately finding its way to China as wellas western Europe and America. It is an annual of quick growth, producing in early summer a large number of triangular root leaves arranged in a rosette. Several varie- ties of spinach are known in cultivation, as, for example, prickly-seeded spinach, Flanders spinach, and lettuece-leafed spinach. In the south- ern United States it is grown as a winter vegetable, the seed being sowed in August or September, and mulched with straw or salt hay. Under such conditions it produces a good crop during the late autumn and winter months. NEW ZEALAND SPINACH ( Tefragonia expansa).—This plant, which originated in New Zealand, was brought to Europe by Captain Cook in his voyage around the world, and has since been cultivated there to a greater or less extent. It isan annual, with spreading branching stems and inconspicuous green flowers. Unlike spinach, it continues to produce a crop of succulent leaves during the whole summer, and therefore is useful as a pot herb in the hot season, when almost all other plants so employed are not available. It will also withstand a considerable drought, and for this reason is especially useful in regions of limited rainfall. It would probably prove one of the most success- ful pot herbs for general cultivation in many parts of our western subarid region. The plants enumerated here do not by any means comprise all the species that might be used as pot herbs, but they have been selected so as to suggest to people in every part of our country certain plants growing in their own region which are available for use in this man- ner. Doubtless others, particularly among our native plants, such as the common nettle, milkweed, and the round-leafed mallow, commonly known to children as ‘‘ cheeses,” will be found equally important. HEMP CULTURE. By Cuas. RicHarps DopGE, Special Agent in Charge of Fiber Investigations, U. S. Department of Agriculture. In the literature of the fiber-producing plants of the world the word hemp appears frequently, applied oftentimes to fibers that are widely distinct from each other. The word is usually employed with a prefix, even when the true hemp is meant, as manila hemp, sisal hemp, Rus- sian hemp, ete. In this article will be considered the hemp plant proper, the Cannabis sativa of the botanists, which has been so gen- erally cultivated the world over as a cordage fiber that the value of all other fibers as to strength and durability is estimated by it. In many of the experiments of Roxburgh and others we find ‘‘ Russian hemp” or ‘‘best English hemp” taken as standards of comparison. The Sanskrit name of the plant is bhanga; in Hindostan it is called ganja; the Arab name is kinnub, from which, doubtless, its Latin name, cannabis, is derived; in Persia it is known as bung, while in China it is chu ts-ao, and in Japan, asa. Its native home is India and Persia, but it is in general cultivation in many parts of the world, both in temperate and more tropical climes, though only in Russia and Poland in large quantities for export. French hemp is much valued, put the finest quality comes from Italy, and is pronounced fine, soft, light colored, and strong. Hemp grows in all parts of India, and in many districts flourishes in a wild state. It is but little cultivated for its fiber, although Bombay- grown hemp “‘ was proved to be superior to the Russian.” In portions of India, as well as other hot countries, it is cultivated for its narcotic products, tae great value of which makes the India cultivators indifferent about the fiber. Hemp is largely grown in Japan for the manufacture of cloth. This industry is very old, as prior to the introduction of silk weaving it was the only textile fabric of the country. Its cultivation is an established industry in the United States, Ken- tucky, Missouri, and Illinois being the chief sources of supply, though the culture has extended as far north as Minnesota and as far south as the Mississippi Delta, while California has recently become inter- ested in its growth. Several varieties are cultivated in this country, that grown in Ken- tucky, which has a hollow stem, being the most common. China hemp, with slender stems, growing very erect, has a wider range of 215 216 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. culture, and Smyrna hemp is adapted to cultivation over a still wider range, but is not so well known. A small quantity 01 seed of the Piedmontese hemp of Italy was distributed by the Department of Agriculture in 1893, but the results of the experiments were not fully successful. Formerly large areas were devoted to the cultivation of the plant in the United States, and thirty-five years ago nearly 40,000 tons of hemp was produced in Kentucky alone, while now hardly more than a fourth of this quantity is produced in the whole country. There are several reasons for the decline in production in the United States, but it dates back, primarily, to the decline in American ship- building and to the introduction of the Philippine Island hemp (Musa textilis), the manila hemp of commerce, and later to the large importation of jute. Quite recently there has been a further falling off in production, and it is worthy of note that this is largely due to the overproduction of this same hemp of Manila, brought about by the high prices of the latter fiber in 1890-91, a direct result of the manipulation of the fiber market by certain binding-twine manu- facturers. Formerly the hemp of Kentucky was not only used for the rigging of vessels, and in twines or yarns, and bagging, but it was spun and woven into cloth, just as to-day it is manufactured into fabrics in portions of Brittany. About 1890, when the Department of Agriculture became interested in extending the cultivation of hemp, and when the consumption of binding twine amounted to 50,000 tons annually, it was shown that, at the prices then prevailing, if one-half of the binding twine were made of common hemp grown at home, and not from manila or sisal, there would be a clear saving to the consumers of $1,750,000 in a year, with the further advantage that American farmers would produce the raw material. There was a ery that ‘‘soft twines” would not work in the self-binders, though the Office of Fiber Investigations was able to show that common hemp twine could be employed quite as satisfac- torily as the stiffer twines, and that the prejudice had no substantial foundation. In the past two years there has been an increasing demand for information relating to hemp culture, and experiments looking to its production have been carried on in localities where previously its culture was unknown, notably in extreme Southern States, which are large producers of cotton. SOIL SELECTION, As in Brittany, so in Kentucky, limestone soils, or the alluvial soils such as are found in the river bottoms, are best adapted to this plant. The culture, therefore, is quite general along the smaller streams of Brittany, where the climate is mild and the atmosphere humid. In ee HEMP CULTURE. 217 Kentucky the best lands only are chosen for hemp, and the most favorable results are obtained where there is an underlying bed of blue limestone. In certain portions of the State, Shelby County for example, it is claimed that a finer and tougher fiber is produced than in other sections, and this is thought to be due to a mixture in the soil of a whitish, oily clay. As a general rule, however, light or dry soils or heavy, tenacious soils are most unfavorable. Hemp is not considered a very exhaustive crop. Ina former report it was stated by a successful Kentucky grower that virgin soil sown to hemp can be followed with this crop for fifteen to twenty years successively; sown then to small grain and clover, it can be grown every third year, without fertilizers, almost indefinitely. In France a rotation of crops is practiced, hemp alternating with grain crops, although competent authorities state that it may also be allowed to grow continuously upon the same land, but not without fer- tilizers. Regarding this mode of cultivation, they consider that it is not contrary to the law of rotation, as by deep plowing and the annual use of an abundance of fertilizers the ground is kept sufficiently enriched for the demands which are made upon it. If the soil is not sufficiently rich in phosphates or the salts of potassium, these must be supplied by the use of lime, marl, ground bone, animal charcoal, or ashes mixed with prepared animal compost. Even hemp cake, the leaves of the plant, and the ‘‘shive,” or ‘‘ boon,” may be returned to the land with benefit. This high fertilizing is necessary, as ‘‘the hemp absorbs the equivalent of 1,500 kilos of fertilizers per every hundred kilos of fiber obtained.” In Japan, where most excellent hemp is produced, the ground is given a heavy dressing of barnyard manure before it is plowed in November. After the soil has been well pulverized and reduced to fine tilth, the seed is drilled and the land given a top dressing com- posed of one part fish guano, two parts wood ashes, and four parts animal manure. The proportions and the quantities used differ, of course, upon different soils. In New York, where hemp was formerly grown, barnyard manures or standard fertilizers are used, as it is considered essential to put the soil in good fertility to make a successful crop. In Illinois, with the method of cultivation in vogue, it is not regarded as in any way exhaustive to the soil, though the refuse must be returned if possible. A Kentucky practice is to burn the refuse and spread the ashes over the land. As in flax culture, a careful and thorough preparation of the seed bed is important, for the finer and more mellow the ground the better willbe the fiber. Thisis better understood in Europe than in America, however, for American hemp is coarse, and its chief use, in a cordage fiber, does not make fineness an essential; in fact, American hemp is more nearly like the hemp of Russia, with which it competes. 918 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Soil preparation in the blue-grass region of Kentucky consists in a fall or early spring plowing, and a short time before seeding, which in general terms is about corn-planting time, the ground is thoroughly pulverized by means of an improved harrow, such as the disk harrow, after which itis made smooth. The date of planting varies according to whether the soil is wet or dry, and may range from the last week in March to the last week in April, or even the Ist of May. In Brittany, after the harrow and roller are used, small lines of trenches or furrows are dug about 10 feet apart for drainage pur- poses, after which the surface is cleared of weeds and the seed sown in drills. The drill is likewise used in Illinois, though the most com- mon practice in Kentucky is to sow broadcast, followed by a light harrowing and sometimes by a light drag to level the surface. A correspondent states that many farmers in Shelby County, Ky., use the ordinary grain drill for broadcast seeding. The rubber pipes are removed from the drill, and a board is attached directly beneath the hopper. The seed falling upon the board is scattered in front of the drill hoes, which do the covering. A light drag passed over the field levels and evens the surface, after which nothing is done until the hemp is ready for the harvest. The quantity of seed sown to the acre varies. One large grower says 33 pounds of seed per acre is the proper amount. Another states that 1 to 14 bushels is his rule. In New York 1 to 3 bushels have been sown (in past time), 1 bushel giving better results than a larger quantity. In Illinois it varies from 1 to 2} bushels. In France a difference is made regarding the use to which the fiber will be put, a third more seed being sown for spinning fiber than for cordage fiber. On a farm in Sarthe, visited by the writer, a little less than 3 bushels to the acre was the usual quantity sown, but as high as 4 bushels are sown on some farms. There will be little trouble with weeds if the first erop is well destroyed by the spring plowing, for hemp generally occupies all the ground, giving weeds but little chance to intrude. For this reason the plant is an admirable weed killer, and in flax-growing countries is sometimes employed as a crop, in rotation, to precede flax, because it puts the soil in good condition. In proof of this, a North River farmer a few years ago made the statement that thistles heretofore had mastered him in a certain field, but after sowing it with hemp not a thistle survived, and while ridding his land of this pest the hemp yielded him nearly $60 per acre where previously nothing val- uable could be produced. HARVESTING. In Kentucky the hemp stalks are considered ready to cut in one hundred days, or when the first ripe seed is found in the heads. The cutting is usually done with a hooked implement, or knife bent at HEMP CULTURE. 219 right angles about 24 inches from the hand. In recent years, how- ever, the work is sometimes done by machines adapted to the pur- pose, and particularly when the stalks are slender. In France there are two modes of harvesting, dependent upon the use to which the fiber will be put. If the fiber is for cordage, the stalks are cut with a sharp instrument resembling a short scythe, and laid upon the ground in sheaves, where they are left to dry from one to three days. The leaves are then stripped and the stalks removed to the sheds, to be assorted, and then placed in piles horizontally, the lower ends of the stalks being pressed firmly against a wall, so that the inequalities of their length may plainly appear. Upon each pile there is placed close to the wall a weight, to prevent deranging the stems while drawing them out in assorting. This is done by handfuls; first the longest stems, then the medium, and then the short ones. They are bound into sheaves, several of which are put together, form- ing bundles, each containing stalks of equal length. The tops of the _ sheaves are then cut off, and only the portion preserved that will make good fiber. When the hemp is grown for use in spinning—that is, for fabrics— the stalks are not cut, but are pulled like flax. The operator first removes the leaves by passing his hand from top to bottom of the stalk, it being important to return the leaves to the soil where they were grown. Six to fifteen stalks are pulled at one operation, accord- ing to the ease with which they can be drawn out of the ground, and the earth shaken off. These handfuls are made into bundles about 6 inches in diameter, and the roots and tops are then removed by means of an ax and chopping block. The clipped stalks are then made up into larger bundles a foot or more in diameter, and are sent to be retted at once, as it is claimed that the hemp is not so white if it is dried before retting. Hemp is probably never pulled in this country. When the stalks are cut they are laid in rows, even at the butts, and are allowed to remain on the ground, not over a week, to dry—only long enough, as one correspondent expresses it, to get a rain on the leaves, so that they will drop off readily. Where the rain is too long deferred, how- ever, the hemp should be put in shocks, or small stacks, having been first made into bundles of convenient size for easy handling. Hemp is dew retted in this country; that is, spread evenly over the ground to undergo the action of the elements which dissolve or rot out the gums holding the filaments together. Formerly pool, or water, retting was practiced in a very small way in Kentucky and to a slight extent later in Illinois. It is said that Henry Clay introduced the practice into the former State, but it was not followed. It is true, however, that the manufacturers formerly preferred water-retted hemp, and the Navy Regulations required it, but the price of cordage hemp hardly warranted the extra labor and consequent expense. 220 YEARBOOK OF THE.U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The hemp is allowed to remain in stack until November or Decem- ber, or about two months, when it is spread over the ground until retted. No rule can be given regarding the proper length of time that the hemp should lie, as this varies according to the weather, sud_ den freezing, followed by thaws, hastening the operation. Itis usually allowed to lie until the bast separates readily from the woody portion of the stalk. When there is a large crop, there may be an advantage in spreading the hemp earlier than November, in order that the break- ing may be done in the winter months. Winter-retted hemp is brighter, however, than that retted in October. It is usually stacked and spread upon the same ground upon which it is grown, and when sufficiently retted, as can be determined by breaking out a little, it is again putinto shocks. If the hemp be dry, the shocks should be tied around the top tightly with a band of hemp to keep out the rain. The shocks are made firm by tying with a band the first armful or two, raising it up and beating it well against the ground. The remainder of the hemp is set up around this central support. By flaring at the bottom, and tying well, a firm shock can be made that will stand firmly without danger of being blown over by the wind. Dew retting is practiced to some extent in France, though water retting gives better results. The practice, called ‘‘rouissage,” is accomplished both in pools and in running streams. The river ret- ting seems to accomplish better results, although taking a little longer time than the pool retting, the duration of immersion varying from five to eight days. If the weather is cool, it retards the opera- tion two or three days longer than if warm. This accounts, too, for the shorter time occupied when the immersion takes place in pools. This work is usually done in the latter part of August. The bundles of hemp are floated in the water, secured if in a running stream, and are covered with boards kept in place by stones or any weight that will keep them under. There appears to be little pool retting in the Sarthe district, although public opinion is generally against river retting on the score of its rendering the waters of the streams foul and detrimental to health, as well as destructive to all animal life with which they would otherwise abound. It is understood that there are very stringent police regulations against the use of streams for this purpose, and as long ago as 1886, in a brochure published by M. Bary, a hemp spinner of Le Mans, attention was ealled to the desirability of introducing an improved method of retting which would accomplish all the beneficial results of retting in running water artificially, and therefore render unnecessary the polluting of streams. While many attempts have been made to bring about a better system, none have been successful, and, police regulations to the contrary notwithstanding, the best hemp fiber produced in the Sarthe district is still retted in the running streams. Where pool retting is followed, the pools are specially constructed, dug out of the HEMP CULTURE. 23% earth to the depth of a yard or more, walled up or the sides made solid, and lined and floored with cement usually in order that the water shall remain clean and the hemp retain its color. The stalks are watched very closely after the third or fourth day, the farmer breaking and examining a few at intervaJs to guard against over- retting, which weakens the fiber. When sufficiently retted, whether the work is done in streams or pools, the hemp bundles are removed from the water, but first agi- tated to remove all waste matter that may be adhering to the stalks. They are then drained, and the bundles, opened at the bottom, are set up in conical sheaves to dry, this operation being accomplished in two or three days. Considerable of the hemp grown, in the Sarthe district at least, is further dried in brickkilns. The Japanese method of retting differs so materially from the prac- tices followed in western countries that a brief statement will prove interesting. The raw hemp produced in Japan is usually sold in the form of thin, smooth ribbons, which are of a light straw color, the frayed ends showing a fiber of exceeding fineness. Some beautiful samples of this hemp were secured by the writer at the World’s Columbian Exposition, with an account of the peculiar treatment of the stalks to produce the fiber. In Japan hemp is ready for harvesting about one hundred and twenty days after sowing, or about the 20th of July. In harvesting, the plants are pulled, leaves and roots are cut off with a sickle, and the stems sorted into long, medium, and short lengths and bound in bundles. These bundles are steamed for a few minutes in a steam- ing bath specially constructed, and dried in a sunny situation for three days, when they are fit for keeping to be manipulated according to the condition of the weather, if favorable or unfavorable. If good, settled weather is anticipated, three bundles of the stems above men- tioned are made into one bundle, exposed to the sun by turning upside down once a day for about three days, then dipped into water and exposed again to the sun for a number of days, until they are com- pletely dried, when they are kept in a dry place for future work. For preparing the best quality of hemp fibers, the drying process takes thirty days, and for second and third qualities, fifteen and twenty-five days, respectively, are required. For separating hemp fibers from the stalk, the bundles treated as above mentioned are immersed in water and moderately fermented by heaping them upon a thick bed of straw mats in a barn specially built for the purpose. The number of hours depend much upon the temperature at that time; in short, the fermentation requires great skill. When the stalks are fermented to a proper degree, the fibers are separated by hand and immersed in water, the outer skin is scraped off by hand tools specially constructed, and dried in well-ventilated places by hanging the fibers on bamboo, without exposing to the sun. 222 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BREAKING THE HEMP. It is said that nearly 300 patents have been issued in the United States for machines for breaking hemp, many of them having proved absolute failures, while none of them have filled the requirements of an economically successful hemp-cleaning device. The fact remains, therefore, that the Kentucky hemp grower of to-day relies upon the rude and clumsy five-slatted hand brake of his grandfather’s time, a device similar in all respects to that used for the same purpose at the present time by the hemp farmers of Brittany. In Kentucky the breaking is an expensive operation, costing $1 to $1.25 per short hundred pounds of fiber. The work is performed in the winter by negroes, and the best workers will not average more than 150 pounds ina day. In a former report on this subject a homemade machine employed for the purpose in Illinois was described as a very large brake with fluted rollers, the flutes being from 14 to 2 inches deep. The cleaning cylinders were 5 feet in diameter of any desired width, with crossbars alternating with loose wings. In the crossbars were pins that acted as combs, these being about three-quarters of an inch long and bent back slightly. Under the cylinders were slats 2 inches apart through which the refuse fell. One cylinder was used close behind the brakes. The other two cylinders had each one pair of rollers in front to hold the fiber while the shive, or waste, was being cleaned out. The fiber was not delivered straight, but it was claimed that twine manu- facturers preferred this product to straight Kentucky hemp fiber on account of its superior strength. A number of patented machines possessing more or less merit have been brought to public notice in the past four or five years, several of which have been examined by this Department. In this brief account of the cultivation of hemp it is not important, how- ever, to go into details concerning their merits or demerits, and the subject is left for future consideration. For the same reason no mention has been made of recent experience in the cultivation of hemp in the South and in California, though many facts of general interest might be presented. The market prices for American rough hemp at the present time may be stated at $70 to $80 per ton for Missouri, and $125 per ton for Kentucky. No recent figures are at hand showing cost of produe- tion, but in 1890, counting a man and team worth $3.50 per day, the cost of producing an acre of hemp in Kentucky was shown to be about $24. The average yield is about 1,000 pounds per acre, but this is frequently exceeded by several hundred pounds. ——E— es CANADIAN FIELD PEAS. By THomAs SHAw, Professor of Animal Husbandry, College of Agriculture of the University of Minnesota. eo : The term Canadian field peas, or, as it is more commonly expressed, _ “Canada field peas,” is used with much latitude in this country. Ask a pea grower in the United States as to the variety of seed which he sowed and the almost invariable answer given is: ‘‘I sowed Canada peas.” That may mean that he grew any one of nearly one hundred varieties. The answer is significant. It implies, first, a great lack of knowledge with reference to varieties on the part of those who grow «peas, and, second, that much of the seed used in the United States is imported from Canada, although we have large areas unrivaled in their adaptability to the growing of peas. : The pea crop is one of the most important in Canada. In the Prov- ince of Ontario alone the average area devoted to the production of peas for the thirteen years ending with 1894 was 691,392 acres. The average annual yield during the period named was 13,982,527 bushels, or an average of 20.2 bushels per acre; the greater portion of this crop is fed upon Ontario farms, In striking contrast with the magnitude of the pea crop in Canada is its insignificance in our own country. While the area devoted to peas in Ontario is not far behind that devoted to winter wheat, the pea erop is so insignificant, relatively, in this country that it has not been given a fixed place in the Government crop reports. In Minne- _ sota it is not mentioned in the yearbook of statistical returns, and the same seems to be true of nearly all the States in the Union. We are to-day importing much of our seed from Canada, in the face of an import duty of 20 cents per bushel. VARIOUS USES OF THE PEA CROP. No other grain crop except perhaps oats can be devoted to so great a variety of uses. The grain is possessed of a relatively high feeding value, and the same is true of the straw, as will be readily apparent by reference to the chemical analysis of each. As a pasture for cer- _ tain kinds of live stock, peas may be made to serve an excellent pur- pose. The value of the crop for soiling and fodder uses is very great, and as a fertilizing crop peas are excelled only by clover. 223 924 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. There is no kind of live stock on the farm to which peas can not be fed with positive advantage when they are to be had at prices not too high. They are not commonly fed to horses, since they can sel- dom be spared for such a use, but they make a good food for horses at work, and colts during the period of development, if given as a part of the grain food. As a food for fattening cattle, peas are prob- ably unexcelled. Much of the success which Canadian feeders have achieved in preparing cattle for the block has arisen from the free use of peas in the diet. During the first part of the finishing period they will be found peculiarly helpful in making beef, owing to their relative richness in protein, but they are also a satisfactory food at any stage of the fattening process. During the first half of the finishing period peas will be found superior to corn, but toward the close of the same corn could probably be fed with greater relative advantage. Peas with oats or wheat bran make an excellent grain food for cattle that are being fattened. Speaking in a general way, peas should form about one-third, by weight, of the meal fed, but, as every feeder knows, the relative proportions of the meal used should vary somewhat as the season of fattening progresses. Peas furnish a good food for milch cows. They have been found peculiarly beneficial for building up dairy cows when ‘‘out of condi- tion,” and for sustaining them in fine form, and they are also excellent for milk production. When given along with oats and bran to cows in milk, they may usually form from one-third to one-half of the grain portion by weight. Peas, when fed with judgment and care, supply an excellent food for swine at all stages of development. They are well adapted to the sustenance of brood sows during the nursing period, for the reasons that have been given for their use with cows giving milk. With shorts, ground oats, or wheat bran, they may be made to form one-third to one-half the grain portion. Peas are superior to corn as a food for pigs at any time prior to the fattening season; hence they may be fed to them more freely, but in no instance should they form the sole ration before the finishing period begins. During the fattening period peas are unexcelled when fed as the sole grain food. They promote growth, while they fatten in excellent form, and they furnish a sweet, firm, and excellent quality of pork. Along with oats, in, say, equal parts, by weight, peas make good grain ration for ewes in milk, and also lambs, more especially when the latter are for the early market. They may be used in greater proportion to fatten ewes quickly after the lambs have been weaned. When sheep are being fattened for the block in winter, no grain food ean be fed which will be found more suitable than peas and oats. When fed to sheep or poultry, or to brood sows in winter, peas do not require to be ground. For all other live stock it is considered advan- tageous to grind them, but in some instances they are soaked for ; ’ ; 5 4 CANADIAN FIELD PEAS. 225 feeding to swine. When so prepared, they are frequently fed to _ growing swine when on pasture, and in order to insure due mastica- tion they should be fed on a floor. _ When pea straw is well cured, it is more relished by horses, cattle, and sheep than the straw of rye, wheat, barley, or even oats. Ani- mals which have never eaten it may not take kindly to it at first, but soon learn to eat it with a relish. The value of the straw, however, depends largely upon the stage at which the crop is harvested, the mode of harvesting, and the perfection of the curing process. Pea straw harvested rather under than over ripe, and then properly eured, will be eaten readily, but when allowed to get dead ripe, live stock will eat little of it unless compelled to do so by hunger. If harvested with the old-fashioned revolving horserake, so much of the soil adheres to the straw that it is not relished by any class of | live stock; and when rain falls upon the straw while it is curing, - it becomes bleached and loses much in palatability. Two or three smart showers falling upon pea straw greatly injure it. When eut with the scythe or the pea harvester, cured properly, and then housed or carefully stacked, the straw, except that of some of the coarsest varieties, is nearly equal to clover hay in feeding value, especially for sheep. Peas are more commonly used as a pasture when sown in conjune- tion with some other kind of grain, and since they are more easily injured by the trampling of live stock than other grain crops, it is usual to pasture them only with sheep and swine. When sown with oats or barley, peas make a good summer pasture for sheep. The greatest objection to such pasture is in the earliness of the season - at which it is produced. Of course, it may be grown later, but will not produce so abundantly. One-fourth of an acre grown at the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station in the spring of 1895, _ under the supervision of the writer, furnished pasture sufficient for _ one sheep for 3453 days. The pasture was eaten down three times _ successively, with a suitable interval between each season of pastur- ing. The plat was then sown with rape, and this in turn was pastured off. The great value of peas as a pasture for swine is far too little | understood. Peas grown in conjunction with some other kinds of grain are of great value as a soiling crop, owing, first, to the larger yields obtained (from 10 to 20 tons per acre may be expected on average soils); sec- ond, to the high nutritive value of the food, combined with its palata- bility; and third, because of its timeliness. This crop is ready as soon as the spring grasses begin to fail, and it may be made to con- tinue in season until corn is ready. It is excellent for all kinds of live stock, but especially valuable for dairy cows. The advantages resulting from growing peas in conjunction with other grains for fodder aremany. They include the following: First, A 95——8 226 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. larger yields may be obtained from growing these mixtures than by growing the grains used in them singly, and the increased yield extends to the grain as well as to the straw; second, when fodder is thus grown it may be fed directly to the animals; it is not necessary, usually, to chaff it with the cutting box, and the labor and cost of first thrashing and grinding the grain are avoided; and third, a pasture crop, such as rape or rye, may follow the same season. Such a sys- tem will be found most helpful as an aid in destroying weeds. As the relative areas adapted to growing these foods far exceeds those adapted to growing peas for the grain, it is probable that in the near future they will be most extensively grown for soiling and fodder uses. Like all leguminous crops, peas have the power of extracting nitro- gen from the air and of depositing it in the soil for the use of other crops which follow. Hence it is that the soil on which a crop of peas has been harvested is richer in nitrogen than before the peas were sown upon it. In this we have one explanation of the practice which beeame general in Ontario, of following peas with winter wheat. Peas could thus be made to bring more nitrogen to the soils of this country every year than is now purchased annually by the farmers at a cost of millions of dollars. WHY THE PEA CROP HAS BEEN NEGLECTED. That so valuable a crop should not have received more attention is indeed surprising. Chief among the reasons why it has been so neg- lected are the following: The lack of knowledge as to its merits, the difficulty in procuring seed, the want of suitable machinery for har- vesting the crop, and the small measure of attention given-to it, rela- tively, by the experiment stations. But little is known of the value of the pea crop by the average farmer. The scarcity and costliness of seed have hindered many from grow- ing peas. The average prices paid to seedsmen in the United States during recent years for good, clean seed have been from $1 to $1.25 per bushel. The Ontario farmer usually raises his own seed or buys it for about 1 cent per pound. Suppose a farmer should buy but 1 bushel of seed and sow it with care: he may expect in the autumn 10 bushels of seed wherever the conditions are favorable to growing the crop. Why should not farmers generally raise their own seed peas ? The lack of suitable machinery for harvesting peas has probably more than anything else hindered the extension of their growth in the United States. Where peas have to be harvested with the scythe, they are not likely to be grown to any considerable extent; but, as shown elsewhere, pea harvesters are now in use in Ontario which will cut a field of peas as quickly as a field of hay of equal area could be cut. a CANADIAN FIELD PEAS. 227 Very little attention has been given to this crop by the experiment stations of the continent. But little that can be regarded as of much value to the farmer is to be gleaned from the reports. The Ontario station, at Guelph, is an exception. The writer, when in charge of that station, imported many varieties from Europe and other countries for experimental uses, and the cooperative experiments with the best of these varieties, which have since that time been carried on by the farmers in various parts of Ontario, have been of great value in deter- mining the most suitable kinds for the different sections of the coun- try. Here is a field for experimentation in which the several stations, more especially those of the North, can render most valuable service to the States in which they are located. AREAS ADAPTED TO PEA CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. Without any doubt there are vast areas in our favored country well adapted to growing peas as a grain crop. But the areas in which the crop can be grown for pasture, for soiling uses, and for fodder are vastly greater, as heretofore intimated; for where they can be successfully grown as a grain crop they can also be grown for the other uses named. In the present state of our knowledge it would be impossible to name exactly all the areas in which peas can be successfully grown for any of the uses mentioned, and it would be even more hazardous to specify where they can not be grown. But these areas may be defined in a general way. Peas can be successfully grown as a grain crop throughout New England. They are successfully grown in northern Michigan, north- ern and eastern Wisconsin, and northern Minnesota. They will also grow well in North Dakota, Montana, Idaho, Oregon, and Washing- ton. In northern Ohio, southern Michigan, southern Wisconsin, and southern Minnesota they are not so sure a crop as in the areas named, but sometimes they produce well. Southward from the States just named peas can not always be depended on to yield well. The summer temperatures are too warm for them. Even though they should produce a good crop of straw, if a hot wave should pass over them while in bloom, they would not fruit well. But in all this section of country great use can be made of peas when grown with other crops for pasture, for summer feeding, and for fodder. Still farther to the south the wisdom of giving much attention to this crop is open to question; the Southern cowpea has taken its place there. GROWING PEAS FOR DIFFERENT PURPOSES. In discussing the growing of peas as a grain crop, problems relat- ing to soils, rotation, tillage, seed, varieties, harvesting, storing, and thrashing require to be considered. 928 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Adaptability in soils.—Peas may be grown successfully on a variety of soils, but those designated clay loams, and which are well supplied with lime, are best adapted to their growth. However, good crops may be obtained on the stiffest clays. The potash element in these favors the growth of peas. Light, leachy sands, being deficient in moisture, do not produce enough of growth of vine, and black humus soils produce too much. Overwet soils are wholly unsuited to the growth of peas. Place in the rotation.—Theoretieally, peas should not come after meadow or pasture, since they are capable of gathering nitrogen from the atmosphere, and in consequence do not need the sustenance fur- nished in the decay of grass roots so much as other grains; but in practice they serve the end of quickly subduing such soils by pro- moting the rapid decay of the sod and so putting the land in excel- lent condition for the crop which follows. Peas may be assigned any place in the rotation, but the aim should be to have a grain crop fol- low which is hungry for nitrogen. Preparing the land.—In climates where peas can be grown at their best, namely, climates with low winter temperatures, the land for peas, as for nearly all grain crops, should be plowed in the autumn; but peas will do better than the cereals, relatively, on spring-plowed land. A fine pulverization of the soil is advantageous, but it is not so necessary for peas as for other grain crops, since the pea is a hardy and vigorous grower. Sowing the seed.—Some writers advocate sowing the seed broadcast and then plowing it under. On heavy soils this method would bury the seed too deeply. On prairie soils it promotes the rapid evapora- tion of soil moisture. On fall-plowed lands the better plan is to pre- pare the seed bed by pulverizing it and then to sow the seed with the grain drill. When broadcasted and covered with the harrow only and rain follows, much of the seed will be exposed; but the writer has grown excellent crops on spring-plowed stiff clays from hand sowing without any previous pulverization. When such lands are carefully plowed, the peas fall in the depression between the furrow slices, and the subsequent harrowing covers them. Peas should be buried less deeply on stiff clays and more deeply on the soils of the prairie. The depth may be varied from 2 to 4 inches. The pea crop should be sown as soon as the soil can be worked freely; but it will suffer less, relatively, than the other grain crops if the sowing has to be deferred. In sections where the pea weevil (Bruchus pis) is prone to injure the crop, late sowing will shield the same from harm, but there remains the danger of loss from mildew. The quantity of seed required will vary with the character and con- dition of the soil and with the variety of seed sown. Rich and moist soils do not require so much seed as where the opposite conditions prevail. The amount of the seed sown should usually increase with CANADIAN FIELD PEAS. 229 the size of the pea. The quantities to sow per acre will vary from 2 bushels with the smaller varieties to 3$ bushels of the larger sorts. - One great difficulty to be encountered in growing peas on prairie soils is the usual luxuriance of weed life, but this may be held in check by harrowing the crop before it appears above the surface. Har- rows with teeth which may be set aslant are the most suitable for the work. Varieties to sow.—The most suitable varieties of peas to sow will depend somewhat on soil and climatic conditions; and the best way, probably, to determine which kinds are best suited to the varied con- ditions of each State would be through experimentation on what may be termed the cooperative plan, as practiced in Ontario. This plan in outline is as follows: The station furnishes the seed of a number of proved varieties to farmers in different sections of the country. These varieties are to be grown under similar conditions, and they are also to report the results to the station at a given date. The results are then summarized and made public. The farmer keeps the grain which he grows as his compensation. Several varieties were thus tested in Ontario in 1854. The three which stood first in point of yield were the Prussian Blue, Canadian Beauty, and Tall White Marrowfat. The respective average yields were 27.9, 27.1, and 26.8 bushels per acre. The yields of straw were not far different, nor was there much difference in the average time of maturing. The Prussian Blue is one of the most hardy, prolific, and reliable sorts grown in Ontario. The peas are blue in color and they weigh well. This variety also gave the largest average yields in the cooperative experiments of 1895. The Canadian Beauty is a handsome pea, white in color, and somewhat large in size. The Tall White Marrowfat is of large size and it is a vigorous grower. The four best yielding varieties grown at the Ontario experiment station for four years ending with 1894 are the Early Britain, White Wonder, Mummy, and Prussian Blue. The average yields were very similar. The Early Britain, imported from England in 1889, has proved a uni- formly good yielder, but the peas are a little brownish in color and somewhat irregular in shape. The White Wonder, imported from New Zealand in 1890, is a very promising variety. It is a free grower, a good yielder, and the pea itself is attractive in appearance. The Mummy, a well-established variety, is a strong grower, but the straw is coarse. The pods are much prone to cluster about the top of the vines. Among the other useful varieties grown at the Ontario sta- tion are the Centennial White, Cleveland Advancer, and the Golden Vine. The last named is an old standby. When farmers speak of **Canada peas” they have reference probably to this variety more often than to any other. All the varieties named should do at least fairly well in the New England States, and in northern Michigan and Wisconsin. Through the various States of the Northwest the 230 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. following varieties stand high in favor with the farmer, namely, the Chancellor, the White Marrowfat, and the Black-Eyed Marrowfat. The Chancellor is an early and productive variety. Harvesting the crop.—Until recent years the pea crop was har- vested with the scythe or with the old-fashioned revolving hayrake. The first method is slow; the second shells out many of the peas, and it so covers the vines with soil as to render the straw practically unfit for use. Happily a pea harvester has been introduced by the aid of Fia. 46.—Pea harvester. which the crop may be harvested speedily and in excellent condition on level soils. It is simply an attachment to an ordinary field mower, as shown in fig. 46. The guards in front lift up the peas so that the knife can cut them cleanly. The cut peas fall behind the mower in a string-like row, or swath, and two men with forks bunch them and lay them aside out of the way of the horses. Three men and a span of horses may thus Fria. 47.—Pea harvester with platform. harvest 10 acres in a day. This attachment for harvesting peas is made in Canada, and those now in use in the West have all been im- ported. On rear-cut mowers a platform is sometimes used, as shown in fig. 47. With this attachment, one man walks behind and with a fork throws the peas off in bunches. But the platform is of doubtful adyantage unless the crop is evenly ripened, not too heavy, and free from standing weeds of strong growth. Where the land has been CANADIAN FIELD PEAS. 231 plowed in ridges, with furrows more or less deep between them, the working of the machine will be seriously interfered with. Storing the crop.—It is usual to turn the bundles over once to facil- itate drying while they lie on the ground. They require hand load- ing. The crop may be stored under cover or put into stacks, as with other grain, but it should be borne in mind that peas when in the stack do not readily shed rain, and therefore the stacks should be earefully topped out with some substance, such as blue grass or native prairie hay. When the thrashed straw is preserved in stacks the same precautions are necessary. Thrashing the crop.—Where only a small quantity is grown annu- ally, and this with a view to provide seed to sow for pasture, soiling, or fodder uses, there is no better way of thrashing the peas than by using a flail or by treading them out with horses. The seed is not then broken. Where a large acreage is grown, it is necessary to thrash peas with a thrashing machine, and the best work is done by using the ‘‘ bar concave,” as shown in fig. 48. From this concave all the teeth should be removed except four. These hold the straw in check long enough to enable the cylinder teeth to beat out all the peas. The ma- chine should not run ata high rate of speed. More or less of the seed is likely to be broken. The broken grains, however, may be nearly all removed when preparing the crop for seed or for market by using fanning mills suit- ably equipped with sieves. When the crop is wanted for feeding uses, the breaking of the peas does not, of course, lessen its value. The great value of peas for various uses has already been dwelt upon. It only remains, therefore, to speak of the methods by which they are grown. When peas are grown in conjunction with other grain for pasture, the mixture should be sown somewhat thickly. For sheep 1 bushel of peas may be taken as the basis of the mixture, and from 1} to 2 bushels of other grain. When seed drills are used, the seed should be mixed before it is sown. Under other conditions it would be necessary to plow the peas in lightly, and then sow the other grain and cover it with a harrow. Peas and oats or peas and barley may be grown as a pasture for swine in the same manner as for sheep, but it is generally thought better to reduce the proportion of peas when the pasturing is to begin at an early stage in the growth of the Fr. 48.—Single concave thrashing machine with four teeth. plants, as swine break down the pea vines to a greater extent than 232 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. sheep. Hitherto it has been common to sow peas alone as a pasture for swine, and to defer pasturing them until the peas in the pod are about ready for table use; about 2 bushels of seed per acre will suffice. Swine should be accustomed to such pastures by degrees, because the sudden change of diet might be injurious to them. The season of pasturing may be prolonged by sowing the peas at successive periods, with a due interval between them. When peas are grown as a soiling crop, the relative amounts of seed used are much the same as when they are sown to provide pas- ture for sheep, and they are also sown in the same way. Oats, how- ever, is the favorite grain to mix with the peas, and the proportions - of seed used per acre are usually 14 bushels of the former to 1 bushel of the latter; but no definite rule can be laid down as to the rela- tive amounts of seed that should be used when growing these mix- tures for soiling or for fodder uses. The richer the land the larger the proportion of the peas that should be used, lest the oats should unduly overshadow them. Every farmer will have to determine for himself the relative quantities of seed which will best suit his con- ditions. The cutting and feeding of the crop may commence as soon as the heads of the oats begin to appear, and it may be continued until the crop is approaching maturity. When not all wanted for soiling uses, the residue may be cut and cured for winter feeding. Generally the best yields will be obtained from the seed sown earliest in the season. For this purpose the same methods of growing peas may be adopted as when they are grown for soiling uses, with the difference that more varieties are frequently used. The harvesting should take place when the dominant grain used in the mixture is nearly but not quite ripe. When the respective quantities of seed have been correctly adjusted, the crop can be harvested with the binder in a normal season, but in case it should be thrown down by storms the mower would then have to be used. It has already been stated that the pea crop brings nitrogen to the soil, and is therefore a fertilizer howsoever it may be grown; but its value in fertilizing and also in improving the mechanical texture of the soil is greatly enhanced when it is grown as a green manure. When soils become so impoverished that good crops can not longer be grown on them, they may be quickly renovated and also cleaned by plowing under a pea crop preceded by winter rye. The rye should, of course, be sown in the autumn, and plowed under in the spring when the heads begin to appear. The peas should be sown immediately, and in turn plowed under when in bloom. Ground thus treated would be fertilized and cleaned in one season. Its tilth would be much improved, and its power to hold moisture would be greatly increased. To a farmer in the dry Northwest the benefit last mentioned would probably be the greatest. The high price of the seed at present stands seriously in the way of growing peas expressly for fertilizing uses. “+ +“ — IRRIGATION FOR THE GARDEN AND GREENHOUSE. By L. R. Tart, Professor of Horticulture, Michigan Agricultural College. The success of irrigation in the so-called arid regions of the West, where the rainfall is often less than 10 inches, has led farmers and gardeners of the Eastern and Central States to consider the advisa- bility of securing water artificially to aid in carrying their crops through periods of drought. While much can be learned from West- ern irrigators, the conditions are so different at the East that the processes have to be greatly modified. If water can be supplied artificially at a reasonable expense, a sea- son of drought is not without its advantages: (1) There will be no lost time from rainy days; (2) witha proper supply of water in the soil, a better growth can be secured in warm, sunny weather than when it is cloudy or rainy, and not only will the size, numbers, and appearance of the fruits be increased, but the quality will be im- proved; and (3) there will also be less injury by insects and fungi. THE WATER SUPPLY. Some crops evaporate from the leaves an amount of water equal to two hundred to three hundred times the weight of the dry matter which they contain. It is estimated that the corn crop gives off water to the extent of thirty-six times its green weight, or 540 tons from the crop on 15 acres, which is sufficient to cover an acre of land to the depth of more than 5 inches. There is also considerable loss from the soil by evaporation. This varies with the nature and condition of the soil, the amount of water present, and the character of the sea- son, but experiments indicate that 1 inch per week during the sum- mer season would be a fair average. To this must be added at least 5 inches in an annual rainfall of 35 inches to compensate for the loss by drainage and percolation. It must also be remembered that a large part of the annual rainfall comes in winter, when the ground is frozen, and there is a large loss at that time, to say nothing of what runs off at other seasons. In a general way it may be said that, under aver- age conditions, full crops of vegetables and fruits can not be secured _ with a rainfall of less than 35 inches, one-half of which should be evenly distributed over the six months from March to August. A 95——8* 233 234 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. eb Since it is profitable in the West to apply water to the full amount required by crops, it will certainly pay in humid sections to supple- ment an oceasional deficiency to the extent of from 2 to 5 inches. If it is desirable to use water with profit for garden crops, a source for the supply should first be fixed upon, and while it must be a sup- ply that will furnish the required amount in a time of most severe drought, the cheapness with which the water can be brought upon the land should also have consideration. In some locations water can be obtained from town or city water- works, and, unless a very large quantity is required, it will often be cheaper than to put in an independent pumping plant. Artesian wells or never-failing springs afford a cheap source of water, especially if the water can be earried to the land by gravity. Lakes or streams from which the water may be conducted upon the land can oceasion- ally be found, and, if sufficiently near, will form an extremely cheap source for water supply. As a rule, however, even if the water is available, it is below the land and some method of raising it must be employed, so that the cost of pumping machinery will need to be con- sidered. Driven wells can generally be relied upon in the absence of any of the above sources of water supply. They are in successful use for this purpose in many places, the water in some cases being obtained within a few feet of the surface and in others at a depth of 100 feet. Where the wells need not be more than 60 feet deep, and where the water stands within 40 or 50 feet of the surface, the cost of raising it will not be excessive. If one well does not supply the desired amount, several may be driven and attached to the cylinder of one pump. POWER AND MACHINERY. For irrigating purposes the pumping apparatus must be of such a nature that it will raise the large amount of water required at a small expense, and at the same time be strong and durable. Some of the hydraulic rams comply with the above conditions. They work automatically and without expense, being driven by the force of the water. Where a suitable water supply and a sufficient fall can be secured, enough water can be thus elevated for a consider- ble area if a reservoir for its storage is provided. If running water is at hand and the lift is not great, some form of water wheel which is arranged either for lifting the water directly or for operating some special pumping machinery may be used. The endless-chain-and- bucket machinery also answers well for small lifts. The hot-air pumping engines are also adapted to this work upon small farms. They are cheaply operated, requiring but little attention or fuel, are perfectly safe, and will handle from 100 to 1,000 gallons of water per hour, according to the distance it has to be lifted and the size of the engine. When the water does not have to be raised over 50 feet, the centrifugal pumps may be used with excellent results. They are IRRIGATION FOR THE GARDEN AND GREENHOUSE. 235 comparatively cheap, quite durable, and may be obtained of a capacity to handle any desired quantity of water. While lifting pumps require the water to be quite clean, there is less necessity of it in the case of the centrifugals. The rotary pumps have a similar use. Of the lifting pumps there is a great variety, buf some of the forms with large cylinders, commonly ealled irrigation pumps, should be used. They answer well where but a comparatively small amount of water is required and where it has to be drawn from a considerable depth. For very large pumping plants some of the direct-acting steam pumps have been used and they supply the water at a low cost. In a few cases the pumps mentioned above require no outside power, but in the centrifugal and lifting pumps some motive power is necessary. The windmill is generally regarded as the cheapest power for light work where regularity is not essential, and is largely used. The mod- ern galvanized steel mills, upon steel towers, are quite durable, and, provided they are double geared, will run in very light winds. In sections where the wind has a velocity of 8 or more miles per hour, for an average of at least eight hours per day during the summer months, they furnish a cheap source of power for irrigating gardens of from 1 to 3 or perhaps 5 acres in proportion to the distance the water is lifted. They are used principally with lifting pumps. From the fact that the working of the mill is likely to be intermittent, a storage reservoir is necessary in connection with such a plant. | Gasoline engines have an advantage over steam in that they do not require regular attention, are perfectly safe, and are less expensive to _ run. ° For small pumping plants and up to 10 or 15 horsepower they will be found well adapted. While steam engines will not be desira- ble ordinarily, except perhaps for supplying water for large areas, or when needed for other purposes, there are conditions that would favor their use. For fruit and most other crops it is seldom that more than two or three applications are necessary in a season, and it will be cheaper in most cases to hire a portable engine for the few days it will be needed than to buy an engine of any kind. In all of the Western States, traction thrashing engines may be readily obtained, at a small rental, as they usually stand idle except during the thrash- ing season. ii << eee Sl DISTRIBUTION. The method by which water will be carried upon the land will depend largely upon the surroundings. If there is a large amount of water and an easy grade can be secured, it may be carried in open ditches, which can be easily excavated with a plow and scraper. _ Vitrified sewer pipe may be used if the ground is uneven, but will not be desirable if there is over 10 or 15 pounds pressure. Where the distance is not great, or if the pressure is considerable, particu- larly if the water is pumped, riveted sheet-iron tubing or steel gas pipe can be used. These are readily put together and taken apart 236 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. as desired, and gates and water plugs may be attached at will. If arrangements are made to drain the pipes, or if they are taken up in winter, they may be placed upon or near the surface. The size of the pipes needed will depend upon circumstances. For tracts of from 5 to-10 acres a sewer pipe 4 inches in diameter is desir- able, although a 3-inch pipe would answer if there is a fair fall. When using iron pipe, the size of the distributing pipes, upon tracts of a half acre or over, should be 2 or, better, 24 inches. For the main supply pipe from the pump or reservoir a somewhat larger size will lessen the friction and increase the capacity of the system, but if the distance is considerable it will cause a large outlay, and it might be cheaper in the end to use a smaller size and take a little more time. While a 4-inech pipe would be desirable, a 3-inch one would answer for from 20 to 100 acres. The branch pipes in small gardens may be as small as 1 inch, although a larger size is desirable. Wooden or sheet-iron flumes may also be used for carry- ing the water. The supply pipe or ditch should take the water to the highest point of the tract to be irrigated, and, if the land is uneven, with several knolls, a branch pipe should be carried to each of them. If there is one point from Fie. 49.—Square trough for distributing water (section). a, which the water will sliding zine on galvanized iron gate. flow over all others, it ean be distributed from that point in flumes or ditches to the furrows and thus spread over the land. While this will lessen the expense if pipes are used, it will be better not to attempt to water more than 1 or 2 acres from a single hydrant. If applied from a hose, it is not desirable to have the hydrants more than 200 feet apart, requiring a hose 100 feet long. Fora tract not over 200 feet wide and from 300 to 500 feet long, measuring down the slope, a single hydrant at the middle of the upper side will be sufficient. A regular hydrant can be con- structed if desired, but if there is a T with a gate valve at the point where the hose is to be attached, it will answer every purpose. One of the best methods of distributing the water from the hydrants is by the use of wooden troughs (fig. 49). They may be put up per- manently along the head of the rows, or may be made portable in sections of 16 feet. They should be from 6 to 8 inches square inside, or 8 inches deep if triangular. Along one side, at intervals of from 3 to 20 feet, according to the crop for which they are to be used, there should be holes from 14 to 2 inches in diameter, closed by zine or gal- ranized sheet-iron gates (fig. 50), The troughs should stand nearly IRRIGATION FOR THE GARDEN AND GREENHOUSE. 237 level. If theland slopes there should be an occasional drop in them. To control the flow of the water wooden sliding gates are desirable at frequent intervals and at the end of each section of trough. By means of the small gates the water can be distributed to a number of rows at a time and the flow can be regulated at will. A 24-inch dis- tributing pipe under a fair head will supply from 6 to 10 rows, using full-sized openings, while if they are only half open from 10 to 20 rows can be watered that are from 150 to 400 feet in length, according to the character of the soil. If the gates are 3 feet apart this will supply water for one-eighth to one-half an acre, and will require, to properly water this area, from one to three hours, reckoning upon a flow of 100 gallons per minute and an application of from 900 to 1,000 gallons per acre, or a little more than enough to cover it to the employed to good effect, but not over one or two gates can be used at one time from a three- fourths-inch hydrant, or two or three from a 1- inch hydrant. Instead of the trough an iron pipe can be run along the head rows and the water applied through small faucets placed at proper intervals. If neither troughs nor pipes are used, an open ditch can be run along the head row and this will serve the same purpose. If ditches are used, it is desirable that small wooden boxes, closed at one end with a sliding gate, be placed at points where the water is to be drawn out, but the water is often applied by making openings in the bank through which it can be drawn. When a sufficient amount of water has been applied to any of the opened. Inasmall gar- rows, the gate can be den a similar but ae depth of 1 inch.! closed and another smaller trough can be | deme Fic. ear ar aereaey trough (section). RESERVOIRS AND TANKS. For properly irrigating tracts of much size, a large amount of water should be available, in order that it may be turned upon the land in ‘Tt requires 27,154 gallons, or about 850 barrels, to give an inch of water over an acre. The miner’s inch, used in the West as a unit of measurement, is the amount that will flow per minute through an opening 1 inch square witha head of 4 inches—about 9 gallons. A cubic foot of water per second-foot, which is also used asa measure for water, represents a flow of about 50 miner's inches, or 450 gallons, per minute. 238 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. considerable quantities; and unless the pumping apparatus will sup- ply a steady stream of 100 to 200 gallons per minute; a reservoir or tank is desirable, except in small gardens. While iron or wooden tanks will be best for small amounts of water, basins can be made for large areas by throwing up embankments of soil, and rendering them water-tight by means of cement, tar, or clay. In most parts of the country care is necessary to keep the cement and tar from cracking in winter; clay will answer nearly if not quite as well. The reservoir should be located upon the highest point of ground near the land to be irrigated. The bottom of the reservoir should be as little as possible below the surface, in order that a fall may be secured, and the walls should not be more than 5 or 6 feet high, with a slope of about 20 degrees. The top of the embankment should be from 2 to 4 feet wide, according to the size of the reservoir. If the soil is not of rather stiff clay, it should be covered to the depth of 3 or 4 inches with clay, and after this has been worked until it is fine, water should be admitted sufficient to form a thick mortar, when it should be thor- oughly puddled over the bottom and sides. The water should be drawn out from the reservoir through an iron pipe laid at the bottom of the embankment, this to be provided with a valve by which the flow of the water can be regulated; and to prevent the water of the reservoir from soaking out along the sides of the pipe, it should be laid in grout where it passes through the embankment into the reser- voir. Unless the reservoir is filled with water during the winter it will require puddling every spring. APPLYING THE WATER. Having the water upon the land, it can be applied in various ways. Flooding, or allowing the water to spread over the surface to the depth of from 2 to 10 inches, was formerly extensively used, but it is now employed only for grain and similar crops. The most common method for vegetables and fruits is to make furrows and run the water along in them, so that it can soak into the soil. If properly arranged, the water can not spread upon the surface, and, by turning back the furrows as soon as the water has soaked in and cultivating the soil, the moisture can be prevented from evaporating. For large areas, a shovel plow is the best tool for making the furrows, although if the soil is loose a man with a hand plow can do as good work, while a hoe or shovel will answer in small gardens. Care should be taken to so lay out the rows in the orchard or garden that the furrows for the water can be run at a very slight slope, 2 or 3 inches in 100 feet being all that is desirable, while 1 foot in 100 feet is an extreme slope. With a little care in laying out the furrows water can be used upon land that, at first sight, it will seem impossi- ble to irrigate. If there are slight irregularities in the surface that can be seraped off without materially injuring the land, it will be best to remove them. When the land is rolling, basins or checks may be used, especially in orchards. —e = IRRIGATION FOR THE GARDEN AND GREENHOUSE. 239 Subirrigation is the term applied to the running of water through pipes laid below the surface of the ground and allowing if to soak out through cracks or holes made for the purpose. The pipes are gener- ally common drain tiles, from 24 to 4 inches in diameter, laid at depths of from a few inches to 2 or 3 feet. Particularly upon muck or swampy land, if they are placed at a considerable depth, they will do good service as drains, besides distributing water in dry seasons. By having the ends of the lines of tile open into a ditch, the water can be carried off when there is a surplus, while, by damming the ditch and filling it with water, the tiles will carry it back for several hundred feet and moisten a space upon either side of from 15 to 40 feet. They should be placed 12 inches deep, in garden loam soil at a distance of 12 or 15 feet apart, but in very light sand or stiff clay shorter intervals will be advisable. The tiles should have a very slight slope, for if there is much head the water will break out unless they are laid at a considerable depth. Several lines may be joined to a larger line laid across their ends, although if each line of tile is supplied inde- pendently, a more even distribution will be obtained. While it will vary considerably with the soil, a half-inch stream will suffice for 100, a three-fourths-inch for 200, a 1-inch for 400, and a 14-inch for 1,000 linear feet of tile. In laying the tiles a small opening should be left between them at the lower side, and this will allow the water to pass out freely with- out admitting the soil. Under ordinary circumstances there will be no trouble from the clogging of the tiles with roots. It is claimed for this method of watering that it requires less water and that after the tile is in place less attention is necessary. Upon asmall garden where the water supply is small, or if it is delivered in small pipes, this method of watering is of value, as the water needs only to be turned on and it will distribute itself without fur- : ther attention. P While there is a saving of labor in distributing the water, the cost of tiles and the expense of laying them makes this method much more expensive than furrow irrigation. Except as mentioned above, | subirrigation has few, if any, advantages over furrows for fruits and the ordinary garden crops. As water ean be applied in furrows for 4 i | fruits or large areas of vegetables at from 50 cents to $1.50 per acre, according to the crop and the amount of water available, one can not afford to go to the expense of fitting the land for subirrigation, except where the tiles are needed as drains. For flower beds and lawns, where water can not be applied in fur- rows, tiles can often be used to good advantage. Placed at the depth of 1 foot and as nearly level as possible, they will distribute the water quite evenly over a space from 8 to 16 feet in width. For short lengths the flow of the water should be restricted to the amount that can be given off by the tiles. 