a BCA eta ray: 4) tise ial a Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from University of Toronto http://www.archive.org/details/yearbookofagricu1897unit FRONTISPIECE (‘punoiBaio} ayy ur ‘ayinbsaw Ajino Jo ‘ssesd ojeyjyng) 3JHYNLINDINODW 4O LNAWLYVd3g “S ‘M JO SGNNOYD NO N3GHYVy ssvyuy YEARBOOK OF THE Pere S LAE ES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. oud. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1898. [PuBLIC—No. 23. ] AN ACT providing for the public printing and binding and distribution of public documents. Section 73, paragraph 2: The Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture shall hereafter be submitted and printed in two parts, as follows: Part one, which shall contain purely busi- ness and executive matter which it is necessary for the Secretary to submit to the President and Congress; part two, which shall contain such reports from the different bureaus and divisions, and such papers prepared by their special agents, accompanied by suitable illustrations, as shall, in the opinion of the Secretary, be specially suited to interest and instruct the farmers of the country, and to include a general report of the operations of the Department for their information. There shall be printed of part one, one thousand copies for the Senate, two thousand copies for the House, and three thousand copies for the Department of Agriculture; and of part two, one hundred and ten thousand copies for the use of the Senate, three hundred and sixty thousand copies for the use of the House of Representa- tives, and thirty thousand copies for the use of the Department of Agriculture, the illustrations for the same to be executed under the supervision of the Public Printer, in accordance with directions of the Joint Committee on Printing, said illustrations to be subject to the approval of the Secretary of Agriculture; and the title of each of the said parts shall be such as to show that such part is com- plete in itself. 2 = e | AZ5 \8o7 Ser 8 PREFACE. Under date July 14, 1897, the Secretary of Agriculture, in calling upon the chiefs of bureaus, divisions, and offices of the Department of Agriculture for contributions to the Yearbook of the Department for 1897, used the following language: It is my earnest wish that the Yearbook shall be of such a popular character and of sueh value to practical agriculture as to justify the enormous edition issued by Congress. Every one contributing to it should be fully impressed with the fact that every page contained in the Yearbook costs the country $500, and is designed to be distributed to half a million persons. As the reputation of the Department is assuredly a matter of pride to every one of its officers and scientific workers, I feel confident of the hearty cooperation of each one of you in making this book the best book of its kind ever issued. As soon as the subjects upon which you propose to submit papers are presented to me for consideration, I shall indicate which of them will be acceptable, that the work of preparation may be undertaken as promptly as possible. The editing of the Yearbook for 1897 will be confided, as in the case of the other publications of the Department, to the Chief of the Division of Publications, under the personal direction of the Secretary. This expression by the head of the Department affords a clew to the principles which have controlled the preparation of the Year- book. Moreover, from the titles of the articles submitted by the several chiefs as available, the Secretary of Agriculture himself made the selection. In addition to the miscellaneous articles thus selected, the Secretary called upon each chief in charge of a special branch of the Department work not purely administrative for an article setting forth the character of the work done by him for the farmer. The precise nature of the article desired is indicated in the Secretary’s call as follows: S * 5 of in addition to such other suitable articles as may be necessary, the forthcoming Yearbook, 1897, should contain an article from each chief of bureau, division, and office outside of those that are purely administra- tive, which shall set forth in plain terms the relation of the work of his bureau, division, or office to the farmer. The existence of the Department is justified precisely so far as it aids the farmer to be a successful farmer, and my desire is that the article called for should present clearly to the reader just how the division of the work in your charge achieves that purpose. e' zn A Thus it will be seen that the Yearbook for 1897 has been con- structed on lines laid down by the present head of the Department. The practical carrying out of the work as thus outlined has called for a subdivision of the book into four main parts. The first, as 3 4 PREFACE, usual, consists of the annual report of the Secretary of Agriculture for the fiscal year 1897, and its publication fills the requirement of the law (see paragraph on page 2) that the Yearbook shall ‘‘ include a general report of the operations of the Department.” The second part contains the papers setting forth the work of the several bureaus and divisions and bears the general title ‘‘ Work of the Department for the Farmer.” In the papers in this second part considerable diversity is shown, the several chiefs differing widely in the manner of presenting the nature of the relation of their branch of the work to the farmer, but the majority incline to an historical account of the division itself. By direction, considerable latitude was allowed to each chief in telling his story, hence the variety of forms referred to; but those who are interested in knowing what service the Department undertakes to render to the farmers of this country,and the methods by which it seeks to accomplish it, will certainly find this information here. The miscellaneous papers in the third part, eighteen in number, were, With a single exception, prepared by the chiefs of the bureaus and divisions and their expert assistants. This part fairly illustrates the extent and variety of the scientific work and, with the account given in the second part of the character of the work undertaken, should serve to remove the not infrequently incorrect impression con- veyed as to the nature of the duties devolving upon the scientific staff of the Department, owing no doubt to the inappropriate title of ‘Chief of Division” by which most of those composing it are officially designated. The fourth part, the ‘‘ Appendix,” contains information which should be available to every farmer and which is of value to all who are interested, even indirectly, in agriculture. Beginning with an extended presentation of the organization of the Department, a list of the agricultural colleges and stations in the several States, and a list of the Department publications for the year, it includes data on feeding, fertilizers, fungicides, a list of one hundred of the most val- uable trees in the United States, with their characteristics and uses and their preferred environment; tables showing the number and value of farm animals, the acreage and value of the principal crops, the imports and exports of agricultural products, transportation rates, and a record of the weather condition throughout the year. The several bureaus, divisions, and offices of the Department have been drawn upon to supply this collection of agricultural facts, and it has not been found necessary or feasible to credit each particular one with every item contributed by it, except in ease of statistical tables and meteorological information, the authority for which it has been deemed best to indicate. ’ GEO. WM. HILL, Editor Yearbook. CONTENTS SE, GG DOULOUE Vaty ac ee nce aise.) cbs oane eae peek afeu Ske Work of the Department for the Farmer The Weather Bureau. By Willis L. neshes: ithe eee. Ste UTA Ss Division of Chemistry. By H. W. Wiley -- a See. SER Cee Division of Entomology. By L.0O. Howard . WUscu lod phos ee Division of Botany. By Gemdurick V. Coville Kn oT Bree see Division of Vegetable Physiology and ated be By B, T. hashes di iuvimion oF Pomology. « BY G. Bi brackett -- 2.1.2 .20520 201-122-228. PeeCen oUunvoy. Ly OC. art Merriam: 2.2). ctl lee Division of Soils. By Milton RO, Soe ae ee A ea yd ee ie es ee ea Office of Experiment Stations. By A.C. True___.___--. =o caged, SAM nd oN Se eeiOn spOrenury... Bey-as. 25, POTnG Ws. vison Lil Division of Agrostology. By F.Lamson-Scribner_._.-_....-..-.------ fee On SON LUUUITY., sby OY MUONS.) 2c ol i ss ee Experimental Gardens and Grounds. By William Saunders ____.___-- Division of Publications. By Geo. Wm. Hill : iy SUS Be 2. eer. aoe WN Et MLC ce ie. oo ee ek sak ee BA SESE BUTS Office of Fiber Investigations. By Chas. Richards ates HO) 7 DIS Sele Bureau of Animal Industry. By D.E.Salmon ___...- aS See eed Sie. Ge MURIBtICS, (CD Y sO erydee. se sf) ee bee ola Section of Foreign Markets. By Frank H. Hitchcock_._._..._...._.-_- Popular Education for the Farmer in the United States. By A. C. True___ Every Farm an Experiment Station. By Ervin E. Ewell__.._.___----.---- The Fruit Industry, and Substitution of Domestic for Foreign-grown Fruits. Pen Sen RG De Yt) eka asl oon sei ed ew dae eo se SCs te Re TOR eOs | bey olilas ORIG. oo. 2k. Seals ao ak biel Lawns and Lawn Making. By F. Lamson-Scribner _____.........._.-_-.-- noCy-iaeHsOn t0nGn.. by oy Stone. 0.2. 8os Ate ie. soc. leche ee Hybrids and their Utilization in Plant Breeding. By Walter T. Swingle ewer MP GRIen i. 5. eck 21 iA Sor Je te aioe am and Requirements of a Control of Feeding Stuffs. By E. W. MNES MAE ERE ee) by) hs a ec ae ae elcia teal ee sae tea Some Interesting Soil Problems. By Milton Whitney. .._._.___._...._...- Additional Notes on Seed Testing. By Gilbert H. Hicks and Sothoron Key- Some Edible and Poisonous Fungi. By W.G. Farlow. .__....._...------ The Present Status of Flax Culture in the United States. By Chas. en RRREE Sn. #) P05 bars Aneto tk eva Cee Sees ce kT posable Leguminous Forage Crops. By Jared G. Smith____._____.....- 2-222 2. 2. Utilization of By-products of the Dairy. By Henry BE. Alvord____-- eewesac Danger of Importing Insect Pests. By L. O. Howard._.__.__..___._.-__-- oe Agricultural Outlook of the Coast Region of Alaska. By Waiter H. ee abt ee ts oe A ote ss eek geet Be full Agricultural Production and Prices. By George K. Holmes_______.______- mummies OF tne Crop Senson. By A:\J, Henry. .......2-.2.-.).. 22 .-2.2.22.- Appendix: Organization of the Department of Agriculture, December 31, 1897 ___- Appropriations for the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal years RM TePRIEEIOL, SOHN, ORIN POC So ek cy ce eee cece Agricultural colleges and other institutions in the United States having eee et aat He PIOUN eNO, ike US oe See cute le Si 2s... Agricultural experiment stations of the United States, their locations, directors, and principal lines of work _..__..._-_._---_---.--- ATS 2 Notes regarding Department publicutions: 2 2) 22. )8 Sse lt een... Publications issued J anuary 1, 1897, to December 31, 1897___._..__----- Methods of controlling injurious iA aS aes! Muse. fe i0 rs: Peeoeremcd ane. use Of insecticides... 5.05.2) 222 222-2 eae ee Ree en be kaa Se deuukst RAMU Meee. wen Pees ota ee 6 CONTENTS. Appendix —Continued. ar ; Twenty-five most harmful weeds - ; ee Ret ‘Trees important in forestry _.. List of one hundred species of trees sof the United States most valuable for timber, with notes on their range of distribution, cultural require- ments, and the character and uses of their wood .._.. ~ a Pe ee Useful birds and harmful birds. : Amount and cost of grass seed pe r acre The metric system .....-.-.----- as Some foreign monetar Y QUI, <» cceced olie vo cndee + ene OE eee eee Treatment for fun; gous diseases of plants—formulas for fungicides _. Woods TOF WAN .... 22sec cuneeeee ee ja wéieweedieten ae th Composition of typical American flours. | «Spee aes os ae Bs Effect upon soil of growing various crops. . cewGaie «wade bite op ee Restoration of fertility of i. SR ORRRRIR “Ts Er atre 1 < a te*) Distances apart for planting fruits in commercial plantations. -_.._____- Review of weather and crop conditions, season of 1897__..--. ....-.-- Statistics of the principal crops and farm animals... occe.codcvadas Acreage, production, and value of the principal farm crops in the United States, 1906 to 1807... cece ee Ee ee eee Acreage, production, value, and disposition of the corn crop of the United States in 1907, by States....<.. 2... 226. ese et eee Acreage, production, value, and disposition of the wheat crop of the United States in 1897 , by SRA con 15s Eck cue. Ae Acreage, production, value, and disposition of the oat crop of the United States in 1897, by States osm wrop of 1800-07. ©... kee tS BL ee eee The world’s cotton production, by countries The world’s cotton crop—1865 to 1895 Thue world’s consumption of cotton ..-2 2.2.5 <2. se ncsi oes Whent crop of the world, 1808 to 1807_< cu -. cece Lcks ccc t-te Recapitulation, by combines? 5c oo. cine, oe es ee Average yield per acre of the principal farm crops, 1893 to 107 Average value per acre of the principal farm crops, 1893 to 1897_____-- Prices of principal agricultural products on the farm December 1, 1893 Of. (i ie eee ee NS Be Wholesale prices of principal agricultural products in leading cities of the United States, 1892 to 1897. naw acs ant Set Sik. S ee ae Number and value of farm animals in the United States, 1879 to 1898__ Aver a value of farm animals in the United States on January 1, 1879 Wy TBO Se. ees a a ei ee + RE eee ee Number, average price, and total vaiue of farm animals in the United States on January I, 1808, by States... 2.26025. eee Imports and exports of agricultural products_..........--.--------.-- Agricultural imports of the United States during the five years ended NS TOOT te aes SSA. 8 ces ee eee es et eee Agric ultural exports (domestic) of the United States during the five years ended June 30, 1897 Average prices for imports Se GNTOTie.. 23.056 2c ecu ececed Lee Average import price of agricultural products imported into the United States during each of the five fiscal years 1893-1897, and also during the.six months ended December 81, 1897 ...._.......----------------- Average export price of agricultural products exported from the United States, 1893-1897 Sugar RbiEION 20 05 asc Metron ee Rees ca oes Value of sugar imported into the United States from the principal countries of supply during each fiscal year from 1893 to 1897, inclu- MVS os. oo Ok dinw waee wien ne aw nee + Roe aCe ek. Sa eee, eee Quantity of sugar imported into the United States from the princi countries of supply during each fiscal year from 1893 to 1897, Fi Pe siet oe cass a ch ces dv eet ba dvesee eee siete Geet eee Average price per pound of ‘‘Standard A” sugar in the New York mar- ket and average consumption of sugar of all grades, per capita of pop- ulation, in the United States from 1878 to 1897 Tea, coffee, ane Tenors. |. 2321. Best ce at oe Sa ees ee 2 Consumption of tea, coffee, wines, distilled spirits, and malt liquors in the United States, per capita of a se 1870 to 1897 Transportation rates Oe ee ee ee ee ee ee en ee ee 753 ewe quite, in PLATE I. i. IIT. IV. Vs a VII. VIII. XII. LL OVS Re TLONS. PLATES. Page. Grass garden on grounds of U.S. Department of Agriculture (Buffalo grass, or curly mes- ; aca aE RRR the Bs ores 28 Be So oe aie ddd nai mbna inane om Sea Frontispiece. Microscopic inspection of pork at Chicago, Tll., by the Bureau of Animal Industry Fig. 1.—Dairy building, University of Minnesota. Fig.2.—Girls’ Home building, SPGIIGCn GE PU PUOUIUING) MAAIRSIONOUN S Ox osc dade ce op ten sec win ewes sudan eramenson sane PRUNES Cees so cases $8 5 ere te hee fens Pe Ee aie ec i eb Bee aes Re Dh ial ee tet LS eee ete ieee ieee a ae a Dat le on cant aden naam 6m) ON OR ths once Sr ga laa inc SR eG Ee Aa ee a owe Cuca ttn aee amas ITEP Ieee SLE eh ahs oar eae ee eal S Seta Boe ee ama cee nae eee Fig. 1.—A turf_of Kentucky blue grass (as seen from above, designed to show texture). Fig. 2.—A turf of orchard grass (as seen from above, designed to Ray RUMretUee Or DOT. porigedy o265 2 fa. est cn bes Sola emer es a eed oe . Fig. 1.—The lawn mowers, or turf makers, of Central Park, New York. Fig. 2.— The lawn mowers, or turf makers, of Druid Hill Park, Baltimore, Md-___..__- . Fig. 1..—A turf of fine-leafed fescue grass (as seen from above, designed to show texture). Fig. 2.—A turf of mixed grasses and white clover (as seen from BDOVGPGOSIPTIOG. TO GROW Lex unre) «66 oe oad alee dma eeedooctbeocoe : af 1.—A turf of Buffalo grass (as seen fromabove, designed toshow texture). i a: ae turf of Bermuda grass (as seen from above, designed to show tex- RRS eR ser ek ee Se ee eee we eS eee Jc ee chee Fig. 1.—A turf of a fine-leafed bent grass (as seen from above, designed to show texture). Fig. 2.—A turf of a coarse-leafed bent grass (as seen from above, ES SC Ske ae 2 eee pn Py Ce te Nat ate XI. Fig 1.—Transplanting turf at the turf garden, South Manchester, Conn. Fig. 2.—Lawn in public gardens, Boston, Mass ...._ 2. -..--- 22... -2e eee ne ee XIV. Fig. 1.—A lawn at Newport, R. I. Fig. 2.—A bit of landscape with shaded lawn, PRIOR S EOE, PRUade pie, PM ia ok Oe es ees Seite acne XV. Road building by U. 8. Department of Agriculture at Geneva, N. Y., showing aR en tg ler Ee ne 0s Oh NT EC, oy nae LO XVI. Fig. 1.—Working the road machine. Fig, 2.—Road building by U. S. Department of Agriculture for New Jersey Agricultural College and Experiment Station, be Ry RS pe ee SARS Td en fe Le a Re mE SO eee iE EUROS Sata) Na aed oe ees ng poatuaminw eines denen en aoe XVIII. Fig. 1.—Orange flower inclosed in paper bag after emasculation. Fig. 2.—Nearly mature hybrid orange inclosed in gauze bag to prevent loss by dropping. Fig.3.—Raspberry-blackberry hybrid, ‘‘Primus,’’ and parents ._....__._______ XIX. Fig.1.—Canes of the second generation of a blackberry-raspberry hybrid, all grown from seed of one plant. Fig. ee ae pineapples, the offspring of — than usually seedless plants rendered fertile by pollination with another Ns saan ee ete he Boon se sn Sakae ERE ne pie AE yo USL a Wel XX. Fig. 1.—Indian corn, showing increase in size resulting from crossing different sorts. Fig.2.—Indian corn, showing immediate effect of foreign pollen. Fig. 3.—Bundle sheath cells of roots of hybrid and parents, showing intermediate natureof hybrid. Fig.4.—Skeleton leaves of hybrid and parents, showing the Buen cnmmmntur or spire. 2.25... See es eA is.e XXI. Common field mushroom (Agaricus campestris), edible ...............----------- XXIl. Fly agaric (Amanita muscaria), poisonous.......-.-...-.-.---------- ------------- XXIII. Deadly agaric (Amanita phalloides), poisonous. -......-....--.-----.-------+------ XXIV. Horse mushroom (Agaricus arvensis), edible_.........-...-----. AY eee SC ee ow XXV. Horse-tail fungus (Coprinus comatus), edible..............-..--.---.----------+--- XXVI. Parasol fungus (Lepiota procera), edible.......-...........----------------------- . Boletus subluteus, edible . 1. Clavaria flava, young plant, edible. . Puffball (Lycoperdon cyathiforme), edible . Fig. 1.—Alfalfa, Belle Fourche, South Dakota, 1897. Fig. oy Same ges grown in . 1. Chanterelle (Cantharellus cibarius), edible. 2. Fairy-ring fungus (Marasmius oreades), edible om eR mmr mm me mm eee eee we eee eee ee we ee eee ee ee te eee Oe Om mee mee ee eee eee ewe ee eee eee ee ee eee ee eee 2. Morel (Morchella esculenta), edible -- grass garden, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C__......------ . Fig. 1.—Government buildingand harbor, Sitka. Fig.2.—Alaskan red top, Sitka 7 59 288 312 316 316 3352 335 308 390 494 554 PLAT Fie » ILLUSTRATIONS, Page. X XXIII. Pig. 1.—Timbered region, southeastern Alaska. Pig. 2.—Spruce stumps and second-growth tree --.-..-- SETS ET pe Tae Ss Se Es DOD XXXIV. Fig. 1.—Meadow at Wrangell, mostly native grasses. Fig. 2.—Currants and raspberries, Wrangell --.....--.-.-.---.- Sx RE Pe, PSE ee Se 5 XXXV. Fig. 1.—Barrabara, or sod house, Kadiak. Fig. 2.—Native dwellings and SOGGTS TONNE, FOO I co cnas < vwncendeee swan cceuccdces sceucesaeueuresspeseeds 574 XXXVI. Chart showing mean annual precipitation. .--.........---.----++---------- OT XXXVIL Chart showing normal rainfall of the United States east of the 105th meridian, April to September, inclusive -......-.-.---------------------- 62 XXXVIII. Chart showing least rainfail of any year, April to September, inclusive. 612 XXXIX. Chart showing average date of first killing frost in autumn. .--..-..----.-- 618 XL. Chart showing average date of last killing frost in spring. --.....-..------- 618 TEXT FIGURES. 1. A national object lesson—suggestion for a coastwise and continental highway. ---- 382 2. Newly opened, bud of Lorillard tomato, showing stage in which flower should be STURN 2 Ae soa et eee Gnas cam cera a unnee woke ec eeee ee Gane 6 tenes eee 386 So Watuve Hower of Lorillard tonseto. .oscc < é icce ccc cette wcsucd dolben sarees eoceupnuennalee 4. A flower.of Lorillard tomato emasculated ready for pollination. -_..-......--.------- 386 5. Section of a tomato flower---...--.--.- ae ee S28 es Oc eee ey dane ee oe “386 6. Orange flower bud, showing stage which should be selected for emasculation- ---- 387 ie. eebieee wrerind TOWOP occ o ooscetk sock gb ans Se ened Gh egw oud ueuveunrecdub banaue 387 Dae Gen eed OPENES MOWET « =o. Sasse5 cows pounce mrersSeuneheae coves puoss~ geen 387 9. Starch grains of hybrid and parents, showing the intermediate characterof hybrid 391 . Leaves of orange and pomelo and of their hybrids of the first generation, showing close resemblance to one or the other parent ....-.-..----. ------- ------ --ee2------- 397 ll. Leaves from the hybrid progeny of blackberry, showing the variations sometimes produced in second or third generation when different species have been crossed. 398 SEO EESO WRITE RDO PAPO. «222 Seo Ss Jo ~ coo, Wis eins conn Veds ews ansoy es te been seen 399 13. Hybrids of hardy trifoliate orange and common sweet orange- -....----------------- 400 1 Piaster of paris serminating Gish |< 20°. . s..0th~ socew np secu paaeseetaen= watancaseneeaeee 444 15. Mold for making plaster of paris germinating dishes. .............--.-.---------.---- 445 7h Witever box for testing erase SOCAD: ~~. . «~~ ~cgenies sce sa5-nnnsdeenendecennessee sees 445 7. Roots of yelluw soy bean, grown at the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station 19. Florida beggar weed, grown at the Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station — plants 7 to S feet ign | «2565. swswbs one a sooo wien om cehnige cena eaten ae ae 502 20. The Russian blue field pea, grown from Canadian seed at Washington, D. C., 1897. 503 £). The fleshy root of the Metcalfe bean: -<..< =~ 2c foe ae ee ee 506 o> Leaves of the Metcalfe Dean. on ieee cee bo eens lla ca tmoueepmameenele eee 507 23. Flower cluster of the Metcalfe bean --..-. eee widdubtinn oneaw Wired el iae oes oie ee. eae ee 507 a. ine pons of the Metcalfe bean.” 3002 5... woes nnd nedae on =~ aches o eeeaeseeet sek eee 508 Bis GRU TIDOUIS COP POATE MO |< 5 > oped woos 5p - cnpecmem seem Biota so bs Se ie Rin oe ney 531 ie erwrenins Pilcher, etree 8a 2 Sri a as ek, a eo wn Ups we nto eee 532 Sy. MED SUMP, LRU TM, DON Sane a as ered meee eee ony = os a dete ss akan eee 532 ea an am dP jo I S'S Os ee Oe a TE eS 533 29. Letops hopei—different stages and method of work......-....--..--.--..-.--------- 53 Bi Bbc nas aa a ae ae i pe an whi we Gas Pab hskr eee ceons eceee ed =i< 2 « % & REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 41. PUBLICATIONS RELATING TO CERTAIN COUNTRIES. The countries treated of in the bulletins already issued are (1) the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, (2) the German Em- pire, (3) France, (4) Canada, (5) Netherlands, (6) Belgium, (7) Nor- way, and (8) Sweden. Each country is considered with a view to its possibilities as a customer for the products of American agriculture. To ascertain what these possibilities are, if is important, first of all, to be informed as to the agricultural resources of the country under consideration. A full account, therefore, is given of the extent and character of the principal crops grown, and also of the number and varieties of stock raised. This is followed by a careful review of the country’s foreign commerce, and more particularly of its import trade in agricultural produce, the purpose being to show how far the national requirements exceed the home supply, making it necessary to import from other countries. Official statistics are presented as to the quantity of the various products annually imported and the different sources from which they are received; and these facts are accompanied by such information regarding customs duties and regu- lations, equivalents of foreign moneys, weights and.measures, rates of exchange, etc., as may be of service to American producers in quest of a foreign market. . Each bulletin is supplemented by aseries of reports received through the medium of the State Department from our consular representa- tives stationed in the particular country concerned. The object of these reports is to set forth such facts regarding the several consular districts as are likely to assist in creating there a larger demand for our products. With this end in view, they frequently give important information as to the nature and quality of the goods preferred, methods of sale, prices paid, means of transportation, ete., enhancing thereby the practical value of the bulletins. OFFICE OF ROAD INQUIRY. ‘ During the past fiscal year many important meetings have been held in the several States and considerable information has been col- lected for distribution. The literature of the office now numbers 20 bulletins and 15 circulars. of information, which have been in much demand. During the present spring and summer experiments have been made, in conjunction with several of our experiment stations; under the direction of the Director of the Office of Road Inquiry, with such materials as were found in the localities where the experi- ments were conducted. Many localities in the United States have not the materials fit for making permanent roads, and for this reason the office has endeavored to promote experiments in steel roadbeds. Two sections of roads were built at the Agricultural College experi- ment station in New Jersey during the month of June. | A piece of 4? YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. road 1} miles long was also built at Geneva, N. Y., connecting the experiment station with the city. In response to circulars sent to the principal steel manufacturers in the United States, various plans of construction have been offered. It has been well demonstrated that a well-designed steel trackway can be successfully built and profitably maintained, especially in localities where other materials are scarce. The considerable expense involved in preparing special shapes of rails has prevented much experiment in this direction heretofore; one company, however, is disposed to aid in the matter whenever a definite order for 1 mile of road shall be received. The cost of material for a mile of road will be $3,500. Heretofore the Director of the Office of Road Inquiry has succeeded, by the expenditure of a minimum amount of Govern- ment money, in inducing local representatives to contribute consid- erable amounts to these road-building experiments. DIVISION OF AGROSTOLOGY. The work of this division, as authorized by Congress, is the inves- tigation of grasses and forage plants, embracing all points relating to their natural history, geographieal distribution, uses, and adaptability to special soils and climates. The law also authorizes the establish- ment and maintenance of experimental grass stations and the employ- ment of necessary labor and purchase of supplies for carrying on the work. Thereare two grass gardens maintained by the division. One is located on the grounds of the Department of Agriculture and the other at Knoxville, Tenn. During the past fiscal year between 400 and 500 varieties of forage and grass plants were sown on the grounds of the Department, furnishing an interesting object lesson to the people and an opportunity for study by scientists. The seeds were procured through the collections of field agents and by exchanges with foreign countries. The grass garden at Knoxville embraces about 7 acres of ground, and cultures there are conducted upon a more extensive scale. More than 200 varieties were grown in this garden during the past year. The design of the Knoxville garden is to obtain information which will be useful to the Southern States relative to grasses for PISHUROE and meadows. FORAGE PROBLEMS IN THE CATTLE RANGES. There is especial necessity for the study of forage problems throughout the southwest portion of the United States, including the States of Texas and Kansas, and the Territories of New Mexico and Arizona, giving special attention to the native grasses and forage plants, their abundance and value, their preservation and the possible methods to be employed in restoring the grazing value of those regions which sea become valueless athe nab paatite 28 or viata causes.) .29HOo 65: 3 qo. 4 To bv EUD 6 : er REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. | 43 The Division of Agrostology has. placed itself in communication with such parties as are interested in improving the forage conditions of the Southwest for the purpose of gaining, first, a more definite idea of the present conditions, and second, how best to improve these con- ditions. There is a deep interest among the people of the Southwest in this work. More than 1,000 answers have been received from cir- culars. sent out, seeking information. regarding actual conditions. The division has also given attention to similar conditions in the Dako- tas, Wyoming, Colorado, and adjoining States. Cordial cooperation is had in the States mentioned with the scientists of the experiment stations. GRASSES FROM DRY REGIONS OF THE OLD WORLD. The demand for new and improved forage plants which will grow and thrive on the farms of the Southwest and Nozthwest is continually on the increase. The Secretary of Agriculture is now making efforts, through agents in the Old World, to introduce grasses from regions which are semiarid and that grow under other conditions that may make them suitable for these localities. A system of exchange is being carried on with scientists in Australia, Algeria, northwest India, and with the botanical gardens of several of the countries of the Old World. Careful study is given to the adaptability of certain plants to special soils and climates throughout all the States. Propagation of sand and soil binding grasses, those best suited for the formation of turf in numerous places along our seaboard and Great Lakes, which will prevent the movement of drifting sands, is a subject that has received the attention of the division. GARDENS AND GROUNDS, The collection of plants in the conservatory proper is mostly of those having economic value, and serves as a nucleus from which selections are made of such as appear to merit propagation for experi- mental purposes and introduction as industrial plants, if a suitable climate can be found for their growth. - Attention is given to the growth and propagation of the pineapple, the citrus family, olive trees for the production of cuttings, and for other similar purposes. About 20,000 various ornamental plants are propagated annually to supply the flower garden and flower beds on the Department grounds. DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. The distributions during the last fiscal year consisted mainly of 36,500 strawberries, 7,000 native and foreign grapes, 3,900 olive plants, _2,900.camphor trees, 4,000 fig cuttings, and a large number of plants such as guavas, cinnamon, pepper, citrus, vanilla, coffee, ete. 44 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The United States imports large quantities of plants and plant prod- ucts that might be produced in our own country. As many of these as possible will be propagated under the direction of the Superintend- ent of Gardens and Grounds and distributed, in order to contribute to our independence in this regard. CAMPHOR AND OLIVES AS NEW CROPS. The camphor plant may be taken as an example of the introduction of anew crop. For more than twenty years the Department has been distributing this plant in the extreme Southern States, first as a shade tree and as a shelter to orange groves, and more recently as of very promising industrial value. After all these years planters are now taking a special interest in its culture, trees are in great demand, and their value as economic plants will be properly tested. With regard to future work exclusive of ordinary care of the grounds and glass houses, the propagation of such economic plants as may seem advisable will be continued. At present the olive is the leading factor in propagation, as it is considered desirable to fully introduce and encourage olive culture in such of the Southern States as seem suited to its profitable growth. DIVISION OF SOILS. The most important lines of work carried on during the past year have been an investigation of the soils of Florida; a continuation of the investigations of the principal tobacco soils of the United States; the perfection of the electrical methods of determining the moisture, temperature, and salt content of soils; the study of the moisture con- tent of a number of the important soil formations of the country; a continuation of the investigations of the physical properties of soils; and the devising of methods for the practical study of soil conditions. REPORT ON FLORIDA SOILS. A bulletin is in course of preparation on the preliminary study of the soils of Florida, particularly those adapted to tobacco, truck, and pineapples. A large amount of fieldwork was done in Florida in the early spring and a great many soil samples were collected there that have sinee been examined to determine their physical texture; a few chemical analyses have been made by the Division of Chemistry to throw light upon some of the problems presented. Records have also been kept of the amount and daily fluctuation of the moisture in typical hammock, high pine, and serub land in the State during the season, and the results throw an important light upon the agricultural value of the different soil formations of the State and the local dis- tribution of the native vegetation. oy ta REPORT OF PHE SECRETARY. 