240 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Sprinkling upon the surface can often be used to good advantage upon sandy loam soils where the surface is so uneven that the water can not be run in furrows. Considerably more water will be required than when the water is run in furrows, as the evaporation will be much greater, and the applications will have to be much more fre- quent. A number of large revolving sprinklers can be operated at one time, and as each will cover a space of 3 or 4 square rods a considerable area can be watered in one day. IRRIGATION FOR THE GARDEN. The artificial application of water to vegetables will be found profitable, not alone because of its use in times of severe drought, but because vegetables have so large a money value that the proper use of water will mark the difference between complete success and entire failure, and will well repay the cost of applying it. For crops grown in rows more than 2 feet apart, the water can be run in furrows made a few inches from each row while the plants are small, and halfway between them when they have filled the ground with their roots. For narrower rows, down to 16 inches, it will answer if furrows are made in every second row, while for crops grown in very close drills irrigation may be provided for by leaving a slightly wider space every fourth row in which to run the water. When the crops are sown broadcast, the water may be applied by making fur- rows from 4 to 10 or even more feet apart, and it will be of far more value than when spread upon the surface. This is a far better way than the old plan of throwing the land up into beds about 12 feet wide, with a ditch along the center from which the water could both soak into the soil and run over the edges upon the surface. Upon muck land a fairly even distribution can be obtained when the furrows are several rods apart, but more water will be required and it may take several days for it to soak through the soil. If the ground is so dry in the spring that the seed are not likely to germinate evenly, it will be a good plan to plow furrows every 4 feet and then turn on the water so as to thoroughly wet down the land. This should secure a good stand, and it will seldom be desirable to use water again until the plants have several true leaves. Before transplanting it is quite important to have the soil moist, and if water is run on the previous day in furrows where the rows are to stand, the soil will be in good condition. For plants like tomatoes, which are set at wide intervals, holes may be made with a spade, in which the plants are placed and the soil packed about the roots. The holes should then be filled with water and the planting completed as soon as the water has soaked in. The condition of the plants is the best indication of the necessity for applying water. If in a time of drought the leaves wilt or eurl, or take on an unnatural, dark color, water can generally be used to IRRIGATION FOR THE GARDEN AND GREENHOUSE. 241 advantage. Although one or more waterings are occasionally neces- sary while the plants are small, potatoes, tomatoes, peas, and similar crops are more likely to suffer from lack of water after the fruits and tubers form, and it should then be used in liberal quantities. For all such crops it is seldom desirable to irrigate while the plants are in blossom, as it tends to start a new growth and prevent setting. After the crop has set, particularly in case of the potato, no check to the growth should be allowed from lack of water, as when it is applied, a new growth will start, a second crop will set, and the result will be a large number of small potatoes. In arid sections an approximate estimate can be given as to the number of applications required by the various crops, but in the humid portions of the country this is not possible. In some seasons the amount of rain may be ample, while in others from one to five applications of 800 to 1,500 barrels per acre can be made to advan- tage. More than this amount should not be applied at one time as, if heavy rains follow, the ground may be saturated. Even with the most thorough cultivation, anywhere from a half inch to 2 inches of water per week can be used to advantage by vegetables during May, June, July, and August, and, unless the natural supply available approximates that amount, it should be supplied artificially in pro- portion to the character of the soil and season and the needs of the erop, 1 inch being taken as an average for each application for good garden soils. Care should be taken to prevent the flowing of the water over the surface, and particularly from coming in contact with the stems and leaves of the plants. After each watering and after every rain the ground should have a shallow cultivation, and this should be repeated at least once a week. IRRIGATION FOR ORCHARDS. For orchards as well as for other crops it is better to use a number of small streams rather than one or two strong ones, as there will be less washing of the soil, and a more even distribution of the water can be secured. A flume or head ditch will aid very much in secur- ing this. In locating the rows such an arrangement should be made as will secure a proper slope for the furrows, which should be from 1 to 6 inches in 100 feet (fig. 51). While the trees are small a furrow upon either side of each row will answer, but as the roots spread, additional furrows 3 or 4 feet apart should be made, until finally the entire space is irrigated. Too much water and too frequent applications are more likely to be harmful than too little water, and ordinarily there will be no necessity for watering until the fruit is half grown, and from one to three applications, the last one not later than the middle of August, in order to allow the growth to ripen, will usually suffice. The use of water during a week or two before and continuing until two weeks after blossoming is not desirable. 242 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Great injury is often done by the drying out of the trees in winter, and if the autumn is very dry it will be well to irrigate the trees just before the ground freezes. The amount of water required by orchards is from 1 to 2 inches at each application, while the frequency of water- ing must depend upon conditions. When a loam soil taken from a depth of 5 or 6 inches will not pack in the hand, it is an indieation that water is needed. Ordinarily once in from two to three weeks is as often as water need be applied. While a fair amount of water will increase the size and improve the quality and appearance of the fruit, an excess will lessen the size and injure the quality. Basins or checks can often be used to advantage when the ground is uneven or sloping. They are formed by scraping the soil away so as to form ring-like depressions about the trees, into which the water is turned. They should have a diameter equal to that of the branches, and the amount of water used should be sufficient to cover the area occupied by the roots to the depth of at least an inch. Fig. 51.—Irrigating young orchard with furrows. a, sluice; b, head ditch; c, furrows. Where water is not at hand for irrigating, good results can often be obtained by hauling it in tanks or barrels and running it into the basins, using from 1 to 2 barrels for each peach, pear, or plum tree from 5 to 10 years old. As soon as the water has soaked in, the dry soil should be replaced to prevent evaporation. The method of watering strawberries and other small fruits is not unlike that used for vegetables. The water is run down the center of the rows in furrows, or, better yet, close alongside the rows. If the ground is very dry in the spring, a good watering may then be given, but after growth has started no water should be given until the fruit has set, after which the irrigation may be kept up as needed at intervals of two or three weeks until the fruit is gathered. All except the grape may need an occasional application after that time, and if the ground is dry as winter comes on an application at that time is desirable. IRRIGATION FOR THE GARDEN AND GREENHOUSE. 243 COST OF IRRIGATING. The expense of an irrigating plant and the cost of operating it will depend upon the distance the water has to be raised and carried to get it upon the land, as well as the method of moving it. A windmill, with pump, well, and reservoir, suitable for from 3 to 5 aeres, should not cost more than from $300 to $500, if the water does not have to be raised more than 40 feet, and there would be comparatively little expense for operating it. A pumping plant, operated by a steam or gasoline engine, suitable for 20 acres and capable of supplying 50 or 60 acres, would cost perhaps $1,000. The cost of fuel for the latter would perhaps be 15 cents per acre for elevating the water required for one application, reckoning it at 1 cent per horsepower for each hour operated, while for the steam engine it would be about twice that amount. Using a steam engine and a centrifugal pump, waiter for one application for 10 acres can be raised 40 feet for about $4, including cost of attendance, and $5 will distribute it upon the land, making the cost, aside from the interest upon the investment, rather less than $1 per acre. With a gasoline engine it would be $1.50 for fuel and $5 for applying the water, or 65 cents per acre for each application. PROFITS FROM IRRIGATING. At the high estimate of $1,000 for a pumping system for 20 acres and of 10 per cent for interest and depreciation of machinery, irriga- tion is certainly a good investment for fruits and vegetables, as num- berless instances could be given where the gains in a single season from the use of water repaid not only the expense of operating, but the entire cost of the plant. The expense for a steam pump is figured at 90 cents per acre, and with a gasoline engine at 65 cents, for each application. If water is used three times during the season, it will make the eost for an acre $2.70 and $1.95, respectively, for the two systems. Adding 10 per cent of the cost of the plant, or $5 per acre, it gives $7.70 for steam and $6.95 for gasoline engines as the entire eost of irrigating an aere of land three times in a season. When steam is used, it costs no more for attendance and but little more for fuel to pump the water for 10 acres per day than for 2, so that the éost for small areas would be slightly more, but $10 per acre would be a high estimate when the conditions are fairly favorable. The irrigating system at the Michigan Agricultural College has the past summer given good illustrations of the benefits of irrigation ina - dry season. It covers 10 acres of small fruits and vegetables, and has a 3-inch supply pipe from the river, with 24-inch distributing pipes _ leading to hydrants at convenient points. The power is supplied from the regular pumping station, so that definite figures as to cost and expense of operating can not be given. _ — 944 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The crop of small fruits was greatly injured by frost, but where water was used no ill effects from the drought were observed, although the unirrigated sections were so dry that the crop was ruined. Careful records were kept of the yield of the various vegetable crops, and the results from the use of water, as compared with unir- rigated plats, showed a decided gain. In every instance the plats without water were given the advantage in soil and location, if there was a difference, and probably profited to some extent from seepage waiter. The tomatoes and potatoes were irrigated four times, and the other crops received three applications of about 1 inch each. The cabbage crop suffered most of all, perhaps, as where water was not used less than half formed heads of marketable size, and these were small. Of the Early Jersey Wakefield there were 5,000 more marketable heads per acre obtained by the use of water, and the weight was 11,325 pounds greater. The Henderson Early Summer showed a gain of 4,826 heads and 21,959 pounds in weight. At 2 cents per head the gain per acre would average nearly $100. A gain of 200 bushels per acre was obtained with the irrigated tomatoes, which at 25 cents per bushel would amount to $50, or five times the expense of applying the water. Snap beans showed a gain of 300 bushels, and early peas of 100 bushels per acre. Some of the potatoes were watered twice before blossoming, others twice after blossoming, and a third lot four times—twice before and twice after bossoming. The gain upon the latter was 1293 bushels; two early waterings gave a gain of 424 bushels, and two late applications showed a gain of 50} bushels over unirrigated plats. Particularly in the case of peas, beans, and cabbages, the increase in the quality was nearly as marked as in the quantity. Similar results have been obtained by several of the experiment stations, and in many instances market gardeners and fruit growers who have practiced irrigation have made an even better showing. IRRIGATION FOR THE GREENHOUSE. From the very nature of the case, plants grown under glass can not obtain a supply of water either from the clouds above or from the underlying soil, and if they are to maintain their growth it must be applied artificially. The common method of applying it through a hose or from a watering pot requires a man of experience and good judgment, as it is desirable to apply enough to moisten the soil with- out saturating it. Surface watering at the best packs the soil, thus preventing its proper aeration, promotes the development of slime and mosses upon its surface, and, particularly during the cloudy days of winter, keeps the surface of the soil in a damp condition, although the roots may be suffering from lack of water. In many “ases, too, the water lodges in the axils of the lower leaves of the IRRIGATION FOR THE GARDEN AND GREENHOUSE. 245 plants, and by keeping them moist promotes the development of the spores of parasitic fungi. To lessen the labor of watering greenhouses, various sprinkling arrangements have been tried. Some of these consist of sprinklers that can be moved from point to point in the houses, while others are arranged at intervals upon pipes so as to water considerable areas at one time. While some of these arrangements may be labor savers, they have all of the disadvantages of surface watering; while the fact that all parts of the house may not require the same amount of water, and that unless carefully watched a surplus of water is likely to be applied, renders them impracticable. Greenhouse subirrigation.—During the past four years various methods of applying the water below the surface have been tried and for many crops have shown decided advantages over surface watering. The first attempt at greenhouse subirrigation was made under the direction of Prof. W. J. Green at the Ohio Experiment Station, in 1890-91, with the hope of preventing lettuce rot. The result upon the growth of the plants was so marked that it was repeated upon a larger scale and with a variety of plants. Similar experiments have been tried and the results published by the West Virginia and the Michigan experiment stations. While applicable to pot plants, it is generally used for those planted out in beds. ‘These may be raised benches made of wood, or of iron supports with tile or slate bottoms, or they may be what are termed solid beds, resting directly upon the soil. In either case they should be practically water-tight. With wooden benches it is desirable that the supports should be close enough to prevent the sagging of the boards. The bottoms were formerly made of clear, matched lumber, laid in white lead, but for several years ordinary barn boards free from loose knots have been used at the Michigan Station. If these are laid close together and firmly nailed to the stringers to prevent their humping, they will, when wet, swell sufficiently to close the eracks. The writer generally lays the boards across the beds upon stringers running lengthwise of the house. To close the remaining eracks and to preserve the lumber it is well to coat the inside of the bed with a cement made of one part of water lime and three of sharp sand. This should be made into a thick paste and spread over the surface about one-fourth of aninch thick. Fora bed with tile or slate bottoms a similar covering will render them sufficiently tight (fig. 52). In case a solid bed is used, a tight bottom about 8 inches below the intended level of the bed is necessary. If the subsoil is stiff clay, it may be puddled and will then hold water, but it will generally be better to spread an inch or so of gravel and, after thoroughly ramming it, to place over the surface three-fourths of an inch of cement pre- pared as above. The beds should have sides of the same material 3 inches high. 946 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The best way of distributing the water is by means of 23-inch drain tiles, placed either lengthwise or across the beds at intervals of 3 or 4 feet. If the line is not over 50 feet in length, they may be placed upon a level, but for greater lengths the line should have a slope of 1 or 2 inches in 50 feet. To learn if the water is circulating properly, it is well to make an opening into the tiles once in 20 feet, into which a small flowerpot can be set. In laying the tiles care should be taken that the eracks between them are of an even size. As a rule, it will be found that they have become slightly curved in baking, so that the ends are not square, and if the convex sides are placed upper- most there will be a small opening at the under side large enough to allow the water to escape freely. If thought desirable, several lines Fia.52.—Water bench for greenhouse. of tile can be so connected at one end that they may all be filled from one hose, or faucets may be arranged so as to supply water in any desired amount to the different lines. The water can be admitted through sewer-pipe elbows, or by raising the end of the last tile so that it will show above the surface. One-inch gas pipes with one-fourth-inch holes every foot have also been tried at the Michigan Station. While good results were obtained, the openings frequently became clogged and the water was not given off as freely as when tiles were used, so that a longer time was required to water the beds. Besides being cheaper the use of tiles seems in every way preferable. In a general way subirrigation in greenhouses shows about the same advantages over surface irrigation as are found in the garden, but while the saving in time of watering and in the amount of water required is even greater in proportion, the direct benefits, especially reduction of time (10-25 per cent) required for maturing, are of still more importance. Bh ae S f.. ; THE HEALTH OF PLANTS IN GREENHOUSES. By B. T. GALLoway, Chief of the Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. The cultivation of plants in greenhouses, or, using the broader term, under glass, is rapidly assuming large proportions. In 1890 there were 4,659 establishments in the United States devoted to commercial flower growing. These represented a capital of over $30,000,000, and gave employment to nearly 20,000 men and women.! Eighty per cent of this business was developed in the twenty-five years prior to 1890; in fact, it may properly be said that commercial floriculture, as existing when the foregoing facts were collected, was practically a creation of the preceding quarter of a century. For the past five years the business has been growing fully as rapidly as dur- ing any similar period, so that there is probably now no less than $35,000,000 or $40,000,000 invested in this work. It must be remem- bered that this represents only the commercial floral business. When we take into consideration the capital invested in the growing of veg- etables and fruits under glass, and that expended by amateurs and others not strictly engaged in commercial work, the aggregate sum invested will probably reach $50,000,000 or $60,000,000. As this work has grown and as its importance has increased, the methods followed in the production of the various crops have under- gone most radical changes. Up to a few years ago the plants grown in nearly all ordinary commercial greenhouses were of a mixed char- acter. Roses, carnations, palms, and ferns might frequently be found in one house, where they were watched over and cared for by one or more men, without any systematic attempt at a division of labor, so far as the individual requirements of the plants were concerned. This practice was simply the result of the demands of the times, there being no occasion for a: concentration of effort in any particular direc- tion. All this has changed, however, within the past few years, for with the advent of different ideas the public has become more crit- ical, and as a result specialization is now a marked feature of the business. With this feature becoming more and more prominent, competition is growing keener and keener, and greater energy must therefore be used in producing a crop that will not only hold its own, but will force its way to the front in the market. To accomplish this 'U. 5. Census Bull., Floriculture in the United States. 247 248 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. necessitates a thorough knowledge of the requirements of each crop, how to keep each in perfect health, and how to manage the conditions so that the maximum of profit will be attained at the minimum of labor and expense. This knowledge can not be gained from books, but must be obtained by long experience and rigid attention to details. There are certain fundamental principles, however, which underlie all work of this kind, and a knowledge of these is often sufficient to make the difference between success and failure. It is of some of these principles that the writer proposes to speak, hoping that what is said will be of value to the ideal type of gardener—the man who can aid, guide, and advance his practical, intuitive skill by intelligence, foresight, and the ability to experiment and to profit by the work. HEALTH AND DISEASE. The growth of every plant is influenced by numerous factors—soil, heat, light, water, and air all having their effects. As the factors vary so does the plant in its habit of growth, in the quantity and qual- ity of its fruit, leaves, or other parts, and in its ability to survive the influences which are constantly at work tending to destroy that which it has produced. The plant, in other words, is a constructive appa- ratus, governed by surrounding conditions over which it has no con- trol, but to which it can adapt itself within certain limits. If the conditions are properly regulated,an approximately ideal growth is attained. If,on the other hand, they are improperly fur- nished, the plant reacts to the influences and a departure from the ideal development is the result. This departure may be in the nature of a derangement of the functions of the plant and may result in sickness and death. The sickness may be simply due to a combina- tion of influences acting on the vital forces of the plant, or it may be brought on by the presence of living organisms, as, for example, insects, fungi, ete. In the latter case the relation of the host, or the plant attacked, to the organism attacking it is exeeedingly compli- ‘ated, but it is not the purpose to enter upon a discussion of that question here. Suffice it to say that the more nearly the ideal condi- tions of growth are approached, the less likely is the plant to suecumb to attacks of such organisms. On the other hand, the departure from the ideal growth may be in different directions; in facet, the remark- able susceptibility of a plant to surrounding influences, or, in other words, its plasticity, isseldom appreciated. For example, an American Beauty rose grown under certain conditions may give buds 3 inehes in diameter, with stems 36 inches long. N (Buchloe dactyloides) have | long been sung, and there : b is not a farmer or a rancher Fia. 72.—Side-oats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula). in all the prairie region that does not know the value of this species. It has been tried in cultivation in the Eastern States, and promises to become one of the very best pasture grasses. It makes a remarkable growth when transferred to the heavy clay soils of the East, where the rainfall is much greater than in its native habitat. It can be established in a meadow by seattering the roots and fragments of turf in shallow furrows, in the same way that Bermuda grass is started in the South. We know that the value of this grass in permanent FORAGE CONDITIONS OF THE PRAIRIE REGION. oLe prairie pastures is great, and that it will survive drought and intense cold, but, like most other native species, it can be exterminated by overstocking the pastures in which it grows. In the sandy Platte, Republican, and Arkansas valleys it spreads rapidly on irrigated fields, and will drive out such strong-rooted grasses as Hungarian brome and timothy, which are not natives of that region. The habit of growth of buffalo grass is such that it can live through long droughts, but it must not be supposed on that account that it will thrive under such unfavorable conditions. A cactus plant will live a year without water in the Arizona or Chihuahua desert, but if it is transplanted to some garden where it can be watered, it will grow ten times as rapidly as before. It is the same with the buffalo grass. — It only needs to be transplanted to places where it can get more water, and it will hold the ground against the encroachments of the taller- growing species. It is one of the earliest grasses to appear in spring, and furnishes fine forage through the winters. The following table gives chemical analyses by Shepard of gramas and buffalo grass col- lected in South Dakota: Nitrogen- . : Crude | Albumi- Hay of— Water. | Ash. | Fat. free, Ve aa a | | extract. fiber. noids. a z= 3 / =. | | ILCMLOE MHACUYLOLIES = 52-2 anne ean wes | 7. 24 | 10.88 | 2.28 | 48.25 26. 66 5.19 Bouteloua curtipendula _.......---------- 7.05 | 9.07 1.%2 41.87 35. 10 5.19 Bouteloua olgostachya. ....-.-:---------. 6.69 | 8.11 2.03 45. 37 29.30 8.50 Bomieougitreuta...-.2.22-.--- }-=-=---.4- 7.28 | 9.40 2.36 | 45. 06 30.45 5.45 There are two species of prairie June grass, or early bunch grass (Eatonia obtusata and Keeleria cristata), widely distributed through the whole prairie region. They are early grasses, ripening their seed during June and July. The prairie June grass (Kwleria) is a partie- wlarly promising species on account of its abundance of long root leaves, which continue green through the season after the seed has ripened. In eastern Nebraska these species together furnish 10 or 15 per cent of the prairie hay, especially of that cut on the moist upland prairies. They stand pasturing well, and, like the buffalo grass, mature early. Both do well under cultivation. They are best prop- agated by seed, which ripens in large quantities each year and is not hard to collect. Analyses of these grasses, made by Shepard at the South Dakota station in 1894, show their chemical composition to be as follows: | Nitrogen- ‘ , Hay of— Water. | Ash. | Fat. free ' — ee extract. / / 7 Keeleriacristata............--...--+----++- 7.89 | 9.95 ae 4.33 43.01) 27.59 7.23 7 EEN OUTUMOALE cock weeds sect emeess owen ve 64 | 12. 72 40,05 30. 22 318 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. There are many other nutritious and hardy species that are distrib- uted throughout the prairie region, contributing value to the native grass flora. Some of these are limited in their distribution to partie- ular soils and are there the dominant species of the pastures and meadows. There are grasses in North Dakota that do not grow in Kansas, and grasses considered valuable in one section or upon one soil that would be worthless if transplanted to other soils. But the species just enumerated are the most important ones of the prairie region as a whole. They are the grasses which furnish 90 per cent of the wild hay and pasture. They are also those best adapted for con- servation and cultivation. Another hay and pasture grass is cord grass (Spartina cynosu- roides), that grows along wet river bottoms and sloughs, and, with a number of sedges and rushes, makes a fair quality of coarse hay. Mixed with it on the bottom lands are usually found the various kinds of wild-rye grass (Hlymus sp.). All of these are better for hay than for pasture. On the dry hills of the James and Missouri valleys in Dakota, and in the sandhills of Nebraska and Kansas, blue stem (Calamagrostis canadensis), sand grass (C. confinis and Cala- movilfa longifolia), turkey-foot (Andropogon hallit), and the needle grasses (Aristida and Stipa), all of them strong-growing species and rather coarse and woody compared with the blue stems, furnish ex-_ cellent pasturage and, when cut in time, a fair quality of hay. The alkaline soils have their salt grass (Distichlis) and wild barley (Hor- deum), and © seant covering of lowly annuals. The false redtops (Eragrostis, -ctinacea and Triodia purpurea) are common autumnal grasses on fne upland prairies of eastern Nebraska and Kansas. There are also species of native clovers (Petalostemon), vetches (Vicia and Lathyrus), shoe strings (Psoralea, Dalea, and Amorpha), ‘attle pods (Astragalus), and beggar weeds (Desmodium), widely dis- tributed through the prairie States that add to the value of the wild meadows. One of them, wild vetch (Hosackia purshiana), is very abundant in the valleys from the Blue River to the upper Missouri. It is worth as much to the stockmen on the ranges as many of the tame clovers are to the farmers of the Eastern States. This wild vetch thrives under cultivation, and ought to be planted on a larger seale. PRAIRIE HAY. The yield of wild hay in the prairie region is far from uniform, depending as it does upon the amount and distribution of rainfall through the growing season. Hay meadows that are cut continuously for a number of years deteriorate rapidly, both as to yield and quality of hay. The latter depends upon the relative amount of weeds that the hay contains. Wild meadows are not given the same treatment as tame mead- ows. They are neither reseeded by the farmer nor allowed to reseed - FORAGE CONDITIONS OF THE PRAIRIE REGION. 319 themselves. The natural result is that the vitality of the grasses is _ diminished and they are unable to hold their own against the weedy perennials that are so abundant in all prairies. These weeds increase so rapidly that they soon gain the upper hand and become more - numerous than the grasses, and the meadow loses its value as hay land. Good hay land is worth anywhere in the West $10 to $20 per acre more than any other class of raw prairie. An average yield from such meadow land is a ton and a half to the acre. In excep- tional seasons it often amounts to 2 or 25 tons, while in years of drought it falls to a ton or less. The price of good prai- rie hay varies from $2.50 to $10 per ton, baled, at the railroad, according as the visible supply of hay varies throughout the United States. With such yearly yields, and at such prices, it will pay to improve the prairie meadows, so that the product shall not decrease in amount or deteriorate in quality. The wild hay grasses should be permitted to reseed them- selves, if not one year in three, at least one in four or five. Cutting the grass early in the season would help to keep down the weeds. It is a matter of observation that the species of weeds which increase most rapidly in the hay fields are those that blos- som and ripen their seeds befozs the hay is ready to b eut. Their increase can be checked only by cutting them while they are in flower, and thus preventing the seed from ripening. The intermingled mass of weeds and grass along the sloughs and draws or on the ground where old stacks have stood should be mowed and burned, or at least raked off the field. Other- wise these weed patches will grow in size from year to year and reduce the yield of hay. The hay crop of the West is a money crop that annually brings in Fia. 73.—Big blue stem (Andropogon furcatus). hundreds of thousands of dollars. As the acreage of raw prairie qi a aod The 320 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. decreases the value of prairie hay will continue to increase, so that to properly care for the hay meadows and prolong their period of usefulness will become a paying investment. The prairies in their natural state were covered with an exceed- ingly rich grass flora. They were superb grazing grounds, clothed from early spring to late autumn with a succession of the most nutri- tious grasses, and in winter with standing hay as good as or better than tame hay. Forage was plentiful and cheap—to be had for the cost of gathering it. The early settler saw no need of cultivating grasses and clovers, for was there not at his very door better pasture and better hay land than he could get with his timothy and clover in many years at much labor and expense? Those who are interested in better forage conditions for the prairie States have continually to face this argument, even in sections where the best native grasses have been all but exterminated. Farmers in the West say that prairie hay is better and cheaper than tame hay, and if cattle will live through a winter on what they can pick up from the prairies, what is the use of planting all these forage crops? Such has undoubt- edly been the state of affairs over the entire region, but it can not last much longer, and if we want to be forehanded and prevent the great losses of live stock that occur every time there is a bad season, we must take time by the forelock. To depend upon the natural hay to carry a herd through the winter, is trusting too much to chance. If there is a mild winter, without heavy snows, the cattle sometimes make a considerable gain in weight by the time grass starts in the spring. The occurrence of such a winter or series of winters always causes a boom in the cattle industry. Butif the winter is severe, with heavy snows that do not drift but lie evenly over the ground, cattle can not pick up enough of this natural hay to more than sustain life, and the herd comes out poorer in spring by a good many tons’ weight of fat and flesh. ‘To make good beef and raise cattle at a profit it is neces- sary to keep the steer growing continuously from birth until it is ready for slaughter. The more rapid the growth the sooner cattle can be turned off; and the quality of the beef will be better, com- manding higher prices. The only natural solution of this problem is to raise grasses and clovers so as to be able to supplement the seanty feed in periods of scarcity. Thus we see that the problem of improved forage conditions in the prairie region, whether looked at from the standpoint of the farmer or from that of the stoeckman, centers upon the one question, Shall we plant grasses? ‘lo this there can be but the one answer: As the cultivation of grasses and forage plants is at the foundation of agri- culture, if we are to improve the quality of our farming lands and increase their capacity for production, we must devote more aeres to grass. It is absolutely necessary to impress this fact upon the intel- ligent and progressive farmer. i aad FORAGE CONDITIONS OF THE PRAIRIE REGION. 321 TAME GRASSES AND CLOVERS. The statement is often made that the tame grasses and clovers will not do as well on the rich prairie loam as on the heavier soils of the Eastern United States. We hear farmers say that the reason they do not sow grasses is because they will not grow. There isno soil better adapted to grass culture than one that has been made by grass. but, as in everything else, one must know how to treat his grass crop to make it succeed. The crops obtained from new land for the first dozen years are so abundant and the yields are so great, compared with the amount of labor that the farmer must bestow upon his field to obtain them, that he often forgets that there may still be some things that require care to produce. Tame grasses will grow in any of the prairie States, but they must be given as much care and culti- vation in Nebraska as they receive in New York. SOILING CROPS. The dairying industry is growing very rapidly in the prairie States, where hundreds of creameries have been started within the last six years. The question of summer forage is therefore becoming an important one, for there is usually a period of from four to eight weeks in late summer when pasturage is scanty. A succession of forage crops is needed, especially such as will furnish green food in early spring and during the August and September drought and in late autumn, when pastures are bare. Very little has been done in this line, so that in reeommending such fodder crops we can only draw upon our knowledge of what ought to do well under the known conditions of the region. What is needed is some plant or plants that will send roots down deep in early summer, something that will withstand the heat and drying winds of August and September, when no water is to be had anywhere except in the subsoil. For such forage plants we must look among the deep-feeding clovers and their relatives. Hairy vetch and field peas make excel- lent green fodder for milch cows, fed alone or with rye. These and erimson clover, sowed in early spring, would furnish an abundance of forage up to the time when green corn and millet are ready. Cow- peas and soja (or soy) beans planted alone in drills or in the corn rows, any time from the middle of May to the middle of June, will be ready to feed during August and until the first frost in September. Then, to supplement the pumpkins and root crops that ought to be grown on every dairy farm for autumn feed, there should be more vetches and crimson clover planted in the latter part of August, pro- vided there is moisture enough in the soil to start the seed. Cowpeas do not usually ripen seed farther north than Kansas, but the seed is cheap and easily obtained, and the forage is excellent in quality and quantity. These and the soja beans are among the richest and most nutritious plants of the clover family. A 95——114 322 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. - To obtain the best results and utilize as much as possible of the food which they contain, these crops should be fed with some coarse fodder, such as corn, millet, or sorghum. They may be called con- centrated foods when compared with the latter, because they approach in their chemical composition wheat bran, linseed and peanut meal, and cotton-seed cake, which are fed with the winter rations. All dairymen and stock feeders recognize that these two classes of forage must be combined to produce milk or meat at the lowest cost, and often the desired nitrogenous food can be produced more cheaply upon the farm in the form of some one of these clovers and beans than it can be purchased as bran or oil cake. Thus it becomes doubly important that the acreage of summer forage crops shall be increased. IMPROVEMENT OF THE RANGES. There has been much writ- ten and said within the last ten years about the deterio- ration of the ranges. Cattle- men say that the grasses are not what they used to be; that the valuable perennial species are disappearing, and that their place is being taken by less nutritious an- nuals. Thisis trueina very marked degree in many sec- tions of the grazing country. The one great mistake in the treatment of the cattle ranges, the one which always proves most disastrous from a financial standpoint, is overstock- ing. It is something which must always be guarded against. The maximum number of cattle that can safely be carried on any square mile of territory is the number that the land will support during a poor season. Whenever this rule is ignored there is bound to be loss. The present shortage of cattle all through the West is due to the fact that the ranges were stocked up to the limit that they would carry during the series of exceptionally favorable grass years preceding the years of drought. Then followed a series of bad years, Fic. 74.—White grama ( Bouteloua oligostachya). FORAGE CONDITIONS OF THE PRAIRIE REGION. 323 when the native perennial grasses did not get rain enough to more than keep them alive. The cattle on the breeding grounds of the West and Southwest died by thousands from thirst and starvation. It may seem like throwing away money not to have all the grass eaten down, but in the long run there will be more profit if there are fewer head carried per square mile. The most nutritious grasses are not the annuals, which live only just long enough to produce seed and then die, but the perennial ones, which store up in their stems and running rootstocks quantities of starch and gums and sugars, to be used by the plant when growth commences, at the end of the winter, or dormant, period. The peren- nial grasses are the ones that furnish the ‘‘natural hay” or winter forage. On those prairie pastures which are not overstocked a large percentage of all the grasses produce seed, a condition necessary if the continued existence of any species is to be maintained. But where there are too many cattle on the range, the flowering stems of the grasses are eaten off just as soon as they appear, and the grass is often “eaten into the ground.” It is with these wild grasses just as it is with the tame ones. If the perennial species are not allowed to reseed themselves, if every leaf is eaten off just as soon as it peeps from the sod, the plants can not survive. A turf grass like Kentucky blue grass will stand such treatment, but the grasses of the plains and arid prairies are not turf formers. They are for the most part ‘* bunch grasses,” and can not quickly adapt themselves to the changed con- ditions which require them to spread by sending out creeping runners beneath the sod. Their numbers have always been kept up by free seeding. Clearly, then, if the grazing quality of the ranges is to be improved, they must be so treated that the nutritious native species of grasses and forage plants can spread by means of the ripened seed. This ean be accomplished by dividing the range up into separate pastures and grazing the different fields in rotation. There is a constant succession of species that ripen their seed from June until October, commencing with Keleria, Eatonia, Stipa, and Buchloe in June and July, and ending with Andropogon, Sporobolus, and Triodia in Octo- ber. If these grasses are killed out, their places will be taken by annuals of weedy proclivities, such as the numerous species of Hra- grostis and Aristida, which are neither lasting nor nutritious; grasses that spring up with the early summer rains, ripen an abundance of seed, and die. Another result of overstocking the ranges is the injury that comes from the trampling and packing of the soil through the cattle having to travel long distances to water. In the grazing regions of Australia, which are for the most part as dry or dryer than our ranges, the squatters (ranchmen) depend upon surface water the year round. Each separate pasture or paddock has its artificial pond or ‘‘ tank,” 324 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. constructed where it will catch the surface flow in the wet season. Such artificial ponds seattered over the ranges would obviate. the trouble that comes from cattle having to travel long distances for water. It would be well if this system were more widely adopted in our own country. GRASSES AND CATTLE. The success or failure of the cattle industry all through the prairie States depends upon the question of a sufficient supply of grasses and forage plants. In those sections of the country in which land is in the highest state of cultivation and the soiling method of feeding cattle is employed, three acres of ground will support five head of cattle per annum. This is at the rate of 1,066 cattle to the square mile. If the 300,000,000 aeres of arable land in the Mississippi Valley were to be devoted to such an intensive system of agriculture, and the productiveness of the land were equal throughout all the prairie States, more cattle could be raised each year than are consumed in the whole world. This grand total will give an idea of the possibili- ties of the land if the best crops are raised and the best agricultural methods are employed. Such an enormous production of forage and stock would not be warranted. The feeding of cattle for the domestic or foreign market is no more a golden road to wealth than is the cultivation of corn or wheat or cotton. The market can be glutted even with eattle and meat products. The supply must be kept within the limits of demand. We do not recommend that every farmer shall abandon wheat, corn, and cotton to devote his whole farm to the production of grasses and forage plants and of the stock to eat them, but we do recommend that every prairie farmer shall cultivate at least ten acres of grasses and clovers. 2 a). GRASSES OF SALT MARSHES. By F. LAMSON-SCRIBNER, B. Sc., Agrostologist, U. S. Department of Agriculture. No one who has traveled along the shores of New England and the Middle States can fail to have noticed the numerous hive-shaped stacks of hay thickly scattered over the extensive marshes which border these coasts. The character of this hay and the elements of which it is composed can not fail to be of interest, for they are wholly unlike those of other regions; and the hay itself, while less valuable than that usually found in our markets, serves many a useful pur- pose and forms a very important item of local trade. In olden times the products of the salt marshes were not forgotten by the coast dwellers of New England in their annual acknowledgment of bless- ings bestowed by Providence, when thanks were returned upon the day which is now one of national observance. AREA OF SALT AND TIDE-WATER MARSHES. The area of the salt and tide-water marshes bordering the ocean and gulf coasts of the United States is roughly estimated at from 6,000,000 to 7,000,000 acres. A considerable portion of this, partieu- larly along the river banks of the Southern States, is beyond the reach of salt water, and possesses a different vegetation from that which comes under the direct influence of the sea and which alone is considered here. The salt marshes proper, which are covered by diurnal tides, or at least receive the storm and spring tides, are suf- ficiently extensive to receive special notice. The exact area of this land has never been definitely determined, except in a few States. In eleven of the States bordering the Atlantic there are approximately 2,459 square miles, or more than a million and a half acres. The quality of this land varies considerably, and so do the amount and value of the hay it produces. The plants composing the herbage, however, differ but little botanically. Except along the shores of the New England and Middle States, this land has received comparatively little attention and been only | oceasionally utilized. In Connecticut, unimproved marsh is valued at from $5 to $20 per acre. Diked marsh is much more valuable, as it often exceeds in productiveness the adjoining uplands. The 325 326 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ~ marshes along the Gulf coast are very extensive, but their hay prod- — uct is deemed of little or no value. Those along the shores of Texas, — however, afford in many places extensive and highly prized areas for the winter grazing of cattle. On the Pacific coast the marshes are insignificant in extent, except in the north, along parts of Oregon and Washington, in the region of Puget Sound. Except when diked, practically no care is given to the marshes beyond keeping open the ditches which serve to drain off the tide water. They are fertilized entirely by the deposits of the tides, or, if located near the mouths of rivers, by such fertilizing elements as may be brought down by the streams in season of floods and deposited upon them. HAY PRODUCT AND METHOD OF HARVESTING. The hay product of the marshes varies from half a ton to a ton or more per acre, and is harvested at any time from June to December, little attention being paid to the time of blooming of the grasses of which it is composed. When the marshes are firm enough to allow the use of machinery, the grass is cut with a mower, but in many ‘ases this is impracticable and the cutting is done by hand. Ocea- sionally it is necessary to take advantage of very low tides to carry on the operation of harvesting. After being cut the hay is raked, and if it can not be dried upon the marsh it is carried to the adjoin- ing uplands, and there spread out to cure. More frequently it is stacked upon the marsh and hauled away during the winter season when the lands are frozen. The hay is taken to the stacks in various ways. One method, observed on the coast of Maine, is illustrated t GRASSES OF SALT MARSHES. 327 here (figs. 75-77). These illustrations are from photographs taken on the marsh near Pine Point. The hay was cut and then raked up into small bundles; two poles were run under these bundles, and then the hay was carried to the stack and placed upon it. In this particular case the hay was cut upon shares, the harvester being allowed two stacks out of three for doing the work. This hay, tne value of which was given at $5 per ton, was designed in part to be used for fodder and litter, and in part to be sold in Port- land for packing glassware and crockery. This latter is a very com- mon use of salt hay in the vicinity of all the larger seaport towns, immense quantities of it being used in New York City for this pur- pose; the fine, and rather stiff, wiry stems of the grasses peculiar to Fia. 76.—Making the stack. the marshes being particularly well adapted for packing purposes, much better than the hay of the uplands. The better quality of marsh or salt hay makes very good feed for growing stock, but possesses little fattening value. Some of the grasses composing the hay impart a disagreeable flavor to the milk or butter of cows feeding upon it. SALT GRASSES. The grasses of the seacoast may be divided into three classes: Those growing in the sands along the shore, those upon the marshes proper, and those upon the sandy and waste-lands bordering the marshes. ‘lo the first class belong beach or marram grass and a few others to some extent valuabie for holding drifting sands. To the third class belong quite a variety of species of value, including Switch grass (Panicum virgatwm), slender broom sedge (Andropogon 328 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. . scoparius), creeping fescue (Festuca rubra), creeping bent (Agrostis stolonifera), and sea spear grass (Glyceria maritima). The last three occasionally extend onto the marshes proper, and add much to the value of the hay product there. The so-called salt grasses, which for the most part are limited to the marshes themselves, comprise but few species; these are, however, very characteristic, and several of them have an exceedingly wide range, one being found upon both our Atlantic and Pacifie coasts, as well as along the Gulf, also along the shores of Europe. The several grasses of the marshes do not usually grow intermixed, as do the varieties which occur upon our meadows and uplands, but each species occupies by itself definite areas of greater or less extent. Fia.77.—Completed stack. The most characteristic grasses of the marshes are the Spartinas. (see fig. 78). The most common and most conspicuous of these is what is known as sedge, creek sedge, or thatch (Spartina stricta var. glabra). Where this grass grows there is usually a daily flow of tide. Along the ditches and creeks this variety grows to the height of 6 or 8 feet, and its yield in bulk is often very great. It has a narrow, spike-like head, and many long and widely spreading shining leaves of a deep-green color, This grass remains green after the other veg- etation of the marsh has been turned brown by the frosts of autumn. It is of little value for fodder, but makes excellent thatch, and is used to some extent for mulching and litter. A finer grass of the same species, called fine thatch, growing to the height of 1 or 2 feet, is found over the marshes away from the ditches, and often forms a considerable element of the salt or marsh hay. This grass has, in s give ro 2% ~ a al form the inflorescence or head : GRASSES OF SALT MARSHES. 329 addition to its smaller growth, narrower, less spreading leaves, and is of a lighter color, often having a pale, yellowish tint when seen in a mass upon the marshes. Red salt grass, or fox grass, is another species of Spartina (Spar- tina guncea), and is one of the most valuable of this family for hay; in fact, is one of the most valuable of the true grasses found upon the marshes. It grows to the height of from 1 to 2 feet, has slender, somewhat wiry stems and leaves, with a few spreading and reddish spikes composing its inflorescence. This is strictly a salt-marsh grass, and is found along our coasts from Maine to Florida and westward to Texas. While one of the most valua- ble of the hay-producing spe- cies of the marshes, it is also most valuable for packing crockery, glassware, etc. Lo- eally this grass is sometimes known as ‘“‘black grass,” a name which properly belongs to another species, mentioned below. Along the Gulf Coast there is another Spartina (Spartina junciformis), which is taller than fox grass, with longer leaves, and the spikes which are more numerous, shorter, and very closely appressed to the main stem. The head of this is shown to the right in fig. 79, while that of fox grass is on the left. There are two other Spar- tinas which are occasionally found upon the marshes, or at least upon their borders. One of these, the fresh-water cord grass (Spartina cynosuroides), has already been noticed under ‘‘ Grasses as sand and soil binders,” in the Yearbook for 1894; the other, the largest of our Spartinas (Spartina polystachya), is Fia.78.—Salt-marsh grasses—the Spartinas. less common than the last, and is confined to the coast, ranging from Maine to Alabama. It grows to the height of from 6 to 10 feet, and has the inflorescence composed of from 20 to 60 spikes (see centerpiece in fig. 78). It forms a conspicuous feature on portions of the Hacken- sack marshes near Jersey City. Associated with this, upon these 330 YEARBOOK OF THE VU. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. __ marshes, is the large reed Phragmites communis. This grows to the height of from 8 to 10 feet, with very leafy stems and plume-like inflorescence. It is shown in the center of fig. 79. This grass is not confined to the seashore, being widely dispersed throughout the temperate regions of the world, chiefly along margins of rivers and fresh-water lakes. It has remarkably long and penetrating roots, and is especially valuable as a sand and soil binder, as has already been noted. ia TREE PLANTING IN THE WESTERN PLAINS. 347 the higher land, some are comparatively successful there. On deep soils the black wild cherry, catalpa, white elm, honey locust, black locust, hackberry, bur oak, box elder, bull pine, Scotch pine, Austrian pine, and red cedar do well in places where the temperature is suita- ble. Perhaps no tree in the above list is more widely adapted to varying conditions than the Scotch pine, which seems to be equally at home in the dry prairies of eastern Dakota and northern Nebraska (longitude 100° W.), the clay soils along the Missouri, the limy loams of the Kansas River bluffs, and the sandy loams of the Arkansas Valley. OBJECTIONS TO PLANTING SINGLE SPECIES. Pure planting is a term applied to plantations of a single species. In nature this condition is seldom found in the West, except along rivers where a grove of willows or cottonwoods has sprung up, or in the mountains where the pines or the spruces often form by them- selves dense forests. Pure planting is not to be reeommended on the plains for several reasons. In the first place, the trees, being all of the same species, have the same form and rate of growth. If any accident or insect injure them on a considerable area, the soil is at once exposed, and a weed growth quickly takes possession of it. In the second place, all the trees demand an equal amount of light, and this causes a crowding that will result in the premature death of many. If the kind selected be a sparsely shading sort, such as cot- tonwood and the locusts, a rank growth of weeds and prairie grasses will spring up and rob them of soil moisture, thus checking their growth. The various uses of the farm demand a variety of timbers. A pure grove, even though successful, will not be as valuable to the farmer as a mixed grove. RULES FOR MIXED PLANTINGS. In planting timber trees, whether the area to be covered is 5 or 5,000 acres, certain principles should govern the work. Itis desirable that the kinds selected be adapted to a variety of uses, that the plantation make a good wind-break, and that the trees be brought to maturity at the least possible cost to the planter. Having determined what varieties are suitable to the locality, the mixing of two or more kinds depends (1) on their relative capacity for preserving or increasing favorable soil conditions, (2) on their relative dependence on light and shade for development, and (3) on their relative height growth. Based on these principles, the following rules have been formulated: (1) The dominant species, that is, the one occupying the most of the ground, must be one that improves the soil; in the West a shade- making kind. 848 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (2) Shade-enduring (densely foliaged) trees may be mixed together when the slower growing can be protected from the overtopping of the more rapid growing, either by planting the slower growing first or in greater numbers or larger specimens, or by cutting back the quicker growing ones. (3) Shade-enduring kinds may be mixed with light-needing kinds when the latter are either quicker growing, planted in advance of the former, or larger specimens. (4) Thin-foliaged kinds should not be planted in mixtures by them- selves except in very favorable locations, such as river bottoms, marshy soils, ete., where no exhaustion of soil humidity need be feared, or on very meager, dry soils, where nothing else will grow. (5) The introduction of individual light-foliaged trees is preferable to placing them together in groups unless special soil conditions make the occupation by one suitable kind more desirable.’ . There are difficulties in the application of these rules to Western planting that will at once suggest themselves. The first is that among the species available to the farmer very few are shade enduring, and a second is that as the trees grow older they change somewhat in reference to their shade endurance. The black wild cherry, for instance, endures much more shade during its youth than after it has attained its principal height growth. It has here been included among the shade-enduring kinds with this understanding. It should also be remembered that moist soils increase the shade endurance of all species, and vice versa. RELATIVE SHADE ENDURANCE. Considering first the species that are most available in the West, a series arranged with reference to shade endurance would read about as follows: (1) Box elder, Russian mulberry (red cedar, Douglas spruce, white spruce, Norway spruce); (2) black wild cherry; (3) hackberry; (4) silver maple; (5) bur oak; (6) green ash, catalpa (Scotch pine, bull pine); (7) black walnut; (8) honey locust; (9) black locust (larch), and (10) cottonwood. The best shade-enduring variety probably is the sugar maple. In the Dakotas and northern Nebraska the box elder answers tolerably well during youth, and is unquestionably the most available species for this purpose. Farther south the Russian mulberry may be sub- stituted. : The relative shade endurance of the conifers is indicated in paren- theses in the above list, for the reason that the high prices charged for such trees have thus far prevented their extensive use in Western tree planting. For the same reason they have been giyen a much less important place in the planting schemes which follow than would otherwise have been warranted. 1 See annual report of Division of Forestry, 1886, TREE PLANTING IN THE WESTERN PLAINS. 349 At least two-thirds of the plantation should be of dense-shading trees, among which the light-demanding species should be planted singly, so that each tree will be surrounded by shade-enduring kinds. To insure the greatest degree of success three-fourths or more of the grove should be shade-enduring kinds. The special importance of completely shading the ground as soon as possible in Western tree culture is the necessity of preventing grass growth. The prairie grasses are exceptionally vigorous growers, and are all light-demanding species. Once established, it is difficult to eradicate them, and they seriously check the tree growth. Thou- sands of promising cottonwood groves have been ruined by permit- ting the grasses to get a foothold in the plantation. None of the light-foliaged trees make sufficient shade to prevent grass growth; so that the planter must either continue cultivation, which is too expen- sive a process, or use dense-shading trees for the major part of his grove. Indeed, the subject of light requirement is of the first impor- tance in forest tree-culture anywhere. Heretofore it has received practically no attention in the West, and the above placing of species may have to be changed with more extended observation and experi- ment under Western conditions. RATE OF DEVELOPMENT. The varieties to be mixed should be chosen not only with reference to their light requirement, but also to the period of their development or rapidity of growth. To the Western planter shelter from winds is the most important object to be attained, and in order to accomplish this at the earliest possible time the majority of the trees should be quick growers. It seldom happens that rapid growers yield a timber valuable for economic uses, the catalpa and black locust being notable exceptions, and they can only be grown in a restricted territory. The cottonwood grows faster than any other Western species, but it is valueless for home use except as fuel, and it is of the poorest quality even for that purpose. The box elder and soft maple are but little better. These are trees of the earliest maturity, and the two last named are among the most available shading kinds. Cottonwood is almost useless in mixed planting. The plantation, then, should be made up largely of these quickly maturing species, even though they are of but slight economie value. Distributed singly among them should be trees of a slower rate of development, chosen also with a view to their light requirement. If one-half or two-thirds of the plantation be of box elder, for instance, at least half of the remaining trees should be of a shade-enduring kind, that will continue to keep down weed growth by keeping the soil shaded after the box elders are thinned out. The remainder of the species may be of high economic value and slower maturity, such as bur cak, black walnut, and ash, or they may be rapid growers which demand a great deal of light, such as black locust and eatalpa, or they may be pines, or all these may be introduced, but 350 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. under all circumstances their light requirements should be kept in mind, and they should be so distributed as to afford to each the best opportunity for development. It will be seen from what has been said that the rapid-growing species, like box elder, Russian mulberry (in the more southern regions only), and silver maple, while affording protection from winds almost as soon as cottonwood, are serving as nurse trees to the more slowly maturing kinds which grow among them, compelling them to reach up for light, and thus forcing them to grow tall and straight and to store the most of their wood in the shaft and form the least possible number of branches during their youth. In this way the value of the more permanent trees is greatly increased, for the trunks at maturity are long, straight, and free from knots, thus making the best possible lumber. According to their rate of development, our more available species for Western planting may be arranged as follows, the most rapid growing being named first: Cottonwood, box elder, silver maple, black locust, catalpa, European larch, honey locust, white elm, hackberry, Scotch pine or bull pine, black wild cherry, black walnut, white spruce or Douglas spruce, red cedar, green ash, bur oak. CLOSE PLANTING. One of the principal causes of failure in Western tree planting has been wide spacing. It is not uncommon to see trees set in rows 12 and even 16 feet apart, 1 to 2 feet apart in the rows. This wide spacing of rows requires long-continued cultivation, otherwise the trees are soon given over to the grasses, which rob them of soil mois- ture and effectively check their development. Or, what is even worse, the forest trees are set as in an orchard, 9 or 12 feet apart both ways. This planting permits a great development of lateral branches, result- ing in very short trunks, which, as the trees grow older, form bad forks near the ground. This plan also demands long-continued culti- vation in order to keep out weeds and grasses. Aside from the more complete protection afforded, close planting is the most economical method of cultivation in the West. It is true that if trees are purchased, the first cost of material is greater, as also the cost of planting, but these items are more than balanced by the saving in cultivation and the assurance of success. The Western planter is measurably restricted by the number of species of trees that will sueceed in his locality; but while the climate limits the number of species that he can grow, there is yet a wider range of choice than has thus far been exercised. As already indi- cated, the major part of a Western plantation should be of a dense- foliaged, quick-growing species; and in the choice of this variety the planter is limited to one or two kinds. For the remaining trees of his plantation, however, there is quite a wide range of choice, and the TREE PLANTING IN THE WESTERN PLAINS. 351 plantation should be sufficiently varied in its forms to meet all possi- ble needs. With careful management, a plat of 20 acres of forest trees, well selected and properly grown, can be depended upon to supply the ordinary Western farm with the greater part of the timber needed upon it, though it could not be expected to supply fuel. If the farmer desires to grow post timber, black locust is one of the best trees he can plant; but this tree does not succeed north of Nebraska. It is a light-demanding species, and is subject to borers, and hence should be distributed singly among shade-making kinds. If wood for machine repairs is wanted, green ash is best adapted to the pur- pose. It can be raised throughout the West, but is also a light- demanding species and must be grown among shade-making kinds. These illustrations will show the importance of including in all planta- tions anumber of species of timber trees having varied characteristics. ILLUSTRATIVE TREE MIXTURES. The best distance at which to plant is 5 by 3 feet, and next to this is 4 by 4 feet, the latter spacing being the widest that should be used on the plains. At 3 by 3 feet, 4,840 trees will be required for an acre; at 34 by 33 feet, 3,781, and at 4 by 4 feet, 2,722. In the southern part of the plain region, Russian mulberry, catalpa, black wild cherry, black locust, green ash, bur oak, white elm, black walnut, and Scotch pine could be used in mixture according to the following diagram: Brees NE ee ee Oe EE Derecho bo Sy «ie ane MC BE I I SAT ERI | SS ARC igh = RS CR om i 8 Bo te.) AE BI. Gy RE PS OS BIO O) of Ri ao dec OB. MS eh SoS TE Cates (Be GM» en BO | er ee o> BG is wae ee See NE A OW ee ee OO BS AO MO BO Mi i ae Ss RR. SS a DPR ae SE ee ae Ay By OME i.) Bh Ga aT Cs BD M, Russian mulberry; C, Hardy catalpa; A, Green ash; E, White elm; L, Black locust; O, Bur oak; W, Black walnut; P, Scotch pine; BC, Black wild cherry. The number of trees of each species required for an acre would be as follows: I ee ee oo pin og dene OES oh SRE OE ees tai. wee al oncbeae te 75 | ee eG Nee Seeeasee 1 O10 :) Bilgek walnak. on so ce pmagie n-ne 75 gnck ‘Wild cherry...-:......-.-.- ah 3) Me 2 1 a eS 152 OR 68 Sean Sd ies dus 605 SE ees oe ee eee eee 151 GR S Sivas ine elk eee 4, 840 TG Cr bf pale lee a ee 152 352 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. An inspection of the above diagram will show that the mulberry, eatalpa, and black wild cherry, shade-enduring trees, constitute three- fourths of the planting, leaving the remaining fourth to light-demand- ing species; black locust, a rapid-growing tree and one of our very best post timbers, makes up one-half of the light-demanding species; green ash, white elm, and Scotch pine (for which ash could be sub- stituted) each constitute one-fourth of the remainder, while bur oak and black walnut, at intervals of 12 by 24 feet, fill the remaining places. The mixture has been arranged with reference to the light requirement of the trees. Catalpa and mulberry alternate with each other in the rows, so that at the thinning time, if it is desirable to remove either, the other will protect the soil. The catalpa pushes late in spring and its leaves drop with the first frost, so that alone it is not a good nurse tree; but mixed with mulberry, which has an earlier and more persistent foliage, the defect is measurably over- come. The catalpa, grown close, will make poles in five to ten years, so that if at the first thinning this variety is removed it will give an abundance of room for the other trees—admitting light not only to its own rows, but to the more permanent trees adjoining it—and will yield a good return in sticks large enough for pole fencing, stakes, or stove wood. When the ecatalpa is removed, the black wild cherry and mulberry will soon close the breaks made in the leaf canopy, and thus weed growth will be prevented. At the next thinning, in from fifteen to twenty years, the mulberry will be large enough to make from two to four posts per tree, or, if deemed more desirable, a part of the black locusts will be found large enough for use. By this time the cherries should average 30 to 35 feet in height, and it may be necessary to aid the oaks, either by removing the adjacent mulberries and cherries, or by cutting their lateral branches. All the trees will have been forced to grow tall and straight. For the more northern part of the plains the number of species would have to be reduced or substitutions made, as experiments seem to indicate that the shade-enduring species are box elder and black wild cherry, and the light-demanding forms that have proved success- ful are white elm, green ash, bur oak, cottonwood, Scotch pine, and Austrian pine. Red cedar and the spruces are shade enduring, and the bull pine (Pinus ponderosa) of the Black Hills will doubtless be a useful addition to this list. The white spruce or Douglas spruce could be substituted for catalpa, box elder for mulberry, and white elm for locust, increasing the num- ber of green ash to 302 in place of the white elm indicated in the mixture; or, if only broad-leafed trees are to be used, the following mixture could be made: ae B WDHWdndwnnws DOWPrPwWaw pw es) B B B B B B B B B, Box elder; A, Green ash; C, L, Yellow birch. B - DwWonWnondnwws C B L B C B L B TREE PLANTING IN THE Quewawwt ww DWWWnWnWndwdws DreWwaowrwWaw BDBHOwWwndnwnwnwndow w WESTERN PLAINS. 353 Black wild cherry; E, White elm; O, Bur oak; On the basis of this diagram it would require per acre, planted 3 by 3 feet, the following number of trees of each species: Ge a faci wild cherry....._.....--.- Reperimersiiees 2 6 80. Site ee 3,630 | White elm _______-- a ee See 201 BOT mellow: biEchia ee ee 151 QO SU Oalee eats te sew ee 50 In this mixture, box elder is used as the early maturing, dense- foliaged form, and constitutes three-fourths of the trees. They are so placed that the alternate trees in the solid box-elder rows may be removed, and the more permanent trees will still be surrounded by good shade-making kinds. Should all the nurse trees be removed, the black wild cherry, constituting one-half of the remainder of the plat, would become the dominant tree, and, being a shade-enduring kind, would act relatively the same as box elder. The cherries are so placed that if all the box elders were cut out, the lighter-foliaged forms would each be surrounded by cherries. make as useful a timber for any purpose as catalpa, but the latter species is not hardy north of central Nebraska, and grows poorly west of the ninety-ninth meridian in Kansas, so that it is only avail- able in a comparatively small part of the West. The cottonwood is very useful for firewood. ) | r 4 enduring kinds. A 95 13 The box elder will not not recommended, as other and better trees can be grown in its place. The box elder grows rapidly only during its youth, and within ten or fifteen years the remaining trees may be expected to overtop it; but where fuel is as scarce as on the plains, even the first box- elder thinnings, at seven to ten years from planting, will be found The black locust can be grown throughout Nebraska south of the sand hills, but it does not succeed in the northern part of the plain region, nor does the honey locust, though this will stand in the south- ern counties of South Dakota. The mixtures here suggested are given not as ideal ones, but to illustrate the practice. to be observed is the necessity of having a good shade maker as the dominant tree in the beginning, and providing for a suitable distri- bution of the light-demanding species among the permanent shade- The important point 354 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CONIFERS FOR WESTERN PLANTING. The climatic conditions throughout the States between the Missis- sippi River and the Rocky Mountains seem to indicate that the econe- bearing trees are better adapted to the plains than are the broad-leafed species. The excessive evaporation of the plains, due in a great measure to the constant winds, is much more trying to deciduous trees than to evergreens, the foliage of which is especially designed to withstand it. Experiments have been conducted in the cultivation of conifers in the West, but they have been almost invariably attended with only a small measure of success, or have failed entirely. The few exceptions, however, prove that it is possible to make certain of the conifers live, and that, once established, they thrive where broad-leafed trees fail (as in the sand hills). It should be stated that as a people we are unfamiliar with the handling of young cone-bearing trees, but having had large experi- ence, one way and another, with deciduous forms, we have a much better understanding of the requirements of the latter. Undoubtedly most of the failures with conifers in the West have resulted from ignorance on the part of the shipper, the buyer, and the planter. In digging deciduous trees but little care is necessary to protect the roots. Indeed, the writer has received a lot of oak trees the roots of which looked so dry that they were planted without any expectation of their growing, but only a small per cent of them failed; and others, notably the green ash and catalpa, will stand a great deal of abuse of this sort. The conifers, however, have a very different root system, and require different handling. Take almost all of the broad-leafed trees that thrive in the West, and in their seedling stage they have either a heavy taproot, like the catalpa, walnut, and ash, or several equally strong main roots springing from near the collar, which have but few rootlets. The conifers, on the other hand, have a mass of fine rootlets by the time they have attained a size for transplanting, and even were other things equal, these very fine roots would dry out much quicker than the larger roots of the broad-leafed trees. The fact that the roots of young cone-bearing trees dry out quicker, with greater resulting injury, than those of other tree forms can easily be established by exposing elm or cherry and larch seedlings for a few hours and then planting them. The former will be none the worse for its sun bath, but the latter will fail to grow. The roots of cone-bearing plants should not be exposed to the drying action of the air from the time they are taken up until they are trans- planted. As the young conifers are dug their roots should be plunged in water or puddled in mud. In the storehouse, during the interval of packing, they should be protected by damp moss. In transit they should be so packed as to avoid heating on the one hand, and drying out on the other. When received by the planter, they should at once be separated, puddled, or dipped in water, and carefully ‘‘ heeled in” ey ls a E TREE PLANTING IN THE WESTERN PLAINS. 355 * . (covered temporarily with moist earth) in a shaded location until they can be set. When the planting season arrives, a moist, cloudy day should, if possible, be chosen for the work, and the young trees should be taken from their temporary resting place and carried in vessels of water to the field. In planting, none but fine moist soil should come in contact with their roots, and this should be tramped very firm, so that the fine soil will be brought into close contact with the rootlets. Then if an inch of loose soil be spread over the top, making the surface level and pre- venting drying out, the tree will have been well planted. The cone- bearing trees, as a rule, do not start so readily as the broad-leafed species. They have as great, if not a greater, supply of stored food, and push their buds vigorously, but the roots do not take hold of the soil so readily, new roots are not formed, and as a result the trees frequently perish after a seemingly excellent start has been made. The conifers are of very great utility in Western planting. Being evergreen, they make far better wind-breaks than do the deciduous trees, and herein is their peculiar value. Tree planting on the plains, at least under existing conditions, can hardly be expected to assume the proportions of forest planting, and hence the economic value of the wood of pines and spruces is of minor importance. They do not furnish as strong lumber as do the ash and oak, and are not so dura- ble in contact with the soil as black locust and catalpa; hence for the ordinary farm uses the timber of the conifers is not especially desirable. FOREST PLANTING IN THE SAND HILLS. An experiment in the planting of forest trees in the sand hills of Nebraska has been described in the annual reports of the Division of Forestry, and the results thus far attained seem to indicate that the first step in this direction will be the growth of Banksian pine on the sand ridges. These sand hills occupy approximately an area 250 miles long (east and west), and from 50 to 70 miles across. The country is traversed in all directions by high hills composed of almost pure sand, interspersed with grassy valleys which are good grazing and hay lands. The hills are covered with a sparse growth of grasses and weeds, scarcely enough to bind the sands, which are frequently blown out in large areas, often making great holes a hundred yards in diameter in the sides of the hills. The wind and blowing sand make the valleys almost uninhabitable, and even were these difficul- ties removed the soil of the valleys is very shallow, and will not long bear cultivation. The experiment undertaken by the division had for its object the determination of what species would grow on these sand hills. Without going into details, which have been already reported, it may be said that of a number of species of deciduous and coniferous trees planted only one shows decided adaptability to this unfavorable 356 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. locality. The Banksian pine, planted on the highest ridges in the : heart of the sand hills four years ago, seems thus far well suited with ; its surroundings; all the deciduous trees are dead, and only a few ponderosa, Scotch, Austrian, and red pines remain. The land was not plowed, as such a procedure would have caused it all to blow away. Furrows 2 feet apart were turned, and the little trees, 6 to 10 inches high, were planted in these furrows so as to be slightly shaded by the ridges formed in making them. The Banksian pines are now from 18 inches to 4 feet high, and are each year growing more than the last. The sand of which the hills is composed is fine, like clean river sand, and during the driest seasons moisture can be found only a few inches below the surface. If this great area, lying almost midway between Texas and the British Possessions, could be covered with forest trees, a noticeable improvement in the climate of the plains would result. From the action of the other species of pine noted it is safe to infer that after the Banksian pines are a few feet high, and able to afford slight protection, other and more valuable species can be grown in their shade. The Douglas spruce (Pseudotsuga douglasii) has not stood as well as the pines in this experiment, nor is this surprising when the greater shade endurance of this species is reealled. It is reasonable to hope, however, that this valuable species can be estab- lished in the shade of the Banksians, and that once established it will serve as an excellent nurse for the more rapid-growing pines. After these have been cut off the spruce will be left as the dominant trees. Every forest experiment in the sand hills should have as its ulti- mate aim an extent great enough to warrant systematic management, conducted on the general principles laid down in the annual report of the Division of Forestry for 1891. Judging by the action of the trees in the Nebraska sand hills experiments thus far, the following dia- gram illustrates what might be a safe planting scheme: BY 6 (BD Bivtiee ta B: DD. .Bo 2 BSD Bak Bee) BD Babe B.D) BP: Bi wae, B. DD, BAP. Babee Distance between trees, 2 feet each way. Number of trees to the acre, 10,840, of which 6,775 are Banksian pine, 2,710 Douglas spruce, and 1,355 pines of one or more of the following species: Pinws pon- derosa, P. sylvestris, and P. resinosa. The Banksian pines would only be expected to stand until the others were established, and could be given the start by two or three years. TREE PLANTING IN THE WESTERN PLAINS. 357 From the action of the trees in the Nebraska experiment, it would seem that the Douglas spruce, if used at all, should not be set until at least three years after the Banksians. In case the spruce is omitted entirely, the Banksian should be set in its place. GENERAL CULTURAL NOTES. With the exception of the sand hills, general suggestions may be made which will be applicable to the cultivation of forest trees throughout the plains. Preparation of the soil.—In the preparation of the soil too much importance can not be attached to depth of plowing. The Western prairies, through long exposure to the action of the elements and to the tramping of the countless herds of buffaloes, which for centuries found in them a favorite pasture ground, have become far more com- pact than the forest-protected soils of the East. After a prolonged drought, such as frequently occurs, the autumn rains are not readily absorbed by the hard soil, and much moisture that might be saved to crops runs off and is lost to the fields. This is particularly true of the western parts of Nebraska and Kansas, and eastern Colorado. The same lands under deep tillage act very differently. Not only is the absorbing power of the soil increased by deep plowing, but the ability of such soil to retain moisture, under proper culture, is marked. Land should be gradually prepared for tree planting by increasing the depth of plowing during three successive years, if so much time can be given tothe work. The usual practice in the West is to break the land in June or July, turning as thin a sod as possible, and laying it flat, for which purpose the breaking plows are well adapted. Sometimes, on early breaking, a crop of sod corn or flax is grown the same year. After one crop is removed, the land is backset, when an inch additional is turned. [or tree planting the depth should be inereased from 2 to 3 inches at a time, until at the end of the third year the land may be plowed 10 to 12 inches deep. The advantage of this gradual preparation is in the complete subjection of the native growth of grasses and other herbaceous plants. This is a most important point in the economic growing of trees on the plains. If the native growth is entirely subdued, so that no live grass roots are present in the soil when the trees are planted, a great deal of after- labor is obviated. One of the most obvious difficulties in the way of successfully meet- ing the requirements of the timber-claim law, which resulted, in spite of its defects, in so much good to the Western States, was the short time allowed between breaking the prairie sod and planting the trees. It was almost impossible under the methods of farming in vogue in the West to kill out the native vegetation in two seasons, but by gradually increasing the depth of plowing and by planting hoed crops _the season preceding the setting of trees, the land can be completely 358 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. subdued. Deep-plowed land will absorb much more of the melting snows and the spring rains than shallow-plowed land with the com- pact underclay within a few inches of the surface. By the time the planting season opens, in a year of ordinary rainfall, a deep-plowed field will be in excellent condition to receive the trees so far as mois- ture is concerned. Thorough pulverizing of the soil is but little less essential, as a preparation for trees, than deep plowing. The particles of the soil should be fine in order that they may be brought in close contact with the roots of the trees, and thus supply them with moisture. If the field is rough and full of clods, the land will dry out rapidly. The thorough use of the disk harrow, clod crusher, pulverizer, and smoothing harrow is quite as important in preparing land for trees as in the preparation of a field for a crop of wheat. Not only will trees start more quickly when set in well-prepared soil, but the growth will be more uniform and strong. As in all other hoed or cultivated crops, it is important to keep the surface of the soil in fine tilth until the trees have grown sufficiently to shade the ground. Deep plowing and shallow cultivation should be the rule in all kinds of Western farming. The deep plowing gives a large absorptive area, and shallow cultivation places over the moist soil a dust blanket that acts as a most effective mulch, checking evaporation and thus retaining the soil-moisture for the use of the trees. The Western planter must keep constantly in mind the neces- sity of saving, by every possible means, the moisture of the soil. In the Eastern States, which have a well-distributed rainfall of from 30 to 50 inches, this is a point of comparatively little consequence; but beyond the Mississippi its importance increases as one goes westward. Planting trees.—In planting trees careful alignment will save much labor in cultivation. It will pay to mark the land as carefully as for corn where groves of 10 acres or less are to be set, and to begin plant- ing all the rows from the same side of the field, as the slight deviation resulting from pressing the spade forward in planting will thus bring all the trees in even crossrows. Almost all seedling forest trees can be set with a broad dibble or spade, which is sunk blade deep at the eross mark, the soil pressed forward, the roots so inserted as to avoid turning the tip upward, and the soil pressed firmly about the collar with the feet, brushing a little loose dirt over the pressed places to prevent baking. When planting in this way, the seedlings can be ear- ried in a pail with a little water or moist earth. In mixed planting it will be found most convenient to set all the trees of the prevailing species first, leaving the places for the kinds that are to be used in smaller quantity to be planted afterwards. Where two or three shade makers are used the same method can be followed, or each kind may be handled by a different planter, all working together. It is also desirable to take all the trees to the plat to be planted . ee * ii TREE PLANTING IN THE WESTERN PLAINS. 359 and heel them in where they can be easily reached. Special care should be taken to prevent the drying of the roots of conifers. Where the roots are large and fibrous, it will be found best to dig a hole for the trees, setting them in the same manner that orchard trees are planted. Care should be taken to secure perfect alignment in this method, as when the rows are irregular it is impossible to bring the cultivator close to the trees. Exposure of roots.—It occasionally happens in the West that dur- ing the early summer, or after the leaves have dropped in the fall, the surface soil will be blown away by the hard winds, exposing the roots to the drying atmosphere. To prevent this, the trees should be set an inch deeper than they grew in the nursery, and in autumn, after the leaves have fallen, a shallow furrow should be turned to the trees, so as to throw the dirt against the trunk. This can be done with the shovel attachments of the ordinary wheel hoe, which is one of the most useful implements that can be used in the young tree plantation. Cultivation.—The amount of cultivation beneficial to young trees can not be determined by freedom from weeds, nor by the number of times the operation is performed. In seasons of prolonged drought frequent stirring of the surface soil will be found of great benefit, as it will keep over the surface a layer of loose, fine earth, which will quite effectively check evaporation from the moist soil below. After rains the stirring of the surface soil will prevent the formation of a erust, which indicates the too rapid loss of water from the soil. Weeds and grass should be kept out of the trees, because they use the mois- ture that will be needed for tree growth. Ordinary shallow cultivation ‘will be found sufficient for annual weeds—including the Russian thistle, sunflower, and mustard—if begun early and continued regu- larly, but the only way to get rid of the couch grass (Agropyrum repens) is to carefully dig out its underground stems and remove them. It is well to be on the watch for this pest, for when once established among trees it is almost impossible to eradicate it. Cultivation should cease at midsummer, in order not to encourage too late growth and consequent danger of winterkilling. Thereafter large weeds can be cut out with a hoe, or a thin crop of oats or buck- wheat can be sown among the trees to hold the soil during the drying winds of late summer and early autumn. After the leaves fall, a shal- low furrow turned against the trees will prevent exposure of the roots by the late fall and early spring winds. The best implement for cultivating young trees is a harrow-tooth culivator. The horse hoe, with its varied attachments, is useful in the tree plantation, as well as in the fruit and vegetable garden. During the first year a two-horse cultivator can be used, but it should always work shallow; the result, however, is not so satisfactory as with the finer-toothed machine. 360 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Two or three years, depending on distance and upon the season, should be sufficient for the cultivation of any carefully designed mix- ture of forest trees. At the beginning of the second season all blanks should be reset, and again the third spring. This should insure a full stand of trees. Thereafter the knife and pruning shears must take the place of the cultivator. Pruning a young plantation.—In a properly designed plantation of forest trees very little pruning is necessary, though the temptation to use the knife is often great. If in passing through the plat a tree of upright habit is found to be forked near the ground, or to be forming two leaders, one of the branches should be cut away. If the shade-enduring trees are found to be overtopping the light- demanding kinds, the former must be headed in. This rule, however, must be used with judgment. It will often happen, as with the oaks, that the more valuable species is seemingly harmed by its neighbors, when in reality it is making strong root growth, and is none the worse for the temporary overtopping. Many trees, like the black wild cherry, form a mass of fine branches while young and look as though they would never make a leader and grow to a single trunk. These should be permitted to grow without pruning in thick-set plantations. As soon as their neighbors begin to crowd them one of the many branches will take the lead, and the plant will assume tree form, the many lateral branches dying off as the stem grows upward. It is no advantage to “‘ trim up” young trees by the removal of their lower branches when they reach a height of from 12 to 20 feet, espe- cially in mixed plantations and on the prairies. The very purpose of close mixed planting is to force the trees to prune themselves, and - they can be depended upon to do this as it becomes necessary. The lower branches aid very much in making the plantation effective as a wind-break. While small and weak, in the aggregate they make a strong barrier to the wind, and should be left for this purpose, if for no other. 2 fan ak ck oon nan Seaton aon cca cscs testeaneJ} 2 2.5 PeRIEERCAL GIN (AI TNVUS QINETICANG). — =o. alae so ni = Swi mo ohan eee np ee enee noe ) 22 1.5 | LEGS eA CET RACCHONULID). 6-2 fo acid aon ice eanneabned ane awicwna a 19 2.5 | POMERAT IE OMCEY MIOTUIMY) alo o5 2c oon haa one Aedee wae ued cede eendosnyne out 19 2.5 { Serr tree (Lirzodenaron tilipifera) .-.- 2-20 oon onesie eee enn encseenu-- 19 3.0 y muropean linden (Tia wulgaris) ....2.-- 221. nc. eeson- neeee aoe ee be 19 1.5 Small-leafed linden (Tilia microphylla) .-............-.--.------------- 19 2.0 Sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) .............-....------.--.-- a 19 2.0 RemMeTE Tree LER ORDU CLL Sn oa hawt Sal Sea nade du'a deena consenvaev = sord 19 2.0 Bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa) -- SRE Oe: Bie ke ate Soe ee ne at 19 2.0 Oriental plane tree (Platanus orientalis) . Be nt ee ete 19 1.5 Kentucky coffee tree (Gymmnocladus divisus) ......-. ............-----.---.-. 19 2.0 American plane tree (Platanus occidentalis) .-..................-.--..------ is 1.5 Sycamore maple (Acer pseudo-platanus) ......-.....--.--..--.-.-..-.------ 17 2.0 eae MOR (LEI CIMETICURG) ooo ne hoc wn ons eo dnee te neee acccee ae -ene } VV 1.5 Variety of tree. MEDIUM-SIZED TREES. Red maple (Acer rubrum) .-..-. .---- ~~ <<< 6-5-5 2840 seen a= 258 ooeses =e sen eaees Shingle oak (Quercus imbricaria) - -.... ------ ---22- 220065 so 2-25 ee nnnam nanan Willow oak (Quercus phetlos) _...-. ------ = ----- - 2022-4 cone 222555 a onn= aaan=s Slippery elm (Ulmus pubescens) --..-..----.--.---------- iINorway maple (Acer platanoides) . .<. 22 - — - oon epee noi eon ne Box elder (Negundo negundo), --. 2. = <2 os cnses San ae oo ano cn des naan eee European elm (Ulmus campestris) -...-.--.--.-=+------------- Scotch sim. (Wimus montana) <2. 22 ee sense ea oe Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis) ....45 222 cares mance mane ena ee Silver-leafed maple (Acer saccharinum) ....------ =----- --¢e------=++-=--=--| y iy ¢ 1:5 “cree or heaven (Ailanihus glandulosa) 2.21/35 -5 > oso a ans eee 16 2.5 Horse-chestnut (sculus hippocastanunc) --..------------------------------ 16 2.0 Japanese sophora (Sophora japonica)... ..-.5. ------+--54-2 28-2 s esos 16 2.5 Hardy catalpa (Catalpa speciosa)... . 2552 ....5-cac= = =8 ons 25-- pasa seen eee 16 2.0 aii) (GengrO/OLlo0d) ~=.<225 2. = ots eee Pa een nae Be aE 16 3.0 Honey locust (Gleditschia triacanthos) --..-.--.. -.---- -----~=----<----+4-=-- 15 1.0 Gononwood (Populus moniifera) = 22. 220 bs beeen beeen See ee 15 5 Balm of Gilead (Populus balsamifera v. candicans) -.--.-----. -------------- 15 5 Black locust (Robinia pseudacacia) .... 22224 228 2 = eee eee See ee lt 5 The writer has made ratings of these same trees according to their immunity from the attacks of insects, the trees most immune being rated at 3 and those most attacked by insects at 0. The figures relating to insect attack are displayed above in a contrasted column next to the total rating, and in order that the relative importance from the insect standpoint may be seen at a glance the same trees have been rearranged in a separate table as follows: Variety of tree. a |. Variety of tree. ber Gingko (Gingko biloba) -...---.-------- 3.0 Slippery elm (Ulnus pubescens) ------ ; 2.0 Tulip tree (Liriodendron salptiein 1 3.0 | Norway maple ( Acer platanoides) ---- 2.0 Sugar maple (Acer saccharum) -------- 2.5 | Hardy catalpa (Catalpa speciosa) -..- 2.0 Red oak (Quercus rubra). .....-.------- 2.5 || European linden (Tilia vulgaris) ----- 1.5 Ailanthus (Ailanthus glandulosa). ---- 2.5 || American elm (Ul/mus americana) ---- 1.5 Searlet oak (Quercus coccinea) -....--- 2.5 || Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis) -_....- pa) Yellow oak (Quercus velutina).....-.-- 2.5 || Silver-leafed maple (Acer sacchari- Willow oak (Quercus phellos) ---....---- 2.5 | i) 1.5 Black maple (Acer nigrum) --.... ------ 2.5 | Oriental plane tree (Platanus orien- Japanese sophora (Sophora japonica). 2.5 | talis) 2.00 Fic. 94.—Phylloxera vastatrix. a, leaf with galls; b, section of gall showing mother louse at center with young clustered about; c, egg; d, larva; e, adult female; f, same from side—a natural size, rest much enlarged (original). yards of the Old World that particular attention was drawn to it as a vine pest, or that anything definite was known of its habits. It appears in two destructive forms on the vine, the one forming little irregular spherical galls projecting from the underside of the leaves and the other subsisting on the roots and causing analogous enlarge- ments or swellings. The leaf form is the noticeable one and is very common on our wild and cultivated vines. The root form is rarely seen, but is the cause of the real injury done by this inseet to the vine, and while hidden and usually unrecognized, its work is so dis- | astrous to varieties especially liable to attack that death in a few years is almost sure to result. It first produces enlargements or lit- tle galls on the rootlets. As it extends to the larger roots these PRINCIPAL INSECT ENEMIES ©” THE GRAPE. 387 become swollen and broken, and finally the outer portion decomposes and rots, and the roots ultimately die. With the multiplication of the root lice and their extension to all parts of the root system, the vine stops growing, the leaves become sickly and yellowish, and in the last stages the phylloxera disappears altogether from the decom- posed and rotting roots, and the cause of death is obscure to one not familiar with the insect. Many cases of death ascribed to drought, overbearing, winterkilling, ete., are undoubtedly due to the presence of the root louse. The abundance of galls on the leaves is not an indication of the presence of the root louse in any numbers, but, in fact, the reverse of this is usually true; while on the other hand the destructive abundance of the lice on the roots is often, if not usually, accompanied by little, if any, appearance of the leaf form. This is particularly noticeable with the European grapes, which are very susceptible to vhylloxera and rapidly succumb to it, yet rarely show leaf galls. American grapes, on the contrary, are generally very resistant to the root form, and yet are especially sub- ject to the leaf-gall insect. Certain “varieties, as the Clinton, which are most re- sistant to the former, are es- pecially subject to the latter. Distribution.—The phyl- loxera was carried to France about 1859, on rooted Amer- *'<.8.~Pialonre mic, a rok ells} ener ican vines, and has since louse—much enlarged (original). spread through the principal vine ‘districts of southern Europe, extending also into Algeria and through southern Russia into the adjoining countries of Asia. It has also been carried to New Zealand and south Africa. In this country it was at first known only in the region east of the Rocky Mountains, but was soon after found in California, where, however, it is confined practically to the vine districts of the Napa and Sonoma valleys. Life history and habits.—The life eyele of the phylloxera is a com- plicated one. It occurs in four forms in the following order: The leaf-gall form (gallicola), the root or destructive form (radicicola), the winged or colonizing form, and the sexual form. The leaf-gall insect produces from 500 to 600 eggs for each individual, the root- inhabiting insect not much above 100 eggs, the winged insect from 3 to 8, and the last or sexed insect but 1 egg. This last is the winter egg and may be taken as a starting point of the life cycle. It is laid in the fall on old wood, and hatches, the spring following, into a louse, 388 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. which goes at once to a young leaf, in the upper surface of which it plants its beak. The sucking and irritation soon cause a depression to form about the young louse, which grows into a gall projecting on the lower side of the leaf. In about fifteen days the louse becomes a plump, orange-yellow, full-grown, wingless female, and fills its gall with small yellow eggs, dying soon after. The eggs hatch in about eight days into young females again, like the parent, and migrate to all parts of the vine to form new galls. Six or seven generations of these wingless females follow one another throughout the summer, frequently completely studding the leaves with galls. With the approach of cold weather the young pass down the vines to the roots, where they remain dormant until spring. The root is then attacked and a series of subterranean generations of wingless females is devel- oped. The root form differs but slightly from the inhabitant of the leaf galls, and the swellings or ex- crescences on the roots are analogous to those on the leaves. Duringslate sum- mer and fall of the second year some of the root lice give rise to winged fe- males which escape Fic. 96.—Phylloxera vastatrix. a, migrating stage, winged adult; through cracks in b, pupa of same lateral view; c, mouth-parts with thread-like the soil on warm sucking setee removed from sheath; d and e, eggs showing char- G acteristic sculpturing—all enlarged (original). bright days and fly to neighboring vines. These winged lice lay their eggs within a day or two in groups of two or four in cracks in the bark or beneath loose bark on the old wood of the vine and die soon after. The eggs are of two sizes, the smaller and fewer in number yielding males in nine or ten days, and the larger the females of the only sexed generation developed in the whole life round of the insect. In this last and sexed stage the mouth- parts of both sexes are rudimentary, and no food at all is taken. The insect is very minute and resembles the newly hatched louse of either the gallor the rootform. The single egg of the larva-like female after fertilization rapidly increases in size until it fills the entire body of the mother and is laid within three or four days, bringing us back to the winter egg or starting point. This two-year life round is not necessary to the existence of the species, and the root form may and usually does go on in successive PRINCIPAL INSECT ENEMIES OF THE GRAPE. 389 broods year after year, as in the case with European vines, on the leaves of which galls rarely occur. Under exceptional circumstances all of the different stages may be passed through in a single year. The young from leaf galls may also be easily colonized on the roots, and it is probable that the passage of the young from the leaves to the roots may take place at any time during the summer. The reverse of this process, or the migration of the young directly from the roots to the leaves, has never been observed. The complicated details noted above were only obtained after years of painstaking research, conducted by the late Professor Riley in this country and many careful investigators in France. Means of dispersion.—The distribution of phylloxera is, first, by means of the winged females; second, by the escape, usually in late summer, of the young root lice through cracks in the soil and their migration to neighboring plants; third, by the carrying of the young leaf-gall lice by winds or other agencies, such as birds or insects, to distant plants; fourth, by the shipping of infested rooted plants or cuttings with winter eggs. By the last means the phylloxera has gained a world-wide distribu- tion; the others account for local increase. > REMEDIES AND PREVENTIVES. Fic. 97.—Phylloxera vastatrix. a, sexed stage- larviform female, the dark-colored area indi The enormous loss occasioned “ating the single egg; b, egg, showing the in Breet: : distinct hexagonal sculpturing; c, shriveled by this insect when it reached female after oviposition; d, foot of same; e, the wine districts of the Old rudimentary and functionless mouth-parts World led to the most strenuous = ‘°"'8"*)- . efforts to discover methods of control. Of the hundreds of meas- ures devised few have been at all satisfactory in results. The morese important ones are the use of bisulphide of carbon and submersion to destroy the root lice; and, as preventive measures, the use of resistant American stocks on which to graft varieties subject to phylloxera and the planting of vineyards in soil of almost pure sand. Bisulphide of carbon.—The use of this liquid insecticide is practi- eable only in soils of such consistency as to hold the vapor until it acts on the root lice and yet friable enough to afford it enough pene- tration. It will not answer in compact clay soils, in very light sandy ones, or in soils liable to crack excessively. The liquid is commonly introduced into the soil by hand injectors at any season except that of blooming or of ripening of the fruit. Sometimes sulphuring plows are used, or the liquid is mixed with water and the soil about the vines thoroughly drenched. The great volatility of the bisulphide enables it to penetrate to the minutest roots, and the lice quickly perish. Four or five injections of one-fourth ounce each may be made to the 390 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. square yard over the entire surface of the vineyard, inserting the implement from_8 to 12 inches and not approaching within 1 foot of the base of the vine. The opening in the soil must be promptly closed with the foot. A large number of small doses is preferable to a few large ones. This treatinent will ordinarily have to be repeated every year or two, and is therefore expensive and unsatisfactory and not to be recommended except where other means are not avail- able. Submersion.—Next to the use of resistant stocks, by far the best means against the phylloxera is in inundating vineyards at certain seasons of the year and for definite periods, being applicable where- ever irrigation is practiced or water may be applied without too great expense. Submerging as a means against insects is a very ancient practice in southern Russia and in Greece, but was first used against phylloxera in 1868, in France, and is now practiced wherever feasible. The best results are obtained in soils which water will penetrate rather slowly. In loose and sandy soils submersion is impracticable. For this treatment vineyards are commonly divided into rectangular plats by embankments of earth, the latter protected from erosion by plant- ing to some forage crop. As now practiced, the vines are inundated shortly after the fruit is gathered, when growth of the vines has ceased, but the phylloxera is still in full activity and much more readily destroyed than during the dormant winter season. The earlier the application the shorter the period required. During September from eight to fifteen days will suffice, and in October eighteen to twenty days, while if delayed until November a period of forty to sixty days will be needed. Copious irrigation at any time during the summer, if it can be continued for forty-eight hours, will give very considerable relief from phylloxera. Planting in sand.—It was early observed that vines in very sandy soil were little subject to phylloxera injury, probably owing to the “fact that the sand does not crack and allow the insects to es vape and spread, being more thoroughly wetted with rains and subterranean moisture, and the insect is drowned out, as in submergenee. The resistance is proportionate to the percentage of sand in the soil. In France vineyards are very successfully established on the sandy shores of the Mediterranean and in the alluvial sands of the valley of the Rhone and other streams. American slocks.—The use of American vines, either direct for the production of fruit or as stocks on which to graft susceptible Euro- pean and American varieties, has practically supplanted all other measures against phylloxera in most of the infested vineyards of the world. The immunity to root attack of American vines seems to be due to the thicker and denser bark covering of the roots and to greater natural vigor. All our vines are not equally resistant, and no vines are wholly immune, while several of our cultivated varieties, a PRINCIPAL INSECT ENEMIES OF ‘THE GRAPE. 391 as the Delaware, are almost as defenseless as European vines. Of the many wild American vines, those of chief importance as sources of stocks are the A¢stivalis, Riparia, and Labrusea. Of these, /Esti- valis and its cultivated varieties rank first in resistant qualities. The varieties of this species commonly grown and used for stocks are Herbemont and Cunningham. These are also very valuable on account of the superior quality of their own fruit. The wild varieties of Riparia are quite resistant to the root louse, although the most subject of all vines to the attacks of the leaf-gall lice. Of the cultivated varieties, the Clinton, Taylor, Solonis, ete., are very commonly used as stocks. The fox grapes, derived from Vitis labrusca, while more resistant than European grapes, are much infe- rior to the other American species mentioned in this respect. Isabella and Catawba, for example, are very subject to root lice; the Concord, while not often seriously injured, is still rather subject to attack and therefore not so valuable as a source of resistant stocks. There are many hybrids of these and other American species, which are used either direct for their fruit or as stocks. Conditions of climate and soil will determine the particular variety to be employed, and these points can only be settled by experimental tests for new localities. THE GRAPEVINE FIDIA. (Fidia viticida Walsh.) During midsummer the leaves of grapes are frequently riddled with irregular holes by the attacks of a little beetle which, when disturbed, falls to the ground with its legs folded up against its body, feigning death or ‘‘ playing possum.” The beetle is about a quarter of an inch long, rather robust, and of a brown color, somewhat whitened by a dense covering of yellowish-white hairs. In the nature and amount of the injury it does at this stage it resembles the rose-chafer, for which it is sometimes mistaken. Following the injury to the foliage, the vines may be expected, if the beetles have been abundant, to present a sickly appearance, with checking of growth and ultimate death, due to the feeding on the roots of the larvee, for, as in the case of the phyl- loxera, the root injury is much more serious than the injury to foliage. Vines sometimes die after having developed half their leaves, or may survive until the fruit is nearly mature. ; This insect occurs very generally in the Mississippi Valley States, from Dakota to Texas, and more rarely east of the Alleghanies and southward to Florida. The beetle has caused serious damage to foli- age, notably in Missouri, Illinois, and Ohio, having been recognized over thirty years ago in the first-mentioned State as one of the worst enemies of the grape. The work of the larvie has been recognized only recently by Mr. Webster and others in northern Ohio, but it may be looked for wherever the beetle occurs. 392 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Eafe Life history.—The life history as worked out by Mr. Webster is briefly as follows: The yellowish eggs in large batches are thrust in eracks of the bark of the old wood, usually well above ground, as many as 700 having been counted on a single vine. Very rarely are they placed in cracks in the soil about the base of the vine, but so loosely are they attached to the bark that they not infrequently fall to the ground. The larvee, on hatching, fall clumsily to the ground, and quickly disappear in cracks in the soil, chiefly near or just at the base of the vine. They feed at first on the fibrous roots near the point of entrance, but soon reach the larger roots, and completely denude them of bark, gradually extending outward through the soil l'1a.98.—Fidia viticida. a, beetle; b,eggs represented natural size under fold of bark and much enlarged at side; c, young larva; d, full-grown larva; e, pupa; f,injuryto leaf by beetles; g, injury to roots by larvye—b (in part) and f and g natural size, rest much enlarged (original). to a distance of at least 3 feet, and downward to a depth of at least 1 foot. Most of them reach full growth by the middle of August, attaining a length of nearly half an inch, and construct little cavities or earthen cells in the soil, in which they hibernate until June of the following year, when they change to pupz. The beetles emerge about two weeks after pupation, and begin to feed from the upper surface of the leaves. With thin-leafed grapes they eat the entire substance of the leaf, but with thick-leafed varie- ties the downy lower surface is left, giving the foliage a ragged, skel- etonized look. They feed on any cultivated grape, also on the wild grapes, which have probably been their food from time immemorial, Pine | ta PRINCIPAL INSECT ENEMIES OF THE GRAPE. 393 Most of the adults disappear by the first of August, a few scattering individuals remaining until the first of September. Remedies and preventives.—It is evident that if the beetle can be promptly exterminated the injury to the foliage will be limited, and the subsequent much greater damage by larvz to the roots avoided. The first effort, therefore, Should be to effect the killing of the beetles, which may be done by the use of an arsenical spray, with lime, apply- ing it at the customary strength of 1 pound to 150 gallons of water. The feeding of the beetles on the upper surface of the leaves makes them especially easy to control by this means. If this be deferred until if is unsafe to apply an arsenical to the vines, the beetles may be collected and destroyed in the manner recommended for the rose- chafer. The larvee may be destroyed about the roots by injections of bisulphide of carbon made in the way already described for the phyl- loxera. A safer remedy, and a very effective one if applied before the end of June or before the larvee have scattered, is to wet the soil about the vines with a solution of kerosene emulsion. The emulsion should be diluted nine times, and a gallon or two of the mixture poured in a basin excavated about the base of the vine, washing it down to greater depths an hour afterwards with a copious watering. ” THE GRAPE CANE-BORER. (Amphicerus bicaudatus Say.) The young shoots of the grape during the spring months in some districts will often be observed to suddenly break off or droop and die, and if examination be made a small hole will be found just above the base of the withered shoot, with a burrow leading from it a short dis- tance into the main stem. Within the burrow will be found the culprit in the form of a peculiar cylindrical brown beetle about half an inch long. This beetle has long been known as the apple twig-borer, from its habit of boring into the smaller branches of the apple in the man- ner deseribed for the grape. It also sometimes similarly attacks pear, peach, plum, forest and shade trees, and ornamental shrubs. To the grape, however, it is especially destructive, and the name ‘‘ grape cane-borer” is now given to it as more appropriate. Much complaint of this beetle is always received during the winter and early spring. Frequently all the new growth is killed, and in some cases vines. have been entirely destroyed. It is extremely common in the States bor- dering the Mississippi, from Iowa to Arkansas, and also in Texas, often becoming throughout this region the most important insect enemy of the vine. It also occurs eastward to the coast, but rarely causes much damage in its eastern range. It breeds in dying wood, such as large prunings, diseased canes, and also in dying or drying wood of most shade and fruit trees. It has been found by the writer breeding very abundantly in roots of up- rooted maples and in diseased tamarisk stems. In old, dry wood it - 394 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. a will not breed, so far as is known, nor in vigorous live growth, but seems to need the dying and partially drying conditions mentioned. — The insect has but one brood yearly. The beetles mature for the most part in fall, and generally remain in their larval burrows until the following spring. A few may leave the burrows in the fall and construct others in the twigs of apple or: other plants in which to hibernate. In the spring, however, they begin their destructive work early, burrowing into the axils of the grape and occasionally also into other plants. This is undoubtedly partly for food, but seems largely FiaG.99.—Amphicerus bicaudatus. a, beetle, dorsal and lateral view; b,pupa from beneath; c¢, larva from side, with enlargements of the thoracic feet; d, burrow in apple twig made by adult; e, larval gallery in tamarisk, with pupa in cell at end; f, injury to young shoot and cane, showing the entrance to burrow of beetle near fand the characteristic wilting of the new growth—all much enlarged except d, e, and f (original). malicious, for it certainly has nothing to do with egg laying, although it may have some connection with the marital relation. The eggs are laid chiefly in May, or as early as March or April in its southern range, and the larve develop during summer, transforming to pupze and beetles in the fall. On the Pacific Coast a closely allied but somewhat larger species (Amphicerus punetipennis Lee.) breeds in grape canes and other plants, and probably has similar burrowing habits in the adult stage. Remedies.—\t will be apparent at once that to limit the work of this insect it will be necessary to promptly destroy all wood in which it will breed. ‘This means the careful removal and burning of all dis- PRINCIPAL INSECT ENEMIES OF THE GRAPE. 395 eased wood and prunings at least by midsummer, thus destroying the _ material in which the larvee are probably undergoing their develop- ; ment. If precautions of this sort are neglected and the beetle appears f j malo in the vineyard in spring, the only recourse is to cut out by hand every affected part and destroy the beetles. On warm days they may some- times be collected in numbers while running about the vines. THE GRAPEVINE FLEA-BEETLE. (Haltica chalybea M1.) A little, robust, shining blue, or sometimes greenish, beetle, about one-fifth of an inch long, inclined to jump vigorously, and having greatly enlarged thighs, frequently appears on the vine in early spring, and bores into and scoops out the unopened buds, sometimes so com- Fiac.100.—Haltica chalybea. a,beetle; b, larva; c,larve and beetles on foliage; d, injury to buds; e, beetles killed by fungus—qa and b much enlarged, rest natural size (original). pletely as to kill the vine to the roots. It attacks also the newly expanded leaves, filling them with small, roundish holes, and later deposits its orange eggs in clusters on their lower surface. Little shining brown larvee come from these, which also feed on the leaves, and, if abundant, leave little but the larger veins. The larve are present for about a month during May and June, when they dis- appear into the ground, and transform to beetles during the latter part of June and in July. This second brood of beetles remain on the leaves through the summer, feeding a little, but doing but little damage to the vines, now in full leaf. In the fall the beetles go into winter quarters in any protection, as in cracks in fences or buildings, in masses of leaves, under bark, ete, 396 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The grapevine flea-beetle is sometimes erroneously called thriger as It occurs throughout the United States and Canada, the time of S, its appearance varying with the latitude, and possibly being double- brooded in the South. It is often abundant on wild vines, and also oceurs on the alder. In the spring it is, perhaps, the subject of more frequent complaint than any other grape insect. The damage to the buds is most to be feared and the hardest to prevent. A very strong arsenical wash, say, 1 pound to 50 gallons of water, with lime, applied before or as soon as the beetles appear, will, perhaps, afford protection. Mr. Howard has found also that the beetles at this season may be successfully jarred into cloth collecting frames placed about the vines as recommended for the rose-chafer, and that if the cloth is saturated with kerosene, the beetles striking it will soon perish. Later in the season the beetles and larve on the foliage may be reached by an arsenical spray of the customary strength, viz, 1 pound of the poison to 150 gallons of water. THE ROSE-CHAFER. (Macrodactylus subspinosus Fabr.) With the blooming of the grape, an awkward, long-legged, light- brown beetle about one-third of an inch in length frequently appears in enormous swarms, at first devouring the blossoms, then the leaves, reducing them frequently to mere skeletons, and later attacking the young fruit. By the end of July these unwelcome visitors disappear as suddenly as they come. Though now distinctively a grape ei it was first known as an enemy of the rose, whence its name, ‘‘rose-bug,” or rose-chafer. It attacks also the blossoms of all other fruit trees and of many orna- mental trees and shrubs, and, in “fact, in periods of great abundance, stops at nothing—garden vegetables, grasses, cereals, or any green thing. At such times plants appear a living mass of sprawling beetles clustering on every leaf, blossom, or fruit. The rose-chafer occurs from Canada southward to Virginia and Tennessee, and westward to Colorado, but is particularly destructive in the eastern and central portions of its range, notably in New Jersey, Delaware, and to a less extent in New England and the Central States. It passes its early stages in grass or meadow land, especially if sandy—the larvie feeding on the roots of grasses a few inches below the surface of the ground like the common white grub, which they closely resemble except in size. The eggs are laid in the ground in June and July, and the larvae become full grown by autumn and trans- form to pup the following spring, from two to four weeks prior to the emergence of the beetles. Remedies.—Vhe rose-chafer is a most difficult insect to control or destroy, and the enormous swarms in which it sometimes appears make the killing of a few thousand or even millions of little practical ; ; af - PRINCIPAL INSECT ENEMIES OF THE GRAPE. 397 value. Practically all substances applied to vines to render them obnoxious to the beetles have proved of little value, but a correspond- ent reports having successfully protected his vineyard last summer by spraying with a wash made by diluting 1 gallon of crude ear- bolic acid in 100 gallons of water. The arsenicals are available only when the beetles are not very numerous; otherwise their ranks are constantly recruited by newcomers, and under these circumstances all insecticides, however effective ordinarily, are unavailable. When this is the case, the only hope is in collecting the beetles or in covering and protecting plants with netting, or later in bagging grapes. Ad- vantage may be taken of their great fondness for the bloom of spirza, Fia. 161.—Macrodactylus subspinosus. a, beetle; b,larva; c and d,mouth-parts of same; e, pupa; f,injury to leaves and blossoms with beetles, natural size, at work (original). and rows of these flowering shrubs may be planted about the vine- yard to lure them and facilitate their collection. They may be gathered from these trap plants, or the grapes them- selves, in large hand beating nets, or by jarring into large funnel- shaped collectors on the plan of an inverted umbrella. The latter apparatus should have a vessel containing kerosene and water at the bottom to wet and kill the beetles. All measures must be kept up unceasingly if any benefit is to be derived. The numbers of the rose-chafers may be considerably limited by restricting the areas in which they may breed. 452 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. To show the comparative composition of oleomargarine of various _ sources and good butter, the following table is given: : ‘ Analyses of oleomargarines, butterines, and butters (by James A. Emery). OLEOMARGARINES AND BUTTERINES. ~ ae Combus- : 27 j a 1as j se j Sunn | Water. | (eto. | Aah, | Sait, (No. cx | ‘ain’ | Specific "ae (caloeias Cotton-seed ber. minoid). Ba(OH). ber. |8T@Vity-| point.) per oil. 2 | to 2.5 gr.) gram) | | ed | 100 | 38.09 1.46 | 4.24 | 4.02 0.30'| 62.19-] 0.8016 }-2..._2]2- sna | 101 | 9.68! 1.43 | 4.68 | 2.30 17 | 68.52 | 8608}... oe ee 102 | 10.96| 1.56] 6.01 | 6.60 25 | 66.69 3607 |-2. | 103 | 9.32 SFE seks 4.80 15 | 61.44 8913 |..235. ee 104 | 9.40 Ue.) Paar 5.40 .17 | 62.83 - 8848.) 25.0] Sees | 105 | 9.86 ies Merl 6.80 20) 63.26 8911 | 35.5)|_-2 eee 107 | 8.52 1.41 | 4.77 | 4.43 55 | 59.11 .8806 | "24.0 |) pee None. 108 | 8.58 1.36 | 5.95 | 5.17 | 42 | 52.80; .8835) 23.0 9.599 | Considerable. lio | 7.87 Ye 6.18 .35'| 68:12 | -.8884| 266 see Do. 112 6.86 By eee 3.72 42 | 58.57 8014 | . 22.6, |e None. 113 9.47 1.33 | 5.67 | 5.31 35 | 66.50 .8828 | 25.0| 9.795 | Considerable. 115 9.00 1.66 | 3.68 | 3.68 30 | 66.59 8874 | 22.5 9.649 | Do. 118 9.15 1.43 | 6.21 | 6.69 22) 60.53 .8891 | 25.0) 9.607 | None. 119 9.25 77 | 4.00 | 4.04 26 | 53.87 .8876 | 26.5| 9.574| Do. 120 9.87 2.64 | 5.70 | 5.22 .82 | 58.12 .8818 | 25.5] 9.618 . 121 9.23 1.52 | 3.68 | 3.80 .35 | 61.80 .8880 | 22.5 | 9.670 | None. 124 9.37 1.63 | 5.42 | 5.82 22 | 64.66 8898 | 23.5 9.615 Do. BUTTERS. 125 8.32 1.27 | 3.64 | 3.81 11.10 | 37.75 .8925 | 35.5 | 9.827 | None. 126 11.43} 1.83 | 4.98 | 4.05 8.55 | 36.86 .8979 | 36.1 9. 362 127 12. 98 1.30 | 3.94 | 4. 04 10.82 | 41.20 8084 | 8b.0)|--225- ee As will be seen at a glance, the melting points of the oleomarga- rines are low. The samples were purchased in the spring; some con- tained considerable cotton-seed oil, and were evidently made for the winter trade. A product intended for summer use would contain more stearin. The minute quantity of volatile acids shows the presence of | only a trace of butter, or its entire absence, while the high iodine j absorption shows the presence of considerable cotton-seed oil or lard. The figures in some of the samples for albuminoids show an unu- sually high percentage. This points to a contamination with animal fiber and indicates that the material used was not pure. z ‘a THE MANUFACTURE AND CONSUMPTION OF CHEESE. By Henry E. ALVORD, M.46., C. E., Chief of Dairy Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture. GROWTH OF THE INDUSTRY. Cheese making is not a conspicuous industry in the United States, yet it is a considerable one, cheese being an important article of trade, domestic and foreign. In the early part of the present century, cheese was the principal product on many dairy farms in the Eastern and Middle States. It accumulated on the farms and was moved to market only once or twice a year, then creating quite a stir in certain centers of traffic. Exports of cheese from America began more than a hundred years ago, and in the year 1800 the quantity had reached nearly a million pounds. Production and export then grew quite steadily, both increasing rapidly at times, until about fifteen years ago. The total cheese production of the country was reported for the census years of the last five decades as follows: Pounds. OLA se ide Se ae ees 2 oS eR re Se OS Sn ae ee ee 105, 535, 893 LiSTUL, 2.2500 Aiea ISD CSRS ERS OS oo ane © ere Sse eee ree 103, 663, 927 To ol ple Se Se ae Aer eiae aeiaie Seee 2 op Sa eee 162, 927, 382 eae ee yas: 8s Ses Wen ena Ie eet feo. Se. Se 243, 157, 850 pier sees Sete! MoE. gl ee ee mee ke | 256, 761, 883 The relation of these figures is shown by the following diagram, where the entire surface of each rectangle represents the production of the year stated, and these surfaces compared indicate the increase from decade to decade: TY PPT YS LS aE RY SE i eee 1869. S$ K??EE G [[ [UE "FE"»T7ln=l 1873 YY IMME @L@@EUMa__ 889 ;W1?W3DWriWC( WQWCQCWQWCCQKRKRKRg,g Fia. 120.—Diagram showing increase in cheese production, 1849-1889. This diagram also shows graphically the great change in the system of making cheese, which has taken place during the last half century. The shaded portion of each rectangle represents the cheese made in factories, and the unshaded part that which was made on farms. 453 454 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Prior to 1850, practically all of the cheese of this country was made — on the farms where the milk for it was produced; it was simply an article of domestic manufacture. About the year 1860 the cheese factory came into vogue as an improved and economical system for cheese making. Wherever the idea may have actually originated, it was first fixed upon the public mind and developed in the county of Oneida, New York. Once established, the advantages of the asso- ciated method became manifest, and the spread of the ‘‘ American,” or ‘‘factory,” system was very rapid. So much so that in 1869, two- thirds of the cheese of the country was made in factories. The pro- portion of cheese now made on American farms is insignificant, com- pared with that made in factories. At the present time it requires the entire milk of nearly 1,000,000 cows to make the cheese annually pressed in the United States. This is based upon an annual yield of about 2,800 pounds of milk from a cow, on an average, with a rate of 10 pounds of milk to a pound of cheese. At 9 to 10 cents per pound, the average value of cheese per cow is not over $27 per annum (a little more than the value of the average cow), and the total product of the country is worth from $24,000,000 to $25,000,000. These figures are only approximately cor- rect. To the annual cheese product of the United States, 260,000,000 pounds, may be added 9,000,000 pounds of imported cheese, and 76,000,000 pounds being exported, leaves something less than 200,000,000 pounds yearly consumed by the people of this country. The rate of consumption here is therefore about 3 pounds of cheese per capita of the entire population. In some distriets where the supply is abundant and of good quality, there is reason to believe that the maximum rate of cheese consumption for well-to-do com- munities is 7 to 9 pounds per annum, or about 40 pounds for the family of average size. Nine-tenths of the cheese produced in this country is made in the States of New York, Wisconsin, Ohio, Illinois, Vermont, Iowa, Penn- sylvania, and Michigan. These rank as to production in the order named, and no other State produces over 5,000,000 pounds a year. The last four States named produce 5,000,000 to 6,000,000 pounds each, and the others from 10,000,000, for Illinois, up to 124,000,000, for New York. The New York product alone is almost one-half, and this State and Wisconsin together make over two-thirds, of the total of the country. There have been a good many changes in relative production in recent years, Ohio, Illinois, and Pennsylvania having decreased their annual cheese product from one-third to one-half since the census of 1880. For a long time New York State cheese held first place in reputa- tion and market prices, but Wisconsin rose to an equal position in 1875, and maintained it, excepting for a few years, when the manu- facture of imitation or lard cheese in this State was so largely carried i. tone THE MANUFACTURE AND CONSUMPTION OF CHEESE. 455 on as to greatly injure this reputation. State law having prohibited this industry, Wisconsin factory cheese is now regaining its former standing. These two States have such a preponderating influence that they give character to the entire cheese output of the country. MANUFACTURE AND COMPOSITION OF CHEESE. In America cheese is made of different sizes and shapes, and is of numerous kinds. A number of the varieties commonly associated by name with foreign countries are imitated with more or less success. The great bulk of the American output, however, is of the familiar round form, 14 to 16 inches in diameter and from 4 to 12 inches thick, ranging in weight from 30 to 80 pounds, with an average of about 60 pounds, and of the same texture and appearance throughout. This form takes the name of Cheddar, from a parish of that name in Som- erset County, England, long famous for producing cheese of the same general character and style, and made in substantially the same way. Cheese may be made from sweet or sour milk. The milk may be in its natural condition or skimmed fully or in part, or it may be enriched by the addition of cream in excess of that belonging to it. The dif- ferent varieties of cheese depend upon the character and condition of the milk used, upon seasoning, upon peculiarities in the different proc- esses of manufacture, and especially upon the conditions and treat- ment incident to the curing or ripening. The first step in cheese making is to bring the milk into the form of curd. This may be done by allowing it to sour in a natural way. But in most cases cheese is made from sweet milk and curdled with rennet, a ferment obtained principally from the stomachs of calves. If the curdling or coagulation takes place before cream has separated, nearly all the fat of the milk and some of the milk sugar is held in the eurd. About two-thirds of the water of the milk, the greater part of its sugar, a considerable part of the ash, and the small quantity of albumen present form whey, which is the only refuse produced in cheese making. Some milk fat may also escape in the whey, but this depends upon the skill of the maker. The component parts of cheese, as well as of milk, are water, casein, fat, sugar, and ash or mineral matter. These parts differ much in proportion in the various kinds of cheese. Numerous anal- yses made, principally by English chemists, give the average compo- sition of several well-known varieties of cheese as stated in the table following. The composition of milk is included for the purpose of comparison. It is thus seen that cheese contains practically all of the casein of the milk from which it is made; and it is shown that good cheese may be roughly stated to be one-third water, one-third fat, and one-third casein, sugar, and ash (together). It is therefore a strong nitroge- nous or flesh-forming food, and as a food too concentrated to be eaten by itself in quantity. 456 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Composition of varieties of cheese. Milk sugar. Casein. Fat. Ash. Variety. | Water. Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. DRED Soon oak o een clus boo Sen duet cdeotanb a aneeeee 87.00 3.40 4.00 4.90 0.70 American full cream—Cheddar-.-....-.--------.- 38. 00 25. 3d 30. 25 1.43 4.97 PMSA OHUOGORT jcc ucena oaecnn beads ocweenmeaneeel 35. 41 27.61 31.03 2.00 3.95 2 oat ae es Bes 30.35 | 28.85| 35.89 1.59 3.82 1 lI EST 5 GS 36.28) 24.06] 30.26 4.50 4.90 BNGHLOMRGOL 203.255 o< ku ueanss Su eaeeeen ates pee 44.47 14. 60 33. 70 4,24 2.99 RROQUGLOFG oS L258 4-3 chase dean oo oe nee ee 31.20 27. 63 33. 16 2.00 6.01 nyere.<7en 0 O81 253. doen cece eee 34. 87 25. 87 29. 91 5.51 3. 84 DEO ln RR eee Mie 9 ALR Sap 31. 34 41.99 19. 22 1.20 6.25 As an article to be included and liberally used in a regular diet, cheese has been found to be very wholesome and very economical. It is worthy of note that statisties of the diet of public institutions show that in those which are in charge of physicians, like asylums and hospitals, the consumption of cheese per capita is large. In many cases the rate is twice as much as in other institutions and with people ingeneral. This is an emphatic and practical testimonial to the value of cheese as food on the part of numerous members of the medical profession. INCREASING THE CONSUMPTION OF CHEESE. The value of cheese as an article of food has long been recognized, and it deserves a much more prominent place among household sup- plies in this country than it has ever received. It has been said that ‘‘Americans taste cheese, while Europeans eat it.” In Great Britain and most of the countries of Europe cheese is one of the chief articles of diet, replacing butchers’ meats to a considerable extent with large classes of the people. This substitution is found to be very econom- ical and satisfactory to the consumers. In these foreign countries the consumption of cheese per capita is several times as large as in the United States. This low rate of cheese consumption in this country can be explained in part, undoubtedly, by the general supply of meats at compara- tively low prices, and the fact that it has not been regarded as neces- sary to select foods so that every dollar expended would purchase the greatest possible amount of nutritive material. Information con- cerning the relative value of various articles of food has not been general. The subject of human nutrition has received much atten- tion within the last few years, however; facts are rapidly accumu- lating and are being widely diffused. This movement is very certain to lead to a better recognition of the food value of cheese and its comparative cheapness, and to a consequent inerease in its use. It seems clear that a taste for cheese has never been generally acquired in this country. In those families where it is liked, it is vr os a THE MANUFACTURE AND CONSUMPTION OF CHEESE. 457 ordinarily used in small quantity as a side dish or relish, and at usual retail prices it is regarded as expensive. Further, when a pound or two is cut from a cheese of the common form and size, a very large cut surface is exposed to the air, and, as it is seldom that special attention is given to keeping it fresh and moist, the piece of cheese soon dries out, loses flavor, hardens, and becomes unpalatable. Again, if one forms a fondness for a particular consistency, stage of ripe- ness, and flavor in cheese, it is often found difficult to get just the article desired when more is wanted. There are other minor reasons connected with the retail trade in cheese, as commonly conducted, and with the way in which the article is treated in the household, which tend to dissatisfaction on the part of the seller and buyer, and prevent increase in the traffic and in consumption. It is useless to argue that when compared with meat and many other articles as to actual food value, cheese is rarely retailed at excessive rates. It still remains a fact that the retail price of cheese is usually considerably more than is justified by the wholesale price when com- pared with articles which can be similarly transported and have simi- lar keeping qualities. There seems to be no good reason why cheese which sells at wholesale at 8 to 10 cents per pound should be retailed at 15 to 17 cents, and often at 20. The usual margin between the wholesale and retail price of cheese is far too great, and yet the net profits of the retail dealer are not unreasonable. When kept by the general grocer, he will insist that there is very little profit in cheese, and proves his claim by showing no inclination to specially increase his sales of the article. When a large cheese is cut, sales must be active to prevent drying and other deterioration which results in loss. Altogether, prevailing conditions do not favor an increasing retail trade in cheese of regulation form, conducted in the ordinary way. Manufacturers and merchants should unite in efforts to ‘‘ tickle the palate” of the consumer, and increase the sale and use of cheese. =... .-..- 113, 606, 609 / $0078; 358: | TRO Stee os | 60,448, 421 146, 004, 650 UNITED STATES. CANADA. (AVERAGE AVERAGE 7861-65 1861-65 1866-70 1866-70 1871 -75 1871-75 1876-680 = 7876-80 1881-85 1881-85 1886 -90 1886-90 1891-95 1891-95 464 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The figures in the table do not include the cheese received in Canada from the United States and reexported. The growth of the Canada cheese trade, almost exclusively with Great Britain, is enor- mous. Since 1860, the increase in quantity is a thousandfold. Then Canada exported less than one-hundredth part of the quantity sent from the United States. Now the cheese export of the former is more than double that of the latter in quantity and nearly 10 per cent greater in value per pound. Another quotation from the report of the Secretary of Agriculture is applicable here: No one can peruse the above facts and figures without arriving at the conclu- sion that unless our shippers of cheese pursue a very different course, the history of our foreign trade in that product will speedily fall, in the face of active, intel- ligent, and honest competition from all parts of the world, to the level now occupied by American butter. We have here a graphic illustration of the disas- trous effects in all trade of disregarding the tastes of consumers and of acquiring a bad reputation. Chief among the causes of the unfortunate condition of the foreign cheese trade of the United States are these: (1) Restrictions placed upon the freedom of trade between the United States and Canada; (2) the energy and success of the Canadian Government in deyelop- ing and improving the production of cheese in the Dominion; (3) the short-sighted policy of cheese makers in the United States in turning out so many poor goods and ignoring the tastes and demands of for- eign customers; (4) the exportation of so much low-grade cheese, or ‘‘skims,” and of adulterated goods or “‘ filled cheese” in defiance of the requirements of British markets and the consequent degradation of a well-earned reputation. These leading causes of existing con- ditions may be briefly reviewed. STATISTICS OF DAIRY INTERESTS OF CANADA. During the first six decades of the present century the dairy inter- ests of Canada were undeveloped, production amounted to little, and exports were insignificant, only reaching 100,000 pounds of cheese in 1860. Under the operation of the reciprocity treaty of 1854, the United States supplied Canada for ten or twelve years with a large part of the cheese consumed, amounting to some millions of pounds a year, as already stated. Canada was one of our good markets for cheese. The interruption of those advantageous trade relations closed those markets to us and gave a great incentive to dairying in Canada. This was the beginning of the rivalry in foreign trade on the part of Canada which is now causing the cheese interests of this country so much trouble. In a report of the Montreal Board of Trade, dated April 9, 1868, occurs this passage: The repeal of the treaty has stimulated the erection of cheese factories, which are shutting out the products of foreign dairies from the Canadian market and enabling the dairymen of Canada to compete successfully with their American neighbors in sending supplies to the British market. 