45 THE SOILS COLLECTION. The soils collection of the Department amounts now to over 3,000 samples, from various parts of the United States and several foreign countries, representing many of the most important soil areas of the world. About one-half of these have been carefully examined. Many of the results have been published, while others await the collection and examination of more material, in order to develop special lines of investigation or to write up the soils of special agricultural areas or industries. WATER CONTENT OF SOILS. Much time has been given, as heretofore, to the study of the water content of various soils, to determine the normal quantity in soils of different formations and of different agricultural areas as well as the normal variation which may occur in the water content without det- riment to the plants. The importance and bearing ‘of this work can only be really appreciated by seeing the relation of the soil moisture to the general economy of plant growth. | : Under ordinary circumstances the temperature of the air is a prime cause of the evaporation or loss of water by plants; the relative humid- ity of the air, together with the general atmospheric movements, con- trols the evaporation, while the moisture of the soil supplies loss due to evaporation. Fora steady and continuous growth of plants there must be a certain relation therefore between temperature, which is the cause of evaporation, relative humidity, which is a controlling factor, and soil moisture, which supplies the loss. It has been possible to determine from the field records what may be called the line of drought for a number of the important soils of the country. This is the minimum amount of water which the soil must contain under ordinary conditions of temperature and humidity in order that the crop shall not suffer. This line of drought depends, of course, upon the texture of the soil as well as upon the temperature of the air, the kind of plant, and the stage of development. The texture of the soil has an influence on this, because in a soil of fine texture, made up mainly of clay and fine sand, the movement of water is quite slow, and there must be a large quantity of water in the soil to insure an adequate supply moving up to the roots of the plant to replace that lost by evaporation.. This explains the well-known fact that a plant may thrive in one soil with 5 per cent of water, while it would perish in another soil containing 15 per cent. RECORDS TO ESTABLISH DROUGHT CONDITIONS. The temperature and relative humidity of the air affect this line of drought, because with a low temperature and a high relative humidity there is comparatively little loss of water and a smaller supply in the soil may be ample, while with a high temperature, unless this is bal- 46 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. anced by a very high humidity, there will be a greater evaporation from the plant and a larger amount of water will be needed in the soil to insure an adequate supply to the plant. The kind of crop and the stage of development will obviously affect the location of the line of drought for any soil, as different plants require different amounts of water, and this differs again according to the stage of the develop- ment. The water supply of the soil is, therefore, a very important factor in climatological studies. It is clearly possible to establish approximately for any soil and for any crop the relation which must at all times exist between the temperature, the relative humidity of the air, and the amount of moisture that must be present in the soil to maintain the balance. ‘To this end records have been kept of the amount of moisture ina number of the principal soil formations of the country, some of the records extending over three or four seasons, accompanied with careful notes of the daily condition of the soil and of the plants. MEASUREMENT OF SOIL MOISTURE, The electrical method of moisture determination already described in a bulletin issued by the division has been still further perfected. Sixtcen stations have been equipped with these electrical instruments in various parts of the country and in several important types of soil. Records have been kept at these stations for periods varying from two to four months, and it has been found that the method can be used by anyone with ordinary care. As a result of these field records, I feel perfectly satisfied with the operation of the method, and equally sat- isfied that it will prove of great value in soil investigations, as well as of practical and commercial value. One great value of the method is that the electrodes are permanently buried in the field at any depth desired and the field can be cultivated or cropped as usual. The elec- trical resistance between the electrodes is read off from a scale, and this resistance varies according to the square of the water content. By once thoroughly standardizing the electrodes, therefore, and by the use of tables which are furnished by the division, the moisture content of the soil can be determined at any time from the electrical resistance of the soil. INFLUENCE. OF CULTIVATION ON WATER CONTENT OF SOILS. Having perfected this method of moisture determination, in which the mgisture can be rapidly and readily determined successively at the same point without any disturbance of the soil, it is possible to study in a very satisfactory way the influence of different methods of cultivation, of fertilization, and of irrigation upon the water content of soils: This is a line of very practical work, made possible only by the perfection of such a method as this. Plans are now under con- sideration for an exhaustive study of the influence of methods of REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. | | AZ eultivation, fertilization, and cropping upon the water content of the soil in different parts of the country. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS. Investigations are also being vigorously pushed on the physical properties of soils and on practical methods of determining these in the field. Some very important results have just been attained, explaining more fully than ever before the real cause of the capillary movement of water in soils. It has been found that this is due to the curvature of the water surface between the grains of soil. In fine- grained clay soils and in dry soils generally the curvature of the sur- face of the water between the grains is very great. On account of the great curvature of the surface there is a pressure outward, and a tend- ency for water to. be drawn into the spaces between the grains from any other part of the soil where there is more water and where the curvature of the surface of the water between the grains is less. This is the practical cause of the capillary movement of water in soils, upon which plants depend for their current supply. Methods of cultiva- tion and of fertilization have an influence on this, and investigations will be continued along these lines to see the extent of the influence of tillage upon the movement of the moisture in the soil. DIVISION OF FORESTRY. There is one economie question closely related to the general wel- fare of our future rather than our present, which, I fear, has not received adequate attention by our people or by Congress—the for- estry question. It has become apparent that sooner or later a large line of manu- facturing industries employing at present capital to the amount of more than one billion of dollars, employing labor of more than one million workers, and producing nearly $2,000,000,000 of value annu- ally, will be more or less hampered for lack of suitable supplies because of the absence of rational use and systematic reproduction of our forest resources. In addition, our agricultural interests in the hill country and mountain districts are bound to suffer, indeed are begin- ning to suffer from the same cause, just as they have suffered in other countries. NEED FOR EXTENSION OF FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS. The Department of Agriculture, through the Division of Forestry, as with scanty appropriations endeavored to secure and disseminate technical information needful in rational forest management. It has also experimented on methods of tree planting with a view to an extension of forest areas into the forestless regions which need the shelter and protection of forest growth, and has inereased our knowl- edge of the properties of our timbers which might lead to desirable economies in the future, 48 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A more liberal consideration of this line of work by the Govern- ment would seem justified by the magnitude of the interests involved, especially since with the establishment of forest reservations from the public domain the need of technical knowledge in their management has become a necessity. It is well known that the agriculture of the far West is directly dependent upon irrigation, the water of which is secured from the forest-covered mountains. One of the chief purposes which the reser- vations were designed to serve is the protection of this water supply. OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS. The agricultural experiment stations, now in operation in every State and Territory except Alaska, continue to carry on a large amount of scientific and practical work giving results of great value to American agriculture. They enjoy more largely than ever the sup- port and confidence of farmers and horticulturists. A number of the States have liberally supplemented the funds appropriated by Con- gress for the maintenance of the experiment stations. During the past year the revenues of the stations aggregated more than a million dollars, of which $720,000 was received under the act of Congress of March 2, 1887. URGENT DEMANDS UPON EXPERIMENT STATIONS. No country equals the United States in the liberality with whieh it maintains institutions for agricultural research and in the thorough- ness with which the results of their work are disseminated among the people in whose interests they were established. So great has been the suecess of our stations and so urgent have been the demands for the information which they are able to give, that the calls upon station officers for the preparation of popular bulletins and the delivery of addresses at farmers’ meetings have in many cases been more than it was possible for them to meet without endangering the success of the origina] investigations which it was their first business to conduct, DIFFICULTIES IN STATE STATION WORK. While the farmers of the country may well congratulate themselves on having such numerous and important agencies for the discovery of new truths and the dissemination of useful information regarding the practice of their art, they should not relax their efforts to aid the sta- tions in advancing the efficiency of their work and securing the greatest benefits to agriculture which can be obtained with the resources at their command. Many of our experiment stations are doing all that could reasonably be expected of them with the means and facilities at their command, but in some cases, as the investigations made by this Department have shown, the stations are hindered in their work by causes which might easily be removed. Some of the difficulties which the stations encounter grow out of the fact that the people are REPORT Or THE SECRETARY. 49 not sufficiently alive to their interests in this matter to insist that the station work shall be performed in accordance with a consistent and permanent policy. It is obvious that thorough agricultural investi- gations can not be made if the plans and personnel of the station are being constantly shifted. This fundamental fact has been too fre- quently overlooked by appointing officers and boards of control. — Fit- ness and ability to carry on successful investigations should be the fundamental qualifications for station officers, and when competent men are once obtained, they should be made secure in their positions and supported in their efforts to plan and carry out thorough experi- ments. PROPER USE OF EXPERIMENT STATION FUNDS. The funds appropriated by Congress for the experiment stations are intended solely for the carrying on of agricultural investigations and the publication of the results. The stations are by law made depart- ments of the land-grant colleges, but it was not intended that any part of the station funds should be used for the payment of the sala- ries of the teaching force or for any other general college purposes, nor that the expenses attendant upon the management of farms or dairies for other than experimental purposes should devolve upon the stations. It is evident that in some cases the college has encroached upon the station, and there is still need of greater care in this matter. It is the duty of all institutions receiving the benefits of the land-grant and Morrill acts to make ample provision for the maintenance of the courses in agriculture without in any way diminishing or diverting the funds which should be devoted to the experiment stations. The stations should confine their operations to such lands and herds as are actually required for the carrying on of experimental inquiries in a few lines determined upon as best adapted to promote the inter- ests of agriculture in their respective States EXPERIMENTS FOR ALASKA. Recent events have greatly augmented the importance of active measures to develop the agriculture of Alaska. The information recently received from unofficial sources, as well as that previously gathered by officers of the Government, seems to make it clear that it will be practicable to develop the agriculture of that region so that it may furnish food supplies and beasts of burden for a considerable population. The development of agriculture in this region, as else- where, can undoubtedly be greatly promoted by experimental inquiries conducted systematically under the supervision of expert officers. I would therefore urge that the appropriation for investigating the agricultural resources and capabilities of Alaska be continued and that provision be made for carrying on experiments in that region in case the official inquiries now in progress there seem to make this desirable. 1 A97——4 50 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, WORK OF THE ALASKA COMMISSION, In obedience to an act of Congress, a commission consisting of Mr. Benton Killin, a member of the board of regents of the Oregon Agri- cultural College, and a man thoroughly familiar with the agricultural conditions on the Pacific Coast, and Dr. W. H. Evans, botanical expert of the Office of Experiment Stations, was dispatched to visit the coast and island region of Alaska from its southern boundary as far north as Unalaska. They were instructed to observe the agricul- tural conditions existing in places visited, the possibilities of further extensions of arable land, and the native plants used for food and forage; to make collections of soils, and of food and forage plants, and to determine as far as practicable what localities are suitable for experiments in agriculture and what kind of experiments seem immediately feasible and desirable. This commission started for Alaska about the 1st of June, and brief preliminary reports thus far received indicate that it is successfully prosecuting its work. It is definitely expected that a report of its findings can be prepared so as to be transmitted to Congress during its coming session. Through the courtesy of the honorable Secretary of the Interior and the Commissioner of Education, the services of Dr. Sheldon Jackson, superintendent of Government schools in Alaska, were secured to investigate the agricultural capabilities of the Yukon Valley. Dr. Jackson is to perform this service in connection with the annual inspection of the Alaska schools, in which he is now engaged, and his report may be expected at the same time as that of the com- mission. BOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS. At least $6,000,000 is paid annually to foreign countries for miscel- laneous agricultural plant products which are grown in a temperate climate. A systematic attempt has been begun to give our farmers full information how to grow such products and where to sell them. Many of these small crops should prove valuable additions to the resources of our farming people, especially in sections where there is - an overproduction of staple crops, or where farm labor ischeap. The success of similar enterprises in the past demonstrates that they may be made into profitable local industries, and a rational prosecution of this line of investigation is expected to show that ina country of such varied climatic conditions we can match the requirements of almost any cultivated plant of the temperate zone. INQUIRIES FOR NEW CROPS. Judging from the large number of letters received by the Depart- ment asking for information about the cultivation of new or little known crops, the farmers of the country are ready, in view of the generally lessened profits on staple farm products, to follow any promising suggestions made by the Department in this direction. As REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 51 the beginning of an effort to meet this demand, an investigation has been undertaken of the subject of chicory cultivation. This country imports about $250,000 worth of chicory root per annum, which is used as a coffee substitute and adulterant. There is now every pros- pect that chicory will be made a profitable farm product in the United States and that this amount of money will go into the pockets of American instead of European farmers. In connection with seed distribution two important series of experi- ments are in progress. First, a practical test of scientific purity and vitality by which the high quality of all the seeds sent out is assured, and second, a field test of the new varieties offered to the Depart- ment by which their value and standing as new and important intro- duetions into agriculture may be definitely ascertained before large purchases are made. DIVISION OF POMOLOGY. The correspondence which devolves upon this division in relation to the adaptability of varieties for planting, methods of propagation, planting, pruning, and cultivating fruit trees and plants and market- ing their product consumes a large portion of the time of the Pomolo- gist or his assistant and prevents much work of original investigation in relation to the fruit industry which is highly important. A large part of this correspondence grows out of the receipt of specimen fruits sent by growers for examination or identification, and its value to the fruit growers of the country is recognized. Provision should there- fore be made for its continuance without encroachment upon work which is more strictly scientific and progressive. Descriptions of more than 550 fruits have been added to the files of the division during the year and 175 water-color paintings, 100 photo- graphic negatives, and about 200 wax models of fruits have been made. EXPERIMENTS WITH FIGS. Large sets of fig cuttings from the collection furnished to this De- partment in 1894 by the Royal Horticultural Society of England have been placed in 10 of the Southern States for testing. Small trees of “‘Corsican” citron have been placed with more than 100 fruit growers in California and Florida, and 350 seedling trees of Chinese persim- mon, grown from seeds obtained from Peking, were distributed to grow- ers who gave them a careful test. Scions of 18 varieties of apples of New Zealand and Australian origin, received through the kindness of the Pomologist of New Zealand, were distributed in June, 1897, to a number ot growers. for testing. Seeds of the ‘‘rough lemon” of Jamaica, valued in that island as a stock for orange trees, were also distributed. Work on the Descriptive Card Catalogue of Fruits has been con- tinued during the year, and the usefulness of the catalogue as a work of reference has been fully demonstrated. 52 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TEST OF METHODS OF ROOT GRAFTING. The nursery period of a comparative test of methods of root grafting the apple was completed during the year. ‘The trees resulting from it were distributed to experiment stations and private planters in sev- eral States, where they can be kept under observation during the orchard period, to determine the effect of the methods of propagation upon vigor, productiveness, and longevity. In addition to work already under way, it is important that a sys- tematic effort in the preparing of maps which will show the areas where the principal fruits grown in the country are capable of being commercially produced shall be begun, and that certain fruit-producing species, which are believed to be adapted to cultivation here, either as stocks or for their fruit, shall be introduced from foreign countries. PUBLICATIONS. By the organic law creating the Department of Agriculture one of the chief duties of the Department was defined to be to *‘ diffuse among the people of the United States useful information on subjects con- nected with agriculture in the most general and comprehensive sense of the word.” It is evident that to realize to the fullest extent the benefit of the continued and diligent research and investigation of the scientific questions affecting agriculture, which occupy the time of a large portion of the officers and employees, the information thus obtained must be promptly and widely diffused, and it is my earnest desire to fully comply with the law in this regard. INADEQUACY OF PUBLICATIONS FOR GROWING DEMAND. The publication work of the Department has attained extraordinary proportions. The number of publications issued during the past fis- eal year is 424, aggregating over 6,500,000 copies. This is over 100 per cent more publications and over 100 per cent more copies than were issued in 1894, and yet, notwithstanding great improvements in the method of distribution by avoiding duplication and by placing the various publications, as far as possible, in the hands of those only by whom they are chiefly needed, the increased supply is found quite inadequate to meet the increased demand. Thousands upon thou- sands of persons earnestly desirous of procuring the information these publications are designed to convey have to remain ungratified. The growing demand for the publications of this Department is strikingly manifested in two important particulars—on the one hand by the large sale of the Department publications by the Superintendent of Docu- ments, under the provisions of the law providing for the printing and binding, approved January 12, 1895, the number of publications of this Department so sold amounting to 13,000, an increase over the year previous of more than 10,000; on the other hand by the increased demand by Members of Congress for publications of this Department to distribute to their constituents. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 53 GROWTH IN NUMBER OF PUBLICATIONS DISTRIBUTED. Of the total number of copies of all publications issued by the Department during the five years ending June 30, 1897, and amount- ing to over 23,000,000, over 6,500,000 have been turned over to Sena- tors, Representatives, and Delegates in Congress for distribution by them; and of this vast number, 5,500,000 were so turned over in the past three years and nearly 2,500,000 of that number, or about 45 per cent, during the last fiscal year. Number of publications issued during five years ending June 30, 1897. wie ree Publica-| Farmers’| Total | uted to seo Hous. | Dulletins. | f9plee | Members gress. — —————— Se rama = —E z = — Geil et Said Sie eR OS I Der 1 a | 2,689,084 | aod MEAN re ei ee Olay aes US A. Coe 2005 278,500 | 3,169,310 i} 989, 468 AD Tt, yy oy Samet 254 | 1,567,000 | 4,100,660 | 1,385,770 |e SRO TR S08 2 Pe PP OR I as 376 | 1,891,000 | 6,561,700 | 1.816, 695 18 AARNE ar) JOO aR RS 424 | 2,387,000 | 6,541/210| 2° 467, 237 Rae 1,469 | 6,123,500 | 23,061,964 | 6,659, 170 CALL FOR AN INCREASE OF APPROPRIATION. With the exception of the sum allowed for the printing and distri- bution of Farmers’ Bulletins, there has not only been no increase in the total appropriations for the Division of Publications during the period of five years covered in the foregoing table, but the amount available is actually less now than then, notwithstanding the fact that between the first and last years of that period the number of publi- cations issued was more than double and the total number of copies issued had increased by nearly 4,000,000. PG . yee a a ‘ Ae ‘ : 5 - : vr ‘aed 4 f - »s ' ye a i ’ by We arts; RT ULSNGN] IWWINY 4O NV3YNG 3HL AP “T1] ‘OBVOIHD LY HYOd 4O NOILOAdSN| DIdOOSOHSIW WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER. The papers in this section of the Yearbook were prepared by spe- cial direction of the Secretary of Agriculture in accordance with the instructions contained in the following letter, a copy of which was addressed to the chiefs of the various bureaus, divisions, and offices ‘‘outside of those that are purely administrative: ” U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY, Washington, D. C., September 18, 1897. Sir: It is my desire that, in addition to such other suitable articles as may be necessary, the forthcoming Yearbook, 1897, should contain an article from each chief of bureau, division, and office outside of those that are purely administra- tive, which shall set forth in piain terms the relation of the work of his bureau, division, or office to the farmer. The existence of the Department is justified precisely so far as it aids the farmer to be a successful farmer, and my desire is that the article called for should present clearly to the reader just how the division of the work in your charge achieves that purpose. Let it be such a paper as you would prepare to present to a body of farmers of average intelligence, or before a committee of Congress inquiring into the purpose, character, and practical utility of your work. Very respectfully, JAMES WILSON, Secretary. THE WEATHER BUREAU. By Wiuuis L. Moore, Chief. INTRODUCTION. The work of the Weather Bureau of the Department of Agricul- ture in its relation to practical agriculture may be divided, for the purpose of description, into the following classes: (1) The forecast service for predicting storms, cold waves, and frosts. (2) The river and flood service for predicting floods. (3) The climate and crop service for recording and presenting the details of climate and the weekly and monthly conditions of crops. In his first and second annual reports (1862 and 1863) the first Commissioner of Agriculture, Hon. Isaac Newton, dwelt on the vital importance of the weather and climate to the community at large 59 60 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and especially to the agriculturist, But it was not until February 9, 1870, that Congress was induced to inaugurate a tentative weather service. For twenty years after that date the work was carried on by the Chief Signal Officer of the Army as the meteorological division of his office. Finally, by the act of October 1, 1890, the Weather Bureau, as such, was officially recognized and was transferred to the Department of Agriculture, the general details of its organization being defined in that act. The Weather Bureau now has 150 fully equipped meteorological stations, with from one to ten employees each; 253 stations especially equipped for the display of danger warnings to mariners; 261 stations for the making of daily telegraphic reports of temperature and rain- fall in the cotton, corn, and wheat regions; over 3,000 stations where volunteer observers make daily records of temperature and rainfall with standard instruments, and about 10,000 crop correspondents who report weekly to State centers. To give notice of the approach and force of storms seems to have been especially in mind by those who in 1870 framed the act of Con- gress defining the work. All the other details have been added year after year, until now the weather service has probably five times as many employees as during the first year of its establishment, and does twenty times as much work annually as was done then. THE STORM-WARNING AND FORECAST SERVICE. PROGRESS OF PRACTICAL METEOROLOGICAL SCIENCE. While the practical application of meteorological science to the making of weather forecasts can never reach the degree of accuracy attained by theoretical astronomy in predicting the date of an eclipse or the return of a comet, yet such substantial progress has been made during the last century as to seriously engage the attention of thought- ful man and cause him to make special effort to use the knowledge already gained for the benefit of agriculture, commerce, and the general industries of the world. Practical meteorology is to some extent a tentative work. It may be placed upon a plane with the theory and practice of medicine and surgery. The forecaster is in a great degree guided in his calculations by symptoms, and he is able to diagnose, by means of the daily mete- orological chart, the atmospheric conditions with about the same degree of accuracy that the physician is able to determine the bodily condition of the patient. He is able to forecast changes in the weather with rather more certainty than the skilled physician can predict the course of a well-defined disease. THE SYSTEM OF COLLECTING OBSERVATIONS AND MAKING FORECASTS. The system by which the Weather Bureau collects meteorological observations and makes weather forecasts may be briefly described as WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER, G1 follows: At 8 o’eloek in the morning, Washington time (which, by the way, is about 7 o’clock at Chicago, 6 o’clock at Denver, and 5 o’clock at San Francisco), the observers at about 150 meteorological stations, seattered throughout the United States, all thoroughly equipped with standard instruments, take an observation of all of the elementary conditions of the air at the bottom of the great aerial ocean in which we live, which, by its variations of heat and cold, sunshine, cloud, and tempest, affects not only the health and happiness of man, but also his commercial and industrial welfare. by 8.25 a.m. the necessary mathematical corrections have been made, the observations have been reduced to cipher, and each has been filed at the local telegraph office. During the next thirty or forty minutes these observations, having the right of way over all telegraph lines, are transmitted to their destination, each station contributing its own report and receiving in return, by an ingenious system of telegraphic circuits, such data from other stations as it may require. The observations from all stations are received at Washington, Chicago, New York, and other large cities; and nearly all cities having a Weather Bureau station receive a sufficient number of reports from other places to justify the issue of a daily weather map. When the observations have been received at the central office in Washington and their results charted, showing the location of the storm centers, the high-pressure or cold-wave areas, the regions of rainfall during the past twelve hours, the areas of high and low tem- perature, the fluctuations in pressure and the changes in temperature, and the direction and motion of upper and lower clouds, the forecast official gets a bird’s-eye view, not only of the exact conditions of the air over the whole country at the moment of taking the observations one hour before, but of the changes which have occurred in those conditions during the preceding twelve hours. A discussion of the general principles which guide the forecaster in arriving at his con- clusions, however, is reserved for the concluding part of this paper. UTILITY OF FORECASTS TO THE FARMER. A knowledge of the weather on the morrow is of undoubted advan- tage to all persons engaged in outdoor pursuits. The farmer, by familiarity with all kinds of weather, naturally becomes somewhat expert in foretelling, by a few hours at least, the approach of rainy weather. Left to his own resources, he is by no means a bad weather prophet. The local rains of summer frequently surprise him with his hay down, where possibly a little extra exertion would have housed the crop. The information that local rains for his State or district are probable, together with the indications that every intelligent farmer can read from the appearance of the sky, should serve to put him on his guard against loss by rain. 62 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, The general farmer probably has less occasion to consult the fore- casts than the truck grower or those who may be engaged in the pro- duction