7) ‘d THE MANUFACTURE AND CONSUMPTION OF CHEESE. 465 In 1865 there were less than a dozen cheese factories in all Canada. During the year 1866, 60 factories were opened, and the number trebled in two years. In 1871 the number reported was 353, in 1881 it was 709, and in 1891, the latest report, 1,565 factories were in operation. For fifteen or twenty years the Canadian Government has made stren- uous efforts to develop the dairy interests; grants have been made to associations of dairymen, institutes and local schools have been sup- ported, and an executive department of the Dominion established, with branches in the different Provinces, under which dairy literature is widely distributed and skilled instructors sent from factory to factory teaching the most approved methods of making cheese. One result is seen in the great increase in cheese production—23,000,000 pounds in 1871, 61,000,000 in 1881, 109,000,000 in 1891, and now, by estimate, 160,000,000 pounds a year—and quality accompanies quan- tity. Canada prohibits by law the manufacture of skim cheese and of filled cheese, and there are no indications of effort on the part of makers or merchants to evade or violate these laws. Government and people have united in the improvement of processes and products, and in studying the tastes of their customers and satisfying them. The result has been to establish a reputation which places Canadian cheese at the head of the foreign markets. The very best cheese from the United States now sells more readily in London if bearing a Cana- dian brand than under the names which, but a few years ago, were accepted as a guarantee of all that was honest and best in cheese. From this plain statement of facts, dairymen, cheese makers, trades- men, and exporters in the United States may find useful material for burnishing a sadly tarnished reputation, a matter which needs imme- diate attention. THE MANUFACTURE OF SKIM CHEESE IN AMERICA. It is impossible to determine exactly how and when some American factories, organized and established with the sole idea of making whole-milk cheese, began to manufacture skim cheese, and to add butter making to their other work. It seems, however, to have re- sulted gradually, from a combination of natural and economic causes, beginning very soon after the factories became numerous. Thus, late in the season, when milk diminished in quantity, grew richer, and kept longer, patrons at a distance from a factory would deliver only every other day, and the cream having separated on the earlier messes, they would remove it, to make butter for home use, and so send to the factory milk with but a half or a third of its cream; yet the factory cheese made from this milk would be apparently equal in quality to the average of the season. Again, factories receiving a part of their milk in the evening, and failing to prevent a separation at night, would try removing and churning the cream of that part, and still make good cheese. There were good cheese makers who noticed a A 95——17 - 466 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. large percentage of butter in the whey, and they claimed that this might be saved by taking more or less cream from the milk for butter, before making into cheese, and without detriment to the latter prod- uct. Frugal factory managers, too, discovered that they could turn out as many or more pounds of both butter and cheese, from a given quantity of milk, as of cheese alone,and could sell the double product for more than the single one. Facts like these, and the results of such experiments, were soon heard in meetings of dairymen, and beeame arguments for more or less skimming. Prof. X. A. Willard, of Little Falls, N. Y., the most active and prominent exponent of American cheese-factory practice in the early years of the system, favored skimming within bounds. Prof. L. B. Arnold, of Rochester, was the closest student of the dairy and of improvements in cheese making of his time. He did not believe that the usual loss of butter fat in the whey was necessary. He regarded no natural milk too rich for good cheese, and he did not directly advocate skimming. : In an article cn American dairying, the present writer said, when referring to this subject, in 1880: With such teachers and teaching, and with the balance sheets of factories adopting this advice showing better returns than those adhering to their whole- milk principles, it is not surprising that skimming became common; factories produced more or less butter, and changed their plans accordingly. From the outset, however, there were stout opponents to all skimming in connection with cheese manufacture, conspicuous among them being makers whose ‘‘ marks ” had won a high reputation, and merchants who prided themselves on keeping a high standard in the markets. The American Dairymen’s Association, after long consideration and full discussion of the subject, adopted ringing resolutions declaring against all skimming and in favor of maintaining the full-cream standard for American cheese. 3ut selfish motives have caused skimming to continue, and there has been little serious effort to stop the practice. For years the mar- kets have been accustomed to skim cheese, to half skims, and to cheese resulting from skimming in all degrees. The State of Ohio has recognized the practice in law and attempted to grade the prod- ucts. This cheese has found its place in the home trade and has entered into our exports. There is just about the same proportion of skims and part skims in the market the present year that there has been in years past. Two very unfortunate features are associated with American skim cheese: First, unlike the ripe and finely flavored Parmesan, our skims are mostly flat in flavor, hard and horny, so much so as to be familiarly known as ‘‘ white oak” cheese; second, the better class of part skims have been unscrupulously sold while at their best for the genuine full-cream article. The general reputation of American cheese at home and abroad has necessarily suffered in consequence, THE MANUFACTURE AND CONSUMPTION OF CHEESE. 467 It tan not be denied that skim cheese is a legitimate food product, and if well made it is highly nutritious. There may always be room for more or less of it in the market, but it should always be plainly marked, sold for exactly what it is, and at prices suited to its kind. OLEOMARGARINE CHEESE. ‘*Villed cheese,” which is regarded as having so injuriously affected the cheese interests of this country within very recent years, and especially our foreign trade, is by no means a new article, although this is a comparatively new name. Very soon after oleomargarine began to disturb the makers, merchants, and consumers of butter in America, oleo oil came into use in the manufacture of cheese. Com- bining this oil with skimmed milk, as an emulsion, it was found that an article could be made having, when fresh, the appearance of a good, rich cheese. Patents were issued upon the process and mixing machinery about the year 1871, and the making of ‘‘ oleomargarine cheese” was begun at Ridge Mills, near Rome, N. Y. One of the oldest and most reputable dairy-apparatus establishments in the country secured control of the special machinery required, advertised it extensively, and a good many factories were fitted up to produce the new cheese. The same firm still controls the patents. In writing upon the subject in 1881, Prof. J. P. Sheldon, one of the first dairy authorities of England, expressed these views: There has been much discussion and controversy on the other side of the Atlan- tic as to the merits of oleomargarine cheese. It has its friends and its enemies, It has been vigorously attacked and vigorously defended, and now awaits the deci- sion of that final court of appeals in such cases, public opinion. Controversy seems to be useless. This kind of cheese appears to be a perfectly wholesome article of food, and, so long as it is honestly made and as honestly sold, it is a legitimate addition to our food supply that may justly claim to stand or fall on its merits ; but if it comes to be palmed off on the public as pure-milk (full-cream) cheese, it at once forfeits its claim to be treated with fair play. The forfeiture thus suggested has certainly been made. As already stated, this oleo cheese, lard cheese, or filled cheese, comes into mar- ket under every name except its own. Its true character and proper designation are recognized only while in the hands of the manufae- turers’ agents, ard when it moves from the principal distributing point the various brands upon it give ample evidence of the intent to deceive and defraud. The appeal to public opinion has been made, and the response is emphatic. Reputable merchants and exporters generally refuse to handle the article. New York and Wisconsin absolutely prohibit its manufacture and sale. Other States have fol- lowed and are following in the same course, or at least establishing restrictions and providing for identifying marks. The only legislative contests in which filled cheese triumphed were in Indiana and Illinois. Chicago has become the chief depot and distributing point for this commodity. Even “filled” Limburger and ‘‘ brick” cheese of Ameri- can manufacture can now be found in that market. 468 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The materials from which this cheese is made are very cheap. ‘ts base is skim milk, which is so abundant in the creamery districts as to be a waste product, with hardly any value, being, unfortunately, neglected by farmers, who fail to appreciate its real worth. The fats added may be oleo oil, or neutral lard, or butter of lowest grade which has been put through questionable processes for renovation. Still cheaper fats may be used. It is claimed that the cheese can be placed in market at a cost of 4 or 5 cents per pound. In large lots it is freely offered at three-fourths the price of first-class cheese, or less, and yields a large profit at this rate. Like the butter substitutes and imi- tations, the manufacture of filled cheese has greatly improved. A good grade of neutral lard is generally used, and the product now comes into market appearing so fine in quality and with so clean a taste as to be very deceptive and hard to detect by ordinary sampling. But there is an absence of flavor or aroma, and its quality is short lived. Although not made in very large quantity (probably 500 to 600 tons per month), there is yet enough of this adulterated cheese, and enough unscrupulous dealers to push it in all directions for the sake of the unusual profits, to badly demoralize trade in honest goods and greatly impair the reputation of American factory-made cheese, both at home and abroad. The evil effects upon domestic trade have been noted. The recent rapid decrease in exports is largely attributable to loss of confidence resulting from its sale abroad under false colors. The fraudulent article, as now made and handled, is a serious men- ace to all honest cheese, and the vigorous warfare against it in Eng- land and Canada and the rising tide of popular disapproval in the United States are fully justified. WAYS TO IMPROVE THE TRADE IN CHEESE. The suggestions made in previous pages, with a view to inereasing home consumption, are of minor importance when compared with the need of general improvement in domestic trade and the export of American cheese. Such improvement seems to depend mainly upon two conditions: First, quality; a higher standard must be set for our cheese and strenuous efforts made to induce all makers to attain to it, thus raising the average quality and securing reputation. Second, prevention of fraud; effective measures are necessary to restore con- fidence, so that all buyers may get with certainty what they want and pay for. All interests centering in cheese production demand superiority of quality and economy in production. Factory managers and cheese makers need to have the lesson impressed upon them that in honest markets the best goods are the easiest sold and the most profitable. They must be constantly on the watch for improvements and econo- mies in manufacture. The wants of special markets and the fancies of buyers must be studied and satisfied. The British market, still THE MANUFACTURE AND CONSUMPTION OF CHEESE. 469 otir largest customer, continues to want a large cheese, rich, well cured, and firm in texture. The demand of the home market is not so fixed but the general preference is for a smaller cheese, compara- tively new, mild and rich, of medium texture and color. Following the example of Canada, the leading cheese-making States may well employ expert itinerant instructors to work at farmers’ institutes, at dairy conferences, and in the factories themselves. This has already been done in New York, with satisfactory results. The dairy schools established in several States are doing excellent work, and the influ- ence of their graduates is showing itself in the dairy communit y at large. To these schools especially is due the credit of demonstrating the fallacy of the old idea, responsible for so much unfortunate skim- ming, that considerable butter fat was necessarily lost in the process of making cheese. Instead, the principle has been established that no milk is too good for good cheese, none too rich for rich cheese. This principle was admirably shown by an exhibit from the dairy school of the University of Wisconsin at the Columbian Exposition. Six cheeses were placed side by side which had an interesting origin, and constituted a valuable object lesson. The dairy pupils at Madi- son, as an application of the principles they had been taught, divided a large quantity of milk of uniform quality into six parts. Then, by different degrees of cream separation, the percentage of fat in the milk of each lot was fixed exactly as desired. Almost all the fat was taken from lot 0 (see fig. 122), and a good deal was added to lot 5. Just 300 pounds of milk was weighed from each lot, the six having these percentages of fat, respectively, 0.2, 1.3, 2, 3, 4, and 4.9 per cent. The numbers given to designate these lots of milk and the cheeses resulting, 0 to 5, thus indicate the nearest percentage of fat in the milk expressed by a whole number; reasons for numbering thus will presently appear. These lots of milk were made into six cheeses, without appreciable loss except pure whey. All were pressed in 10-inch hoops, so the only difference in size was in the thickness. The cheeses were weighed green on April 17, 1893, when taken from the press, and the cured weights were recorded June 26, when they were sent to Chicago. Weights and other figures are given in the following table: Influence of fat wpon yield of cheese. Weight of cheese, Nun Dat FE roe of fatin _ in pounds. Lé used. |the milk. Green. : Cured. | 0 300 | 0.2 18.4 | 13.0 1 300 13 | m4 | 19.0 2 300 2.0 | 24.0 | 21.5 3 300 3.0 27.0 25.0 4 300 4.0 | 29.0 | 27.0 | 5 300 4.9 31.9 | 930.0 | : 470 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. These figures are very suggestive. The richer the milk, the greater the quantity of cheese, green or cured, from a fixed weight of milk. Without regard to quality, the best milk made more than twice as much eured cheese as the skim milk, and the richest cheese lost the least in curing—very much less than those partly skimmed. As exhibited these cheeses looked like this: Fic. 122.—-Diagram showing influence of fat upon yield of cheese. The contrast was marked and the lesson conclusive. The richer cheeses had more bulk to the pound than the poorer ones; hence No. 3 was fully twice as thick as No. 0, and No. 5 still thieker in propor- tion to weight. Before being cut and tested, it was plain that the one containing the most milk fat was much the best cheese. The market sequel or financial result in this case is noteworthy. Exact duplicates of these cheeses, upon being sold, gave these results, in part: No. 0 sold for 5 cents a pound, or 65 cents, being really more than usual market rate for such thoroughly skimmed cheese. No. 3, at 9 cents, brought $2.25; No. 4, at 10 cents, $2.70; and No. 5 sold easily at 12 cents, because of its extra quality, bringing $3.60. All these were wholesale prices. Now, if the fat in Nos. 3, 4, and 5, in excess of that in No. 0, had been made into creamery butter, with- out loss, the respective quantities would have been 34, 44, and 5} pounds (very nearly), which, at 25 cents per pound, would have brought $0.88, $1.13, and $1.38. Add to these amounts for butter, the worth of the skim cheese, No. 0, and the gross receipts from the lots of milk, 3, 4, and 5, made into skim cheese and butter, would have been $1.53, $1.78, and $2.03, as against $2.25, $2.70, and $3.60 from the same lots of milk, unskimmed, made into good cheese. The profit is largely in favor of the cheese in every case, and the richer the milk the larger this profit. Manifestly ‘‘it did not pay” to skim in any of these cases, and it rarely does pay, even if good cheese is made. No more conclusive argument could be presented than by the facts and figures in this case to prove that no natural milk is too rich to make cheese with suecess and profit. A series of instructive cheese experiments at the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station bears upon this same question. Cheese was made there from milk ranging in fat content from 1.75 per cent, by 15 gradations, up to 8.4 per cent. It was found that the richer the THE MANUFACTURE AND CONSUMPTION OF CHEESE. 471 milk the fewer pounds it required to make a pound of cheese, and the per cent of loss in the making of the original fat in the milk, always small, was no more with milk of the extreme richness stated than with standard milk and skimmed milk. Similar results have been obtained in Vermont, New York, and Minnesota. Cumulative evidence is unnecessary. These important truths are established, namely: The best milk makes the best cheese, and the most of it; the milk which is most profitable for butter is also the most profitable for cheese; the best butter cow is the best cheese cow. Other things being equal, a cheese containing a large percentage of fat is better, because, first, of finer flavor and taste; second, of its better consistency; third, of its improved aroma; fourth, of its increased digestibility; fifth, of its more perfectly answering the requirements of a complete food or ‘‘ balanced ration.” NECESSITY OF CLASSIFYING AND BRANDING CHEESE. Something should be done to abate the evils resulting from promis- cuous skimming. As now made and sold, the partly skimmed cheese is generally deceptive and bound to make trouble, more so than the full skims. The legitimate demand for these low grades of cheese is limited, and the main reason for their manufacture is the utilization of skim milk. There are vast quantities of skim milk, fully skimmed, which are too valuable to waste. This should all be used as food by man or beast. If some of it must be preserved and made into cheese, the nature of the product should be in some way clearly indicated upon the article itself. ‘‘ Full skims” generally show plainly enough what they are, but as to “‘ part skims,” the degree of skimming varies so much that it is hard to draw the line between these and some cheese made from whole milk. Pure milk differs so much in fat that unless a definite standard be fixed for ‘‘full-cream” cheese, lots enti- tled to this designation may actually differ as much in fat content as some full creams do from ‘‘half skims.” A graded system of elas- sification and branding should be adopted which will show,-approxi- mately, the composition, and hence the grade, by the marking. The simplest and most effective regulation for skim cheese is the Wiscon- sin law: Any skimmed-milk cheese, or cheese manufactured from milk from which any of the fat originally contained therein has been removed, except such cheese is 10 inches in diameter and 9 inches in height, is prohibited in the State, for manu- facture, purchase, sale, or transportation. (Sec. 2, chap. 30, Laws of 1895.) This is a drastic measure, but in many respects is much better than any branding. In regard to filled cheese, it is evident that some regulation will be demanded and obtained to at least prevent the perpetration of fraud wherever large cheese interests prevail. So long as any States permit unrestricted manufacture and sale, the evil will continue to threaten 472 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the Southern trade, as already noted, and, indeed, the entire cheese trade. Hence the demand for national legislation. The tendency to seek legislative relief upon all oceasions of embar- rassment is very unfortunate. eae a three furrows together: ay ie = :a with a plow, and then shaping them up smooth and true with a shovel; £4 e cband cb are such ridges with a ditch made in the top of them, along which the water flows from notches ¢ ¢ in the main ditch, and is let into the square basins formed by the system of embankments through notches at the points marked by the curved arrows. The water is made to flow through these notches by means of a shovelful or two of earth thrown into the ditch in the form of a dam. The irregular-shaped dots in the center of the basins represent the orchard trees. This method is used when large quantities of water are to be put upon lands, sometimes to the depth of 4 or 5 feet, as in upper Egypt, where the clear water of the Nile, on its first rise, is used to dissolve out of the surface soil the salts which accumulate between the crop- ping seasons. The surcharged waters are turned out of the basins into the river, and then the basins are filled with the muddy waters of the high flood, the slimy deposit from which furnishes fertility to the crops. Each of the basins so used incloses thousands of acres. Se i = E = q ny p74 =| ws Fic, 123.—Irrigation by basins. 484 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Trrigation by ditches.—¥ig. 124 shows a modification of the basin plan, as applied to ground with considerable slope and consisting of hill- ie "i Ww arnt NT Titi CONT Tit b PAR ELAAAIAILLUPARRESDATLSIEADEII DEAE PATIL ORMI APSE EP DLEE RIES v0 AS AUUCUEUIIEY TU 4 seer 3 Ti = 7) |= Tinriyype Te UT] ney = i De wndh = ITT mn y : § = N = hy Z 9 = . ee = > = & = ar) Fp “yy, ty ; 7 Mut Thy Te Ta Minin Hine SOU ee Pe e OE A a Jat ee fn CAC eae fea vi TEL TTL DATO Oe SU eee ee ee vii Fic. 124.—Irrigation by checks. levees, inches high, and sometimes higher. Fig. 125 shows the see ond method of spreading the water over a hill- side field, in which, as in fig. 124, fm is the main ditch and the slope of the hill as shown by the ar- rows; 10,7 p, and s q are small ditches or plow fur- rows cut on a level line around the face of the hill. The water is let into the field by the short ditch at 7, and is then spread over the space b cto by means of a marginal ditch y 2, from which it is made to flow in small streams and in a regular manner over the space between it and the lower ditch fo. Thisis done by men wearing rub- ber boots and furnished OO in “S JEU dl side land, wherein ve m is the main ditch on the highest side of the field, of which b ¢ d e mark the boundaries. Its surface slopes in the direction of the arrows; ooand q gare “check levees,” or slight em- bankments, built on level lines around the curved surfaces of the field. A supply diteh, ij, leads the water into the ‘‘ cheeks” or basins bc, o o, and q @, etc., and?twlisa waste ditch for discharging the sur- plus water from the checks when no longer needed. The ‘‘check ” 0 0,q q, are usually constructed so as to be about 6 to 12 Fig. 125.—Irrigation by fu rows. with shovels as in the first method. the diteh 40, and is caught by it and held until it 1s full and the water The surplus water runs down to CLIMATE, SOIL, IRRIGATION METHODS OF CALIFORNIA. 48) runs over, which it will do all along ¢ 0, as it is level from end to end. It is now the work of the irrigationist to cause it to spill evenly across the space ¢ 0 r p, covering every part of it as in the case of flooding first described. This operation must be done by causing the water to flow very slowly from one spreading ditch to the other over the whole field, and the supply at 7 must be shut off before the flow- ing water has quite reached the lower side of the fielded. If this is not done 4 ae). on x J at the right time, the loss by ie, wastage may be very great. by the sur- Ree 4 J ys a Ate and d in Skin : wes, the figure are MoH, mieerepresented Ser two waste ditches, where- plus water may be discharged from the field. Fig. 126 is a sectional view of the or- chard shownin Pl. V{. This section is taken on a line drawn from the house to the wagon seen in the illustration. It will be observed 2 that the trees stand between embankments, nee eae Rone ye the object of which is to hold water applied levees for orchards on sloping in irrigating them until it soaks into the TMlsides (sectional view). soil about their roots. This is the only method by which sufficient quantities of water can be applied to steep sidehills long enough to accomplish the purposes of irrigation. The plan is the same as that shown in fig. 124. Fig. 127 is a section of the hillside also shown in the same plate, L beginning at the left side of the picture and running down to the wagon, and shows the method of irrigating steep slopes by terraces. The water is brought to the high- est part of the hillside to which it is to be the applied; the sidehill being cut into a regu- inside, and aslight lar system of level terraces, embankment on the each bench having a small outside of it. The ditch ditch at the foot of the catches the water as it comes trick- slope on ling slowly down the steep slope above it and causes it to spread evenly over the vi ge k level bench, and the little ridge on the pyg. 127.—trrigation by outside of this bench holds the water — means of terraces on _ back for atime until it has sufficiently “°? en Pere ee soaked into the soil. Care must be taken not to allow the water to cut channels on its way down over the steep slopes of this system. Irrigation by furrows.—The fourth method, by furrows, is used largely in the irrigation of orchards, and is applicable to all crops planted in rows. The furrows are usually made with a plow; there are some contrivances by which several furrows can be made at once. 486 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. For orchards it is usual to make the furrows 2} feet apart from center to center and to make the system cover all the space between the rows of trees, going one way through the orchard to within 2$ feet of the trees on either side of the space furrowed. In case of other crops and gardens, the number of furrows and their distance apart will be governed by the distance between the rows of plants. This is the most simple and economical method in the use of water for irrigating purposes, and is the one to use in all cases in which the water supply is small. The furrows are filled with water from end toend. That this may be done, they must be level through- out their extent. When the supply given them has been absorbed by the soil, another can be given them, and so on until the proper quantity has been furnished. In all these methods the field irrigated should have a border em- bankment thrown up all around it on its boundary line, to prevent the water from escaping to the lands adjacent, in,which ease it might cause serious damage. Then, too, there should always be provided an escape ditch through which the surplusage can be carried off to a stream or waste canal. (See Pl. VII.) It is usual among irrigationists to use the term “‘irrigating head” when speaking of the quantity of water to be handled in irrigating a given field. It is found in practice that the smallest quantity of water that can be made to flow far enough to be useful is one-half a cubie foot a second. This quantity is chiefly applied to the irrigation of gardens and very small fields. For field irrigation the quantity for one man to “‘handle” varies from 14 to 6 cubic feet a second, which quantities would be called one and four irrigating heads, respectively. The average of the usage in this regard is about 14 eubie feet, or one irrigating head, a second. After the water has been applied in any case, and the soil has come into condition to permit of it, a care- ful and thorough cultivation of the surface must be given. In the case of most soils this is imperative, in order to prevent ‘‘ baking,” that is, a hardening and drying by the sun’s heat; also to prevent undue evaporation, which a finely pulverized condition of the sur- face holds well in check. Such cultivation also keeps the ground clear of weeds, which otherwise grow rapidly on irrigated lands. PLATE VI. a « earrat ete = aS re) a co © 2 = ~= 3 = i) < “ ° me) Q a {= wo = x ° re) a = S ® > PLAN OF IRRIGATION BY TERRACES SHOWN AT THE LEFT OF THE RAVINE AND AN ORCHARD IRRIGATED BY CHECK LEVEES ON THE RIGHT OF IT. °°." % 4 . . at < - eee a pte nh, ge fs +a fe 4 . ee em | nee ae aks i sr 3 ae “ & : , t * tee : : Se ie J g ‘“ See f cae ll i . . Wr vd a oa at Oe Op ; i ¥ ae < att - “ E , . - s a 2 : ; ad pf - ° Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1895. FURROW SYSTEM OF IRRIGATING AN ORCHARD IN CALIFORNIA. COOPERATIVE ROAD CONSTRUCTION. By Roy STONE, Special Agent and Engineer, U. S. Department of Agriculture. COMMUNITY OF INTEREST IN ROAD CONSTRUCTION, Current thought and feeling in the United States regarding the improvement of highways is setting steadily toward a recognition of the common interest of all classes of citizens, wherever located, and of all capital, however invested, in good roads. The constantly increasing use of country roads by city people, or for their benefit, develops and demonstrates this community of inter- est on the part of the citizen. The common interest of all capital in the subject is well expressed by the following utterance of the Chamber of Commerce of the State of New York: The movement for good roads deeply concerns every commercial and financial interest in the land. We are handicapped in all the markets of the world by an enormous waste of labor in the primary transportation of our products and man- ufactures, while our home markets are restricted by difficulties in rural distribu- tion which not infrequently clog all the channels of transportation, trade, and finance. The community of interest in the subject being recognized, methods of cooperation in road construction and the proper distribution of the cost thereof, become the ruling questions in the discussion of highway improvement. NATIONAL AND STATE AID. In Europe the public interest in highways is so well known that most of the roads have been built directly by national expenditure and are maintained either wholly or partly by national appropriations. In the early days of this Republic the national concern in road im- provement was so well understood that a great system of national roads, twelve in number, was laid out, and more or less work was done upon nearly all of them, although the Cumberland road was the only one finished when the financial crisis of 1837 prostrated all private and public enterprises. Among the States, Kentucky took an early lead in cooperating with counties, municipalities, and private capitalists in the construction of turnpike roads. The State contributed about $1,750,000 to seven of the leading thoroughfares, coving 640 miles, and this was only a por- tion of its total expenditure. In the years 1837 and 1839 the State 488 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. had in its employment an engineering corps, principally engaged in road work, costing an aggregate of $31,675 per year. These improve- ments covered only a trifling percentage of the total mileage of roads in the State, but they have been of such value as to make the State conspicuously prosperous for the last half century. The State of Ohio, observing the advantages of good roads to her neighbor, has followed with very extensive road improvement, mainly upon the cooperative plan, in which the county pays a portion of the cost and the property within one or two miles of the road is assessed for the remainder. Under these or similar provisions, about one- eighth of the total mileage of roads in the State has been improved. The most noticeable and extended cooperative work, however, has been done in New Jersey, under the State-aid law of 1891. Under this law the property owners along any line of road are assessed 10 per cent of the cost, and in addition to this the State contributes one-third of the total cost, and the county is compelled to furnish the remainder and to construct the road. This law has been so effective that the appropriation has been almost annually increased and the demand for construction under it has many times exceeded the funds available. It has, moreover, created competition for the benefits of State ex- penditure, and in that way has promoted discussion and education in regard to road improvement more rapidly than any other system. The progress of New Jersey in this direction has been watched by other States, and it may safely be said that the course of legislation in all the States which are studying the question is toward the adop- tion of this method of cooperation. That the State of Massachusetts has adopted a different system is probably due mainly to the nonagricultural character of the State. There it is necessary that roads be built to connect manufacturing towns and districts where the property along their lines is of little value for agriculture and the interest of the Commonwealth is inde- pendent of any agricultural conditions. The State has therefore taken upon itself the entire burden of building the principal roads throughout the Commonwealth, though it ultimately requires the counties to pay one-fourth of the cost. Connecticut has taken up the cooperative method upon the seale of an equal distribution between the State, county, and the district. The towns in New England having complete government, the policy of the Massachusetts State road commission has been to place all con- tracts for road construction in the hands of the town authorities, to be executed by town officials. The effect of this plan has been excellent. Whatever profit may be derived from the construction becomes a public fund instead of going to a private contractor, and the officials become thoroughly trained in road construction under the supervision of the State engineering force. COOPERATIVE ROAD CONSTRUCTION. 489 The State of Rhode Island has also fallen into line for cooperation, but includes with the State only towns and cities, leaving out the counties, and leaves the division of the cost to be prescribed by the general assembly of the State. The State, moreover, undertakes to build sample roads, not exceeding one-half mile in length, in any town, as an educator to its citizens, and the towns are liable to the State for one-quarter part of the expense of construction. California has still another method of cooperation. The State fur- nishes the services of a highway commission of three experts, whose entire time is devoted to the supervision of road construction, and it further provides for the erection and operation of rock-crushing plants at the State prisons, and the distribution of the prepared road mate- rial to the counties at the bare cost of the maintenance of the convicts and the incidental expenses of their work. It has, moreover, arranged with the principal railroads in the State to transport this material at the cost of carriage. LEGISLATION FAVORING THE COOPERATIVE SYSTEM. In the legislation pending in other States the principal feature is the endeavor to perfect the cooperative system, and in this the States of New York and Virginia are conspicuously leading. The assembly of the State of New York, having in the spring of 1894 sent a strong committee to study the New Jersey road system, passed, almost unanimously, an act to provide for the construction of roads by local assessment, county and State aid. Section 1 of this act provides as follows: PETITION OF BORDERING LAND OWNERS FOR SURVEY AND ESTIMATE OF COST OF LOCAL ROAD; SUBSEQUENT PETITION OF RESIDENTS OF BENEFIT DISTRICT. On presentation to the board of supervisors of any county of a petition signed by the owners of not less than one-third of the lands bordering on any section of road already established or proposed to be established in such county asking for a survey and estimate of the cost of building or rebuilding such road in a substan- tial and permanent manner either of stone or gravel as prescribed in such peti- tion, such board of supervisors shall cause such survey and estimate to be made for the information of such petitioners and shall forward a copy thereof to the State engineer. Whenever thereafter the petitioners shall present to such board of supervisors a map or description of the lands which, in their opinion, will be directly benefited by the construction or improvement of such road, together with a written request of the owners of three-fifths of such lands that all the lands so benefited and the personal property in such district be assessed, in proportion to the benefits conferred for such construction or improvement, to the amount of one- third of the total cost thereof, such board of supervisors shall cause such road to be constructed or improved. Such lands so mapped or described shall be known as the benefit district of the said section of road. But whenever the original peti- tion in any case shall set forth that the area to be benefited by the road is pecu- liarly restricted by the proximity of other roads or by other circumstances, an examination and report shall be made by the supervisor of the town and the sur- veyor of the road, andif it appears thereby that such area is less than 2 square miles 490 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. for each mile of the road to be built, then the proportion of cost required to be paid by the benefit district shall be diminished at the rate of 3} per cent of the whole cost for the first 100 acres of such deficiency and 3 per cent for each additional 100 acres of such deficiency, but shall in no case be less than one-tenth of the whole, and the balance of the cost of such construction shall be equally borne by the county and State. This provision differs from the New Jersey law in extending the local assessment to cover not merely the abutting lands, but, as nearly as can be ascertained, all the lands benefited by the construc- tion of the particular road in question, and in increasing the total local assessment to one-third instead of one-tenth the cost of the road, making exception, however, in cases where benefits are peculiarly restricted by the proximity of other roads or by other circumstances. Whenever counties are able to decide upon a highway system and a general and extended provision of funds by bonds or otherwise for eonstruction, they will be able to secure State aid without the machin- ery and complications of a local initiative. Whenever the county fails to do this, any town in the county may initiate road improve- ment for the whole town, or for any portion of it, and receive the modicum of State aid; but where county and town both fail, by rea- son of local jealousies or lack of interest, to provide for improvement, any enterprising neighborhood may proceed at once to organize its benefit district and have its road constructed. The plan under consideration in Virginia, as formulated by the State Road Improvement Association, limits the local charge for the entire benefit district to 10 per cent and the State contribution to 25 per cent, leaving upon the county 65 per cent of the cost; but it does not, as in New York and New Jersey, compel the county to construct the road upon application, unless it has the funds avail- able for doing so or decides by a vote of three-fifths of the freeholders to raise them by the issuance of bonds. Both New York and Virginia provide for distributing the local charge over a term of years at the individual option of the payers. The effect of this distribution, over five years in the Virginia plan, and ten years in the New York plan, diminishes the annual tax for the improvement, so that it will be but little felt. BEST ROAD FOR FARMING DISTRICTS. It is generally conceded that the best road for the farming district is a narrow stone road with an earth road alongside. Such a road has been built in Canandaigua, N. Y., for less than $1,000 per mile, and in other places for less than $1,200. Supposing the average cost of such a road to be $4 per rod, or $1,280 per mile, and the benefit district to average 1 mile on each side of the road, and supposing the district is charged with one-fourth of the cost, $320 per mile, this would be only 25 cents per acre on the lands benefited, or 5 cents per acre annually, if distributed over five is Be COOPERATIVE ROAD CONSTRUCTION. 491 years. This amount is less than half the ordinary road-maintenance tax, and, as the improved road becomes a county road and is main- tained at the county expense, the amount required for the mainte- nance of other roads in the district would be reduced accordingly, and the total tax might not be increased at all. The increase in taxable values due to road improvement will, as it has in all cases heretofore, prevent any necessity for raising the tax rate, except perhaps temporarily. USE OF CONVICT LABOR. The very successful use of convict labor in North Carolina, and its partial success in some other States, together with the initiative taken in California, has led to the discussion of a more elaborate plan for cooperation by the use of convicts, and the many difficulties found in the employment of convict labor in competition with skilled mechani- cal labor are directing public attention to this plan in many States. ~ The plan proposed for this is, in substance, for the State to buy or lease some of the best quarries of road material within its limits; to make the necessary railway connections, having first secured the per- manent agreement of all the leading railway companies to carry road materials at the bare cost of hauling, on condition, if required, that the State shall furnish to them a certain amount of track ballast made from the inferior rock of the quarry; to erect the necessary buildings and stockades and provide the best machinery for quarrying and crushing the rock; to bring to the stockades all able-bodied State con- victs and put them at this work, the counties to put their jail prisoners and tramps at the work of grading, draining, and preparing the road for macadamizing; and to furnish the crushed stone free on board ears as its contribution to road improvement. Upon this plan the cost to the State in addition to the maintenance and guarding of the convicts, which is a necessary expense in any case, would be only that of the fuel and oil, explosives, use of machinery, ete., required for carrying on quarry work. This expense, according to the report of the Massachusetts commission on highways, amounts to 6.8 cents per cubie yard of broken stone produced. The amount of broken stone required to lay a mile of single track 9 feet wide and 8 inches deep is, in round numbers, 1,200 cubic yards, and would cost at this rate $81.60. : The remaining cost would be the railroad freight, amounting, for an average distance of 100 miles, to not more than 28 cents per yard, $336; the wagon haul, averaging possibly 24 miles, 30 cents per yard, $360; and the rolling, superintendence, and incidentals (not inelud- ing engineering, which would be a general county charge), 10 cents per yard, making the total cost, exclusive of the first cost of the stone, which is borne by the State, 68 cents per cubie yard, or $816 per mile. The wagon haul is estimated on the basis of the country price of S > eae - 492 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. $3 per day for team and driver, and of hauling (over the hard road as it is made) 2 cubie yards at a load, and an average travel fora team of 25 miles a day. This plan brings the’expense of road improvement so low that no elaborate scheme of taxation, bonding, or borrowing would be neces- sary, and allits benefits could be speedily and universally realized. The best plan for carrying it out would, perhaps, be to let the “‘ben- efit district,” as heretofore defined, pay one-third of the cost, by installments, and the township one-third, the county to pay the remainder and to advance the amount for the district, with a rebate or discount to all individuals who preferred to pay in cash, so that no one would be put in debt against his will. The cost to the district on this basis of division would be $272 per mile. Taking the average width benefited at 2 miles, or 1,280 acres for each mile of road, the total charge per acre would be 21 cents, or 3 cents per acre annually if spread over seven years. COOPERATION NECESSARY. Heretofore the cost of country roads has been borne by the farmers alone, and no method has been provided whereby the people in towns could contribute thereto. These people are now becoming thoroughly convineed of their interest in country roads, and in many cases are even more willing than the farmers to aid in road improvement. The best plan for starting an improvement is that of the local initia- tive, or benefit district, plan. County road laws have been passed in many States, but they involve the education of a whole county before any work can be begun; but in every county some neighborhood will be found prompt to avail itself of the opportunity to secure road improvement upon contributing a portion toward its cost. In some States towns have been authorized to issue bonds for road improvement and have done so successfully, but have necessarily paid a higher rate of interest than a county or State would do. The benefit district, as described in the New York plan, being self- defined and of absolutely identical interest, forms the ideal unit for initiating road construction. Any larger district, as a town or county, containing a number of roads, is liable to be divided by local interests and jealousies, but the users of any one road can have no cause for division of interest. The benefit district includes, without question, all the users of the section of road in question, and the extent of their individual use of the road can be approximately ascertained, and when ascertained forms the most equitable possible basis for the division of the local share of the cost. 7} 4 7 A PIONEER IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE. By W. P. CurTtTeEr, Librarian, U. S. Department of Agriculture. AGRICULTURE IN COLONIAL VIRGINIA. The existence of the colony of Virginia was dependent to a great extent on the cultivation of a single agricultural product, tobacco, which was not only the staple crop of the colony for nearly two cen- turies, but served as a medium of exchange and as the basis for governmental support by taxation. Soon after the founding of the Virginia settlements, a decree of the English King, James I, legiti- mized the tobacco trade, and every available piece of ground in the village of Jamestown was at once planted to tobacco. The enormous profits made by the planters attracted large numbers of settlers; new lands were cleared, and growing tobacco soon covered them. The agriculture of colonial Virginia was extremely crude in char- acter. The staple food crops were cultivated only to the extent necessary to provide food for the laborers employed in tobacco eulti- vation, which was the main end to which everything else was subor- dinated. Although the colony became very prosperous as a result of _ the enormous demand for tobacco and the comparatively slight cost of raising the crop, much of the depression which followed the war of the Revolution may be ascribed to the continuous growth of this one crop for such a long period of time. The operations of the farm were so similar in character from year to year that little attention was paid to the details of farm management by the planters themselves, who spent the major part of their time in the exercise of the rites of hos- pitality, even now so proverbial a characteristic of Virginians. The agricultural interests of the State suffered from this lethargy of the most intelligent of her citizens, being left in care of plantation over- seers, who were often not much less ignorant than the slaves whose labors they superintended. With the war of the Revolution came the interruptions to commerce incident to the struggle. The profits of tobacco culture being sud- denly decreased, more attention was paid to the raising of other crops. With the outbreak of the French Revolution and the wars which fol- lowed, the demand for cereals became so great, the price rising in proportion, that every planter abandoned his tobacco fields to the eul- tivation of food stuffs; but the soil, although fertile in the beginning, 493 494 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. had so long been subjected to the exhausting demands of the tobaceo crop that the yield of wheat was small. In the early history of the colony, land was plentiful. When a field ceased to yield profitably, it was an easy matter to use the laboring force during the comparatively idle winter season in clearing new land for cultivation. A time came, however, when the land covered by the original forest was scarce, and the fertility once present had been reduced by exhaustive cropping. The great profits of the past had disappeared as a result of careless management. The demand for cereals decreased with the universal peace which succeeded the fall of Napoleon, and the planters of Virginia found themselves confronted by very depressing conditions; a period of comparative stagnation ensued. Some of the farmers had made attempts to introduce cotton cultivation without great success. Tobacco raising was confined to a large extent to the upland counties, where the land was less exhausted and where special methods of curing still made the crop a profitable one; but in the eastern and middle section there seemed to be no pos- sible method of regaining the former prosperity. Many of the old Vir- ginia families, attracted by the marvelous tales of the fertility of the newly settled prairies of the West, deserted their ancestral homes and sought new fields for their efforts. The price of land decreased, and taxes increased in consequence. CHARACTERISTIC CONDITIONS AND INFLUENCES. The general process of development in the United States was modi- fied in the South by special influences. The institution of slavery had formed a distinct social system, the dominant class becoming a proud aristocracy. There was ample leisure for self-improvement, and the standard of culture was high. The standard works were widely read, and newspapers were abundant; a few magazines of great intellectual excellence but meager circulation were issued. Seant encouragement was given to those who chose the literary profession; men who were in the front rank of American novelists complained of neglect and lack of financial support. Yet, among the upper classes, education was not backward. There were no common schools, but excellent academies and colleges supplied their place. Little atten- tion was paid to the sciences in the curriculum of these institutions, and technical edueation was absolutely undeveloped. The whole scheme of training was devised to make orators, who were to move the masses by the charm of the spoken word. The choice of a voca- tion was confined almost exclusively to the pulpit, the bar, and the forum, and on account of the great interest in polities the majority of the educated men preferred to expend their energies in political controversies. The same conditions produced an equally noticeable effeet on the material life of the community. There was little in the way of A PIONEER IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE. 495 manufacture or trade with other sections. The methods of transpor- tation were extremely primitive, and the conservatism of the people created a serious opposition to the building of railways. Each planter had his own carriages, wagons, and carts, and a long trip to market was only a pleasant diversion, time being of slight value. As each plan- tation was an economic unit, very little was necessary in the way of trade. The commercial transactions were largely conducted by barter, and there was little necessity for ready money. Agriculture was the main pursuit, and its main staples—tobacco, cotton, and rice—were confined to this section. Although so much of the life of the com- munity was devoted to agricultural pursuits, the operations of the farm were rarely conducted on business principles, or with any atten- tion to the teachings of sci- ence. The planters could afford to take life easily. Their chief duties were to make long visits to relatives and friends, to ride, fish, and hunt, and, above all, to dis- cuss the affairs of state. EDMUND RUFFIN. It was under such condi- tions as these that Edmund Ruffin lived. He recognized the difficulties inherent in his times, and was not dis- couraged by the conserv- atism against which he labored, being a man of in- dependence and great firm- ness of purpose. Edmund Ruffin was born January 5, 1794, on his father’s plantation in Prince George County, Va. His father was a gentleman of fortune, a typical planter of the olden time. From his earliest youth Edmund was an intelligent reader of the literature of the day, although his reading was rather for amusement than for instruction. As was the custom, his father decided to give him the education due him as the son of a wealthy Virginia gentleman, and with this end in view sent him at the age of 16 to William and Mary College. The change from the quiet life on the plantation to the excitement at college was evi- dently not the best thing for the young planter, for, after an unprofit- able connection with the institution, he finally left under unpleasant circumstances. At this time the war of 1812 broke out, and he enlisted in a volun- teer company, serving from August, 1812, to February, 1813. He left Fic. 128.—Edmund Ruffin. 496 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the army probably on account of his father’s death, which must have taken place at about this time, for in the year 1813 we find him placed in the possession of an extensive estate at Coggins Point, in Prince George County, and he states that, although not of legal age, the ‘‘easy indulgence of his guardian” gave him the control of this property. We must sympathize with Mr. Ruffin in the difficulties under which he labored in his early efforts to make a success of agricultural opera- tions on his estate. Hehad gained no practical knowledge of the field work of agriculture in his youth, and he had therefore to learn the most rudimentary principles. Yet the farm operations were so simple in his day that he soon mastered their details. In his reading he ° chose rather the agricultural writings of the time. These were mostly planned to satisfy other conditions, such as existed on the great estates of England, and much of their teaching was inapplicable to the conditions existing in Virginia. But the perusal of these works gave him an insight into the scientific methods used in other coun- tries, which offered a sharp contrast to the slipshod methods in vogue in his own State. -He saw that the latter were ‘‘ wretched in execu- tion and erroneous in system.” EFFORTS TO INCREASE THE FERTILITY OF THE SOIL. In the same year in which he began his control of the estate there appeared the first book devoted to the discussion of Virginia agricul- ture. This work, written by Col. John Taylor, a prominent planter of Caroline County, was printed in Georgetown, D. C., in 1813, under~ the title, ‘‘Arator: being aseries of Agricultural Essays, Practical and Political * * * byaCitizenof Virginia.” It had previously been published as a series of articles in the ‘‘Spirit of Seventy-six,” in 1809 or 1810. The work at once attained great popularity, and was issued in at least six editions. Colonel Taylor’s views may be sum- marized briefly as follows: The secret of success in agriculture lies in the free use of putrescent vegetable matter as a manure. In the ordinary process of handling such materials as are used for this pur- pose, much of the valuable fertilizing material is lost, being of a gaseous nature and passing off into the atmosphere during the process of putrefaction. The manures should be, therefore, incorporated with the soil before the processes of decay are started, so that this valuable matter may be saved. Too much land js used for grazing. This land should be used rather for the cultivation of crops, and the crops fed to the cattle at once (the modern soiling system). The manure made by the cattle should be at once plowed under, together with the waste from the fodder. Clovers should be largely grown and plowed under to add fertility to the soil. Gypsum will increase the clover yield. Deep plowing should be the rule. It was natural that Mr. Ruffin should at once become an admirer y= ‘se nw A PIONEER IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE. 497 of Taylor’s system of husbandry. He recognized the fact that the exhaustion of the fertility of the soil was the great difficulty with which he had to contend, and welcomed any system calculated te improve it in this respect; but he at once met with difficulties in the attempt to apply the principles to his own practice. His land was not suited to clover, and he found it impossible to get a crop. The soil was shallow, and the ridge system advocated by Taylor subjected the sidehills to injurious loss from washing. Nor did the land respond to the use of vegetable manures to the extent expected. After six years spent in the attempt to apply these principles, meeting with nothing but failure, he was compelled to confess that ‘‘no part of my poor land was more productive than when my labors commenced, and on much of it a tenfold increase had been made of the previously large space of galled and gullied hillside.” At this time Mr. Ruffin had an opportunity of examining a copy of Sir Humphrey Davy’s Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, and nat- urally sought for a reason for the lack of effect of ‘‘ putrescent ma- nures” in his particular region. He found the following passages: If on washing a sterile soil it is found to contain the salts of iron or any acid matter, it may be ameliorated by the application of quicklime. A soil of good apparent texture from Lincolnshire was put into my hands by Sir Joseph Banks as remarkable for sterility. On examining it I found that it con- tained sulphate of iron, and I offered the obvious remedy of top-dressing with lime, which converts the sulphate into amanure. ([Ed. 2, London, 1814, p. 203.] Mr. Ruffin at once saw a parallel between the soil mentioned by Davy and that of his own farm. He tested the soil for the salts of iron, but could not detect a trace of the copperas which he expected to find. In studying over the matter he was attracted by the expres- sion in the first sentence, ‘‘if it is found to contain the salts of iron or any acid matter.” While he recognized the intention of Davy te refer to the mineral acids only, which he knew by direct testing to be absent from the soil of his farm, he conceived the idea that the ste- rility might be due to the presence of organic acids in the soil, which acted as a ‘“‘ poison” to the crops. This view was partially confirme® by the character of the vegetation on the worn-out land in question, which consisted largely of sheep sorrel and similar plants known to contain free vegetable acid. He noticed also that those portions of his land did not respond to a test for lime. His more fertile soils, how- ever, were ‘‘sheily” in character, and there was no trace of the acid plants growing on them. He could not, however, obtain any evidence of a direct nature that the vegetable acids were present in the sterile soils, nor in his extensive reading could he find a single mention of the occurrence of these substances in any soil. The existence of the vegetable or humus acids was not proved until a much later date. From these meager indications Mr. Ruffin drew his theory of the action of lime on the soil, and at once proceeded to put his ideas into- A 95——18 49S YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. practice. He found on his own farm extensive beds of shell marl and decided to use this material, which was cheap and easily accessible in unlimited quantities. The existence of these beds had been well recognized, and a large amount had been burnt into lime for strue- tural purposes. Lime in the form of quicklime, limestone, marl, ete., had been used on the eontinent of Europe for many centuries. There are several instances of earlier use of marl in America, and in the State of Penn- sylvania the use of quicklime had become almost universal. In none of these instances, however, had lime or marl been used with a defi- nite object in view, or with any other purpose than the general im- provement of the land; nor had any experiments been made except in the application of the lime and a guess or inaccurate statement of the increase in yield. EXPERIMENTS IN THE USE OF MARL. Mr. Ruffin began his experiments with marl in February, 1818, excavating a large amount of the mineral and applying it to a portion of a tract of land which had just been cleared of forest growth. The application was made at the rate of 150 to 200 bushels to the acre. From the land thus treated he obtained an increase of 40 per eent over the crop on similar land untreated. Encouraged by this result, he planned more extensive experiments for future years. Without entering into the details of these trials, the result may be stated as overwhelmingly in favor of the use of marl; in some instances the crop from the marled fields was more than twice as great as from the same fields before marling. It is not to be understood that Mr. Ruffin advocated the use of marl alone with the expectation of thus building up the fertility of the soil. His object was rather to bring the soil into such condition as would make it respond to an application of organic manures which had been previously found to be of little value when used on the land in its ordinary condition. He retained as much of the teachings of 'Taylor as placed great stress on the value of vegetable manures, and used every effort to add as much organic matter as possible to the soil on his farm. The experiments were continued for a long series of years, accurate records being kept of the history of each plat of ground, frequent comparisons being made between the measured yields of marled and unmarled fields. Marl was tried with and without manure, and manure was tried with and without marl. The greater the number of experiments and the more numerous the results obtained the greater proof was given that the use of marl was of great advantage. The careful manner in which the experiments were carried on shows him to rank as one of the most intelligent experimenters of his time. The investigations were not confined to mere field trials. The soil of ~ 4 A PIONEER IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE. 499 his plantation was analyzed, the marls used were analyzed, and the results were carefully studied. He searched the literature of every age for mention of the occurrence of marl and the history of its appli- cation to the purposes of agriculture. He was familiar with foreign publications on the subject, not only reading thoroughly, but study- ing, comparing, and making extracts as he found matter worthy of future reexamination. He collected information as to the character and extent of deposits of calcareous substances in his native State, and devoted much time to a study of the best and most economical methods for its exploitation. He figured carefully the cost of apply- ing the marl, and estimated the financial returns from its use. Every line of inquiry which could possibly add to his general stock of information was carefully followed to the very end. HOW MARL INCREASES FERTILITY OF SOIL. His reasons for the use of marl, gained from his experience and study, were two in number. He believed that the addition of marl corrected the natural acidity of the soil, and that it assisted in the preservation of organic manures from loss of the gaseous products of decomposition while hastening the decomposition itself. He fore- shadowed to a great degree the discoveries of later years with refer- ence to the action of soil bacteria; for, as is now well known, certain of the nitrifying organisms in the soil are capable of action only in neutral or alkaline soils, and thrive best in the presence of a small amount of alkali. The sterility of many of the soils in eastern Vir- ginia was probably due to conditions present which are unfavorable to the growth of the nitrifying organisms, owing to the presence of organic acids in the soil. The richest soils in the world contain large quantities of organic matter, and probably some proportion of the humie (organic) acids; but they also contain sufficient lime to unite with these acids, and thus neutralize them to a large extent. The marls first used by Mr. Ruffin were valuable only from their content of lime, no phosphoric acid or potash being present; but later, and especially after his removal to his estate at Marlbourne, in Hanover County, he used greensand, ealled by him ‘‘ gypseous earth,” which contained certain amounts of -potash, and probably also con- tained phosphorie acid. He does not seem to have recognized the value of these ingredients, basing his opinion of the value of these marls on the carbonate of lime contained. We can hardly overlook this mistake, although it was exeusable at a time when the knowledge of agricultural chemistry was extremely limited. The first published article from Mr. Ruffin’s pen was ‘‘An essay on caleareous manures,” in the American Farmer, Vol. III, p. 313 (the number for December 28, 1821). This essay had been prepared and read before a meeting of the Prinee George Agricultural Society, of whieh Ruffin was a member. The essay was afterwards published 500 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in book form, reaching its fifth edition in 1852. From a short article of 7 pages it expanded to a book of 493 pages. It is probably the most thorough piece of work on a special agricultural subject ever published in English. The treatment of the subject is historical, scientific, and practical, exhausting every source of information ayail- able. From the first publication, this essay attracted great attention, and is even now the best authority on certain phases of the subject. As a result of this and other publications by the same author, a large proportion of the farm owners in the tide-water district of Vir- ginia were led to use marl, and, what is more important, were aroused by his example to a sense of the importance of personal attention to the needs of their estates and to details of management. At the time of the publication of the fifth edition of the essay, the effect of his teachings was so plainly evident that attention was called to the matter by the governor of the State in his annual message to the legislature in the following words: The increased value of the lands lying in the tide-water district, as exhibited by the returns of the recent assessment, vindicates the science [of agriculture], and appeals strongly to you for aid and encouragement in its behalf. In 1819 the lands in this district were valued in the aggregate at the sum of $71,496,997, and in 1838 at $60,704,053.20, exhibiting a decrease in value during the nineteen years that intervened to the enormous amount of $10,792,943.80. And yet these same lands were recently assessed at the sum of $77,964,574.52, showing an increase in their value during the last twelve years of $17,260,521.32. This remarkable and gratifying change in the value of these lands can not be attributed to any extent to benefits resulting from the works of internal improve- ment, for thus far these improvements have been chiefiy confined to other sections of the State. And in vain do we look for a solution of this problem, unless we remember that for several years past the enterprising citizens of this section of the State have been devoting themselves to the subject of agricultural improve- ment; and by the proper application of compost, marl, and other manures, and the use of other means which a knowledge of this branch of education has placed at their command, they have redeemed, and made productive and valuable, lands heretofore worn out by an improper mode of cultivation, and consequently aban- doned by the farmer as worthless and unfit for agricultural purposes. FARMERS’ REGISTER. Early in the year 1833 Mr. Ruffin issued, as editor and proprietor, the first number of the Farmers’ Register, a monthly agricultural magazine of 64 pages of reading matter. In the editorial column of the first number, after calling attention to the low state of agriculture in Virginia, and discussing the reasons for the same, he announces that the journal is started to serve as a medium of exchange between the farmers of the State, and that this shall be the chief feature. The Farmers’ Register was published for ten years, the second volume being printed on the estate of Mr. Ruffin at Marlbourne (Shellbanks) ; the subscription price was $5. The influence of this journal on the agriculture of the State was very great, the tone was high, and the articles were carefully written, or selected from the better class of Pr A PIONEER IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE. 5OL agricultural publications. Nearly half of the reading matter came from Mr. Ruffin’s pen, and the subjects on which he expressed him- self were extremely diverse in character. Although much of the matter published in the Farmers’ Register had a direct bearing on the marl question, nearly every issue con- taining something on the editor’s favorite hobby, yet it was not by any means the only subject discussed. Every conceivable question in which the farmers of the State might be interested, or which could affect their welfare in the least, was carefully treated. Much atten- tion was given to the development of roads and railways in the State. Much was written on the slavery question. Agricultural education was discussed at length. But the operations of a practical character, the field work of the farmer, received the greatest attention. The difficulties attending the publication of such a paper at this period were at best discouraging. Mr. Ruffin complains with reason of the delay in the delivery of his paper, which in one instance required fourteen days to reach a subscriber at a distance of 180 miles. The first volume was printed on poor paper, although it is now in far better condition than can be hoped for a copy of the ordi- nary agricultural paper of to-day at the end of a similar period. He suffered from the delinquent subscriber, and from the subscriber who thought that the price should be reduced. He attempted, as has already been stated, to print the paper on his estate in Hanover County, but probably found the task too great, as the third and sub- sequent volumes were printed at Petersburg. As appendixes to the Farmers’ Register were printed the seventh edition of Arator, in 1840, the Westover Manuscripts, in 1841-42, and the third edition of the Essay on Calcareous Manures, in 1842. This was done to insure the wide distribution of these works, and inci- dentally to save cost of transmission. PUBLIC SERVICES OF MR. RUFFIN. At the meeting of the legislature of the State in 1841, a State board of agriculture was organized and Mr. Ruffin was elected a member; in December of that year he was selected secretary and held that position for a year. In 1842, the State of South Carolina having made an appropriation for an agricultural surveyor, Mr. Ruffin accepted the position and published, in the following year, his first report, being mostly a statement of the occurrence of beds of marl in the State and a plea for the drainage and reclamation of the swamp lands. On his return to Virginia he was instrumental in founding the Virginia State Agricultural Society and was elected the first president. He advocated, with others, the establishment of a State commissioner of agriculture, with a good salary, and the right to employ certain scien- tific assistants, but the plan did not meet with the approval of the legislature. At various periods during his life he was connected with 502 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. loeal agricultural societies, and by his earnestness and enthusiasm aroused much interest in cooperative work. Mr. Ruffin was an enthusiastic advocate of higher education, sug- gesting the establishment of an agricultural college supported by the State. In the main, the details of his plan were such as are in opera- tion in the agricultural colleges of the present, except that the stu- dents might pay all their expenses by work in the experimental fields connected with the college. The experience of past years has shown this to be impossible. An essay on the subject of agricultural edu- cation, published at Richmond in 1853, won a prize offered by the State Agricultural Society. As was usual with the prominent men of Virginia, Mr. Ruffin took great interest in the political affairs of his native State.. In 1824 he was elected to the senate of Virginia, and served three years. In 1841 he published Observations on the Abuses of the Banking Sys- tem, and in the following year at least six numbers of a periodical publication under the name Bank Reformer. These works were ealled forth by the financial agitation of the time. In 1855 a collection of the more important agricultural writings of Mr. Ruffin, previously published in various periodicals, were gathered together in Essays and Notes on Agriculture. This ineluded an essay on drainage, a prize essay on the Southern cowpea, a discussion of remedies for malaria, and articles on the culture and uses of clover, method of harvesting wheat, the moth weevil, prairies, deserts, peat bogs, usefulness of snakes. This list illustrates the versatility of the man, but can give no idea of the real value of each article or the eon- cise and easy style of the author. The good resulting from the agricultural teachings of this man would to-day be more evident had not the war left the State of Vir- ginia in a very depressed condition. The use of marl, once so com- mon, has been displaced to a large extent by commercial fertilizers. The cheap slave labor made it possible to obtain marl at slight cost; it does not now pay to carry it to any distance. Most of the men whose energies were spurred to new effort by his ready pen have passed away; but among the intelligent farmers of the State he is still remembered, and his teachings are often followed by those who have never heard his name nor read what he has written. Edmund Ruffin conducted his experiments with such attention to details and with such a truly seientific method of preparation and planning that we may look on his work as some of the best done in the country. He certainly was ahead of the investigators of the day. He proved by experimentation not only that the practice of the farmer is often ahead of the proof of the theorist, but that the work of the theorist is often of great practical benefit to the farmer. WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AS ILLUSTRATED AT THE ATLANTA EXPOSITION. By Rospert E. WAIT, B. A,, Private Secretary to the Assistant Secretary of Agriculture. It is but adding to the credit of the whole exhibition to record here the opinion expressed by many impartial visitors that the United States Government exhibit was the crowning feature of the Cotton States and International Exposition held at Atlanta, Ga., September 18 to December 31, 1895. It was a recognition of the magnitude and importance of this exposition that the Government, in pursuance of an act of Congress appropriating $200,000 for the purpose, should go to the pains of sending to Atlanta a collection of exhibits so complete and valuable as to equal in quality, if not in quantity, the Govern- ment display at the World’s Columbian Exposition at Chicago. In the Government building, a structure of graceful proportions and in harmony with the prevailing architectural features of the Exposition, containing some 58,000 square feet of floor space, erected at a cost, in round numbers, of $50,000, and occupying a commanding site in a high quarter of the Exposition grounds, were gathered together from the eight Executive Departments of the National Government, the Smithsonian Institution and National Museum, and the United States Fish Commission, such articles and materials as, in the language of the act, ‘illustrate the function and administrative faculty of the Govern- ment.” These distinct and varied exhibits, being under the controlof a single board of management, were so arranged and displayed as to form one attractive and harmonious whole, affording a sufficiently detailed and yet comprehensive ocular demonstration of what our Government has done and is doing for the people of the Unitetl States. One of the most interesting and instructive displays in the Govern- ment building was that of the United States Department of Agricul- ture, the main portion of which occupied 8,000 square feet of floor space near the center of the building. The eye of the visitor enter- ing at the main door fell first, probably, upon a large facsimile of the seal of the Department, illuminated in colors, held by an Ameri- can eagle, hanging over the main aisle. The Department seal, in letters large enough to be easily read, proclaimed the fact that ‘‘ Agri- culture is the foundation of manufacture and commerce,” a statement the truth of which is at once apparent in the exhibits. Proceeding 503 504 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. on a realization of its importance to the people, the Department’s exhibit was collected and arranged with a special view to giving the visitor a clear idea of what the Department of Agriculture is, what it has done, and what it is doing for the agricultural interests of the a 4% OC)... See = were Coe pes aS Po : — 28 Ds - [— Tasects | Tasects ce “* 3 © Ed RI ag = & |> = vs i ao ; 0c | S Gas oe es ca Lt, 5 Tosect “! <. > | 3" 5 root eames = 2° 8 frets I+ . F <, = == Rye =o La > fc xe SS - J = x = = < PRINTING APPARATUS $. 