of a single crop, such, for example, as cotton, tobacco, sugar cane, ete, The region devoted to the production of fruits and vegetables embraces a large portion of the Middle and South Atlantic seaboard and the Gulf States. In this large territory accurate warnings of kill- ing frost in the late fall and early spring are of very great value. It is also important to know, especially after February 1, when there is likelihood of the temperature of nighttime falling to 40° F. The Weather Bureau performs a valuable service in distributing informa- tion in this respect. The cranberry districts, though comparatively small, also receive valuable aid from the Weather Bureau in times of frost and cold weather. Sugar cane is often killed or severely injured by frosts in October and November. Warnings of expected frosts enable planters to cut the canes and pile them in rows, so that the leaves of one tier cover the butts of another, in which condition the canes will keep for several weeks without injury. In the tobaeco-growing districts warnings of heavy rains and high winds are valuable after transplanting. So also, warnings of frost during September and October will frequently enable planters to save themselves from financial loss. METHODS OF PREVENTING OR MINIMIZING INJURY FROM FROSTS. Mr. W. H. Hammon, forecast official, has made an intelligent study of the methods of preventing or minimizing injury from frost. In his report, from which several ideas are copied in this paper, it is stated, among other things, that ‘‘radiation takes place more rapidly when there is nothing to obscure the sky. Clouds or any other obstruc- tion act asa screen toretard it. It takes place more rapidly from the surfaces of plants, ete., than it does from the air above them, so that on still nights these surfaces are frequently cooled several degrees below the temperature of the surrounding air, and frost may form on vegetation although the air a foot above be several degrees above the freezing point. ‘One important principle to be considered in the study of the con- ditions under which frost forms is the increased density of the air as its temperature is lowered. Owing to this principle the air, on calm nights, arranges itself in accordance with its density. The heavier cold air rests on the surface and surrounds the plants and trees, thus increasing their liability to injury. Frequently a thermometer close to the ground will read 5 or 10 degrees lower than one 8 or 10 feet higher. This principle causes the air on slopes, as it becomes chilled by radiation, to flow down into the valleys, where it accumulates, WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER. 63 thus frequently causing severe frosts in the lowlands while the hill- sides remain uninjured. It is for this reason that frost does not so readily occur on windy nights, since the wind mixes the air to a more uniform temperature throughout and causes that near the ground to be warmer than it otherwise would be. ‘In selecting locations for orchards or gardens, avoid so far as pos- sible placing the tenderest plants on low ground, especially in the bottoms of narrow valleys with high hills on either side. In addition to the loss of their own heat by radiation, these valleys will become filled on frosty nights with the air that has been cooled on the slopes and has then flowed downward into the bottoms. Bottom lands oppo- site the mouths of canyons should be especially avoided for the same reason. The converse of this is true, that plants on gentle slopes are less liable to injury than those on bottom lands. **Slopes facing the south are preferable to northern slopes, because they receive the rays of the sun more directly and for a longer period. Slopes facing the west are to be preferred to those with an eastern exposure, since they receive heat longer in the afternoon; and being shaded for a time in the morning from the direct rays of the sun, the frost disappears more slowly and seems to be less injurious. The fact that frosted plants are more seriously injured by being suddenly warmed in the dry air than when the frost disappears more slowly seems well established. ** Moist soil, or loealities that can be easily flooded for the purposes of protection, are to be preferred to dry sections of otherwise similar location, for the evaporation of the moisture from the soil on dry cold nights will tend to raise the dew-point of the air and thus diminish the probability of frost.” Mr. Hammon believes that ‘‘one of the most effective means of pro- tection against frost is to diminish radiation by obscuring the sky with the smoke of smudge fires, but that this method is not so success- ful in the narrow valleys of a hilly country, for, while it retards the radiation of heat in the valley, the smoke bank is usually of low elevation, and radiation proceeds uninterruptedly from the hillsides, whence the cool air flows down into the valley, beneath the smoke, and chills the plants.” Damp straw, tar, turpentine, old hay, or anything that will produce the greatest amount of smoke will serve as fuel for these fires. The fuel should be on the ground in advance, and the fires started while the temperature is several degrees above the danger point. It is believed that decidedly better results will be obtained if damp fuel is used or if the fire be sprayed with water, for this will add vapor to the air, which, in condensing, will assist in checking radiation by obscuring the sky with fog or cloud, and at the same time the dew-point will be raised. In the case of smudges, the fire warms and expands the air near if, causing it to rise. This establishes an upward current of warm air 64 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. from the fire, and a space is warmed beyond that needing protection, and cool air flows in from the sides to take its place. Thus, the heat of the fire has but little effect in diminishing the intensity of the frost, almost the entire protection being gained by the blanket of smoke produced. By spraying the fire, on the other hand, much heat is con- sumed or lost in converting the water into vapor, which on rising is quickly condensed as it comes in contact with the surrounding air. The heat of condensation thus becomes manifest in the lower air, and is ina measure distributed along the lower stratum of the air, and greatly aids in protecting the plants. Every quart of water thus evaporated and again condensed in the surrounding air contains heat sufficient to raise the air temperature 1° F. throughout a space about 50 feet square and 50 feet deep. A modified form of water protection, which is valuable in orchards, is to spray the trees with water. This plan is probably more valu- able in protecting citrus fruits and other plants which are not injured until the temperature has fallen several degrees below the freezing point. In places where irrigation can be practiced it will be found of great value in giving protection. Anything that will seriously inter- fere with the rapid loss of heat after nightfall will tend to prevent the formation of frost. If the soil be well charged with moisture, it par- takes greatly of the stable temperature of water, and cools but little, if any, below the temperature of the superincumbent air, and no frost will oceur even though all other conditions of clearness, gentle winds, and cool air obtain. Even a small amount of moisture, say one-half inch rainfall, will often give protection if well distributed and pre- cipitated within twenty-four hours previous to the coming cool con- ditions. When severe drought conditions prevail, injurious frosts may occur when the general air temperature 10 feet above the earth is above 40 degrees. Under such conditions, in order to avoid a deposit of frost, it is necessary that the temperature of the top soil and that of vege- tation be reduced to the freezing point. This is accomplished by conduction and radiation of heat, which will take place more rapidly from the soil and vegetation than from the lower stratum of air. The degree of heat to which vegetation has been subjected immediately before the frost condition, and the temperature under which it has made its growth, will in a great measure determine the extent of damage by frost. If the spring be uniformly cold, fruit buds will remain undeveloped; winter cereals and all other vegetation will develop slowly, and their fiber will be tough and wiry. Such vege- tation will pass uninjured through a late spring frost which may be sufficiently heavy to be considered ‘‘killing;” but when the growth has been rapid under abnormally high temperatures the blade and stalk are tender, and serious damage may result from a very light frost. WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER. 65 It may be said that the most effective means of securing immunity from damage by frost is to place yourself in telegraphic connection with the official charged with the distribution of Weather Bureau frost warnings, and then be prepared to flood, spray, or cover with screens, straw, or other material, or else to start smudge fires. Of course, these means are only effective for the protection of limited areas. Irost warnings are succeeded in the late fall by warnings of severe cold waves. The latter are valuable to the farmer in case he is a shipper of his own produce. COLD-WAVE WARNINGS, Cold-wave warnings would be of great practical utility if they could be distributed to stock raisers, whether on the farm or ranch. The ideal distribution of warnings is, of course, by telegraph or telephone. If, therefore, the stock grower is within reasonable distance of a tele- graph or telephone station, it would be well to make inquiry of the nearest Weather Bureau official in regard to obtaining notice of severe cold waves. GENERAL DISTRIBUTION OF WEATHER FORECASTS, In the general distribution of weather forecasts, 1,821 places are served daily at the expense of the Government by telegraph or tele- phone, while occasional warnings of unusual character, such as cold waves, frost, and hurricanes, and in California special rain warnings are also telegraphed at Government expense to over 4,000 points. In addition to this paid service, more than 31,000 addresses are served daily with the weather forecast by telegraph, telephone, mail, and railway train service, without cost to the Government except for stationery, ete. FORECASTS OF RAIN IN CALIFORNIA. Forecasts of rain in California are of signal service in preventing injury to raisins exposed to the air in the drying process. In October, 1897, a general and rather unseasonable rain occurred in the great interior raisin district of California. First reports indicated that several million dollars worth of raisins had been destroyed, but when the later returns were gathered it was found that the damage was but slight, owing to the rain warnings extensively distributed through the telephonic systems connecting the principal vineyards. On account of the peculiar topography of California, such warnings can be made with a high degree of accuracy. THE RIVER AND FLOOD SERVICE. With our many thousands of miles of navigable rivers, flowing through one of the most extensive and fruitful regions of the world, 1 A97 5 66 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, warnings of floods are often worth many millions of dollars to navi- gators and to agriculturists having movable property on low grounds contiguous to the streams. Such warnings are issued when the pre- cipitation is so heavy as to indicate the gathering, during the next two or three days, of flood volumes in the main streams. The feasi- bility of making accurate forecasts as to the height of water several days in advance at any station is no longer questioned. The fore- caster at each of the twenty-two river centers considers the rainfall, the temperature, the melting of snow, if there be any, the area and slope of the watershed, and the permeability of the soil. From a study of floods in former years he knows the time necessary for the flow of the water from the tributaries to the main stream and the time required for the passage of the flood crests from one place to another. The principal streams included in the river system are the Alle- gheny, Monongahela, Ohio, Kanawha, Wabash, Illinois, Tennessee, Cumberland, Mississippi, Missouri, Arkansas, and Red rivers of the central valleys; the Columbia, Sacramento, and San Joaquin, of the Pacific Coast; and the Hudson, Susquehanna, Potomac, Savannah, Chattahoochee, and Alabama rivers of the Atlantic and east Gulf coasts. Each forecaster in charge of a river center has a definite section of the river system assigned to him. He receives the necessary tele- graphic reports of rainfall over the watersheds tributary to his river district, and also the necessary telegraphic data as to gauge readings nearer the source of the main river than his own station, and the gauge readings of many of the tributary streams. Some idea of the vast destruction of property due to floods may be gathered from the statement that the floods of 1881 and 1882 caused a loss of not less than $15,000,000 to the property interests of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys. There was also a loss of 136 lives. In 1884 the region about Cincinnati alone suffered a loss of over $10,000,000 in property. It would be impossible to estimate the value of live stock and movable property saved by flood warnings during the great flood of the spring of 1897 in the lower Mississippi, but certainly the saving amounted to many millions of dollars. Many days before the river overflowed its banks the areas threatened were warned of the coming flood. The report of the Statistician of the Department indicates that there was in this flooded district $15,000,000 worth of stock and moy- able property, the greater part of which was carried to places of safety mainly as the result of the thorough dissemination of information relative to the coming flood. When the Mississippi River at New Orleans was at the highest stage ever known, warnings were sent to that city that within five days the gauge reading would show an increase in the height of the water of over one foot. The water WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER. 67 reached the height predicted exactly on the day, but the levees had been strengthened and raised to meet the impending danger. THE CLIMATE AND CROP SERVICE. During the crop season this service collects weekly returns from several hundred voluntary crop correspondents. The returns thus received are carefully studied by the director having charge of the section or district, at whose headquarters educated and practically trained meteorologists, crop writers, printers, and messengers are on duty, fully equipped with the most improved instruments and mechan- ical appliances for performing their various functions. Each section director issues on Tuesday morning during the crop-growing season several thousand copies of a neatly printed bulletin, 9 by 12 inches in size, giving detailed information concerning climate and crops in every county in his State. The State bulletins are published by nearly the entire rural press of their respective States. The section director in each State telegraphs to Washington each Tuesday morning, in a mes- sage of sixty words or less, the pith of his weekly bulletin, and this message forms a part of the national climate and crop bulletin. The latter is prepared from the telegraphic reports from section directors and the meteorological records of about one hundred and fifty stations. It contains, in addition to the foregoing, charts showing the actual rainfall, the departures from normal temperature and rainfall, and the temperature extremes of the week. At the end of each month the section directors also collect by mail and publish in eight or twelve page quarto reports tables of daily rainfall and temperature from about one hundred sets of Government instruments in the hands of intelligent voluntary observers in each State, thus presenting the complete climatological and crop data of the month in convenient form for reference or study. Some idea of the magnitude of the crop work done by the climate and crop service of the Weather Bureau may be gleaned from the simple statement that in one month of four weeks there are printed 168 different State crop bulletins, 4 national crop bulletins, and 42 monthly climate and crop bulletins. It may also be well to mention that about three hundred observers in the wheat, the corn, and the cotton belts measure the rainfall and temperature and telegraph their reports to certain section centers, whence the reports are placed upon tele- graphic circuits and thus distributed to the produce, commission, and commercial exchanges of the country. These 300 reports are in addition to the usual meteorological observations telegraphed from 150 regular Weather Bureau stations for the purpose of forecasting. Even these latter reports, on account of their value in showing crop conditions, are promptly charted on large blackboard maps before every important board of trade in the country before they are used in the making of forecasts. 68 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. During the winter months there is published at the central office on Tuesday of each week a snow and ice chart, showing the portions of the country covered with snow and the thickness of the ice at the regular Weather Bureau and selected voluntary stations. The Weather Bureau of the Department of Agriculture, with its vast ramifications extending into every part of the country, is, in fact, the most extensive and most efficiently equipped machine anywhere in the world for the accurate collection and rapid dissemination of e¢li- mate and crop information. The great fund of climatological information collected by climate and crop services serves not only to show the effect of untoward weather conditions upon growing crops, but also to determine the agricultural possibilites of each State, the weather conditions under which insect pests thrive, and other problems of interest in connection with the general science of meteorology. WORK OF THE VOLUNTARY OBSERVER. In this connection, there is introduced here an account of a most important part of the extensive machinery of the Weather Bureau, the work of the voluntary observer, by means of which this great fund of climatological information and permanent weather record is obtained. Mr. James Berry, the chief of the climate and crop division, has, under instruction from the writer, prepared that portion of this paper relating to the work of the voluntary observers in determining the detailed climatic features of each State. THE PAID METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS, The paid meteorological stations of the Weather Bureau, 150 in number, distributed over the United States—exceeding in area 3,600,000 square miles—afford an average of but 1 station for each 24,000 square miles of territory, and while telegraphic reports from a larger number of stations would supply more complete data upon which to base the weather predictions of the Weather Bureau, and thereby tend to increase their accuracy, the data furnished from these 150 stations have, in past years, afforded information sufficient for successfully foretelling the occurrence of violent storms, cold waves, ete., and announcing the daily current weather changes from twenty-four to forty-eight hours in advance of their occurrence. While it has been possible for the Weather Bureau to satisfactorily conduct its most important work of forecasting weather changes with this comparatively small number of stations, it is obvious, when con- sidering that there are as many as eight States with areas of less than 24,000 square miles, that the records of the 150 telegraphic stations afford very meager information upon which to determine the local cli- matic features of many sections of the country. WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER, 69 THE VOLUNTARY OBSERVER. The voluntary observer, therefore, must be looked to for data to ascertain the detailed characteristics of the climate of the various sec- tions of the country. Under the liberal policy of the Government weather service in recent years it has been possible to vastly augment the number of cooperating voluntary stations. In 1880 the number of voluntary observers was less than 225; in 1885, about 275; in 1890, nearly 1,500; in 1895, nearly 2,500, and since 1895 the number has been further increased until at present there are no less than 3,000 voluntary observers in the United States taking daily observations of the extremes of temperature and recording measurements of precipitation, includ- ing rain, snow, hail, sleet, etc., much the larger number of these observers being provided with standard instruments. With this num- ber of voluntary stations, together with the regular paid stations of the Weather Bureau, we have an average of 1 station to each 1,200 square miles of territory. VALUE OF THE DATA SUPPLIED BY THE VOLUNTARY OBSERVER. The value of the data supplied by the records of the voluntary observer, both to the locality in which the observations are made and to the national weather service, can not easily be overestimated. These records are valuable not alone to the meteorological student and investigator, but they afford the farmer a valuable means of studying the effects of meteorological conditions upon crops, and enable him to determine the conditions under which certain crops may be successfully grown, as well as to ascertain just what the meteorological conditions were under which abundant or deficient crop yields were produced, while the observations of a series of years afford data upon which to compute normals for a basis of comparison with ecarrent conditions. The direct bearing of weather conditions upon the production of crops renders argument unnecessary to show the practical value of a careful study of these subjects, and that intelligent conclusions may be easily drawn by comparison of yields of crops with the meteorological conditions under which they are pro- duced. , % a “‘i_ WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER. 103 a microscope it is impossible to make anything out of them. When that instrument is brought into use, however, it is seen that the downy, frost-like growth consists of a miniature forest of delicate, whitish threads, branched and rebranched like the limbs of a tree. Upon the ends of the delicate branehes minute, egg-shaped, colorless bodies are seen, and they break off easily if slightly disturbed. By proper manipulation of the microscope it will be seen that the little tree-like growths send their delicate threads down into the tissues of the leaf, and that wherever they come in contact with the tissues they rob them of their nourishment and use it in building up their own structures. The small, egg-shaped bodies described are for the purpose of repro- duction, fulfilling the same office as the seed of higher plants. Rain or dew or slight currents of air cause these bodies to break from their delicate supports. Many are lost or destroyed, but many others reach healthy potato leaves, and there, in the presence of the proper amount of moisture and heat, they germinate and produce the same kind of delicate threads as those from which they originated. In this way the disease is rapidly spread, only a few days being necessary for each successive crop of reproductive bodies to develop, and as millions are produced on each leaf, it will be seen that the fungus may, under proper conditions, be quickly disseminated. LOSSES CAUSED BY DISEASE. It would be difficult to give a fair idea as to the number of plant diseases and the damage they cause in the aggregate. So many faec- tors come into play and so many complications are involved that only approximate statements can be made. It is probable that the loss in the United States from the diseases affecting cereals, such as smuts and rusts, will alone amount to $25,000,000 or $30,000,000 annually. Cotton, tobacco, potatoes, and other staple crops are correspond- ingly damaged, and the same is true of many similar crops. While the losses are sorely felt by farmers as a whole in such eases as have been mentioned, they are particularly noticeable and are felt with striking severity where intensive lines of work are followed and certain crops grown as specialties. In such eases it is the individual who has tangible evidence as to the actual amount he is out of pocket as a result of the attacks of certain diseases. A case in point is found in the growing of oranges, lemons, and other citrus fruits in Florida, where, judging from carefully collected data, it appears that the loss in one year from diseases which have been studied was more than $450,000. This loss, falling as it did upon a comparatively few indi- viduals, was of course felt all the more severely. When other fruits, vegetables, and the many plants grown for ornament and for flowers are considered, the injuries become more and more striking. Proha- bly it would not be overestimating the loss from plant diseases as a 104 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, whole in this country to place it at $150,000,000 to $200,000,000 annu- ally. We will now see in what way the Department is endeavoring to help the husbandman in this matter, and will point out as clearly as possible a few of the results. METHODS OF CONDUCTING INVESTIGATIONS, NECESSITY OF A THOROUGH KNOWLEDGE OF PLANTS, From what has been said, it will be understood that, generally speaking, to arrive at any definite conclusions in regard to the treat- ment of a disease a knowledge of the cause or causes must first of all be obtained. Empiricism in such matters can not long avail, although it may be and is sometimes followed with more or less bene- ficial results, and moreover no rational understanding of a disease can be obtained without first knowing how the plant behaves in health. The very foundation of all work on the diseases of plants, or vegetable pathology, therefore, should be a study of the normal life processes, or vegetable physiology; in other words, to fully appreciate the changes which are taking place in a diseased plant and the con- ditions surrounding it, a thorough knowledge must be had as to how the healthy plant behaves and its relations to soil, air, heat, moisture, and other environmental conditions. As will be seen, the compli- eations involved lead off into numerous difficult and perplexing questions, and the aid of many branches of science must be called in before definite conclusions can be reached. The men, however, who grow plants for the money there is in them are not concerned with these details, as the main point of interest to them is how the knowl- edge obtained by such work enables them to grow better crops and to realize from them greater profits. OBJECT OF THE INVESTIGATIONS. Briefly, then, the plant pathological work of the Department is planned to obtain, first of all, as thorough a knowledge as possible of the behavior of plants in response to disturbing influences. It is In such eases that careful laboratory, greenhouse, and field experiments must be made and investigations requiring great care and patience earried on. Let us take an example that will appeal to thousands of fruit growers, namely, the fire blight, or, as it is sometimes called, twig blight, of the pear. Following the line of investigation that has been carried on in the ease of this disease, it will be seen in a general way how the Department’s work is conducted and how it is all made with a view of practical application in the end. , STUDY OF BLIGHT. In the laboratory it has been found that blight is invariably accom- panied by a minute organism, a bacillus, allied to those which cause such dangerous diseases as tuberculosis and typhoid fever in man. WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER. 105 These minute germs have been found in countless millions in the del- icate cells of the plant, but to prove that they were the actual cause of the disease it was necessary to separate them from the pear tissues and all other organisms present, to grow them wholly apart and in an absolutely pure state, and finally to bring them again into contact with healthy pear trees and produce the disease. This has been done. The germs of pear blight, free from all other organisms, have been made to grow on potato, on various kinds of gelatin, and on other media, just as the farmer grows a crop of corn on a soil free from all other plants. The germs grown in this way, when pricked into the delicate tissues of a young pear shoot, multiply rapidly, and in a few-days there is a well-developed case of the disease. The cause of the disease being thus definitely determined, it remained to find out how it was spread from tree to tree, and how, after seemingly disappearing in late summer, it would break out again the following spring. The work -—~-was now transferred from the laboratory to the orchard itself. Here M it was found that insects, particularly bees, play an important part F in disseminating the disease. One very destructive form of blight { occurs in the blossoms, and the bees in visiting these for honey carry ui the germs to healthy flowers. Thus, from one center a whole orchard may soon become infected, and with what results will be easily under- { stood by those familiar with the way the blight works. & While bees were found to be a really serious factor so far as the % spread of blight was concerned, the work brought out a fact hereto- I fore unknown, but of vast importance to fruit growers, namely, that many varieties of pears will not fruit at all unless bees have access a to them—in other words, their own pollen is not potent, and they re- quire the pollen from some other variety in order to set fruit. This fact explains why large blocks of certain varieties are unfruitful, and it suggests a way of overcoming the difficulty. Coming back to blight, the studies in the orchard further revealed the very important fact that while the branches killed during the summer usually contain no living germs after a few weeks, in a cer- > . tain small proportion of them,.at the point where the diseased part p merges into the healthy, they do remain alive, and also that these germs pass the winter in a partly dormant condition. .As soon as spring opens, the germs in these few ‘‘hold-over” eases again start into . ‘active life and in a short time become so numerous that they ooze from | the wood in gummy masses. Insects are attracted to this more or less E* sweetish gum, and by visiting if and then going to other trees, espe- : cially to the blossoms, they redistribute the organism. So much, there- Y fore, for what has been developed by a long and careful study of this # disease. It now remained to apply the knowledge in a practical way, which was done by what has come to be known as the winter method of combating blight. This consists simply in a careful inspection of the orchard in the fall or early winter and a cutting out of every branch 106 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. showing any sign of the hold-over blight. Not only is it necessary to cut out these branches, but it is important that they be completely destroyed by fire. Following this practice carefully, it has been found practicable to eradicate blight not only from the orchard, but also from the nursery, where the conditions for spreading are much better, owing to the way the trees are planted. FUNGICIDES. Other diseases, of course, must be studied and treated in an entirely different manner. For instance, in many cases it has been found practicable to prevent serious injury to crops by the application of preparations known as fungicides. The efficacy of these fungicides in particular cases and their effects on the plant and on man himself must all be considered. Then, too, there are important questions in mechanics that demand attention; for instance, a fungicide may be cheap and effective, and yet unless it can be applied in actual field- work in an economical way it will have to be discarded. All this work inyolves the art of spraying plants, which has been developed practically within the past ten years, but which has now reached a point where it is regarded to be as necessary as pruning or the eulti- ration and fertilization of the soil. PLANT BREEDING. There is a phase ef the work which is fully as important, if not more so, than any thus far enumerated, namely, a study of plants and plant life’for the purpose oLestablishing the conditions necessary for that development which will make them most profitable to the grower. Every plant must be regarded as capable of attaining a certain ideal development, and if it does not do this something is wrong either with it or the surroundings in which it is forced to grow. It will be seen, therefore, that there is an important field in studying the conditions under which our crops attain their highest develop- ment and in pointing out the principles w hich will enable the grower to not only modify his conditions to suit the plants, but to modify the plants to suit the conditions. This inv olves the important work of plant breeding, a subject which can not well be considered apart from plant physiology and pathology. ‘ The importance of such work is shown by some recent investiga- tions earried on by the division in California on the raisin grape. Owing to an inherent weakness in fhe vine the flowers “‘blast” at blooming time, and as a result it is not uncommon for the whole crop to be lost. Some seasons this loss exceeds a million dollars or more, and it is therefore of the utmost importance to find a means of pre- venting it. While blighting is influenced by climatic conditions, it is unques- tionably due to a constitutional weakness of the vine, in which insects WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER. 107 and fungi take no part. Certain varieties do not have this weakness, but they are not suited to the purpose for which the other varieties are grown. It is here that breeding has come into play, with every prospect of success. The choice varieties noted for their tendency to drop the flowers have been crossed with other less desirable ones known to be free from this trouble. Thousands of seedlings have been produced by these crosses, and some give promise of having all the hardiness of one parent and the desirable qualities, so far as fruit is concerned, of the other. Thus, by crossing, by selection, and in other ways the value and usefulness of plants to man may be increased, from the fact that they are made not only to more properly fit certain conditions, but that by being adapted to these conditions their health is maintained and a better development reached in every way. SOME PRACTICAL RESULTS OF THE WORK. GROWTH OF THE SCIENTIFIC TREATMENT OF PLANT DISEASES. In the whole history of agricultural practice no phase of it, probably, has made such rapid strides in so short a time as the investigation and treatment of plant diseases. Less than fifteen years ago this subject was rarely referred to in print, and it was seldom that there was any discussion bearing on the matter at agricultural, hoxrticul- tural,and other meetings. There were but few experiment stations then in the country, and such work as those in existence were doing was along the lines of chemistry, feeding, ete. WORK FOR THE BENEFIT OF THE GRAPE GROWER. Twelve years ago the Department began the work on plant diseases in a small way, its efforts at first being devoted to a few of the more important diseases of fruits. In the beginning the investigations were confined to the laboratory, it being recognized that before any practical results could be secured in the field, knowledge must be obtained as to the nature of the diseases it was intended to combat. A special effort was put forth to discover the cause and best means of preventing the serious loss to grape growers through the ravages of several widespread diseases. At the time this work was undertaken the growing of grapes for market was being abandoned in many sec- tions, it being no longer possible to obtain a crop on account of one disease in particular—namely, black rot. The work of the Depart- ment showed that this disease was due to a fungus. Furthermore, it showed how the fungus lives from year to year, and how part of the time its growth is confined to the living berries on the vine and part of the time to the old, dried, and shriveled fruits which fall to the ground. The latter, it was found, furnish the means of again start- ing the pest another season, and thus the more the rotten berries 108 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, accumulate on the ground the more danger there is of infections the next year. Possessing these facts and many others, the details of which need not be mentioned here, it remained to discover some means of protecting the grape from the parasite in a way that would be sufficiently cheap and practical to warrant its adoption by grape growers themselves. The only way to accomplish this object or to determine whether it could be accomplished was by work in the vine- yards, conducted so as to leave no doubt as to the results. This work was inaugurated, and eventually it was proved that by the proper use of various solutions sprayed upon the vines the latter would not be injured in the least, but the attacks of the fungus would in large part be prevented. To reduce the operation to a practical basis, many difficulties had to be overcome. The question of suitable apparatus was a difficult one, as few manufacturers were willing to put a machine on the market without some assurance that there would be a demand for it. That these obstacles were overcome, however, and that the work was a success is shown by the widespread application of the results obtained. For the first few years, despite the widely published statements concerning the work, it was difficult to get grow- ers to undertake it. Men were actually paid to spray their vines in order that the results might be utilized as an object lesson for others. Five years after the first successful treatment of black rot, however, carefully collected data showed that there were over fifty thousand grape growers treating their vines in accordance with the directions issued by the Department. The industry, which for years had lan- guished or been abandoned in many sections, was revived, and, as was stated by the viticultural expert connected with the Eleventh Census, the work of the Department of Agriculture has practically revolution- ized grape culture in many sections. Figures showing the actual money value of such work are always difficult to obtain, yet they serve as convincing argument, and hence the desirability of having them. For the purpose of getting such figures in reference to the effects of treatment on grape diseases, arrangements were made at one time with about three hundred grape growers to so plan their work as to obtain as definite facts as pos- sible in regard to the actual money value of the operations carried out under the directions of the Department. It was found that the treated vines yielded on an average 80 per cent more fruit than the untreated, and that the actual gain as a result of the work ranged all the way from $20 to $150 peracre. The aggregate gain, as estimated by the entire three hundred growers, was something over $20,000, while the expense, including labor and cost of all materials used, did not exceed $2,000. In other words, this experiment and many others made after- wards showed beyond question that at an expenditure of, approxi- mately, 14 cents per bearing vine seven or eight years old or more from 10 to 25 eents gain followed in the fruit production alone. eee: cao WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER, 109 Since the faets here given were obtained the practice of spraying grapes has extended throughout this and many foreign countries, and it would probably be difficult to find a grape grower at this time in the United States who has not in some way profited by the work. WORK FOR THE BENEFIT OF THE NURSERYMAN, Another line of work in which important practical results have been obtained is the treatment of nursery stock for the various diseases to which it is subject. Millions of apple, pear, cherry, plum, quince, and other trees are grown in this country, the industry being one of the most important of all horticultural pursuits. Pears, cherries, plums, and quinees are particularly subject to a disease generally known as leaf blight, which causes the leaves to fall early in the sea- son, thereby shortening the period of growth, and thus not only stunting the tree, but in the case of seedlings preventing the inser- tion of buds—an operation necessary in order to obtain the desired varieties. Several years ago the Department began an investigation of the diseases of nursery stock, inaugurating experiments which extended through several seasons. The work was intended primarily to determine the possibility of preventing the diseases, the cost involved, and the actual gain in the growth of the tree, if any, as measured by dollars and cents. Over a hundred thousand trees were used in the experiment, and it was shown that the cost of the work was 25 cents per thousand the first season and the same the second year. The third year it was 40 cents, making the total cost for three seasons’ work 90 cents per thousand trees. The net profit, as deter- mined by the nurseryman who dug the trees and sold them, ranged from $1 to $40 per thousand, the average being $13, or about 1,400 per cent on the actual money expended. WORK FOR THE BENEFIT OF THE ORCHARDIST. The same diseases which cause serious loss in the nursery also attack pear, cherry, plum, and quince in the orchard. Here also important practical results have been obtained. At an expenditure rarely exceeding 15 cents per tree it has been shown conclusively that the marketable product can be increased from 25 to 50 per cent. Reference has already been made to the work of the Department in California, Florida, and other sections. It has been proved that to make such work thoroughly practical and of the greatest value to the farmers and fruit growers of any region, investigations must be earried on in such a way that all local conditions of climate, soil, ete., can be carefully watched. To do this the men engaged in the work must be on the ground, where the various phases in the development of a disease can be closely watched and the effects of treatment carefully noted. It may be well to give an example of the work of the Depart- ment carried on under the conditions mentioned by an assistant on the Pacifie Coast. - 110 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, For the past two years experiments have been carried on with a view to finding a means of preventing peach-leaf curl, a very serious disease, which in one orchard alone, containing a hundred acres, caused a loss in two years of about $25,000. In 1595 in this orchard 345 trees were sprayed with a view of preventing curl. As a control, or in other words, as a means of determining the effect of the treat- ment, 229 trees in the same orchard were left unsprayed. The treated trees gave an average yield of 317 pounds of fruit each, while the untreated yielded only 97 pounds. There was therefore a gain of 220 pounds of fruit on each treated tree, or a total gain of 75,900 pounds on all the trees sprayed. This fruit sold by the car load for 14 cents per pound, so that the total value of the fruit saved in this case was $1,138.30. The net profit from 345 trees was $1,104, it having cost 10 cents per tree for treatment. As a result of this work the whole orchard was sprayed the present year, and at.least 2,000 acres of bearing trees in other parts of the State were also treated. In this one orchard the owners estimate that the saving to them through the work will be $20,000, that’ is, there was a clear gain of 450 pounds of fruit per tree on those treated. Figuring on this basis, and taking all the work done in the State, there was a gain of, approximately, $450,000 to the growers of California who adopted the treatment rec- ommended by the Department. The work was also carried on exten- sively in Michigan, New York, and other States, and from the facts at hand in regard to the results, it is believed that a safe estimate of the total value of this work would be three-fourths of a million dollars. INVESTIGATIONS IN PROGRESS BY THE DIVISION. Cases of the kind mentioned might be multiplied, but it is believed enough has been-said to show the value of the-work from the stand- point of dollars and cents. It must be remembered, however, that the value of a large share of the investigations can never be deter- mined on such a basis. The discovery of a principle and the ability to get it applied may often require years of patient work, and yet in the end the actual money value in such a ease can be only approxi- mately estimated. . A better knowledge of the laws that govern plant growth is neces- sary before we can control any particular phase of it with the greatest economy and profit. The primary aim of the work of the division in this line is to obtain this knowledge and bring about its practical application to agriculture. The work now under way includes a study of the principal orchard fruits (apples, pears, quinces, peaches, and plums) and of the various citrus and other subtropical fruits (oranges, limes, lemons, pineapples, guavas, ete.). A study of the diseases of trees, especially those used for shade and ornament, is being pushed as rapidly as possible. Winterkilling, especially of evergreens, in certain parts of the West; the injuries which oceur during winter _ WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER. tii where irrigation is practiced; asphyxiation of roots in certain soils; and the dissemination of the germs of certain parasitic diseases by irrigation are all being investigated. Among the small fruits, grapes are receiving special attention. Much time is being devoted to a study of the problems connected with wheat culture, with a special view to securing varieties not only rust resistant, but also best suited to the various conditions of soil and -climate in the wheat-growing regions. The diseases of truck and garden crops are receiving a great deal of attention. The growing of crops under glass, an industry which represents many millions of dollars in the United States, is receiving eareful consideration. Until recently little was done in the way of careful, scientific study of the difficulties and diseases to be con- tended with in the growth of these crops, but such studies are now being pushed vigorously. Our knowledge of the elation of nutrition to growth, productive- ness, and health of plants, being as yet quite meager, a thorough study of the fundamental principles of plant nutrition is planned. Extensive experiments in the selection and breeding of oranges, pine- apples, grapes, wheat, oats, and the various crops grown under glass are being conducted with a view to obtaining varieties more resistant to disease, better suited to the various conditions under which they are grown, and of greater cOémmercial value. This work is based on thé principle that where the conditions of a region in which it is desirable to grow a certain crop are not naturally or can not easily be made favorable, the crop must be changed by breeding and selection within certain limits, to meet the conditions. All phases of this work are being pushed as rapidly as time, funds, and thoroughness will permit. fl 7 i? ; DIVISION OF POMOLOGY. By G. B. BRACKETT, Pomologist. a INTRODUCTION. In the not very remote past the time was when fruits were regarded as delicacies and luxuries which only a few households could afford to place on their tables daily in fresh condition just from the orch- ard and garden, and when canned fruits were hardly known. Theold style of curing fruits in the sun’s heat was in vogue, and around dwellings in rural districts might be seen long boards and portions of the roof of the house and sheds covered with sliced apples, peaches, pears, etc., exposed to the sun’s rays; and oftentimes the walls of the kitchen were festooned with long strings of prepared fruits curing 112 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. for family uses dtring the winter and spring months, and sometimes for market. ‘Paring bees” were common in all neighborhoods where orchard fruits were grown, and at these the young folks had their tasks to perform, and right gleefully did they participate in the enjoyments and festivities which such occasions afforded. The pioneer on frontier settlements had to be content with native wild fruits, and his frugal housewife prepared for dessert purposes the native crab apple, plum, grape, and berries, all of which were pre- served or made into jams, jellies, ete. Fruits were then considered as luxuries, and not as necessary articles of food. Meats; cereals, and vegetables constituted the main diet of the people of town and country. In those days the farmer planted but few orchard trees, and the vine and small fruits were seldom grown. A man who would have ventured to plant a commercial orchard of any considerable size would have been regarded as wasteful of his time and money. Fruit plantations were considered and treated as secondary in importance as a farm crop, and when planted were generally left to take care of themselves. Seedling trees and sprouts which had sprung’up around older trees constituted mainly the stock that was planted for orchard purposes. Grafting and budding were but little practiced, and it is not surprising that the product was generally of poor quality. INCREASE IN THE SUPPLY AND USE OF FRUIT. The above gives a fair idea of the condition of the pomological industry in the United States a little over fifty years ago. What is its present condition? The products of orchards, vineyards, and small fruit plantations are so abundant that all the markets are full and often so glutted that all effort in trade channels, together with heavy foreign shipments, does not entirely dispose of the abundant supply. Fruit is so cheap that people of the poorer classes are able to provide an abundance for daily family use, and a menu without it in some form would be regarded as notably lacking.in completeness. It is no longer considered a luxury, but a necessary health-giving food, supplying in a-measure the chemical elements absolutely essential to a hygienic diet. The canning of fruits of all kinds has become an extensive industry, which places the product in every household at very little cost to the consumer, as well as in a most attractive and wholesome form. Fruits evaporated by artificial heat, aided by highly improved ma- chinery, have taken the place of fruits formerly cured hy the sun’s rays. The magnitude of this industry as carried on in the United States is immense; it employs both millions of doUars of capital and large forees of laborers. The cost of the canned product has been wa tae ow? WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER, 113 reduced to a minimum, and all classes can now provide this product for their families. Jellies, jams, butters, ete., are manufactured in such large quantities and are so cheap, that they also come within the reach of the masses for daily use. In view of the radical changes which have occurred in the pomologi- eal conditions of this country in the cultural as well as the dietetical views of the people under the influences of a higher civilization, it may be truly said Americans have become fruit eaters in the fullest sense of the word; the old régime has passed away, and no articles of food seem’so inviting and are so much craved by the child, the adult, or the aged, as those which the pomological industry offers. Encouraged by such changes and the demands of trade, millions of dollars are invested, the industry has grown to be one of great com- mercial interest, so that single orchards, vineyards, and small-fruit plantations of hundreds of acres are common in the land. The interesting question arises, What agencies have been instru- mental in bringing about a change so radical and beneficial? In reply, the following statements are presented: The constant and increased agitation through hygienic and horti- cultural journals, aided by the public press, the strong arm of National, State, and local pomological and horticultural organiza- tions, assisted by private efforts, have led the people into a greater appreciation of the intrinsic value of fruits. Through these constant and intelligent efforts, also, have been given to the people fruits of such high character and excellence as are now found in abundance and at a low price in the markets and upon the tables of millions of householders. ORGANIZATION OF A DIVISION OF POMOLOGY A NECESSITY. In 1884 the pomological industry of the United States had devel- oped to such magnitude as to demand the recognition and support of the General Government for its further advancement and success, it having outgrown the ability of private organized effort. It had assumed such national importance that its necessities commanded the efforts of pomologists and statesmen in its behalf, and Congress came to its relief by organizing the Division of Pomology as a part of the newly established Department of Agriculture. Passing from the important event of its organization to the present status of the division, the question, How does the division benefit the farmer? is often presented for attention. In considering any attempt to answer this question, the public must bear in mind that the field of the divi- sion’s operations covers a wide area of country, extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from the Gulf of Mexico to the Great Lakes, having a climate varying from temperate to tropical, and with a soil and environment equally variable. The general benefits only 1 A97——8 114 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. will be stated, though the extensive details connected with its work are also highly important; but much valuable material, owing to a lack of funds, remains unpublished in the office of the division. BRANCHES OF WORK OF THE DIVISION OF POMOLOGY, (1) The division’s equipments and facilities, though these are not commensurate with its requirements, reach out into every State in the Union and into foreign countries, searching for information and material of a pomological character which gives promise of substantial aid to the culturist. (2) The division publishes in pamphlet form a catalogue of fruits adapted to the various fruit districts of the country, which is revised as occasion may require in cooperation with the American Pomologi- eal Society. (3) The division endeavors to add by collection or recommendation to the already valuable list adopted by the American Pomological Society other valuable sorts of fruit, found at home or in foreign countries, for trial in the United States. (4) Every means at the command of the division is used to correct the frequently erroneous names of varieties of fruits submitted, and to establish a correct and uniform nomenclature throughout the country. (5) A large correspondence receives prompt and careful attention. The division is frequently called upon to impart such information as it is prepared to give in all lines of pomological interest to corre- spondents from all sections of the country. (6) Specimens of new fruits of merit are constantly submitted to the division for examination and for determining their valuable qualities, and the conclusion reached is promptly forwarded to the sender. To facilitate and encourage this important line of work, the division furnishes boxes and franks on application for mailing such specimens without cost to the parties sending them. (7) Bulletins are issued as occasion requires, which contain practical and scientific information that results from the careful and thorough investigations of important questions pertaining to the highest inter- ests of American pomology. An annual report is compiled from each year’s work of the division. It contains a summary of the most valuable matter of the period coy- ered, and this, as well as the bulletins, is freely distributed to all parties interested in fruit culture, as far as the law governing the public printing and the funds available for this purpose will permit. CONCLUSION. The Division of Pomology was organized for the benefit of all citi- zens of the United States directly or indirectly interested in fruit growing, and, so far as the provision by Congress will permit, its WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER. 115 every effort will be given to promote the material prosperity and advancement of the pomological industry throughout the United States. The fact should be borne in mind that it must have the cooper- ation, confidence, and the aid of pomologists generally to enable it to reach the highest point of usefulness and to render valuable service to the American fruit grower. BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. By C. Hart MERRIAM, Chief. INTRODUCTION. The Biological Survey aims to define and map the natural agricul- tural belts of the United States, to ascertain what products of the soil can and what can not be grown successfully in each, to guide the farmer in the intelligent introduction of foreign crops, and to point out his friends and his enemies among the native birds and mammals, thereby helping him to utilize the beneficial and ward off the harmful kinds. No fact is better recognized by thoughtful students of our resources than the need of diversifying our agricultural products, with a view not only to remedying the present unequal apportionment of stand- ard crops throughout the United States, but also with a view to the introduction of new kinds. This is the more important because of the varying market values of standard crops from year to year, prices frequently falling so low as barely to cover cost of production, bringing hardship if not financial ruin to the producer. In order to obviate so far as possible the disastrous effects of such years it would seem the part of wisdom to be prepared with two or more crops, so that if one fails by reason of unsuitable seasonal conditions or low price the other can be depended on for sufficient revenue to bridge over the period of loss from failure of the first. Farms so favorably situated that absolute reliance can be placed on a single crop, or so little diversified that all parts are equally fitted for this crop, are few and far between; and even in such eases there is danger of overproduction. As a rule, if the major part is well adapted for corn, wheat, cotton, sugar, or tobacco, the crop chosen is subject to material fluctuations in yield and value, and minor areas are better fitted for some other use. NEED OF DIVERSIFICATION OF CROPS. The Statistician of the Department, in his last report to the Secre- tary, calls attention to the marked geographic concentration of agri- cultural productions, and points out that ‘‘ twenty-five States, or just half the total number, produce 98 per cent of the cotton, 95 per cent a 116 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of the corn, 95 per cent of the barley, 93 per cent of the oats, and from eight-tenths to nine-tenths of the wheat, rye, buckwheat, tobacco, potatoes, and hay produced in the entire country.” This certainly is an unfortunate state of affairs, and one which, in the light of present knowledge of crop adaptations, seems unnecessary. At the same time it is well to keep in mind the distinction between crops raised for home consumption and those raised for export. If, for instance, the twenty- five States and Territories now producing collectively less than 5 per cent of the total output of cereals can, by selecting proper varieties, grow enough for their own use, they may be able to raise for export fruits or other crops far more valuable to them than an excess of cereals. For several years prior to 1897 the price of wheat in the North and West was so low as hardly to cover the cost of harvesting, while in the Southern States not enough was raised for local consumption, and the price was correspondingly high. Thus, in 1894 the price of wheat on the farm in the Dakotas, Oregon, and Washington ranged from 39 to 46 cents per bushel, while in South Carolina, Alabama, and Georgia it brought from 76 to 87 cents, and in Arizona $1. If a wheat can be found which may be depended upon to mature a good yield on suit- able soils in the Southern States great benefit to the people should accrue therefrom. big sex: investigations carried on in the Biological Survey by Prof. C. 8. Plumb show that Fultz wheat and the spring or May wheats aicuie red May, early May, late May, big May, and others) may be grown successfully, except in the lowlands, in what is known as the Austroriparian zone, a belt which covers the greater part of South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and central Texas; and that Sonoran and Australian wheat do well in the Lower Sonoran belt in Arizona and southern California. Similarly, oats, in the main a Northern crop, have been found to do well in the Austroriparian belt of the Southern States if proper varieties are chosen; and these varieties are the Burt and Red Rust Proof. In the case of corn, Moseby’s Prolific, Golden Dent, and White Gourd Seed seem well adapted to the same belt. So there appears to be no reason why cereals can not be grown in the Southern States in quantities more than sufficient for local consumption. Cotton is the staple crop of the South, far exceeding all others in money value. But during 1897 the price of cotton was so low as to yield no profit, while at the same time wheat was so high that ifa fair division of acreage had been made between the two, the Southern planters would have realized handsome profits instead of suffering financial distress. Attention must be called also to the fact that in the face of the very large crop and extreme low price of cotton in 1897, when our export amounted to $212,640,769 (and similarly in 1894, when we exported $210,000,000 worth), enormous quantities were imported from Egypt. This, while inferior to our Sea Island cotton, is of WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER. 117 higher grade than our ordinary product and is used ‘‘for goods requiring smooth finish and high luster. It gives to fabries a soft finish somewhat like silk.” During the fiscal year 1896 the value of the Egyptian cotton imported into this country was more than $5,000,000. This brings up the important question whether we can not, with the aid of irrigation, raise these high-grade varieties in certain parts of the arid Southwest—in southern Arizona and the (| desert region of southern California. SEA ISLAND AND EGYPTIAN COTTON FOR NEW SECTIONS. The history of Sea Island cotton is interesting, as showing how the intelligent introduction and cultivation of choice crops in suitable climatic areas may yield rich returns. Dr. Walter H. Evans states that the Sea Island cotton, whose fiber is so highly prized, ‘‘is indige- nous to the Lesser Antilles, and probably to San Salvador, the Baha- mas, Barbados, Guadaloupe, and other islands between 12° and 26° north latitude. By cultivation it has been extended throughout the West Indies, the maritime coast of the Southern States, Central Amer- ica, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, ete., southern Spain, Algeria, the islands and coast of western tropical Africa, Egypt, Island of Bourbon, East Indies, Queensland, New South Wales, ete. It may be cultivated in any region adapted to the olive and near the sea, the principal requi- site being a hot and humid atmosphere; but the results of acelimati- zation indicate that the humid atmosphere is not entirely necessary if irrigation be employed, as this species is undoubtedly grown extensively in Egypt.” Although the area in which Sea Island cotton is produced in the United States is very small, and although a large quantity is manu- factured in our country, still the value of fhe crop exported amounted in 1894 to nearly $3,000,000 and in 1896 to $3,816,216. It is quite probable that both Sea Island and Egyptian cotton could be cultivated with profit in parts of southern California and southwestern Arizona. PROFITABLE CROPS FOR DIFFERENT CLIMATES. But wheat and cotton are not the only crops to be grown with advantage in the South, for the list of fruits, fiber plants, and other agricultural products fit for the climatic conditions of the Austroripa- rian belt is a long one, and a wise selection with reference to home consumption and convenient markets is bound to place agriculture in the Southern States on a very different plane from that it now occupies. : In northern New York and Wisconsin! the dairying industry is one ‘In 1890 New York produced 48.3 per cent and Wisconsin 21.3 per cent of the total output of cheese for the country. The New York output in that year was 124,086,524 pounds. 