2 /ngpection BUR = 3 3 § jew] [ELE ORNITHOLOGY “AN Birds i MAMMALOGY Fia. 129.—Diagram of exhibit of U. S. Department of Agriculture at Atlanta Exposition. country, as well as some hint of the possibilities of the future. It developed the fact that in the performance of the general purposes of the Department, as stated in the organie act creating it, the scope and character of its work have been from time to time enlarged until ae oe PLATE VIII. ad) hi a Ma, rz ‘Bee af we mu Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1895, VIEW OF EXHIBIT OF U. S. WEATHER BUREAU AT ATLANTA EXPOSITION. - DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AT ATLANTA EXPOSITION. 505 they now embrace many subjects not thought of when the Depart- ment was created, but which scientific research has since shown to be vitally connected with agriculture. It may, therefore, be possible in this place, without attempting a full report or a complete list of its exhibits, to impart some knowledge of the nature and scope of the purpose and work of the Department of Agriculture by glancing at the evidences of some of its actual achievements and its facilities for further usefulness, as they were displayed at the Atlanta Exposition. The complete exhibition by the Department comprised the exhibits (see diagram, fig. 129) of two bureaus and nine divisions in the Goy- ernment building, a good-roads exhibit on the grounds, and an exhibit of the Division of Forestry in the Minerals and Forestry building, all collected and arranged by the chiefs or representatives of the respee- tive bureaus and divisions, under the personal supervision of Dr. Charles W. Dabney, jr., Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, who was appointed to represent the Department of Agriculture on the Board of Management of the United States Government exhibit, and later was designated chairman of the board by President Cleveland. EXHIBIT OF THE WEATHER BUREAU. Man is so dependent upon the weather and so variously affected by it that it is at all times a subject of vital interest to him. Wherever, therefore, he has gathered in communities sufficiently large, the Gov- ernment has provided agencies to inform him accurately not only of the weather conditions immediately surrounding him, but also of those covering the whole country, in order that the coming of a devastating wind, a rain or snow storm, or a cold or hot wave may be announced in time to enable him to prepare for it. All this the Government accomplishes by means of its Weather Bureau, which, owing to the popular interest in the subject and the large number of stations and substations and of voluntary observers in all parts of the country, is probably the best-known agency of the Department of Agriculture. It is not surprising, then, that its exhibit proved a most attractive one. It embraced charts presenting the important features of the climate of the United States; photographs of cloud effects and lightning flashes; standard forms of instruments used by the Weather Bureau, such as anemometers to measure the velocity of the wind, wind vanes, rain gauges, temperature instruments, barometers, and instruments for measuring the duration of sunshine; methods of forecasting weather, and the printing of a daily weather map. These were all explained to visitors by the officials in charge. (See Pl. VIII.) The observant visitor, who had at his home noticed a difference between the temperature reported officially by the Weather Bureau on a hot summer day and that indicated by the thermometer at the corner drug store, found the explanation in the ‘‘ thermometer shelter” exhibited. This consists of a wooden box with louvered A 95 18* 506 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. or slatted sides and double roof, and is employed by the Weather Bureau for the purpose of screening the instruments within from every influence except that of free air that can affect their tempera- ture, such as rain, sunshine, or strongly reflected or radiated heat from any source. A new and improved form of automatic rain gauge, called the “‘tip- _ ping bucket,” illustrated the practical working of one of the devices used by the various Weather Bureau stations throughout the country to measure the rainfall. Another interesting exhibit was a new form of sunshine recorder, which operates on the principle of a differential air thermometer, and by suitable electrical connections produces a record which gives the number of hours and minutes of bright sun- shine. Every day, except Sunday, between the hours of 10 a. m. and 1 p. m., a printing press was in operation, turning off weather charts showing the weather conditions prevailing over the country at 8 o’clock in the morning and giving a forecast of the weather for Atlanta and its vicinity for the sueceeding twenty-four hours. This was a practical illustration of the principal work of the Bureau, to which all its investigations lead. The observations upon which the forecasts and warnings of the Weather Bureau are based are made at the same moment at all sta- tions; that is, daily at 8a. m. and 8 p. m., seventy-fifth meridian time. Reports are immediately telegraphed to the central office at Wash- ington, D. C., over a special arrangement of telegraphic circuits set apart each day at these hours for this purpose. In order to show the methods of forecasting, the Weather Bureau exhibit was equipped with complete forecasting and map-printing sections. Copies of the telegraphic weather reports of the morning observations were received in the forenoon of each week day. The first step in their treatment consisted in the translation of the abbreviated cipher code employed in the telegrams, and the entry of the reports on the map at the point representing the location of the station sending the report. Two sets of lines were then drawn upon the map. The isotherms, or tempera- ture lines, for each 10 degrees of temperature, were in red, and showed in a graphie way the relation between the temperatures of the several portions of the country. The isobars, or atmospheric-pressure lines, for each tenth of an inch of barometric height, were in blue, and enabled one to perceive at a glance the manner in which the air pres- sure is distributed. A map so prepared constituted the original manu- seript weather map for that observation. From it, with reference to similar maps of preceding days, the forecaster prepared the predictions and warnings for his section of the country. At the central office in Washington, the forecast official makes his forecast for the whole country. In forecasting, the air pressure is probably the most important feature to be considered in arriving at DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AT ATLANTA EXPOSITION. 507 an opinion as to what the weather is to be. The force and direction of the wind depend upon this. Under typical conditions, such as exist generally when pronounced wind and rain storms prevail, the air pressure will be low in one portion of the atmosphere and high in another. These regions constitute the so-called “lows,” or cyclones, and ‘‘highs,” or anticyclones, of the meteorologist. Clear and cool weather with light winds is more apt to accompany the ‘‘ high,” while cloudiness and rain or warmer, windy weather occurs with the ‘‘ low.” “‘Lows” and ‘‘highs” never remain stationary for any length of time, but move in the same general way in an easterly direction. F per per per years beginning of crop. duction. of crop. | bushel.| acre. | acre. July 1. Acres. Bushels. Dollars. Cents. Bushele.| Dolls. | Bushels. | Per ct. i aaa 72, 036.465 | 1,619, 496,131 | 591, 625,627 36.5 22.5 8.21 | 66, 489, 529 4.1 i ae , 82, 269 | 1,212, 770, 052 | 554, 719, 162 45.7 19.4 8.86 | 28,585, 405 2.4 _ Aa 82, 075, 830 | 2, 151, 138,580 | 544, 985, 534 25.3 26.2 CY, SORE SSE Production and exports of wheat since 1893, i s for fiscal Totalarea| Total pro- |Totalvalue| Vue | Yield | Value | Exports for fi Year. F r er er ears beginning of crop. | duction. of crop. Seanad. Stel adem A uly 1. Acres. Bushels. Dollars. Cents. | Bushels.| Dolls. Bushels. | Per ct. 1893 -_._.-.----] 34,629,418 | 396,131,725 | 213,171, 381 53.8 11.4 6.16 | 164, 283, 129 41.5 ES Soot ie 34, 882, 436 | 460,267,416 | 225, 902, 025 49.1 13.2 6.48 | 144,812, 718 31.5 TO ab Stine - 34, 047,332 | 467,102,947 | 237, 938, 998 50.9 13.7 6.90 To ee ee Disposition of the corn crop of 1895. Shipped out of county where grown. Retained and con- rae tock on hand : States and Territories. | Crop of 1895. 8 ; sumed in county Mar. 1, 1896. where grown. ; Bushels. Pee Bushels. P.ct.| Bushels. | P.ct. ot 597, 000 208, 950 35 507000: 100). ace ose SR eee New Hampshire --.------ 1, 080, 000 356, 400 33 1, 090;.600-| 400.4 ....2 25. .-- Sa Mermese 2... ....-....- 2,153, 000 968, 850 45 2,156,000 100}. .25..-.. cee Massachusetts --..------ 1, 847, 000 609, 510 33 2,847,000}. 300 |... cae Rhode Island - ---.------ 285, 000 128, 250 45 28D, 000} 100) ..-250. 226 eS Connectient .---..---.-- 1, 768, 000 654, 160 37 1, 768;600:|| 100+) 2.3. sassscaeeeee Mow Work _..........-- 18, 014, 000 7, 565, 880 42 17, 293, 440 96 720, 560 4 New Jersey ---.--------- 9,233, 000 3, 877, 860 42 8, 217,370 89 1, 015, 630 il Pennsylvania. --.---...- 43, 813, 000 16, 970, 070 39 36, 986, 050 85 6, 526, 950 15 ue eee ee 4,281, 000 2, 054, 880 48 2, 568, 600 60 1, 712, 400 40 Maryland... --._---- 16, 531, 000 7, 273, 640 44 11, 241, 080 68 5, 289, 920 32 nes: | ae 32, 607, 000 13, 368, 870 41 27,715, 950 85 4,891, 050 b North Carolina. - 36, 378, 000 18, 552, 780 51 33, 467, 760 92 2,910, 240 8 South Carolina 19, 861, 000 10, 129,110 51 19, 066, 560 96 794, 440 4 Georgia -- 42,173, 000 24, 038, 610 57 39, 220, 890 93 2,952, 110 7 orida-.- 6, 187, 000 3, 093, 500 50 5, 444, 560 88 742, 440 2B Alabama. -- 44, 376, 000 22,188, 000 50 39, 494, 640 89 4,881, 360 11 Mississippi- 35, 977, 000 21, 586, 200 60 34,178, 150 95 1, 798, 850 5 Louisiana . - 22,574, 000 12, 189, 960 54 21, 896, 780 97 677, 220 3 bas: 107, 906, 000 51, 794, 880 48 94, 957, 280 88 | 12,948, 720 R 50, 360, 000 25,180, 000 50 47,338, 400 es 3, 021, 600 6 83, 133, 000 43, 229,160 52 66, 506, 400 80 | 16, 626, 600 20 16, 663, 000 6, 831, 830 41 15, 829, 850 95 833,150 5 93, 939, 000 46, 969, 500 50 79, 848, 150 85 | 14,090,850 15 92, 783, 000 87, 113, 200 40 70, 515, 080 76 | 22,267,920 24 33, 600, 000 11, 088, 000 33 31, 584, 000 94 2,016, 000 6 121, 436, 000 55, 860, 560 46 91,077,000 75 | 30,359, 000 25 255, 137, 000 182, 671, 240 52 163, 287, 680 64 | 91,849, 820 35 , 094, 000 11,582, 900 35 31, 108, 360 OL 1, 985, 640 6 85, 957, 000 17, 618, 930 49 82, 001, 730 89 3, 955, 270 11 298, 503, 000 164, 176, 650 55 202, 982, 040 68 | 95,520, 960 BY 238, 072, 000 138, 081, 7 58 180, 934, 720 76 | 57,137,280 24 204, 760, 000 100, 332, 400 49 153, 570, 060 7> | 51,190,000 ay 125, 685, 000 57,815, 100 465 94, 263, 750 75 |, 31,421, 250 3 12, 423, 000 , 975, 360 82 11, 304, 930 91 1,118, 070 9 659, 000 210, 880 32 645, 820 98 3, 180 2 Li fost ct Cae RE Se Sipe tom 83, 000 3,960 12 = UA lL RR Pa, Sg FE rpoming- 265.5 fs. 2.- 68, 000 13, 600 20 UR ee SSS! SE Cfo fo 8, 691, 000 848, 930 > 3,617, 180 98 73, 820 2 New Mexico..-.......... 733, 000 293, 200 689, 020 94 . 980 6 1 a ees 133, 000 29, 260 22 113, 050 85 19, 950 15 ooo ea ee 181, 000 82, 580 18 175, 570 97 5, 430 3 Uo, Ee eon 51, 000 8,160 16 Or, Cet WOO ec dace oe ate IW Sebi tON ..-.-0--<-<6 93, 000 19, 530 21 §1, 840 88 11, 160 12 Dios 1 SS ee a 354, 000 67, 260 19 346, 920 98 7, 080 2 TRUTOMMIB cs. s50t._ 2, 257, 000 609, 390 27 1, 805, 600 80 451, 400 20 AP Ouele ea ase lk 2,151, 139,000 | 1,072,273, 700 | 49.8 | 1,679,258, 200 | 78.1 | 471,880,800 | 21.9 528 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Disposition of the wheat crop of 1895. $ Consumed in Shipped out of States and Territories. log of 1895. ae ee county where Couey where | << aoe ‘ grown. grown. Bushels. Bushels. | P.ct.| Bushels. | P.ct.| Bushels. | P.ct MGInG .csatwnatnh Goce mecdanses. 84, 000 87, 800 45 84,000:| 100°) [coos eee Why gis, 48, 000 14, 400 80 48,000 | 100 |_-- Soe eee Vy GIUNON Gated a dedcche skeen ase 185, 000 64, 750 35 185,000 | 100° |-c Lice eae i CARS ol Soe ee 7,301, 000 2,920, 400 40 4,818, 660 66 2, 482, 340 Bt INGW OCISOY < senco nas wanceaecan 1,341, 000 402, 300 30 1, 086, 210 81 254, 790 19 Penney lVaNia. 2.24. 2.222.526 20, 456, 000 7, 568, 720 387 | 12,478, 160 61 7, 977, 840 39 PAGE ALS ocak a sae ee are 1, 069, 000 299, 320 28 694, 850 65 374, 150 35 MRLEG IETIG Ss 25 oo senen cere ae 7, 801, 000 1, 716, 220 22 2, 964, 380 388 4,836,620 | 62 WIP SINS .--asie ne da oboe eee 6, 506, 000 1, 756, 620 2 3, 448, 180 53 3, 057, 820 47 North Carolina: 22:2 ..2/52 4, 748, 000 1,471, 880 BL 4,558, 080 96 189, 920 4 South Carolina ==. --t 2-22... $59, 000 197, 57! 23 850, 410 99 8,590 i Gti oie ial: ae, See eenens omupet ire oa. 8 1, 331, 000 252, 890 19 1, 277, 760 96 53, 240 4 Pie th se rae ae an 373, 000 41, 030 11 361, 810 97 11,190 3 MABSISS pie = sof oS eee 37, 000 9, 250 25 36, 260 98 740 2 J ESE) i ga ap ae pct ae 2, 082, 000 291, 480 14 1,519, 860 73 562,140 27 PARR ANRAS eee SS ea 1, 452, 000 450, 120 51 1, 118, 040 77 333, 960 23 MBRNEGSREO he to te 28s see soos 5, 767, 000 1, 211, 070 2 8,575, 540 62 2,191, 460 Bs Wiesh Virginia 5.-..l2o2 2.28 4,304, 000 1, 291, 200 30 8, 357, 120 78 946, 880 22 Lay: (13, co ee eer SRNR | 9,501, 000 2,185, 230 23 5, 130, 540 54 4,370, 460 46 MEIER oot ES eS au ns nat ekee sae 32,216,000 | 10,309,120 82 | 16,752,320 52 | 15,463, 680 48 Teint Ti hee ee ere 15, 238, 000 4,419, 020 29 7,161, 860 47 8, 076, 140 53 LUCE E rir) ea es pecemee sf 20, 294, 000 5, 073, 500 25 9, 335, 240 46 | 10,958, 760 54 PRURIRRCSINS oe 5 ys Sn ecw one 19, 061, 000 4,193, 420 22 7,815,010 41 | 11,245,990 59 VV ECT ee a a 8, 616, 000 3,791, 040 44 6, 462, 75 2, 154, 000 25 TAA OSOLG) 5 oa lo cma = wen a Ho ak 65, 584,000 | 19,675, 200 30 | 17,051, 840 26 | 48,532,160 ves DoS at ew tan epee. ~eee 13, 655, 000 6, 008, 200 44 8, 739, 200 64 4,915, 800 36 Telticg.gg let Sespetil i at S Sii ee ri 18, 500, 000 4,810, 000 26 8, 325, 000 45 | 10,175,000 55 USES Es Se 2 ok Sea i a oe 2 22, 919, 000 4,583, 800 20 | 11,001,120 48 | 11,917,880 52 HWeSEIPOREY Sos | esas eae 14, 787,000 5, 619, 060 38 7, 984, 980 5 6, 802, 020 46 Bout Dakotas 5.22 2220.- 2e 29, 261, 000 6, 730, 030 23 8, 485, 690 29 | 20,775,310 71 North: Dakote .-.. 2222-222 61,058,000 | 12,822,180 21 | 10,879, 860 17 | 50,678,140 83 Lhe: 11 a eT eee eS 1, 065, 000 426, 000 40 1,065, G00 }\ 100); 22 ssseeee cee oan WORE: 2. cae. ees 198, 000 59, 400 30 178, 200 90 19, 800 10 Br Leva ke Weep On Oy gee 2, 808, 000 533, 520 19 1, 965, 600 70 842, 400 30 DNGW MLO RCO, - oF cli seek 809, 000 242, 700 30 728, 100 90 80, 900 10 PAIZAR A foe od eee aa ee 251, 000 65, 260 26 223, 390 89 27,610 il insite Gate ne oS kS ee 2, 443, 000 879, 489 36 1, 587, 950 65 855, 050 35 Newgate: $s. 8.22352)" 5) eee 3 23, 000 49, 200 40 11, 980 91 11, 070 9 TSENG eles ee BE Se 1, 222, 000 366, 600 30 574, 340 47 647, 660 53 VES VOn. 352-2 258) 2h usta) ets 190, 000 1, 583, 120 22 2,158, 800 30 5, 037, 200 70 Ohta: OS eS ae ame ee 11, 863, 000 38, 203, 010 27 4, 863, 830 41 6,999, 170 59 RUILORR Li. 2... bose oe Sct 40, 098, 000 5, 212, 740 13 | 11,227, 440 28 | 28,870,560 72 DEAL Tey 7 ae ee ee 2,593, 000 207, 440 8 1, 970, 680 7 622, 320 24 1759 a ee 467,103,000 | 123,045,290 | 26.3 | 198,742,240 | 41.5 | 273,360, 58.5 Changes in crop area. The following table shows the number of acres devoted to certain principal crops for every 1,000 acres of improved land in 1879 and 1889, as determined by the Tenth and Eleventh censuses : 5 hy 2 Increase or . m Increase or Crop. 1879. | 1889. Aaoyadae: Crop. 1879. | 1889. decrease. Acres.| Acres. Acres. Acres.| Acres, Acres. COPD c.asccnees-.-| 219.0 | 201.6) | Deoorease:.. 17.4 || Elay ....scecsc 107.6 | 148.1 | Increase ... 40.5 CC ae 124.4 | 93.9 | Decrease.. 30.5 || Cotton.......-. 50.7 | 56.2 | Increase... 5.5 SSS ees ae 56.7 | 79.2 | Increase .. 22.5 wee - od (ee 730 9.0 | Increase... 2.0 Total area | 574.9 | 596.5 | Netinerease 21.6 Lp Pe ie 6.5 6.1 | Decrease... .4 inthese Buckwheat..... 3.0 2.4} Decrease... .6 products. It is thus shown that for every 1,000 acres of improved land in 1889 there were 48.9 fewer acres in corn, wheat, rye, and buckwheat, and 70.5 more in oats, hay, barley, and cotton than for the corresponding area in 1879. . ; : ; 7 STATISTICS OF THE PRINCIPAL CROPS. 529 Acreage, production, and value of oats and barley in 1895. Oats. Barley. TE gS a (a es Acres. Bushels. | Value. Acres. Bushels. | Value. Maine wen eeeennee- 138, 441 5,551,484 | $1, 887,505 12, 607 408, 467 $212, 403 New Hampshire 29, 651 1, 094, 122 382, 943 5, 335 136, 576 76, 483 Vermont --.....-- 116, 452 5, 100, 593 1, 683, 197 18, 668 619, 778 291, 296 Massachusetts 15, 274 549, 864 186, 954 1, 839 41,378 26, 895 ‘Rhode Island - J : 3, 765 121, 986 47,575 381 8, 954 6,716 @ontiecticut.—-.-..-...<-.- 23, 267 742,217 SAA Sd [Sees SI) PS epee) eee te eee ewe © Oke) —.-.......... 1, 440, 57 45,666,354 | 12,786,579 239,005 | 5,473,215 / 4, 433, 3504 Mey Gersey ---..--'---..-- LCE @ SUT Td a a 87 51 | ee ES Cee oa Pennsylvania ......._...-- 1, 152,565 | 86,536,311 86-4, S04 12, 814 258, 843 106, 126 JIS ne 24, B44 468, 790 Ye ee eee se bis 5 eee | 2) | ees 88,550 | 2,820,010 ES aaa REE Sea as cee a 459, 043 8,125, 061 ar ie AS | a S| ee ess eee TS North Carolina ..-.......- 506,777 | 7,652,383 | 2,907,887 |-...--.-----|-.----.---.. [en Bootn Carolina -_........- 288, 837 4,390, 322 A a eS eS eee a | oe es 2 i le 460, 624 6, 679, 048 ALA 4 ae Be SS ee fee er eS Ib 7i 0 SES ee er 39, 836 406, 327 i SL ee ene eee Ree, es] Pee ea se! * eas) = 2----------=----- 349, 676 5, 210, 172 AT A ea |r Cais Al see 8 To Jot: 0 a rrr 132, 281 2,076, 812 1M) ees eS ae &. SERS Cit 38, 38 575, T45 ie 1 ae eal See ISS ae ee ae Ji CS 703, 825 | 14,569,178 3, 787, 986 2, 484 53, 654 | 28,973 Lh 327, 027 8, 306, 486 AGT ALY eee SESE TTS OS re | Pane ane Wennesses.-----------.-.-- 454,887 | 10, 234, 958 2,763, 489 2,491 57, 542 28,771 West Virginia. ----..-..--- 151, 253 3, 539, 320 i sepobe! Po na ees cee ee Seen eiey ss--. ~~. - ---- 505,819 | 13, 252, 458 3, 445, 689 2, 672 88, 978 33, 812 (Uh. 990,678 | 31,404,493 6, 908, 988 29, 244 824, 681 338,119 JOG) 973,439 | 23,265,192 5, 350, 994 69,356 | 1,255,344 539.798 Jou 3s 1, 130,812 | 25,895,595 5,179,119 6,811 102, 165 40, 866 Lio 3, 020,784 | 73,707,130 | 12,530,212 17, 645 352, 900 158, 805 isch 1, 864,505 | 63,020,269 | 11,343, 648 370,938 | 10, 868, 483 8, 695, 284 Mgariesota.!__...->-.------ 1,954, 764 | 77,995,084 | 10,919,312 484,369 | 17,437, 284 4,184, 948 ee 3, 960, 332 | 182,967,338 | 25,615, 427 453, 031 | 12, 684, 868 2,917, 520 Litt 1,102,805 | 30,547,699 5, 498, 586 940 14, 382 6,903 Coo Se 1, 680, 223 | 30,075, 992 5, 112,919 17, 942 258, 365 59, 424 LS. = 1,676, 962 | 39,911,696 5, 587, 637 49,051 | 1,393, 048 334, 332 Sonth Dakota _..-.-..-.-.- 717,580 | 18,154, 774 8, 122, 621 130,445 | 2,543,678 483, 299 North Dakota. .--.--.-.---- 594,016 | 19,067,914 3, 050, 866 fy | 8, 839, 286 1, 767, 857 Jin 68, 326 2, 446, 071 1, 076, 271 5, 701 142, 525 84, 090 We wom =-..---.-=-:.-.-- 14,175 581,175 220, B08 Woo ace cckentea see ee eee Co 1c a 98, 812 3, 389, 252 948, 991 14, 290 447,277 268, 366 New Mexico —~..-........- 9, 869 3 177, 198 1, 852 51, 856 35, 262 i 2h ee EE) SS eee ro ee eee 10, 165 261, 241 182, 869 ofr i a 27, 407 926, 357 77, 907 6, 366 190, 980 74, 482 a eS a eee ee ae eee ae 8, 150 262, 578 131, 289 CODD 4 a 31,317 1, 102, 358 319, 684 10, 606 259, 847 109, 136 Washinptons:—.--.--=.---- 91,116 3, 671, 975 1, 028, 153 52,070 | 1,942,211 738, 040 00 2 ea 251, 423 7, 240, 982 1, 955, 065 34, 782 768, 682 307, 473 Gr 60, 144 1, 690, 046 659, 118 937,127 | 19, 023, 678 7,609, 471 SEE crs 55 27,878,406 | 824, 443,537 | 163,655,068 | 3,299,973 | 87,072,744 | 29,312,413 Production of oats since 1893. ‘ Average | Average | Averages Your Total pro- | Total area | Total value valtia mer | yield per | | ‘wales : duction. of crop. of crop. Onahol y Pat enamel Bushels. Acres. Dollars. Cents. Bushels. | Dollars. UT Se 638, 854, 850 27, 273,083 | 187,567,092 29. 4 23.4 6.88 LL SS eee 662, 036, 928 27,023,553 | 214,816,920 32.4 24.5 7.95 Col SS oe ee 824, 443, 537 27,878,406 | 163, 655, 068 19.9 29.6 5.87 Our exports of oats (including oatmeal reduced at the rate of 18 pounds to the bushel) rarely exceed 1 per cent of the total crop, the highest ratio, nearly 2 per cent for the fiscal year 1889-90, having followed the very large crop of 1889, the largest recorded until 1895. The export of oatmeal during the six months ending Decem- ber, 1895, exceeded that of any entire fiscal year since 1886. The barley acreage in 1895 was the largest on record, and the average yield per acre was the highest in a quarter century. A 95 19 530 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Wheat crop of the world, 1891 to 1895. Countries. 1894. 1895. _ Bushels. | Bushels. RIZINCES SS CBUGR) «re a SS acess , 267, 467, 103,000 Cangda - <6 seco - - 52 = - + -- =e 44,583,000} 57,460,000 Mexico -......-.--=---- - se0o2-------= 18, 000,000} 14, 000, 000 Total North America -------- 538, 563, 000 AE ROCUDE os isis ore en ao ie oo 000 000; 80,000,000} 60,600,600 Uruguay ---------------------------- 8, 915, 000 , 000, atte ss Sie ates sc aett ee 16,000,000} 15,000, 000 Total South America. -.....-- 000} 104,915,000) 85,000,000 RUSE ID -< Sates cess e nessuizouien eas 50,174,000) 43,660,000] 48,190,000} 41, 200,000 RUN BAR dee es score atocceeas a= 139, 294, 000} 142,558,000) 158,425,000) 141,853,000} 146, 000, 000 OGroatia-Slavonia a. eos se esses 6, 597, 000 7,071, 000 8, 223, 000) 8, 786, 000 6, 200, 000 Bosnia-Herzegovina......---------- 1, 800, 000 2,000, 000 2,000, 000) 2,000, 2, 000, 600 MODLENOCLNG - 2. 5.825. - doesn aoa se 220, 000) 250, 000 250, 000 250, 000 220, 090 Sie 5 dt: See an eee ae See See e & 8,000, 006} 10, 000, 000 8, 651, 000 7,500, 000 9, 400, 000 PG MN ABMs a yess oaeatd seen cera 48,491,000} 63,942,000} 60,115,000) 43,587,000} 68,508, 000 Purkey in Europe. ...--<-<-----= 22,500,000} 20,000,000} 20,000, 20,000,000} 21,500, 000 Tech ge aE ils SEO 2 40,902,000} 40,441,000} 35,987,000} 30,600,000} 37,000,000 CECCNCO ok < ot Sates 5 tha eee 5, 675, 000 4, 500, 000 6, 500, 000 5, 500, 000 4,000, 000 Cee soe rate ae ee 141, 466,000} 115,685,000} 135,227,000) 121,595,000} 106,181,000 Spain ....-- 71,349,000} 82,288,000} 93,484,000) 105,600,000} 92, 000,000 Portugal-._ 7, 000, 000 6, 000, 000 5, 500, 000) 9, 000, 000 7, 000, 000 France 219, 261, 310, 836, 277,509,000} 847,537,000} 339,129,000 Switzerland 2,500, 000 4, 000, 000) 3, 300, 000 4,500, 000 5,000, 000 Germany --.- 85,.750, 000} 116,215,000} 110,040,000] 110,681,000} 110, 600, 000 Belgium 16,500,000} 19,500,000} 17,300,000] —19;800,000] 18,000, 000 Netheriands 3, 504, 000) 5, 380, 000) 4,971, 000) 4,346, 000 000, 006 Great Britain 74. 401.000} 60, 407,000} 50,800,000! 61,038,000} 88, 348, 000 Treland 2, 615, 000 2, 214, 000) 1, 666, 060 1, 532, 000) 1, 109, 600 MGT een a Eee 4, 666, 4, 964, 000 4, 661, 000 4, 162, 000 500, 000 oo 1 eS Sap Om Plo ee ont © 4,341, 000 4,343,000}. 3,893, 000 4, 467, 000) 798, 000 Cee ea, ee ee LEE ae SLOT TE 250, 000! 250, 000 275, 000 275, 000 260, 000 uses In. Mure pene - se aoe - - 253, 576, 000 000} 418,225,000} 376, 885,000 Total HUPOpe - 2-2-5: c22- 2228 1, 201, 732, 000}1, 410,588, 000)1, 514, 298, 000}1, 521, 029, 000)1, 443, 233, 600 PBiiHas 11) AONE. eo a6 Seo sen Seco | 64,747,000} 72,000,000} - 76,997,000) 87,608,000) 83,499,000 Sy i eS Se reer S 256, 704, 000} 206, 268,539, 000} 252, 784,000} 234,379,000 Misiatic Tur bey ----~—soa- = 2 45,000,000} 44, 48,000,000} 45,000,000} 46, 000, Persia 20,630,000) 18, 20,000,000} 22,000,000} 22,000, Japan 1 le; 16,848,000} 16,000,000) 16,500,000 Cyprus 2; 2,000, 000) 2, 000, 000 2, 200, 000 SRG ta IN MR. ai 55 fee oe 358, 9 432,384,000) 425,392,000) 404,578,000 Te | eee aE ES aoe ae ee 8, 10,000,000} 12,000,000} 14,000, 000 TERI soe Ras ate ap See ee 8, 4,000,000} 10, 700, 000 7, 500, 000 ERI en are nets oe Ses conan we 19, 20, 274, 000) , 900, 000} = 24, 800, 000 ADO OLN ys on a oss ci vawnainaennee 3, 4, 014, 000 3, 195, 000 2,542, 000 Pobelentr iChat ase opeeans aces 39,731,000} 38,288,000} 54,795,000) 48, 842, 000 New South Wales........-...------ 4, 089, 000) 7, 082, 000 6, 708, 000) 7, 263, 000 TY RIE NGG oS Salons 2 Best abe keg 14,110,000} 15,282,000} 15,736,000} 11, 807, 000 South Austratia. .....-.....-..--- 6, 639, 000 9, 531, 000 , 047, 000) 8, 027, 000 Western Australia. .......--...---- 305, 000 443, 000 537, 000 176, 000 STEROID = oc sw wa) ees cn cole ee ep 57, 1, 051, 000) 860, 000 899, 000 Dl a Sore caer 10,581, 000 8, 642, 000 5, 046, 000) 8, 727, 000 GPGDOTNSIONG ave necauesawe econ nerdee 405, 000) 477, 000 000 562, 000 Total Australasia ...........- 38, 875, 37,096,000} 42,458, 000 82, 461, 000 Recapitulation by continents: North America. -...-.--.--...-- 453, 782, 538, 563,000 South Americas .......----...- 4 85, 000, 000 | ee = Sra h 443, 233, 000 ASIA. 222.2 eo eeee ee eee-aeee------} 407,358,000) 358, 948,000) 402, 384, 404, 578, 000 ECG ois cin acter tees ew nnl) Wb, 1Be, 000). SB, 75m, 38, 288, 48, 842, 000 Astras... sn decu Mibexwnees 33, 875, 000} 87,096,000} 42, 458, 82, 461, 000 Grand total... ...-. ee 1, 635 89, 925 89, 925 6, 719 10, 230 136, 004 Alabama --.-............-- 6, 859 480, 130 388, 905- 74, 987 116, 980 1, 194, 366 PEEISEID DL --— ~~ --.-- 6, 262 363, 196 232, 445. 76, 119 148, 432 1, 439, 790 Looe ae 9,301 827, 789 596, 008 , 89T 74, 532 718, 483 ol 14, 338 1, 276, 082 995, 344 457, 214 676, 677 4, 251, 083 i... ae - 21,090 1,476, 300 752, 913 178, 663 214, 396 1, 987,451 Wenrossed-.-...--.....-..- 38,177 2, 443, 328 977, 331 396, 314 550, 876 5, 965, 987 WestVirginia._.......... 33, 299 2, 297, 631 965, 005- 475, 246 337, 425 4,295, 420 MembtCwy o.....--.------- 45, 444 8, 908, 184 1, 524, 192 513, 865 693, 718 7,589, 275 OL ese 208, 048 | 13,107,024} 4,194,248 | 1,803,558 | 1,046,064 | 13,347,777 La; 236,797 | 28,916,497 3,826, 640, 1,243, 043 720, 968 9, 487,471 Vo 105, 236 6, 945, 576 2,153,129 | 1,566, 763 955,725 | 11,497,372 (0 SU ea 178,561 | 13,749,197 4,124,759 | 1,998,686 | 1,319,133! 13,521, m3 Wisconsin._..............-.. 479,720 | 19,230,040 3,269,107 | 1,556,961 | 1,370,126 | 13,194,313 Whi.) a 151,842 | 23,991,036 3,358, 745 | 1,570,591 | 2,041,7 10, 453, 852 D2 es 201,330 | 21,340,980 4,054,786 | 4,270,910 | 4,612.5 29, 751, 141 fon ci 98,764 | 10,765,276 2,691,319 | 2,329,731 | 2,725,785 | 18,535, 338 Doo oD ee 109, 295 7, 869, 240 3,305,081 | 3,372,007 | 4,181,289 | 13,631,002 ly) le 119, 319 7, 994, 373 2,398,312 | 1,829,752 | 1,811, 454 6, 448, 776 South Dakota--........-.- , 169 4, 037, 154 1, 049, 660 | 1,959,200] 1,547, 768 5, 092, 157 North Dakota-.---..-..----- , 566 5, 192, 448 882, 716 412, 237 585, 377 2,087,112 PO a 288, 426 138, 444 311, 337 2, 657 3, 336, 290 Mo lt 275, 800 154, 448 236, 003 254, 883 1, 656, 740 Conrnio.—....__..--.~---- 3,491, 820 1, 152, 301 810,408 | 1,961,187 | 11,512,168 ew Maxico _...........— 59, 360 37, 397 46, 221 , 637 965, 096 oi. Saas 29,118 17,471 34, 408 63, 655 572, 895 (lo. ae 191 1,064, 852 362, 050. 79, 575 459, 712 2, 422, 682 LS 420 213, 000 , 940 155, 138 466, 965. 3, 152, 014 i] J a aS | 888 408, 240 163, 296 178, 832 459, 598 2, 872, 483 Washington... --....-- 193 2, 412, 757 675,572 324, 472 600, 273 4, 051, 343 oS aa 17, 571 1, 124, 544 438, 572 655,149 | 1,166,165 7, 136, 930 Culifornia _.......--.--..- 25,179 1, 888, 425. ,444 | 1,681,753} 2,791,710} 19,709,473 “nS ee ee 297, 237,370 | 78,984,901 | 44,206,453 | 47,078,541 | 393, 185, 615. Aercage, production, and value of potatoes and hay in the United States for the years 1898-1895. Potatoes. Hay. Acres. Bushels. 2,605,186 | 183, 034,203 | $108,661,801 | 49,613,469 | 65,766,158 | $570,882,872 . 2,737,973 | 170,787,338 91,526,787 | 48,321,272 | 54,874, 408 463, 578, 321 2,954,952 | 297,237,370 78,984,901 | 44,206,453 | 47,078, 541 393, 185, 615 Value. Acres. Tons. Value. No estimates concerning these products were made by the Department of Agriculture for the Fears 1880-1802. 532 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Acreage, production, etc., of the cotton crop of 1894. La Movement | Remainin by railand | on plantas Bought by Bales = mills from States and Territories. Acres. Bales. per bs ala Se tions and at peters acre %, * 11894, to April |towns, April ee 1, 1895. 1,1 1, 1895. Bales. Bales. — WEN 0): RP er 2, 664, , 122 0. 32 76, 905 389, 5) Cid Ea Ce es See 1, 483, 319 709, 722 48 9, 462 as (Ee LE eae eel 201, 621 48, 005 «24 46,573 |. Gases oot. SRE 5 Fo oo oh ane 3,610,968 | 1,183, 924 .33 966, 291 155, 543 Indian Territory ---------- 233, 898 104, 887 Po) 104,414] _ “@7S eee OTIS = oS e tn ecm 168 67 40) | OT a ee envuCk sy... ca2 S585 osboee 8, 243 2, 685 .o3 2, 685 |... cocoon eee POMINIRNA bee ace oee 1, 313, 296 721, 591 .55 677, 843 9, 544 URIS ST: S14 0] 61 Roe ae RES Soe 2,826,272 | 1,167,881 «AL 1, 109, 123 12, 746 {ibii apts Cie eee OR eS 63, 696 24, 114 -38 23, Pies ee North Carolina --..------- 1, 296, 522 454, 920 .B5 277, 862 145, 982 CELA PES SG SR i ao 28, 13, 001 45 12,715} 20 See South Carolina.......----- 2,160, 391 818, 330 . 38 571,176 212, 826 LP STS RS ae eas Be 879, 954 286, 630 .33 261, 095 18, 563 et ae ee os Ae 6, 854,621 | 3,073, 821 «45 2,976, 048 7, 076 ROL =. J Ostet ck eee 61, 128 12, 735 21 12,080 | «-«- > a eeeeeeee RULE Sen ete ene 23, 687,950 | 9,476, 435 40 8, 488, 659 602, 896 The mill purchases shown in the last column of the foregoing table include onl the cotton bouglit by Southern mills in the States in which they are located. To arrive at the total Southern mill purchases, there should be added 43,232 bales purchased in States other than those in which the mills are situated, and included in the movement by rail and water. Acreage, production, and value of tobacco in 1895. Tobacco. State. _——————— eran Acres. | Pounds. Value. MBSSaChUsebtiss si 225 fsbo nsd eo55 kl oe ceste wcsoescneeeee eae 1,975 3,160, 000 $442, 400 Mpnnecticut.<:é2s2s~ 2.28 -/leue kee oe eee ee 6,579 9, 928, 000 1, 638, 120 IBY Ae OF 2 ace Seto te 2s = Same = se ee eee na eee ee , 790 3, 722, 000 3 ents Y LVANISs ccd estes s cs a5 - oot ak so eee eee 15, 600 14, 305, 000 1, 058, 570 Mev iend | 2522S so oe on re oo oS Se ee 15, 233 12, 796, 000 742, 168 RIAA = oS ee a 28 so ae eee eee 88, 463 53,482,000 | 4,274,560 North Carolina 143,156 | 114,525,000 | 10,536,300 PR AINE sc a cS aes ode se ese eee uiee tes oe ease Cena eee , B84 1, 092, 000 98, 280 Arkansas 207 2, 238, 000 264, O84 Tennessee . 890 43, 220, 000 3, 025, 400 West Virginia , 849 2,527,000 283, 024 Kentucky --- ,574 | 179,753,000 9, 526, 909 IO sha 5. 253 ,969 | 25,358, 000 1,318, 616 Indiana --... 435 8, 760, 000 770, 880 MRIONG os os cede aS ann en wed wei eer ee ee ee 4,591 3, 076, 000 246, 080 MV INCONSIT So 06e = oe Sh sas wen doe cee cee ee 8,975 8, 284, 000 213,517 PIBSOREL Ls = dsb oa cack oc occ easde cess seer eae hee en ee 10, 580 8,718, 000 758, 466 Al other: States 2222 wis ones tie ee sa ae See once meee 3, 750 1, 650, 000 123, 750 POUR od 2k DS baci dacs oe eae ede eee 633,950 | 491,544,000 | 35, 574, 220 “Average farm price of various agricultural products on December 1 in each year ; Srom 1886 to 1895, a | | | | TT a Eee . ig - B04 298 oT are ore iy ee 442 . 522 530 Buckwheat ...........do....| .452 | .556| .583 | .684) .57 “ 561 - 44 Irish potatoes ........ do....| .266| .6386) .600] .673| .871| .777| .4038) . 685 +450 ee Nedra ated dae cere per ton..| 8.35 | 8.54 | 8.68 | 8.49 | 8.39 | 7.74 | 7.88 |....... 9. B4 7.36 Cotton .........per pound..| .076| .046 | .070| .084] .073] .086] .083} .085} .085 - O81 Leaf tobacco .........do....| .069} .068| .081 }....... 064.) .O77 |) SOTKieeeewe 103 ~ 069 STATISTICS OF FARM ANIMALS. 533 Estimated number of horses and mules on farms and ranches, average price per head, and total value of each kind, January, 1896. Horses. Mules. States and Territories. ~ Average r = Average Number. prico. Value. Number. price. | Value. Mammo.) . .--- ee ee 116, 592 $53. 57 E.R) el El en Seren ope ae New Hampshire ---..---.--- 55, 589 49.51 RV di. te Ee SR ere | ESOS SET AEE 2 hie OSS eS eee 91, 999 44, 24 PC. 0 Se RS) SPREE bce Pau ae Massachusetts - ¥ 65, 102 72.49 v ENGL RC: 55) a ee ee ea es Pe a ee Rhode Island- i 10, 029 77.00 Vy CR SRS eae re) A eile ta ER EO a Connecticut 43, 913 66.55 CR A SES RE ae SOPs RS poe es New York. - 654, 045 47.77 81, 246, 088 4, 674 $59. 42 $277, 737 New Jersey -- 82, 437 65.47 5, 397, 256 7, 886 84.51 666, 480 Pennsylvania 607, 516 47.13 28, 629, 629 36, 509 60.7. 2,216, 993 Delaware-.-.-.- 29, 974 52. 68 1,578, 881 5, 269 66. 07 348, 140 Maryland -- 134,995 | 44.75 | 6,040,939 13,213 | 61.02 806, 321 Virginia - .... 246, 046 39. 86 9, 808, 229 55. 80 2,134, 133 North Carolina 144, 095 54. 36 7, 833, 392 110, 860 59.31 6, 574, 729 South Carolina aac 64,514 59. 01 3, 806, 977 95, 955 73. 70 7, 071, 663 [Lo 109, 185 52.90 5, 775, 859 166, 040 67.50 11, 207, 968 [0010 7) i. i 35, 162 50. 09 1, 761, 225 8, 357 65. 09 543, 916 eeeia.............--.-2:-- 128,836 | 42.52] 5,456,987] 127,195] 53.19 6, 765, 542 LOS ti) eer 182, 777 39.77 7, 269, 553 153, 877 51.50 7, 924, 027 Lio ei 137, 344 35.45 4, 868, 336 90, 040 56. 30 5, 068, 858 CS... 2 ee 1, 183, 777 20. 72 24, 528, 683 264, 069 84. 56 9, 125, 298 J i 235, 618 32.76 7, 719, 845 145,519 43.39 6, 313, 361 ied Ga a 344, 440 89. 95 138, 758, 944 182, 139 42.05 7, 659, 823 MRCS rVOrPInia.. 2.0.5... 161, 352 32. 92 5, 311, 241 7, 601 43. 28 828, 963 | a 417, 582 84. 78 14, 521, 752 131, 297 36.10 4, 740, 184 lib... 2 ee 771, 355 37.88 29, 218, 761 19, 475 41.18 801, 980 Lor i es 454, 610 44. 74 20, 340, 685 3, 47.19 142, 802 LIC ee 694 34.18 23, 732, 946 50, 431 37.77 1, 904, 802 Uhgcd: a a n 1,179, 072 29. 26 34, 502, 959 97, 453 36. 24 3, 531, 725 os onc 2 eee 442, 853 42.19 18, 683, 229 4, 925 44. OL 216, 880 Litt Gt) (ae 488, 647 88. 44 18, 783, 990 8, 991 46.99 422, 526 Uo a 1, 182, 056 28.79 34, 032, 583 34, O44 36.13 1, 230, 083 Lotto SS ae 918, 415 25.09 23, 039, 549 231, 684 29. 84 6, 914, 427 Lon eS 857, 789 24.03 20, 609, 057 87,520 32. 52 2, 845, 995 Lolo pice ee 25. 70 16, 259, 065 43, 709 35. 62 1,556, 735 Bourn Dakota -............-- 287, 896 26.31 7,575, 013 6, 937 33. 26 230, 727 Horcy Dakote...-...-....... 170, 104 34.18 5,814, 212 7, 607 54. 72 416, 232 Jn ci a 182, 605 21. 94 4, 005, 441 994 26. 63 26, 467 ip 81, 699 17.12 1, 399, 006 1, 445 82. 23 48, 023 23 64, 645 21.98 8, 618, 349 8, 888 45.56 404, 907 LG Sr 83, 862 16. 68 1, 398, 569 3, TAT 34. 65 129, 850 bo 00 3S ae 56, 449 20. 63 1, 164, 770 1,221 27.52 33, 605 [lib a 71, 897 12. 55 902, 149 1, 735 23.55 40, 865 i i 53, 18. 68 1, 000, 260 1, 604 27.99 44, 903 lol a a oe 134, 705 24, 71 8, 328, 570 941 31.90 30, O14 PreeiMetonc.-22....-....2.. 192, 055 29.03 5, 574, 956 1, 420 39.48 56, 064 a a 219, 115 21.11 4, 625, 783 6, 182 27. 62 170, 755 MCE — 2 esas an sco k 482, 818 27.16 18, 114, 254 59, 251 35. 02 2, 074, 789 eimmiormia =<... -.5.--..22-- 38, 332 16.17 619, 638 6, 968 22.27 155, 167 Hegre (806% 22. -.- 2-25. 15, 124, 057 33.07 | 500,140,186 | 2,278,946 45.29 108, 204, 457 Oba, (800i. 222. 2 2eoe 15, 893, 318 36.29 | 576,730,580 | 2,333,108 47.55 110, 927, 834 Decrease ....---------- 769, 261 3.22 | 76,590,394 54, 162 2.26 | 7,728,377 Decrease (per cent) --- 4.8 8.9 13.3 2.3 | 4.8 | 7.0 Number and value of horses, mules, and milch cows in the United States for the years 1891-1896. Horses. Mules. Milch cows. January 1— en ee eee ee eee Number. Value. Number. Value. Number. Value. LON 14, 056,750 | $941,823,222 | 2,296,532 | $178, 847,370 | 16,019,591 | $346, 397,900 LN) ae eh ee 15, 498,140 | 1,007,593, 636 | 2,314,699 | 174,882,070 | 16,416,351 351, 378, 152 3 a eee , 802 992,225,185 | 2,331,128 | 164,763,751 | 16, 424, O87 857, 299, 785 Re eatin = Date Pees obs 16, 081, 139 769,224,799 | 2,852,231 | 146,232,811 | 16, 487, 400 358, 998, 661 OCU aes 15, 893, 318 576, 730,580 | 2,333,108 | 110,927,834 | 16,504, 629 362, 601, 729 1S Soe See 3 15, 124, 057 500, 140,186 | 2,278,946 | 108,204,457 | 16, 137,586 363, 955, 545 pee) 534 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. carey igi Estimated number of milch cows and of oxen and other cattle on farms and ranches, — average price per head, and total value of each kind, January, 1896. ; Milch cows. States and Territories. ‘x : . | AVeraee | Va price. Ee ee eR $23.14 | $5, 405,087 $24.46 | $2, 880, 990 New Hampshire --......-.---- 29. 8, 766, 973 2A. 40: 2, 067, 306 lig 2) a SS ee 24. 82 6, 415, 250 21.20: |. 044, 576 Massachusetts -...--.-..-.--- 34. 6, 045, 428 26.86) 121, 662. Rhode Island.-......-------- 38. 33 949, 168 |. 23.81 | 276, 120 SOMEC LOU os ota n ese nn 29. 90 4, 072, 559 |. 25.15: |. 4 494 MeewueOrk.. Joc 8 ee 24. 30 35, 119, 138 23.12. |. 813, 491 GW GOTSCY —455.22— 5 =~. sen 34. 33 6, 887, 980 |. 26. 35 t 502 Pennsylvania .-------------- 24.23 | 22) 954 898 20.70 | 12,642) 879 Belsware..--..-- ais - 29.00 991, 046 19.99 |. 509, 255: i a Ls ee oe eee 24. 50 3, 686, 687 19.31 |, 2, 241, 000: ST ae ep Se ae 18.14| 4,818,619 15.88} 6,138,896 North Carolina_.--..---.--.- 14.40 | 3,917) 462 | 10.12] 3,680, 398 South Carolina. ___......-~- 16. 83 2,184, 069 158, 450 10.11 1, 601, 348° Gevrria. .. = 5. = 16. 95 5, 300, 451 540, 916 9.41 4, 925, 995 Florida -.---- 13. 32 1, 522, 902 361, 054. 7.97 2,878, 718: Alabama. 10.91 | 3,365,069 | 523, 329 6.70| 3, 507, 352: Mississippi -- 3 13. 81 4,058, 345 485, 695. 7.49. |. 3, 691 (PIMA... — 5. so~4.- se 14.19 2, 353, 135 812,122. 8.34 |, 2, 603, 511 Sg: Se a a eee ene 17.89 14,024,615 | 5,518, 644 12.60 69, 520, 010° PMKEMONS ==> c 2st: 2 SoS. 12. 87 3, 807, 293 516,695 8.49 4, 388, 084 FRIES | <5 ten sc. 5. 15. 53 5, 135, 616 519, 124 10.58 | P Bo) gee West Virginia.-_.....---..--- 20. 54 3,595, 096 296,613 |. 15.35. 4, 985. Kentucky ....-.--..---\---- 20.33 | 6,189,089} 506,997) 17.33 8, 786, 669 i eS a ae a ee ee 24.25) 18,420,227] 686,285 | 21.41 re RE RAAD) 522s co 25.16 | 11,788,089 | 398,.656 17.61 yan CS a ere ees Says 24. 70 15, 743,879 | _ 798,414 20. 60. 16, 447, 970° _ 2) Sar eer ess 27.46 | 27/960, 445 | 1,430,976 | 20.42] 29,214, 530 WEISEGMSID - oi i. = 2 22.21) 17,832,453} 673,250) 17.37 HE S24 MN BeS OTA. - 15. 5-~--- <~t 21.44] 12,875,042] 694,321}. 15.08 10, 434, 540: 302 5k Ries ss 25. 78 31,001,997 | 2,336,973. 21.46} 50, 159, 389: Mister... oc. 24.00} 17,359,416 | 1,686,990] 19.30] 22,585, 40% COS ee eee S 22.12 13, 778, 37 |) 1,766,245 | 19.20 33, 903, G04 See rasee |e 3.2 2 21. 92 11, 709, 598'| 1,062,469] 17.86 een South Dakota- b 20. 41 5,977,553 | 399,814 16. 50 6, 597, 763° Worth Dakota a8 21.63 3, 386, 631 255,502}. 19.81 } 5, 061, 518: Montana ---.- rate 27.90 1,174,109} 1,153,557 | 17.24 19, 882, 720° Wyoming --- Je 24. 50 449, 134 751, 849 16. 48. 12, 389, T17 ea 25.00 1,999,375} 926,560 WE 15, 910, 331 eee PR OXICO 2 0S aon == Guaewn. 23.00 422, 809 | 793, 506 10.15. ane} Tr a ars oe eee 25.00 | 890,550 | 636,.512 10.14 6, 457, 164 7 ee BE ee CE 15. 20 870,519 | 369,374) 11. BL 4,253) 114 |» ero are 250} «= 445,802} © 2593078 | «12.07 3) 128, 940° ROR n oe ees Ol 20. 25: 567,689 |) 395,852 14.10. 5, 583, 492: Weasitington- 5s... no 22.08 |i 2,591,772 381,550), 16.21 5, 803, 002: 00 ee 18. 43 2,096, O81 788,452 | 12.64 2 oer ae GRMOTOTIN 525 SB ance oe 23.75 7,971,593 | 888,832 15.82 14, 657,319 Pees >. 5 ss 19.75 570,588 | 155, 645 15. 20 2,365, O31 ot aa: | 22.55: | 368,955, 545 15. 86 508, 928, 416 i a ee es , 21.97 | 862, 601, 729 14. 06 , 999, Decrease ........-.----| 367, 043'| 1,53) | 41,353,816 11.80 | 125,929, 287 Decrease (per cent) -- 2.2 12.6 14 112.8 15.4 1Increase. Progress of dairying in the United States. [From the Reports of the Census.] Milch cows. on nid pe payee Milk ae Butter, total |Cheese, totaljeries and) average Total | Per 1,000} amount made. — mec yield per number. | persons. ; ries. cow. 1, 205, 508, 384 » TL, 315.4 ) 806, 672,071 | 243, 157,850 3,.932 232.5 8, 935, 632 514, 092, 683 | 162,927,382] 11,313 205.9 , 585, 735 459,681,372 | 103, 663, 927 75 4.7 6, 385, O04 105, 535, 893 18 166.5 1 Cheese factories only. 2The establishments reported for 1850, 1860, and 1870 were all cheese factories. The figures for 1850 are approximately correct, but those for 1860 are known to be much too small. STATISTICS OF FARM ANIMALS. 535 Estimated number of sheep and swine on farms and ranches, average price per head, and total value of each kind, January, 1896. States and Territories. price Value Manshira........... $7.60 $595, 865 New Hampshire ------------ 7.76 437, 523 I are 7.42 582, 990 Massachusetts ...-.--.--..-- 8.44 512, 647 Mhode island ---.....----.-.- 9. 80 141, 446 ommecierts.. 5.2 --.1.-_- 8.94 480, 406 Ooo i ee 6.50 4, 193, 897 Mew Jersey ---------.------- 7.78 1, 269° 443 Muay lyanie ......---.-.-.- 6.26 G, 464, 234 Delaware ------------------- 5 6.40 333, 867 Maryland ----.-------------- 348, 375 i 5.32 1, 800, 651 Voor a ae ee 894, 760 985, 748 3. 82 3, 768, 514 North Carolina ----.--..---.- 478,069 | 1,427,345 3.92 5, 592, 196 pouce Carolina. ..........--- 109, 762 945, 662 4.33 4, 090, 933 ES eee ae 519,368 | 1,954, 241 8.55 6, 931, 302 Lo i) eee ee ee 188, 573 395, 254 2.16 855, 013 1005 Se 311,534 | 1,848, 898 2.86 5, 280, 452 Loko) 423,115 | 1,940, 755 3.09 5, 991, 888 Sus iS 203, 353 888, 720 2.85 2, 534, 629 | 3, 839,540 | 3,085,119 3.59 10, 896, 078 Qo i 244,662 | 1,568, 166 2.53 3, %4, 809 PMO = 22255255 =--- 651,063 | 1,910,749 3.34 6, 384, 196 ese Virginia --:--.-.---=.- 894, 281 375, 042 4.02 1, 509, 470 low 5} ia 1, 603,257 | 1,688,594 3.59 6, 053, 946 Olio. 5, 247,583 | 2,456, 626 4.41 10, 822, 911 PUOPIAEAIE 2S ee ono aan 2,843, 189 720, 694 5.83 4, 208, 518 LoD Lt See 1,669,779 | 1,654, 772 4.72 7, 802, 580 Luci oc i ae 1,670,687 | 2,392,980 5.14 12, 301, 830 PNET 2 e552 1, 498, 176 902, 507 6.27 5, 656, O11 WWNEEEADN So oo S200. >5-~---- 844, 290 560, 957 5.11 2, 869, 295 oo Se ae 1,399,279 | 4,854, 507 5. 66 27, 462, 917 LC os a ee 1,475, 953 | 3,169,411 3.90 12, 363, 872 co 7 Se ae as 413,966 | 1,676,487 5.07 8, 498, 279 hoc a 417,234 | 1,289, 726 5.01 6, 458, 943 Sout Wakota --.......-.---- 624, 354 160, O64 5.22 835, 054 North Dakota-....---------- 710, 732 117, 949 5.14 605, 787 Loi tit ies 4, 740, 429 52, 087 6.91 359, 868 AUS on a i 2,513, 944 15, 834 7.20 113, 933 Colo 2,251, 881 23,419 5.72 133, 957 MeamiIMNekICO. 9.-.20.-.-- +. 2, 732, 554 31, 787 5.63 178, 898 i fo ee ae 930, 196 20, 695 7.39 152, 980 Ci eee 8, 157, 537 56, 621 6.95 393, 671 Lo Ee 930, 372 11, 590 6.26 72, 553 “on 4 eee 2, 281, 726 77,518 5.14 398, 250 ERM StON 252 -<--- 2-25 1,318, 462 239, 4.35 1, 041, 160 SS ee 8,590,983 | 252, 685 3.17 801. 819 “3 5, 483, 784 507, 461 4.03 2, 045, 677 OSES Si): 36, 887 62, 811 4.97 299,577 a rr 38, 298, 783 FA 65, 167, 735 | 42,842, 759 4.35 186, 529, 745 fe Er 42, 254, O64 . 58 66, 685, 767 | 44,165,716 4.97 219, 501, 267 Decrease ....---------- 3, 995, 281 1.12| 1,518,082 | 1,322, 957 | 62| 32,971,523 Decrease (per cent)... 17.6 2.3 3 | 12 5| 15.0 1 Increase. Number and value of oxen and other cattle, and also of sheep and swine, with the total value of all farm animals in the United States, 1891 to 1896. Oxen and other cattle. Sheep. | Swine. Total value | Se of farm ani- Number.}| Value. | Number.| Value. Number. | Value. mals. 36,875,648 |$544, 127, 908 | 43,431,136 |$108, 397,447 | 50, 625, 106 \s210, 193, 928 |g, s09, 787,770 , 651,259 | 570, 749, 155 | 44,938,365 | 116,121,290 | 52,398,019 | 241,081,415 | 2,461, 755, 698 35, 954, 196 | 547, 882, 204 | 47,273, 553 | 125, 909,264 | 46,094, 807 | 295, 426, 492 | 2, 483, 506, 681 36, 608, 168 | 536,789, 747 | 45,048,017 | 89,186,110 | 45,206,498 | 270, 384, 626 | 2,170,816, 754 84, 364,216 | 482,999,129 | 42,294,064 | 66,685, 767 | 44,165,716 | 219,501,267 | 1,819, 446, 306 82, 085, 409 | 508,928,416 | 38,298,783 | 65,167,735 | 42,842,759 | 186,529,745 | 1,727, 926, 084 z seefocpeyccypcyen oes Po nad | ies! babe ad late aka "ea 9g °¢ + ad Ramco RNC ~=-"1-777100°6 00°81 oa ms asp seal flo ht sabie \eata Woda de ae! kek ele teres -"\08°9 |00°0T ores BRS DE ie “\-777/0R TE [LLL > aie mek Midas (nabs (Sa | dea ot feos hea kas (ese “68'S |8e°F a de ae (aia ees ae 99°@ (eL's ee eae 9%°e [ea°¢ #2 l9°% |--7" [8° [7777089 [eB “3° ged keep haa Me C9 |68"L Rice ORGS aaa ee ----let-g jog'g “eG bea ea ----199°6 196° 2 Red idea bt ~--"leg "OT [ee"8 co ahd ed “*77/60 21 [89° ey Sala Ve ea “--"|60°EL |F0°6 2 ae Re “=-"]""""1948T (97'S SS eel bd -=--/--"" 166 OL (LF OL cay eel a a ~--"len-@0 199 OL 2°L PF (9°9 [9's \es [G8 “OL [2s°TT 9'L BF (8°9 [G's \e"k [28°6 [eR'8 e1ioF (6o9} 8} L\er9 (20°, gL ler| 2 F's lek |19°6 |F9°0T QL ITF | 2 |G°8 \e"s [026 |29°6 8'L (BF | 2 (G's lors 1ST IIS '6 Ts F e's [2's le"s les'st |ee"9r L IGF (e°2 |9°8 FL [060 |8e'2r 8°8| GT's l9's [Ps look [G4 ‘OT Z'8 (8°F [e°2 |9°8 [PL [PLOT [86 "OL g2| 9 |t's (9's | 2 ler I [6s ‘IT ~ Se egal “-r-i-**"l00 "TT IST TL BL |00°ST “SL 199°6 §9.9| 830! 820 | $20) 81.0 ndas ' SAEHrASeH HHS HsSHHsS 1 IHDSHASSH HARKS SHHHHHOGAOS SaARSRRSEBRSSRSSSSS IB SA AGM ert HOSS SSR ec = SSSRRERSSESRSSS5RR5 SS 28 SS8ESRSRSSRARS =] aD re Dt 12 be oe | a> & a> gQ 8a “EL JOS “OT 09 cL ao |09 “*-" 10h co jos #9 |9¢ 89 |oL 99 |c9 ee [eh ce LF ee ld ce |0F a |e oF le a ler og jeg or [gg ze [64 09 (09 re (09 rs lie Sie eel ele |e &|e| 8/8) 2] & | = *(punod ted) 104409 *(m04 10d) AvyT $9 _|8o__ BFR | Re Lg |F9 GL 199 OL |04 es gh GL |Gh ‘99 [2d FL \PL 19 189 [6 $70) 820) 820 E cs ies) lee) o oS 7 seenpenesoeen gg: inl 28 eaSe ae saSsaeese = > . 6 + -@eae rw meee ow Pee a” & SSuSSSaeee oe. @ 6. 6165 Oana ae 8 SaSSSSRSSeSaR ¥3RaSSSLSS asee VSS ASRSSABSESSRE BSARRARAARAARASS BRSRARRARANARS sH oO SR SSRES TARA A La &8 “OS |6L “0S|20 "T$|20"T 820) 849) $40 ‘C68T 0} T68T ‘— Laquavag wenf ay, Uo sponpoud poungnar.bp porwoudd JO SIM *(jaysnq ed) gro A\ Cyoysnq zed) uz0pH ial (aielests Wimaiinaecint iron Scie | aa! lee ta aaah ~connneen==" SUUUO RT OF? Unie eae 3 “""" BjONVC YIAON \ de ppp ee 77r". SIONBC WIDOS 1 ae Ren gk Sa, f “s*""* BYSb1IG9 NN SQ fT Aaerasc et ee |: neat eer ae oS ~ TInosst pt 00 nee ae aere=> AON BR [ae oa een te vyoseuUulyy eee BIULSILA 9S9 AA a hae oe gessouuey, ra pahende scaala p sesuryry gg. |S thrt= ses" rese eee “-"" SUxOy, ae ae Week BL vUvIsSInO'y "Ee hence oe TddisstsstpL M0 hao nae =onsraese> re vurequlyy 08 | Fn ee ot eee epllols QQ [Ee sa ee VIS1OIE) OY PA) ia ences tg euljorey Tynog at [eee vul[orB) YIION i Naas soe ~ BIULSAT A og [eee puvpAreyy Og. | {-e<"S==ss5s see OIVALIIC POS leat = 2 vruvalAsuueg WN jabeeimas arora fsbo ore Aosi0p~ MAN lOOMMSET” “RRERSSa"-" HAO K MON +) MR Naa me gnoroeuu0D A appear se <> puvys[ opoyy Sb .1s- a oe SJJOsNoVssvjyl (lS piles ree oerh quoULIO A DORE eticsakeaaets earysduivyy Ae NT ‘ee ee aaeatar ee 4 "ore" QUIBIT "SO}10} 1110], PU 8037}G os Ave gaa fz ¥ $2 a fos* =| 08 18° 98 + | cS “** Jaquieseq 4 beeen tog og" fee eg" toe" | 6" 9¢ 11g 168 6g" | "-* tequieaoNy 33 2S ei ately oe f1¢ 9% fog° |fTe° tog’ {fee £8" 68 WE" 18 é {It ““"*"" 18q049900 Peer nro ee fog foe : 9g tog” = jtus* 18 5 If it 40% OF" oF ~~" dequreydeg Ort = F20°T ¢ GP holt ee {tt oY IEF 79° gg 6y {6F 49h 7° «- 2 aes qsnany age | $0! “COST (ta an i CS ior ee T¢ tf TIF Lt TOF oF ¢ eg a --* qaqureseq ee "T OCT fist ust GG Fg cP far eg oa eg ig “*" LOC U19A0 NT tT Os 'T }tog 16F ¢ ¥¢ im 16F 16h 4G #9 We GS ES SS ee 419G0990 : 128 ‘T Got | 49° fee gg" Lg fog" hg" 4EG 9G OL 19" --"eqmieqdeg a #18 °T cet |fgr: ft’ [for fcr’ | GF Tr’ |tor° for’ | og" Lg" 9¢° Co* FG FOG ee | ee Oe ees qsnany oO ‘F6ST : 3 406" 06 te" is &8 Tog" og" _ fiee: ite OF" GF 1 rs aS 2 TF ior ““* qaqmre0ed 5 #23" cg Teg: 98" Jee ce" 0F fre'0$ jise: Tee* | 68" eg" Tg" li fOF* icp’ =| OG" “- JoqUIOAO NT 06" Te 98° fee’ | 9¢° S° | i0P* T6¢ oh 4G ec" Tg" og" 6r" Ign 2 SO eee 1040390 a cb 06 He 8 98 ce fog f1e #1¢ tIt og" Ly tcp CF 0g ~~~ equreydag $60 'T 0O'T |!¥s TF 9g ce’ «E83 ise’ 88 167 Tg* SF Ly OTOP i9F 6h” UIREREs qsnsony 4 “€68ST P| CTT re ie ks tee > ae cg° |fse* tor" oF oF" TS" og" 6r° ss TG" #19" cg" 1¢" ~~ toquresaq 5 F210 'T CT'T |fge- TF" Or’ =| ge" itt’ if e" eg" 2g" “eurU10 N t1G" tog’ | ¢¢° ag" |" oquieAO NT WET SET | Te tor: | oF Ww its: Sl | al ea 6g" | 9g" 99" TO ES ee en ee ce 10q0490 5 OPT fer fe am SF Le: OlteP {gre igh° 1g" (g* 09" ¢* ig: }#gg° 19° ~~" dtequieydeg 5 {GFT OFT ter icp" Li ce’ OLREP 16P° i6p’ |feg: eg": | 79° £9" 8g" ig" | 09° 6g’ | f6c" 6° | ean e qsnsny 5 “nozjah g ONT pax saupayy “LRT = FT OFT [Ter T0F° CF" Grins ct TLP* TOF" eg" 6g" gg° Fg" eg" | 9L° #L° ey" GL’ |77> Loqureseq ro} Os't 8 F2Z0'T |'sr° #9" ACTS | Sg aireoia aia cg #o" em Uae us 19° 09° = | f69 69° 69° ~~" OQ UIOAO NN > Ope REST =. . Sh’ «OF a. $2g° 4° 69° 89° 1g" gore 219° 89° D1 aaa Feigao, 19q0900 £18 °T G8 'T gg’ ligg: +9" HD 0} 79'°0$ | GL° . 03 FL°0$ | 19° 99° | GL" ie 91° ~~" aequieydeg ion TL‘ coe i ‘bots ‘08 03 ‘0S 09 g¢°0$ |fT¢"0$ 109 0805 09°0$ | $9°0$ &L'0$ GL°0S 03 G4 °08 | SLOSOFTTL “OS | 11°0$ 03 9L°0$ |---7-- qsnany fo) “ajyryar T “ONT ‘SON “SON “Paxiul FONT ONT *“PaxiU GON “PaxtuUl FONT “PAX & ONT “part GON “PAX FONT | "I68T m *(TByWeo ad) R oostourag weg “sIno'y "4g ‘(neg 49 “AYIO SvsUB IT *OSvoIYO ‘TZBUUIOUIN =| ‘SUBOTIO MON | *puouITOry ‘YIOX MON “moysog | ‘eyed tS % Ay (THHSOG UAd) NAOO 3 "saynjig payiugQ ey? fo saijv0 Burpnaz ur syonpoud younqnorby yodrourad fo sao1id a]psajoy AA 69°L9'F |66'9F'S |e"L \Se's F2°8 [80'S |or'S |oe's L882 HILT THe ul GGT CEP “6e)4 “TES “TE6 “09 |L'GF |8"€9 |F'e9 [oes ese, er|o-90'¢ “ceo ‘OF Pee OSBIOAT [VIOUOY) an F SObteae \eaar ls al hil ee eels elo see ese lene Sanaa eee a eel eae Wc tarde oe aie las oe ns | nn oa aes ean s oes aor en af Ge eal eee ee AIOPLLIOT, UVIpuy | AE) Mead EA Dea Sa Ppa PS a] Pies I Eat cic Dead lata Fi | Let tac tanh) ec aba fatal bea SPN EG: Mo Sele lonley per|ies oO fe | ge" 61° 1s" ee" o an 63° 8s" | 8B" igs" ce" poorer gsmsny 3 "poof T ‘ON “OBST W £16" 96° | 08" fIS" 1s’ | 18° fos" jfeg' tes° j|fee: tre” jftes se joe ye: ites: = fee" «OF 77 aequresed 416° cg’ tea" 1¢* F08* 0g" 68° 63° tke" |fog" ge" ge" tg" [tes cr #18° 19q ULOAO NT (TOT OT fies: ise’ | ae PTS" tea tga" tke" Re" ETS Sf" 8" ee’ fice’ = fee" £28" Tae aegis 1040390, —q «0 = Fe0'T fog: fag: a Ce fog" fee" | Is" 6s’ fgg" if we |e: tee" tes 8h" | "- "zequre_dess ee. tee. a eS i) Si i Oe g t08" | 68 88° FFs OF cb Ww qysngny = “F681 8 f20'T = S0'T_ Rue" tLe" yw tse: @° Ese" 2b" F1B~ || BB" i Si Om 777" cequieced, > OLE = S0'T_ 9G" g° 0s stig sities 08" | 8 168° 86." ai S| 6c 9 i 9? "77 JO UIOAO NE pa TOL TC OU'L [fle $18" 796" |S 83° hie’ | 8 Te" 1 98 Gg #8 thE" The £18" 1G. Tone leq fom] OCT 201 ltée" Te" |te" $93" 3° OF 18°08 | T° tee" #96 493: | #8 ee Ts" |t08" fog" jigg* Ge" |" - dequaeydes S Ot swt {te {Oe fee" | & igs | & 3° fee se° | &&" 68" || 98°”. TRB 68° oor gen a ‘08 © OT tz'T | Is: cc’ fT" | @8" fIs* | Oa SM A 8 OF) ~ Ae aiees oF" “77 coquresed SS aaa 0g" fee" ce" | 88" 98° fgg” tg" tIF* “7 > TOQUIOAO NT m et St ites: tec | SB" ee" | foe" tI8* te: jfse- tee: | OF: 86" 1g" | 98° Tho OPS > Ee 19q070O Hl set feet [6° F268" es" ELS" tes" sige” 8" re" | Th’ (04 OF 08 | Ss" 18° | 88° 18° | GF" “~"aoquae;dosy S OT fet | 08 ce 8=S ste" | 86" woe" = foe" | fee se" | OF iss g8° 198° tog" itr” Teo yore gsnany £ soa es" (i Ae, SI ial eae ee -|.98° «te | oF" 68" se: for" = for" fer: “** toqure.eq E82" 6a" EY Seahet ane aia tog" ‘ie? 418". |. 8B 88° ze’ [te tog" | OF" ss f6g" |" AequtoAonT fle° te" | 8G" TS apes sets ae We «6 BS°sitTS:. «= FOR" i tug" ¥8" ce" ise" $8°_, |t23° Be te 1040320 8" we ELS" 1 ee mee 1! I 98° 1g" ESE" 09 1280S | TF" “7 toquieydag 86°08 07726 0S | 88°08 OF 16 °0$ |f9 "08 82 08 0} £28 0 |izs0$0F FIs “OS | SFOs GF ‘0S OF SFOS | L608 09°08 09 SF'08 |-""""" gsnany ‘ON "ARUN GON | “Parrue g ON 6 ON “pawyue & “ON ‘BON ‘paxyw ON | “‘paxpia s “ON | °8}2(N G “ON “Test ‘(IGHSAG YAd) SLVO *PUNO.L & “ONT FLATT Ort) 2a" Sh" HORT ape nae PTT SL'L | 2¢° Sh Oi at nae eee 2 MET Git 89" eg" Sh" (piel eo ge ace al Tes IS 1 Gk eg a ala GF" Mie eee eS ‘apduungy 2,2 yeptag ee aid ha 2a. ee og" Og? [rrercrerc eee 31° SIT | 99° 29° ce QE ele ee eee Ot S80 TL. 1:00" 0g" Cpe gece ere ree TLL AST | G0" 0g" AS le aie Sx rs ness ee roe kee a eee *TVUTULO NT aon Ti ai rile aes ae: *0910UD Sh'T OF OF'TS | 09° gg* | gq" CUM eiteercacs ate oe'T og" Gg" Mo Se re 09°08 94 09°0S | 42°03 09 Sg°O8 |7TrT rT TTT TTT 69 So] ASE a A ete hata act po Jicchen aoe (el) SPP eM ke ele tad ata a “MONDAIYD TON OUT *o°ONT sine a0n) ‘sory "49 | awd 3s “APIO susuvy OOSTOUL AY UBS 6G" oF" 09" Sat Eat Ske ees #c° OF’ 09° 7 alll | SS aa eae g¢° oF" g¢° Duel Lilt cceek ocr ee: eg SP eg" Og" se° 08" ¢9° 09° 8¢* 0¢° 19° eine | apni “5-5 cs cs* RF° 19° CO TRING i. RC ae nee 89° 8c" 89° Oro I tae tees eee ¢9* St° Tye eee eg eee 9° GP 89° BO irene ant gg" 8F° GL" ea | ell NE eS Sea oy" gg" GL Hoe uihl ti) ad Cee 9g° OF OL° SOD lie 89° 09° ry i QNivtie |AIM ao Sets OP0$ 07 9°08 | 84°0$ OF G10 |-“~"=Tmm nme 9020Y9 0) In, 7 | “Burads % “ONT ‘oSRoIqO | ‘THBUUIOULTD $| ‘SUBOLIO AON (THHSNE Wd) ATIUVA “puoTAory _papeo [reo asx] room | “utazsan peno.s-xr1g | +09 ) | PINO.L-ONT, | } "agg / panos ONT ‘YIOX AON “mo}SsOg ‘ponurju0gj—sajn7g pazzugQ oy} fo sar720 Burpna? ur sponpoud pounqynowiby podiurd fo sao1ud apnsajoy At 541 ce opus ntohag eS 00°ST Ga'8 og°9 |-"="* 23 pay OO'kT «= ODS | GLEE = OO FT. | 00°%% 00°LZT OS°9T | 00'ST 00°ST 00°LT |" * Loqutodeq . Sarasa 00'S CLs Og *L OO'2E OSIL| GLE «= SL'8L | 00°0S «=O GT. | OO'LE = OG “OT. | 00ST 0O'LT = ODOT |" AOQuTeAON Oe ERE OovetL OS'S OO'L 0S ‘eL OC 'TL | OO'FT ODOR 00°6 OS ‘OL OS “EL | VOLT OO°LL 00 ‘SE lean L9GOPO ie aes agate 00 °FE 00° 009 OS'SZL OS TL | 00°F OO1e 00°08 | 00°9T = 00 FT | 00°6L OO'LE 009 | “tequreqdag 5 wo 00°9 | 00°OT 0 °8 00°! OO'RE O0'SE | COLT = OS “PE. | COIS ~=—s-00'06. | OO'LE. =O 9. |: 00°TS OLE. 00°SL |= qsusny a “PILAL “COST a 00 ‘OT 00°6 | 00°&T site OnO Leo cen ee OO'IL 00°OL | 69°0L 00°OL | 00'LT 00°9T | OO'RE OS “@T | 00°ST 0S'ET = ON'ET _ [~*~ oqutaDeqT 00°0T 00°6 | 00°8T OE Dee MOGOuilst econ: 0S'0L 00°0L | 09°6 00°6 | 0S'9L O0°9L | OOS 0G °@L | 00°ST OS'S —-O0'ET |" >> ToquLoAoNT (0001 00°6 | OG TL Nudie, “niet suo 0S'0L = 00°0L | 00'0L =608'6 «| OF'9E §=—- OOH. | OS'STE = OD “@E._ |: 00ST 02°SL OOST te one 19qo0JO a 06 00's | 00'S OU cONRoll ames 0O';OL §=606°G6 «1 0S'0L = 000. | 08 “OT GCL | OO'FE = OS'ET | 0O'9T ~=— 00". | 0ST ~—s ODE. | -~ " Toquregdag op (OUT NeeG ls kk Ine ass Sy | ee se 00°@L 0°IL | OF'TL O0°TL | 00°LT 0's 00°ST | 00°8T q°cT 00ST |-----> ->asnany > “FORT i 00°IT 00 ‘OT | 09 ‘8 0g" Oe aioe aaronese OPO O0OL | OO'ZE OOTIT | OO'LE OS°9T | OG'FL = 00 FT | 00°LT 08 '9T =: 00ST _ |" ~*~ AOQuIDaCT & ot 0O'OL | 00°8T 0¢°8 esha lise ccra ce OO'IL OG'0OL | 00°ZE OS'IE] OO'ST OO°ZT] 0G°EL OST | 00°ST OO°LT | 00'9L O00°ST | TequIeAON me «006 08's | 09°21 0¢°8 DOG Blewentoc cla OO'IT O00°OT | 0¢°% 0S'9T 00°9T | OS'ST =00°ST 1 00ST =: OO". | COLE =—s OO “NT. |" 10G.0999 ec 06 o¢'s | OS IT 00°6 eh sAlssae cs eS GOT OO'OL | OO'EL O0°SE | OSZT 0G'9T | OF'SE =—-00"ST. | OORT = O0'LT. | COST ~=— OD “LT |" “toqutegdeg wc 00°6 ‘Lh | 00°ST 00's LST ee a ae las OS 'OL = 0S *6sC|:«OG ST O¢'SE OO'SE | OF'LE OO *LT | 00°08 O0°SL. O0tET ier qsnany “toqureydag S 080 00°6 | 00ST 00°@E | 00° OS TL | OG "2 OS 9T | 00°ST 00°61 0O'SE = OO“-LL |" 7777 Gsusny a *u0} OT “CEST oo #1 00°@T | OO'ST . O@°0r 00° (--=-------""""""| CO'SL 00°F | OO"IT 09°0L | QOL OO"ST | OO'FL © OS°ST | S8° 08’ | 00'S. 00 °FL |-~> toqute.0q Sied & Of TL | OO°IL 0¢°6 NOGUAl eae oss --"--1 QG‘TIL QO°IL| OO'IL 09°OL | 0S ‘ST OS'8— 00°ST | &8* Gy" 00°9T =: 00 "SL. |" 77 LoQuITEAONT 0G TL OS OL | 00°@E 00°8 WOiGoel anos ce Sts OO'IE OG°0OL | 0O'0L 0S°6 | OO'9T OG°ET_| OS'S 00ST | 06° 08" OO°0E* -005EMiea-=5 19q 0990 OS “TL OS OL | OF 'ST. 00°6 wilt su ake Se OS'TE OG°OL| OF TT —_ 00 °TE.| 009 OF 0G "STS) OS ET, 00'S. | 06" 09 C8 "0S | 0O"OT, = OO FT “-- daqumaydag ; OS TIS ©F0¢ OTS} Oe "EIS 86:03; 00" 05: 55555 Sage | OS °11$03.0¢ OTS) 0S °1$ 94 00°@TS) OO 'STS 00°T$ 03 0G 'FIS) es "0S 60 “GT$ 09. 00 FTS|"-" >> ~ qsnany *fapang TOT *‘(fiounf) ‘PITAL *hyjows) Tox | fypow) [TON ‘9920YUD ‘fyjown To | *(ymosad) | *poo8 0} un ‘ Ayjpowrzy fiyzour) omit | T6ST (NOL Udd) AVH Ca Ps, ; : "+a" 4 im al 90° S 410° 3 oS feo $40 8X0" igo 8g" Sco’ Riso" O 4c0° §c0° CQ 20 G9 ° aC" #c9° = fey $co° fc0° | 390° £90 21¢0* SCO * 790° fe tt90° 190° §90° 10 90° 9290 * 90° rs) t90 90° 190° 140 490° 490° 8490" Zz £10° $10° i10 8r10° 10 "90 Ee $10" $10" 80 $10" $10 S80 #0" 10° HO" 180 120° “110 3 a oS foe 490° 810° 710 10° 10 £110 ri +20 +10 410° iso 410° 410 90 0° ti«é* t= qsusny a “E681 ; 460° 460° 460° Or" 960° $60" 160° 60° ~-> fequie00q co) FL0° #10" 420° ‘|tt20° 80° 10° #10° AER" E10" “>> LaquTeAoN : i BB SS gag - 810 #20 ¥10° 510 5110 8X10 #20 Vio Se ae qsnsny & "CesT Fey #10° ¥10° 8110" #20° $10" $10" Aken AX10° ~*> gequieseq o ¥L0° 410° $10" 180° £10" E10" 580° 10° ~77 LOQUIBAO NN 480° oS. a80° 580° #20" EEL0° Hs0° 400%, -- *. Se aa 40G090 ba i 80° 80° TEL0° 04 $20°0S | 80° {80° 80° 710° “80° 10° "7 aequreydeg va) #2008 120°0$ 410 °0$ 42008 #80 0$ ¥L0°0$ #10°08 80°08 THEE Pk ae ysnsny “4 “‘Burppuw “Burnppur ‘buynppyy =| ‘bunppur “‘Burppt “Buyppuy | “‘Buppaw bunppur | “Burnppur bunppuy | “T6ST i eS xT sce ‘zero | Ter‘str‘00 = | TEE OST L | Fel iaoe’s, =| SrOlFcN'L | Eas ‘OGe "TR «| LSD 'LL9 "2 Ga ‘OOT'sR =| OLE'COF'L | OLR*eeT ‘eR [-*-*” OD rea es eae oe e890) Von mG (1) S18 ‘869 '¢ 809'220°S | G60'ST8 ‘TE | 069°@10'T | LOL ‘0868'S S18 SH 's | oFe2H0GE =| OOF L6r'S | MIL‘LSE‘eL |-*spunod--+--+-- paEEetere a —sjonpoad Aan CES 9) id (a agelei eahaet a J ie iene rire DOE PGs bin liven re and GS OR Dee, | pecan ete i 191 ‘L00 ‘T syonpoad qvout 10740 ITV = - » ag ele ee igs he eae TE IS eth bse RR ae err TD LS BR SOO A Gh | Beams er omes pu £.147n0g SUS ‘Tes ‘oe | F148 ‘C68 ‘ZF | 608 ‘680 ‘OF | 198 “NOS "ZFF | £65 °ETO'TE | TOS "G69 ‘coB | TCP TOS 'Se | OLL‘ST0‘OOF | See ‘PTP ‘Fs | Lé6 ‘ere R6h |---- Op o77 777 par] OOF ‘SELF | S68‘90G'8G | SLE‘200°G | TSB*SLG "EO | OFS DTT'D | CL i6Sh CG | GO ‘GOLF | 8h ‘968 08. | Se 28h" | Oe LIB 18 | -- Ops Peppord ‘jog G99 ‘09 TS? ‘S18 $60°66 | LAO "SOL 'T LIS ‘6L | FO GIG OG ‘0G OFL ‘LIE 898 “OG G18 ‘818 Rea) Mepeebie. pelt. Ysoty ‘YLOg 299 ‘006 ‘OT | EST ‘FEF “SOT | GO0'SI8'G | TLG'0L6'08 | 960'E86'6 | FAT RLTe8 = | LTA SLL =| BSGioGR OL =| G8O'CTG'S | BOL‘OTN FR =| "77 Opr "= =w no nrorrer nn suv yy wo G65 OLL LE | 916 GFE SS 68 ‘868 “8S | LL9°LG9 “OTF LF TSL “Ge | GAT ‘Be. ‘Tee | see ‘tee ‘ce | 088 ‘616 ‘20g 696 ‘FOF "18 '\ BGR GED PIQ? ters eee ee ae ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ . —Spoupoirc yIog 3 FIO LOT L | 8218 860 82 GPS SIG TT | 68 266 Sot SG L0G TL | S98 686 SIT | 688 TIO 6 GOL ‘TS¢ ‘16 oet ‘ecs‘2 | Se0‘TSs‘0B = |-"-“Opo=****""**""="""""" TO om, 5 (Ser 'se6 268 ‘QOL ‘OT | $00 ‘ELF 0&6 ‘868 ‘E ge ‘OTF | Bae ‘6LF‘e 189 ‘G6L 288 ‘019 ‘T 20 ‘903 GPL ORE Es [5 OB coe ang Hope —dULIBsIvULOs[O a Ad GFF ‘T6S FOR ‘FLT | 006 (261% G16 | FIG S0T , e206 £9F ‘TOL 696 ‘8ST C68 “661 po OD ea ae OMEERS Site oS mo} D TL rs 080 ‘G08 “T OOS ‘798 ‘Se | FOT ‘NOLS ¥e0 “199 ‘59 60 ‘62T'S | SET ‘6TS‘T9 | 089 ser * | OTO‘08L ‘6S | GFO‘TOS'S | Tes‘6RD‘TIT |-7-~Opt***"" "7-7 =-= "=> AOTIUL a 699 ‘G2 £19 Tes Ts900L | $88 BIG TL OLL 118 O85 OHH GE °86 BLL ‘896 SIG LET £88 ‘Te0 ‘T ee el Sees PeINd 1oq40 “Joo, O88 ‘SCE | SES ‘ELE ‘29 ‘Bl2‘S | 109 B80'20_ | Tet ‘Set ‘e d ‘Gh ‘89 | G8 ‘L86'S =| NEL FOG ‘OL | B8L‘SF0'S | 616086 '06 = |"-" Op" paTyord 20 pogpes ‘joog, Q OOS ‘GES 'OT | LBF‘8ES‘TET | SOT OOL OT | FeR 168 "SOL | THO IFEL UAT | Fes ‘FOG ‘90G | BBL "ESO 'ST | LTO ‘Fae ‘Oss | #90 ‘BeR “ST | BEO'OHO FEL |-~-"Opm~"-" = "== =-==" ysoty ‘Joo «eB ‘0aL‘s | GOS 'GOL‘F9 | TEB“OSL'S | OT6*F46 "GG | FeR“Ges‘L | CEP ‘680'GL | FEhOL8‘s | H80'820'2Z8 | 906'890'G | Leu ‘G84 ‘GOL |-“SpuMod=-"----potMED ® Jord —sjonpoid joo 3 : } ‘ i inte ‘ ‘ ; ; sd —sjonpoad qreyr by «feo Sh | OSS IT 108 GFT G88 0L6 G26 ‘901 996 ‘B16 GIT HT ¥96 ‘826 09 ‘LTE 896 ‘21S SPR RE cansinnecns [VUITY LOTIO A £60 “FOS | Ter “ege TL9 ‘617 TSO ‘T89 S19 “988 G18 ‘OSF 109 ‘96% G19 ‘T06 986 ‘B9g S¥F ‘660 ‘T “SHOR Gas 1 ace eee piv —s110 ro) £18 ‘SUT. bs Se, St a ak ‘Ler Seg SE < CIT ‘ST pw oper ME en (Ra ep aia, Ch ile bee ringette | fa "ae fiers) Mk eo gr eae Aouoyy mm Se8‘OIs’s | 6o8‘c00'Ne _| Feb 18'8 eee 5a BOSD soc hn ateacce “A Se anbanbeatane ea TW) SNER dee || Melts pre ‘768 Se TSS ne? ee ne JO SOANQOVJNUBUT pus ‘ey ore | eset tp Bear ich eye Rie cee bo ea 990 'G80"S [-""**o nono aeeeeee ee ee ee 004s <4 3 : dvos ]7@ puv ‘sdvios osvai3 ‘esr. £64 FIL ; &90 ‘666 CEL TL OFF ‘984 £0F ‘99 S18 ‘O8¢ 668 (OTT eg ‘986 Og: ap cetera Le enty) & 8c | 40rT . sora | 190'S9T LOSS | OSF EFL TLE ‘eS €90 EST. 686 ‘*9 OIL ‘E98 T*HOZOp "ia aaa eee “"- $3307 aoe Lalo Otaee hs pomcor sy Ope OOF T foe G19 ‘8:8 seein cg COSTES RSS os Se aa SOSESNUS 1OJ SAUISUD OS Se ie G0 Ce 2 Pe ie SPEEA cis eee Ce Set aes eet Fe RM cata ae rose ie one OyStA PUB ‘sdrtys 2 | ‘sdi} Uioy pus susoy ‘sjooy ‘souog 1109) VUL [BUIOy Of eesia | ase DRE pth cana a a baie pare AN MOU ges 0B Nn Re aia! Cigna a pee STAOJ pue “10110 ITV O 989'060'S | BFL ‘SOF GOL ‘GE8 LE “CET P68 961 098 ‘LE GOL ‘TOT 096 ‘9% GOT ‘19% L¥6 ‘09 Sp. sear wee Se tage eee doous SSF OST, | STS*2 196 ‘OF, | G90°% 828 ‘OL 789 ‘T 169 ‘Ree 296 ‘T 969 ‘818 | FBI'S sages) gerinmsenceye sire Ss: 77777 SOTA 868 ‘606 S| #86 ‘ST 66 ‘S0L'T | 9F6‘S 109 (StL | 196% SSI ‘TT9 928 ‘8 806 ‘FRA | OIL'S i, a eee So8.10H FoF GL | OST 2 COL FL | eso T COT 268 GLE Wr TRO 'F98 | 96 ‘TS O69 ‘SFL'T | 729 °S6 Bee) comrraeieecrtst ss0H 062 ‘G09 ‘OSS) ceL “TSE GEG ‘TOP ‘ES$| 818 “GSE Se ‘BE0 ‘aS #60" 186 G60 ‘660 ‘SES | 109 ‘F68 6G ‘GFF ‘08S| 619 “FLE met 8 Wht Lt Seteastaddesicesaieinieenn ef os 81398) :SULAT, ‘SpRUITy ‘Ont A wubareanityy ‘On VA “Aynuen’d ‘ONT VA “Aqyuend ‘OnTvA “Aqyuenydy ‘one A “AyquEny a | SD ee ep “CO8T “F68T “6881 | “GO8T “T68T ‘S68T OL T68T ‘Of ENOL DNIGNS SUVAA AHL YOU AYALINOISV OILLSAWOd AiO SLONGOUd FHL JO SLYOdza << oeeme 544 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. eta aires! | eran en Se Bee aa tS - BUNN hai anal cA portp 10 ‘edit ‘90.13 ‘107130 ITV Ee ee ee EN 7 eee ee ee ee a 19q1o Mas See een SH Oey EN eas eee el DO ee eee peuury ; —poasosoid ‘syInagy an Sie ‘F96'T | TIL ‘ST8 LI9‘GS | OBS'SL 296°160°T | #10 ‘80F , ‘LOP ‘886 , 108 ‘SET ““syodavq-~~-odpt 10 wo001d ‘sojddy 3 FIe ‘Top 9F6 ‘S80 ‘2 #90 ‘89T. SFO “OF8 G80 ‘GBF 618 ‘996 ‘4 GOL‘s8e'T | €90°cbO‘9G =| G09 or S9T‘16‘9 = | -“Spanod-----=----== petp ‘setddy —Ssjnd puv syn ROGIGOT dh aes eo CWiGieianl ee ee ee DOSE eo see ey CoS iioame soxte rato on TOT 2 (Perna | eae ne ees W109 WLOOAET :SHOOULT[POSTIT Sry el os FOO We OI) co a T00 ‘669 ‘e6BT}" =" "7777-77" Beery aie jo 808 “BRO " FBR) =o Reo roee een [fo pees -1109109 PUV 109409 JO NVA [BIOL Se ‘e189 | SaL‘s8T ‘TS | GOF‘800'9 | GOE'SGB ‘FT | 9991226 'E | FL0'COFG cee ‘e068 ‘'F | ea‘ecs‘er | S08‘c16‘8 | OOT‘B00‘TT , |" "StoTTEs""""--"-"="- == TIO pees-1109309 TSG ‘SIT 20G| 182 ‘121 ‘Z0S‘e) 788 ‘496 ‘20z] 988 ‘9G “699 ‘Z) 689 °CIO AST) TLL TEL FOG 'S) LLL (698 (966 | SEL ISP (96 "S| OGG GFI 186) COL ‘OLL °268 “¢|""-“Op---"= = poINyoujnuevUl 10GIO 6898'S | Gze‘T9S‘SE | S06 ‘F06‘S | CSF ‘SSS ‘FT BLT | SUP E86 ‘2 FOF ‘TEST =| 989'F20°6 $96 ‘290‘E | Z60°S8G‘FL | “Spumod=---"~=---=-=>~= puvyyst jo [IO pees-109309 puv 103402) Bev0o PRU roa Be “LLL QOTI "=" =o °" Pap are O0d| sh er ee LUT SVS 60a |nan sees O90 TET BAT Ena os SE ee syn4s -peoiq pue pvaiq Jo eNn{VA [BJO] Cee LTE Ny eae aoa as FORO Taipei alta ROGMOCG YT. Wier a ica jd) 072 pie es 86000 SE 3" SSF RSSal eee ee pooj sv pasn ‘Jo sory -eivdoid puv ‘syyngspveiq 19430 ITV 36 ‘TS9 ‘TS | G68 ‘896 ‘ST LL ‘T1869 | geo‘ecs‘or | sre ‘Fer‘c, | Gee ‘oc‘OT | eea‘zoe‘s, | GOL‘OBL‘ST | OTO'GOL "59 | FOE HEIL |-"Sfetauqe™ Hop VOT MA £99 ‘G03 ‘EH | HOL‘COL‘9L | THO‘L0F‘6S | O€S‘STF‘'8B | OLE‘FES'EE | GOL'TCE ‘ZTE | SET ‘668 ‘TOT | 188 {O8"LeT | Le (Osh "TS | SFE TET "SS |""STOUST enna quo 90 ‘ZL 891 ‘8 £16 ‘6 gc0 ‘g 062 ‘OL lee 19% i SST ‘8ST ¥90 ‘F B[OLTEG 9755232 ee nop eAy OE *¢ Ler'6 BES ‘9ST BEB ‘OSE | 961 ‘200 'T | 8CO‘LLF T OOL cE TE | 91S ‘THOSE | LOL Ie BEL ‘2S "SOqSng Sn ee oA Tee ‘999 £93 ‘664 ‘0G | BUG ‘RES LES ‘6146 (99 ‘O9T TOL ‘C92 ‘9 196 ‘ecg OGL ‘80606 | 91S “Tes £18 “OBL “2 Spunods =a eee [BeuyVO £62 ‘008 16 ‘699 #86 ‘2200'S | 99% ‘OSL ‘G 026 ‘TS6 FO ‘O8E % G9 ‘ZFS =| SLOSGEEG =| SOL “SOF O10 ‘E86 Bic ok ca eerie sac Es Sale 2 $380 FF8 ‘819 L9G ‘822 965 ‘OLY GLE ‘16S 180 ‘862 aor exe 196 616 G09 S282 116 ‘946 628 ‘STS "STOUR UGS" Se= sears [veut W410) 191 0S9 FT | 1EL‘T69‘2e | FEL ‘TIG ‘08 | THB‘Fee‘co | TIG‘280'FS | F1S‘LE0'9F | ODF ‘08S TH | GAB TSP (SL | 189 GEO"LT | SIZ (891 08 |" "STOUS Ge ene puNt W10;) 009 ‘89 PIE ‘906 FT | GLB ‘EL | GAT SGRT'GT = | eae 'eaL 196 ‘S89 ‘FT | 969°SLL | SeO'6FF FL | SFB ‘88 Gc9‘THG “GT = | "Spumod="ss557~ s}Mosiq puv prog 866 “LOL FEL ‘296 ‘T FIL ‘GLE ‘S| GOP ‘6TS‘S €r8‘89F‘T | 19s ‘S80‘E GFF TSL‘T | $20 ‘008 £06 “699 290 “EL6 *"S[OUsng* See elarg ‘syujspveiq puv prog TONPIBLCOLL ts eeec ABB 'Gba BRT sa9 T3955" 7 998 ‘980 TAT| “7-0 COR TRUZTST |e eee GBS POR BLT = seer Pte =" 5 | Penne een 1033uUT [BUT -TUB PUB S[BUITUV JO SUTVA [VO], eS |S |S | | AS ——e ————— | £0F ‘F8F GOL ‘616 'F 919 ‘06 L¥6 ‘069 808 ‘FT 868 ‘16 99 ‘0G 9GF ‘BOG £BP ‘68 G6 “TES =S°ODr? S*Se renee pees eae AV ‘TOO AX G18 ‘068 B16 ‘608 £60‘8I1$ | 801 ‘Cor 840 ‘Bas PEP ‘LL 868 ‘TE$ OLF ‘LOL 260 ‘083 S¥¢ ‘OBL ““BpuUnod” ayer aes S9aq "XT AL *peonultju0oHj—19}j VU [VIIa ‘OnVA “Aqryueney OnTV A “Aqryuenty ‘On BA “Aqryurny ‘on[vA | “AqryuBN? ‘onTvA “Aqryarnd —————_|—_—___——_- —. — — epPHAVy “Q68T ‘FO8T "COST. GOST “T6ST ‘panuyu0p9—sesr 02 T68T ‘og aung buypua saval ayy wof oungyno.iby oysawop Jo sjonpod ay} fo spuodxg 545 EXPORTS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. €2'69 66S “SBE SO. 980 ‘OTS “ERE Ger ‘669 ‘0S | SOE FLL “TTS O82 ‘409 FLT Teo ‘TEL ‘9LT 196 ¢ ‘BL GES ‘ES CLO ‘98ST ‘L G¢8 “G08 ‘E6e wee eee wee eee beets St od 183 ‘G63 ‘6ST Darl 818 ‘SFT ‘T GE “686 BS 101 ‘Ses 6 089 ‘863 ‘Te BIS ‘T6L “89% 886 ‘964 For 298 ‘SCT ‘OL 9€8 ‘240 °% 90 ‘6TF'¢ £99 ‘STF SF CO FL C8L ‘080 ‘TES 986 BSE “ST9 69°SL TLO'@ELSTO'T| “~~~ “| BES "SEE "66L 166 ‘CTL ‘FT OST ‘OTL “OFS 10 ‘818 ‘OT 118 ‘E19 ‘€ 198 ‘GFL ‘ST TUF ‘29 6L COF ‘E80 ‘TS 9GT ‘OL ‘F8 URC ia a NEE “CHP ‘E96 #29 ‘B18 ‘00G) "777777777777 LIL £08 ‘60% Gon Geach see GOF TEL “TST Looe aontT, |S" << e-- LOS! FE WOE Lola en ee PLE ‘809 'S G68 ‘698 896 ‘SOL FE ‘TLE FO9 ‘TS Sel ‘TL 989 ‘2 SGU GF Tee lss si nae TIS ‘6ST Foe Gies2 Claso ae ee 990 ‘EL @80 ‘004 021 ‘CFS SLE ‘198 969 ‘SFL GIG ‘688 LOL ‘SHG 818 ‘09 O19 ‘LG T@L‘8¢ CET ‘689 ges ‘etn ‘xT | 008 ‘998 FOL ‘B6S ‘22 | SCS‘LOS ‘SFE | SG ‘GOS ‘0 91S ‘FOSS | FIS‘OFS ‘TOL | GLLS1V°S GLI ‘ST OCF ‘GC8 289 ‘8 TL ‘266 986 ‘E28 ‘8 916 ‘290 ‘T (C2) oe | bea einem F98 ‘Tea 286 FOG TST ‘220° [99 ‘TR PLE ‘S6T'% | OL6 ‘288 ‘T LFS ‘ST6'S 608 ‘Ce Lee 61S 'F GFE ‘98 620 ‘886 ECC 6ST 8 T19 ‘989 ‘T 9ET ‘SE 266 ‘9S : IOC eee Tes ‘82 960 ‘FS 986 ‘E0T 020 ‘FS SLL ‘889'6 | 290‘9TR ‘GOS | FO8 ‘ETL 298 °G69°S | OGOSL9E TL | BOS ‘0RP'S OF9 ‘GTS #80 ‘SE SES ‘BSG GLL ‘868 ‘98 989 ‘F09 CL CO'EL EP AK ee 109 JVUT [V.IN{[NOLLIV Jo 3U90 19 GOR Ole Be) ee ee ae $}.10dx0 [e}OJ, 8 TSE Shs fio eee S}1OdX9 [V.ANJ[NOLISV [VyOY, Wt 0 iain an eee a Sea coker oes sjonpo.d snosur]oostyT BOS RCD POSS ca ae ol es ee [IO poos-109409 pu U09409 O90 30 CON oo vhs es syNyspveiq puv proag COP eOR SLT ee a > cree | eae eee 10}} BUI [VUITUY PUY s[eUIUy ‘NOLLVTOLIad Vou QGESAGO TP [rina no <>. tail ope eens nae cane eee sponpoad SHOOUBT[ONSTUT JO ON[VA [eIOJ, BRGOnGaln| pc tee cs ) ae ie) | eae sponpoid [wingynoL13e 19q30 [TV 680 ‘6IS GOS ‘EFS 7 BUO TRS sac ances $9]}30q UL ION G6E GE 60F TL “ROT a oe $9]990q UT —oulLM QU ORT oe aS Se eae eee seones puv sapyord Surpnypout ‘1040 TT THe ORs [TS SET TSS ee peur) ost ‘OTE 6ST LE Te OR oe as once Ee 900 ‘SL £90 ‘TSe OD: - 9c aaa suveq pus svog £66 “GL OSL “2g 7" BOUSRN Ge Sook on cee suolUO —so1qrqos0 4. SS ‘Bae 910 ‘E98 °% =°="OD poo" vee SUMMIT} puv suia}g TI6‘OLL “Oz | 689°696"9E6 |-“Spumod=-"==-"""" =" "ere nnn= guo'T —oo0vqoy, T&L ‘F6E* L | LaF ‘6FL ‘e¢ ----op- ">> avsns odvais 10 ‘osoonty CEs ‘TT FE8 ‘FOS GOD a ce tia cecal UMOIG “VSG 908 ‘SOL G)F ‘CGF 'F -"SUOT[@s~-""-~ dnais puv sossvpoyy ISOSSUIOUL PUB IVSNG 068 ‘S08 “EOE SESS het eee ree ace) 10790 ITV TST ‘OLE | SBk‘2G2'B «| >" Spumod==" =-""" =o nnn AqjouLy, F9G ‘FST S78 ‘FFL ~“spoysnq =~ ~~~ poostyy 10 ‘poosxvp STE ‘S83 FIO“GOE GE [5-7 CB te ae eee 03309 600 SL0°E.