118 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of the chief sources of revenue, and cheese is a staple product. In years like the present, when cheese sells at the factory for 8 or 9 cents—and still worse a few years ago, when it sold for 4—the farmer is left at the end of the season without return for his labor. Yet, most of the lands now devoted almost exclusively to dairying are situ- ated in the sugar-beet belt, and are also adapted to several excellent varieties of wheat and other crops to which little or no attention is now given. WHAT THE FARMER NEEDS TO KNOW. The farmers of the United States spend vast sums of money each year in trying to find out whether a particular fruit, vegetable, or cereal will or will not thrive in docalities where it has not been tested. Most of these experiments result in disappointment and pecuniary loss. It makes little difference whether the crop experimented with comes from the remotest parts of the earth or from a neighboring State, the result is essentially the same, for the main cost is the labor of eultivation and use of the land. If the crop happens to be one that requires a period of years for the test, the loss from its failure is proportionately great. The cause of failure in the great majority of cases is climatic unfit- ness. The quantity, distribution, or interrelation of heat and moisture may be at fault. Thus, while the total quantity of heat may be ade- quate, the moisture may be inadequate, or the moisture may be adequate and the heat inadequate, or the quantities of heat and mois- ture may be too great or too small with respect to one another or to the time of year, and so on. What the farmer wants to know is how to tell in advance whether the climatic conditions on his own farm are fit or unfit for the particular crop he has in view, and what crops he can raise with reasonable certainty. It requires no argument to show that the answers to these questions would be worth in the aggregate hundreds of thousands of dollars yearly to the American farmer. The Biological Survey aims to furnish these answers. MAPPING AGRICULTURAL REGIONS. From a study of the geographie distribution of our native animals and plants it has been learned that the United States may be divided into seven transcontinental belts and a number of minor areas, each of which is adapted to particular associations of animal and vegetable life. It has been found also that each of these belts and minor areas, except the coldest, is adapted to the needs of particular agricultural products, and that the distribution of native animals and plants may be coordi- nated with the successful distribution of cultivated crops. In other words, the study of the geographic distribution of our native or indig- enous fauna and flora has resulted in the establishment of a number of agricultural belts, each of which comprises several minor divisions fit for particular varieties of fruits, cereals, and breeds of live stock. WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER. 119 Through the intelligent efforts of man the slow processes of nature have been hastened, so that most fruits and cereals have been made to yield varieties adapted to a diversity of climatic conditions. The happy outcome of this artificial selection is that, while certain varieties of wheat, oats, corn, apples, pears, grapes, and so on thrive _only in certain limited areas, different varieties thrive in other areas, avery large proportion of crops having varieties fit for each of the natural agricultural belts of the country. The same is true, though perhaps in less degree, of poultry and live stock. The Biological Survey is engaged in tracing with as much precision as possible the actual boundaries of these belts and areas, in prepar- ing lists of the native or indigenous species, and of the fruits, grains, vegetables, and other agricultural products that are adapted to each. In this undertaking it aims to point out such exotic agricultural and horticultural products as, from their importance in other lands, are likely to prove of value if introduced on fit soils and under proper climatic conditions. In view of the fact that all of the climatic life zones of the world, except the humid tropical, are represented in our own country, there can be little doubt that an intelligent study of the agricultural products and adaptations of distant lands will result in the discovery of fruits, vegetables, fibers, farm crops, and breeds of stock which may be introduced into the United States not only with profit, but which by diversifying our products and leading to the development of new industries will render our agricultural resources more stable and certain. The colored maps prepared by the Biological Survey furnish the first rational basis the American farmer and fruit grower has ever had for the intelligent distribution of seeds, and the only reliable guide he ean find in ascertaining beforehand what crops and fruits are likely to prove successful on his own farm, wherever it may be located. These maps, in connection with the work of the Entomologist, show also the belts along which noxious insects are likely to spread, fore- warning the husbandman of impending danger. In studying crops with relation to the zones or areas in which they may be most profitably cultivated considerable progress has been made. An investigation of the zone adaptations of several hundred varieties of fruits and nuts is far advanced, and by cooperation with Prof. C. 8. Plumb, director of the agricultural experiment station at Lafayette, Ind., a similar study of the varieties of corn, wheat, and oats has been completed and will soon be published. DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN CALIFORNIA. The history of the development of agriculture in California affords an excellent example of the changes in staple products that come with increased knowledge as to the fitness of particular areas for par- ticular crops. In the early days California was distinctly a grazing 120 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, State, and hides and wool were the chief exports. Then wheat came to the front and soon formed the staple product. Later it was learned that large areas were particularly well suited to the needs of fruits, and the fruit industry rapidly grew until at the present time it exceeds even the wheat crop in money value. But the fruits from which so large a revenue is now derived are only in part those first. introduced. Fifteen years ago wine grapes were perhaps the most important fruit; now they are of secondary consequence. For a time deciduous fruits were the principal ones deemed worthy of atten- tion; now citrus fruits are of even greater value, the output of oranges and lemons in 1896 being 3,780,000 boxes. Almonds, walnuts, olives, and raisins have also come to be important crops. Twenty-five years ago all our raisins were imported; now California produces annually from 90,000,000 to 100,000,000 pounds. The development of the prune industry is instructive as an illustra- tion of a common class of cases where products worth hundreds of thousands of dollars annually to a single State have been introduced by chance rather than as a result of scientific study. The first prune cuttings are said to have been brought from France, along with cut- tings of grapes and other fruits, by a Frenchman who settled at San Jose about the end of 1856. For some years little was thought of this introduction, and it was not until 1880 and 1881 that serious attention was given the cultivation of prunes. But from 1893 until the present year the annual output in dry fruit has ranged from 44,780,000 to 64,500,000 pounds.! It is hard to resist the temptation to dwell on the marvelous expan- . sion of the fruit industry that has taken place in California since the climatic adaptations of her various agricultural belts began to be understood; but for present purposes a statement of the exports of a few of her many products for the year 1895 will suffice to give a fair idea of the magnitude this industry has attained. In 1895 California shipped 6,625 car loads of fresh deciduous fruits; dried fruits, 6,132 ear loads; raisins, 4,638 car loads; canned fruits, 3,129 car loads; citrus fruits (mainly oranges), 11,582 car loads;* nuts, 1,333 car loads; wine and brandy, 8,056 car loads.*® THE ARID REGIONS. While considerable progress has been made in ascertaining what agricultural products are adapted to the climatic conditions of south- ern California and southern Arizona, this has been done at great cost, and nothing like a complete knowledge of the subject has been attained. Before this will be possible the life zones and their subdi- ts Statistics from California Fruit Grower. ? Figures from Fifth Biennial Rept. California State Board of Agriculture, 1896. 3 From California State Board of Trade. ~Aa~ WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER. 121 visions must be accurately mapped and corresponding arid areas in Afriea, Arabia, Persia, India, Chile, and Australia must*be studied with reference to agricultural productions which might be introduced with profit in proper zones in our arid Southwest. Nature has not been over generous in the distribution of water in this part of our country, but she has been lavish in her gifts of soils and climates. The fruit growers of California were long in finding out that their State com- prises all of the agricultural belts of America except the tropical, and that its different areas are naturally adapted to a great diversity of agricultural and-horticultural products. Even at the present day few realize that in the southern half of the State hundreds of farms might be so laid out with reference to the mountain slopes that each would embrace sections of all the agricultural belts, enabling the fortunate husbandman to produce not only early and late crops of small fruits and garden vegetables, but also an astounding diversity of crops, from the apples, cherries, potatoes, and hardy cereals of the upper Transition and lower edge of the Boreal belts to the oranges, lemons, almonds, olives, and cotton of the Lower Sonoran zone, and in certain localities the pineapple, date, and citron of the arid Trop- ical zone. It is probably not too much to say that an accurate map of the agricultural belts of California in the early days would have saved the State in the aggregate millions of dollars that have been expended in finding out what crops are best adapted to particular areas, and although much has now been learned by persistent and costly experiments, such a map would still be of very great value. So far as this phase of practical agriculture is concerned, the work of the Biological Survey ends with mapping the natural life zones and their subdivisions and pointing out the products best fitted fer the climatic conditions of each. STUDIES OF FOOD HABITS OF BIRDS AND MAMMALS. The bulletins on birds and mammals published by the Biological Survey correct widely prevalent errors as to the economic status of species that affect agricultural interests, and demonstrate the ineffi- ciency and wastefulness of bounty laws, under which millions of dollars have been expended by the various States and Territories without accomplishing the object for which they were intended. Birds are the farmers’ most valuable aids in his life-long battle with the insects that prey on his crops. How important, therefore, that he should not destroy those that do him greatest service. In the case of hawks and owls the division has shown, by the examination of the stomach contents of about 3,000 of these universally hated and perse- cuted birds, that only six out of the seventy-three kinds inhabiting the United States are injurious, and three of these are so rare they need hardly be considered, leaving only three to be taken into account 122 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. as enemies of agriculture. The others prey upon mice, insects, and other vermin, and rank among the farmers’ best friends. Since its establishment in 1885, the division has examined the stomach contents of nearly 15,000 birds belonging to 200 species and subspecies, and has published information on the food habits of 140 kinds, mainly hawks, owls, crows, jays, blackbirds, sparrows, thrushes, flyeatchers, swallows, shrikes, wrens, woodpeckers, horned larks, and cedarbirds. DIVISION OF SOILS. By Mitton WHITNEY, Chief. INTRODUCTION. The Division of Soils was established in the Weather Bureau, by order of the Secretary of Agriculture, on February 15, 1894, under a clause of the act making appropriations for the Department of Agri- culture for 1894 providing for the investigation of the relation of climate to organic life. In the appropriation act taking effect July 1, 1895, the division was recognized as an independent division in the Department of Agriculture, charged with the investigation of certain broad, general subjects. OBJECT OF THE.,WORK OF THE DIVISION, The primary object in the organization of the work of the division was to study the relation of the climatic conditions of moisture and temperature under the surface of the ground to the local distribution of crops. This was to supplement the work of the Weather Bureau. The fact was recognized that the rainfall does the crops little or no direct good until it enters the soil. The soil then offers a resistance to the descent of the water and holds a portion of it back for the use of crops during the period between rains. This water supply varies according to the texture of the soil, and thus arises the need of classi- fying the soils according to their water-holding ial as shown in their natural condition in the field. RELATION OF SOIL MOISTURE TO TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY. The water supply of the soil is thus shown to be an important factor in climatology, and to bear a distinct and obvious relation to the tem- perature and relative humidity of the atmosphere, and to form an important element of the climate of any locality. Tersely stated, an increase in the temperature of the air tends to inerease evaporation from plants. The relative humidity of the atmosphere, together with the velocity of the wind, controls this evap- oration, while the moisture in the soil supplies the loss of water due WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER. 123 to it. For a continuous growth of vegetation there must be a certain definite relation, constant within fixed limits, between the tempera- ture of the air, the relative humidity, and the soil moisture. With any great departure from the normal in any one of these conditions there must be a corresponding change in one or both of the other con- ditions or the crop is liable to suffer. If, for example, the temperature rises above the normal, there must either be a proportional rise in the relative humidity, in order that there shall not be an excessive evaporation from the plant, or there must be an increase in the water supply of the soil to meet the increased demands made upon it by the plant. If the soil is moderately dry, little harm may occur to the plant, provided the temperature is low or the relative humidity is very high. There is, of course, no sharp line determining the exact relations of these factors, for there are many gradations of conditions from the most favorable for plant growth to such as render it impossible for plant life to be sustained. The decisive factor may be either temper- ature, relative humidity, or soil moisture. SOIL MOISTURE AND LOCAL DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETATION, Under the conditions prevailing over most of our country it is believed that the moisture supply of the soil has more to do with the local distribution of vegetation than either of the other factors. It is important, therefore, to determine what water content of the dif- ferent types of soil gives the most favorable conditions for plant growth under the normal conditions of temperature and relative humidity, and then to determine the variation which may oceur in this water content without serious injury to the crop. This has been done in a number of cases. When the facts in this connection are once established they will furnish a reliable basis for the intelligent application of water through methods of irrigation or for improved methods of cultivation in order properly to conserve and regulate the water supply in the soil. KNOWLEDGE OF INTENSIVE FARMING NECESSARY FOR THE EASTERN FARMER. Different classes of crops require different climatie conditions for their bestdevelopment. The relation between temperature, humidity, and soil moisture most favorable for one kind of crop will not neces- sarily be favorable for another kind. As soils differ greatly in their relation to water, we have here the basis for the classification of soils in regard to their adaptation to crops—a classification necessary for the intensive farming which is being forced upon the Eastern section of the country. A broad and comprehensive study of the country as a whole shows that the interest in soil investigations is not the same in all sections. Our Eastern farmers have been foreed, through competition from the 124 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. West and from other parts of the world, to specialize in agriculture and horticulture, and they are fast adopting an intensive system of cultivation. The reason for this depends upon certain economic and social principles which need not be considered here. Eastern farmers can no longer grow wheat as a staple crop on all farms, as was formerly done. They must select only the most favorable locations of soil and climate in order to produce the crop economically, and the areas upon which this can be done grow smaller each year. This is only one of many instances in which the old staple crops are being abandoned for more profitable specialization along rather narrow lines. As before stated, the basis for this specialization and intensive culti- vation must be a thorough knowledge of the soils and soil conditions. This can only be obtained through a careful study and classification of the soils, the final result of which should be the preparation of soil maps showing the location and area of different types of soils adapted to certain classes of plants. The Eastern farmer is therefore now ready to use intelligently reliable soil maps of his locality. GENERAL FARMING STILL POSSIBLE IN THE WEST. In the West this necessity for specialization and intensive cultiva- tion has hardly arrived. On the broad level or rolling prairies and in the fertile valleys of the West the rocks themselves are more uni- form and there are vast areas of uniform soil conditions. Further- more, owing to the comparatively dry climate of the West, the soils derived from the different rocks are more uniform as the decomposi- tion of the rock has not, apparently, gone so far as in the more humid climate of the East. Many of the rocks in the West have disintegrated and fallen apart, leaving the minute grains of sand still composed of the several minerals constituting the rock, and making not only very uniform conditions over large areas, but very uniform conditions to very great depths. Asa rule, there is little or no difference between soil and subsoil down to a depth of many feet. In the more humid climate of the East the roeks, on the contrary, have gone beyond disin- tegration and have decomposed so that many of the minerals have been entirely changed in their chemical composition and have been broken down in their physical texture; hence the greater uniformity in the soils of the West. There is not so great a variety of distinct types, and they ean be cultivated much more cheaply. Over much of the Western area there is only a small and variable rainfall, but with 18 or 20 inches of well-distributed rainfall crops can be successfully grown. This is only equal to about half of the rainfall in the East, and there is but a narrow margin to work on. In the semiarid region the rainfall is so uncertain that a good crop can only be expected about two years out of five. The staple crops can be economically produeed if the season is favorable, and the most important question is proper methods of cultivation which will conserve for the use of 7 re WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER. 125 crops the small amount of water which actually falls. This is a vital problem over a large part of our country to-day, and the study of the movement of water in soils and methods of cultivation and treatment to conserve this moisture are matters of vital interest to the farmer. PROBLEMS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE FAR WEST. In the arid region of the far West, with a rainfall not exceeding 8 or 9 inches per year, and on the soils generally which require irrigation for the produetion, of crops, methods of applying water to the land, the proper quantity to supply for the several classes of crops, methods of cultivation to conserve this water, and the treatment of the alkali problem, are the most important and really vital problems to be con- sidered. Large areas of land in the West are being injured by the excessive application of water through improper methods of irrigation, and lands are being abandoned on account both of the excessive amounts of water they contain and of the alkali which accumulates near the surface, when too much water is used and improper or insufi- cient methods of cultivation are adopted. THE CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS. The preceding remarks outline the broad general interests involved in soil investigations in this country at the present time, and a brief statement of what has been done and what there is to do along these lines will now be given. The classification of soils should be based, where possible, upon the geology of.the region. Soils are derived from the disintegration of rocks. These rocks have been formed under peculiar conditions which determine to a very large extent their physical characteristics. They may be sandstone, limestone, shale, granite, or basalt, each of which usually covers large and well-defined areas. The soils derived from their decay will have certain physical characteristics, which will serve as a basis for their classification. There will be more or less sand, silt, or clay, according to the physical nature and chemical composi- tion of the rock. A variation in the relative amounts of these con- stituents will have an important bearing upon one feature of the climatic conditions, namely, the water supply; for, as already pointed out, the available water supply for plants is only dependent upon the rainfall in so far as the water is held back by the soil. TEXTURE OF SOILS. The soil in its natural state appears very compact and continuous; but, as a matter of fact, on an average only 50 per cent by volume of the space is occupied by the solid grains, leaving an equal volume to be occupied by air and water. The rain descends through the soil in 126 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the minute spaces between the soil grains. ‘The fewer grains—that is, the coarser the soil—the fewer of these spaces there will be; each space will be correspondingly large and there will be comparatively but little resistance to the downward movement of water. On the other hand, in a fine-grained soil the space is divided up into an infi- nitely greater number of very much smaller spaces, and as the rainfall moves down through such a soil much more resistance is offered to its movement and a larger quantity is held back for the use of crops. It is for this reason, together with the difference in the capillary power, that under the normal rainfall of our Eastern States a light sandy soil will maintain on an average only about 7 per cent of water, while a heavy clay soil will maintain on an average 20 per cent of water. STRUCTURE OF SOILS. It is not alone the texture of the soil which determines its relation to the rainfall. This depends likewise upon the structure of the soil, or the arrangement of the soil grains. ‘ i] ’ A to any now existing. The improvement of vegetable races by hybridizing and crossbreeding is at once the most direct and important means which we possess in modifying and adapting them to special purposes. The field of experiment here is boundless, and some sections of ite have, so far, scarcely been trod upon. The improve- ment of various fruits, and their better adaptation to domestic purposes, present enticing inducements to the experimentalist. It may safely be assumed that none of our most valuable and oldest varieties of fruits have attained that degree of excellence to which they may be brought; neither do they afford the variety nor continue their season of productiveness to the extent which is evidently possible. We have fruits that individually possess desirable qualities, but associated with qualities that equally tend to depreciate their merits; and, from the experience derived from former efforts, there is abundant evidence for encouragement in our efforts to produce a variety invested with a combination of excellencies not indi- vidually attained. Let us take, for example, that universally admired fruit, the strawberry, and originate a kind combining the wonderfully hardy und produc- tive powers of the ‘‘Albany,” the stately growth of the ‘‘ Fillmore,” and the exqui- site delicacy of flavor found in the ‘‘ Vicomptesse Hericourt de Thury,” and we might gratify ourselves with the possession of a plant approaching closely to per- fection in this fruit. - The grape, of all other fruits, offers great promise to the hybridizer. A good wine grape is yet a desideratum, and every attention should be directed to the production of a grape that will possess the necessary peculiar characteristics for this purpose. There is scarcely a limit to the objects presented to the hybridizer for experi- ment. To increase the size and color of flowers; to improve the flavor of fruits by changing austerity and acidity into sugary matter; to increase the hardiness of tender plants and make barren races productive; to extend the season of pro- ductiveness by hastening the maturity of some and retarding that of others, are only a few of the many improvements awaiting the systematic efforts of the hybridizer. It is true that in many cases the operation is somewhat difficult to perform, and in all a delicacy of manipulation is required, which tends to prevent experiment of the kind from being general; but carefully conducted operations will certainly be followed by valuable results. (3) To ascertain, by experiment, the influences of varied culture on products, and the modifications effected by the operations of pruning and other manipulation on trees and fruits. To establish definite systems of culture; to ascertain how far certain desir- able results can be influenced by pruning, how and when it is beneficial and when injurious; to institute carefully concerted experiments with a view of dis- covering to what extent the mere physical or mechanical condition of a soil affects its capacity of production, and how much is dependent upon its chemical consti- tution for the highest development of the cereals and fruits, opens up a line of inquiry by which valuable truths may be reached. The exact specific relation that exists between the soil and its vegetable productions, and the special appli- 182 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ances to render plant food soluble and in a condition available to the purposes of vegetation, are subjects upon which many opposite and seemingly conflicting opinions exist. In this connection also the application of manures, the kinds to be employed, and the time and manner of their use, whether as surface dressings or by an intimate mixture with the soil, present a series of questions well known to be of vital importance, and of which much yet remains in obscurity. (4) To investigate more thoroughly the various maladies and diseases of plants and the insects that destroy them. The diseases of plants are now attracting much attention. It is notorious that much of the difficulty now experienced in the production of fruits is, in a great degree, due to the prevalence of various maladies in trees. Thus, we have to con- tend with the yellows of the peach and nectarine, as well as the so-called blister of their leaves in spring; the cracking and spotting of the fruit of the pear and apple, and the blighting of their branches, and the mildew and rot of grape and gooseberry. How far these affections may be induced by deficiencies or reple- tions in the soil, or how much of their virulence is due to local position in connec- tion with atmospheric currents, has yet in the majority of cases to be determined. Insects also beset the cultivator on every side. These are insidious and powerful opponents, requiring close study, minute and patient observation, in order to learn their habits and adopt effectual means for their extermination. Experi- ments tending to elucidation of these subjects are now in progress and their further investigation will receive attention as soon as means will allow. (5) To provide ample means for thoroughly testing samples of all seeds and other contributions that may be received. The necessity for testing seeds and plants is one of the most obviously useful, as it has been one of the most assiduously and successfully conducted operations of the garden. Increased facilities for extending these tests have become necessary, especially with reference to agricultural seeds, roots, and tubers. Comparative results can only become definite and reliable when attained under similar circum- stances. To ascertain whether one variety of plant is earlier, hardier, or more productive than another, it is necessary that they should be cultivated under the same conditions of climate and soil. When it is impracticable to procure other than small packages of new and choice articles, the purposes of distribution will be greatly enhanced by their previous increase. By this means a knowledge would be gained of their value, which might prove of much moment. The neces- sary requirements for testing the products of hybridization further point to the paramount necessity of the Department having at its disposal greater facilities than the present garden affords, and where the more extended and economical operations of field culture may be introduced. (6) To cultivate specimens of various hedge plants and exhibit their availability for that purpose, The subject of live fences is one of vast import alike to the agriculturist, horti- culturist, and pomologist. The heavy investments annually incurred in the erection and repairs of fencing has long been a matter of serious consideration, and the introduction and culture of hedges has in some quarters occupied much attention and been extensively adopted. Orchardists and gardeners are gradu- ally awakening to the conviction that shelter is one of the most necessary appli- ances conducive to the health and earliness of their crops. The dry, frosty breezes of early spring are especially pernicious, and their effects lay the foundation for — WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER. 183 many plant diseases. On the Western prairies, particularly, it may be questioned whether successful fruit culture will be realized in the absence of shelter from exhausting winds. Then, again, for the purpose of forming neat boundary and dividing lines in pleasure grounds and gardens no fence is so beautiful, and when proper plants are selected for it no barrier so effective and permanent. As examples of what may be done and how best to do it, specimen hedges should be established, showing the relative merits of various plants for the purpose, both deciduous and ever- green. This would afford demonstrative evidence far more satisfactory and conclusive than can be conveyed by any amount Of mere descriptive advice, (7) Tocultivate a collection of the best fruit trees and plants, such as grapes, apples, pears, peaches, strawberries, raspberries, currants, etc., so as to compare their respective merits. It is known that our lists of fruit trees have reached an extent that renders it a matter of much perplexity to select those best suited for particular purposes. Tastes vary widely in this respect, and, happily, nature has provided so ample a variety that all may be gratified. With a view to assist in the selection of sorts, specimen orchards should be established, consisting of a discriminate collection of the acknowledged best fruits, as far as they are known, in each class. In order to make this result more immediately effective, advantage should be taken of the valuable labors of the American Pomological Society in making a selection of sorts. There is every reason to believe that plantations of this description will be of great service to all who contemplate planting fruit trees. The relative merits of sorts, both as regards the intrinsic qualities of the fruit and the productiveness of the plant, as well as the general appearance and habit of growth, hardihood, and freedom from disease, would here be exhibited. The modifying influences of culture, in training and pruning, already alluded to, should here receive prominent attention. From such a source facts of the highest value would be demonstrated. (8) To plant a collection of choice shrubs adapted for decorating gardens and landscape scenery. Everyone will admit that the embellishment of dwellings and their surround- ings has an ameliorating effect upon the habits of the occupants. It is also well known that many persons are deterred from undertaking this kind of improvement owing to their inability to decide upon the kind of plants and shrubs that would prove most satisfactory. A choice collection of hardy shrubs should therefore be cultivated, and if arranged so as to produce landscape effect, those who con- templated landscape improvements, and, indeed, all who felt desirous of studying the various forms and peculiarities of this family of plants, with a view of becoming familiar with their adaptabilities, either as isolated plants for particular positions or the general effect produced by combined masses, would here find instructive examples. (9) Toerect glass structures for the twofold purpose of affording the necessary facili- ties for cultivating exotic fruits and plants and to furnish examples of the best and most economical modes of constructing, heating, and managing such buildings. The opinion is by far too prevalent that glasshouses for the accommodation of plants or the culture of fruits are expensive luxuries within the reach of a com- parative few. Nothing can be further from the truth; the pleasures as well as the profits to be derived from an exotic grapery are so great, the expense of erec- tion so moderate, and, withal, the general management so simple and so easily 184 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. acquired that it should form an adjunct to every country residence. Even in the limited area usually allotted to city dwellings a small grapery can be established where little else can be cultivated. It would be a duty worthy the attention of the Department to show how to build such structures cheaply, and systematize and popularize a mode of management within the capacity of all to understand. The trouble connected with raising hardy fruits, such as the plum, apricot, and nectarine, in some districts has led to the culture of these fruits under the protec- tion of glasshouses, where a family supply is as certain as a crop of corn. The amount of fruit thus grown in a limited space is truly surprising. Successful examples of this and other projects can not fail in conveying instruction and effecting an economy of time, labor, and money. There is much yet to be demonstrated in the form, materials employed, ventilat- ing, heating, and general arrangement of glass structures. A brief review of the operations and results suggested in the fore- going paper will best illustrate what has been attained, and how far the suggestions have been useful to the fruit-growing and farming communities. . PEAR TREES. In the fall of 1862 a collection of pear trees numbering 120 plants were set out. These were in 60 varieties, one of each variety on quince roots, and one of each on pear roots; the purpose being mainly to ascertain what merit, so far as relates to early fruiting, the dwarf tree had as compared with the standard. After the lapse of a number of years it was found that some varieties proved to bear as early on pear roots as their respective duplicates on the quince. Of these, the most precocious on the pear were the Howell, Buffum, Beurre Giffard, Bartlett, Beurre Clairgeau, Belle Lucrative, and Dearborn’s Seedling. The trees were all of the same age when planted, soil and locality alike, and all made a healthy and even luxuriant growth. In 1870 a collection of pears, all on pear stock, were set out in order to illustrate results of nonpruning. These when planted were pruned close, so that they appeared like walking canes; no further pruning was permitted. In after years some limbs were entirely removed where branches became too thick and crowded. But no ‘‘shortening in,” as it is termed, was performed on the points of branches; even when the yearly leading growths acquired a length of 3 feet or more they were not disturbed, and in the course of two years these shoots were covered with fruiting spurs, and ultimately with fruit from bot- tom to top. On the contrary, the cutting back, or shortening in, of - these young growths simply induces a thicket of young shoots instead of forming fruiting spurs; in fact such treatment destroys the buds from which the fruit-bearing short-branch processes are formed. These trees were productive of fine fruits. In the fall of 187la collection from the dwarf trees was exhibited at the meeting of the Pomological Society. Placed alongside a collection of similar vari- eties from California, they were pronounced to be equal in size and superior in flavor to the California fruit. WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER. 185 Those on pear stock, and unpruned, also produced fine fruits, which received commendations from fruit growers, and which had the effect, in some known instances, of changing former methods of pruning. TREATMENT OF PEAR DISEASES, With regard to the blight on the leaves and branches of the pear and the occasional cracking of the fruits, experiments continued for many years proved that the blight was reduced to a minimum when thé main and sécondary and minor branches were annually treated to a covering of lime wash in which a portion of sulphur was incorpo- rated, and no blight has been*perceived on any part of a tree that has been protected by a coating of this mixture. The sulphur ingredient is of much importance. This is well known as an effectual remedy for the destruction of fungi and bacteria, and when this mixture is applied as indicated, and acted upon by sun heat, sulphurous gases are evolved so that the sulphury smell is perceptible to those who walk through an orchard on a sunny day where the application has been made. The fruit of the pear is often greatly injured by splitting or crack- ing when about half grown, and several of the best varieties are so subject to this disease that their extension and planting are greatly restricted on that account. The cause and prevention of this injury are therefore matters that induced a study of conditions. The conelu- sions reached indicate that the cause is climatic, and is not affected in any perceptible degree by the nature of the soil, or by any system of culture, or any special application to the soil. The cracking is the consequence of the fungous growth upon the skin of the fruit, which apparently destroys its vitality, as it becomes hard and unyielding, and as the fruit expands, the injured skin, being too hard for expan- sion, cracks open. It was pointed out that the only known remedy is shelter and protection, and this was proved by many examples, which were considered as ample proof of this conclusion. - GRAPES. A complete collection of native grapes was obtained and planted during the spring of 1863. This collection was increased from time to time as new varieties were introduced. As they fruited their merits or otherwise were noted and published in reports. Much attention was given to the cause and effect of mildew and other fun- goid diseases. From information thus gained, it was shown how to choose the best localities for grape culture, where diseases would be measurably avoided. It was shown also that by covering the grape trellis with a comparatively narrow wooden coping the vines were com- pletely exempted from leaf mildew and largely protected from rot of the fruit. To prove that these diseases were of atmospheric origin, a rude glass structure was erected by placing a few glazed sashes 186 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. against a common board fence. quantities of feed and water. The attendants were often inexpe- rienced and worthless. The space was overcrowded. The ventilation | was insufficient. The boats were occasionally unseaworthy. i 246 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. As a result of these conditions, there were frequently reports of ships arriving in the British ports, after an unusually long voyage, with the feed and water exhausted and the animals suffering from hunger and thirst. Sometimes during storms it was necessary to batten down the hatches, and then on account of deficient ventilation large numbers of animals would die asphyxiated. Again, it occasion- ally happened that in heavy seas the weight of the cattle would be thrown upon the halters with such force that the fastenings would give way and the animals be mixed and jammed together in the great- est confusion. If the attendants were inexperienced and unequal to the occasion some of the animals would be crushed and trampled to death, others would be bruised and maimed, and the general appear- ance of those landed would make a most unfavorable impression. In still other cases, a great wave would sweep the decks, tearing the temporary fittings from their supports and carrying both fittings and cattle together into the sea. Such occurrences could not fail to attract the attention of humane people abroad, particularly when the sentiment of humanity was intensified by the desire to limit American competition. The bar- barities of the transatlantic cattle traffie were depicted by the pen of romance, the cruelties were exaggerated and magnified, atrocities were described that never were committed, and illustrated pamphlets were prepared and circulated in order that the full power of sensa- tionalism might be invoked. Asa result of this agitation, a bill was presented in the British Parliament to prohibit the importation of live cattle from beyond the seas, and the Queen was strongly urged, in the name of humanity, to use her influence to secure its passage. This emergeney was met by Congress through the passage of the act of March 3, 1891, authorizing the Secretary of Agriculture to enforce necessary regulations to secure the safe carriage and humane treatment of cattle exported from the United States. Careful itives- tigations were at once made by the bureau and regulations formu- \. lated which were acceptable to the British Government. The rigid enforcement of such regulations drove the poorer class of ships out of the trade. Magnificent iron ships were constructed for the cattle traffic, with-every convenience, with permanent fittings built into the vessels, and having all the comforts and safety for which human ingenuity could provide. The losses were soon reduced to the mini- mum of. about one-third of 1 per cent. The cattle were unloaded in as good condition, as vigorous and active, as they were when they went on board. As a result of the improved conditions and the greatly iminished losses, insurance rates were reduced from $8 and upward ) per head of exported eattle to less than $1 _per head. This saving in insurance alone, with an average exportation of 325,000 head, amounts to $2,275,000 per year, nearly three times the entire cost of maintain- ing the bureau. WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER, 2AT In this elaborate system for determining the healthfulness of its exported animals and for guarding them from infection, injury, and cruel treatment the United States stands alone among the nations of the world, and its certificates should have great weight in any country that is fairly disposed toward our products. MICROSCOPIC INSPECTION OF PORK FOR EXPORT. In 1881 our pork was prohibited entrance into Germany, France, and the principal countries of the continent of Europe, on the ground that it was infested by trichine and was injurious to human health, Notwithstanding the fact that it could not be shown that our pork had caused disease, and that it was manifestly more wholesome than the European pork, and notwithstanding the most vigorous protests were made by the American Government, the trade was crushed and destroyed. The year before the prohibition went into effect we sold to France 70,000,000 pounds and to Germany 43,000,000 pounds. For ten years our pork was shut out of nearly every market of con- tinental Europe, when in 1891 the bureau began the microscopic inspection and certification of pork destined to the markets of the prohibiting countries. This action led to the removal of the prohibi- tions, but the restoration of the trade was a slow and difficult process. Our brands of meat were no longer familiar to the people of those countries, commercial connections had been severed, and require- ments as to cuts and cures had materially changed. It was like introducing an article into a country for the first time. Moreover, the prohibition had engendered suspicion as to the wholesomeness of our product, while the agitation had established prejudice and antipa- thy. ‘There were vexatious and burdensome restrictions by both the general and municipal governments. Notwithstanding such adverse conditions, the trade with these coun- tries has continued to grow until now it requires more meat than the bureau is able to inspect with the available appropriation. The fol- lowing table shows the pork which has been microscopically inspected and the quantity which has been sold in the prohibiting countries since this inspection was inaugurated: Shipments of pork microscopically inspected, fiscal years 1892-1897. To countries | To countries | requiring | not requiring Total. * inspection. inspection. _ Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. 22, 025, 698 16, 127,176 38, 152, 874 ~ 8, 059, 758 12, 617, 652 | 20, 677, 410 18, 845, 119 16, 592,818 | 35, 437, 937 39, 355, 230 5, 739, 368 ‘| 45, 094, 598 21, 497, 321 | 1, 403, 559 22, 900, 880 42,570, 572 | 1,001, 783 | 43, 572, 355 | | a ee es See ee 2 248 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The difficulties met with in the inauguration of this system of inspec- tion were very serious. ‘There had been no microscopic inspection on a large scale in America, and we had neither the appliances nor trained inspectors. ‘The glass compressors for preparing the specimens of meat and the microscopes used in the German inspection were con- sidered too clumsy and not adapted to accurate or rapid work. An American type of microscope was, therefore, selected, the stage was grooved so that an examination of every part of the specimen was insured, and a special form of compressor was adopted which greatly facilitated the work. The cost of microscopic inspection was estimated before the work was begun all the way from 15 to 50 cents per carcass. The actual cost has been reducéd to less than 6 cents per carcass. The packers asserted that it would be impossible to microscopically examine any considerable quantity of pork without delaying their business and damaging the meat. These fears proved to be groundless. The work of the abattoirs has neither been obstructed nor the meat injured. On the contrary, there are now from all points the most urgent appeals for more microscopic inspection. 7a ; THE GENERAL MEAT INSPECTION. F By the act of March 3, 1891, Congress directed the Secretary of Agriculture to inspect previous to their slaughter all cattle, sheep, and swine, the carcasses of which were to be disposed of through the interstate or foreign trade, and authorized him in his discretion to make a post-mortem inspection. This enormous undertaking was added to the many other duties of the bureau. The general meat inspection was designed to protect our domestic consumers from the meat of diseased animals and at the same time to enable the Government to certify to the wholesomeness of exported meats. It was specially provided that no beef should be allowed to go abroad unless it had been inspected and was certified as free from disease. The magnitude of this work was probably not appreciated by Con- gress at the time the legislation was enacted, although the desirability of such an inspection is incontestable. Owing to the great extent of our territory and the enormous number of animals slaughtered, it was impossible to at once cover the whole country. It was necessary to*instruct inspectors and to devise a system of administration with proper safeguards. Beginning at a comparatively few abattoirs, the service has been gradually extended until it is now established in 33 cities and covers the product of 128 abattoirs. The animals are first examined while in the stock yards, either at the time they are unloaded from the cars or when they are driven upon the scales to be weighed. Another examination is made of the WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER. 249 carcasses immediately after slaughter and when the viscera are being removed. Carcasses are condemned if found affected with any serious disease, or if the animals are emaciated, too far advanced in preg- nancy, or have recently given birth to young. They are also con- demned when too young to produce wholesome meat. The condemned meat is put into the tanks with the offal, cooked with steam, and made into fertilizer. The sound meat goes forward with a meat-inspection stamp upon cases and boxes, and with a tag or brand upon ecareasses and pieces. It has been a very troublesome matter to obtain a satisfactory method of marking inspected meat for identification that would not be at the same time too expensive. A tag attached with a wire and lead car seal has been generally used upon careasses, but is quite expensive, costing from $1.40 to $2.25 per thousand, according to the kind, and the cheaper forms are liable to be tampered with. Such a seal, to be satisfactory, should be so constructed that it can not be removed from one piece of meat and attached to another without plainly showing that it has not been properly applied. The expense of seals, and the difficulty of securing those that could be depended upon, early led to experiments in branding. Deine ree | 4, 289, 058 259, 930 B70, AAS, 5 28 SE 26, 541, 812 THE INSPECTION AND QUARANTINE OF IMPORTED ANIMALS. One of the first steps taken for the control of contagious diseases among animals was the establishment of quarantine stations at the principal Atlantic ports, where imported animals might be detained until there was no longer any danger of the development of disease from exposure to contagion in other countries. These stations were at first under the direction of the Treasury Department, but soon after the organization of the Bureau of Animal Industry they were transferred to its control. There are a number of destructive diseases in other parts of the world which it was necessary to guard against. Pleuro-pneumonia had already been imported and had caused us an endless amount of anxiety, trouble, and expense. Foot-and-mouth disease had several times reached our shores, and it was rather by good luck than good management that we had escaped a visitation reaching to every State of the Union and to every part of the American Continent. Rinder- pest existed in European and Asiatic countries, and there was always danger of its importation to America. We had taken the risk of these plagues for years without giving them much thought. Our people, always buoyant and optimistic, and never willing to seriously consider danger or admit the possibility of trouble until it is upon them, could never be brought to realize the danger to which they were exposed until restrictions upon our export trade convinced them that something should be done at once. ‘The establishment of quarantine stations furnished the necessary means to exclude further importations of contagion, and permitted us to undertake the eradication of pleuro-pneumonia with confidence that when the existing centers of the disease had been discovered and stamped out we should not be troubled by new outbreaks caused by imported cattle. The wisdom of maintaining the quarantine of animals from coun- tries in which contagious diseases exist is shown by the terrible WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER. 251 epizootic of rinderpest which for two years has been spreading over South Africa, almost annihilating the stock of bovine animals. The contagion was doubtless introduced from Asia, and neither its exist- ence nor the perils from it were sufficient to arouse the people to that prompt and vigorous action by which alone it could have been arrested. And now we see it sweeping across the country like a wall of fire, irresistible, seizing upon every herd, and claiming from 90 to 100 per cent of the animals as victims. Science has at last been able to do something to mitigate these losses. A method of vaecination has been adopted which will possibly save 60 per cent of the animals to which it is applied, but even with this in operation, the disease is a great calamity. Such a visitation of disease in the United States would cost us hundreds of millions of dollars -direetly, and many years of labor to recover from it. Three stations are maintained on the Atlantic Coast, one at the port of Boston, one at New York, and one at Baltimore. In the early years of these stations, several importations of animals affected with foot-and-mouth disease were detected, and one importation of pleuro- pheumonia was discovered in the Canadian quarantine. During recent years certificates of healthfulness and freedom from exposure have been required to accompany imported animals, and permits for importation are refused for animals from countries in which danger- ous contagious diseases are prevalent. The inspection system has been extended so as to include the fron- tiers bordering upon both Canada and Mexico. For a number of years all cattle from the United States were quarantined three months by Canada, and all eattle from Canada were quarantined three months by the United States. By mutual arrangement these quaran- tines have been removed, and at present animals accompanied by proper certificates of health are permitted to cross the frontier in either direction without detention. Cattle from Canada for breeding or dairy purposes must have been tested with tuberculin and found free from tuberculosis, otherwise they are quarantined one week and tested by the inspectors. This regulation is required for protection against tuberculosis, and is of special importance to those States which are trying to control the disease. Along the Mexican frontier the principal problems are to prevent the importation of animals carrying the contagion of Texas fever and sheep scab. Mexico has her Texas-fever districts as well as the United States, and sheep scab there is a most common and virulent disease. It was necessary, therefore, to carefully inspect all of the nearly 300,000 head of cattle and of the 43,000 sheep imported last year from that country. If cattle from the tick districts of Mexico are allowed entrance into the noninfected region of the United States, they cause heavy mortality among our native stock; and if eattle from the elevated section of Mexico, free from infection, are forced to 252 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, cross the boundary where they will enter our Texas-fever district, then the imported cattle contract the disease and die in large num- bers. Hence, the necessity of expert inspection and great care in carrying out the regulations. Notwithstanding the numerous sources of disease in other countries from which the animals must be imported and the vast numbers of animals which are annually brought to our country from abroad, the bureau has successfully protected our animal industry from exotic contagion. The quarantine stations and the inspection of imported animals have therefore fulfilled their purpose. THE HOG-CHOLERA QUESTION. The great losses from the contagious diseases of swine early at- tracted the attention of the Department and of Congress, and an appropriation for the purposes of investigation was made in 1878, with annual provisions for continuing this investigation until the present time. Two diseases, closely resembling each other, yet caused by distinet germs, and frequently both affecting an animal at the same time, have been recognized. The question of formulating practical measures for controlling these diseases has been as difficult as it is important. While most prevalent in the great corn-producing States, the diseases have been carried to all parts of the country, and, there- fore, any regulations to be effective must be enforced over a wide extent of territory, and would be correspondingly expensive. The losses have, however, been tremendous, being placed by some as high as $100,000,000 a year, an estimate which does not appear exaggerated in the light of the careful inquiries in the State of Iowa, from which it was concluded that this one State lost from $12,000,000 to $15,000,000 worth of swine in a Single year. The scientific investigations relating to this subject have been per- sistent, careful, and comprehensive, and the problems that are to be met have been very clearly defined. Passing over the details of these investigations for the sake of brevity, the efforts now being made will alone be discussed. There are but two methods of control which, from our present knowledge of the contagious diseases of swine, appear to promise adequate results. One is the old stamping-out method, the slaughter of diseased and exposed animals, the quaran- tine of infected farms, the regulation of transportation, and the dis- infection of stock cars, stock pens, infected farms, and all other places harboring the contagion. The other is the treatment of dis- eased and exposed animals with antitoxiec serum. Both of these methods have been tried to a limited extent during the past year. The stamping-out method is attended by many difficulties and lim- itations. Farmers often object to the slaughter of exposed animais which are still healthy, unless paid more than the animals are worth, and they are unwilling to have their breeding stock killed as long as WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER. 253 there is a chance of saving a part of it. On the other hand, it is embarrassing, if not impossible, for Government officials to utilize in any way the carcasses of exposed animals which have not yet devel- oped symptoms of disease, and to destroy these adds largely to the expense. Again, it is next to impossible to control transportation and the disinfection of cars so as to prevent constant reinfection. The disinfection of farms is also a troublesome matter, as the germ of hog cholera has great vitality and is able to maintain its existence and virulence in the soil, in moist organic matter, and even in water, for several months. Finally, the wide distribution of the disease, the ease with which the contagion is carried, the numerous agencies which contribute to its spread, are all elements which increase the gravity of the problem and militate against the success of the stamp- ing-out method. The use of antitoxiec serum appears at present to be a much more promising method of diminishing the losses, and it is possible that it may be combined with sanitary regulations, such as quarantine of infected herds, disinfection of premises, and supervision of trans- portation, so as to give the advantages of the stamping-out method while avoiding many of its embarrassments. The serum is prepared by inoculating horses or cattle with cultures of the disease germs and repeating these inoculations with gradually increasing doses until the animals have attained a high degree of immunity. The blood of such animals injected under the skin possesses the power of curing sick hogs and of preventing well ones from becoming infected. Unless the blood is to be used immediately after it is drawn, which is not often the case, it is allowed to coagulate or clot, and the liquid portion or serum is separated and preserved for future use. The bureau has been diligently working for several years to bring the serum treatment of hog cholera to the highest degree of efficiency. The most important point is, of course, to secure a serum with a high protective and curative power. This is by no means an easy task. The products of the hog-cholera germ are very irritating, and when injected into the tissues their tendency is to cause paralysis and death of the part with the formation of large abscesses. The intense local action hinders the absorption of the cultures into the general circulation and prevents the animal from acquiring immunity. It is doubtless for this reason that the inoculation of swine has generally failed to give the necessary degree of protection, and that inoculated swine are found to contract cholera when they are afterwards exposed. The serum produced in 1897, when used in affected herds, saved over 80 per cent of the animals. During the past few months the methods have been considerably improved, and it appears probable that a serum of higher efficiency will be the result. There is no danger connected with the use of this serum, as it is absolutely free from the germs of the disease. It is easily applied, and the good 254 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. effects in sick hogs are seen almost immediately. There is every reason to believe, therefore, that we have in this serum a practicable method of preventing the greater part of the losses from hog cholera, but it must be tested upon a larger scale before absolute assurance can be given. It is hoped that all doubts may be cleared up by the experiments planned for 1898. TUBERCULOSIS. Although the bureau has not attempted to enforce regulations for eradicating tuberculosis in any section of the country, it has, in many cases, cooperated with State and municipal authorities which were working with this object. The biochemic division manufactures tubereulin, which is furnished to local authorities for official use. During the past year sufficient tuberculin to test 50,000 cattle was thus distributed. Cattle for breeding and dairy purposes which are imported from Canada are required to be accompanied by a certificate that they have been tested for tuberculosis, and lacking this they are held in quarantine and tested by the inspectors of the bureau. A number of States also have regulations requiring similar tests for these classes of cattle, and the bureau inspectors at the various stock yards cooper- ate with the State authorities by inspecting the animals and giving notices of shipment. BLACKLEG. The disease known as blackleg, quarter evil, or symptomatic anthrax, is one which has long been dreaded by the producers of beef cattle, because it appears suddenly among the young stock, affects the best and most promising animals, and is almost invariably fatal. It has a great tendency to discourage stockmen in their efforts to improve their cattle, because the best bred animals are the ones most certainly affected. Many plans of prevention have been adopted, such as bleeding, setoning, feeding upon diuretics and alteratives, all with the object of keeping down the condition, and thus making the animals less susceptible. Such methods of prevention, while only partially successful, are opposed to the principles of successful husbandry. The stock raiser should have the best breeds for his purpose, and he should keep them thriving and growing rapidly, without check or hindrance. Methods of preventing disease which tend to arrest the development of his young stock are distasteful to him, and more or less unprofitable. | Vaccination was proposed as a preventive fifteen years ago, and has been adopted to some extent, but was never very popular on account of two vaccines being used with an interval of ten days or two weeks. The efficiency of these vaccines has also been questioned. Experi-. ments made by the pathological division have demonstrated that WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER. 255 cattle may be vaccinated with much less trouble and expense and with greater efficiency by the use of a single properly prepared vaccine. A few months ago a circular letter was distributed, offering to sup- ply vaceine prepared in the bureau for experimental purposes upon application by the owners of cattle, providing a report were made as to the losses from this disease and the effects of the vaccination. The information thus received has been very surprising. It appears that blackleg causes greater losses in some of the Southern and Western States than all other diseases combined. These losses are placed at from 10 to 20 per cent of the young stock. About 100,000 doses of the vaccine have been distributed, and reports show that it can be safely used by the owners of cattle and that the deaths from blackleg soon stop after the herd has been vac- cinated. SHEEP SCAB. Seabies of sheep should not be allowed to exist in any sheep- raising country. It is caused by a parasite which is easily killed and eradicated, and if this parasite is exterminated the disease will no longer develop. The continued existence of such a disease is a reflec- tion upon the intelligence and humanity of a people. ) Notwithstanding these facts, sheep scab has for many years been one of our most common, widespread, and destructive diseases. The time has come when the disease should be controlled and eradicated. In order to assist in this, the zoological laboratory of the bureau has been making experiments with various remedies in order to determine which are most effective in curing the disease, and which cause the least damage to the wool and to the general condition of the animals. The information obtained in this manner will soon be collated and published, in order that sheep growers may avail themselves of it before sending their animals to market. The shipper of diseased sheep must always expect to lose money upon them. They may be quarantined, they may be condemned as unfit for the production of human food, they may be subjected to charges for dipping before being forwarded from one State to another, and under any circum- stances the purchaser is unwilling to allow the full price of healthy animals. It is, therefore, greatly to the advantage of the sheep raiser to eradicate the disease from his flock before any are marketed. This the bureau proposes to assist him in doing by furnishing infor- mation as to how to make and apply the best remedies. ANIMAL PARASITES AND PARASITIC DISEASES. The study of animal parasites and the diseases which they cause has until recently been greatly neglected in this country, and yet the subject is amostimportant one. = 2 oe WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER. 261 farm consumption is not simply valueless, but positive loss, to the extent of its cost in the use of land, implements, stock, fertilizers, seed, labor, and other expenses. SERVICE OF DIVISION OF STATISTICS, Without being specific as to details in a matter where details are inevitably to a large extent elusive, it is certain that statistical infor- mation widely and carefully gathered and properly presented and disseminated, relative to the condition and prospects and in due time to the actual measure of the principal products of agriculture, has the strongest influence in maintaining a reasonable equilibrium between production and demand, and the consequent assurance of profit to the producer. In so far as statistics give timely information to producers of specific conditions affecting the marketing of products, such statisties do all that can be done, and what can not be done in any other way, to secure to agriculture a profit on its productions. It is too much to expect that this result will ever be attained with such sufficiency as to leave absolutely nothing to be desired; but so far as it is complete, the benefit secured is due to the statistical method, and will always require its service. What honest producers and interested consumers desire is relations which shall be of mutual benefit, and in the pro- motion of these relations the Division of Statistics of the Depart- ment of Agriculture has not only directly benefited agriculture to an incalculable extent, but, in doing this, has incidentally benefited all legitimate occupations and all consumers. MAGNITUDE OF AGRICULTURAL INTERESTS. It may be useful to examine into the extent and value of the inter- ests to which agricultural statistics particularly relate, as further showing their utility, and to consider the numerical and business importance of our agricultural population, whose most vital interests are frequently affected by matters that can be definitely known only through statistics. The following table from the census of 1890 shows the number and classification of the agricultural population ten years of age and over: Number and classification of the agricultural population ten years of age and over. Occupation. Female. Total. al ee usanbeacaaans 5, 055, 130 226,427 | 5,281,557 I ee eee ee 2, 556, 957 447,104 | 3,004,061 Gardeners, florists, nurserymen, etc.