| FES"ELL Os [OR Be TOAOTO —spoog 210 ‘Se 029 ‘OFS “SpUnOG eee Se ae ae ok eae 801 OAR UM fl Si amb ta Miner aesiger Saee'= o1qeyeSoA 1073IO 196 ‘SF LOL eo marimar at k poosurT —svtoO 760 ‘oor ‘L | Tes ‘s¥e‘se9 |--""Op™---~ [BOUL OFVO-[1O PUB ORB TIO PLY Lee's | O80%9RL‘S = |-“Spunod-"""r on sdoH 866 OLb | 90°86 BS ES Sop eee Sar AvH 54G YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 7 Table showing principal countries to which products of domestic agriculture we exported during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1895. Great sys rie British Britain Possen- Ger- and . Ireland. | S!085- Articles. Total. Animals: , Cattle $189,420 | $621,920 032 Hogs. -- AIT |... 2.222 eee 467 Horses 740, 291 260, 432 168 Males. _22 52.2 22. tk- 2-22) 8 0) ee ne $6, 185 |. - =... 22 c | ae 267 Sheep... 22.0 - sas eee 201, Sie {tse ae eee 122 All other, including fowls -- 51, 389 12, 521 19,84 [eee eee 138 TTOtA) sos), soe eee 31, 803,197 | 1,245, 646 902, 197 194 Banes, horns: ote. : .4.--- Ss es.2 130, 261 40, 631 12, 250 539 Breadstuffs: Teg ho) ence ee oe mete ee 767, 228 621, 112 16,284 |}. 2. cee eee 129, 892 Bread and biscuit--....--.--- 634, 600 6,989 344, 076 1, 074 282,407 Sos een eae Soe SES. Se eee Sad 14, 650, 767 | 8,126,526 | 1,892,185 | 1,672, 539 306,689 | 2, 652, 828 hres. 2. i eee 648, 844 180, 362 32A, 935 5, 316: {4c sh Secee 138,172 Oats. 223th eg 200, 793 2,725 127, 974 368 69, 645 Oatmeal. oe as See 566, 321 418, 844 1, 566 66, 269 josSuct ee 89, 642 BO tee a ee 8 ee 5, 340 4, 800 450 |... sons 90 we Hours. es ADA | ae See 406: |.....<..2 4) 11, 656 Ne) eee A ee 43, 805, 663 | 30,453, 104 | 2,644, 282 | 1,522,736 945,594 | 8,239, 047 Wheat sour eee. TAGS oe 51, 651,928 | 30,529, 897 | 7, 962, 865 740, 264 4,174 | 12,414, 728 All other breadstuffs.-....-- 1, 661, 234 532, 503 418, 361 108, 634 10, 659 591, O77 LSP ESS ae Be Ste eee 114, 604,780 | 70, 876, 862 |13, 733,324 | 4,107,259 | 1,267,251 | 24, 620, O84 RS PISAGS 2S fee oss be eee 3, 901 3, O87 814 |.. 2... -s- eee ee roo Corn: 3.5 24254: sok GO {D095 | 2-525. aes 145, 242 "| 5 = 2A, 261 Casings for sausages---...--..-- 1,581, 891 353, 980 j 480, 031 i 2 ae aS eis CE eae 85, 675 83,722 | | Bo) ch iz eee 469 Cotton, unmanufactured------- i204, 900, 990 1104, 101, 245 368, 977 1 a ee SES Se ARLE 25, 317 307 18,228. |-22.-2. 2350 6, 787 IE TOMES 2) sO oo CU olan moe RAIN bs ee a eee Mrmicsend mts: 22> 3k Seco 4,971,791 | 2,908, 277 DCR ee Sn Soe en 215, 681 72, 004 Glucose or grape sugar. -------- 2,567, 784 | 2,470, 661 pat Be Se eee Fe : 114, 493 45, 387 Flowers, cut 2 521 43 Grease, etc -.------- cried 8, 216, 971 Oils: PTR ee che taseonet ae eee 379, 678 128, 910 Cotton-seed .....-.....------| 6,813,313 926, 585 (Pit ys Op el ee SPECS Wendie cee ES PAU, As ise cierto gdm 7,230,354 | 1,055, 495 Provisions: € oe Meat products— Beef products— Beef, canned .......- 5, 720,933 | 3,562,993 Beef, fresh_......-...| 16,832,860 | 16,784,986} 9,776] 27,183 |--..-...... Beef, salted or paket ate eee TS 3, 558,230 | 1,643, 509 i Beef, other, cured... 73, 569 44, O87 12, Tallow -<:......2~«- 1, 293, 059 227, 908 46,475 121, 390 POGSL 5. cca. eee 5 = 27,478, 651 | 22,263,483 | 1,026, 951 Hog products— ie ee he tay BOCOR wus. cuuk ae =~ 37, 776, 293 | 29, 024, 682 477, 463 981, 591. io eas oO 10, 960,567 | 9,245,618 809, 487 216, Pork, fresh .......... 60, 660 56, 800 S,BAD Lokk oareeiee! Sa. sin Sec Pork, pickled -.....-.. 4,138,400 | 1,082,438 | 1,388, 945 144, 169 18, 329 a SPLAT 36, 821,508 | 14,301,618 437,258 | 8,018,516 | 2, 681, 659 1 pe Ae a! Spe 89, 757, 428 | 53,661,156 | 2,567,002 | 9,360,896 | 3,552, 165 ps ONES ee 47, 832 26, 370 12, 824 6, 45615 onsica mean "bb — a on , ie EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC AGRICULTURE. 5AT Table showing principal countries to whieh producis of domestic agriculture were exported during the fiseal year ending June 30, 1895—Continued. Great Bri igs ritish All other Articles. Total. — Posses- has France. | coun- sions. ‘ ries. Ireland i : tri Proyisions—Continued. | Meat products—Continued. Oleomargarine— Imitation butter....| _ $992, 464 $115,924 | $174,850 | $123,963 |.-.......-.- $578, 327 3 a 7,107,018 623, 145 61, 181 | 1,839,320 }.-......... 4, 583, 382 Lo eee oe 739, 069 236,031 | 1,962,673 |-..-.------ 5,161, 709 Poultry and game ---..- 4,575 10, 811 | ae Ee 2,269 All other meat products 758, 722 219, 055 240, 197 $15, 520 $366, 737 Dairy products— Chins ho EE eee 134, 955 237, 514 12, HS |----- 530, 086 cesar. 2 5.2 Loe 4,362, 877 | 1, 026, 849 553 95, 260 LS, Se ees 31, 955 46, 516 76 | 141, 138 Cua 5s oe tL 4,529, 787 | 1,320,879 | 13, 607 2,100 706, 484 Total provisions - -|133, 634,379 | 81,983,112 | 5,393, 553 112, 801, 230 | 4,195, 654 | 29,260,830 i oto eee 4, 687 1,784 365 pig CES 2,509 Rootes herbs, etc......-..------- 1,058, 808 57, 982 | 764, 894 74,217 13, 214 148, 501 Seeds: US eee 2,124, 997 996, 123 316, 097 584, 469 25, 590 202,718 OS Se eee 86, 695 76, 160 257 99 124 Flaxseed or linseed -.------- 1, 483 87 or (alee a Sd Se ee ae 10 0 277,160 114,616 84, 494 61, 269 15, 866 its i a ee 358, 860 127,479 70, 224 27,128 13, 068 120, 961 “ie Tea ae ae ee ee 2,849,145 | 1,315, 254 471,619 672, 905 39, 7. 349, 610 joy oe De es 3, 689 3, 218 | ee Sugar, brown, molasses, and ion) | 2 eee 872, 452 688, 635 107,163 19, 421 8, 422 48, 811 Tobacco, leaf, stems, and trim- ou) 2. oo ee 25,798,968 | 9,295,946 | 1,762,769 | 3,910,588 | 2,901,098 | 7,923, 767 Vegetables: Beans and peas .....-.------ 429, 002 7, 392 75,7 794 2,900 342,170 2 Se ee Se pees ae AGRI one ce 5.2 = 18, 681 COE: 3 cc cttee 2, [ep is bal ee 418, 221 1, 838 47, 337 Bibs e 2 O15 Vegetables, canned --------- 441, 388 338, 805 31, 854 2,317 1,999 66, 413 All other, including pickles. 208, 144 69, 475 84, 851 1,312 476 52,030 (TS ae ee 1, 543, 458 417,510 258, 469 4, 492 5,375 857, 612 RBCS o2--- ~~ - <---> .- 90, 875 38, 594 387 ay Ye eepeeeeene 1, 327 UN ee oo 12, 056 164,126 3, 669 362, 504 (le S 2k ee eee 271, 328 4, 892 638 194, 969 re ee or De 314, 181,598 |31, 094,333 |70, 646,978 |32, 798, 829 104, 461, 724 [A SSS Sai eae AE ie | See aga 56.80 5.62 12.77 5.93 18.83 2s * —-» 1 Unenumerated articles, amounting to $26,564, make up the total to $553,210,026. SURVEYORS’ MEASURE. 7.92 inches = 1 link, 25 links = 1 rod—=5} yards. 100 links = 1 chain—4 rods—22 yards. 80 chains = 1,760 yards—1 mile. 10 square chains ) _ ; . or 160 square rods } ~~ Fay 640 acres =: 1 square mile. An acre of ground comprised within four equal sides measures 208.71 feet each way. A half acre of ground comprised within four equal sides measures 147.581 feet each way. A circular acre is 235.504 feet in diameter. A circular half acre is 166.52 feet in diameter. : - $96 ‘898 £66 ‘6oF ‘T ALT ‘694 090 ‘TST ‘T €90*L0L 082 ‘996 C8E ‘ec6 ‘ T | coo ‘6cr's OF6 ‘TEP 896 ‘CFS fF s‘9 8166. 18. 0g SCO L 8698 09°29 LEG S8 LEG 86 LEL OFT 866 TS LT ‘968 ESF 76 OSF Toh GPO NG CES 'S0F GHG LE £Eo 96P 680 TE GOB 'SLg DP 106 ‘08 806 SOS 806 SFE 8 168 8 608 Te F6G'8 80 (0G 990° 269 6 fx each G19 OL . 809 T 66L £96 T Toe SLOT 066 (ST. i TES «0s SFL 198 918 “OTL ‘S FFL SSS T90 T6L $09 “TE6 63L'OL6 TT OF0 ‘26ST | Ses ‘OFT’ €69 Ges" | SEL"8L0°S =) a ia eae eB ae et ee te onc occ eock| ee teasing [onseercee=-=o| gan tegmme [emereeee oe ‘ Pie Tepe ee. fo SUP ERU ULE ela o aerae GIOGa0 BR ae Sf FEF SES “OF 55 BERS “CF Se So Joos ydeoxe ‘sjonpoid ea IlaY} PUL S[VUITUB JO ON[BA [BIOJ, Seager, Rik ECCS Inge Mn eRe eal i De Lely bn a ek el 98S al ee ae iE OG. |: lance Fee eae sjonpo.id qwveur 10440 11TV ( | ea Se eee SS5q jen ISt Fe T FGF TOE T T&G (666 0&S “68 818 869 T 820 ‘Soh ‘T | $00 ‘S6F‘T 886268 ‘TL | 88 ‘FORT “SPUDQG FS see ee sos tts 670 008 |" Cee aan LES URL OB Ss el iat ip aaa rT ieee saa Rei eee kal Ieee = eens grad: epn.io ‘souog ge, ‘44'S 100 ‘se Fed 08 099 ‘STS CSP ‘08 SET LE spun’: es mee OOM JG90xX0 onpol prpeegees i) Diese |e BRP cen | sees ee 69% “Gee 1&6 A itty > china wean (eae > = se pehe Surpupour SoCo Te 7 Ne] ie, TOF ‘16 TST ‘884 899 ‘BIS 116 ‘89 ‘T 902 6T2‘T | coy ‘ete Bidets 8) tebe leet cal on doays fo) ee ‘S0"T | 860‘8T GLE “61ST OL ‘9 L9G ‘888 °S 1 ; #93 ‘G96‘S | LEG ‘es "ODS Sh ie eee ae ses10py ro) 8 ‘GOL$ ISL GFT FOL ‘818 669 ‘T G89 ‘SES £63 'S 907 ae 89L'S 816 ‘BOs GOES hs tacked eS 81338) ve —dAT[ ‘SpVULTy ion} :Jooa, ydooxe ‘sjonpoid Jfeq} pur speuluy < oS [oct So ae ee eA ae er Se ee. 8 ES B ‘OnIVA fas heeded “On[VA “Aqquend ‘On[ VA “Aqryyurny ‘ONIVA ‘Aquuny ‘ONTBA “Aqrqyarn? — | ‘SsOpPHIy “CEST “POST “E68T “COST “T68T io@) =H wh) ‘S68T OL T68T ‘OF ANOL DNIGNG SUVEA AHL YOU SLOAGOUd IVUNALINOINSV JO SLUOdWI 549 IMPORTS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. ‘OGST ‘9 199.0990 03 AOTAd SrOqy TOTZO [Tv UT pepnyouy FAT ‘66h ‘T LTT e220 ‘F 269 ‘208 ‘L 6c ¢ GIS ‘Nea ‘8 FFG ‘169% GEE ‘689 °9 GEE “OM FS 890 “69F ‘G9¢ 182 ‘190 ‘68 619 ‘OGF ‘ST LES ‘GPF ‘99L ‘8 969'9 G6 “LOG ‘EF weet lS Se SOT ‘eOT‘T | e2s‘T98‘S 980 ‘FO0 ‘T ee ce ase PRE OR nls loece see ys GLE ‘FSL‘S SOF ‘S86 OFO ‘CLL 168 ‘606 BLP ‘LSL For ‘T68 FLL ‘LF TS? ‘F6L‘9 T28 ‘009 2 916 ‘28 OF‘! 690'TT ora ’s 10 ee C16 ‘S10'S 986 ‘966 ‘@ FES ‘STL ‘T TIG “JEL ‘S FFL ‘669 709 ‘SEL 'S GO ‘BB LOF ‘G80 ‘T OTL ‘Seh'T | 0065106 OFG ‘TOL | F8L'98 G4 796 . We Oe aL. fos ae TE ag atl an CSF ‘189 ‘Ss 606 ‘gon ‘ett [ “| 2p‘9e0‘20t| "777777 -- ===! Gog ‘699 ‘86 988 ‘90T LTT ‘OLS Fas ‘99 619 ‘688 ‘T 868 F9 GPLSCT OST FES ‘6 68 ‘SOT | SFO TSO ‘L 010 FET Tis ‘cers | sto‘zos‘ee | ese‘zor's | 6LL‘FeO'LT | TOS‘LT0F LiL ‘0et ‘96 | 926 ‘S06 ‘ec9 | 919 ‘FTE ‘06 | Lee ‘Fe6 ‘ose | sag ‘est ‘08 GLE TAL ‘SL | scr'ece‘z6 §=| Sta‘FPL FT | LIL‘STS‘86 = | SBP ‘LES8 ‘ST =_—_—_—_— eee ae) ee doo age eat | =o * => SIT ‘BFS ‘SIT OFL‘C6S‘T | G18 *S20°ET | SLL‘F86‘T | G99‘0L9'6 | FEB ‘C66 ‘T oes ‘Zor ‘OL | FSF ‘OTS ‘F29 ‘S| 688 ‘TLS ‘9ZT| TSS ‘SEL ‘CFS F| FSL ‘GCs ‘OTT fe ooe| doo C0GLG}|" ae 029 ‘196 ‘92 OL ‘FB | GST ‘9 00 ‘eS | 206 ‘OT 298 ‘¢€9 ‘T 968 ‘EFL ‘S| 969 ‘LF €10 ‘FL ‘S| SOF ‘8h FF ‘C00 ‘9 L19‘090‘F =| 822 ‘08 ce ‘S10'F | EEGs ‘Ge OLE ‘928 ‘8 996 CLS | TL9 ‘OTT 862 ‘9TL‘T | L60‘0G 88 ‘LOPS FOF ‘Sch Le3 ‘6 680 ‘16% 68h ‘F 698 ‘Tee TOL ‘S88 76 ‘9 816 ‘68s | SE0‘T GF ‘G89 163 ‘660°S | GESL Gr ‘968 'T | eceth GEL ‘618 ‘T cle ‘FIL‘F =| eco ‘ese ‘er =| sss‘s00's | 6FG‘GOL‘2Ze | 66L‘889‘F g00Oe0(es [7 ro i i We ae aaa 996 ‘968 ‘6% Tor ‘9se‘cs | 906‘Se0‘90G | SEF‘LOT‘D | esG‘ect‘se | OSL‘F90‘'TS GIR 6Go08 © |5 Sa ee RE Ndaate |e ease ee CLS ‘06'S G60 ‘866 OEE eg Pare pe G8 ‘998 ‘T 066 ‘8 1 803 ‘T OF6‘T TOF £65 ‘3 490 ‘929‘T | GTO ‘TSF ‘e Tor ‘eeo‘t | eec‘och‘e _ [-“Spunod----Turymesse 20 OTT3BTOA OFS ‘BESS eee cae 100 ‘OFT Os Ski ie an eeepc see plo €19 ‘918 98F ‘901 68P ‘SEL 60¢ S09 F BUDO 1 a ae ee PUTVS PATIO —possoidxe 10 poxty —9]1Q8I9ZOA ‘SITIO TIS ‘90T OST ‘998 ‘OT | 9FS ‘Es 026 ‘6's -~ «|“*Spinod**s2*55s shige eee OVO 1O StL ‘9 GOL‘G Eh ‘BL £80 ‘E21 SO Te ee ate Aprvq ‘4[VIC LOG ‘SLL ‘TL | 199 ‘TOFS ogo ‘009'T | 200 ‘680 ‘3 abt) ‘ mapas onni eke tpi gs me OStpuy % 906 ‘264 °T | $09°GIO'F ““@QUUOL "2 9~ “oars vene ee sdoyt TOP ‘StF OFS ‘8G aii 3.2: aaiaenned siarepie adr vietnam mg Avy hoe et OST. ‘E86 ‘Gg [OTe n nnn s| sone senase np eases s**> SNUG poe elon, :SNOOUL][VOSTPT TS¢ ‘SIS ‘GFT aTesnnaanknm es] Gaetorg wu ~ Gaaino 3) «koa Rnagees soynqyisqus pur z ‘v0909 ‘99TJOD ‘VA JO ON{VA [V}OY, 6ST ‘8 SFE ‘FSIS CHS ‘F £69 ‘OL seicGl’) ° ters seaeyE cat: sojN{IYSqNs ooyoH 611 ‘6 CEL ‘GOP 'G ra Ca Tes ‘98 ‘T ~-"-op--"punoasun ‘awd yoor ALOIy) THO ‘Tes ‘8 | F48'GS6‘TS | SOL‘2I8‘s | OFS ‘EES ‘Ts | “SpUmod@-"~=-="""=*"-""s"- snr Jo ST[PUS puv soavel pur ‘opn.ao ‘BoD0p 086 ‘TFO‘S2T] 884 ‘OTS ‘0FD | 224 ‘SeT ‘96 | CER ‘sag'6Tg |7-7-"Op =~" n-ne nn ee) Gee ‘ELE‘FT | 680'6L0'06 | 866 ‘Se ‘ET | GES ‘EGh‘es | “Spumod=--"=-""=""=" ===" So oe 7S0}N4IYSqNs pus ‘BOd0d ‘9oTJOO "ea, 19a 99e ‘orl | eae neg egeh 7 ~\°7*>-=>-5 | ee eee meee SOSSET -OUl puv IvSNS JO ON[VA [BIOJ, FEL‘LIS "S| GOS ‘SEES | SLT ‘6c9'S | SOF ‘F09‘0 | |” “SWOTTUB"~-"~- "=" "r= -oomsrne = SOSSElOTT G18 ‘SOF ‘FOT| GOT ‘60S ‘999 ‘E| OTS ‘SEL ‘GOT! es “LLP ‘GBF ‘g)"“Spanod----"==-"""" =r2" =" oor e ivsng [SOSSR[OUL puv Avsng SU GRLO' | erase G Cor ‘GIFT ar aye eee Ne ae Cea Sieqy JO ON[VA [ezIOT, TOS ‘TL * F8 ‘CI $9 ‘600° 099 '€8 RAS mene sm 7: kis 19440 11V 069 "A8T'S | 080 ‘SF LS FFF | STZ ‘68 BR A a PGE 1 88813 [BSIS 616 SL9'9 | FL ‘FP FG ‘BIZ ‘9 | Tee ‘ce Pali RMR. as Saag 1 UTUe AL FLE‘T2O'S | 729'S8 868 ‘298 ‘S| TOL ‘TFT #6 yt agar s}3nq eynl pur oyne SFE CCE Col ¥ IST £96 - 118. § 5 Oe to aay Seam 1 OoTd me} LO OTST 608 ‘189, | ASL ‘s 968 ‘TEL ‘T | F8F TT OD ee ko dutey SOT ‘796 'T I'L ; 6LL ‘999 'T Tee ‘9 SS Sema oaEe TPES eB Sas XUpL Teg‘L1S‘e | 92‘s90'8s | F0O'SG3"S | LT8‘806‘0E | “SpuUMod-----~--r-"ee-"== 109400 —o[qryedo A CUE ‘6E0 ‘Ce See Eh ae 180 ‘920 ‘6T SN SU, MOREL LO CRP RT Rae Stee FT XS SOT ‘889 6T | 2S9‘OL9‘SIT | cle ‘Tés‘st | St9‘e08‘62E |--Spumod---------------= ==" STOOM. —[euray :S.1eq lit 7) UR 712 Cael Neen ae Ra ae Gis SCOT oe ras Bae eS syuyspvoiq JO on[VA [vjOT, 990 ‘683 ‘T SRR SLE F6L'T es eae Ser nengriter reir or ne nr, 10490 11V ks F T19 OST Sh €1F'8 i: Neen caren Sie anog FVoTLAL 550 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TOP ‘86 ‘9S |- wee nn eee ne nee we ewe | Beet i | a | C16‘ 06 '@O4 (GUL 77177770 707°77 BBB OL ‘LL |onn nn eneen ne a ks GO alae gaat GF8 ‘FLL G16 ‘ “99 eee ecee eceee= O82 ‘OST “T Lre‘St6‘T =| gg Pe 196 ‘208‘E | wSL ‘Le oe er i.) G9 “TBE SAS i Naeae F29 800 09 ‘THe ‘T LOL‘SS‘T =| 096 ‘Gee T G18 ‘CBF ‘LET OsL ‘ShL FL | 19%‘809 ‘98 WS tS ee 808 °200'T | 799 ‘628 ‘LT CFB ‘T6L 188 ‘TOS ‘0% Tos ‘ere €19 299 ‘T 028 ‘CLE BL ‘890s ‘ »C ‘9 eee ee ee oa £09 EE) on en egal 699 ‘OBL$ CF ‘ggg ‘OnTVA *Ayrquen?y “SO8T SFL ‘82h ‘T €18 ‘118 ‘T B29 “BOF ‘S 696 ‘LIL ‘T $08 LEL 986 °G86 “OT 008 22 116 ‘S68 GHB ‘Les cI Wer |” F16 ‘169 ‘I$ ‘ONIe A 160 ‘963, £69 669% 098 ‘LE3 BLS ‘200 ‘8 180 ‘FST ‘T GTS ‘FOL SL 818 ‘OFT 'T OFS ‘490 ‘T T88 ‘OTL “AUGUVNyH “FOBT ~10}} BUI [VIN [NILASY Jo 480 18g Gers 4 hee “"""-s4.10d UII [BIO], “"* $}.10CUIL [BIN}[NOLLSY [B}O], SNOsUVI [IOs IIT rExeener sere >" ee ae | ee ea eae $e}N4I}Sqns puv ‘vod0d ‘sayjoo ‘nay, icp Reeser ad cencnteeavesvc]onse concn cunsticnecesata eat eer ear a] ee Ie ees oe ee 606 '8é0 'S eae, Br emns SPL es en tT Ree ere 166 ‘G86 ‘sh |--*" 777 777" "| "TOO 4deoxe ‘syonpozd joy} puLs[uuTUYy "NOILVIOLId VOau SESPES SESE =) SCPE LO [oot ee LOO ee) LG Vet ene ao, colle cay ee ee ee sjonpoid SNOOUIOOSIUI JO ON[VA [VOI ole ‘Tar ‘% 098 ‘SIF : 803 ‘806 ‘T OF ‘G98 ; ole ‘OFL py S 999 ‘ste ; WOLD | ntaeuees $91330q UT ¥e0 GOSS | $e Sso"s FSP FOF SG | 686 LLF SE 918 THO"e | SOS 0938's ““SU0GS SySvo UT ee, ; eras F me joe me A a a —SoUrA [19S #90 GLE 9 | FET FLE 9I8 TLS F | S69 6TE S18 °ST9'S | 780 00F “-"" $91330q 1AaZOp *Surpqauds z0q}0 pure cere f@) —Sour A, G6e ‘6L ; Fes ‘99 TIGL ‘ST ? 16 ‘19 600 ‘08 F $18 ‘OL suol[es ey ee es IvsoulA PALA i eae ee, GOT ‘8I¢ Ler| creer ee te QL BBO Galo. «ase cs lie. es eae ee 19430 ITV OE thes 7 se ale a eg a C1 dal |g Sa IP Rica mea SOT Tg, eva pyc haeiioae |pbhk pede 257 Soonvs PUB So[Ho 689 ‘990 ‘8 T20 ‘A18 “F 900 98ST LL8 ‘9ST L066 “L6L & | G6 TOFS re) merce awry Aye $90}8}0qT 83o “FELT | ShO ‘PSL F683 196 090 ‘FL8 Tie ‘8140S | soy ‘9co ‘T “speysng-=="""""""" svod sedate oA C86 G04. eh ‘883 969 ‘208, 689 ‘BZ FFL ‘FOS. £26 ‘OLT TRA) Ae eget eg oS SuBvoed VI[UBA OFF GOL TL | SLE OIL'S Sar ‘28S ‘OL | S89 ‘886 ‘Te SOT ‘F8S ‘EL | 800 ‘T90‘eg |" “Spunod---------"*-=-=== FRET ‘ODVBQO], T3908 063 8 864 ‘ST 200 ‘¢ ; Tee ‘Se BTL ao See ee AVIYS 46T OIL LT | $16 698 OT 900 026 TSP ‘LS Jt CAF ‘P98 | yO eA «pani Set 9p wah Se BN A B90 ‘816 LT | $26 ‘LOFTS 896 690° T | 88 “664 ‘FL 189 ‘888 ‘T | S8¢ ‘F9S a SN VR aed ew csst 00 “Sg 7a) = OB6L | *OTH4%OD *IvOX “MUOA MON OL OODVOIHO WOUd SLVAW aassaua aQNV MOOLS GAIT NO (TIVU TIV) SALVU LHDIEUI & | G8} ce | es | ee [tes ites [fey lise jte, | ce | ee | 8 | ce €& | S| se | Se | ge lf, lfes fez Hfeg |fez | ge | ge | ge} ge ce | ce | ce | ce | ce lie, licy lies lf19 |fe, | ce | se | eg | ge S& | $8] 88 | 8S | OF \fTS JETS JfTS |fe9 |fTS | ge | 9& | Se | ge | 16 | 16 | LG | LS | 2 | | G9} OF | ZO | 2s | 24S | LS | 2 Se | 8a | 8a} 8¢] 82] &9 | G9! G9] TS | 9 | gz} Se] se] gz 0& | 0 | OF | O& | O& | G9 | G9 | G9 | SF} G9 | OG | O8 | OF | OS €& | SB} ee | S| Se] | TL | TZ | 69! 1] ge] ge | ge} ge Ge | Sa | Ga | G2 | Gz lEzg [ELE [Fxg for fxg | cz | Sz | Ge | Sz 9 | 9S | 9% | 9% | 9S JEgG J*BS JESS |r lise | og | 9% | 9% | 92 8@ | 8s | SZ] 8s} Se jf99 |f09 |f09 |f6F |f09 | sz | sz | sz | sz IE | 18 | 1 | Te | ee jtgo |f99 |f99 |tog jf99 | Te | Te | Te | Te £@ | 2 | Se | Ss | Ge lige lies jf | SF |fes | ez | ez | Es] ge Fo | #6 | 12 | Fe | Fe litG [FG tH | FF IS | Fe | FZ | FE OF 92 | 92 | 9% | 9Z | 98 |¥9G |F9G |f9G | OF |F9G | 9z } 98 | 92 | 92 Gs | 6 | 63 | 6s | TE |feo |feo |Fe9 | ec !t29 | 6s | Ge} 62 | 62 cod Lod *(SPROTIVO) Spo..1eq “(Spuoy ur ‘ytod poyyorg | -avo) sopeq Ur ‘Too A, -189) S00}v}Og *(SpRopivo) W10D 88°S | €9°S | a's | GL‘T | €9'T | 88° | OS'S | 88'% | SCF §8°S | 00°9 | Go°S | 8E°F | ST°L | 099 | 83'S | GL’e | £9'% ere 88°F | 00'D | 00°F | Sa*F | 09'S | 0O'F | SBF | SLE GL°8 | OG ‘TT! SLIT} £9°8 | 00°9 | 00°F | OOF | Sze | 00'S | 00°S |] OS ‘P| 88° | SET | 00'S | Sah | SL°S | SL’°R | COP 8F'°9 | CLS | OL'S | GL°L | 08S | OL °F | 00'S | 00'S | BE°8 GO PL) SL'ST) OF “ZT] SEIT] OL*FT| O9 FI] ST “OL! 00°6 | 06 ‘TT ah ica (ake 2 hair Lae WU | Nk 00°9T| F6°E1) FE “SI ‘00d | AON | “990 | 4dog| ‘Sny |Ame | ‘oung, ‘Avy | dy *(joysuq aod 83000 ur) 80727 £0'F | SL'F | 9z'9 |-"7""° vos GL’ | $2'e | 00'e |"*"*"" seer 0g°2 | 86°9 | 00°6 |""-"**ZoxT 00°8 | SL'b | Sa‘k |°"*"*" 1681 00°8 | SL°O1| et "Tr|"**""" 0681 | 08°2 | ce°s | 08°6 |"""""" cet 00 ‘@t| 20°L | 00°R |""""** Oss 99 °PT) ZB 81) 461)" oLel PRES “IEIY | 40 ‘ave | ‘10 X “IlOOduaAIT OL WHOA MOAN WOU LVAHM NO SELVU LHYIFUS ‘moysog 03 A[ddv soqurt YIOR MON J1Odxo 10 OWeay UO 1 Pana err aa PH ‘o.1oun eg vq ‘vig dpoperiqd AN ‘HIOK MON hia Sty a hs eT RC. 1 SSB] ‘Wojsog parenece sss ceases PIA ‘o.10om Ty [eg eq ‘viqdjeperiyd AN ‘YIOKR MON ey ote rssuyq ‘Uojsog os oe coe ea PIV ‘e.1oway[eg vq “erqdpopeiitd AN ‘YMOK MON brs song ens re ae TSSuy ‘uoysog Nedetetie te aetna PIT ‘eLoumngyeg vq ‘VITA opeliyd AN ‘310K MON Se ee SSVI] ‘Uo4sog: ‘(Spvo[Tvo) FwoTT A, pope ty *n TIT ‘SMory 4s 3SegT TIL ‘osvorgD pul ‘syodvuurpuy ee nee ee Ogg ‘TywuUIUry) ‘SGNNOd O0OT Ud SINGO NI ‘968T OL Z68T ‘IT AUVONVE LOGIde NI (JIVU TIV) SALVU LHDSITZUuA 554 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE WEATHER IN 1895. Highest and lowest temperatures, with the highest and lowest ever recorded. Station. Boston, Masso... .. a . : Lo} rl ' onl sal gio |Bale [S18 {3s 3 See POs i fac) Sarl Semmes s-/8 g3| a [e-|odlsa| fls4 ire No Locality. Description. 4 8 ck gq aft aq 2s cls 5 q ae] Ss Of [wns] ®H Pe = ie Ss e2| £2" )22) c= | ca |2"| 28 |e HE he } S a OS | on & 8 fo) Glo |a~| kh |= ee | P. ct.| P. ct.| P. ct.| P. ct.| P. ct.| P. ct.| P. ct.| P. ct.) P, ct. 472 | Marley, Md..-..-.-- RUCK s4acavalreos 0.30 | 0.49 | 4.96 [40.19 [27.59 [12.10 | 7.74 | 2.23 | 4.40 141 | Davidsonville, Md| Wheat -......-.--- 5.25 | .00] .23] 1.71 | 6.08 |30. 82 120.92 |11.21 | 23.78 937 | Hagerstown, Md..| Grass ----.-------|12.88 | .00] .08] .13] .53 |10. 94 |19. 02 | 4.67 | 51.75 16-“Lititz, Pa'..c.--<.- Ci a pide ad 6.85 06 40 | .93 | 3.11 111.45 [30.55 |10.35 | 36.30 abana type 1254 | Poquonock, Conn.| Cigar wrapper, | 2.13 | 3.22 | 7.53 |19.63 |25.76 34.50 | 5.92 -78 | 2.58 | Sumatra type. 759 | Granville Co..N.C.| Bright tobacco --| 2.12 | 8.09 | 7.16 |21. 74 {22.92 |16.76 |13.17 | 8.24) 4.80 652 | Lynchburg, Va.--| Shipping tobacco} 9.88 .35 | 1.87 | 5.72 14.73 110.79 | 6.70 | 4.62 | 45. 84 1317 | Virginia City, Nl -| Upland loess--.--- 5.71 00 00} .00 7.68 61.85 | 9.60 | 15.15 1803 | Ogaliala, Nebr ....| Plains marl...... 2.98 00 00 | .03 | 1.95 176.58 [12.93 | 1.31] 4.22 — — — Nortr.—The first three samples in the table represent the texture of typical soils of the Atlantic Coast States adapted to truck, wheat, and grass. Their agricul- tural value and adaptation to crops are largely dependent upon the relative pro- portion of the different grades of sand and clay, as this determines the relation of the soils to water. Soils differ greatly, however, in structure or in the arrange- ment of the soil grains, and as this changes their relation to water the texture is not always a guide to their agricultural value. The texture, together with a record of the moisture content, indicates very clearly the class of crops to which these soils are adapted. The same remarks apply to the four types of tobacco soil shown in the table. The loess soils are characterized by a large content of silt. These likewise differ in structure, and this affects their agricultural value. The plains marl of western Kansas and Nebraska is characterized by a large percent- age of very fine sand, é : , r ia INSTITUTIONS WITH COURSES IN AGRICULTURE. 557 _ The foliowing table gives the weight of a cubic foot of soil under different degrees of compactness, together with the amount of space in these soils, and the per cent of water in the saturated soil when all the space is filled with water: Weight of | Waterin1| Weight of Per cent by Per cent by | 1 cubic foot | cubic foot of | 1 cubic foot weight of volume o of water- saturated | ofsoil,when jad space. free soil soil saturated | Water insat- (pounds). | (pounds). | (pounds). urated soil. | 35 107.5 21.8 129.3 16.9 40 99. 2 25.0 124.2 20.1 45 90. 6 28.1 118.7 22.4 | 50 82.7 31.2 113.9 27.4 55 74.4 84.3 108.7 81.5 60 66.2 37.4 103.6 36.1 65 58.1 40.6 88.7 41.2 The specific gravity of upland arable soils varies but little and may be assumed to be about 2.65 to 2.70; the former is used by the Department of Agriculture for the mineral constituents of arablesoils. The amount of space, therefore, in a cubic foot of such soil is determined by the compactness, or close arrangement, of the soil grains. As arule, coarse, sandy soils are the most compact and contain the least amount of intergranular space, rarely containing less than 385 per cent of space, however. The amount of space appears larger, as the grains are large and each individual space is larger, but the aggregate amount of space is less. Clay soils usually contain considerably more space than sandy soils, going as high as 60 or 65 per cent in common arable clay lands. The weight of a cubic foot of dry soil in its natural condition is given approximately in the second column for several conditions of compactness. The weight of water contained in the soil, if all the space is completely filled with it, is given in the third column. Arable soils in good condition for crops rarely contain more than from 30 to 60 per cent of the saturating quantity. The total weight of a cubic foot of saturated soil and the percentages are given in the fourth and fifth columns. EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN THE UNITED STATES HAVING COURSES IN AGRICULTURE. State. | Name of institution. Locality. President. Alabama. -..-=.- | Agricultural and Mechanical College.) Auburn ---.-.---- W.L. Broun. (Arizona; .-.------ University of Arizona -_..-. ..2.------ GPEC ere eee Howard Billman. Arkansas ---..-.-| Arkansas Industrial University ---..- Fayetteville ----- J.L. Buchanan. California. .-.-.-- College of Agr’ture of the University-| Berkeley --..----- M. Kellogg. Colorado-.-.----- The State Agricultural College ---..- Fort Collins----.- Alston Ellis. Connecticut ---.| Storrs Agricultural College ----..-.-- Stones! .----e-.2—~ B, F. Koons. Sheffield Scientific School of Yale | New Haven--.-.--- Timothy Dwight. University. Delaware --..--- Delaware College .-....--. extract. ————— WASTE PRODUCTS—continued. t. is} > S Be Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per 8.2 i Brewers Grains (dried) <—.. 2... 5S. .... 2. ee - 850 20.4 1.4 10.3 26 22, 859 ag be sheep: e— Bead SELON UGS acs etatdhacat terior 56 1.6 .18 87 O45 2,143 O/ity.0 MONG 5555 o0 nana ae wanes en 67 ny f 17 -85 - O40 2, 086 Siig Ub months sc22 8. decades 15 Lee -16 -85 - 087 2, 035 LLAO My SONTNS 255 coca eck awtene &2 1.8 14 .89 . OBR 2,051 1b PO e0 MONS. 2s vac des esek 85 1.9 2 .88 025 1, 966 Growing fat swine: ‘ Age— 2 foe MONA ss asa wc cance cohen 50 2.1 .38 1.50 3, 496 $ to MpHths oo. 2s 2 oes ee ees 100 3.4 -50 2.50 5, 580 § to'6 months 22.5... siveecane 125 3.9 . D4 2.96 6,510 6 to'G monte: so cccie denen 170 4.6 58 3.47 7,533 8 fol? montis: e225 n se eenes 250 5.2 «62 4.05 8, 686 CALCULATION OF RATIONS. In order to explain the use of the preceding tables, let us calculate the daily ration for a cow, assuming that the farmer has on hand clover hay, corn silage, corn meal, and wheat bran. Wolff's standard for a cow of 1,000 pounds calls for 2.5 pounds of protein, 12.5 pounds of carbohydrates, and 0.4 pound of fat, which would furnish 29,590 calories of heat. From the table showing the amounts of digestible nutrients we find that 100 pounds of clover hay furnishes 84.7 pounds of dry matter, 6.58 pounds of protein, 35.35 pounds of carbohydrates, and 1.66 pounds of fat, equivalent to a fuel value of 84,995 calories. Twelve pounds would have 10.16 pounds of dry matter, 0.79 pound of protein, 4.24 pounds of carbohydrates, and 0,20 pound of fat, giving a fuel value of 10,199 calories. Ls , fig —_ ' CALCULATION OF RATIONS. 565 In the same way the amounts furnished by 20 pounds of corn silage, 4 pounds of corn meal, and 4 pounds of wheat bran are found. The result would be the fol- lowing table: Method of caleulating ration for dairy cow, - ; | Digesti- Total | Digesti- bl =| Digest F Ration dry ble pro-| Ye car- igesti- F uel et a ra pohy- ble fat. | value. OO I Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Calories. 10.16 0.79 12 pounds of clover hay 4. 24 0.20 10,199 20 pounds of corn silage . : 2. 36 .13 5, 143 moeaon OL COrD Meal -....-~.--.. -s-ss0n5-s-5-5-- ; ° 2.61 13 5,921 4pounds of wheat bran 1. 65 mp Ail 4,446 JUG ee ee A 10. 86 57 25,7 eee BUANORTO 22560828. Sota ee--- ee aes aa 12.50 -40 29,590 This ration is below the standard, especially in protein. To furnish the protein needed, without increasing the other nutrients too much, a feeding stuff quite rich in protein is needed. The addition of 4 pounds of gluten feed would make the ration contain: Completed ration for dairy cow. - - | Digesti- Total | Digesti- bl Di . Fuel Pation. dry | ble pro-| le car- | Digesti- ue matter. tote, Poste 4 ble fat. | value. Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Calories. 12 pounds clover hay, 20 pounds corn silage, 4 Pounds. pounds corn meal, and 4 pounds wheat bran--.- 21. 28 1.66 10. 86 0.57 25, 709 AaloMmeselaben L6ed.......--- 22.2 -.ceccnnceune-n- 3.69 82 1.75 oF 6, 223 GET ove hes BRS SE ee ee ee ea er ane 24. 97 2.48 2.61 91 31, 932 This ration, it will be seen, contains somewhat more carbohydrates and fat than the standard calls for, but is close enough to the standard for practical purposes. The calculation may be considerably simplified, without impairing accuracy, by considering only the protein andthe fuel value. For example, suppose the farmer feeds his cows dry corn fodder (not stover), good timothy hay (herd’s grass), and a grain mixture composed of equal parts of corn meal, wheat bran, and gluten meal, a ration might be made from these as follows: Ration per cow daily. ee Dry matter. Fuel Ration. value: Protein. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Calories. 8. 0.30 Te eA LOURY ELV o Wt. a/c nema ae Sawaal am deka e atace acldocnan=yn 68 27 MESIOr 7 COM LOUCOL fh nsas sa ccoe sao e nap aanes amet meet coaecdanns 5.78 .25 7,155 nies hifcfore nies =) 1 Sa See Bee eee le ee aren emer 3.40 -28 5, 921 PEPE EE MEME Re. coos olan a cya nin wacaaeenee Cheek cadence ate a an ek 3. 54 48 4, 446 RST PRRICTCT Se CTU ESET) TETEEL Oreo Sy te ee ee ocweane 3. 62 1.02 6, 797 Ny SEE 1 SE A ee ae eer | 25.02 2. 38 | 33, 592 This ration is higher than the standard in fuel value, owing to richness of the materials in carbohydrates and fat, and slightly lower in protein. The substitu- tion of 1 pound of new-process linseed meal in place of 1 pound of the corn meal would give 0.21 pound more protein, which would make the ration contain 2, 54 pounds of protein. | 566 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF FREDING STUFFS AND FARM PRODUCTS. ee Teh, Phos- Nitro- phoric | Potash. acid. Material. Waiter. Ash. GREEN FODDERS. Per cent.| Per c2nt.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. ee | Sa ee Seen ae Leen ewes wore at = 78.61! 4.84 0.41) 0.15 0.33 | Ripieiat LOCUM? . 00. So coo a ener cene ol tt Ce +23 09 -23 WER ERIEMAIED Cory ES OS oro des abe ee ee eee (Ash bel SE aes .33 15 -73 | Gat fodder_____-.-...---..--------~---- = -----55--=- 83. 36 1.31 49 .13 33 Kmamnmion Wilt. -.... Sole .. sl thes 5 eee BESS oases 61 19 41 (Sagmmbene WM (60.0612 os se Reed acti nee TE Ree St 53 20 34 |‘ Hungarian grass (Setaria).-...---.---------------- Cae! ne De 39 .16 55 Orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata)}____.-_------ 73.14 2.09 -43 .16 76 | Timothy grass (Phleuwm gre Genes )2 32 ete 66. 90 2.15 48 26 76 ‘Perennial rye grass (Loliwm perenne)!_-_-.-.----- 75.20 2.69 AT 28 1.10 ‘Italian rye grass (Loliwm italicwn)}!..2.....-.--- 74. 85 2. 84 54 20 1.14 Lad pasture verassess... 2... 5.25 eee 63.12 3.27 91 2 75 Red clover (Trifolium Si aliae BS cerca om Sateen 80500 et So oeeu 53 .13 46 White clover (Trifolium repens). -.-.------------- BY. 00 42 Ucacce .56 20 24 ‘Alsike clover (Trifolium hybridum) __._..-------- 81.80 1.47 4 aE | 20 Crimson clover (Trifoliun incarnatum) -..-.---- roa. | ee earl ic 43 13 49 SAdtal ta ( MeNtCAGO SQtIUO),. co s26 Ses soso wee 75. 30 2.25 72 8 56 CO ge oe en a an oa oe et Em epee Shey 78.81 1.47 74 10 31 Serradella (Ornithopus sativus) ---..------------- 82.59 1.82 41 it 2 Soja bean (S070 fispida): « - 1. -sesue-Soeeseneee a os Go. 20 Git ee 29 15 53 PEOERG Psa (ECL) F AUG) se eee 7.71 4.59 1.15 .36 1.02 PURER 35 St comet yas alr outers OE ee 7.52 4.93 1. 26 53 -9 IORRYRITEN TINA 5 oe ta caer wwii na oe eo 8.84 6.42 1.3). 41 1.88 Kentucky blue grass (Poa pratensis) ~-...------- 10.35 4.16 1.19 .40 i aa Meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis) --.-.----.---- 8.89 8.08 9 .40 2.10 Tall meadow oat grass (Arrienatherwm avena- Ee EE RE En ER SON BBP ee 15.35 4.92 1.16 .32 1.73 Meadow foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis) ....--.--- 15.35 5.24 1.54 44 1.99 Pee AL YO) PTROS . oben cans ede ores cae 9.13 6.7 1.23 56 1.55 EASE PS eT I ieee aces one ans ale eRe Se Neat ce 1.19 56 1,27 PaDANGSG: DUCK WHERG. =~. — 2 ~— i ese iwnancacnes SiS ncoscan see 1.63 .85 3.32 Ee ine ema Nien a ad PRE oe hoi 11.33 6.93 2.07 38 2.20 Mammoth red clover (Trifolium medium) ..-.-...- 11. 41 8. 72 2.28 .55 1.22 AUD DUS RRO WD cos oh i ee epee orn Coens ee 2.15 52 1.81 CHONG CLOVOEA inc win nwo sh ecetunsapaemsces 18.3 7.70 2.05 .40 1.31 SAREE CLOVOS in fon ea ha era eo mk aca 9. 94 11.11 2.34 67 2.23 ED cA ss hee nade le Sod ae ae ee ee » 6.55 7.07 2.19 61 1.68 Blue melilot (Meililotus cwrulews)-......--..------- 8.22 13. 65 1.92 . D4 2.80 Bokhara clover (Melilotus alba)-_-....--...-.--.-- 7.43 7.70 1.98 . 56 1.83 Sainfoin (Onobrychis sativa) ..............-..----- 12.17 7.55 2.63 .76 2.02 Sulla (Hedysarum coronarium)......-.....------- Se pee 2.46 45 2.09 3 PE RIDRO MALI fs os ce Sk atoms nares anaes Deke aa bene 11.62 8.23 2.10 50 1.81 Soja bean (whole plant). ._.........-.......-.-...- 6.30 6.47 2.82 67 1.08 PO OTT SETAE) oo cree sno SE nonce edwaudaensd { 48.00 12 ace eee 1.75 .40 1.2 Cowpea (whole plant) ........0B.-.2......6.-4ceene 10.95 8.40 1.95 62 1.47 SEP TIAIOLS ccidne ds ha sated n os 5 sen ae ep ieee waawben 7.39 10. 60 2.70 78 65 : Cotton (entitemiant): ..: <0. cass case ne 7.36 5.81 1.46 44 1.32 Oxeye daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum). .. 9, 65 6.37 28 44 1.25 r Pe SL, ee ae = SOP eee sae 9.76 12.52 3.13 61 4.88 2 ae: Ae Pt en 11.44 5.30 1.31 oO 2.09 { fl OE, eer ee CER Solar TBM Bins alates 1.01 27, .99 A 1 SERRE. PEE BERS 2.56 3.81 59 .12 51 Vi ICKINE ah hs sWvuwauddenhie dd aagnnn wien ead 8.05 7.18 .79 .70 42 ESO IN fig cak a aka cn cn oWee a open cena 7.61 3.25 46 2 9 RIM EN iias ok dbecy ode adl abeuesu ranean naee 9.09 4.76 . 62 220 1.24 STL T IG TALES ds Je ote n enone tdeneennie dare 13700 slo secm cee 49 07 52 1Dietrich and Kénig: Zusamensetzung und Verdaulichkeit der Futtermittel. 2?Dietrich and Konig. FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS. 567 FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF FEEDING STUFFS AND FARM PRODUCTS—Continued. =: Phos- Material. Water. Ash. oom phorie Potash. ——— sg | | Per cent. Per cent.| Per cent. 2 ROOTS, BULBS, TUBERS, ETC. Per cent.) Per cent. MMe ee Pe Son eek ee ed 79. 24 89 2 r ; (rE Laas 5S CR See eae ars Saree 87.73 1.13 24 .09 44 mollowaouder beets. ......-..--.-...--.----------- 90. 60 .95 19 09 46 2 ya 2h: - La See ee See 86. 95 1. 04 22 -10 .48 PemrienWiEr GIS —~-- ~~ _-_---_ 2-88 ss = 87.29 1.22 19 .09 38 2. NE EE, eS Se en Sree 89.49 1.01 .18 .10 39 Ruta- age £5 eS Sa ee Se ee ee 89.13 1.06 wig 2 49 SE SRS } 89.7 9.22 15 09 5h GRAINS AND OTHER SEEDS. on Litt) 2) Beet ih San SS Se OR eh a 10. 88 1.53 1.82 an .40 oo is erie ee ee ee ee aR Os bs eee 1.48 81 .42 ooo ig 6S See eee eee 14.30 2.48 35k =( 48 “. l 2. ee Sen eee er eee a 18.17 2.98 2.06 . 82 . 62 NE IROIIE INS) 2s oo ei 8 oe ee -ee 14. 35 1.57 2.36 .70 .39 Oo a) BY 2.36 -89 61 eg if | 1.76 .82 bt SL a ee ea jd See EL 2. O4 5 .36 Co LU eee eee eee Ee ee 1.73 69 38 _ 1. 2: | Eee eee 12. 60 8&2 1.08 -18 .09 2 SSE Ee ee ee ee g IS (4) eee 1.44 44 21 LES G2. de Se ee eee ee 18.33 4.99 5.30 1.87 1.99 ion 200 2S a Se eS ene 8.42 3.78 3.13 L:27 1.17 MILL PRODUCTS oo (021) 3 a ee 12.95 1.41 1.58 .63 .49 LE ee ee a SG 1.41 oon .47 aE SR EIS ee E17 3.37 1.86 one -59 REPUTE EENO ao one os oro ee nee 13.43 2.06 1.55 - 66 bt 0 4 CE 2 ee eee i ee ee 1.68 .85 .65 loos) J) aoe a Se ee 9. 83 1.22 2.21 57 5 2 es eine eee 8.85 2.68 3.08 82 -99 BY-PRODUCTS AND WASTE MATERIALS (MUL 2. ee 2 ee 12.09 .82 .50 . 06 .60 LoL Ebi Se a 8.93 2.21 1.63 .98 .49 opi ls Lo So Se See eee 8.59 . ss¢saesss sees no sss sae akee ees F BEG Ue a coe es ca seionnd ones eet aes oie aa “ PPPRE Rios os: ao ot cae beatae eae oe aan . WOO piatiten:= 2022.65 eos e eee 60. 83 PerCO ts, GECRU5W fcccsecacsh bh veco bocca cunasaniee 85. 16 PUBCRDOITION: oo. hoe es oe eel Sede 88. 91 PUNPOGE MES 2 coe S28 522 coo oe va udeasao bee aeeee 82. 69 SHePPIOS LP ULG os oo ase asosce cs coe sue oobaces bees 86.10 Cherry trees (young): . PPM HCHOR = 22 28s Sa bene coma Sess edebsat eee 79.50 SERIOUS tote de eens Oe ew osesadet ace eee 67.20 PRUE eon oe sk cee SS od ee eee eee nes 53.20 SELES POTTIOS. 5. cons ante la 2o2 2 ee onsen ease ease 16.52 Cranberries: PANT oats cco een ent ase ease Sass ba aed 89.59 DUAR | cre od et I te ela = who ta Sicha melee te eae Ty Poe Ee ee eee Ty peta eee A) ee . 60 Ta} tetas. Ar 3 Ms moet Swine urine (fresh)-.......-- See .43 a. 4 ge S| OS Baa (2 ees eee Barnyard rape ble 68. 87 .49 | ey) Cains (Fa A: 2 eee! (eee ey 118.5 carbonate. BARNYARD MANURE. Barnyard manure contains all the fertilizing elements required by plants in forms that insure plentiful crops and permanent fertility to the soil. Tt not only enriches the soil with the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, which it con- tains, but it also renders the stored-up materials of the soil more ayailable, improves the mechanical condition of the soil, makes it warmer, and enables it to retain more moisture or to draw it up from below. On the basis of the prices charged for commercial fertilizers, the fertilizing value of the manure produced by the farm animals of the United States last year was upward of $2,000,000,000. The average for each horse is estimated at $27, for each head of cattle $19, for each hog $12, and for each sheep §2. BARNYARD MANURE. 571 Amount and value of manure produced by different farm animals. [New York Cornell Experiment Station. ] Per 1,000 pounds of live weight. Valine of Amount | Value per | Value per| Manure per day. day.! year.! per ton. Pounds. Cents. 34.1 7.2 $26.09 $3.30 67.8 6.2 2A. 45 2.18 83.6 16.7 69. 88 3.29 74.1 8.0 29.27 2.(P 48.8 7.6 27.74 2.21 1 Valuing nitrogen at 15 cents, phosphoric acid at 6 cents, and potash at 44 cents per pound. Barnyard manure is a very variable substance, its composition and value depend- ing principally upon (1) age and kind of animal, (2) quantity and quality of food, (3) proportion of litter, and (4) method of management and age of manure. Mature animals, neither gaining nor losing weight, excrete practically all the fertilizing constituents consumed in the food. Growing animals and milch cows excrete from 50 to 75 per cent of the fertilizing constituents of the food; fattening or working animals from 90 to 95 per cent. As regards the fertilizing value of equal weights of manure in its normal condition, farm animals probably stand in the following order: Poultry, sheep, pigs, horses, cows. The amounts of fertilizing constituents in the manure stand in direct relation to those in the food. As regards the value of manure produced, the concentrated feeding stuffs, such as meat scrap, cotton-seed meal, linseed meal, and wheat bran, stand first, the leguminous plants (clover, peas, etc.) second, the grasses third, cereals (oats, corn, etc.) fourth, and root crops, such as turnips, beets, and man- gel-wurzels, last. Barnyard manure is a material which rapidly undergoes change. When it is practical to haul the manure from the stalls and pen and spread it on the field at frequent intervals the losses of valuable constituents need not be very great, but when (as in winter) the manure must be stored for some time the difficulties of preservation become greatly increased. The deterioration of manure results from two chief canses, (1) fermentation and (2) weathering or leaching. The loss from destructive fermentation may be almost entirely prevented by the use of proper absorbents and preservatives, such as gypsum, superphosphate, and kainit, and by keeping the manure moist and compact. : Amounts of different preservatives to be used per head daily. Per horse, epee Per pig, | Per sheep, , (880 pounds* 2) 110 weight. Preservative. pounds pounds’ pounds’ weight. weight. | weight. * Lbs. Ozs. | Lbs. Ozs.| Ounces. | Ounces. hh jhe a a, a Y 0 1 oe 3 | 24 We as SE 2p 9 12 43 33 ANT Le a a ee Cars oe ae aoe a oo 1 5 4 3} If both superphosphate and gypsum are used, the above proportions of these materials should be reduced from one-third to one-half. Kainit should be applied to the fresh manure and covered with litter so that it does not come in contact with the feet of the animals. Loss from leaching may be prevented by storage under cover or in pits. Ex- tremes of moisture and temperature are to be avoided, and uniform and moderate fermentation is the object to be sought. To this end it is advisable to mix the manure from the different animals thoroughly in the heap. Barnyard manure is justly held in high esteem as a general fertilizer, but it has a forcing effect when fresh, and is therefore better suited to grasses and forage plants than to plants grown for seed, such as cereals. Direct applications, espe- ciaily to rootcrops, such as sugar beets, potatoes, or tobacco, often prove injurious. This result can, as a rule, be avoided by applying the manure some months before the planting of the crop or by using only well-rotted manure. Barnyard manure is not applied to fruit trees with the same good results that attend its use in the case of field crops, garden truck, etc. It does not stimulate fruiting to the same extent as do the mineral fertilizers. Its tendency isto produce alarge growth, but a poor quality, of fruit. Oranges, in particular, become coarse, thick skinned, and sour under its influence. - Asa rule the best results are likely to be obtained by using commercial fertilizing materials in connection with barnyard manure, either in compost or separately. 572 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CUTS OF MEATS. The methods of cutting sides of beef, mutton, and veal and pork into parts and the terms used for the ‘‘cuts,” as these parts are commonly called, vary in different localities. The terms used in the table which follows and generally in publica- tions of this Department will be made more clear by the following diagrams: ! 2waCurCyuck RIBS in CurCuuen Ries 3aoCuT Riss — Fig. 152.—Diagram of cuts of mutton. Fic. 133.—Diagram of cuts of pork. 1 From Farmers’ Bulletin No. 34. a HUMAN FOODS. 573 HUMAN FOODS. Within recent years analyses of a large number of samples of food materials have been made in this country. In the table given below the average results of these analyses are shown. Brief explanatory notes regarding the nutritive ingredients of food and their uses in the body are also given, which may serve to make the table more intelligible. NUTRITIVE INGREDIENTS OF FOOD AND THEIR USES IN THE BODY. Edible portion: Water. ik of re yolk and white of eggs, wheat ea x : our, etc. . ats. F ee ohaced Nutrients. Carbohydrates. Mineral matters. Refuse: Bones, entrails, shells, bran, ete. USES OF NUTRIENTS. PRAM Meenas nan = as aeanaraeoce oe een nn 3 Forms tissue (muscle, (White (albumen) of eggs, curd tendon, fat). (casein) of milk, lean meat, gluten of wheat, etc.) All serve as fuel and yield ND oa be eee Sooo Bee Form fatty tissue. energy in form of heat and (Fat of meat, butter, olive oil, muscular strength. oils of corn and wheat, etc.) é EI MCLELCR) 2-0 - ~~ - smn ea- senna at Transformed into fat. (Sugar, starch, etc.) re Mineralimatters (ash) -.-.-.....------------- Aid in forming bone, (Phosphates of lime, potash, assist in digestion, soda, etc.) etc. The fuel value of food.—Heat and muscular power are forms of force or energy. The energy is developed as the food is consumed in the body. The unit commonly used in this measurement is the calorie, the amount of heat which would raise the temperature of a pound of water 4° F. The following general estimate has been made for the average amount of poten- tial energy in 1 pound of each of the classes of nutrients: : Calories. Peet, OF 2 DEOPOM Ore oS U8 nn eae 1, 860 REREAD REA es el rs eS A Sa BOE ote Wonca eae 4, 220 MINIONS OF Cte DONVOraAlen. ..) 2. ooo ue ee 1, 860 In other words, when we compare the nutrients in respect to their fuel values, their capacities for yielding heat and mechanical power, a pound of protein of lean meat or albumen of egg is just about equivalent to a pound of sugar or starch, and a little over 2 pounds of either would be required to equal a pound of the fat of meat or butter or the body fat. Average composition of American food products.' ‘a pe Pr Carbo- ae Food materials ek EO ava ty y= | ae ee (as purchased). — tein. drates. 2 Pc a ANIMAL FOOD. Beef, fresh. | Brisket: ‘ .| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct. | Per ct.| Calories. Meni fad 2226.5 -n2-s-----—5 1 ; 6 2.5 Oe Oke tact 0.7 1,5 Chuck, including shoulder: AGI ee aSte ae Wie oo a aco 9 23.7 54.3 15.2 (1D paette aen .8 535 WE hhss ati: 7 17.0 56.3 15.7 TOS Bocce scan 8 720 PIERRE ele Sir nS Saimin inane a 3 14.7 53.3 15.4 aS oe Cae wa 955 Aap y Bese =5 5.2.5. .~-- 23 19.9 54.1 15.3 Ee eee Sr 8 705 Chuck ribs: U2 SES Ee A ee eee ae 1 9.8 59.7 16.3 Bee Pee oe 9 865 NEOCRON: LAG ci Ske wees eee 4 13.8 49.3 15.0 real i Fe SERS 8 1,170 Coy [tS = BREE SE ee | 1 15.0 43.6 13.6 MPP ie Bape ane .6 1,400 RU RLY ROS. cdo chee canons 6 13.3 50.1 15.0 Ar Oisouceee 8 1,155 Flank: Tac th S)ceee OSS Sg ee pe eS 2 2.1 6£.9 19.3 yg aa 1.0 895 WG Gis that i ra 4 3.8 57.5 17.2 PY ig ee 8 1,195 hep De ee aS ee a eee 2 5.0 51.5 15.6 Sy ee 1,435 ALUGMALY SBR 25232 cciv.k eee od ll 3.8 54.4 16.7 ORS fwesses5< 8 1,335 1Condensed from detailed tables in Bulletin No. 28 of the Office of Experiment Stations of this Department. 574 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Average composition of American food produets—Continued. Food materials (as purchased). ANIMAL FooD—continued. Beef, fresh—Continued. * Loin: Per ot.| Per ct. its ee ae eae ee eee are 13.1 58. 2 16.7 9 730 Medium tab 4-5) 6. bs 13.0 52.6 15.9 9 1, 040 aba ee eee SOs ee 10.2 49.2 15.8 .8 1,305 All anal gars ato 5 12.6 53.3 15.9 a 1, 025 Loin, boneless strip: eee ees. Fecha eee ee Lee 66.3 20.5 1.0 895 Medium fat... -.-.22-:i52..:.21 4 Rie 58.1 21.0 a ie | 1,230 WEG So. 2 ee eee See ee ee 53.6 16.8 8 1,530 All analysed. 2 ie. 222 Ses eh eee se 60.7 18.9 9 1,175 Loin, sirloin butt: tee 68.5 19.8 1.0 820 Been es. 62.1 19.7 1.0 1,095 aa» ph de. 58.6 lial 8 1,310 eee See 62.5 18.9 Pl 1,100 ut Aes 63. 4 17.2 9 1,100 Fat ee 57.1 14.8 -8 1, 430 eae eae 59.2 15.6 8 1,320 1 8.2 40.9} 12.9 es 2,025 Loin, trimmings: DiS EOS eee ee be 57.6 28.1 8.0 A 400 Lyon iS ¢o ae ae eee ol 1 38.0 33.7 9.9 .6 935 Pc ON oa, be 3 46.6 25.7 7.8 4 985 FAG NETS Ee SEI: 6] 48.8} 27.9 8.2 4 775 Neck: fa 1 Oe ha OER ee emt a 2a 1 29.0 50.4 14.2 Z 505 Medinn fab 23-2 ek 10 27.6 45.9 13.9 ..5 =. st bees 4, 2.8| 43.8] 13.4 bs 1,150 1 ne CS ee en © oY, CE 7 16.1 39.5 12.6 6 1,550 Ai analyses. 2.220222 le 23) 2.2} 44.9] 13.6 an 1,120 Rib rolls: ae ne eres, ie ere $ bok 69.0} 19:5 1.0 805 Gt a a 78 Se 63.9] 18.5 2 1,050 TL So RS STs a a Ch ae a 51.5] 16.4 8 1, 630 AV ENALY BOBS scocc de cece ose 5k NLA eee eas 64.8 18.7 9 1, 005 Rib trimmings: STG IG ea! eee oe a eae a ay ae es ok es eC 6 890 ites cates eee eee 2) 34.0] 31.5 9.3 .4 1, 220 Ta fo Nee a 11] 841) 985.7) 10.5 5 1,0: Ribs, cross: Waginin fat ooeslbe co... 4 1} 122] 88.6] 12.0 hi 1, 765 IAM anal guess. oe. desks 2} 12.5) 48.0) M1 7 1,305 Round: 2 aes WORE 3] 8.8] G£2) “MeO fae 1.0 650 Mediitg tetos... 15 (en | 60.7 Bor ws eae 9 870 CC) ie SERRE Sen Pare? sts ae i eee 57.8 18.91 (22:3 [sae 1.0 1,295 AL CRA GBOA LS 2c cc- i becca 44 8.5 63.0 18.7 B.S 3 eee 1.0 720 Rump: GION Gi sip ts a winch ete 2 20.2 51.7 15.7 8 730 Medium fat - : 8| 21.4] 44.5]. 138.2 Bi 1, 095 jo ek SaaS % RMP SS 4 23.2 86.9 11.4 6 1,390 All analyses i... s-sseecsdees 19] 185] 47.38] 144 8 1,070 Shank, fore: L880 92.220. belce oe 5| 36.5] 45.4] 13.6 3. 6 420 Mod feud fet 250.05 3 ae 5 36.9 42.9 12.3 is 6 535 All analyses .....<.ccss- oo. 13 36.5 44.1 13.1 5. A 485 Shank, hind: ee ie a kaked oe 5 56.6 31.6 9.1 gy hee 5 260 mooem fats... ae. 6 53.9 31.3 9.1 eg eee Ee 4 395 EEN EES gt 1 51.6 29.7 9.2 eS) Re | 555 WATT MOI RON So) ooo cc ascdauens 12 54.8 31.3 9.2 FM By pi 4 355 Shoulder clod:! LOGAN Ua ieclcn danced oeomenks 2 8.1 66.9 18.8 Be cadeten 1.0 570 BOUIN TAG 2 oak a dean 12 16.4 56.8 ih | 0:8 loc aeeee 9 715 jo AR ES RE RRS S MSs tae 3 11.9 62.8 16.7 nh Pg) eee 9 1,060 DT eee a ee 19 14.6 57.9 16.8 Ag A 2. 1.0 72 MOGMG ahs is Siccvaciliidniccnnpitipece 1 35.8 36.7 10.7 16.2) \snee 6 880 1 Including, in most cases, some bone. ee ae oa ee ono i ee Sl Pa Se Pe So BO oe eee 6 670 Wenrom fat ......-2.-.:..---- 6 ICY ya? Br) Cee ae 9 ees 7 990 [ooh on 5 aR el aie ee ca SE 1 ah) See oe ee 6 1,220 PAL aMALYSOS... 22. ---2n----<=- 12 Bet BP we Sp Ee en ca ay Ape an 940 Hind quarter: <.) og wall ee eee 3 bo-9 4 16: * 10.8'|-------- 8 755 Metta tab. +..-- 2s ss--- ff 50. 4 Pee ee 8 1,015 Use 2 SS ee ee 1 M047 IL8 } . 20.4.1... (3 1.135 All analyses. .--.--.--.------ 12 20} > 15.3 | 16.6} __- 8 945 (o.oo. <= ee es 12 ia a Ge a ess ey ee ee ab 945 a ae 3 i AW 2 RS as Se eee 1.4 665 BEEPUTORGS «a0 2 sco5 eo - ri ae EY meee © ip 4b lie tS 1.6 795 LG eee ae 1 BBO I68) 16:38 | —.- 9 920 Beef, canned 1. oa 3 ee Sees i eee 51.8 A A BOA le ee 1.5 1,495 Corned, cooked: Ce Se 53.1 28.5 0 4.4 1,120 oo at SSS a eee ee i a | eee 51.6 24.7 ae 3.0 1,330 Mneterces...-2---=-.--2 12 fL--.-- 51.2} 25.9 9 | 4.0 1,280 EE ese rr 1 ene 44.8} 28.6 5.4 | 11.2 950 oun 22. So ee SS a See 58.9 25.0 4.8 } 1.3 1,020 Steak, rump----- 56.3 | 23.5 7 | 1.5 1,225 Tongue, Peete a= ok See” 51.3 21.5 2 4.0 1,380 Ol pees ee ee a er 74.6 16.4 a 5 665 Beef, corned and pickled. Corned beef: 7 “too Cont Ss eee eee 9.4 49.6 oe A Fe aoe 4.0 1,225 oo: ee ee 10.5 33.0 pat lal PSR aS 5.9 1, 885 Tongue, IG! 6.0 58.9 eg eee Se 4.3 1, 025 mempemiemed .-. ---.---send.--) | 2 [bssane-- 87.4 12 .3 2 260 Beef, dried, etc. Dried, salted, and smoked ---..-— = 5 |....-.-- 50.8 81.8 6.8 6 10.0 890 Veal, fresh. Breast: Sci jee 2 ee eee 23.4] 54.0 15.7 Se ay 555 MOOTUMER SAD <2. 8 ose cjece=-= 20.6 52.7 14.9 11.0 be 2d 58 8 740 LAV OTS 21.4 53.1 15.1 St a 8 685 Chuck: / Medium i ee eee See Sees 18.9 59.5 15.6 a ees 8 510 Flank / aie (ial fy Honea 68.9 19.7 its t aeeveoee os 1.0 805 LR A a eR Lame pi ky | en ee 57.0 18.0 eo 9 1,235 SS ee ae 7 reas 0 84 eR TT 1.0 895 LCS) | Lg a see aS Se 6.6 69.3 19.6 3.4 SSE ioe 510 Modtasi tat ......-...--....- 6| 15.6] 59.4} 16.9 2S ere 9 | 20 PPE EROS os 2 ao 2 a do os 14 10.5 65.0 18.5 BO e353 1.0 555 : = Ut SS eee as 2 4.0 65.6 20.0 Ay Gee eee 9 775 oin: Li G0 i Sete eee Ss eee 4 20.3 58.1 16.1 MG Tee, ae 9 495 MISC LAG coc co's. ce uncon e od 5 17.3 57.2 16.0 ts AS seein: 9 66C Diag: Ue eee ioe ae eee 2 18.3 50. 4 155% cf eae 8 930 vanelySes-—--—---- a. 2-- 11 18.6 56. 2 15.9 Soe ie ee, -9 650 ee Wink BAONOY <5 cen cscnns- 1 9.1 66.7 12.8 iA) Rae ees wv 690 ey Medium fat <=... 2-522. .55: 6 81.5 49.9 3 CS ee 7 440 ao RT chabrtnanrarcre tele Sots 8 26.9 53.0 Rs 4.6 | She path. 8 470 iL ee eae 1} 22.4) 52.6 ‘ hy ee 9 650 va All (ue 3) ae eee eae 9| 26.4) 53.0 A eae e 8 485 1 ill i Sa RE ea af RE 1 30.2 43.7 ci. Ce 8 735 Re LOROHs cas ao SO 61 40.1] 44.1 id ees 6 350 Shank, ‘hind: Meditm fat’... .-.40--3-.-. 6} 62.7] 27.8 7.4 A i Dee eae e .4 210 [5 (ES nee eee Se 1 51.4 33.1 9.7 Se oe 6 400 AL hey (2: ae ae ee ve 61.1 28.6 Te 2.2 . 5 SEA 4 235 Shoulder and flank .............-. 1 24.3 49.7 14.9 ey) eee 9 710 | OES SE aes ae 2] 16.6] 57.2] 16.6 8.7 ) sh eee 9 675 RRM EDO Saat ee inn dccuicaaecss 6! 26.5 54.2 14.6 Ch) Setar 7 5 576 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Average composition of American food products—Continued. Food material ier of| Ref materials ro é (as purchased). analy- use. Water. h. ANIMAL FOOD—continued. Veal, fresh —Continued. Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Calories. Hind quarter... -.----.-| > Oley Sree ous 9 730 Med TAbs 2 sects csi tess 10 18.0 51.4 14:9.) “LQ as2 2ee8 .8 905 SC i ee a ae eet ae ere 1 12.4 48.2 14.8 |): 2280 seseeee 8 1,280 Bil -anwlyses =< 2b--. 222 as - 5 14 17.4 52.2 16.1%), ‘Tsp |eacese 8 895 Loin, without kidney and tallow: Medrim fate. to: ecssacusste 11 15.3 42.2 13.2 28:6 \zeeee at 1, 450 1} GER RE SSCe Seana ene 3 TE 38.3 12.5 86584325 2ees at 1, 785 * = BAL Y BORIS sce eseedeuiess 15 14.2 40.5 12.8 CAL Th ee ie” 6 1,585 eck: Lisi sail: ee a i ee 9 28.4 41.6 us Bg LT. 'O: | Seer Ay j 960 Al analyses. 2s -conswckecse ace 10 27.2 41.0 11.7 1 Ree at 1,035 Shoulder: PEOROD ss a i 25 Sawin adaware eee eee ot 25.3 50.2 14.2 0.642288 om 670 Medium fat.-.-..--- LJ 6 21.7 48.5 13.5 1616") 52532254 ai 910 RE aR aie wera dn wtb ate oe wan ail 19.5 42.7 12.8 7 Ree .6 1,270 All analyses... 62.20.25 acese~ 9 21.5 47.0 13.4 154 oe ar 985 Fare OUaele? oo ue gedn weno eng coe 9 21.1 40.6; 11.9 i fh pee Pet 1,305 Hind quarter, without tallow BH IGNOY - oo osssses tie tec eee 9 16.7 45.6 13.5 28.5 4| 2 Reboan rf 1, 245 Side, including tallow---..---...- 25 18.1 45.4 2.7 OAL eee ek 1,210 Side, not including tallow......- 9 19.0 43. 0 2.7 Wd Ee Pe 1,275 Mutton, canned. 3 a Ee ee ae ey Ee 1 (CAR ee 45.8 27.2 pM eee eee 4.2 1,470 ‘Tongue, catined.........2.2.2..... t Dy [aes etee 47.6 23.6 74, 0 | leteouee 4.8 1, 450 Pork, fresh. $ Chuck ribs and shoulder: Medium fat... <.-......25..0e- 2 18.1 41.8 13.8 Ce ern! 8 1,335 big a ae ee S 3 71.2 17.0 5.1 iy OP ae see a) B65 ED Sterna acts aint ceriv Rade atta nye = 4 42.4 85.7 10.7 10.8 lc neeeeieel 6 645 17, Rel ee ie ne ee. of 3 68. 4 13.7 3.8 pt Bea 2 655 Pore CHOGKG nade nchauouwaskat en 1 12.1 42.3 18.6 260: eee 3.0 1,360 in: MOOT wank ¢anvndir whanau weet 1 2.5 46.1 15.1 Lh. Sule cenae 8 895 i Medium fat... 22... ...s<«suhese il 15.8] 43.8 14.1 ee Ph f 1,340 j SDs is ceitigns= 2a tena ste ie as Ae 3 14.6 35.7 10.4 Es Ba 6 1, 825 ' Ast GOMIVEOR. 2 och oe aetna 15 16.0 42.3 13.5 2,0 danaaente 5 1,410 PN CU bcs niicwcde danch ames 3 71.2 13.8 4.2 YOM i FRE ee 2 525 cite) OOS Re REE RR STE: ERS" 5 82.5 85.9 10.4 1 My oy Baa 6 1, 065 DUBIOUS oie nanuckwsncobwaaea 3 59.6 19.1 5.3 16.7} 3B 760 POURAPIOU oh xpiaste dah naiepmnion 2D WaGatthne 65.1 19.5 14.4 |\..c2 eee 1.0 970 12 RR Se R oie ee Oli gine Ay 2.3 ee eee pf 8, 835 BEA TED GAS ie ns bale ens ao Aas ol NE Pa 13.8 4.1 Sl, 9: | item 2 3,530 PERIL CEB ethane hehe pane Sean kate DB lixe Pant 9.1 8.7 | 86. Oy \eeeenanee 2 3. 765 COMPOSITION OF FOOD PRODUCTS. 577 Average composition of American food products—Continued. Num- ‘ Fuel Food materials ber of | Ref- Fat Cash: asl value (as purchased). analy-| use. wT iadaaagl Bin: EE aaa per ses. e | pound ANIMAL Foop—continued. | Pork, salted, cured, and pickled. .| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Calories. 3 ‘ ue | Se 4.9 1,115 13 84.9 3. [it heated = aly 4.0 1, 655 2 25.2 2 5d, Ot tees nae 3.4 2,535 y 8 35.9 14.1 | yd ete 4.1 1, 665 Ham, boneless, raw, without case gS) ee ee 50.1 1 Re ST Py ee 6.0 1, 490 Shoulder, smoked: LiGGlir half (| i 3 15.2 36.8 12.9 A | epee 5.5 1,360 LTT). = St eee ee 2 20.0 21.4 11.8 ye. i) | ania 4,2 2,015 Ul aM SES... ...--~-=-=----- 5 18.9 30.7 12.4 aT | See 5.0 1, 625 Diyeaited. backs._...--..-.:-.-.- 2 8.1 15.9 6.5 i oN Ee ee 2.7 2,940 ry salted belly _........-..----- 2 8.2 16.2 6.2 OGse Os 3.2 2,910 SUT ei a (5 aes Sa 7.3 1.8 8h Due aes. 3.7 3, 715 Salt pork, lean ends-.----...------- 4 11.2 17.6 6.5 i aoe ee 5.1 2, 635 Livin ie ee ee eae 2 35.5 44.6 10.0 a i So .6 580 Bacon, smoked: oF. See 1 9.6 29.6 14.9 PE 4 eee a 5.1 2,000 Lith: —————— 12 8.0 16.8 9.2 GS (2 ek 4.2 2, 780 PINAMELYSOS.--.------<------- 13 8.1 17.8 9.6 i: |e 5 4.3 2,720 PRE ee 2 sa ot Sl) EA tr) 26k (Os 54.8 | rn x A 2, 455 Sausage. (Lolo Sy? 2 |S Ae acres % 4 3.3 5b. 2 18.0 a Ley fed ee 3.8 1,165 un Se 4 3.9 22.2 26.2 4054-5 See 7.3 2,195 Too LURE ie a ee | ee 55.5 21.7 18.8 4 | 3.6 1, 205 PE cio ae ee ee We see 38.7 12.8 45.4 8 2.3 2,170 Sinisa a 3 7.0 20.9 23.0 42.1 ere 7.0 2,200 Soups. | loa filite ee ae Vee eee 96.5 2.0 oe 2 1.2 45 Covi ira eer oF le oe eee 93.8 3.6 ab Lb 1.0 100 (21 129520 sh) lp Aes 96.0 rade eas 4 LBS I 55 his a | 85.7 4.5 3.5 | 5.1 1.2 325 Memevartio......0 == 222222): a pee en: 99.8| 5.2| .9| 28| 13 185 OFT. 5 a ey 1.8 87.8 3.8 -D 4.2 1.9 170 (hip ln ee ee CM 2 EEE 85.1 4.2 -o 9.0 1.2 265 Pees eS dl ae 90.0 1.8 im! 5.6 1.5 185 Gineme eeOen —-----..-..-..2-..-- pon Ble Se 86.6} 6.1 1.9 3.9 1.5 270 MPMI, SS Scie = mie me oe nena itd ee 95.7 | Oh ace a) 9 65 Poultry and game, fresh. | CLL Di ag ie es aa re 2 34.8 48.5 14.8 ee | have ew 8 325 cio, we Oe a 2 22.2 33.1 UR be i: 0 .6 1, 620 (OULIS Dae 2 ee eee ee ae 3 22.7 42.4 ay | ito eee 28: 1,070 Game, canned. | | | VAG i a ee ee 1 PP oe 57.7 22.41 10.2 7.6 pa | 990 Oral Se SR SOS Sain ae a (3 OR are 66.9 | 21.8 8.0 | LY 1.6 775 Fish, fresh. | | Bass, black, whole ..............- 2) 54.8] 3£6,/ 9.3) | ee re” 5 205 Bass, sea, whole...-..--...-...... 1} 56.1] 348 8.3 3 eee ee 6 160 Bluefish, entrails removed -.--.- 1 48.6 40.3 | 9.8 {| eee st 205 Moar wrHole’s 202. 2.525.0-.52--..-- 2 52.5 38.7 8.0 Sad WA eee .6 155 NGG fs | 3 29.9 58.5 10.6 A BE 8 205 Flounder, whole ......-...-.----- 2 61.5 32.1 5.6 i eres 5 115 Haddock, entrails removed ----- 4 51.0 40.0 8.2 Yl eee, $e 6 169 Halibut, steaks or sections---..- 3 17.7 61.9 15.1 ') Pe 9 45 Herring, whole'.....-.-....-.-... 2 42.6 41.7 10.9 Aa Bee ee 9 370 Mackerel, whole ..-.......-..--.- 5 44.6 40. 4 10.0 Re ORE ot 370 Mackerel, entrails removed. ---- 1! 40.7 43.7 11.4 3.5 3 ay 350 Perch, white, whole -.-...-------- 2 62.5 28. 4 7.2 ag (ae: 4 195 Perch, yellow, whole-.....------ 1 62.7 30.0 6.7 a) Da a 4 135 Perch, yellow, dressed ...---.--- 1 35.1 50.7 12.6 ey (| ER 9 265 Pickerel (pike), whole. -..--.----- 2) 47.1 2.2 9.8 nob aalndaaee By 190 Pickerel (pike), entrails re- MICO. oe oe Vader 1 42.7 45.7 10.7 A Ye Pe Bia 6 210 Bike, gray,.whole:.2.-.--2.2---.. 1 63.2 29.7 6.4 By eens 4 130 Red snapper, whole ---.------ ae 2 46.1 42.0 10.6 YEO AY 220 Red snapper, entrails and gills és Tei oddly Ac Ue a a ee 1 45.3 43.7 10.0 47 Cert ry 200 BION, WHOlGecs soso ens cen 5 39.2 39.4 12.4 3) Ra 9 570 1 Lard and other fats included. ANIMAL FOOD—continued. Fish, fresh—Continued. YEARBOOK OF THE U. & DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Average composition of American food products—Continued.. Food materials (as purchased). 1 Refuse, oil. 2 Average per cent shell in several determinations. 5 Average per cent butter fat found in the ninety-day Columbian butter test. 4 American. Per ct.| Per ct. - ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Calories, 21 29.5| 48.1] 13.5 8.1 ) eae 8 590 7 50.1 35.2 9.2 4.3 ae at 875 : il Pape TS 71.2 20.9 3.8 2.6 1.5 600 Spanish mackerel, whole-..----- 1 34.6 44.5 13.7 G.2 ooo 1.0 515 Sturgeon, anterior sections ----- 1 14.4 67.4 15. 4 1.6 «ponccgeees 1.2 355 Wg0S DYOGKis 22 Ste ae cch- eee 3 48.1 40.4 9.8 pa Dad Pape 6 230 Fish, preserved and canned. Cxidi alt 222 2... 3s, 2 24.9 40.3 16.0 a eee 18.4 815 Haddock, smoked.-.....-.----.--- 1 82.2 49.2 16.1 ah |2d cee 2.4 805 Hatibut, smoked -...+.-----+--- 2 7.0 46.0 19.1 14.0 }.2 eee 13.9 945 Herring, smoked, entrails re- prod So ae: 1 44.4 19.2 20.2 8.8.2 7.4 veo) Mackerel, salt, dressed -.-.------- 2 19.7 34.8 13.9 PACS ee 10.4 1,150 Salon. CHINO . 252-05 sse2 sense 3 14.2 56.8 19.5 758) |e 2.0 680 Rpeinies 25 oo bs ase 1 15.0 53.6 24.0 12.1 \ 2S 5.3 9355 = Shellfish, etc., fresh. WIRING, IT BHGL oveces- qos ojddy *ployun soAatvet TOTA\(;) WOLJNTOS oyeU0q, ‘snsunj ofoy-joys -1v) isddoo [vovrmomuy | yoorde 10 puowyy “MOT}eoT[ ade 4st “OSBOSICL 9G} OY} AOT[OF SVINULIOT OUT, ‘WIyY Suryeut IO} SU[NUIIOF OY} O} Tojo YOU ‘SIoqMINU [[VUIS O1V SOPLOLSuUN;Z oY} JO SoUIVU OY} SULMOTIO,T jO Iaqwnu oY} UeALS orev ouvU Yovo oytsoddo suuIN[OO UT pue ‘AT[VOTJoqQvYyd[e posuviie o1v poyoaye szuvyid oy} e[qV} SULAOT[OJ oyy UT ‘SLNVTd JO SASVESIC SQOONODA WOU INAWLVaaL *S]UOULYVOI} SNOLIVA OY} SULYvUL JO spoyyout pu¥ soutry ey 4 dp .e) bed fa o a By ie) > w i. a ae a Au = =) nh =) io <9) A = fo) hd io) 2) is) 04 a cal wi 588 “TOT IVOM JOM AATOA JO OSTO ur Aavssooou oq Avut uoryror[ddy q4XxIs Vv “IOTJVOM PTOo [QUN puno.s of} UL UIvULAT OF TOT} SULMO]][V JOU ‘1oTIA\ SpUX]d sv UooS SB Sup oq plnoys sooyzvjod sy[nsed 4Soq, LOT *poyyruto oq Avut syuoeur -4V0.1} PUODOS PUL 4S. OYY PLVYO.10 oYy uy ‘Adosanu oy} aoy Ayyeroodso st sIqy ‘qUOTOYNS O1v 1ojUTA ut ssurévads OMY ‘ATJVNS() “SOARS OT[4 JO SoOVTINS Lopun oT} JOA OF MoyV} OG pPyNoYys oavo peloodg “‘qeor Aq, poztyt -1048 ATSNOTADA Mead OABT TOTAL “ssuq uve ut 4nd vey puv Arp oj yno proads oq P[NOYS poos 94 ‘osn O49 VIpOULUIL LOT popeseu Jou Jt ‘SuLpvos puooves oy} 104s Vv “‘SyIvUL9 yy *1O}RT SJTOOM OMY eplrsuny oweg 104VT SOOM OMY eplolsuny ourrg ‘morpeorddy W4jLaT “LOY SYOOM OMY eplomuny ourng *19JVI STOOM OMG eplormsuny oUlVg *1OJOUIVIP UL Your jrey-euo St 9MMaj UoTpAL eplolsuny ouUreg *IOJVI SyOOM OMY Oprlrsuny euULleg "LOY RT SYOOM OMY epllmsuny oulrg “uOry oT dde 4.10 ,iT ‘MOT PoT[ddv partys, "AI 0} yno pBaa pure 107VAi plod YAS poos loo) “LOU SyJOOM OAY eplolsguny ouug *LO4VT syJOOoOM OMY eplisuny ouleg *10JV] SYPOOM OMY eplolsuny eurg mt: stvyod aoya eploIsuny SULUg *1O} VT SyJOOM OMY eprolsuny ourug *1O}VT SyOOM OMY eprltsuny oulrg qsnsny 10 Av Ul [SUM oUlLg (oe) 1OJVM JOU UL soynuIUr u9e4 “J¥ LOJ poos YLog *1O4VI SYTOOM OMY eploisuny ourrg *1O4VT SYOOM OMY eplorsuny eurrg *IO}VI SYOOM Oalyy eplwlmsuny oueg “BULALOSSOTG, e91ozyoq ysul eplolsuny oulvg ‘TAOS J[VY ore SOAVOT UOTTAL Oplwsuny ourrg ‘TUMO.LS J[VT OR SOAVOT UTA eploisuny oeumg *1O}UVT SYOOAL OA} 03 Sup uo} YSVAL oUlEg ‘sogn -UIM 104 AOF ote 9B aozwAr yoy Ul poos yrog “m0T} ~eottdde puoseg *(y) oI -oOTT 9@ 107VA\ TIARA UL OJNULUL OO AJ Poss YZwog *[[eJ SUIOSSOT dajjye ‘vpnulaoy UOT] -09 °(,) 91NGXIUL XNVEp.Og “soqynutur A4.1173 pur .no0y 90 (,) WOTZNT -O8 OYVUIT[GNS BATSOLI09 “-qnus SULA UIZS FOTA “44311q Jeoy pur sods yinay soured ut seoyejod Yvos puv yng |--------- qBos 03%40g ‘SIT SOYOULg O18 syuRid ‘asROSTp UN usyA ‘“B[NULLOZS uoT[es -T1odso19vyy puv 22 *(,) OANJXTIUL XNVEpsog | IUSITq 103041 OFVJOg ‘Jeol UL UST AA PUB ULOOTA 03 BSve0 $8014 udTTA\ (;) WOINTOS eyeuod “‘qsna apt os -1vo Jeddoo [vovrmowmury puv ‘ounid ‘um[g ‘uedo spnq 4m. usyA ‘VINULIOy UoT[V -0¢ (;) OLNYXTIUL XNvep.og “SUT[JOMS O10 Spn usyA ‘“V[NULIOy UOTT -0¢ (,) OANYXTUL XNvEp.og *pjoyun spnq a.10j -oq gsul ‘v[nuUL.oy uoTTes -Q¢ (,) OLNGXIUI xXNvVep..og ween eeeee ne qvos 138g “oa qudiqq Jeo] Ave ae a [Ano Touad *“AIVNAGa,T 10 AIVNUE UI (¢) FSA UISEY |" plour 4400s esuvig *(pOOTT 2¥ 107 VAL ULIRAA UT O}JNUIUL UO OJ peas YwOg |------ 7-7" quis 3UO “UOTPVOTTAde 4SALT “osvosiq. ‘ponulyjuoo—-SLNVid dO SASVESIG SQOONOd YO LNAWLVaAaL — FORMULAS FOR FUNGICIDES. 589 FORMULAS FOR FUNGICIDES. (1) Ammoniacal copper carbonate solution: neta CREMOMRGET efoto ss a. ii2 0 oss se seat deena a cennw ow ne ounces... 5 PE OMIA A CCOMIEI COME att 3 5a e eae ee be one ene eae pints.. 3 ee SE ee oe a eine gallons__ 50 Place the copper carbonate in a wooden pail and make a paste of it by the addi- tion of a little water. Then pour on the ammonia and stir until all the copper is dissolved. If the 3 pints of ammonia is not sufficient to dissolve the copper, add more until no sediment remains. Pour into a barrel and dilute with 45 or 50 gal- lons of water, and the mixture is then ready for use. (2) Bordeaux mixture: UIT BIE a a a pl a ee pounds__ 6 IT utd RO ps ee RR a en ae dors = 4 OUTED Ie 2 Se alae Poe ge gS aaa ee I 2 ee A ee gallons._ 22 In a barrel that will hold 45 gallons dissolve the copper sulphate, using 8 or 10 gallons of water, or as much as may be necessary for the purpose. In a tub or half barrel slack the lime. When completely slacked, add enough water to make a creamy whitewash. Pour this slowly into the barrel containing the copper sul- phate solution, using a coarse gunny sack stretched over the head of the barrel for a strainer. Finally, fill the barrel half full of water, stir thoroughly, and the mixture is ready for use. The 50 or 60 gallon formula is made in the same way, except that 50 or 60 gallons of water is added instead of 22 gallons. For further directions in making large quantities see Bulletin No. 6, Division Vegetable Phys- iology and Pathology, pp. 8-11. (3) Potassium sulphide: [Path cStirea gt Agia alas (Ge ee ae ee ee ne re ounces__ UNTER US ne SOS et IS pe Poe a a ea peg Sees rer gallons__ Dissolve the potassium sulphide in water, and the mixture is ready for use. (4) Hot-water treatment: This treatment is used for smuts of oats and wheat. Place two large kettles or two wash boilers on a stove; provide a reliable thermometer, and a coarse sack or basket for the seed. A special vessel for holding the grain may be made of wire or perforated tin. The vessel should never be entirely filled with grain, and in the kettles there should be about five or six times as much water by bulk as there is grain in the basket. In the first kettle keep the temperature of the water at from 110° to 130°, and in the other at 132° to 133°, never letting it fall below 130° lest the fungous spores may not be killed, nor rise above 135° lest the grain be injured. Place the grain in the basket and then sink it into the first kettle. Raise and lower it several times or shake it so that all the grain may become wet and uniformly warm. Remove it from the first kettle and plunge it into the second, where it should receive fifteen minutes’ treatment. Shake about repeatedly, and also raise the basket containing the grain completely out of the water five or six times during the treatment. If the temperature falls below 132°, let the basket remain afew moments longer; if it rises, a few moments less. Have at hand cold and boiling water with which to regulate the temperature. At the expiration of fifteen minutes remove the grain and plunge into cold water, after which spread it out to dry. The seed may be sown at once, before thoroughly dry, or may be dried and stored until ready for use. In treating oats keep them in water at 132° for only ten minutes and spread out to dry without plunging into the cold water. $ 9 5 (5) Resin wash: he eg a ears gh Sein da pounds._ 20 enEnaeaT ene) DOT CONMLY n ct a 4 ° a oe i} 5 ° ® ranges; wool. Cultivated fields; hoed crops. Methods of eradication. use of drainage. Prevention of seeding; clean seed; improve Prevention of seeding; improved drainage. Repeated plowing to expose root- stocks to frost, or to the sun in dry weather. Repeated spuddinyz: killing roots with salt, coal oil, or carbolic acid. Frequent spudding; thorough cultivation; application of coal oil or carbolic acid. wi, ome spudding; thorough cultivation with hoed crops. Hand pulling while in flower; eultivation with hoed crops. Prevention of seeding in flower gardens; late summer cultiva- tion. oss pole cutting in pastures; thorough cultivation. Repeated cutting in July and August. Prevention of seeding in gardens and waste places; cultivation. Mowing or cultivation to prevent seeding; spudding in lawns. Cultivating other crops in in- fested fields; burning stems of tobacco or hemp from in- fested fields. Increased fertilization ; summer cultivation; seeding with clo- ver or cowpeas. Prevention of seeding; cultiva- tion; reseeding worn-out pas- tures. Prevention of seeding; burnin mature plants: cultivation with hoed crops. Prevention of seeding; burning mature plants. Repeated spudding; cultivation ae hoed crops; coal oil or salt. Spudding in fall: summer culti- vation ; repeated mowing. Burning mature plants; cultiva- tion. Repeated spudding, or mowing: burning mature plants. Cultivation; hoeing or burning plants about sheep-washing yards. Summer cultivation; mowing or burning plants. More thorough cultivation; seed- ing with winter annuals after corn and potatoes. 596 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BX Table of two hundred — 4 Technical name, origin,) Where injuri- | Time of flow- | Time of seed- Common names. and duration. ous. ering. * ing. Callirrhoe, poppy mal- | Callirrhoe involu-| Nebraska to | June to Sep- | July to No- low. crata; prairie Texas. tember. vember. States; perennial. Canada thistle, creep- | Cardwus arvensis; Eu- | New England | June to Au- | July to Sep- ing thistle, cursed rope: perennial. to Missouri gust. ber. thistle. and Wash- ington to California. Caraway, garden cara- | Carum carui;Europe; | New England-.-| June to July-|----- (413, ae way. biennial. Careless weed, pigweed_| Amaranthus hybridus;| New Jersey to | July to Sep- | August to ls ae America; Texas. tember. October. annual. Carpet weed, Indian | Mollugo verticillata; |----- dows 22saee May to Sep- | June to No- chickweed. Tropics; annual. tember. vember. Catnip, catmint,catnep -| Nepeta cataria; Old | New_ England | June to Sep- | August to orld; perennial. to Michigan. tember. November. Chainy brier, bamboo, | Smilax glauca; east- | Pennsylvania | June toJuly | July to Sep- china brier, saw brier. ern United States; to Tennessee. tember. perennial. Charlock, wild mustard.| Brassica sinapistrum; | New_England | May to Au- | June to Sep- yellow mustard. Europe; annual. to Oregon. gust. _ tember. Chess.cheat, wheat thief, Willard’s brome grass. Chicory, succory-.---.-.- Chickweed, chickweed. Chondrilla, devil's eens, gum succory, ie g bite, skeleton weed. Climbing false buck- wheat, bindweed. common Clover dodder, devil's gut, dodder. Cockiebur, clot bur ----- Corn cockle, bastard nigella, cockle, rose campion. Cornflower, bachelor’s button, bluebottle, French pink. Corn gromwell, field gromwell pigeon weed, red root, stone seed, wheat thief. Couch grass, devil’s grass, durfee grass, quack press, quick grass, witch grass. Cow herb, cockle, cow basil, cow fat, glond. Cow parsnip, master- wort. Crab grass, finger grass, Polish millet” Bromus secalinus; southern Europe; annual. Cichorium intybus; Eu- rope; perennial. Alsine media; Europe; annual or winter annual. Chondrilla juncea; Eu- rope; biennial. Polygonum scandens; northern United States; perennial. Cuscuta epithymum; Europe: annual. Xanthium canadense; northern United States; annual. Agrostemma githago; urope; annual. Centaurea cyanus; southern Europe; annual. Lithospermum ar- vense; Europe; an- nual. Agropyron repens; northern Unite d States; perennial. Saponaria vaccaria; urope; annual. Heracleum lanatum; northern United States; perennial. Panicum sanguinale; Old World; annual. In all grain- raising re- gions. New England to Alabama and in Cali- fornia. New England to Texas and California. West Virginia, Maryland, and New York to Minnesota. All States where red clover or alfalfa is own. All States ...... All wheat-rais- ing States. Atlantic and Pacific States. New York to Michigan. New England to Minnesota. Colorado to California and Wash- ington. New England to Iowa. New Jersey to Wisconsin and south- ward, irginia. June to July. July to Sep- tember. January to December. June to Sep- tember. June to Au- gust. June to No- vember. June to Sep- tember. May to July-.. July to Sep- tember. 1 May to July. July to Au- gust. June to July. July to Au- gust. June to Sep- tember. July to Au- gust. September to ovember. Febru to December. July to Octo- ber. July to Se tember: a July to No- vember. August to December. July to Au- gust. September to ovember. July to Au- gust. August to September E.. 9 ‘ . : : 4 : TABLE OF TWO HUNDRED WEEDS, weeds—Continued. | Color, size,and | Method of propaga arrangement of flowers. Red or purple; We ies: bolt. valet fi finch rple; } inch; head. White; 4 inch; umbels. Green; 1 line; spikes in pan- icles. White; 1 line; in umbel-like axillary clusters. Purple; } inch; crowde spikes. Green; + inch; umbels. Yellow; + inch; racemes. Green; 1 line; spikelets in anicles. Blue; head. ! inch; White; 4 inch; cymose. Yellow; finch; heads. Green; }inch; panicles. Yellow; 4inch; clusters. Green; } inch; head. Purple; 1 inch; solitary. Blue; 1 inch; heads. Purple; }inch; axillary. Green; 1 line; spike. Pink; } inch; cyme. White; 4 inch; umbel. Green; } line; spikes, tion and distri- bution. “> | Place of growth and products injured. Running roots, seeds; seeds car- ried by wind. Seeds; escaped from gardens. Seeds; in clover, grain, and grass seed, and in hay. Seeds; in grass seed; blown over snow. Rootstocks; _seeds; in hay and grass seed. Tuberous roots car- ried by cultivatin tools;seeds carrie in hay and grain. Seeds; in clover, grass, and grain seed. Seeds; in grain seed. Seeds and roots; es- caped from culti- vation. Seeds; blown over snow and carried in grass seed. Seeds; blown by wind. Seeds, and roots; seeds carried in grain and clover seed. Seeds; in clover and alfalfa seed. Seeds; burs carried by animals. Seeds; in grain seed_ Seeds; in grass and grain seeds; from gardens. Seeds; in grain seed. Rootstocks carried by cultivating tools; seeds in hay. Seeds; in grain and alfalfa seed. . Seeds; blown over snow. Seeds; grass seed ana bay: Cultivated fields; grain and mead- ows. Cultivated fields; grain, pastures, meadows, and muck-land crops. Cultivated fieldsand meadows; grain, hay, flour. Cultivated fields; corn, potatoes, cot- on. Cultivated ground; hoed crops. Sandy soil; hay and grain. Meadows;cultivated land; hay, grain, hoed crops. Grain fields and meadows; spring wheat, oats, barley, and clover. Grain fields; wheat, oats, and barley. Grain fields and gar- dens; grain and hoed crops. Moist soil, orchards, vineyards, lawns, and gardens. Worn-sut fields; pas- tures, grain. Moist land, grain ---- Clover and alfalfa fields; clover and alfalfa hay and seed. Fence rows, pas- tures, and mead- ows; wool. Grain fields; wheat, flour. Pastures, lawns, grain fields. Grain fields: wheat- Fields; all crops ex- cept hay. Fields; grain ---.---- Low meadows and pastures; hay and pastures. Gardens; hoed crops and lawns; hoed crops, orchards. 597 Methods of eradication. Cultivation throughout the sum- mer; repeated spudding or mowing. E ‘ Frequent ubbing or mowing; plowing three times in August; salting the plants and pastur- ing sheep on them; application of kerosene or carbolic acid. Prevention of seeding in gardens; cultivation; hand pulling in grain fields. Late summer cultivation; burn- ing seed-bearing plants before plowing. Summer cultivation; sowing winter annuals after corn, pota- toes, and cotton. Repeated mowing in July and August; cultivation. Thorough cultivation with hoed crops; repeated grubbing Hand pulling in grain fields; cultivation with hoed crops. Cultivation with hoed crops; cleaner seed grain. Prevention of seeding in gardens; repeated srubbing; cultivation with hoed crops. Seeding with winter annuals; early spring cultivation; re- seeding lawns. Cultivation with hoed crops and increased fertilization; spud- ding or mowing. Cultivation with hoed crops; use of cleaner grain seed. Use of clean seed; burning small atches; cultivating other crops in infested fields. Cultivation; burning mature plants before plowing. Use of clean seed; hand pulling; eultivation with hoed crops. Prevention of seeding in flower gardens; repeated spudding; cultivation. Use of clean seed; burning wheat stubble in infested fields. Repeated plowing in July and August, followed by heavy seeding with rye. Use of clean seed; hand pulling in grain; cultivation. Repeated mowing or grubbing; cultivation. Cultivation; hand pulling in lawns. 598 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Common names. Technical name, origin, and duration. Creeping bur ragweed, | Gertneria_ discolor; franseria. Curled dock, sour dock, yellow dock. Daisy fleabane, sweet scabious, white top. Dandelicn ---.- Devil weed, golden hawkweed, king devil, paint brush. Dog fennel, mayweed, stinking chamomile. Drop-seed dock, sorrel dock. Eagle fern, bracken, | brake. Evening primrose. .-.---- ) False flax, gold of pleas- ure, Siberian oilseed, | wild flax. | Fetid marigold, stink- weed. Field peppergrass, Eng- | lish peppergrass, Mithridate mustard, yellowseed. Fireweed Five finger, Norway; cinquefoil. Galingale, sedge-_-_-_-.---- Giant ragweed, hog- weed, horseweed, tall ragweed. Green pigeon grass, bot- tle grass, green fox- tail. Ground cherry, lance- leafed ground cherry. Gum plant, rosinweed, sunflower. Hedge bindweed, bract- ed bindweed, devil's vine, Rutland beauty, wild morning-glory. Hedge mustard Hen bit, dead nettle..... Hogweed Horse nettle, bull net- tle, radical, sand brier. | Dyosodia Rocky Mountains; perennial. Rumex crispus; Eu- rope; perennial]. Erigeron annuus; eastern United States; annual. Taraxacun taraxa- cum; Europe; bien- nial. Hieracium prealtum; Europe; perennial. Anthemis cotula; Eu- rope; annual. Rumex hastatulus; southern United States; perennial. Pteris aquilina; cos- oi peren- nial. (Enothera biennis; eastern United States; biennial. Camelina sativa; Eu- rope; annual or bi- ennial. apposa; eentral United States; annual. Lepidium campestre; Europe; annual. Erechtites hieracifo- lia; northern United States; annual. Potentilla monspeli- ensis; northern United States; per- ennial. Cyperus phymatodes; central United States; perennial. Ambrosia _ trifida; eastern United States; annual. Setaria viridis; Old World; annual. Physalis lanceolata; central United States; perennial. Grindelia squarrosa; prairie States; per- ennial. Convolvulus sepium; northern United States; perennial. Sisymbrium officinale; Europe; annual or biennial. Lamium amplewxi- caule; Europe; an- nual. Berhaavia erecta; Texas; annual. Solanum carolinense; southeastern United States; perennial. Where injuri- ous. Wyoming to ew Mexico. All States ex- cept South- eastern. Maine to Min- nesota and southward. All States-.-..... New York In all States --- South Carolina to Florida. Pennsylvania, Washington to California. New England to Wisconsin and south- ward. Ohio to North Dakota. Nebraska to Texas. New England to Michigan. Pennsylvania to Wisconsin. Ohio to Minne- sota. New Jersey to Michigan and south- kota and southward. Ohio to Iowa and _ south- ward. Illinois to Kan- sas. Minnesota to Montana and southward. New Jersey to Iowa. New England to Ohio and southward. New England to West Vir- ginia. Texas to Lou- jana. New Jersey to Le, Table of two hundred Time of flow- | Time of seed- ering. ing. June to Au- | July to Sep- gust. tember. June to Sep- | July to Octo- tember. ber. June to Au- | July to Sep- gust. tember. May to Octo- | May to No- ber. vember. June toSep- | July to Sep- tember. ph dl, J June to Au- |... US er ws gust. May teJuly..| June to Au- gust. June to Au- | Se ber to Z mber. May to Sep- | July to No- tember. vember. July to Sep- | September to tember. ovember. May to July.-| May to Au- gust. June to Au- | July to Sep- gust. tember. eA iP peeeeeen pierce: fo ae sof a8 GO 222-2. eee July to Sep- | August to tember. November. Sate do ........| August to Oatober. aoe do ........| August to November. aun MAGS -Acea GO sia July to Octo- | September to ber. mober. May to Sep- | July to Octo- tember. “ bar April to| May toJuly- une. June to No- | July to De- vember. cember. June to Sep- | August to tember. December. owa and southward. TABLE OF TWO HUNDRED WEEDS. aveeds—Continued. Color, size, and arrangement of flowers. Yellow; jinch; heads. Green; } inch; panicle. White; #inch; heads. Yellow; linch; head. Yellow; Jinch; head. White; + inch; head. Greenish white; 4 inch; pani- cle. Flowerless- ---- Yellow; 1 to inches; spikes. Yellow; inch; racemes. Yellow; }inch; heads. White: 1 line; crowded ra- cemes. Purple; 4inch; heads in pan- icles. Yellow; 4+inch; solitary. Green; 4 line; spikes in um- bels. Yellow; finch; racemes. Green; 1 line; spikes. Yellow; linch; racemes. Yellow; 4inch; heads. White: 2inches; solitary. Yellow; tinch; racemes. Purple; } inch; axillary whorls. White; y,inch; cyme. Purple; linch; raceme. Method of propaga- tion and distri- bution. Seeds, carried by sheep; rootstocks, carried by cultivat- ing tools. Roots, seeds in hay and grain; blown over snow. Seeds; in hay, clo- ver, and grass seed. Seeds; wind. earried by Running rootstocks; seed carried by wind. Seeds; in hay and grass seed. Seeds, by wind and in grass seed; run- ning rootstocks. Rootstocks; spores; carried by wind. Seeds: carried by wind. Seeds; carried in flaxseed, clover and grass seed. Seeds; carried in hay and by winter winds. Seeds; in hay, clo- ver, and grass seed. Seeds: earried by wind. Running rootstocks; seeds. Tubers carried by cultivating tools; seeds carried in grass seed and hay. Seeds; carried by water and blown oyer snow. Seeds; in clover and grass seed. Running roots; seeds. Roots; seeds......... Running roots; seeds. Seeds; in clover and grass seed and hay. Seeds: running root- stocks. Seeds; in grass and grain seed and hay. Running roots; seeds in hay and clover seed. Place of growth and products injured. Meadows, pastures, grain fields; wool and all crops. Meadows and grain- fields; all crops. Meadows and grain- fields. Meadows, pastures, and lawns. Meadows and pas- tures. Roadsides, mead- ows, pastures. Meadows and pas- tures. Recently cleared land, pastures and meadows. Sandy land; mead- ows; grain and hoed crops. Sandy land; flax and grain. Meadows and pas- tures. Sandy land; mead- ows, grain. Recently cleared land, cultivated marshes; grain, marsh-land crops. Cultivated marshes; onions, pepper- mint, and celery. Moist land; mead- ows, pastures, and lowland crops. Moist or sandy land; meadows and pas- tures. Meadows and grain fields. Sandy land: mead- ows: grain and hoed crops. Meadows and pas- tures. Rich prairie _ soil; corn and grain. Dry fields; pastures and grain. Moist lawns, pas- tures, and mead- ows. Rich bottom lands; meadows, and hoed crops. Meadows, pastures, and cultivated land; all crops. 599 Methods of eradication. Thorough cultivation weather; plants. V in dry burning mature Alternate cultivation and heavy cropping; mowing or grubbing in pastures. Cuitivation with hoed crops; mowing early. Cultivation; repeated spudding in lawns. Cultivation; salting plants in sheep pastures. Mowing roadsides, mowing or cultivating fields. Cultivation with hoed crops; early mowing in meadows. Alternate cultivation and heavy cropping. Cultivation in fall or spring; burning mature plants; re- peated mowing. Cultivation in autumn; pulling or mowing plants in bloom. Cultivation with hoed crops. Thorough cultivation with hoed crops; increased fertilization. Hand pulling or cutting in early summer. More thorough cultivation. Repeated spudding; frequent cul- tivation throughout the season; thick seeding with timothy or redtop. Heavy seeding or cultivation; mowing young plants or burn- ing mature ones. Cultivation throughout the sea- son with hoed crops. More thorough cultivation Repeated mowing; cultivation. Burning seed-bearing plants be- fore plowing; late cultivation in hoed crops. Cultivation with hoed crops; in- creased fertilization. Spudding or hand pulling in awns; cultivation with crops. Thorough cultivation; heavy | seeding. Alternate cultivation and heavy cropping; repeated spudding; application of carbolic acid. 600 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Common names. Horseweed, butter- weed, colt’s tail, flea- bane. Hound’s-tongue, dog bur, wool mat. Indian mallow, Ameri- can jute, butter print, stamp weed, velvet leaf. Indian tobacco, asthma weed. Ironweed Jimson weed, James- town weed, purple thorn apple. Joe-Pye weed, trumpet- weed. Johnson grass, Austra- lian millet, Cuba grass, evergreen millet, Means grass. Knot grass, doorweed, goose grass. Lamb’s quarters, goose- foot, pigweed. Live-forever, Aaron’s rod, garden orpine. Loco weed Low amaranth, pros- trate amaranth, spreading amaranth. Low hop clover Marsh elder, false rag- weed, false sunflower, high-water shrub. Mexican poppy, devil's fig, prickly poppy, thistle poppy, yellow meh i r exican tea, American wormseed. Milfoil, yarrow Milk purslane, spotted spurge. Milk thistle, holy this- tle, our lady’s thistle. Milkweed, silkweed, wild cotton. Morning-glory Moth muiein Motherwort Mouse barley, wall bar- ley, wild barley. Technical name, origin, and duration. Erigeron canadense; eastern United States; annual. Cynoglossum offici- nale; Europe; bien- nial. Abutilon abutilon; In- dia; annual. Lobelia inflata; east- ern United States; annual. Vernonia novebora- censis; eastern United States; an- nual. Datura tatula; Trop- ics; annual. Eupatorium purpur- eum; eastern United States; annual. Andropogon halepen- sis; Old World; per- ennial. Polygonum aviculare; cosmopolitan; an- nual. Chenopodium album; Old World; annual. Sedum telephium; Eu- rope; perennial. Astragalus mollissi- mus; Rocky Moun- tains; perennial. Amaranthus bli- toides; prairie States; annual. Trifolium procumbens; Europe; annual. Iva xanthiifolia; Rocky Mountains; annual. Argemone mexicana; West. Indies; annu- al or biennial. Chenopodium ambro- sioides; tropical America; annual. |; Achillea millefolium; cosmopolitan ; per- ennial. Euphorbia maculata; North America; an- nual. Silybum marianum; Hurope; annual. Asclepias syriaca; northeastern United States; per- ennial. Tpomceea tropica annual. DUT pPU rea; America; Verbascum blattaria; Europe; biennial. Leonurus cardiaca; Europe; perennial. Hordeum. murinum; Europe: annual. Where injuri- ous. In all States --- New England to Wiscon- sin. Ohio to Iowa_-. New_England to Virginia. Pennsylvania to Iowa. Pennsylvania to Texas. Pennsylyania to Missouri. North Caroli- na to Texas and Califor- nia. In all States _-- New York and Penns ylvya- nia. Montana to New Mexico. Minnesota to Texas. New England to Ohio. Minnesota to Idaho and southward. Florida to Cal- ifornia. Maryland to Texas. New England to Missouri. In all States - -- California New York to Wisconsin. Delaware and California. New York to Iowa. New_ England to Michigan. California Table of two hundred Time of flow- ering. July to Sep- tember. June to Au- gust. | July to Sep- tember. July to No- vember. July to Sep- tent bee ™ ja - = 20G ae eee | August to / September. June to Au- gust. | | June to No- vember. July to No- vember. July to Au- gust. June to Au- gust. July to Sep- tember. June to Sep- tember. August to September. July to Octo- ber. Augustto November. June to Au- gust. May to No- vember. June to July- June to Au- gust. July to Octo- ber. June to Sep- tember. June to Au gust. May toJuly.. a. August to October. July to Sep- tea August to November. August to December. September to ovember. September to ecember. September to ovember. July to Sep- tember. “4 July to De- cember. August to December. August to September. July to Se tember. xf August to October. June to Oc- tober. September to ovember. September to ecember. July to Se tember. i June to De- cember. July to Se tember. A July to Octo- ber. September to ovember. July to De- cember. July to Sep- tecaber. of June to July- i ; TABLE OF TWO HUNDRED WEEDS. 601 weeds—Continued. Color, size,and | Method of hee ial arrangement mons and distri- of flowers. bution. White; }inch; | Seeds; carried by heads in wind and in hay. cymes. Purple; } inch; —— carried by racemes. sheep. Yellow; }inch; | Seeds: in clover solitary. seed; blown over snow. Blue; + inch; | Seeds; in hay and grass seed; pods blown over snow. Perennial roots; seeds carried by wind. racemes. Purple; tinch; heads. Purple; 3} Seeds; pods blown ones soli- over snow in win- sat ter. Purple; 4inch; | Running roots; heads in seeds carried by cymes. ~ wind. Green; 4inch; | Running rootstocks, panicle. seeds; in hay and grass seed. : Pink: 1 line; | Seeds; blown over axillary. snow. Green; 1 line; | Seeds; in grain and | panicle. grass seed. Purple; }inch; Tubers; carried by cyme. cultivating tools. Violet; } inch; ) Perennial roots; spikes. | seeds. Green; l line; Seeds; incloverseed. spikes. | speeed Mmrines | Heedsics._.. 1... 222-8 eads Green; } inch; | Seeds; blown over heads. show, and carried by streams. Yellow; ; 3| Seeds: carried by inches; soli- wind. tary. Green; 1 line; | Seeds; blown by panicle. winds in winter. White: } inch; | Perennial roots, heads in um- seeds, clover, and bels grass seeds. Red: 1 LSTA SS ts 2: ae ny, clus- rs Red or pur- ) eee carried by lke aie es; wind Purple: “yinch; ) Runni beh Bag A ried mon win Purple to | Seeds; escaped from white; 1} gardens. a soli- wallow ae Seeds; in hay, clo- white; 1; ver, and grass inch; ra- seed. cemes. fetal tinch; | Running rootstocks; = axillary clus: seeds. rs. Green; } line; Coote; meh sheep, spikes. and win A 95—21* Place of growth and products injured. Meadows and grain fields. Sheep pastures; wool. Sandy fields; grain and hoed crops. Meadows, pastures, and grain-fields; poisonous. Meadows and pas- tures. Waste ground, pas- tures, neglected gardens. Moist or sandy meadows and pas- tures. Moist or sandy land; all crops except hay. All places where turf has been broken. Grainfields and neg- lected cornfields. Slaty- hills; all crops. | Dry prairies; poison- ous to stock. Broken land; neg- lected hoed crops. Sterile soil: neg- lected gardens. Rich prairie land; all crops. Neglected gardens and fields; poison- ous if eaten. : Fields and neglect- ed gartions; all ‘eee eadows, pastures, and grainfields. land; Broken all | crops. Broken land; mead- ows and grain. Rich soil; all crops-.| Cultivated fields -_-_. Meadows and pas- tures. Sandy land; mead- ows and gardens. Sandy en res; awns urious to plan of animals. Methods of eradication. Mowin cultivation; burning stubble e before plowing. Spudding, pulling, or repeated mowing early in the season. Thorough cultivation with hoed crops; burning mature plants before plowing. Cultivation; increased fertiliza- tion; hand pulling in meadows and pastures. Cultivation with hoed crops; fre- quent mowing. Cutting while in flower; cultiva- tion. Cultivation with hoed crops; fre- quent mowing or spudding. Close pamee induced by salting the plants; alternate cultivation and heavy cropping; plowing to expose root rost or hot sun. Increased fertilization; thorough cultivation with hoed crops. Thorough cultivation with hoed crops. Infection with fungous disease; a grazing by sheep induced mt salting the plants. Cultivation; repeated spudding. Late cultivation with hoed crops; seeding land not in use. Increased fertilization; cultiva- tion or seeding. Repeated mowing; cultivation; burning seed-bearing plants be- fore plowing. Repeated mowing; cultivation. Thorough cultivation; increased fertilization: seeding land not in use. Cultivation; mowing while in blossom. Thorougu cultivation; heavy seeding. Mowing when the first blossoms appear; burning mature plants. Mowing while in blossom; alter- nate cultivation and heavy cropping. Prevention of seeding; thorough cultivation. Spudding in autumn; pulling or cutting while in ower; culti- vation. Cultivation. Cultivation; heavy seeding; burning mature plants before plowing. 602 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Common names. Mouse-ear cress ...------ Mullein, Aaron's rod, black mullein, flannel plant, velvet dock. Musky alfilerilla, ground needle, musky neronbill. : Napa thistle, Malta this- tle, tocalote. Narrow-leafed stick- seed. Narrow: leafed vervain, low vervain. Neckweed. purslane specdwell. Nightshade, black-ber- ried nightshade. Nonesuch. black me- dick, medicago. Nut grass, coco, coco sedge, nut sedge. Orange hawkweed, devil's paint brush, zrolden hawkweed, adies’ paint brush. Oxeye aisy, bull's eye, sheriff pink, white daisy, white weed. Pdracuay Dut. 32.2. <.-2- Parogquet bur ....~<.~<-- PArtmage Dea ........c:=s Passion flower, May pop. Penny cress, French weed, Sargent weed. Peppergrass -<---- Perennial ragweed.....- Perennial sow thistle, field sow thistle, sow thistle. Pigeon grass, pussy grass, summer fox- tail. Pigweed, Pedroot, rough amaranth. Pimpernel, poison chick- weed, poor man’s wea- ther glass. Piantain, white man's foot. | Technical name, origin, and duration. Stenophragma thalia- na; Europe; winter annual. Verbaseum | thapsus; Europe; biennial. Erodium moschatum; Europe; annual. Centaurea melitensis; Europe; annual. Lappula lappula; Eu- rope; annual. Verbena angustifolia; eastern United States; perennial. Veronica peregrina; cosmopolitan; an- nual. Solanum nigrum; cos- mopolitan; annual. Medicago lupulina; Old World; annual. Cyperus rotundus; Tropics; perennial. Hieracium auranti- acum; Europe; per- ennial. Chrysanthemum leu- canthemum; Eu- rope; perennial. Acanthospermum brasilum; Brazil; annual. Sida stipulata; south- eastern United States; annual or perennial. Cassia chameecrista; southeastern United States; annual. Passiflora incarnata; southeastern United States; perennial. Thlaspi arvense; TEu- rope; annual. Lepidium virginicum; eastern United States; annual. Ambrosia psilo- stachya; central United States; per- ennial. Sonchus arvensis: Eu- rope; perennial. Setaria glauca; Old World; annual. Amaranthus retro- flexus; tropical America; annual. Anagallis arvensis; Europe; annual. Plantago major; North America; per- ennial. | |

| ber. \ weeds—Continued. Color, size, and | Method of propaga- Place of growth and arrangement tion and distri- . “aha! of flowers. bution. products injured. White; }inch; Running roots; | Rich or sandy soil; umbel. seeds; in hay and pastures, mead- grass seed. ows, grain. Yellow: }inch; | Perennial roots; | Sandy land; mead- axillary. seeds. ows and pastures. Pink; + inch; | Perennial roots; | Pastures and mead- | heads. seeds; carried by Ows. win Peo eaneh: |. S6CGS icon. . -cnannone- Broken land; hay axillary. and grain injured by its odor. Green: 1 line; | Running rootstocks; | Moist land; marsh clustered in seeds. astures and muck- panicled and crops; sting- spikes. _ ; ing when touched. peeapesnch; Seeds; carried by | Everywhere; all umbels. wind and animals. crops. Green; 1 line; heads in ra- cemes or ax- Seeds; burs carried Broken land; all by animals. crops, wool. illary. Pink: 4+ inch; | Seeds;1o cloverand | Sandy land; mead- axillary. grass seed. ows, pastures, and lawns. Suspie: t+inch; | Seeds ----... pee Clay soil; all crops -- solitary. Yellow; 4inch; | Rootstocks; seeds...| Meadows and pas- heads. tures; injurious to stock. Red: { inch; | Running rootstocks, | Meadows, pastures, panicle. seeds; in clover and grainfields. seed. Yellow; +inch; | Seeds; carried by | Meadowsand grain- heads. wind. fields. Rose; 4+ inch; | Seeds: carried by | Sandy land; wool---- racemes, animals. Green: y;inch; | Seeds; in clover | Pastures. meadows, spikes. seed. and grainfields. ~ Green; 4+inch; | Seeds; burs carried | Pastures and mead- heads. by animals. ows; wool. White; linch; | Seeds -......... pe naa Pastures and hoed raceme. ROWS, aNd. cal land crops. elheen; 1 line; | Seeds; burs carried Orange groves and in burs. by animals. broken land; wool. Yellow; }inch; | Seeds --..............| Meadows and grain- Gray: 1 ii Seeds; i d Dry hill t ray; ne; | Seeds; in grass seed.| Dry, hilly pastures 2 Thakelets in | and mepdevuclt. ay ascertainedine; Ru nips maotabash ra Pag sn on wwii wind, P ws land $6.80 fo» rious to animals. Puppet! Fitich; as Cs eo ae Meadows and pas- heads. tures. White: } inch; | Rootstocks: seeds; | Old fields, meadows, heads. carried by wind. and pastures. Blue; 1 line; | Seeds; carried by | Along fences,in pas- racemes. animals. tures; wool. Sandy land; hay and Seeds in grass and all crops. Green; 1 line; clover seed. spikes in pan- icles. —- TABLE OF TWO HUNDRED WEEDS. Cl 60 Methods of eradication. Thorough cultivation until mid- summer; mowing in July, fol- fowed by deep plowing in Au- pang Te ON bar’ Deep cultivation in dry weather; increased fertilization. Cultivation; mowing or grubbing as often as flowers appear. Cultivation with hoed crops: re- peated cutting; burning mature plants. Mowing in June andagain in Au- gust; burning mature plants. Cultivation in autumn or early spring; seeding with winter annuals. Cultivation with hoed crops; burning mature plants. Cultivation and increased ferti- lization. Late cultivation with hoed crops; heavy seeding on land not in use. Cultivation with hoed_ crops; pulling or repeated spudding in pastures and meadows. Cultivation; increased fertiliza- tion; reseeding worn-out pas- tures. Cutting or pulling when the first blossoms appear; burning ma- ture plants. Cultivation; cutting and burning mature plants. Cultivation with hoed crops. Thorough cultivation with hoed crops during two or three suc- cessive seasons; burning ma- ture plants. Thorough cultivatigay mature pMzia grasse Thorough cultivation Cultivation with hand pulling. Tncrease?-“~~*— y seedifiz s. hoed crops; shige Cultivation: early mowing; burn- ing patches of the grass. Cultivation; seeding with winter annuals. Late cultivation with hoed crops; increased fertilization. Cultivation with hoed crops; spudding or pulling. Thorough cultivation with hoed crops. 608 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Common names. Stramonium, jimson weed, thorn apple. Stubble spurge, hyperi- cum spurge. Sunflower Swamp beggar ticks, marigold. Sweet clover, bokhara clover, white melilot. Tall buttercup, acrid buttercup. Tall thistle Tarweed, California tar- weed. Teasel, barber’s brushes, English this- tle, Fuller’s card, In- dian thistle, water thistle. Texas thistle, American centaury, star thistle. Three-seeded mercury, copper leaf. Tumbleweed, white pigweed. Velvety gaura, small- flowered gaura. Venus looking-glass-_-.- Viper’s bugloss, biue devil, blue thistle, blue weed. Water hyacinth, gama- lote. Water smartweed yiuy Liparv... Spiny sida Snetted cowbane, bea- Whitetdépers uneeqnash old fog, wild-cat grass. White vervain. nettle- i — Technical name, origin, and duration. Datura stramonium; Old World; annual. Euphorbia nutans; eastern United States; annual. Helianthus annuus; central United States; annual. Bidens connata; east- ern United States; annual. Melilotus alba; Old World; perennial. Ranunculus acris; Eu- rope; perennial. Carduus _ altissimus: northern United States; perennial. Madia sativa; Pacific Coast; annual. Dipsacus sylvestris; Europe; biennial. Centaurea americana; southern United States; annual. Acalypha virginica; eastern United States; annual. Amaranthus albus; central United States; annual. Gaura parviflora; southern prairie States: annual. Legouzia perfoliata; eastern United States; annual. Echium vulgare; Europe; biennial; Eichhornia crassipes; ‘South America; per- ennial. Polygonum emersum; eastern United States: verevs; an nual. Sida spinosa; Tropics; annual. Cicuta maculata; northern United GV a's te rn’ vial. States; annual. Verbena urticifolia; eastern United States; perennial. Polygonum convolvu- lus; Europe; annual, jleafed vervain. Wild buckwheat, black bindweed. Wild carrot. bird's nest, devil's plague, Queen World; biennial. Anne's lace. Wild gourd, calabazita..| Cucurbita perennis; southwestern United States; per- ennial. Where injuri- ous. New Jersey to Texas. Maryland to Missouri. Nebraskato Louisiana and Texas. New England to Minnesota and south- ward. Maryland to Michigan. New England to New York. Wisconsin to Missouri. Washington to California. Ohio to Ten- nessee and California. Texas to Kan- sas. Pennsylvania to Texas. Illinois to Kan- sas. Kansas to Texas. Michigan to Georgia. New York to North Caro- lina. Florida and Louisiana. New York to South Da- date Florida to Texas and Kansas. Throughout the nited States. New Jeiseyto Wisconsin. Ohio to North Dakota. Daucus carota; Old | New England to Ohio and southward to Georgia. California to New Mexico. Table of two hundred — a1° * S shen) ry es Time of flow- | Time of seed- ering. g. July to Octo- | September to ber. ecember. ae 57 do ........| August to November. July to Sep- | August to tember. October. Se do ........| Angust to November. June to Au- | July to Sep- gust. tember. May to July-.| June to Au- gust. July to Sep- | August to tember. September. May to Octo- | June to No- ber. vember. July to Sep- | August to tember: ™ October May to July__| June to Au- July to Sep- tember. = August to September. July to Sep- tember. gust. August to November. August to October. May to July -| June to Au- May to Octo- ber. July to Sep- tember. July to Octo- ber. teMves. June to Au- gust. July to Au- gust. Mayr toJuly-. gust." see SOG Cadena pare July to Sep- tember. gust. June to No- vember. August to November. July to - le August to September. June to Au- gust. August to December. April toJuly_| July to No- vember. TABLE OF TWO HUNDRED WEEDS. weeds—Continued, 609 Color, size, and | Method of propaga- arrangement of flowers. tion and distri- bution. White; 2inches;| Seeds ---_......--.... solitary. White; + inch; cymes. Yellow; 2 inches; neads. Yellow; }inch; eads. White; 1 line; racemes. Yellow; }inch; solitary. Purple; 1} inches; heads. Yellow; linch; heads. White; 1 inch; head. Brmrp le: 2 ieeiiea: heads. Green; } line; axillary clus- ters. Green; } line; spikes. Rose; } inch; spikes. Blue: + spikes. Blue; } inch; thyrsus. inch; Purple; }inch; racemes. Pink; 1 line; spikes. Green; 1 line; in burs. Yellow; }inch; racemes. i ora 1 line; he selets in Lie Pace, land $6.80 fo Thea ithe racemes. White; 1 line; umbels. Yellow; 8 inches; soli- tary. Seeds; carried by animals. Perennial roots, seeds; in hay and clover seed. Rootstocks, in hay. seeds; Perennial roots, seeds; carried by winds. BOGOS oot obec eace Seeds; winds. earried by Seeds; weed blown as a tumbleweed. Seeds; in clover se Beciiause tae ae: eee Offshoots;: floatin in currents an blown by wind. Running rootstocks; seeds. Seeds; burs carried by animals. BCBOB once as canes cues Seeds; in grass seed- Running rootstocks; seeds. Seeds; in grain seed. Seeds; carried by animals and wind. Place of growth and products injured. Waste land and neg- lected gardens; poisonous. Meadows and grain- fields. Broken land; all crops. Moist land; pas- tures, wool. Clay soil; meadows and hoed crops. Moist land; pas- tures and mead- ows. Meadows and pas- tures. Everywhere; viscid excretion injures everything com- ing in contact with it. Meadows and pas- tures. crops. | Cultivated land; all | Moist land; grain | and hay. | Broken prairie land; | all crops. Meadows and grain, fields. / Grainfields and | thinly seeded meadows. Meadows and pas- tures. Slow-running wa ter; obstructs draining and navi- gation. Moist land; lowland pastures, mead- ows, and muck- land crops. Orange groves and broken land; wool. Meadows and grain- fields. Dry, hilly pastures and meadows. Moist meadows, pastures, and muck-land crops. Grain and corn fields; injures grain and ob- are ts harvesting machinery. Meadows and pas- tures. Methods of eradication. ———E Mowing or spudding in July. Mowing stubble; cultivation. Thorough cultivation; mowing or burning sunflowers along rivers. Cultivation; mowing. Plowing in July and August. Early mowing; repeated spud- ding; cultivation. Repeated spudding or mowing as often as heads form. Cultivation. Cultivation with hoed crops; burning mature plants; mow- ing as often as heads are formed. Thorough cultivation. Thorough cultivation until mid- summer with hoed crops. Late cultivation in hoed crops. Cultivation with hoed crops; pull- ing or mowing plants when first blossoms appear. Thorough cultivation and creased fertilization. in- Cultivation; thick seeding: spud- ding in permanent pastures. Fishing plants out; prevention of spreading from gardens. Thorough cultivation in dry weather, and heavy seeding with lowland grasses. Thorough cultivation Cultivation with hoed crops; hand pulling. Increased fertilization: tion; early mowing. cultiva- Repeated mowing: cultivation. Thorough cultivation with low- growing hoed crops. Cultivation; increased fertiliza- tion: hand pulling; repeated mowing while in bk ossom. Perennial roots; Cultivated lands. --.. Killing the roots with coal oil seeds. or strong brine. 610 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Yellow bur weed, fire- Amsinckia intermedia; California ---.-- Table of two hundred May to July-.- June to Au- a ; Technical name, origin,) Where injuri- | Time of flow- | Time of seed- Common names. and duration. ous. ering. ing. Wild licorice. -.........-.- Glycyrrhiza lepidota; | Minnesota to} June to Au-} August to northwestern California. gust. November. U. S.; perennial. W ilGeOaks tic. 2. betes Avena fi tua; Old} Wiseonsin to} July to Au- |} July to An- . World; annual. Utah. gust. gust. Wild onion, crow garlic, | Allium vineale; Eu- |} Pennsylvania | June to July-|._.-- donk see field garlic, wild gar- rope; perennial. to South Car- lic. olina. Wild parsnip, queen | Pastinaca sativa; Old | New_England | June to Sep- | July to Octo- weed World; biennial. to Ohio. tember. ber. Winged pigweed, cyclo- | Cycloloma_ atriplici- | Nebraska to | July to Sep- | Angust to loma, sand-hill tumble folia; ae States; Texas. tember. December. weed. annual. Yard grass, dog’s tail, | Eleusineindica;Trop- | New Jersey to | July to Octo-| August to crab grass, wire grass. ics; annual. Texas. ber. November. weed, yellow tarweed. Pacific Coast; annual. got. Yellow daisy, brown- | Rudbeckia hirta; cen- | New England | June to Au- | July to Sep- eyed Susan, cone flow- tral United States; to Ohio. gust. tember. i niggerhead, ox-eye biennial. aalisy. | Yellow dog fennel,fen- | Helenium tenuifo-| Georgia to] JulytoOcto- | August to nel. | lium; southern Texas. ber. November. | U.§; annual. Yeliow melilot, yellow | Melilotus officinalis; | Maryland to | June to Sep- | July to Octo- sweet clover. Europe; annual. Michigan. tember. ber. Yerba mansa ..........-- Anemopsis califor- | California and | May to Sep- | June to Oc- | nica; southwestern Arizona. tember. tober. | U.S.; perennial. IRRIGATION. A water right is the right or privilege of using water for irrigating purposes, either in a definite quantity or upon a prescribed area of land, such right or privi- lege being customarily acquired either by priority of use or by purchase. In many parts of the arid region a water right is an exceedingly valuable property. The average valueof the water rights of the entire arid region, as determined by the census of 1890, was $26 per acre, and there are fruit-growing districts in Cah- fornia where water rights have been sold at as high as $1,500 per miner's inch, or Et $100 to $500 per acre, according to the amount used on any given area of and. The duty of water is the extent of the service it will perform when used for irrigating purposes; that is, the number of acres a given quantity of water will adequately irrigate under ordinary circumstances. This is usually from 100 to 200 acres for each second-foot. Where water is abundant, the duty has been known be be as low as 50 acres, and, where very scarce, as high as 500 acres to the second- oot. A miner's inch is theoretically such a quantity of water as will flow through an aperture 1 inch square in a board 2 inches thick under a head of water of 6 inches in one second of time, and it is equal to 0.194 gallon, or 0.0259337 cubie foot per second, or to 11.64 gallons, or 1.556024 cubic feet, per minute. The amount of water flowing through a given aperture in a given times varies, however, with. the head of water over the opening and also with the form of the openin~ ~ Colorado the miner’s inch legalized by statute equals 11.7 gallons per Miffyne to Au- California miner's inch, however, equals only 9 gallons per minute, gust. inches being, accordingly, equal to 130 California inches. One hundréu <—...- ~ inches will cover anacre to adepth of 5.2 feet in twenty-four hours; 100 California inches will cover the same area only to a depth of 4 feet in the same time. Fifty California inches are, therefore, approximately equal to 1 second-foot, and 50 Colo- rado inches to about three-tenths more. An acre-foot of water is the amount required to cover an acre of ground toa depth of 1 foot. This is 43,560 cubic feet, or 325,851.4512 gallons. Its weight is 1,213 tons 2,113 pounds, at 2,240 pounds to the ton. The amount of water required to cover an acre of ground to a depth of 1 inch is 3,630 cubic feet, or 27,154.2876 gallons. Its weight is 101 tons 362% pounds, at 2,240 pounds to the ton. IRRIGATION. 611 weeds—Continued. Color, size,and | Method of propaga- arrangement tion and distri- of flowers. bution. Place of growth and products injured Methods of eradication. Bluish white; | Running eh Open prairie; burs | Subsoiling in dry weather; per- 4+ inch; ra- seeds; burs car- very injurious in sistent cultivation during three cemes. ried by animals. | wool. successive seasons. Green; 1 line; | Seeds; in seed oats.-| Oat fields; awns in- | Pulling and burning before har- panicle. jurious to stock. vesting oats; cultivation with hoed crops. White; 1 line; | Bulbs, offsets, bulb- | Everywhere; dairy | Alternate cultivation and heavy umbel. lets; bulblets car- products, grain. cropping; application of car- ried like seeds in bolic acid. grain. ; Ee Gibbet Cl-) —r Meadows, pastures-..| Cultivation with hoed crops; fre- umbel. quent mowing. Green; +inch; | Seeds; carried by | Broken land; grain | Thorough cultivation until mid- axillary. wind as a tumble- and hoed crops. summer in hoed crops; burning weed. mature plants. Green; } line; | Seeds; in grassseed.| Lawns, pastures, | Spudding or hand pulling in spikes. and meadows. lawns; cultivation; increased y fertilization. Yellow; +inch;| Seeds; carried by | Grainfields and | Cultivation with hoed crops. racemes. animals. vineyards. Yellow and | Seeds; inhay..-..-.-- Meadows and pas- | Cultivation with hoed_ crops; brown; 1 tures. hand pulling; repeated mow- inch; head. ing. Yellow; +inch; |..--- MO eae ates ae Meadows, pastures, | Cultivation, increased fertiliza- head. and grainfields. tion. Yellow; lline; | Seeds: in hay and | Claysoil; dry mead- | Cultivation, increased fertiliza- racemes. clover seed. ows and pastures. tion; reseeding meadows. White; }inch; | Rootstocks, seeds..-| Moist land, culti- | Alternate cultivation and heavy spike. vated crops. cropping; drainage. A second-foot is the most satisfactory, because the most definite. unit of meas- urement for flowing water. It is used by the United States Government in the gauging of rivers and streams, and is rapidly superseding the miner’s inch in the measurement of water for irrigation. It is the quantity represented by a stream 1 foot wide and 1 foot deep, flowing at the average rate of 1 foot per second. In other words, it is 1 cubic foot per second, 60 cubic feet per minute, 3,600 cubic feet per hour, and soon. A stream flowing continuously at the average rate of 1 second-foot would carry in one day of twenty-four hours 86,400 cubic feet, or 646,316.928 gallons, sufficient to cover 11}? acres to a depth of 1 foot. Flowing continuously for one year of three hundred and sixty-five days, such a stream would carry 31,536,000 cubic feet, or 235,905,678.72 gallons, sufficient to cover 723147 acres to a depth of 1 foot. The subhumid region is the strip of country running north and south between the arid region, where irrigation is absolutely necessary to the successful prosecution of agriculture, and those portions of the United States in which the rainfall is usually sufficient for agricultural purposes. It includes portions of North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, and Texas, and may be described as a region where irrigation is not always necessary, but where agricultural operations can not, with any assurance of success, be undertaken without it. The average value of the irrigated land in farms in the United States was ascer- tained by the census of 1890 to be $83.28 per acre, and that of the nonirrigated land in farms $20.95 per acre. The average annual value of the agricultural products of the irrigated land was ascertained to be $14.89 per acre irrigated,and that of those of the nonirrigated land §6.80 for each acre improved. The average first cost of the irrigated land, including purchase money, water rights, etc., was ascertained to have been $8.15 per acre, and the average annual cost of the water supply $1.07 per acre. The total value of the irrigated farms of the United States, as reported by the farmers themselves, was, in round figures, $296,850,000, an increase of $219,360,000, or 283.08 per cent, upon their cost, including land, water rights, fences, and prepa- ration for cultivation. The total value of the productive irrigating systems was found to be $94,412,000, an increase of $64,801,000, or 218.84 per cent, upon their cost. 612 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ‘euo[R UMOS ATO.1eY ‘awak puooes eqy savoddesip sjios Arp ‘ysit uO ‘seyeUTT[O *(auuasad wn Jooo ‘4sfour ut sflos Aavoy a0J ssvid oany UI4SV] PUB JUETOORT | OL'6s o6'F 0&-8T 0g 88 0'°S¢ 008 ‘988 -OJ) ssvid eAI [eIUUeleg ‘so.injsed puv sMopvour yuouvULied OJ SOANXIUI UT 10 OUOTV pas ‘4qYsNOIp Jo spotted Suoy 10 ywoy *(SPmLLaUL Sn jo semleajxo 0} Joolqus suorsea ut Ayperoodso ‘s[lOs USI] 1OF oTGUNIVA | 66°CL Game Sims s- = 09°ee OF 000 ‘28 -O1g ) SSB13 QUIOIG SSO[UAW ‘][VUIS JONPOIg [IOS oy} pUlq 0} SeA.tes ‘syuuq AVA -[Iva pure spurs ystout ATjeredse ‘puvy, ood UG ‘epRys puv ploo yZ0q *(M1gns Sedupue S}YSNOIp SpUBISTTM SSBLF UI0}{0q 10 aAnysvd eTqenivA | 99°9T 0¢°8 SOL 00°E OCP 000 ‘009 panjsaq) nosey But JAN} SNONUTZUOD OU SEYvUT qyroucty ‘Avy 07 yuvjzodurrun ‘eangsed Ul [NjJosn $4YSnoAp spuvys *(nyphiydosajay pan} TIM ‘suvol Apuvs pur ‘snuUIny SulUye} M09 SpULT ALOT ‘4sfour UO 4seq | 00 "es BES 4 SP SE a Be OS 6 Cee 000 ‘00% -Saq ) ONOSET POJBIT-SNOLIVA ‘so.uny -xIur ut AJUO MMOS ‘serngsed deays 10J puv ssvis WOZ}Oq oIQuN[B *(pumo “SNOPITIS PUB ‘AOTLBYS ‘ood or YOY osoyy AT[vIMedse ‘syios Aap “FqSTT | ¢8 FT 02°F SL-OL 09°@I 0°86 000 ‘089 ponjsaq) enasey s,deeqs ) *(S27D1AL. VOT) SSB15 ‘SOIN}XTUL UL S[IOS paloqz[oys puv ‘o[I}.1oJ “Ystour wo ATWO TAOS Og PTNOYS | ees 88°F Oy ft cL'8 | ¢°6L 000‘000‘g | MOPBeUL pay[eys-qsnoy “SSB.IS UMD qUeT[9OXS UY ‘“SAOPROTT 1OJ SSVIS 110990q POOs B SOYVUI PUL toatiaretl ) *(s1suaznad pog) Ssvizs 1oj pogdupe [TEA ‘Shoarvolvo A[SUOAYs OLB OLA STIOS UO 4Soq SMOLH | LTP OS? Sloe | OF'S O"LT 000 ‘00F ‘Z | MOPVeT peXTeIs-qJoourg “punosis AYSivUI UO POs WAY V SULUIIOJ OF 10 Low SUTUUNA LeoU syUUG asOO[ SUIPUIG OJ peyMs [Je pu ‘Sunod gyno useyA Avy olqvnye *(DIIDUIPUNAD S14 ‘eANjSTOUL Sedmbey “spley pepooy puvy spurt joa ‘BIS 0} poydepy | cq eT 98h SF | 00ST Ole 000'099 «=| -Dypyq) SSvaB Aavuv pesy *go.n4 X1Ur UL quad tad 0T 0 G ESQ "SEVIS E[PPIP PUY pULLSUG MON OT} ULSUAR] 10 aSvangsed O4v] LOJ o[quuTeA “UUININe ULSsuIy4No Jang [[eUIS Sur -juvidsuvay Aq poyesudoid ysog [Jos duup Jo eyvurto ys}our SeaMbey | g¢"gT GF IS 8-8 00°L 16 000'809 «77-7 (nqqzp 81380167 ) doypey ‘spunog “‘spunod . ——— ees -Aqryenb - . Ree Supyeaur | Hrgpueys “paas sureais e108 | ‘Teysnq | -te5 eand ‘spunod eand yo ‘syaBUIEy 000 ‘000 ‘0T | zed poos lod | jo ‘spunod ul‘edoe | punod j ut “ome x JO FUSIOM | JO 4SOD | IUFICAA | : vd be a aod Moso}) sureis jo) ‘ | ted MO . E |" qunoury yunomy | 1equiny (9) (g) G2 Seat | (§) (3) (T) pee eh peurezqo st (9 UUMIOD) sured YON'‘DDN'OT JO IUSIOM oY, “SonSoyeywo yroR AON ur pojonb punod aod oorid [reze.t ayy Aq (Z UUTNTOo) pernbas peas Jo Ayyenb pavpuyys jo yunoure eyy Surd[dyjnur Aq poureyqo oa ¢ UUINIOD UTSsoANsy oy, “AoyooLTOY 2 acpqoyg Aq ‘su esviog Jsog oy Wows papiduioo ere F pus ‘gg °T suuinjop]) ‘saungarut Bursodumoa ur atop Lad QUNOWY PADpUNZS BY} St YoryR “Spas OOO'OOO' OT fo qyybram ay, pun ‘asov aad paas fo 800 ayz ‘jaysng wad pybram ayz ‘paas Burnurutab pun aind Jo mos 0} pUNOWD 2Y} ‘fipuund pappunjs fo paas fo asap wad mos 02 gunown ay) ‘szunjd abpsof pun sassnub yodwurad ay2 fo poas fo punod 7 up sugmub Jo saquenw ay} Huw aqQny ‘@UOV UAd MOS OL LNOOWV AUNV ‘saggs JO LSOO ‘LHOIZM UEENON 613 “*peTteqsay) 1 ‘qoA. jOU SI [1IOSqns MOTTA, pure ‘[Ios deap ut ‘(sxpuayfo QUANTITY AND COST OF SEED TO SOW PER ACRE. A[WO SOALIQT, “SUOLPVUNIS podsojpoYsS ‘UAV IOFZ qgueyd Aappoy JUST[OoOXG | tL? 0°SS 000 °29 DHIIDA/)) AVA .SPBoS [RULTBO “100d YSnoyy ‘SUOLPVASTO TST 4B Sspuyy| ; *(SNYDINIVULOI Aap 0} peqms TEA ‘sptos AoAvO ao ADwes ‘gstout 1o Aap UO SeATAqy, > O'1L 000 ‘GLE | snjo'T) [lOJery 4OOJ-8, pag “UMO.LS OG JOU UBD INAOT[O } JO SpuLy .19}90q 9} OTT ATWO pawBATy[NH ‘s[reut Avo WO [NJsseoons ‘(pu JSOPT “O[QVIIMS SI OUT] PUB OINYSIOUL quOTOWyNS Sururwzuoos [los Auw S 0'ST 000 ‘Sze -ndnj ob par pag) [oyeay, ‘UOMNBSLIA sattnbey =“4soA. | -Ynog puv 4yseA, ey} JO suorsea Arp pur wABA oy 09 poydupe ATT[BIO *(pa1jz08 0609 -adsqy “[LOSsqns e[qvoeutsed B SULART, [LOS SNOBITBOTBO ane uo Toa SMOLY | 9G "RF CZ‘ £9-19 00°22 0°SS 00g ‘60% ~pay) UIBON,T IO ‘By[VITy ‘ATIpIo1e JL YO e133v0 pousog pue ‘szwos ‘desyg “qysnoip systser ‘ApaeyE ‘yydep *‘(pipsaujpna s7jpyy aedoid Jo puBv poINUVUT JI ‘S[IOS TIHIRA WO { SUIZVIs LOJ poYBATND | ST‘L9 9c ‘F F9-09 00 ‘ST Q*y 000 ‘F&T | -Up) YOJOA AOUPTY WOUTUIOD ‘SUAYT LO So.rNysed 1OF SOINJXIUL UT posn AT[BIOUNH) “GUSNOAp systsoy | | *‘(suadas ‘SNUINY UL TOM S[los [[V WO PUB ‘OUTT] SULULIB}UOD PUP] MOT[OUL UO SOATITT, | [SET ¥6'% ¢9 09"! COL 000 ‘OFL | WNIWO SMT) AAO OPI A ‘quyid toppoy pavpurys Y “e1njeU [RIA | *(asuaq -nyTe WB jo sTIos uo puB ‘s{RID pOOs UO ‘[1Os AULROT “TOLL UL Jseq SpooedoNg | Fg"Es 09% ¥9 #8 CT 0'ST 000 ‘6Lz -pud wn1yo0fi4y) IAAOTD pey ‘AB JO SulMUTseq 03 YO1wy_L JO pues * . “(pan UWIOATJ ‘OUOTV UMOG ‘19}VA WUIOAT Oar ‘[Iosqns uedo puv Bees Sorbo | Pp FPF Ga'9 OF 78091 OSL 008 22 | -p8 s2yohsqoug) ulojureg “AIBNAIGIT | ao ysnsny ut Mog ‘Aanfut ynoqyIA sjsoay AAvoy savog ‘puno.s ) *(mnprisghy dup 0} poqydepe Ayaernoed : {Ios Ayvod ao Av[o ysoSuo1js UO SMOLH | FL FT 09°T OOT+6 00°6 cara I 000 ‘101 | MNO LI 4,[) AAO] OHISTY “Avy 10 o.INgsed UL LOY ILO SSBF U0}JOQ ULLOT H 0} SQINJXIUI UI pas “YS oN[VA OAIIINN ‘epvys UL [JAA SEAT UB IYSNOAIpP SpUBISILM So[Q IIMS JSOUL O1B SOTVBUII[D YSIOP. ‘spurs *(SNJDISIUI SNL UIBOT *}SIOUL puv ‘s[teUT ‘SABIO JUST, ‘suIvOT OJ poydepe AT[VIoodsq | J8°8 0g ‘Lk 6E-06 0G ‘ST 0°SS . | O0O‘LZT‘L | -nsoufig) [re s,s0p peyseip ‘soSsuIs Mopveul 10 oinjsed gueurutted WIA / *(MUN{DLOPO WHY} spunod ¢ 03 [ ‘soanjxtur ur ATWO WAKOS ‘[IOs Jo pury AUB 4JSOTITR UO SMOAH | Z8 “OT ioc | a bales Sn ate 08 *L 00g 000 ‘F285 | -upxoyjup) sseid [Buse A ‘sornjsed juouvutied 10; sa.in} -xIUI UISspunod 1moj ojyoOMy, ‘A[tvo AOA “UOTYBSLIIT dopun purl aog | *(s7suaznud snus yseq 0G} Jooug “A¥TO IO WIBOT YS [los Suo.1ys soylT “plod sornpug | 20 '1T Te'9 9 Te'9 08% 000‘206 | -noadozy) [1e}X0J MopLaTT “QU SI] SI peté oy} punoas Arp UO ~ ‘SARTO 10 SUIBOT YSIOUL UO 4Ysaq Spadd0Nng “ABAOTO 1O dojJpat FILM poxlur 10 9UOTV UAOS ‘Avy OJ poPVATQ[NO ATOAISMGJXO YSOUL puv UMOUY Jseg_ | F's 02 'T SF 00 ‘FI 0°9L 00G‘OLL'L | (esuaznud wnazyg )AQIOUILY, ‘SOINJXIUL UT Surzdeoxe pesn Alo1By “(sn} “S].10S O[GBNIVA O1OUL LOZ POJIMSUN ‘S[IOS UIT “GUSI[ UO MMOS SOTUIJOULOG | 99°) OFF #9 08 °8 0's 000 ‘FOS ‘L | pwn] sno,OFT) SSBaId YOATO “‘SnUINY, UL TOLt pur qa 118 UL ‘[IOS snos.rRo[RO fl enoooatare 10 A[IVUL UO SPATLIQY, ‘soingsed qyuouvuiazod 10 Arv10dutey LOFoTQeN[VA | G8*F GO "FS ig 19 F 0°62 000 ‘70'S | wnzasi4y) SSBis yvO MOTIOA ‘ernjsed 10jULM 10 Avy AOZ TYNOG oy UI sqQuNnTVA ‘eUI} pods o[qvAOABy ysour Suradg ‘sjavul puv “(QUunaaDUaAD WNLdYLOU “}STOUL OO} JOU OLB FOIA SABO FSI] 10 ‘spuvs AurUOT ‘ystour UO SEATITLL, | 682 09°C OL 08 FE 0°0L 000 “6ST | -oYLdF) SSBIB vd ee “(SISUA]DA “‘SsSu.is o1ngsed 10 Avy ofqenyVA ‘S[IOS JoM 10 Arp 1oyyIlo UT SOATLIQL, | 21g O8*h Ta On mT 0°@e 002 ‘8Te ponjsay) ENISey MOpPBETL ‘osvangsed puv Avy TOF ONTV OGVN[VA ‘“YVUIA}jZv JO JUNOT Yeas v SplOyy ‘opvys *(pyn.19U098j6 SPULJSHIIM 'JOA\ AIOA ST TOI 9¥q} SUlydooxe ‘[I0s AUB UO [JOM SMOLYD | CELT 09°¢ Si-a0 2 Wn a oe 0'ee 00S ‘6g =| Suyfijomq) sseis palByoIO ‘saved g 10g A[UO sysv'T “Avy IOF YSaq oY JO suo “(wmnayDp4yr sv odoing Ul popavsoy ‘SpUvl 4ySJOUI Joy}VL puv YI 1oJ quoeT[ooxg | OL "ee 95'S Feel OF SS G'SF 000 “E83 wnyoT) ssveis eA1 UBITeI] Sa 614 YEARBOOK OF THE U. $8. DEPARTMENT OF Ramee - Table showing weight and cost of the seed of four saldhirdle each designed to cover aos an acre, upon the basis of 10,000,000 plants, compiled from Table 1. 4 Number of 4 seeds SERSROUERG sti wl copa a a wera agen hs Se eee 6, 700, 000 a I ca Fe ma ca i apn, wd oe 1, 650, 000 [WIGS OlO VOR ae ness nse. 2 An cannes ae lene Se eee 1, 659, 600 ; POE antes boo 8 = ceed ersaen ace is win ow pss So i se 5, 000, 000 [ke 1,000, 000 B. xe 700, 000 AISIEG | SoS eo ey Fa ce 1, 659, 000 hoe Clove? 28a ae Sa sh see 1, 659, 000 pls | °C: | Pa aes A RN Ee re RE Ey os 2S Metis Ta Te. a es 10, 000, 600 1 ews & Sagat as ef bc capt si cag tee carers aera = ee ee ee 4, 600, 600 Renwucky blue @raas..... 2-250 ho See ee eee 1,200, 000 C. Orchard wrehs...o ee oa eee et 1, 000, G00 recat oxtail 500, 000 | Alsi pb ee eee ee 1, 650,000 TW Ge ler V Oe oc 2 ce ee Seca ce ee eee ee 1, 650, 000 TGA. = 2cc5 es. tee 10, OOD 0 ip] [aS eee cee oat co eee 22. 0462 - 009842 KURT GEN sone soe ede 100,000. Aeneas ete Seer ee eee 220. 462 « 09842 Malior, OF TONNG..2-ce-s-nee este 1,000,000" | See oe se ee eee 2, 204. 62 9842 NOTES REGARDING DEPARTMENT PUBLICATIONS. The publications of the U. S. Department of Agriculture are of three classes: (1) Serial publications, (2) scientific and technical reports, and (3) popular bulle- tins. The first two classes are issued in limited editions and are distributed free only to persons cooperating with or rendering the Department some service. Sam- ple copies will be sent if requested, but miscellaneous applicants to receive the same regularly or for occasional copies must apply to the Superintendent of Docu- ments, Union Building, Washington, D. C., to whom all publications not needed for official use, except circulars and bulletins printed by law for free distribution, are turned over in accordance with the following provision of the act providing for the public printing and binding and distribution of public documents, viz: ‘‘Sec. 67. All documents at present remaining in charge of the several Execu- tive Departments, bureaus, and offices of the Government not required for official use shall be delivered to the Superintendent of Documents, and hereafter all pub- lic documents accumulating in said Departments, bureaus, and offices not needed for official use shall be annually turned over to the Superintendent of Documents for distribution or sale.” The popular circulars «nd bulletins treat in a practical way of subjects of par- ticular interest to farmers, are issued in large editions, and are for free distribu- tion. Under this class are included the Farmers’ Bulletins, of which the follow- ing are available, and for which applications should be addressed to the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., stating both the number and title of the pub- lication desired : No. 3. The Culture of the Sugar Beet ; No.6. Tobacco: Instructions for its Cul- tivation and Curing; No. 11. The Rape Plant: Its History, Culture, and Uses; No. 14. Fertilizers for Cotton; No. 15. Some Destructive Potato Diseases: What They Are and How to Prevent Them; No.16. Leguminous Plants for Green Ma- nuring and for Feeding; No. 17. Peach Yellows and Peach Rosette; No. 18. Forage Plants for the South; No. 19. Important Insecticides: Directions for their Prepa- ration and Use; No. 20. Washed Soils: How to Prevent and Reclaim Them; No. 21. Barnyard Manure; No, 22. Feeding Farm Animals; No, 23. Foods: Nutritive Value and Cost; No. 24. Hog Cholera and Swine Plague; No, 25, Peanuts: Cul- ture and Uses; No. 26. Sweet Potatoes: Culture and Uses; No. 27. Flax for Seed and Fiber; No. 28. Weeds, and How to Kill Them; No. 29. Souring of Milk and Other Changes in Milk Products; No. 30. Grape Diseases on the Pacific Coast; No. 31. Alfalfa, or Lucern; No. 32. Silos and Silage; No. 33. Peach Growing for Market; No. 34. Meats: Composition and Cooking; No. 35. Potato Culture; No. 36. Cotton Seed and Its Products; No. 37. Kafir Corn: Characteristics, Culture, and Uses; No. 38. Spraying for Fruit Diseases; No. 89. Onion Culture; No. 40. Farm Drainage. The Department has no list to whom all publications are sent. The Monthly List of Publications, issued the 1st of each month, will be mailed to all who apply for it. In it the titles of the publications are given, witha note explanatory of the character of each, thus enabling the reader to make intelligent application for such bulletins and reports as are certain to be of interest to him. For the maps and bulletins of the Weather Bureau, requests and remittances should be directed to the Chief of that Bureau. For all publications to which a rice is affixed,application must be made to the Superintendent of Documents nion Building, Washington, D. C., accompanied by the price thereof, and a remittances should be made to him and not to the Department of Agriculture, and such remittances should be made by postal money order and not by private check or postage stamps. he Superintendent of Documents is not permitted to sell more than one copy of any public document to the same person. PUBLICATIONS OF THE YEAR. PUBLICATIONS OF THE YEAR. 617 The following publications were issued by the U.S. Department of Agriculture during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1895: OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY. Suggestions Regarding the Cooking of Food. By Edward Atkinson. With Introductory Statements Regarding the Nutritive Value of Com- mon Food Materials. By Mrs. Ellen H. Richards. Pp. 31, figs. 3. hein LSS. BESS Sas 9 Oe i ee LER eRe 2, oe Se ane aI ee Special Report of the Assistant Secretary of Agriculture for 1893. By Edwin Willits. Pp. iv, 53-86. (From the Annual Report of the Sec- PmGmonaeticulture,) August, 1894_............_......22-_2--2 24. Report of the Secretary of Agriculture for 1893. Pp. 608, pls. 29, figs. 7. el USHER eos MS Sp ip SS eee in eg Ce Ae eagle Rk en E Report of the Secretary of Agriculture for 1894. Preliminary. Pp. 75, foe November, 1894. (Including reprint.) ............:..-..-.+--. Washed Soils: How to Prevent and Reclaim Them. Pp. 22, figs. 6. Farmers’ Bulletin, No. 20. November, 1894. (Including reprint.) ____ Supplement to the General Index of the Agricultural Reports for the Years 1877 to 1885, Inclusive. Pp. 113. March, 1895. (Reprint.)___- A General Index to the Agricultural Reports of the Patent Office for Twenty-five Years, from 1837 to 1876. Pp. 225. April, 1895. (Reprint.)_ The World’s Markets for American Products.—Great Britain and Ireland. Pp. 93, fig.1. Bulletin No.1, Section of Foreign Markets. May, 1895_ Report of the Secretary of Agriculture; being part of the Messages and Documents Communicated to the Two Houses of Congress at the Begin- ning of the Third Session of the Fifty-third Congress. Pp. 220, figs. 2. ER StS a ad ane we ~~~ cies ete at Sie tats Peaches and Other Fruitsin England. Pp. 4. Circular No. 1, Section of PEPEIMIMEROUS SUNG. 18002 5... 22 os een coe ee. =) oko eee The World’s Markets for American Products.—The German Empire. Pp. 91, pl. 1. Bulletin No. 2, Section of Foreign Markets. June, 1895__.- Report of the Special Agent for the Purchase of Seeds for 1894. By Enos S. Harnden. Pp. iii, 211-213. (From the Annual Report of the Secretary erenineire)) March T80hs 2 ooo. ee coe 5 oo ce coer e es nave cee= DIVISION OF ACCOUNTS AND DISBURSING OFFICE, Report of the Chief of the Division of Accounts and Disbursements fo1 1893. By F.L.Evans. Pp. iii,411-415. (From the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture.) August, 1894 _.._______.........-..-- Report of the Chief of the Division of Accounts and Disbursements for 1894. By F.L. Evans. Pp. iii, 189-194. (From the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture.) March, 1895...._...............------ BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. Additional Investigations Concerning Infectious Swine Diseases. B Theobald Smith, Ph. B., M. D., and Veranus A. Moore, B. S.. M. D. Pier eee NG, 6. July, 18040... oo Sk eae dene Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry for 1893. By D. EK. Salmon. Pp. iii, 123-168. (From the Report of the Secretary of Agriculture.) August, 1894_...._.......- SEER OS OL) eas 2 aA Ea Wheat as a Food for Growing and Fattening Animals. By D. E. Sal- mon, D. V. M. Pp. 4. Circular of Information No. 2. August, 1894. Fir Te Sy BIR en RE RRSP ae AAS dy ra A Investigations Concerning Bovine Tuberculosis, with Special Reference to Diagnosis and Prevention. Conducted under the direction of Dr. D. E. Salmon, Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry. Pp. 178, pls. SONAL CMLICIMMEL Gita faecal ne eee Ste Be ea eC i i oh Copies. 10, 000 100 500, 000 20, 000 68, 000 200 200 10, 000 3, 000 10, 000 10, 000 618 YEARBOCK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Hog Cholera and Swine Plague. By D. E. Salmon, D. V. M., Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry. Pp. 16. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 24. December, 1894. (Including reprints.) -..---..-2-2..._. 2232 Regulations for the Inspection of Live Stock and their Products. Pp. 8. Circular, June, 1895... ..-. see ec ee eee DIVISION OF BOTANY. - Report of the Botanist for 1893. By Frederick V. Coville. Pp. iii, 235- 244. (From the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture.) August, 1894 0023) * 222 cel iss ee ee ee Nut Grass. Pp. 4,fig.1. Circular No. 2. October, 1894______ eee The Russian Thistle. Pp. 8, figs. 3. Circular No. 3. January, 1895___ Contributions from the United “States National Herbarium, Vol. I, No. 9. Report on a collection of plants made in the States of Sonora and Colima, Mexico, by Dr. Edward Palmer, in the years 1890 and 1891. By J. N. Rose, Assistant Botanist. Pp. v, 293-434, viii, frontispiece, pis. 24-35, figs. 10. January, 1895 _..._..._....._-2." American Ginseng: Its Commercial History, Protection, and Gaitiee tion. Pp. 22, figs. 2. By George V. Nash. Bulletin No. 16. Febru- ary, 1890 .:.. 22.2222 cl sl oe ee The Flat Pea. Pp. 7, figs. 2. Circular No. 4. March, 1895____/-_2 Giant Knotweed, or Sachaline. Pp. 4, figs. 3. Circular No. 5. March, Weeds: and How to Kill Them. Lyster H. Dewey, Assistant Botanist. Pp. 31, figs. 11. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 28. May, 1895_..._______16 Report of the Botanist for 1894. By Frederick V. Coville. Pp. iii, 16i- 166. (From the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture.) way, 1896-222 nce - ee ee ee e GARDENS AND GROUNDS. Papers on Horticultural and Kindred Subjects. By William Saunders, Horticulturist and Landscape Gardener, Superintendent of Gardens and Grounds. Pp.124. November, 1894. (Reprint.)..........-..__- OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS, Forage Plants for the South. ByS.M. Tracy, M.S., Director of the Mis- sissippi Agricultural Experiment Station. Pp. 30, figs. 17. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 18. August. 1894. (Including reprint.) =i bebe Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Convention of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, held at Chi- cago, Ill., October 17-19, 1893. Pp.100. Bulletin No.20. August, 1894_ Report of the Director of the Office of Experiment Stations for 1893. By A.C. True. Pp. iv, 417-464. (From the Annual Report of the Secre- tary of Agriculture. ) August, 1894... ... 32... <20 Handbook of Experiment Station Work. A Popular Digest of the Pub- lications of the Agricultural Experiment Stations in the United States. Prepared by the Office of Experiment Stations. Pp. 411. Bulletin No. 15. November, 1894. (Reprint.)..-...-....-..-1252 eee Barn yard Manure. By W. H. Beal, of the Office of Experiment Stations. Pp. 32, figs. 7. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 21. November, 1894. (Includ- ing reprints.) ...- .- ne 2 er se eee dank See Oe Milk Fermentations and Their Relations to Dairying. Prepared in the Office of Experiment Stations from Bulletin No. 9. Pp. 24. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 29. January, 1895. (Including reprints.) -...........- Foods: Nutritive Value and Cost. By W.O. Atwater, Ph. D., Professor of Chemistry in Wesleyan University. Pp. 32, charts 2, Farmers’ Bulletin No, 23. January, 1895. (Including reprint. | ee ee Tobacco: Instructions for its Cultivation and Curing. By John M. Estes, Special Agent. Pp. 8. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 6. February, 1895. (Including reprints.) ............2.--0-0.--2.5--<---s-2---- 5204 Organization Lists of the Agricultural Experiment Stations and Institu- tions with Courses in Agriculture in the United States. Pp.88. Bul- A PUREEE EEN ELY OD S22. ka Ok Ba ee ee ON ae bce Methods and Results of Investigations on the Chemistry and Economy of Food. By W.O. Atwater. Ph. D., Professor of Chemistry in Wesleyan University, Director of the Storrs (Conn.) Agricultural Experiment Station, and Special Agent of the United States Department of Agri- eulture. Pp. 222, figs. 15, charts 3. Bulletin No. 21. May, 1895____- Statistics of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations,1894. Pp. 18. Pee On im UNe. odd. sos 2 ee ot lege eS eee Experiment Station Record. (A condensed record of the contents of the bulletins and reports issued by the Agricultural Experiment Stations of the United States, and also a brief review of agricultural science of the world. ) Vol. V, No. 6. Pp. viii, 547-666. June,1895. (Reprint.)-._...-_--- Vol. V, No.7. Pp. vi, 667-744. July,1894. (Reprint.) ........-..- ba hint, (ule het ae ee oe pe ee ee ee eS. a Nouv eNo.d., | Ppw, s00—-444, duly, 1894 -_ 22+ 3. ot eee [ee io VU Wat se es See eee oe oe eee aes ree: Vol. VI,No.1. Pp.vi,88. September, 1894 Vol. VI, No. 2 PAW, Doig 4; NO VEIN DEE IOS. 29 3 Vol. VI,No.3. Pp.v, 175-254. December, 1894_._................_- Vol. VI, No.4. Pp. vi, 255-848. February, 1895___........_......-.- Vol. VI, No.5. Pp. viii, 349-488. Mareh, 1895 _...........-.-......- moe vas o.G. Fp. wil,480-584, April, 1895... ....- a 2cle won vio. 7. Pp. vi, 685-678, figs. 3..-May, 1895 - ......-...-..-...— eae nO.0. 4... 619-100. Dey, 3006 _ 2. fo ek dle Rial: Oe eT. v0), 09—S00,) \une, $805 2 oe ee Paver nO. i fe Vi,eul-e4e. June, 1806.) 2. ob eee cane DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY. The Manufacture of Sorghum Sirup. Pp. 3. Circular No.1. July. 1894_ Report of the Chemist for 1893. By H.W. Wiley. Pp.iv, 169-198. (From the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture.) August, 1S804__- Report on the Extent and Character of Food and Drug Adulteration. By Alex. J. Wedderburn, Special Agent. Published by order of Congress. Eneusy vasatlowmn NO, 49. October; 1894-02 ble ote A Compilation of the Pharmacy and Drug Laws of the Several States and Territories. By Alex. J. Wedderburn, Special Agent. Published by order of Congress. Pp. 152. Bulletin No. 42. November, 1894 -___ Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Convention of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, held at Washington, D. C., August 23, 24, and 25, 1894. Edited by Harvey W. Wiley, Secretary of the Asso- ciation. Pp. 403. Bulletin No. 43. December, 1894 __.._......._.-..- Experiments with Sugar Beets in 1892. By Harvey W. Wiley, Chief hemist of the United States Department of Agriculture and Director of the Department Sugar Experiment Stations at Schuyler, Nebraska; 619 Copies. 25, 000 1, 000 55, 000 15, 000 58, 000 1, 000 3, 000 3, 000 5, 000 10, 000 100 2, 500 620 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Runnymede (Narcoossee P. O.), Florida, and Sterling and Medicine Lodge, Kansas. With the collaboration of Dr. Walter Maxwell, Assist- ant in charge of the Schuyler Station. Pp. 74. Bulletin No. 36. De- cember:; 1894.. (Reprint.). ....-.2<225.2 2620 2-2 eee a ee Experiments with Sugar Beets in 1890. By Harvey W. Wiley, Chief Chemist of the United States Department of Agriculture and Director of the Department Sugar Stations at Schuyler, Nebraska; Runnymede (Narcoossee P. O.), Florida, and Sterling and Medicine Lodge, Kansas. Pp. 93. Bulletin No. 30. December, 1894. (Reprint.)-......-...-.. Proceedings of the Ninth Annual Convention of the Association of Offi- cial Agricultural Chemists, held at the National Museum, Washington, D. C., August 25, 26, and 27, 1892. Edited by Harvey W. Wiley, Secre- tary of the Association. Pp. v, 243, xvii. Bulletin No.35. December, 1894. (Reprint.)—....:..-ss222.22- 42 3 2e2 Sa Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Convention of the Association of Offi- cial Agricultural Chemists, held at the United States National Museum, August 28, 29, and 30,1890. Methods of Analysis of Commercial Ferti- lizers, Foods and Feeding Stuffs, Dairy Products, Fermented Liquors and Sugars. Edited by Harvey W. Wiley, Secretary of the Association. Pp. 238, figs. 21. Bulletin No. 28. December, 1894. (Reprint.) ------ Experiments with Sugar Beets in 1893. By Harvey W. Wiley, Chemist of the United States Department of Agriculture and Director of the Department Sugar Experiment Stations at Schuyler, Nebraska; Runny- mede (Narcoossee P. O.), Florida, and Sterling and Medicine Lodge, Kansas. With the collaboration of Dr. Walter Maxwell, Assistant in charge of the Schuyler Station. Pp.59. Bulletin No. 39. December, 1894. (Reprint.) 220... 22.220) 2.2222 4202 ee Foods and Food Adulterants. Fermented Alcoholic Beverages, Malt Liquors, Wines, and Cider. By C. A. Crampton, Assistant Chemist. Pp. 261-399, figs.2. Bulletin No. 13, PartIII. December, 1894. (Reprint.)_ Sweet Cassava: Its Culture, Properties, and Uses. By Harvey W. Wiley, Chemist of the United States Department of Agriculture. Pp. 16, pls. 2, fig.1. Bulletin No.44. January, 1895 ______-....2. 22 The Sugar Beet Industry. Culture of the Sugar Beet and Manufacture of Beet Sugar. By H. W. Wiley, Chemist. Pp. 262, pls. 11, figs. 49. Bulletin No. 27. January,1895. (Reprint.). ...---- 2) 9202s Nostrums for Increasing the Yield of Butter. By Harvey W. Wiley, Chemist of the United States Department of Agriculture. Pp. 16. Farmers’ Bulletin No.12. January,1895. (Including reprints.) .____- Record of Experiments with Sorghum in 1892. By Harvey W. Wiley, Chemist of the United States Department of Agriculture and Director of the Department Sugar Experiment Stations at Schuyler, Nebraska; Runnymede (Narcoossee P.O.), Florida, and Sterling and Medicine Lodge, Kansas. With the collaboration of Messrs. A. A. Denton, Glen O’Brien, C. I. Hinman, Wibray J. Thompson, J. L. Fuelling, and Oma Carr. Pp.100. Bulletin No.37. February,1895. (Reprint.)-..-..--- Foods and Food Adulterants. Spicesand Condiments. By Clifford Rich- ardson. Pp. ii, 129-259, pls. 13-28, figs.5-18. Bulletin No. 13, Part IT. February, 1896. (Reprint.).:.....-.. 0.2.22. .2-..s5e eee Culture of the Sugar Beet. By H. W. Wiley, Chemist of the Department of Agriculture and Director of the Department Sugar Experiment Station in Nebraska. Pp. 24, figs.9. Farmers’ Bulletin No.3. April, 1895.. -(Reprint, ).. 2 0. ies snobs scence wn ona ee nies e wie eterna DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY, The Army Worm (Leucania unipuncta How.) Pp. 5, figs. 3. Cireular No. 4, second series. uly, 1804 ..... 2c... 22... 50 Important Insecticides: Directions for Their Preparation and Use. By C. L. Marlatt, First Assistant Entomologist. Pp. 20. Farmers’ Bulle- tin No. 19. July, 1894. (Including reprints.)...--... . 2ocleoeee Reports of Observations and Experiments in the Practical Work of the Division Made under the Direction of the Entomologist. Pp. 59. Bul- letin No. 32. August, 1894 RR Copies. 500 500 500 2, 500 PUBLICATIONS OF THE YEAR. Insect Life. (Devoted to the economy and life habits of insects, espe- cially in their relation to agriculture, and edited by the Entomologist and his assistants. ) Vol.I, No.1. Pp.32,figs.4. January,1895. (Reprint.)-....-....-.. Vol.I, No.2. Pp. ii, 33-62, figs.5-9. February, 1895. (Reprint.)---_. Vol. I, No.3. Pp. ii, 63-92, figs.10-11. February, 1895. (Reprint.) - Vol. II, No.3. Pp. ii, 61-90, figs.7-10. February,1895. (Reprint.) __ Vol. II, No.5. Pp. ii, 125-162, figs. 19-27. February,1895. (Reprint.) Vol. II, Nos.7-8. Pp. ii, 199-262, figs. 36-56. February, 1895. (Re- CES abc hs cee REGS Tes a i) er Spe, Ren ee eee eae Vol. III, No.1. Pp. ii, 41, viii, 391-418, figs. 3. February, 1895. [eo pleas ale 2 Sa ae SS Se ee ce ae Vol. Ill, No.2. Pp.ii, 43-87, figs.4,5. February,1895. (Reprint.)_- Vol. III, No.3. Pp. ii, 89-129, figs.6-19. February, 1895. (Reprint.)_ Vol. II, No.4. Pp. ii. 131-178, figs, 20, 21. February, 1895. (Re- STEVE Vg ce cape eg ye pg a sc i a pe Vol. III, No.5. Pp.ii, 179-250. February,1895. (Reprint.)...._._- Vol. Tl, No.6. Pp. ii, 251-304, figs. 22-26. February, 1895. (Re- RM RA TE pee ett tad Cer Seo ny Fe Se? ae ee ee Vol. III, Nos. 7-8. Pp. ii, 305-357, figs. 27-29. February, 1895. ESE RR epee ereet nite NS ow Se ee ee oe oie Lt eed Vol. III, Nos.9-10. Pp. ii, 359-482, figs.30. February, 1895. (Re- OU ie ee epee gu abe eee AE Leyes val. IV, Nos. 1-2. Pp. iv, 86, fig.1. March,1895. (Reprint.)__-..__ Vol. IV, Nos.3 4. Pp. iv, 87-162, figs. 2-12. March, 1895. (Reprint.)