-.......-..-......-------- 70, 186 2,415 72, 601 SS ee 16,161 1, 734 17, 895 ES cr 19, 058 462 19, 520 re et en 7,717,492 | 678,142 | 18, 395, 634 !This is 36.9 per cent of all persons having gainful occupations, 262 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. This population, comprising only actual workers, constitutes almost 134 per cent of the entire population of the United States at the last census, and represents in families probably more than a third of the total number of inhabitants. Numerically, at least, its needs in the prosecution and protection of its endeavors are especially worthy of attention. Its investments in land, implements, and live stock are enormous, the value of farm lands, fences, and buildings being $15,279,252,649; that of implements and machines, %$494,247,467, and that of live stock (on farms only) $2,208,767,573, a total of $15, 982,267,689, or nearly 25 per cent of the total estimated wealth of the country. Thus, interests represented in a third of our popula- tion and a fourth of our national wealth are the direct interests of agriculture. The value of the products of agriculture in 1889 is stated in the census of 1890 to be $2,460,107,454, and the estimate is acknowledged to be considerably below the actual facts. Of many elements of these enormous values, the agricultural statistics of the Department of Agriculture take annual, monthly, or other account, as required by the frequent changes in their status. Many matters of information that are of vital interest to agriculture, which the census gives once in ten years, as an indication of our progress as a nation, together with much that the census necessarily omits, are given to the publie monthly, or as occasion requires, through this division, as freshly col- lected news of current importance, and thus the national record of progress as regards the business that is in greater or less degree the foundation of all other human industry becomes an annual one. The first statistics of agriculture published by this Department were those of a census taken three years before, and under a date that was itself a year old. At that time there was no agency for the annual gathering of farm statistics and no organization for the publi- eation of facts relative to agricultural production or distribution, while those facts were alive with meaning and influence. Now, periodic conditions of growth and quality, and finally the amount of production, are recorded by the farmers themselves in all parts of the Union, and are tabulated and published from their returns by this division. The advantage to the farmer is just as certain as it is inealculable, and it is sure to increase with the perfection of the statistical methods employed. ILLUSTRATION OF THE VALUE OF STATISTICS. The fluctuation in the values of live stock, as well as of other farm property, during the last five years strikingly demonstrates the utility of reliable periodic statistics. For many years this division has annually published, as of the first of January, a carefully prepared statement of the number and value of the principal farm animals, as horses, mules, cattle, sheep, and swine. WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER. 268 -It is well known that the year 1893 witnessed the beginning of a period of almost unexampled depression throughout the United States in all branches of business, and that recovery from it did not begin to appear until 1897. While statistics covering the full extent and results of this depression are, in the nature of the case, unobtainable, statistics gathered periodically for other purposes, but yet furnishing a measure of the value-destroying influence of such depression in definite instanees and to a definite extent, must be of value. Thus, a comparison of the numbers and values of farm animals, as contained in the published statistics of this division for 1893, 1896, and 1897, the years in which the depression began, culminated, and seemingly began to disappear, will show the estimated losses of value (out of all proportion, in most cases, to the actual numerical decrease) indicated by the scores of thousands of reports received by the Department in January of each year from its State, county, and township correspondents in all parts of the country. Unless there were a statistical organization to collect and publish these facts annually nothing definite could be known of the extent or progress of this great interest, except to speculators interested in it in a large way, nothing of its relative value as property, nothing of the effects upon it of economic changes, and consequently no clear deductions could be drawn as to the influences of public policy on private business. The following table shows the number and value of farm animals in the United States, with particular reference to fluctuations in value and numbers: Number and value of farm animals in the United States, 1893 to 1898, showing particularly fluctuations in value and numbers. Total Horses. Mules. Sheep. January 1— value of ; — live stock. || Number. Value. |Number.| Value. | Number.| Value. eee oe $2, rm spesenet| 16, 206, 802} $992, 225, 185} 2, 331, 128)$164, 763, 751) 47, 273, 553/$125, 909, 264 ee ee 2,170, 816, 754 16,081,139] 769, 224, 799) 2,352,231) 146, 232,811) 45,048,017; 89, 186,110 ER EEG) eee ee 1, 819, 446, 306|/ 15, 893,318] 576,730,580} 2,333,108) 110,927, 834) 42,294,064 66, 685, 767 ON ee 1, 727, 926, 084|| 15, 124,057! 500, 140, 186} 2,278, 946; 103, 204, 457) 38,298,783, 65,167,735 Oo eae 1, 655, 414, 612/| 14, 364, 667) 452, 649, 396] 2,215,654! 92,302,090) 36,818,643) 67,020, 942 Decrease, 1893 . | to 1697) 22: 828, 092,069); 1,842,135) 539,575,789) 115,474) 72,461,661) 10,454,910) 58, 888,322 Per cent of in- erease or de- crease, 1893 to LU lt aaa —33.3 —11.4 —h4. 4 —5. 0 —44. 0 —22.1 —46.8 | AUS. EE SR SR 1, 891,577,471), 13,960,911] 478, 362, 407) 2,257,665, 99, 032, 062) 37,656,960) 92,721,138 Per cent of in- crease or de- crease, 1897 to See See +14. 3 —2.8 +5.7 +1. 5 +7.3 +2. 5 +38. 3 1 Intervening years show gradation of change. 264 Number and value of farm animals in the United States, 1893 to 1898, showing - YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, particularly fluctuations in value and numbers—Continued, Cattle. = a | | ; . | Swine. January l— | Milch cows. Other cattle. Number. Value. Number. | Value. | Number. Value. Oa a 16, 424,087} $357,299,785| 35, 954,196] $547, 882, 204) 46, 004, 807 $295, 426, 492 a ee 16, 487,400) 358, 998, 661 36, 608,168) 536, 789, 147, 45, 206, 498 270, 384, 626 Co a ae eee 16, 504, 629) 362, 601, 729 34, 364,216) 482,999, 120) 44,165,716 219, 501, 267 Re eee 16, 137,586) 363,955,545] 32,085,409 508,928,416) 42,842,759| 186,520,745 SOOT? oe, ee 15, 941,727} 369,239, 993 30, 508, 408| 507, 929, 421) 40,600,276, 166,272,770 Decrease, 1893 | to 19071. ....- 482,360} 211, 940, 208 5, 445, 788) 39, 952, 783; 5, 404, 531 129, 153, 722 Per cent of in- ” crease or de- crease, 1893 to 1807 .........------ —2.9 243.2 —15.1) ol —i. 9 —43.7 La ees 15, 840,886} 4384, 813, 826 29,264,197} 612,296, 634 39, 759,993, 174, 351,409 Per cent of in- | crease or de- crease, 1897 to i! —0.6 +17.8 —4,1 +20, 5 —2.1 +4.9 1 Intervening years show gradation of change. 2 The only increase. It should be stated that the decrease in the value of horses (the greatest shown in the above table), in so far at least as it exceeds the average decrease of all, may be attributed to the rapid extension of the use of electricity on street-car lines and otherwise during the period considered. The cause or causes of the decline in the number and value of farm stock in general must be sought elsewhere as affect- ing the status of all classes of property. But the present purpose is to illustrate the value of statistics to agriculture in presenting facts of the most far-reaching consequence through the only possible method. If the assertion were ventured without proof that our farm stock of all kinds had decreased in number nearly 14 per cent (23,835,198) and in value 33.3 per cent ($828,092,069), or over four-fifths of a billion dollars, during five years normally free from epizootices, years of profound peace and of natural growth of population and demand, the statement would gain little eredence and exert no influence. Proved, it can scarcely fail to excite the most widespread interest and give occasion for the most serious reflection. , Among other services rendered by statistics to agriculture may be mentioned the statistical demonstration and measurement of the advantage accruing from the use of machinery as compared with human labor, and also the definite ascertainment of the extent to which production is increased by the use of fertilizers. There is, however, a service still more important. The more closely the production of any given crop is ascertained—in other words, the less the uncertainty existing as to the amount available for consump- tion and export—the smaller will be the risk attending the operations > > WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER. 265 of the merchant and trader, the less will be the inducement to specu- lation, and the more stable will be the value of the commodity. In every sphere of human thought uncertainty is the mother of specula- tion; in every field of human activity great risks call for large profits. Herein lies the current value of agricultural statistics—that they reveal true conditions in ascertained measure and furnish in large matters the only basis for comparisons. From such conditions and comparisons logical deductions can be made for individual guidance. It is in this view that these and related statistics are continually being gathered, arranged, and published by this division, and the information thus regularly made public is in constant demand. UTILITY OF FOREIGN STATISTICS. What has so far been stated has particular reference to domestic statistics, furnished through this division. ‘To much of it, however, may be given a wider application. Our insufficient production of certain agricultural commodities and our surplus production of cer- tain others have a relation to foreign markets, if these commodities are imported or exported, and the collection and study of facts relat- ing to production, consumption, and market prices in other countries becomes an important part of our duty toward our own agriculture. This consideration of foreign production and consumption enables us to determine with reasonable accuracy the demand that will be made upon our surplus, if any, in the current or ensuing year, or the supply that can be furnished us to meet our own requirements. _ This kind of information relates principally, of course, to agricultural commodities subject to competition, and which are the products of our own and other countries in constantly varying amounts‘and pro- portions; and asdemand and supply regulate prices, such information is of manifest importance both to producers and consumers. These supplemental statistics of foreign production, correlated with our own, often foretell approximately the measure of our own profit or loss. An illustration of the benefit to our agriculturists which may be derived from foreign statistics is furnished by certain ascertained facts relative to the production of wheat in Argentina. The statistics of wheat production in that country for a series of years are as follows: Statistics of wheat production in Argentina from 1890 to 1896. Year. Production.| Exports. Comemnaps Bushels. Bushels. | Bushels, elt a 32,000,000 | 14,400,000 —-17, 600, 000 Neen en ecu cutecene 34, 000, 000 | 16, 800, 000 | 17, 206, 000 By TE ae A ae we ge ee ae ee 58, 000,000 | 33,600,000 | 24, 400, 000 SS EE ee 84,000,000 | 56,000,000 —-28, 000, 000 SE ee | Se ae EE ee 60, 000,000 | 35, 600, 000 24, 400, 000 ol 44, 000, 000 | 18, 000, 000 26, 000, 000 eH al aT 28,000,000 4,000, 000 24, 000, 000 266 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. These figures show a range of production in seven years from 28,000,000 bushels in 1896-97 from an estimated area of 5,200,000 acres to 84,000,000 bushels in 1893-94 from about 4,600,000 acres, and an annual yield per acre ranging from about 5.4 bushels to apparently 18.2 bushels.! The area in wheat in 1884-85 was 1,000,000 acres; in 1890-91, 3,100,000 aeres, and in 1896-97, 5,200,000 acres, according to the report of an expert correspondent of the Northwestern Miller. The acreage and yield in 1888-89, according to Argentine official statistics, were, respectively, 2,036,254 acres and 19,690,575 bushels, 91 per cent being in four provinces. The yield that year averaged not quite 9.7 bushels per acre. In 1888 Pennsylvania, upon 31.6 per cent less land than this, raised only 4.5 per cent less wheat, at an average rate of 153 bushels per acre; one of our own States, in which wheat is not the principal farm product, thus producing nearly as much as the whole of Argentina in a year in which its own production fell below the average. Last year (1897) the wheat production of the single State of Kansas was almost equal to the average Argentine crop of the last seven years, while that of Minnesota exceeded it by 25 per cent. These are some of the principal statistical data relative to wheat production in Argentina, with a few facts concerning one or two of our own States by way of comparison. Such statistics would be of no particular -importanece but for the widespread fear of Argentine wheat as a competitor of our own product in the markets of the world, destined, we have been assured, to finally drive it from the field. Such a threat, handled by skillful speculators, and combined with similar terrors as to Russian surplusage, has not been without influ- ence on our markets, and the statistics of Argentine production are therefore ‘especially worthy of consideration. | QUALIFYING FACTS REGARDING FOREIGN STATISTICS. It is just here that an element not necessarily statistical must enter into the consideration of foreign statistics of competitive products, “such as the leading cereals, if we would arrive at correct conclusions— an element which generally enters easily and naturally into the con- sideration of domestic statistics. This is an element of qualifying conditions, sometimes capable of statistical proof, as in the case of climate, but not infrequently insusceptible of statistical expression. We know in a broad sense, at least, and of personal or hand to hand knowledge, the conditions of wheat culture at home, and we can judge of statistics of its production, consumption, surplus, price, ete., without, perhaps, deliberately referring to such knowledge in arriving at our conclusions. It will not, however, do to omit this in consider- 'Crop statistics for Argentina can scarcely be regarded as furnishing conclusive evidence that so high an average yield as 18.2 bushels of wheat per acre was ever actually attained in that country. All the probabilities are against it. WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER. 267 ing corresponding foreign statistics, but the value of statistical facts, at least their value in relation to similar domestic facts, must be carefully weighed by taking into account all important related facts and cireumstanees. It will be seen, if this be true, and admitting the importance to us of foreign agricultural statistics, how necessary it often becomes that qualifying facts be carefully and intelligently weighed by the statistician. The performance of this duty to our own people can not be delegated to ignorance and inexperience, or to those pecuniarily interested. Briefly, then, the statistical showing relative to Argentine wheat is qualified as to the future by the following facts, not statistical, but of official authority and from Argentine sources: (1) Wheat raising was unknown as a regular branch of farming until the introduction of subsidized immigration in 1882, and produc- tion has greatly decreased with the emigration of foreigners since 1893, the business being principally one of their institution. (2) Itis mostly confined to four provinces—Santa Ie, Buenos Ayres, Entre Rios, and Cordoba—which, with over three-fourths of the cul- tivated land in the country, produce over 90 per cent of the wheat, and which alone among the provinces are suited to its extended eultivation. (3) Santa Fe and Entre Rios are inland and alluvial, possessing the best conditions of location and soil in the country for continuous suc- cessful culture. Buenos Ayres is littoral and subject to destructive pamperos, equivalent to northeast storms in the United States. Both this provinee and Cordoba have a poor, thin soil, the fertility of which rapidly diminishes under grain-cropping, in the absence of artificial fertilization. (4) One year out of three (or even two out of five) is practically a year of failure in cereal production here or there in the provinces, as a result of pamperos, droughts, or locusts. (5) The United States has more than once increased its wheat acreage in two years by an area greater than the largest total area ever devoted to that crop in Argentina. The statistics alone in this case show the yield of the Argentine wheat fields year by year for a series of seven years, and the amounts annually consumed and exported; also the averages of these for the entire period. Incidentally they show an extreme variation in yield of 56,000,000 bushels, or 7,400,000 bushels more than the average yield; also that the average annual production is about 2,400,000 bushels more than double the home consumption, and about 2,400,000 bushels less than double the average amount of the exports. Further, they show a steady decrease in production from 1893-04 to 1896-97, culminating in a decrease of 56,000,000 bushels, and an export of only 4,000,000 against an export of 56,000,000 bushels three years before, and an annual average for the preceding six years of 268 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENY OF AGRICULTURE. 29,066,666 bushels. These statistics, taken in conjunction with those of acreage, show that the decrease in production has accompanied an increase in acreage, and that the lowest aggregate production has been from the largest acreage. PROOF OF THE VALUE OF STATISTICS, Of the nonstatistical facts in the preceding paragraphs 1, 2, 3, and 4, each throws its partieular light upon the Argentine wheat question, as set forth statistically in the table, and helps to determine its importance as regards competition in the markets of the world. The conclusions to be drawn from the total sum of statistical and nonstatistical facts need not be dwelt upon further than to state that, in view of the sudden rise of a considerable wheat industry in a comparatively new and very extensive country and of the claims and expectations based thereon, it is of particular interest to the farmers of the United States to ascertain the exact status of that industry, and, as far as may be, the limits of its possible extension; that such knowledge must at least have a statistical basis; and that to be entirely assuring, this statistical basis should be accom- panied by certain nonstatistical information not within the general knowledge. If the apparent result of this primarily statistical statement is an assurance that Argentine wheat can never become a really serious competitor of our own, that product is effectually eliminated from future consideration as a serious disturber of prices, and the knowl- edge of this fact is only of less value to our wheat raisers than is the fact that speculators are thus deprived of one of the greatest advan- tages they have enjoyed in their manipulations of the markets. This illustration of the use and value of foreign statistics goes necessarily into some detail, and is somewhat out of proportion to the article of which it forms a part. It is given for the purpose of showing, first, the advantage accruing to our farmers from a clear understanding as to competitive, or possibly competitive, foreign pro- duction; and second, that they may see that the task is not an entirely simple one which devolves upon the statistician who honestly and vigilantly seeks to protect their interests. That the making of estimates and the free discussion of anything in the way of a numerical statement are very dear to the heart of the American people, we have innumerable evidences entirely outside of the domain of agriculture. Almost anyone, however, can make some sort of an estimate and obtain the true arithmetical aggregates of tabulations. But, while in the working out of statistical results everything in the nature of necromancy or even of mystery should be carefully avoided, a broader knowledge of the matters to which statistical data relate than comes of their mere mops is not infrequently of vital importance. WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER. 269 The benefits conferred upon agriculture by statistics, great as they are, have no more attained their full limits than has agriculture attained its full development. In any consideration of the subject, therefore, this important fact must be taken into account. In addi- tion to the enormous advantages already accruing, it is not too much to expect that through the gradual utilization of whatever knowledge of physical conditions and of human needs, susceptible of numerical expression, may be available, and the careful setting forth of its precise relation to the great business of agriculture, the statistician of the future will be able to promote the agricultural interests of the country in directions that as yet are hardly dreamed of. Even if we consider, however, only the present scope and impor- tance of statistical investigation as applied to the vast, the highly diversified, and the ever-changing agricultural conditions of a coun- try like the United States, and keep in mind the fact that the experi- ence of the present and the past will enormously influence the judgments and labors of the future, it will surely be evident to every thinking man that there is no true economy in the curtailment of this work by depriving it of the means by which alone it can accomplish its important purpose. PROMPT AND WIDE .DISTRIBUTION OF STATISTICS THE AIM OF THE DIVISION. If agricultural statistics are of any value in themselves, their timely availability for the use of those to whom they are of particular interest becomes a matter of importance. They would be of no value to farmers, but might even be positively detrimental to their interests, if possessed by only a few persons or restricted to commercial circles, It is, therefore, the aim of the Division of Statistics in the Depart- ment of Agriculture to make the widest possible distribution of the information received through its various agencies, and to make such distribution as prompt and speedy as the necessity of securing reason- able accuracy will admit of. The monthly crop reports of this division are therefore mailed with as little delay as possible to the Depart- ment’s State statistical agents and the 7,500 persons who report to them, to the 2,400 county correspondents and the 6,800 persons who report to them, to the 40,000 township or district correspondents, to 12,500 cotton planters, to 1,200 newspapers, mostly rural, and to 120,000 other persons, the individual recipients, both correspondents and noncorrespondents, being mainly farmers. These reports relate, according to the season of the year, to the conditions of soil, weather, planting, growth, harvesting, yield, quality, transportation, markets, and prices. They are sent regularly and gratuitously to all persons who have taken the trouble to ask for them, and however susceptible of improvement they may be in any particular respect, the great °97() YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. demand for them leaves little doubt that considerable value is set upon them. When the statistical information received by the Depart- ment is made still more promptly available for the use of farmers by being bulletined in rural post-offices, and the information itself is made still more reliable by the institution of certain changes in the crop-reporting system, there will surely be no single division of any Government department, and certainly no independent organization, that will be promoting so greatly and so generally the agricultural interests of the country. SECTION OF FOREIGN MARKETS. By FRANK H. Hitcucock, Chief. INTRODUCTION. Agricultural productiveness in the United States far exceeds the consuming capacity of our population. After domestic requirements have been amply supplied there remains each year a vast surplus of farm produce that must either be disposed of abroad or become a burden upon the home market. The slightest excess of supply over demand leads to a depression of prices, and when the excess is large, as frequently happens in this country, there is always danger of a serious decline in values and consequent loss to the producer. In order to prevent the glutting of our own market and its attendant evils, the surplus production of American agriculture must be shipped to other countries. The extension of our export trade in agricultural commodities is therefore a matter of the highest moment to the farm- ing community. For the purpose of aiding in this important object the Department of Agriculture has established the Section of Foreign Markets. OUR DEPENDENCE UPON FOREIGN MARKETS. The extent to which we have become dependent upon foreign mar- kets for the disposal of our surplus products of the farm is shown by the fact that during the past fiscal year (1897) our agricultural exports amounted in value to $689,755,193. This enormous sum, comprising fully two-thirds of the total value of all exports, represents a branch of our foreign trade that is well worth fostering. INCREASING COMPETITION. In the earlier stages of our agricultural development we found it comparatively easy to market our farm products abroad. The won- derful agricultural resources of the country, far surpassing those of the older European nations, gave us a-ready mastery of the situation. WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT FOR THE FARMER, 4 i | There were no competitors formidable enough to endanger our con- trol of the trade. But the situation to-day is changed. Powerful rivals now confront us in our contest for the world’s markets. The fertile grain fields of Russia and of Argentina offer their abundant product to the importing nations of Europe at prices we find it diffi- cult to meet. The marvelous agricultural possibilities of Australasia are becoming more fully recognized as with each succeeding year still larger quantities of produce from that distant country are placed upon the European market. Our neighbor Canada has also made astonishing progress in some directions, and is now one of our most successful competitors in supplying meats and dairy products to the British people. Even the older countries of Europe show in some instances a surprising development in certain lines of agricultural production, as, for instance, the rapidly increasing output of butter in Denmark. From such changes as these a much fiercer struggle among the competing countries has resulted, and if in the face of this stronger competition we are to maintain our supremacy in the world’s markets, it will require on the part of our exporters a more deter- mined and persistent effort than has hitherto been necessary. AGRARIAN OPPOSITION TO OUR FARM PRODUCTS. In addition to the growing competition we are compelled to meet because of recent agricultural development in other parts of the world, we now find a serious obstacle confronting us in the active hos- tility that is being exhibited toward our agricultural products by the agrarian population of certain European countries where we formerly possessed a profitable market. Yielding to the pressure brought to bear by the agrarian classes, who see in the successful competition of American products a dangerous menace to their own interests, the governments of these countries have in several instances sought to limit importation from the United States by the imposition of unwar- ranted restrictions. These unfair acts of discrimination, together with certain criticisms of our products that appear also to have emanated from the agrarians, have had a tendency in some countries to create an unfounded prejudice against the character of American goods in general, and this prejudice it has been very difficult to over- come. FAILURE OF OUR PRODUCERS TO STUDY FOREIGN WANTS. Another impediment to the extension of our export trade is the failure on the part of our producers to give sufficient attention to the peculiarities of taste that often prevail in the foreign markets they are attempting to supply. A notable example of this is found in the character of the bacon we send to the United Kingdom. 272 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE BRITISH BACON MARKET. To supply the present demand of the British market requires the importation of more than 500,000,000 pounds of bacon a year. This bacon is procured almost entirely from three countries, the United States, Denmark, and Canada. Although the United States is still the chief source of supply, the quantity purchased from this country is decidedly smaller than it was five or six years ago. On the other hand, the British have greatly increased their importations of Danish and Canadian bacon. The attempt to introduce nature teaching into the rural schools has aroused much popular interest. The purpose and method of this work have been fully set forth in a recent bulletin and are here summarized. It was conceived that the fundamental difficulty with our agricultural condition was that there was no attempt to instruct the children in matters which will awaken an interest in country life, and therefore that the place in which to begin to correct the agricultural status was with the children and the rural schools. For the purpose of determining what should be done many rural and village schools were visited during the past year and simple lessons were given on natural objects. The result was that all the instructors were impressed with the readiness with which the children imbibed the information, their keen desire for it and appreciation of it, and the almost universal interest which teachers took in this kind of work. It was clear that the greatest good which could be rendered to the agricultural communities was to awaken an interest in nature study on the part of teachers and children. In order to facilitate teaching in this direction, leaflets were issued to show teachers how nature study may be presented to the pupils, and these have been received with the greatest enthusiasm by educators and many others who have examined them. The outgrowth of this work with the schools is that it seems certain thatthe best way in which to reach the pupils and the teachers is by short and sharp observations upon plants, insects, and other natural objects, and not by means of definite lectures of stated lengths. This work has already been presented to the teachers at some of their insti- tutes, where it has also met with favor, and it has received the com- mendation of the superintendent of public instruction and other persons in authority. So far as the present outlook is concerned, it is, perhaps, not too much to say that many believe that this move- ment, directed toward the young people of the rural communities, is the most important one which has developed in agriculture since the consummation of the experiment-station idea. Instruction by means of correspondence has been an outgrowth of the last year. There were about 1,600 readers upon the lists at the close of the first three months. It is the plan in this reading course to set the farmers to reading upon certain definite subjects, and then to make them think upon those subjects by periodical questioning. Some months ago the College of Agriculture had enrolled under the head of ‘‘ University extension work” 15,000 pupils and 10,000 teachers of the public schools and 1,600 young farmers. The pupils and farmers receive guidance by means of printed circulars, and the farmers report progress and difficulties upon special blanks, which are furnished. Six instructors are employed throughout the State in conducting university extension work, and special teachers are employed from not to mere facts or methods.’ POPULAR EDUCATION FOR THE FARMER. 