_ Vol. TV, Nos. 5-6. Pp. iii, 163-230, figs. 13-26. March, 1895. (Reprint. ) Vol. IV, Nos.7-8. Pp. ii, 231-592, figs. 27-39. March, 1895. (Reprint.) Vol. IV, Nos. 9-10. Pp. iii, 293-352, figs. 40-56. March, 1895. "Si ) eee hs See ee ee ee eee a Vol. IV, Nos.11-12. Pp. iii, 353-441, viii, figs. 57-76. March, 1895. OA ELE ee ce le ai a eee eee a = Vol. VI, No.5. Pp. iii, 347-405, vii, figs. 23-31. September, 1894______ Wolvil Now Pp: ii, 54, figg 17. October, 1894___-._.......-.-._- Vol. VII, No.2. Pp. iii, 55-215, figs.18. November, 1894..____.__- = Vol. VII, No.3. Pp. iii, 216-280, figs.19-28. January, 1895 Vol. VII, No.4. Pp. iii, 281-360, figs. 29-36. March, 1895_....______- The Carpet Beetle, or ‘‘ Buffalo Moth” (Anthrenus scrophularie). Pp.4, fig.1. Circular No.5, second series. October, 1894___._..-..-.-.-.-- Legislation Against Injurious Insects: A Compilation of the Laws and Regulations in the United States and British Columbia. By L.O. How- ard, Entomologist. Pp.46. Bulletin No.33. March, 1895__.__.______ Report on the Mexican Cotton-Boll Weevil in Texas (Anthonomus grandis Boh.). By C. H. Tyler Townsend, Temporary Field Agent. Pp. 295-309, from Insect Life, Vol. VII, No.4. March, 1895_.....____.- The Mexican Cotton-Boll Weevil. Pp. 5. Circular No.6, second series. IN Behe ne hr On 5 ns om etn ann none The Pear-Tree Psylla (Psylla pyricola Foerst.). Pp.8, figs.6. Cireular Pienoconainerios, May. 1806 22 dosh ecko Bibliography of the More Important Contributions to American Eco- nomic Entomology. By Samuel Henshaw. Part IV. The More Im- portant Writings of Government and State Entomologists, and of Other Contributors to the Literature of American Economic Entomology. Reap TEIIE ri eNLCU LOO 28 Ras Sh se SS ee ool neem Further Notes on the San Jose Scale. By L. O. Howard, Entomologist. Pp. 283-295, from Insect Life, Vol. VII, No.4. May, 1895......___--. Cankerworms. Pp. 4, figs.4. Circular No.9, second series. May, 1895_ The Harlequin Cabbage Bug, or Calico Back (Murgantia histrionica Hahn.). P.1. Circular No. 10, second series. May, 1895.........-- The Imported Elm Leaf-Beetle. Pp. 4, fig. 1. Circular No. 8, second Earriad Sit PePMERT I CHRPEDIED ia ate Sete cy ee Ta NE ge eal Chafer. Pp. 4, fig. 1. Circular No. 11, second series. June, 5 i DIVISION OF FORESTRY. Report of the Chief of the Division of Forestry for 1893. By B. E. Fer- now. Pp. iii, 303-364, pls. 3, figs.4. (From the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture.) October, 1894..........................-- 622 YEARBOOK OF THE U, 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Copies, Report on the Use of Metal Railroad Ties and on Preservative Processes and Metal Tie Plates for Wooden Ties. By E. E. Russell Tratman, A.M. Am. Soc. C. E. [Supplementary to Report on the Substitution of Metal for Woodin Railroad Ties, 1890.] Prepared under the direc- tion of B. E. Fernow, Chief of the Division. Pp. 363, pls. 5. Bulletin No: 9. Mag iB06.........---~<+ ised eee 8, 000 OFFICE OF FIBER INVESTIGATIONS. A Report on the Uncultivated Bast Fibers of the United States, includi the History of Previous Experiments with the Plants or Fibers, an Brief Statements Relating to the Allied Species that are Produced Commercially in the Old World. By Charles Richards Dodge, Special Agent. Pp. 54, pls. 5. Report No.6. July, 1894_.._._.--. Jee 6, 000 Annual Report wpon Fiber Investigations for 1893. By Charles Richards Dodge, Special Agent. Pp. iii, 567-584, fig. 1,pl. 1. (From the Report of the Secretary of Agriculture.) August, 1894.................--..- 100 Flax for Seed and Fiber in the United States. By Charles Richards Dodge. Special Agent for Fiber Investigations. Pp. 16. Farmers’ Bul- letin No. 27. March, 1895. (Including reprinis.) ..........<.-«sss=e= 25, 000 LIBRARY. Library Bulletin No. 2. Pp. 8. - July, 1894 _.___.__-_._-. . 750 Library Bulletin No. 3. Pp. 11. September, 1894 _..._......-.-.-___-- 750 Library Bulletin No. 4. Pp. 9. January, 1895_........--...-) 2 750 Library Bulletin No. 5. Pp.7. February, 1895_.......-.-.---- -22.222 750 Library Bulletin No. 6 Pp. 12. May, 1805 ............. 5.) 23 eee 750 DIVISION OF MICROSCOPY. Report of the Chief of the Division of Microscopy for 1895. By Thomas Taylor,M.D. Pp. iii, 297-302, pls.7. (From the Annnal Report of the Secretary of Agriculture.) October, 1894_..__-_- ee 5, 100 DIVISION OF ORNITHOLOGY AND MAMMALOGY,. Report of the Ornithologist and Mammalogist for 1893. By C. Hart Mer- riam. Pp. iii, 227-234, pl.1. (From the Annual Report of the Secre- tary of Agriculture.) October, 1004_...........-..... 2 600 North American Fauna No. 8. Monographie Revision of the Pocket Gophers, Family Geomyidce (exclusive of the species Thomomys). Dr. C. Hart Merriam. Pp. 258, frontispiece, pls. 19, maps 4, figs. 71. January, 1606... ...2..-.-..--.....0- 11-122 ee 5, 000 The Pocket Gophers of the United States. Prepared under the direction of Dr. C. Hart Merriam, Chief of Division, by Vernon Bailey, Chief Field Agent. Pp. 47, frontispiece, figs.6,map1. Bulletin No.5. May, DOOG wo ove ne cee vebi duct seasectenethb ime epee = oe aoe eee 5, 000 DIVISION OF POMOLOGY. Report of the Assistant Pomologist for 1893. By W.A. Taylor. Pp. iii, 277-296. (From the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture. ) September, 1804... 2... 2<.nen adie ns wee e asad nnn ache win ae selene eee 10, 200 DIVISION OF RECORDS AND EDITING. Report of the Chief of the Division of Records and Editing for 1893. By Geo. Wm. Hill. Pp. iii, 395-408, (From the Annual y are of the Secretary of Agriculture.) August, 1894.................... suse 200 Report of the Chief of the Division of Records and Editing for 1894. By Geo. Wm. Hill. Pp. iii, 171-184. (From the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture.) March, 1895. (Including reprint.) -...--- 1, 300 OFFICE OF ROAD INQUIRY. Information Regarding Roads and Road-making Materials in Certain Eastern and Southern States. (Furnished by officials of the various railway companies.) Pp,29,maps5, Bulletin No, 7. July, 1894..... 5, 000 PUBLICATIONS OF THE YEAR. State Aid to Road Building in New Jersey. By Edward Burrough, Chair- man of the New Jersey State Board of Agriculture, and State Com- missioner of Public Roads. Pp. 20, frontispiece. Bulletin No. 9. ee oe ad IG EMI.) ee nee --------- Report of the Special Agent and Engineer for Road Inquiry for 1893. By Roy Stone. Pp. iii, 585-592. (From Report of the Secretary of Agri- @nivure.)) uaANgust, 1894... ee Beds 3 Gees ee Te eee oS - State Laws Relating to the Management of Roads, enacted in 1838-1893. Compiled by Roy Stone, Special Agent in Charge of Road Inquiry. Pp. 95. Bulletin No.1. November, 1894. (Reprint.)-....-..----.--- Improvement of the Road System of Georgia. By O. H. Sheffield, C.E., University of Georgia. Pp. 31, figs.5. Bulletin No. 3. November, NS i A RS SS eee pe eee ae Oe Se Addresses on Road Improvement. Pp.15. Circular No, 14. November, I a ed ee le ek one enh Proceedings of the National Road Conference, held at the Westminster Church, Asbury Park, N.J., July 5 and 6,1894. Pp. 63, figs. 3. Bulle- tin No. 10. December, 1894. (including reprint.) -.....-.....--.---- An Act for the Construction of Roads by Local Assessment, County, and pirate Aid. Pp.3. Circular No. 15, December, 1894_..........-.._- Highway Taxation: Comparative Results of Labor and Money Systems, Pon waremiar No. 16.. December, 1804____...-:_--..---.-.-..-.-.- Proceedings of the Virginia Good Roads Convention, held in Richmond, Va., October 18, 1894. Pp. 62, fig.1. Bulletin No. 11, February, 1895. RE Noe pe ret ce eS ee nc bee ee oe Wide Tires. Laws of Certain States Relating to Their Use, and Other Pertinent Information. Compiled by Roy Stone, Special Agent in Charge of Road Inguiry. Pp.16. Bulletin No.12. April, 1895. (In- PE IEMENIGIN ts ors en Sete ooh se Se ee ea site a Kentucky Highways. History of the Old and New Systems. By M. H. Crump, C.E. Pp. 24. Bulletin No. 13. April, 1895............-- pa Good Roads. Extracts from Messages of Governors. Compiled by Roy Stone, Special Agent and Engineer. Pp. 24. Bulletin No. 14. June, re. ee Le ee eee ie ae Earth Roads. Hints ontheir ConstructionandRepair. Compiled by Roy Stone, Special Agent in Charge of Road Inquiry. Pp. 20, figs. 11. Pee ONS. UNE, 169), CepTINI,) = 2 - . sce es me eee eS Notes on the Employment of Convicts in Connection with Road Building. Compiled by Roy Stone, Special Agent and Engineer. Pp.15. Bulletin Tous iy PSE Eke) lee Mi es ea een aire an ergs PaO aN = nal ee Dae SEED DIVISION. Report of the Chief of the Seed Division for 1893. By M.E. Fagan. Pp. iii, 389-392. (From the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture. ) Solo, LGM D SS i an ake, Wate Se mca RES Re ihe «awe Seek pon Ver ee DIVISION OF STATISTICS. A Manual of Instructions to Crop Correspondents, By Henry A. Robin- son, Statistician. Pp. 28. Issued April,-1895__........_.....-....-.- Report of the Statistician for 1893. Pp, tii, 465-566. (From the An- nual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture.) August, 1894__._______ Report of the Statistician, No. 117—July, 1894. Contents: Crop report for July; Notes on foreign agriculture; Reports of United States con- sular officers; Transportation rates. Pp. 395-444__............-._--- Report of the Statistician, No. 118—August, 1894. Contents: Crop report for August; Notes on foreign agriculture; The production and con- sumption of rice in the United States; Commerce between the United States and Mexico for the years 1873, 1878, 1883, 1888, and 1898; Trans- RIN LO MRO. bn ois anda ec cei mates paw cteebhawyees Report of the Statistician, No. 119—September, 1894. Contents: Crop report for September; Stock hogs; Notes from reports of State agents ; Table showing condition of crops September 1, 1894: Urban population os pope ; Notes on foreign agriculture ; Transportation rates. Pp. v (the seeenacerrt eer aeaeeeae Trew wr ewe enw ewww er ee wearer eee @eeerernpeeceeeneeseere*= 623 Copies. 10, 000 100 5, 000 5, 000 10, 000 10, 000 10, 000 10, 000 10, 000 500 20, 000 100 19, 500 19, 500 19, 500 624 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Report of the Statistician, No. 120—October, 1894. Contents: Crop re- port for August; Notes from reports of State agents ; Table showing yield per acre and condition, by States, October 1, 1894; Rice pro- duction in the United States; Notes on foreign agriculture ; Transpor- tation rates. Pp. 606-660.... .... utc ca oe ee 19, 500 Report of the Statistician, No. 121—November, 1894. Contents : Novem- ber crop report: Notes from reports of State agents; Table showing estimated yield per acre of certain crops November 1, 1894; Notes on foreign agriculture; Transportation rates. Pp.661-702 ---_-.--_----- 20, 000 Report of the Statistician, No. 122—December, 1894. Contents: Crops of the year; Crop review; Principal crops of 1894; Farm prices and mar- ket quotations; Agricultural exports and imports; Official statistics of. foreign crops; Transportation rates. Pp. 703-778 _..._...--..-------. 20, 000 Report of the Statistician, No. 123—January-February, 1895. Contents: Report on farm animals; Thecotton crop; Livestockin Great Britain and Ireland ; The cotton crop of India for 1894; A French congress on popular credit; The wheat crop of Victoria (Australia); Notes on for- eign agriculture; January transportation rates ; February transporta- B9-L06\% 2.0 eo eck 2 ool ee Se 25, 000 Report of the Statistician, No. 125—April, 1895. Contents: Condition of winter wheat; Farm animals; Number of families occupying farms owned, free and unincumbered; Amount of incumbrance on farms; Health of the people; Production, imports, and exports of potatoes; Production and price of wool in Italy; Potatoes and hay in Great Britain in 1894; Cotton crop of India for the year 1894-95; Rice crop of India for 1894; Report of European agent; Transportation charges. Pp. ii, 107-168... .- 222.2. 222.5. .2 oe 25, 000 Report of the Statistician, No. 126—May, 1895. Contents: Condition of winter grain; Condition of cotton; The cotton crop of 1894; Prices of wheat in England; Report of European agent; Notes on foreign agri- culture; Transportation charges. Pp. ii, 169-230 Report of the Statistician, No. 127—June, 1895. Contents: Crop report for June; Cotton, increase and decrease of acreage, 1895; Temperature and rainfall; Report of European agent; Notes on foreign agriculture; Transportation charges. Pp. ii, 231-284__.....-_..c5.22..o eee 25, 000 Monthly Crop Synopsis. (A four-page summary of the condition, pros- pects, yields, price, distribution, and consumption of crops, and the number and value of farm animals. Issued soon after the 10th of each month for prompt and wide circulation in advance of the more extended monthly crop report from which it is condensed. ) July, 1894, synopsis. (From Report No. 117.) _..... 2a 126, 700 August, 1894, synopsis. (From Report No. 118.)-_-.....--..-.-..---- 126, 700 September, 1894, synopsis. (From Report No. 119.) --..---..------ 130, 000 October, 1894, synopsis. (From Report No. 120.) ........- = o's 127, 000 November, 1894, synopsis. (From Report No. 121.) .....--..-....-. 127, 000 January, 1895, synopsis. (From Report No. 122.) ...-.--.-.----.--- 127, 000 February, 1895, synopsis. (From Report No. 123.) -.....--------.-- 132, 000 March, 1895, synopsis. (From Report No. 124.) ....-...-.---------- 132, 000 April, 1895, synopsis. (From Report No. 125.) .....-...---.---..--- 132, 000 May, 1895, synopsis. (From Report No. 126.) ........--....-.-..2.- 132, 000 June, 1895, synopsis. (From Report No, 127.) ........--....--...-- 132, 000 TOt@l. 2.2225 os Been en ennc cen shane seen adanneeapee een 1, 423, 000 PIVISION OF VEGETABLE PATHOLOGY, Effect of Spraying with Fungicides on the Growth of Nursery Stock. By B. T. Galloway. Pp. 41, figs. 17. Bulletin No. 7. August, 1894...__. 5, 000 Some Destructive Potato Diseases: What They Are and How to Prevent Them. By B.'T. Galloway, Chief of the Division, Pp.8,figs.3. Farm- ers’ Bulletin No, 15, September, 1894. (Including reprints, )~.......-- 175, 000 PUBLICATIONS OF THE YEAR, Bordeaux Mixture asa Fungicide. By D. G. Fairchild. Prepared under the direction of B. T. Galloway, Chief of the Division. Pp. 55. Bulle- Sopp SCR rayiiata te rape sy EN OE Oe ee oe a en Report of the Chief of the Division of Vegetable Pathology for 1893. By B. T. Galloway. Pp. iii, 245-276, fig. 1. (From the Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture.) August, 1894..................-..---- Journal of Mycology. (Devoted to the study of fungi, especially in their relations to plant diseases.) Vol. VII,No.4. Pp. v, 333-478, v, pls. 32-37. PeroncrlGvs,.0 (including reprint. )\._.22-2..2-22-22:.-.2-21-22.-2-- Peach Yellows and Peach Rosette. By Erwin F. Smith, Special Agent, under the direction of B. T. Galloway, Chief of the Division. Pp. 20, figs. 7. Farmers’ Bulletin No.17. January, 1895. (Including reprint. ) - Spraying Fruits for Insect Pests and Fungous Diseases, with a Special Consideration of the Subject in its Relation to the Public Health. Pp. - 20. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 7. January, 1895. (Reprint.)-.....-.----- pent for Sooty Mold of the Orange. Pp.4. Circular No.15. Janu- aa ahs gy Le SE Se cape me St 8 SY ee eee eee ae) The Pollination of Pear Flowers. By Merton B. Waite, Special Agent. Report on experiments made under the direction of B. T. Galloway, Chief of the Division. Pp. 110, pls. 12. Bulletin No. 5. March, 1895. DL Le is ee ee ar eae Renee Eee & WEATHER BUREAU. Instructions for the Use of Combined Maximum and Minimum Soil Thermometers. Prepared by Profs. C. F. Marvin and Milton Whitney, under the direction of the Chief of the Weather Bureau. Pp. 8, figs. 2. Sireaiar G, instrument Room. July, 1894.___......_--.--_.....-..-- Instructions for the Use of Maximum and Minimum Radiation Thermom- eters. Prepared by Profs. C. F. Marvin and Milton Whitney, under the direction of the Chief of the Weather Bureau. Pp. 10, figs. 5. Saeeniate, Instrument Room, July, 1894. ..............-...-.1.---. Protection from Lightning. Alexander McAdie. Pp. 21,figs.i1. Cir- Cmiarorintormation. July, 1894. (Reprint.)......-.2...-......---- Reprinted with revision as Bulletin No.15. June, 1895_______.....- Protection of Fruits, Vegetables, and Other Food Products from Injury by Heat or Cold during Transportation. Pp.7. Circular. August, 1894 Report of the Chief of the Weather Bureau for 1893. By Mark W. Har- rington. Pp. iii, 89-122, pls.4. (From the Annual Report of the Sec- fomry of Agriculture.) September, 1894 -_.._......._....--.-.------- Rainfall and Snow of the United States, Compiled to the End of 1891, with Annual, Seasonal, and Other Charts. By Mark W. Harrington, Chief of the Weather Bureau. Maps 23 (size 19 by 24 inches). Bulle- eres an me COICLONOT LOOS. 722 S20). 5 ea oe a2 an - eo -- ~~~ Instructions to Special River Observers of the Weather Bureau. Pp. 49, pmnEOENN DOr, 1804s... 28 22 2 knee eee pL <= - 2 Instructions for Obtaining and Transcribing Records from Recording Instruments. Prepared under the direction of the Chief of the Weather Bureau by C. F. Marvin, Professor of Meteorology. Pp. 40, figs. 3. (Revised edition.) Circular A, Instrument Room. December, 1894-_ Report of the Third Annual Meeting of the American Association of State Weather Services, Cooperating with the Weather Bureau, United States Department of Agriculture. Pp. 31. Bulletin No. i4. Feb- WTS) TREE os ae Ee Ae a ane a a a Ae i cee ee Rainfall and Snow of the United States, Compiled to the End of 1891, with Annual, Seasonal, Monthly, and Other Charts. By Mark W. Har- rington, Chief of the Weather Bureau. Pp. 80, fig. 1. Quarto form. EES eS a ee Wreck and Casualty Chart of the Great Lakes, 1894. (Size, 26 by 36 TIN LAP 26> 23 Docs Ses Bos os US ae wc o~'- on == 5- Report on the Condensation of Atmospheric Moisture. By Carl Barus. Pp. 104, pls. 4, figs. 27. Bulletin No. 12. April, 1895 -.............-- Information Relative to the Investigation of the Influences of Climate on Health. Pp. 7. Circular No. 4—Sanitary Climatology. April, 1895-. Surface Currents of the Great Lakes, as Deduced from the Movements of Bottle Papers during the Seasons of 1892, 1893, and 1894. By Mark W. Harrington, Chief of the Weather Bureau. Pp. 14, charts 6. Quartoform. (Revised edition.) April, 1895................-------- A 95——22 625 Copies. 5, 000 100 2, 800 44, 000 20, 000 5, 000 2,009 500 15, 000 2,500 2, 000 13. 100 5, 000 1, 000 500 10, 000 5, 000 6, 000 15, 000 5, 000 7, 500 626 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Circular of Information Relating to the Display of Wind Signals on the Great Lakes. Pp. 18; pl.1. April i805. 20-02 eee eee Report of the Chief of the Weather Bureau for 1893. (Devoted chiefly to tables recording climatological data for the year 1893.) Quarto. Pp. 819; sigs, 4... \Jiame, 1896. __. ove Ls Se he ee ae Parts IL to VI, inclusive, of the Report of the Chief of the Weather Bureau for 1893, printed separately. Quarto: Part II. Hourly Averages of Atmospheric Pressure, Temperature, and Wind from the Records of Self-recording Instruments at Twenty-eight Stations. Pp. 21-69. May, 1895_............--..-- Part III. Monthly and Annual Meteorological Summaries for One Hundred and Sixty-one Weather Bureau Stations. Pp. 71-155. May, 18964 2.52.5 Le e2602 a a Part IV. Monthly and Annual Mean Temperature, Together with the Dates of First and Last Killing Frost. Pp. 157-190. May, 1895 2a. oh noes cel es Ce ee ee Part V. Monthiy and Annual Precipitation. All Stations. Pp. 191-228. May, 1895... -.- 2.1L... 2.2 oe ee Part VI. Miscellaneous Meteorological Tables and Reports: Hourly Records of Self-registering Instruments at Pikes Peak and Colorado Springs, Colo.; Pressure, Temperature,and Wind; Snowfall 1892- 93, and 1893-94; Sunshine 1893; Height of Water in Rivers; De- structive Windstorms and Casualties by Lightning. Pp. 229-319; figs.4. May, 1895... 22... we ee Monthly Weather Review. (A summary by months of weather condi- tions throughout the United States, based upon reports of nearly 3,000 regular and voluntary observers. Quarto size.) Vol. XXI, Supplement to No.12. (Annual summary for 1893.) Pp. vi, 377-390, charts 7... ...----~.---—c =. 45 -- 55 eS Vol. XXII, No.5, May, 1894. Pp. 193-234, charts 4 ____-.____ _22e Vol. XXII, No.6, June, 1894. Pp. 235-272, charts 4._._._-.-..___.__- Vol. XXII, No.7, July, 1894. Pp. 273-310, charts 4______ ae Vol. XXII, No.8, August, 1894. Pp. 311-350, charts 4_.._--.....--. Vol. XXII, No. 9, September, 1894. Pp. 351-392, charts 6 _...*_.___- Vol. XXII, No. 10, October, 1894. Pp. 393-439, charts 6......_._--_- Vol. XXII, No. 11, November, 1894, Pp. 441-485, charts 7.-.._...__- Vol. XXII, No. 12, December, 1894. Pp. 487-533, charts 7_.......---- Snow Charts. Dec.3, 1894, to March 25,1895 (17 issues) -....-.--.-..__- Storm Bulletin No. 2 of 1894. September, 1894._............----__.__- 2 Storm Bulletin No.3 of 1894. Tropical Hurricane of October 8-10, 1894, October, 1894... ese oe n= ce eon oe ae Storm Bulletin No.1 of 1895. Storm and Cold Wave of February 5-8, 1895. (Sizei19 by 24 inches.) -._-....--.1-52.-.- S225 ae Temperatures Injurious to Food Products in Storage and During Trans- portation, and Methods, of Protection from the Same. By H. E. Williams, Chief Clerk Forecast Division. Pp. 20. Bulletin No. 13. December, 1894... -. 222 ns cic 3 ee Report of the International Meteorological Congress, held at Chicago, IlJ., August 21-24, 1893, under the auspices of the Congress Auxiliary of the World’s Columbian Exposition. Edited by Oliver L. Fassig, Secretary. Pp. xi-xv, 207-583, pls. 11-25. Bulletin No. 11, part 2. June, 1895 .2 2 i he os et Se = een Weather Crop Bulletin Nos. 16 to 32,1894, and 1 to 15, 1895 (32 issues). - - a Copies. 2,000 5, 500 100 500 40, 800 4 INDEX. Page Abattoirs, number where meat is inspected_-_..-..-....--..-.-.--.--------- 10 _ Accounts and Disbursing Office, Division, comments on operations by Sec- Gey, Puente eee ee ec. lee e 61 organization and duties __-........-...--- 526 Acer grandidentatum, tree suitable for alkali soils__-_______._.-.--__--___- 121 Achras sapota (sapodilla), injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95_________- 172 meraioa Neneh to-soil forments.__- 2-222 el eel eee 77 Air, importance of free access to soil in greenhouses______.__-__--___-_-_--- 252 observations on its moisture to foretell frosts ____._...___._._-_-------- 149 menoulvural census, annual, advocated... .-..2-_..-- 222-22 S ++. 3 College of Michigan, experiments with irrigating system __-___. 243 Rane pitinnu Tener Alser os. 6 cs see ee rea ee eee eo 526 water supply required, remarks __-.._..........--.---- 233 Experiment Station of Iowa, experiments in manufacture of CHCCNO SE re Mes ee Sant fey ee LO See 70 stations, locations, directors, and lines of work... 558 remarks on work by Dr. Chas. W. Dab- ROVER ane oe OE A Th es Se eee 36 products, exports 1601-1600 _ - 22 Ln 2222 bl. -- 543 AMpOLIG TevI— Love... So eet a 548 science, a pioneer, article by W. P. Cutter_____..__.___._____- 493 Soils, Division, comments on operations by Secretary __-__-_-_- 53 exhibit at Atlanta Exposition_..__.._...____-- 510 organization and duties__.._........1..--2_- 525 Agriculture, Department. (See Department of Agriculture. ) PECRONEA A RIIMOR ce eek OO ee ee ee eee 5 83 portant sou ferments. 2.0... Leos ee ee 69 in colonial Virginia, general remarks ______________..-..------ 493 anstitubions having COUTBES __... 22-2 eel 557 necessity of scientific knowledge __..........-..-------------- 68 Secretary. (See Secretary of Agriculture. ) Agropyrum sp. (wild wheat grass), analysis._................-..-.--.------ 315 mgross stolonifera (creeping bent), note_.............---2L 2. .--L--t 328 Agrostology, Division, comments on operations by Secretary _______--- ._-- 44 exhibit at Atlanta Exposition __..__.......-----.--- 513 ye Eee Se ee is aie Ae ae ee eee Lae ee At Cu eb iree 2 RS Re EG 525 sub jects of publseations ........02..2.-.- 2222 lke. 45 AOC LONER TBR Ca TES] SSR Se olay 1 A FOU A Rk WE Ae BR Ma et Ls See ey) ee 400 CEST AECUS TINGS DNs [AER CASS Se AN Lt hp gh ps ck Se ai ae Or ia 8 og Oe a 400 maalie-erop suitable for alkali sols {2 =. eee eee ee 121 Aukali grass crop suitable for alkali soils......_..-......--.-L tte lt. 119 unaananr connate PEAS 2nd I ee wa! Sets ok Soe ea es 104 isis Ghemioal amides. a elt 116 land, origin, value, and reclamation, article by E. W. Hilgard _.----- 103 PC MIMEMUROMR: She tptine me aa tk Ae we Se UU eo ah 106 aetermination-of distribution ..-..2.2. 200.2. lw 106 total amount compatible with ordinary crops -_-------------.-- 115 Boils) alkali chemical antidotes... ...-.. 2.02.2 eee end 116 counteracting evaporation important................-.---.--- 114 ASEOHON NEMEC Le oe ere oc oe er a RN Lr Ree 3 ees 119 diagram showing composition at various depths. 107, 108,110,111, 112 Roemer CaCO 2 Se hs an ease needa 105 GOW GS TOMES TO TNO DWN. oo on. ine one cece ect ee ee nusae- 117 628 INDEX. Alkali soils, occurrence and characteristics =.=. ..-..- 2522222. aeen ee one utilization and reclamation. J. ~._)....2. 22 U2 232. ee ene will it pay to reclaim them? ...../...-...........-55) 205 Amarantus palmeri (pigweed), suggested use as a pot herb __-_.-..--.----- American cattle in Glasgow, remarks on importation and sale___.-_._--__- horses. (See Horses, American. ) lard, wholesale prices in London in 1894 and 1895 ____-_--.-.---- meat products in foreign markets. ........-.-. 32.2. stocks, use to prevent grapevine phylloxera_----.---.--.---.----- Ammonia, formation in the soil._-..-2.-2-22s2----2247022225 ee Amphicerus bicaudatus (grape cane-borer), description and methods of injury ...... 2... -.2- 2255. see eee | Analyses, official, perverted references by advertisers-_-......-.-.-----..--- Andropogon furcatus and A. nutans, description and analysis.-.......---- hallii (turkey-foot), value as a forage plant-__-...---....------ scoparius Gene blue stem, or bunch grass),, value as a forage plant. ...2-2.20.2-.. 22-2222. ee ce er (slender broom sedge), note -_-_- owt ae Animal and human diseases, remarks on similarity --..-----.------.------- food, average composition ..--__.--...¢-5) 4.25 see Industry, Bureau. (See Bureau of Animal Industry.) matter, exports, 1891-1895... __ 2.2... .2..22e2 20 eee Animals exported, number of head lost in transit -.....-...-.------------- imported from Canada, number. -.._-.-.-.2-=.2--) seen inspection and quarantine...._..- 2212-222 inspection for exportation... ...._..--------...-.22<5==sae ee live, first large shipment from Australia to London_._-.-.-------- number inspected in 1895 and 1894. __.--: 4... 2.52 o. SSS quantity and value of imports, 1891-1895___..........-......-..-- value of exports to different countries. .-.-_...-.--.255- 22224225 neee Aniseed oil, price per pound _......2.-224.c4--251_ 4.56 use for producing oil ........ .<. «igi8--- =. 25-25 Anona cherimolia (cherimoya, or Jamaica apple), injury by freezes in Flor- ida in 1894-95 .___ =... 22.2... 22 s20 S<- 5 ob ee muricata (sour sop), injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95 _____--- squamosa (sweet sop), injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95______- Anthonomus grandis, investigations of Division of Entomology ------------ Antidotes, chemical, for alkali in soils ......2: .2..--c.2252325855=ee Appendix to Yearbook... ----..2..22-- 22 cs dget eos .6 bese > oe Apple trees, experiments in root-grafting-........-..----.2--.--.--<<-sses- Apples from Austria-Hungary, testing adaptability to our climates and soils_ ripe and dried, exports, 1893-1895 .__....-..-...-.-5:.c2.0epeeeeeee Arachis hypogea (peanut), use in production of oil_.......-....---------- Arbor Day in Japan, methods of observation ..............-:-.isgsseeeeee Argemone mexicana (Mexican poppy) seed, use in producing oil... ------- Argentina, cattle exported to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 _.........-.----- mutton exported to United Kingdom, 1893-1895__.......----.-- shipment of cattle to Europe, 1893-1895 __...........-.------.- sheep to Great Britain =. ....-..2-i6i03.505o eee Arid prairies, general remarks... ..:_... .1..--26.445.. -4scuesae eee Aristida and Stipa spp. (needle grasses}, value as forage plants -.......--- Artichoke, Jerusalem, crop suitable for alkali soils........-...-....---.--- Ash, per cent in different varieties of cheese .........-...---.---seesseanee Ashes and lime, action upon nitrogen of humus ..........--....-----.---- Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, duties ......-. .-.--2...sse25scenaaeeee Atlanta Exposition, exhibit of Bureau of Animal Industry----.-.--..----- Division of Agricultural Soils ...........-- Agrostology = .u...sdssenuseee Botany . ....is«és=se eee Entomology ....:.ccsscsneeeeee Forestry 3... .. =n< = rear OU OOO ke Corn, average farm prices December 1, 1886-1895.__--__..............------ SESW eT ES te | a a ie ne en arr Guanges in crop area in 1879 and 1889__.. ._....-............22__.2__- Beaeeiien Of crop Of 1895, by States: ...- 22. +2... ee nee effect of different temperatures on germination ____.__._____._-____- Egyptian, crop suitable for alkali soils.._...._...........---...------ ST) LIDS) Aue (NS SE) ie ST SS a a ee a RE a farm prices December 1, 1891-1895, by States__-._. ......_._------__- enna MON TET OR eI OME: 2 oo on Seen asanaacseaue production and exports, 1893-1895... _-.....-.2.-.-.-.--..--------... quantity, acreage, and value, by States, for 1895 _._..-_.___. ..____.- and value of imports, 1891-1805... 1... value of exports to different countries._..............---.--.-------- wholesale at leading cities of United States, 1891-1895 ___._.._.____.- Cotton, acreage and production in 1894, by States_.__._......._.---.-.---_-- average farm prices December 1, 1886-1895 __..._..........-.-.-.-- -boll weevil, Mexican (Anthonomus grandis), investigations of Perret Un Le E UOT OLO Dyes 4 ses ie ewe ee a ae Guatses in crop area in 1879 and 18892... . 2.0... ...2--.<.-----.---- Epemer are lle ee eee be Se OM ee ees ee ee farm prices December 1, 1891-1895, by States._............-...---- (OG 1200 £2 al la a ee Re a ar EE quantity and value of imports, 1891-1895_.....-.....-. -----....-- raw, exports from United States, 1890-1895____ ..........-...-..--- seed cake exported from United States in 1894__..__....._._.....-- DMSO Cis LONE EO Os meee ee ne ee Ne ae CRONE eo nde mn oc terrence lars nae TERE ak ME a tg cn payheaie wa aon DIU ADOLIe MUO Te er ts ete She es ek a eae Peet NEE Oe UA POCO 00 oe so oh co wecwe bene Coe wenn nwee wholesale prices at leading cities of United States, 1891-1895______- Cottonwood, growth on the Western plains_........................------ nee rte fC SLR BONE oo oo ak Ree cde we ee eendon Siam Ghhs AM WE TET) OUTTA oo oe i an oi ee a oe ee aoe FREDERICK V., article on ‘‘Some additions to our vegetable nn wm mc Gow, dairy, method of calculating rations ................-.....--.....-.- Cows, milch, number and value January 1, 1891-1896___.............-.--.- price, and value January 1, 1896, by States -.......-- use of Canadian field peas for food. ...............---.------- Cowslip (marsh marigold), use as a pot herb. ..........-.---.------------- SRL Rt Ge LO WO-UON NOUS oo oe on eons cae noe neie paves ceus PURPOSES NS ESS el ie yak hae ea eer eee eee A 95 22* 634 INDEX. - Cress, winter, cultivation and use a3 a pot herb Croton ae price per pound. > Spee aaa. effect of different ew atures on ger maiiabion Cultivation favors pear blight . . - 2va lank se pt ga of the soil, meaning of the term; when practiced______._..---- Currant and gooss oberr y culture, general remarks __..... 5.4.5.5) ene varieties commonly grown for market .....« ...... /.....550eee CuTTER, W. P., article on “‘A pioneer in agricultural science ” ©... 2_Us Cuttings for propagating plants, importance of proper selection Cutworms, injurious to grapevines Dabney, CHaAs. W.,Jr., duties as Assistant Secretary of Agriculture remarks on work of experiment stations Dairy cow, method of calculating rations _...-....-.-- i....L ogee eee Dairy Division of Bureau of Animal Industry, organization interests of Canada, statistics _...-...--2.-_....2.-.. 450s products, exports, 1891-1895...--.......-.--.....2. 05500 eee fertilizing constituents remarks by Secretary ....-.--<..-.-..4-.5-..55 ae value of exports to different countries.__._...__.__-__---- Dairying, progress in the United States, 1850-1890, by decades, statistics___- Dandelion, extensive use as a pot herb .___......-.--_.---__-_s 55 ee Denmark, exports of bacon to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 butter to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 eges to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 pork imported from United States i In 1895 _ 2222 222 5. ee Department of Agriculture, amount of money returned to Treasury _______ exhibit at Atlanta. (See Atlanta Exposition.) necessity for new building organization =... 2-.-2..2.s.e5 oe publications, notes regarding____._.__._-..___. of fiscal year 1895, list..........uu report of a, to the President .... ...2.2 work as illustrated at the Atlanta Exposition, article by Robert E. W ait_._..... case eeeeee Desmia maculalis (grape leaf-folder), description, methods of injury, and Gistribntion ... 2... 2.550 2 fees eins 2a oe oom la Dew-point, table showing how it may be determined Dill seed, use in producing oil -..._.......-.-...-...c..ss0ne eee Diseases, animal and human, remarks on similarity __._............--..-.-- fungous, of plants, list and methods of treatment infectious, milk, butter, and cheese as carriers_........_....ssnee possibility of transmitting by oleomargarine; experi- ments . 2. 222 onb ce cee wn oo Sn of the pineapple, description and remedies_...._........-----.--- Distichlis maritima (alkali grass), crop suitable for alkali soils_..........-- spicata (spike grass), description and characteristics ._......-.-- Ditches, methods of irrigation in California... .........2._.. 0 Jeune Division of Accounts and Disbursing Office. (See Accounts and Disbursing Office, Division. ) Agricultural Soils. (See Agricultural Soils, Division. ) Agrostology. (See Agrostology, Division.) Botany. (See Botany, Division.) Chemistry. (See Chemistry, Division.) Entomology. (See Entomology, Division. ) Forestry. (See Forestry, Division.) Gardens and Grounds. (See Gardens and Grounds, Division. ) Microscopygabolishment . - oon a. unn00) Oe how to sow and cultivate....::..............---. 5s eee quantity and value of imports, 1891-1895 -.........-..--.----..-.---- soil adapted .... § -- 2. - 22-2 oa nese na nen nn se Flaxseed, effect of different temperatures on germination--...-......------ exported from United States in 1894 .............i5. eee false, use in producing oil similar to rapeseed oil_-..--.---.----- ZOE PYOGUCING Olive aaawen «sneer em «wanna aanns es shale ee various uses of its products ......-.-... 2.262. 222220 casneeeeeeee whence comes the supply......--.-----.2- 2.--<-5-.55.5s2seeneee Flea beetle, grapevine. (See Grapevine flea beetle. ) Flooding as a means of protection from frosts.....-....-----------------.-- INDEX. Flooding method of irrigation in California................-...-.----.--- Florida, damage to pineapples by freezes of 1894-95 __..__._..._____ development of the pineapple industry ....................._____- extent of injury to citrus Industry by freezes of 1894-95 freezes of 1836 and 1894-95, minimum temperatures___..__________ lessons taught by freezes of 1894-95 _..___........-.....22222222-- recent development of pineapple industry ................_-.-...- Toccnm OL nwo ireezes Of 1804-95. se eee - ee. two freezes of 1894-95 and what they teach, article by Herbert J. ER Mle ya 3 ah eee ai mo tis oo tg Pee oie os Rennie ar, Omporte, Lool-1696 2. ee eee. ene aeee Flower growing, commercial, in United States, statistics......_..._.______ in United States, notes on methods ____.__..._..__..____. oer and hay plants, money value. -.-..........._......-.-.-----.------ Ercen, Composition. of different kinds:.-._..-.................--..- fertilizing constituents of different kinds_____._._...._._____. Pmemaminial, Average COMposition _.- 2.05.00 f 2 elle kee constituents in stomach of catbird, brown thrasher, and house wren- maenroom, use ot Canadian field peas)... out clue, ingredients, digestible, in feeding stuffs...._.............--.-------- nutritive ingredients and their uses in the body____._......_.-_-___- plants of the imported elm leaf-beetle, list wWhite-marked tussock moth =. 2.502.202... products, American, average composition; table showing various Ct RS SE oe a en eee es re Panic, ayerare COMPOSINON: 24-00. 222 lb ee eenariNeeni tiie. NOLES and stables. -2_ . yee roles ot Lege le cane_e nutritive value and economy, remarks by Secretary_..._....._____- Forage conditions of the prairie region, article by Jared G. Smith________- Cy OSIRIS En 0 Uo Se eas a er I a a ne EAE native, of United States, general remarks__._._....._______- Horecasta, weather, comments by Secretary.__.._..3.....-..-.--..---.---- mereeesires cause. loss of humus .- .....2.2.2 nen en eek eum wraners) Wiemarie de. 5200 ee ee iimmenee. am tomperstures... 2. 67 v2) ee eee ee Cunmenin Ta oe Bae Dili Se BS pe le ble Seeee supplying the farm with useful material ___.___..._.._..-..---.-_-_- trees, protection against freezing of citrus fruits.._.___________.__. mcnom-tney protect the farm. - 2. 20.5.2 5.4... cone cee ens eee relation to farms, article by B. E. Fernow_--..._.-........--.----- Forestry, Division, comments on operations by Secretary ___-__- eet Ae exhibit at Atlanta Exposition:...................--.--. PT RRMA A ONAN ONieee = {oes Fe 8) Ce Haare e nem ical, COmpOSL iO: 2.) see eee be (red salt) grass, characteristics and uses........-...-.-----.------.-.- Frames, cloth, use in protecting young plants from frosts ___._..._...____- France, amount of sodium nitrate used for manurial purposes______._____- exports of butter to United Kingdom, 1893-1895._........._.....-- cheese to United Kingdom, 1893-1895__........_....__-- eggs to United Kingdom, 1893-1895__.................-- pork imported from United States in 1895_._................-_--- 1 Freezes and frosts 8 = Pickin cultivated plants, article by B. T. Galloway_ DINGHME Meester ta pine Rey sae te Dn kh I ee Gn irObrerein PeOtthk dy oto SUR na Ja of 1894-95 in Florida, and what they teach, article by Herbert J. (Le a Se a eee Se RA a LAT ig NOR RE SEL ae ee po TAREE Pe ee ee ee ee ee Freight rates in effect January 1, 1892-1896 .._..._..........-..-......-.-- on live stock and dressed meats, Chicago to New York _._._- wheat from New York to Liverpool_.................-.-- ne abet CCt( Wraes, GCORCTIDGON .. 250202 5.) oan oo ecole omcnsdvecen Frosts and freezes = aoe cultivated plants, article by B. T. Galloway- MEER nai wired Lett ded sR ees non coats wile ed wen onan cs effect upon plants and the human family............-.............- general, under what conditions formed......................-...---- heavy, under what conditions formed ........-...............------ 638 INDEX. Frosts, how they differ from freezes 222.0522 -4.02.5255115.5 sce to foretell ...... to dee be sco ee ee light, under what conditions formed __._........-.----------------- local, ander what conditions formed _......<... .<.2-..._ 2.222 observations on moisture of air to foretell_..._.-...-..---------.--- 149 | Fruit and vegetable canning in United States, statistics_.......-..-.------ 552 culture. (See Small-fruit culture.) in commerce, remarks by Secretary.....-..-..-.-.---__--.2 eee 47 small, culture for market, article by William A. Taylor. ..._..._._-- trees, methods of pruning, and reasons........----.-.---=--.50-eeee 263 remedies for overbearing -....-..........1-.-.4..5 =e Fruits and nuts, exports, 1891-1895... _ . ....---....-s-..:.-5-) 5 fertilizing constituents _.-.2.2..-=i_-.~ i222 425-224 568 production and exports, 1890-1895 _.._-.-.--..--+.-.5-2225 551 quantity and value of imports, 1891-1895 _.....-------.--- 549 California, in English markets, remarks by Secretary--.------------- 48 Fangicides, formulas for preparation _......-.-....-<....---40s5- eee 589 Fungous diseases of plants, list of methods of treatment___--...-_--------- 587 Furrows, method of irrigation in California. ...........0....24.-5-=eeeee 485 Galeoscoptes carolinensis (catbird), distribution and food habits_--..-.---- 405 Galerucella luteola (imported elm leaf. beetle), shade-tree insect__....------ 363 GALLOWAY, B. T., article on ‘‘ Frosts and freezes as affecting cultivated plants”... 22.--.-- 2548 ee 143 ‘The health of plants in greenhouses” -___- 247 Garden and farm, four common birds, articie by Sylvester D. Judd__------ 405 greenhouse irrigation, article by L. R. Taft ......-.--.....2.2 233 COSt ....- 1s -mces sha oe 243 grass. (See Grass gardens.) irrigation, general remarks__-_.__.-.-.----.-.s2ssia==55s0—n eee 240 methods of applying the water... =. + -_.- 2322252 238 profits... _.... -.- + acs ee ck ee jou ts 1288 remarks on subirrigation -....----.4+-4<-+4. 453. ee 239 Gardens and Grounds, Division, comments on operations by Secretary----- 60 organization and duties _........s2202 see 525 Germany, amount of sodium nitrate used for manurial purposes ---------- 90 exports of bacon to United Kingdom, 1893-1895__...-...-.--s--- af butter to United Kingdom, 1893-1895__._......------- 30 eggs to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 __-...---...------ 30 pork imported from United States in 1895_.............---.---- 10 quantity and value of mutton exported to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 _. 3.2 aden es eel Se Se 25 - value of rapeseed in. 1882. . 2.25.3 oe. oc oe se ee 200 Glyceria maritima (sea spear grass), note ......=...---2-455.-e5eeeee eee 828 Golden robin (Baltimore oriole), distribution and food habits.........----- 426 Gooseberry and currant culture, general remarks .........-.-.----------.-- 293 varieties commonly grown for market. -.........--------s-ss-e5 294 Grafting, crown, method of restoring frozen orange grove.....--.-------- 167, 169 root, experiment with apple trees. .....-.-.: --2.. eh sae wax, etc., used in pruning, recipes... - =... danenee ee ee 268 Grain, composition of different kinds ................. 3. cJeuun eee eee 561 fertilizing constituents .....- 222.202 ¢4025.. 7S RR ee 396 PLES eG OE fo: en a aera ae 386 PIG ISRO Y ATU MOT 2 ail ce oo oe hs oan wen 387 TBR Ol CIS POUBIOM Sot ee el on a ee eS 389 POmMCeIes MIG PYOVENTIVES noo. oe ene eee kes 389 Die USE ae Se DS Re re ven ee 122 Grass garden, aid in selection of grasses for particular latitudes___________ 303 BiDisce LWP LOPAO PUM se M6 oS. oc eee dese en cane lm 308 COR VUMGs gia ea, 0 a ee a a B04 PEE RAI Ee ON Seine Ls oaths. Sei a Sapa at eau eek we 206 BENCING Oiavine Ose = ae a ee ee oe 305 Ene POLaLIsU Ss INteresh Wiis. 2 2 A es eee ene wees 303 CLS TY DY a A <0 a Ne eg ee Geena ere aS cc emrte By B01 eaLaens arwele: py E. LaAmMSsOn-ScripMer 25-28 so S ae ee ee ee 301 stations, experimental, establishment, and varieties of grasses __.___ 44 Grasses and cattle, relative importance -_...._...._-..--------------------- 324 grass garden an aidin comparison of species ... 5. ..-25...2------<= 301 importance of introducing new varieties. --_.-....----------------- 307 native, the best for grass gardens 25. ee a eee pee ne 307 of salt marshes, article by F. Lamson-Scribner ______....-._.------ 325 A oar a fe a eee ee en 327 tame, and clovers, where they will grow._........-.------...------ 38h SNCS TARO UATE CEG E ERRORS 6A Beef cfr ee eS ye Oe ain eae me ee 32 Grasshoppers, estimate of number eaten in one month by meadow lark__.. 422 Great Britain, average price of American horses ..............------------ 26 per 100 pounds of live cattle in 1895 -______-_- 18 imports of sheep from Canada and Argentina __._..__------ 25 from Ireland of cattle, sheep, and pigs in 1895_____- 23 TCM EOD AOI te See gC se 18 number of horses imported from United States, 1893-1895 _- 26 BNEH AD LOD 2 mires) <2) cue Leeks as Ve 25 Green manure, means of maintaining humus of the soil_........---------- 139 use of Canadian field peas___._.-.._-- SS AEF eee gee Scr 232 Greens (pot herbs), prevalent use in Hurope .__.__..__--_..--------------- 206 Greenhouse and garden irrigation, article by L. R. Taft__...........--.--- 233 (ooo fete, oo ee oe S See SB PE eene ae ee 243 Sr reunis. PCUCTAl TOMBE EM en te es oe aoa eeen nd an eae 244 plants’ health, article by B. T. Galloway .........-------.---- 247 remarks on health and disease __..-.........-.-------- 248 subirrigation, experiments at Ohio, West Virginia, and Mich- TDN ote lect {2th oe ree SP RY AEE A Sa Rea erie Aaya 245 Groundnut (peanut), use in production of oil-..-.....-.....-.-..---.----- 196 eattO PEmMnasS OT GAG POMCHM.. -- 20. Jo. 22 Jone ie nk n es one enone e enon 86 Guavas, injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95___................--------- 171 Guizotia oletfera, production of oil from seed _.._...........-.---.---.---- 196 Gumbo-limbo, injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95 ___._.......--.--.--- 173 Gypsy Moth Commission of Massachusetts, remarks on spr aying a knee 367 Haltica chalybea (grapevine flea beetle), description and methods of injury. 395 Hams and bacon, wholesale prices in London eeericthr aii 2 ok SS 16 imported into United iisiemOM. Lede —Odor 4s Seeks eb eee nae od beck 17 Great Britain, average price per 100 pounds. --.---.----- 24 Hang-nest (Baltimore oriole), distribution and food habits -____-......--.-- 426 Harporhynchus rufus (brown thrasher), distribution and food habits. - - - -- 411 mer vesting and marketing small fruits 2.2. i. 2.2. wad en ee ee eed ot 289 Canadian field peas, methods and machinery -_...-....---.-.---- 230 Hawk moths, species injurious to grape... 2..- 2. 2 2-6 en beeen ee 400 fy noG todcer Dania, Toney Valne's. oe fel Ce eee ce cs. - 45 average farm prices December 1, 1886-1895 __........-...-.----------- 532 changes an crop aren in-1679- ahd 1800. 2. goo. tea 5 ok ote io oe 528 PemmenOn OL mererent RINGS Jin ansacncbhisincdnaAcnsakn-seGusee= 561 ee ee ee i weity Luan kh wwiwded naar ceé ant - 9st aaume 545 640 INDEX. Page. Hay, farm prices December 1, 1891-1895, by States _........-....--.----.--- 536 fertilizing consutuents _< ..-- .-50_ 2 SS Lee ee ee 566 of salt marshes, chemical composition<.<... 2.42. 22-_. 2 eee * 332 prairie, remarks on value -..~ =~ 522-0. 0240-02. 2 318 quantity, acreage, and value, by States; 1893-1895 _.......-.-.--..__- 531 and value of imports, 1891-1895. _._......-.------------.-225 549 wholesale prices at leading cities of United States, 1891-1895 _________. 541 Health and disease in greenhouses, remarks-....._..---------.------------ 248 of plants in greenhouses, article by B. T. Galloway--_-.....-.-.---- 247 Heat, importance in greenhouses -.-:+..-.-..-..-....i.-:.-2-5.2 5a 252 influence upon pineapples _......--...-----.-.--..-_ 3 272 of the soil and humus: ._-- 2.252.222 -SlS222 23 _ 2 138 Heavy frosts, under what conditions formed -_-_-._.-._.-.---------------..- 143 Helianthus annuus (sunflower), seed for producing oil__.....-.--.-.----_- 193 sativa seed, various uses of the oil. .--__..-_.:----- 0 22S 195 spp. (sunflower), crop suitable for alkali soils_-_......._-..---- 120 Hemp culture, article by Chas. Richards Dodge----.--....-----------..--.- 215 description « ...-- 2225 25.cis- 24-42 ~ Se hn 2 198 general remarks on culture -_.__._...-..-..--..---2- 5 eee 217 harvesting _...=..-.22_-i452-.3-. 22ers 218 industry declining in- United States .._...-.-... ./_+-. 2.0 216 name in different countries .._-_. .2...2. 1... 222 2 215 Nativity and uses ...-<.2. 2222s Lee ee er 215 prices per ton and average yield per acre. ......_..-.---.--- 2a 222 quantity and value of imports, 1891-1895 ___._..0.__-.-.--..--Ll ice 549 remarks on machinery for breaking: --...-..._...2_-_. 22a 222 e seed oil, production and use...=-..-..2_.... 21. -l oS 198 production per acre and price per bushel---...........-------.- 199 Various uses’ 224 Soho Pca ee ae pL ee 198 Hicks, GILBERT H., article on ‘‘ Oil-producing seeds” _._...-_---.--.-___-2 185 HILGARD, E. W.., article on ‘‘ Origin, value, and reclamation of alkalilands” 103 Hog. (See also Swine. ) carcasses, cost of microscopic inspection, 1893-1895 __.............--- il number microscopically inspected during the year________- 11 cholera bacteria, inefficiency of separators in removing__..._.._____- 440 products, suggestions to packers for foreign trade___.-.-...-.-.-.---- 16 value of exports to different countries ___._____._.__----___ 546 Hogs, exports from Ireland to Great Britain for eight months in 1895___-_- 23 1891-1895... 2. 2... 2. epee PS Se 543 number in Great Britain in 1895_..2_2-.-. _.. 2.t eo SS 15 use of Canadian field peas for-food __2._.--.:_-_____ 22 224 value of exports to different countries -../.....-.../2 ase aeeee 546 Holland, amount of sodium nitrate used for manurial purposes_-_.....---_- 90 exports of beef to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 ___..............-- 22 butter to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 __...._....._.._- 80 cheese to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 ___._........._.- 29 mutton to United Kingdom, 1893-1895_._.........-. ..- 25 pork to United Kingdom, 1893-1895. ............-....- 17 Honey, quantity and value of imports, 1891-1895 .........--..--.-.-----.-- 548 source of supply to United Kingdom -................-.--.-.122223 31 wholesale prices in England -....-...............-. 2 cae 31 Hops, exports, 1891-1805... . .. .-...-, ---~ 20-5265 se ace oe 545 quantity and value of imports, 1891-1895...............-.... ..i... 549 Horses, American, average price in Great Britain. ..............-..---.--- 26 in Glasgow, remarks on importation and sale _..._...-- 27 wotd’s market... .......c0i%c1205 2025 eee ee 26 number sold in Great Britain, 1893-1895_._.........-.-- 26 exports, 1891-180G.. .......-.-.--+.22--..2- 5200d5-5 ee 543 inspection for export ......-......00. - 2.5. scene 28 number and value, January 1, 1891-1896..................--.-.-.28 ; price and value, January 1, 1896, by States_..............- 533° quantity and value of imports, 1891-1895.........-...-.-..---.---- 548 use of Canadian field peas as food.........../.....2.i Jaen eee 224 value of exports to different countries. ...............-..........-- 546 Hosackia purshiana (wild vetch), value as a forage plant........-.-.-.--- 318 House wren. (See Wren, house.) ae INDEX. Howarp, L. O., article on ‘‘ The shade-tree insect problem in the Eastern Lc Ep eS eS ey Poe ey a ee insect rating of 50 varieties of shade trees......__.._.___- Human and animal diseases, remarks on similarity ___._..___.-______. -__- foods, notes and oS ESET SMEG COP: en es nae Humates, experiments at Minnesota Experiment Station .-...._.------__.. TUS CLOS SIO ee i. es. Sbatee Byes COL eek Se oo Geuneison, means of increasing... 22229212. 12s... 2.2---2-...-- ; UES ees ei 22 OR een a ee Humus, amount of nitrogen contained in different soils___--.______-_----- MCE OL GMS HOU S8o527 Ube. J. Oy ose eee oe eee Mes DOlane pti, OLNCrOPA hore) =o tite oa i LL oa Se 0 LENS 6) See ee Sk a te rR IEA 2.8 re emt on ede be PLE al. oo. eek ee sumcwons performed in the soil__...2-.2-.3<.--.---.-----------..- in its relation to soil fertility, article by Harry § nore ders 25.2 its 1oss Causes decline in fertility -.s:2..2..-....-..----.----.-..-- a TONE ST ao a ge se RE Fone RRS PAS Rn Tg me Se nell. Bireoy OL tall plowing ~~. 202228 le .c. 22. nc cckacns- influences of different systems of farming BNA SOL MIT CAIN 22S ee Ue OS ese ie tes de MIMEAMTIO MaII TRI TNIONAR 222 5 Do ee SSS ek water capacity of soils containing different amounts-_-----..-_-__- Hyacinth, water, injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95__-__-.-..--.------ Hyphantri ia cunea (fall webworm), shade-tree insect............---------- Icterus bullocki (oriole), distribution and food habits .-_._._........_--_-_- galbula (Baltimore oriole), distribution and food habits_-_._______- Imported elm leaf-beetle, life history and habits .-__-_-_-_--..--.--.-..--__.- Dine GUPeOed piams: oo 8 So So aoe ee original home and present distribution. -________- SS SATE RL Sse a a mee anign exports Of rapeseed —_..---_-... -<2. oe, te eg ee ON ee MPntenGiaeTam SHOWS Cubs. o-. 22.8) 2S dressed, and live stock, freight rates from Chicago to New York---- average wholesale prices at London Central Meat Market__ imported into Great Britain, average price per 100 pounds--_--__.--- quantity and value of imports, 1891-1895__..__..........--.-------- Melicocca bijuga (Spanish lime), injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95-___- fee Benes, tise bor Producing Ol 662. coe co nape dnn deen e aenene Merchandise, total values of exports, 1890-1895___................--.-.---- EES OU Eh TOG LON TD cel Ss SEN, el ea ec late Sil iw ils ial Mesquite grasses, or graina grasses, as forage plants____._...._._-.-.--.--- geeuric Byaeemn, explanation and tables... .- 2. 2.d- oo. See en Mexican cotton-boll weevil. (See Cotton-boll weevil, Mexican. ) Poppy seed, Wse sm producing. oll. 32.2 ke Le eels . Mexico, cattle imported, number of head inspected__.__.._....-.-..------- Michigan Agricultural College, experiments with irrigating system. --.--.- Ohio, and West Virginia experiment stations, experiments with Be COre MUON INMTION — Uc. Gc wanes ches aweWeoenwcnsduewe 644 INDEX. Page. Microbe causing pear blight, life history 2... 220.22 2. 222s eee ee ee 296 Microscopy, Division, abolishment _ .___.cdecois ke 1 oe ee 57 Milch cows. (See Cows, milch.) Milk and kerosene emulsion formula. ...:..2..3.2. sie. 2. ee 585 as carrier of infectious diseases..-+.2...-.s22il.1.2.-<.32c. eee 431 experiments on removal of tubercle bacilli--......-....----------..-2 437 how it becomes contaminated with bacteria..............--....---.-- 433 to eliminate the danger of infection... _.__2-..2.._.222bu2e sane 443 methods for destroying or removing bacteria _-____---_-------.----.-- 435 quantity and value of imports, 1891-1895_..._..........-... <-.22 223 548 separators, experiments -....-_ 2. +-.-4)~-s.-- +++ --5 360 se 437 ineficiency in removing bacteria, article by Veranus A. Moore .. 3222245222 5-2 a oie fos. Serta ee 431 sugar, per cent in different varieties of cheese_.....-----------------. 456 Milkweed, suggested use asa pot herb_....2....-.... 2.4.34) 214 Mill products, fertilizing constituents_.........-2.-.2-s-.-2. 250 567 Mimus polyglottos (mocking bird), distribution and food habits -.........- 415 Mineral food of plants, remarks._....-....-2.-2..55_l 362 in cities and towns, general work against them_-_-_-_-_- 380 trees, insect rating of 50 varieties by L.O. Howard-_--....._-.-..--- i. list, relative immunity from insects._— 52 oe 378 rating of 50 varieties by B. B. Fernow 22.22 ee 377 relative immunity from insects..__ ...--- = 2-2 ee 377 Saw, THOMAS, article on ‘‘ Canadian field peas ”.._.....-.___222) ee 223 Sheds, employment in the culture of pineapples...........-..------------- 274 Sheep, exports from Ireland to Great Britain for eight months in 1895_---- 23 1891-1895... ....--.-~--.+-ss22-2-2 be 543 inspected for exportation, 1895_-__...-....__. 2-0 ae 11 number and value January 1, 1891-1896______-_.___ _-_2o eee 535 imported from Canada -= 22... ._--. 0 13 in Great’ Britain in 1696). 225221: 212. eee ee 25 lost in transit in 1895and 1894. _ __ -2... ical ee 12 price and value January 1, 1896, by States__.._.-._.-.---22. 535 quantity and value of imports 1891-1895__......-..............2mces 548 shipments, dangers and difficulties... --/....22t._. 2) See il use of Canadian field peas for food... ... Lio 224 value of exports to different countries. ..- .-....52.5. 2a 546 Sheldon, Prof. J. P., remarks on oleomargarine cheese __.......-. -----_---- 467 Shellac varnish, used in pruning.........2....-.2. 22,0 oS 268 Shoe strings, value asforage plants...........-....... cL 318 Silage, composition o£ different kinds...........<.-l.cl lh 560 Silk, quantity and value of imports, 1891-1895............-...-.-.-.-..... 549 Silver maple, growth on the Western plains...... .....--.-.-./.s..022ioe 346 Sinapis alba (white mustard) seed, use in producing oil_..............--- 203 Sisal grass, quantity and value of imports, 1891-1895.....................- 549 Slender broom sedge, nlote .......--. ...0-2 -t.. Sou 827 Sling psychrometer, description and how to use_....-.......---.-.-..--.-. 150 Small-fruit culture, choice of location .._..-.....2.5. 2... Jue ee 284 general requirements... ......-...-.... 30. pene planting and cultivation............... noe 286 preparation of soil... ...........2... Scuba 284 remarks on manuring 22.2222 2.0. .< Suns 285 Se ——— INDEX. Sanallarnit culinre, selection of plania..2......-2...5....08......--...-.-- Pali, DArVesiine ame MARwoMNe ......-- cok. 5. ee... ee eens, SSL eee, | ep ae SMITH, JARED G., article on ‘‘ Forage conditions of the prairie region” ___. seen Prof, John B., experience in spraying against imported elm leaf- I 8 Bn eee me ee oon Smoke and fire as a protection against frost __......-..-------------------. Smudging orchards, description of apparatus -._._.----.--_.-.----_------- SnypER, Harry, article on ‘‘ Humus in its relation to soil fertility ”_-_.__- mead merosene emulsion formula._.___-. _.._.-_-___- 2 oi. -------.-- nmninate, commercial value... 2-22 wees se ---- = consumption for manurial purposes--...-..--.-----------. ore TES A EE, Nate Ze elegy ne: cous gn San eee ee Ls Pe BLOM pane teenie pe oe. Nr Sg aS et koa memenied LO culture Of Madia sativa ......--.. --- -_-+-+-.--------.----- FSIP DEA I OTUCHINENING ray Pc gee Pes ok So ee lt characteristics, climate, and irrigation methods of California, article ESET SS A ap ee Pe oe Oe we Pek ce eee cultivation, meaning of the term; when practiced Pere RINOS (tL Ono amines? <0) oe eh eee efforts of Edmund Ruffin to increase the fertility ferments. (See Ferments of the soil.) fertility, relation of humus, article by Harry Snyder _----_-.-----.---- for plants in greenhouses, chemical and mechanical conditions --_--__--. eran inereases lin merimiitye os 2) le eo eee ste e COSA PETS GeullPetgt) 50S a oh a 0 OR Oa ISD erg eevee iene pee ee OREO SeE SE Meee RIEL ISOUT NON eabo co a0. et SS eee et ee eek influences of different systems on farming __---_--------------- in greenhouses, importance of free access of air_._...-..-------------- PEOos COMpPaChNe by PUOWANE 2 oe se PPC: MnaCKenSsmIe tO Maes. 2 oe be PSM teat e EATS eee SER te eye ep ee ee CNGOA OL resGhVNe.... 2b eee ee ee nitrification. (See Nitrification of soil.) tree planting in the Western plains -._._...-.-...----- reasons for cultivating, article by Milton Whitney remarks on use for protecting plants from frosts _-_....-...-..--------- nse se os ee a ge ie Ss ed eo adil et VE (Gin) Sree SORE sae Oe cd Gs Oi ee Beets ee EO pee Bine ior fermenia, procawizons .. i202 - 2224-5 2.1. 22. Ree inl) WibriLyine Organisms __.. 2042. a es ke oe see LGN E OUUAIEE: 20 n Ce e St ee eoe COCON SESE UTETCT NS 5 aa go Se ee ey Te Mes, acapiability for Canadian field peas _......__- .......-.+.-+.-2.----- Agricultural, Division. (See Agricultural Soils, Division.) alkali. (See Alkali soils.) burnimne over a source.of less of Immmus._-_.. 2-3.) . ~~ 22 2 eee containing different amounts of humus, water capacity -.--.-.------ MRRNIRDIMRTL IV ULL TINGE RTT fee os oo cs oh ago ee ewe Se local, study by Division of Agricultural Soils_---.......--.-..------- typical, texture at different localities, with notes_-........-..-.-.-.--- Pim eeGns, Sonera) Memerks O09. Ao sp ca see eo e-ee EET hg | Se oe oF Primm erop suiable for alkali soulg_.- 2... 1-2 - -.20e---+-----.-- Sour sop, injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95. ._..............--.------.-- Bewine Wanadian ficld peas, methods... 28 2. ens se----.---- Spain and Italy, amonnt of sodium nitrate used for manurial purposes. -- - - pork imported from United States in 1895_.._................------- Spanish lime, injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95__._..............----- Spartina cynosuroides (cord grass), value as a forage plant-------.-.-------- (fresh-water cord grass), description -.........------ juncea (fox grass), chemical composition _.-......--------------- (red salt grass), characteristics and uses..........-------- 652 INDEX. Page. Spartina junctformég notes .- ......” Se Ss 338 Temperatures, different, effects on germination of seeds _.__.___.._.-_.-_-- 178 minimum, in Florida during freezes of 1886 and 1894-95__._ 160 Tetragonia expansa (New Zealand spinach), introduction into United States 2 ee ae ae ee ee 214 ioORae fever, cost.and export Inspection __.2-.-.-.-.-2T----.------..----<-.- 13 only disease controlled by inspection...-....--.....--.-------- 12 PORaEEDEe SOAR OSs et Ree eRe Rn cons no dee ew deed 12 urasver. brown, distribution and food habits-..............-------.----- 411 TOMA MET OOC Aa Nsom. Sa ee eke 405 table showing stomach contents___--._..--.-.---------- 418 Total MATSReR. Abed. 2. . Si 2-) ane be ee eee eee 325 Senay oravie £0 Niirmication .....--..-2220 2244 2---<--- oes --es-e--- 77 SPEDE TT ENOMCG ONICTODS ~.2 2 See en enon wee jae te nee noe 338 investigation, work of Division of Forestry ..----.--..-------------- 38 —lumber—wood, useful notes...._......-.-.-.----------- 2 ae ae 590 Peet CLEBCTS Ol SPASONINE oe so 2 20 8 os oe Je 591 measurement-_.--_---- peace Pet ee Re eee en ees 591 iiesarea ii ypemeeeeee eee ee ae Bie ete peg IB ere a 590 Siihadt teste: GvaYs Usyijaey hag As es ae an ee a ee nee ene 591 Timothy seed, effect of different temperatures on germination ____.-_.____- 178 ECD OLiG Oot —tounss: 8220 2h 2 ee ee eee se yee to 545 leaf, average farm prices December, 1886-1895 _._.._......-..-..- 532 quantity, acreage, and value in 1895, by States_...._._.-.-.--_--- 532 and value of imports, 1891-1695. --.._--. -.. 2. -=-- eb aw 550 seed, effect of different temperatures on germination-_.....-.._-- 78 OIE Thal sh fol Rakesh a {20} | eae ea ee cn ae a RD 204 waliueroL exports to dierent countries -...._._...--.:---------=-- 547 Serate wenoral Tromarks -...---2.-.5..-......1-4--..---.------------. 261 Town and cities, general work against shade-tree insects _..._.-.---.------ 380 Transplanting woody plants, importance of proper root development - ----- 259 SEMEeE Cistance table... 22. ..._...--.-221-.-.----2---5-- os oeoce 592 in the Western plains, article by Charles A. Keffer ___.____-_- 341 availability of species..........-.-..-- 344 illustrative mixtures of species_---- 351, 353 objects sought... ---.-.-..--- Ce ee os, ig ee he EE Le tt 342 scheme for the sand hills----- Fete ea eae ae Pee ea 356 shade, insect problem in the eastern United States, article by L. O. LTD EPEIGG ye 2 al en el ee Aiea me ee Vee “year er Pape ce eet ae 361 Trees, citrus, banking with earth a protection against freezing.._-._...--- 165 training of trunk a protection against freezing -......--..--- 165 forest, protection against freezing of citrus fruits __......-.-...-.--- 164 for the Western plains, adaptability of species.........-.-.--.------ 345 directions for planting. __--_---- Boge, eee 358 eeneral culture notes - 6. ee Soe objections to planting single species --.-..---- 347 remarks on close planting .-.......---...---- 350 rulcs for mixed plantings. .<-...5.-2.-2-2-2 347 fruit. (See Fruit trees.) list relative:to immunity from insects =.......-..2....2..-...2...--- 378 orchard, injuries from alternate freezing and thawing _.--.--------- 157 Peuning Toow in transplanting: $23. 222 ou i <) 8. oe eee one nee ee 260 Pie GL COVelOpment OL Spocieses = = '- . .eusaes—- st aeke ne Seka Se 349 PUMTEVE OL UTANCS, OL SNddeesale es 2 ieee 34s Mom 2 LS 348 rubber, or wild fig, injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-05 .__.__- 2 at ee rating of 50 varieties, by B. E. Fernow.--...-..-..--.----- er. pe 377 Fo suemoroananity from ineecte.o. . .. spb end'S. = ~~ 3+ See 377 shade, insects, rating of 50 varieties, by L. O. Howard ._.._---___.-- 377 Trenching, the best methods of loosening the soil. ._....._.-- Sb jak oun de 126 Troglodytes aédon (house wren), distribution and food habits ...........-- 416 Tubercle bacilli, experiments in removing from milk -_..-.....-...---.---- 437 mueney-L00b, valde asa forage plant........./ 522-2. 02.22.22. -.-----<--.-- 318 REITs Tibet ROR kes we io Soak dae iw a cca ood eon ade os 210 654. “* INDEX. Page, Tussock moth, white-marked, food plants Beh Stic a ibee cn cen ee 368 life historysand habits .................i-4. 869 original home and present distribution...t.. 368 Temgawes fh. S: 9 Le Ste... oo eee 373 shade-treeimgect ...... 2¢-.2-: 22229 eee 368 Typhlocyba vitifex (grape leaf hopper), description and methods of injury Underdrainage, antiquity of the practice... .............l2....22_ eee 129 principles discussed -...-.. 4... ---- swe oe 139 United Kingdom, imports of butter from various countries, 1893-1895 _____ 30 cheese from various countries, 1893-1895 _____ 29 eggs from various countries, 1893-1895 _______ 30 number and value of cattle imported, 1893-1895__________ 23 quantity and value of beef imported in 1893-1895 ________ 22 mutton imported, 1893-1895______ 25 source of honey supply .-..__- ._...--___) 31 States, amount of sodium nitrate used for manurial purposes -_____- 90 exports of bacon to United Kingdom, 1893-1895____________- 17 beef to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 ____......___- 22 butter to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 .: 2-2 30 cheese to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 _____._.___- 29 hams to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 _______._____ alg lard to United Kingdom, 1893-1895 _____._______- iy pork to United Kingdom, 1893-1895_____.__._.__- 17 number and value of cattle exported to United Kingdom, 1898-1895 (2. oo ee oie ete oe 23 Varnish, shellac, used in pruning . .......-.-.___-- 268 Veal, diagram showing cuts of meat ._..-______ 572 Vegetable and fruit canning in United States, statistics _............_...._ 552 dietary, some additions, article by Frederick V. Coville.________ 205 food, average composition... -_..-.-.--. Le 578 of meadow lark, percentage... ____... _-_ eee 425 OTEOLS on ni on ei we 430 Physiology and Pathology, Division, comments on operations by Secretary... <_ 12 ee 45 exhibit at Atlanta Exposition _.___- 514 organization and duties____.._._--- - 525 Vegetables, exports, 1891-1895... 02. eo oe | rm 545 fertilizing constituents _.-......-.—.. 567 value of exports to different countries...._.......-.--.------.- 547 Vegetation, native, of Florida, injuries by freezes in 1894-95___.___..-___._- 172 Vessel inspection by Department... 2 12 Vetch, wild, value as a forage plant......__-_.__._._._ be 818 Vetches, value as forage plants _.._.-..-...-./5..--. -- he ee ee 318 Vinegar, quantity and value of imports, 1891-1895_-_-.-.-..-..-.-.----._-.. 550 Virginia, colonial, characteristics, conditions, and influences... .......--- 494 general remarks on agriculture .......2...3.- saan 493 Vitality of the soil, remarks . 22. 252. we emneire == wo = 69 Wait, Ropert E., article on ‘‘ The work of the Department of Agriculture ag illustrated at the Atlanta Exposition” _...... .....Lsscese anne 503 Waiter, M. B., article on ‘‘ The cause and pr evention of pear blight” ...... 295 Wales, number of head of cattle in June, 1895 _.......-..-----------e----- 18 Walnut, black, growthion the Western plaing_._......... <1 uss ae 346 Warnings, cold-wave, value to agricultural products_..........--..--..... 32 Water, amount used for irrigation in California........--..- Lille 480 as a protection for oranges and lemons against freezes _........-.-. 164 capacity of soils containing different amounts of humus... ......-- 138 for the farm, influence of forests in providing -.........-...-..-s.. 337 how it enters the soil. 2 ns os Soc bee wet deel ae ee 123 hyacinth, injury by freezes in Florida in 1894—95__._.._..........-- 178 lettuce, injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95 ........-..-...--.- «aS method of applying in garden irrigation .........--.........------- 238 distribution in irrigating the garden ..................-.- 235 per cent in different varieties of cheese..............-.----2-..-..5 456 ell ti a Mi INDEX. Water, remarks on use in greenhouses ....-.------------------------------ Supply Of crops, am BUMUR see. ......22.-4~.- 2Wae + -- a2--bae-- various methods of obtaining --.....---.-..-.--..- comments on operations by Secretary -__------------------ exiibit at Atlanta Exposition._- ._.. -._-...-..-...----.- PEA RODE Osh DOLIARGO. ale Fee EE eo oe Lo Or amimnitOn ANG GUbIel . -~- <3 3- ee tee forecasts, comments by Secretary_-.-—..-------_.--4--..----.--.--- map, daily, use in foretelling frosts ES EC Oe. 2 ae eein es lk” TL aah Calpe iy elena ire ee ee eS WEBBER, HERBERT J., article on aaee pineapple industry in the United Chesil be See! - ARE eats ec nee ‘* Two freezes of 1894-95, and what they GRU rep a aes, ce eee 2 SE Me See Webster, W. F., note on oriole puncturing grape Webworm, fall. (See Fall webworm.) 'eeee peecar, value as forage plants.._._......--...-.----.-.--.--------~- list of 200; how to know them and how to kill them____________--- Weevil, Mexican cotton-boll. (See Cotton-boll weevil, Mexican.) West Virginia, Ohio, and Michigan experiment stations, experiments with I EERE ket ae ke we dm pe yp oma Wheat, average farm prices December 1, 1886-1895 Peeuces it Crop area in 1879 and 1889-_--____.....-.:.-.--.--..--4.- crop of the world, 1891-1895, by countries_..............-------.-- meopedion Of crap Of 1805, by States. ......-----.-=----.----.---=- < effect of different temperatures on germination_____.....___-.----- MEL SE OU ee eee. Se oe a a ean ae cn ee farm prices December 1, 1891-1895, by States_----.----------------- PEELS Got OU OMMer - ae ioe. ee, Se a ee production and exports, 1893-1895 quantity, acreage, and value, by States, for 1895 - and valieior tripartite; 1891—-1lB9b 2 es ee cee value of exports to different countries _.-.-..-....-.....-----..-.-.- wholesale prices at leading cities of United States, 1891-1895 White-marked tussock moth. (See Tussock moth, white-marked.) fAtard. need, sein Prouucing Oil .. 22.2. 2). A ek eu nss tc oak of California, tree suitable for alkali soils_____._...._..--.---__- WHITNEY, MILTON, article on ‘‘ Reasons for cultivating the soil” _____-_--- Sena aGiot OF THO SOl> remarks --2 © 22 2 To kee emeuaticy. valueias a forace plant... ..)..-_.- 2. -2.-------- a. Le enone fig, or rubber trees, injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95 mustard. (Same as black mustard.) nveerase, value asa forage plant. |. 2 "_. -_-..-.._.....-1 ee ‘Wormeeed, use in producing oi... 22222-22122 te ee Wounds in woody plants, care and pruning, article by Albert F. Woods__- on stem and branches, remarks on healing_____.__--...----.------ Wren, house,-distribution and.food habits_-_-__....-...222_- 3S remarks on food. habits. -.__ _ 2. 5._=. 2... 22222 eee table showing stomach contents__.._-...-=-.----_ ae Xanthoxylum pterota (satin wood), injury by freezes in Florida in 1894-95_ Zizania aquatica (Indian rice), description __.-.........------------------ i) S U.S. Dept. of Agriculture 21 Yearbook of agriculture A35 1895 | cop.3 Biological & Medical Serials PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY Biologicai & Medica! Serials, ¢ = Weel : > 2 ae fe a ee