285 time to time as occasion requires. These instructors meet the teachers of the public schools in the presence of their pupils and at teachers’ associations and institutes for the purpose of illustrating methods for teaching nature studies directly or indirectly related to agriculture. The leaflets furnished serve as texts for the subjects taught. The result of pushing this educational motive into the rural com- munities has been a most decided waking up of those communities, which, even if the work were to stop at the present time, will continue to exert an influence for a generation and more. All this work has been experimental—an attempt to discover the best method of teaching the people in agriculture. The promoters of this movement believe that the most efficient means of elevating the ideals and practice of the rural communities are as follows, in approxi- mately the order of fundamental importance: (1) The establishment of nature study or object-lesson study, combined with field walks and incidental instruction in the principles of farm practice, in the rural schools; (2) the establishment of correspondence instruction in con- nection with reading courses, binding together the university, the rural schools, and all rural literary or social societies; (3) itinerant or local experiment and investigation, made chiefly as object lessons to farmers, and not for the purpose, primarily, of discovering scien- tific facts; (4) the publication of reading bulletins which shall inspire a quickened appreciation of rural life, and which may be used as texts in rural societies and in the reading courses, and which shall prepare the way for the reading of the more extended literature in books; (5) the sending out of special agents as lecturers or teachers or as investigators of special local difficulties or as itinerant instructors in the normal schools and before the training classes of the teachers’ institutes; (6) the itinerant agricultural school, which shall be equipped with the very best teachers, and which shall be given as rewards to the most intelligent and energetic communities. NATURE TEACHING IN THE RURAL SCHOOLS. There are many interesting points in the scheme of university extension work for agriculture thus outlined, but particular attention should be given to that part of it which relates to the introduction of nature teaching in the common schools. For more than a hundred years schemes for the teaching of agriculture in the common schools have from time to time been put forward and have attracted more or less public notice. None of them, however, has been found practi- cable. This is largely because they have ignored the conditions existing in our common schools, as well as the nature of the subjects with which the theory and practice of agriculture deal. The great object of teaching agriculture in school courses must ever be to acquaint students with the principles on which sound practice should 286 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. be based and show the direction in which agricultural progress is going. The art of agriculture is best learned on the farm. That is the place where the boy learns how to plow, plant, and reap, and how to feed and care for stock. It is true that at an agricultural college or other school where the farmer’s boy may reside for a considerable period he may learn new and better ways of doing these things than on his father’s farm, but what chance is there that he can ever learn such things as a child in a common rural school where most of his time must necessarily be given to acquiring the rudiments of a gen- eral education? If he is to be taught agriculture at all in the com- mon school, the course must consist very largely of the principles underlying agricultural practice, that is, he must be taught why he plants and plows and reaps in one way rather than another and what laws of nature he violates in the bad management of his crops, stock, or dairy, and the penalties which will surely result. But agri- cultural principles are complex affairs, having their foundation in several sciences and only imperfectly understood even by the most advanced investigators. They are matters which the mature mind may profitably consider, but which are out of place in elementary schools. For this reason most of the experiments in teaching agri- culture in the lower schools have proved failures. It is true that something has been done in Europe, but it is only here and there where unusually gifted teachers have been found that even a meas- ure of success has been attained. In our rural elementary schools there is much less prospect that any useful work of this kind can be done. NATURE TEACHING SHOULD BE INTRODUCED IN COMMON SCHOOLS. There is every reason to believe that the plan of ‘‘ nature teaching,” as proposed by Cornell University, may prove a grand success and be of very great benefit to farmers’ children. The element of education which is at present most lacking in our common schools is the train- ing of the powers of observation. The children need above all things else to be taught to observe carefully and correctly and to state their observations in clear and terse language. The ordinary child, whether on the farm or in the town, actually sees comparatively little in the world about him. The wonders of the trees and plants in park or meadow, of birds and insects flying about the house, float like shadowy visions before his eyes. ‘‘Seeing, he sees not.” He needs a teacher who can open his eyes and fix his mind on the realities among which his daily life is passed. This accurate observation of natural objects and facts is the only foundation on which scientific attainments can rest. The scientist is chiefly a man who sees better than his fellow men. But it is also a great help in practical life. Many farmers acquire much of this power by their own unaided efforts. And these are the very men who most regret that they did not have in early life POPULAR EDUCATION FOR THE FARMER. 287 the help of a trained teacher. The farmer’s child lives where he has the best opportunity for such training. It would benefit him in the practice of his art, and it would add an interest to his life which would do much to wean him from a desire to leave the farm for the turmoil and uncertain struggles of the town. With proper provision for the training of teachers in normal and other schools, if would be entirely feasible to have this nature teaching in all our common schools within a few years. It is such teaching that the child mind craves, With it the sehool becomes a delightful place and the teacher an angel of light. The leaflets which the College of Agriculture of Cornell University is issuing show how vitally this nature, teaching may be made to affect agriculture, though it is not in itself the teaching of agriculture. In one leaflet the teacher is instructed to have the chil- dren plant squash seeds, dig some of them up at intervals to learn how the seeds germinate, and watch what happens to the little plants as they push their way up through the soil and unfold their stems and leaves in the air. Four apple twigs form the subject of some other lessons, and it is wonderful how much a child can learn about the way trees grow from such simple materials. At another time the children are encouraged to plant little gardens and carefully watch some of the things which grow in them. Or they study some insect which preys upon fruit or make collections of the insects about their homes, or watch them to see whether they are doing things good or bad for the farmer. Is it not likely that a child who is thus taught will soon begin to see a new value and dignity in farm life and to be less envious of the boy or girl who is shut up within the narrow confines of city streets most of the year? And if the farmer’s boy learns how to accurately observe the processes of nature with which farm practice deals and the foes with which agriculture has to contend, are not the chances vastly increased that he will be successful in managing nature so as to get the greatest favors from this coy mistress of his life and fortune? HIGH-SCHOOL COURSES IN AGRICULTURE. With nature teaching in our common schools and training in the science of agriculture in our colleges, there would yet remain one vacant place in our scheme for a system of agricultural education suited to the varied needs of allour people. Between the college and the common school is the high school, normal school, or academy. Large numbers of farmers’ boys and girls go to these schools, com- monly located near their homes, who are unable to attend the longer and more expensive college courses. Surely some provision for agricultural instruction ought to be made in such schools. Thus far only a few attempts have been made in this country to provide agri- cultural instruction of the high-school grade. It is true that some of the agricultural colleges receive students directly from the common 288 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, schools, but the constant tendency is to raise the grade of instruction in these institutions to a college basis and, under any conditions, they very imperfectly perform the duties of secondary schools of agricul- ture. The University of Minnesota has in recent years maintained a school of agriculture (see Pl. II) in which instruction in agricul ture of a lower grade than that given in the college of agriculture has been successfully imparted. This school has proved quite popular. Some 300 students were in attendance last year, and it has been found desirable to offer courses for girls as well as boys. The State of Alabama has recently provided for the maintenance of a school of agriculture of secondary grade in each of the nine Congressional districts of the State. The establishment of such special schools of agriculture of high- school grade is greatly to be commended. One of the best effects of such schools at the present time is to show the people what distine- tions should be drawn between colleges and high schools for agrieul- tural education. By the separation of these grades of instruction the colleges will be enabled to do their proper work more efficiently, and better opportunities will be secured for those students whose previous training only fits them for high-school work in agriculture. But it is not believed that these special agricultural high schools will fully meet the needs of our farmers for agricultural instruction of this grade. Any school so distant from the farmer’s home as to necessi- tate long journeys and residence at the school for two or more years must necessarily be too expensive for most of the farmers’ children, especially after they have reached an age when their services may be more or less utilized on the farm. Whatis needed is courses in agri- culture in numerous schools to which farmers’ children resort, near their homes, to ‘‘ finish” their education after they are through with the common schools. It is believed that some such plan as the following would be practi- cable and beneficial for a large number of schools and students: Many of the rural high schools, normal schools, and academies (that is, any schools of higher grade than the common or district schools) now employ at least one teacher qualified to give elementary instruction in one or more natural sciences. As compared with the more thorough courses given in the colleges the instruction in many branches, such as rhetoric, history, botany, and chemistry, which is given in the high schools, consists of an outline or skeleton course, presenting in a systematic way the main features of the science. In this way the pupil learns some of the most important principles and, what is of more consequence, gets an idea of the course and tendency of modern progress in these lines of knowledge. This may form the basis for more thorough training afterwards, but even if it goes no further than the high school, the mental horizon of the student has at least been broadened for all his life, and the chances are that he will prove a Yearbook U, S, Dept. of Agriculture, 1897 PLATE Il. Fia. 1.--DAIRY BUILDING, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA. FiG. 2.—GIRLS’ HOME BUILDING, SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE, MINNESOTA. i ee \ ot u POPULAR EDUCATION FOR THE FARMER. 289 more progressive and successful man than if he had confined his education to the common school. Now, what is being already done in other subjects in the high schools may easily be done in agriculture. Whena teacher of natural science is being selected for such a school located in or near a rural com- munity, let one requisite be that he shall have had training in the science and practice of agriculture, preferably at an agricultural col- lege. Such a teacher will be able to offer, it may be as an optional study, an outline course in the theory and practice of agriculture. The farmer’s boy or girl may then take this course in agriculture in connection with other courses at the high school without going far or longfromhome. If he has had nature teaching in the common school he will be all the better prepared for this secondary course in agricul- ture, and the more practice he has had on the farm the better able he is likely to be to appreciate and profit by a systematic course in agriculture in the highschool. It isof course not pretended that this outline course can take the place of the longer and more thorough courses at colleges and special schools of agriculture, but it will be far better than no course at all. It will open the mind of the pupil to the wonderful progress whichis being made in agricultural science and practice. It will enable him to take more thorough advantage of the information furnished through books, bulletins of experiment stations, farmers’ institutes, home reading clubs, ete. It will come to him at a time of life when he is making choice of his life occupa- tion, and it is believed it will be a powerful incentive to keep those boys on the farm who are fitted to get the most in every way out of a farmer’s life. CONCLUSION. In 1896, out of a total population of some 70,000,000 in the United States, 16,000,000 young persons were enrolled in the schools and col- leges, of whom three-fourths, or 12,000,000, were in places of less than 8,000 inhabitants. In schools having secondary grades, that is, high schools, normal schools, and academies, it is estimated, from somewhat imperfect statistics, that there were 600,000 pupils in 7,000 schools. Probably 400,000 of these secondary-school students were in 5,000 schools, located in places having less than 8,000 inhabitants. If agri- culture could be generally taught in schools of secondary grade, it is obvious that the effect would be widespread. How much more widely such instruction might be diffused than itis at present may be inferred from the fact that in 1897 there were in all only 64 colleges having courses in agriculture, which were taken by 3,930 students. It is evident we are making much progress in devising and carrying out wise plans for the education of the farmer. With nature teach- ing in the common schools, high and normal school courses in agricul- ture, colleges of agriculture, experiment stations, farmers’ institutes, 1 97 19 290 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. home roading circles, and the agricultural press, the farmer ¥ have a quite complete system of education in his art. This v 1 bring agriculture well into line with the great commercial and mz = Lu- facturing enterprises of our day, which owe so much to technical e cation, and would greatly help to take away from agriculture - he reproach of being a ‘‘ belated industry.” pen cz y rae athge ath Ar ie aS al aie f aul ve ‘ aOtE EVERY FARM AN EXPERIMENT STATION. By Ervin E. EWELL, First Assistant, Division of Chemistry. INTRODUCTION. For many years the complaint has been rife in rural communities that the young people look upon the vocation of their parents as unin- teresting and excessively laborious, while yielding small financial return and affording little opportunity for amusement. Many a youth has put forth every effort to leave the farm in order to spend his life in some commercial, industrial, or scientific pursuit, only to discover late in life that he has isolated himself from the very center of nature’s activities and has abandoned a world of opportunities for scientific study in order to enter upon a life in many ways narrower and more monotonous than the one he scorned in his earlier years. This is an age of endeavor on every hand to apply the results of scientific research to daily life; an age when laymen are learning the language of science, and when the tomes of scientific literature are being translated into the language of the multitude. Science has thoroughly established its reign over the industrial and commercial worlds, and now with renewed energy seeks for new territory in the home life of the people. This is evidenced by the fact that technical schools are now offering regular courses of instruction for the prepara- tion of teachers of ‘‘ domestic science,” who are to enter upon the task of teaching, in the common schools and elsewhere, the applications of physics, chemistry, and biology to the conduct of the household. The results of scientific advancement are permeating the whole social structure. Science is to the modern civilization what the heart and circulating blood are to an animal. As each heart beat sends a wave of blood that extends to the minutest capillary vessels, so each new discovery goes out from the little group of investigators as a mighty pulsation that sends an enlivening thrill throughout the entire civi- lized world—a thrill that is felt the more strongly by the individual the nearer he is in education and training to the authors of the dis- covery. Pulsations of this sort have been coming to the farmer with ever-increasing vigor for more than half a century; but the lessening of the distance between the mass of the rural population and the busy scientists has not kept pace with the rate of discovery. APPLICATION OF SCIENCE TO AGRICULTURE. The national Department of Agriculture, our agricultural colleges, experiment stations, granges, farmers’ clubs, reading circles, and 291 292 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, institutes, aided by writers on agricultural topics in books, periodicals, and the columns especially devoted to these subjects in the press of the country, have done much to foster an appreciation of the breadth and interest of the science of agriculture when studied for its own sake, for financial profit, for pleasure, or for the benefit of mankind. The usefulness of each one of these agencies is becoming greater every day. A very large proportion of a daily increasing store of knowledge, the result of years of research and experimentation, is thus being gradually wrought into the form of popular literature and made available to every farmer and farmer’s son studious enough to seek them out and read them. We can scarcely hope that the time will come when every farmer in the land will be a graduate of an agricultural school, but it is quite possible that the vast majority of our rural population may speedily acquire the habit of spending the long winter evenings studying the fundamental principles of the nat- ural sciences, in order that they may profit by the results of experi- ments made in all parts of the world. The winter is the time for planning the work of the busy summer days to follow. All available literature, old and recent, should be carefully and systematically searched for ideas that can be applied in the work of the following summer. It is scarcely possible to do this without learning something that will make the work of the future easier, pleasanter, and more profitable. There is a very large proportion of the experimental work neces- sary to the speedy advancement of agriculture that can only be done by thoroughly trained scientists, working with costly and elaborate apparatus, and by carefully planned systematic methods. Another part can be done as well or even better on the farm. Even experi- ments of the first class have not fulfilled their usefulness until their results have been applied by the farmer in his practical work. Each quality of soil presents a distinctly different problem. There need never be any fear of lack of work for the trained scientists, for, no matter how diligent and fruitful their labors, one of the most con- spicuous results of their work for many years to come must be a better appreciation of the great unknown still to be explored. The farmer’s greatest discouragement in entering upon scientific studies is the fact that the scientist speaks in a language unknown to him. The farmer and the scientist must meet halfway. The one must struggle to acquire as much as practicable of the technical language of science; the other must record his results in scientific language and also in the language of the layman. All persons work- ing for the advancement of scientific agriculture should therefore renew every effort to narrow the gulf between the scientists and the hosts of practical agriculturalists, and to develop among the latter a better appreciation of their opportunities for conducting experiments that will be interesting and profitable for themselves, their neighbors, EVERY FARM AN EXPERIMENT STATION. 293 and their descendants. The farmer should be shown that the techni- ‘alities of agricultural science are not so intricate as they at first appear. A few hours in study will cause such words as nitrogen, potash, superphosphate, carbohydrate, ete., to aequire a world of meaning and interest. By devoting a few hours every week to the reading of agricultural literature, if is possible for every farmer to be informed in regard to the current advances in his industry. The expense of the necessary books and periodicals can be greatly light- ened by organizing clubs and establishing libraries of agricultural literature. A very considerable part of the time of every scientific worker is taken up with the study of the reports of his fellow-workers. It is not only necessary that the farmer should become a student in order to begin experimental work in the right way, but he must remain a student in order to continue his trials of new methods with success and make his farm truly an experiment station. THE READING CIRCLE AS A MEANS OF RURAL EDUCATION. One of the most potent agencies that have been devised for popu- larizing agricultural science is the home reading circle. ‘‘ Farmers’ reading circles,” or ‘‘extension departments,” have been established in connection with the agricultural colleges of several States, among them Pennsylvania, New York, Michigan, Connecticut, and West Virginia. The first-mentioned circle is the oldest, and has consider- ably the largest membership. This circle and the Michigan circle alike offer five courses on crop production, horticulture, dairying, and like subjects, and when any student passes a satisfactory examination upon a given number of these subjects he receives a certificate. The extension department of Storrs College in Connecticut offers one course for men and another for women, and sends a member of the faculty to deliver one or more lectures before each circle of ten or more. Commencement exercises are planned for June, 1898. After the text-book course is completed a library of 100 volumes will be placed at the disposal of the cirele. These schools number hundreds of students each in this extension work, and there is a prospect for a rapid increase of membership till nearly every farmer’s home in these States will have such a student. The institution of such courses in other States is to be expected. Further information as to opportunities for farmers to study the sciences underlying their art may be found in a paper by A. C. True, Director of the Office of Experiment Stations, on ‘‘ Popular educa- tion for the farmer in the United States,” pp. 279-290, this volume. With such facilities every farmer may easily acquire sufficient scien- tific knowledge to conduct experiments profitably on his own land. IMPORTANCE OF SCIENCE TO THE FARMER. Whatever may be the ultimate uses of the products of the farm, agriculture is primarily engaged with the economical nutrition of 294 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. plants and animals. Agricultural science deals with the relations of physics, chemistry, and the biological sciences to every phase of every problem that the farmer may meet in his daily work. There is ample material in the results of the investigations that have been made in any one of the many branches of agricultural science to illustrate the value of scientific study to the farmer, and to plan a long series of experiments that can be successfully carried out on any well-regulated farm. In the present paper the writer will consider the importance of certain chemical studies of plant nutrition, and describe a few experiments in this line that can be appropriately undertaken by the farmer. All food for men and animals is directly or indirectly the product of vegetable life. Therefore, before the nutrition of animals and men can be achieved to the best advantage, a thorough acquaintance with the laws governing the nutrition of plants is necessary. For the sue- cessful production of any plant an abundant supply of every kind of food necessary for its growth must be present in a readily available form in the soil or in the air. It is just as impossible to grow plants in a soil containing only available nitrogen and potash, or lime and phosphorie acid, or silica and iron, as it is for a carpenter to build a modern frame house with only window glass and nails, or with only boards and mortar. It is just as useless to expect a plant to thrive in a soil deficient in potash, even though abundantly manured with nitrogen and phosphoric acid, as it is to expect the carpenter to build the house with a million feet of lumber and no nails. It is quite as futile to attempt to feed a plant nitrogen in the form of coarse leather scrap as it would be to furnish the carpenter the iron he is to use for nails in the form of pig iron. In brief, every vegetable structure is made up of certain indispensable chemical elements, which must be accessible in available form throughout the period of its growth. It is one of the most important duties of the agricultural scientist to learn what these indispensable elements are and how most economic- ally to supply them in highly available form to growing plants. PREPARATION OF THE PLANT’S FOOD IN THE SOIL. The preparation, or rendering available, of plant food for the grow- ing crop is just as important as is the preparation of food for human beings. Much has been learned during comparatively recent years in regard to the manner in which nitrogenous foods are prepared in the soil for the use of plants. While various organic compounds contain- ing nitrogen and salts of ammonia appear to be assimilated to some extent by agricultural plants, it is nitric acid in the form of nitrates that is preeminently their best food. The nitrogen of ammonia salts and organic matter is rapidly changed to nitrates by the microorgan- isms of the soil, and thus prepared for the use of the plants by proc- esses which have been clearly described in a paper by H. W. Wiley, a EVERY FARM AN EXPERIMENT STATION. 295 chief of the Division of Chemistry, on ‘‘Soil ferments important in agriculture,” in the Yearbook for 1895, pp. 69-102. The speed with which ammonia salts are changed to nitrates depends upon the pres- ence and activity of the nitrifying organisms in the soil and the main- tenance of the conditions which favor their growth. The nitrogen of organic matter must first be brought to the form of ammonia by the organisms of putrefaction before it can be nitrified. The proneness to putrefaction of any organic substance will therefore determine the availability of its nitrogen for the nutrition of vegetable life. The better suited an organic substance is for food for the organisms of putrefaction, the sooner will its nitrogen be changed to a form suita- able to serve as food for the higher plants. In the light of these facts it is not difficult to understand why the nitrogen of an old shoe is less available as a plant food than the nitrogen of a piece of meat. The important conditions governing the activity of the nitrifying organisms are little or no acidity and an abundant supply of air and moisture. The moisture, however, must not be so excessive as to pre- vent the air for any considerable period from permeating the soil. Experiments made in the laboratory of the Division of Chemistry of the Department have shown the nitrifying organisms from widely separated regions of the United States to be so extremely sensitive to an excess of acid that this is a sufficient reason in itself for every farmer to try the effect of lime on all soils not known to be of a decid- edly calcareous nature. Experiments recently made in France by Dehérain show that stir- ring the soil greatly increases the rate of nitrification. This result suggests a series of interesting experiments, that can be made on any farm. After the land has been plowed for any crop (preferably win- ter wheat) and harrowed in the usual manner to even up the surface, select a representative strip across the field and stir the soil of this strip to a depth of 3 to 4 inches with a cultivator or spring-tooth harrow every day or two throughout the entire period intervening between the plowing and the sowing of the seed. If there is any benefit to be derived from this treatment it should be manifest in the better growth of the crop. Its true value can of course only be found by comparing the cost of the extra work with the increased yield obtained. It is logical to suppose that any treatment of the soil which will hasten the formation of nitrates from the less available forms of nitrogen in the soil will insure a prompt and vigorous growth of the young plants. FARM MANURES. Every farmer has in the unmerchantable residue of his crops and in barnyard manure a valuable means of maintaining the fertility of his soil. If these materials are carefully and systematically returned to the land, the first purchase of commercial fertilizers can be post- poned for a considerable time. On a well-managed farm it ought 296 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. never to be necessary to purchase quantities of potash and phos- phorie acid greatly in excess of the amounts actually sold as con- stituents of the products of the farm. ‘These substances undergo no loss in the decomposition of carefully preserved manures and crop residues, and are usually not readily washed away by rain waters flowing over or percolating through the soil. With nitrogen it is quite different. This element is very likely to be lost in the decomposition of its organic compounds under the action of bacteria, and in the form of nitrates is very readily washed out of the soil. Of the ele- ments necessary for the growth of plants and most likely to be defi- cient in the soil (potash, phosphoric acid, and nitrogen), from 60 to 90 per cent of the quantities contained in the food of animals are recoy- ered in the manure. The fertilizer value of ordinary food for farm animals ranges from $1 to more than $20 per ton. In the case of many foods the fertilizing value may nearly or quite equal their com- mercial value. The manure should be considered just as much a part of the return from the feeding of farm animals as are meat, milk, labor, orsalable animals. Indeed, the values of the manures produced by sheep, calves, cows, and horses have been stated at from $24 to $30 per year per 1,000 pounds of live weight, and for pigs at $60 per 1,000 pounds of live weight. These figures are based upon actual experi- ments reported by the Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station. No farmer would think of allowing the unnecessary loss of a pound of meat, milk, or wool, or of a day’s labor of one of his draft animals, but many of them allow as much as one-half of the value of their barnyard manure to go to waste each year. The importance of care in the preservation of manure has been emphasized in the publications of the Department and of the experiment stations of several of the States. Many experiments have been made in this country and in Europe to determine the nature, causes, and means of preventing the losses which occur during the collection, storage, and use of stable manure and crop residues. The causes of losses may be enumerated as follows: (1) Imperfect collection of the liquid excreta, which possess even greater value than do the solid excreta. (2) The decomposing action of microorganisms contained in the intestinal tract of animals and in the air, by which there is likely to be a considerable loss of nitrogen, either in the form of ammonia or in the form of uncombined nitrogen. (3) The exposure of manure to the leaching action of rains or of rain water as it runs from the eaves of buildings, by which the loss of its valuable constituents is very great. (4) All stable manures and the refuse of many farm crops (particu- larly straw) contain organisms which cause the liberation of nitrogen in the gaseous form, when grown in favorable media containing nitrates. There is, therefore, a constant danger that the conditions EVERY FARM AN EXPERIMENT STATION. 297 of the soil may be favorable for the growth of these denitrifying organisms, and that they will cause a considerable loss of nitrogen by rapidly destroying the nitrates contained in the soil. These organisms deerease in number and activity when the manure is stored for some time. In view of these facts, it is evident that fresh stable manure and nitrates should never be applied to the soil at the same time. (5) It has been the practice among some farmers to incorporate all the straw possible with manures, in order to facilitate the rotting of the straw and thus increase the availability of the plant food con- tained in it. Considering the objection to inoculating the soil with the denitrifying organisms contained in straw, the practice of plow- ing under large quantities of this material in the unrotted state is questionable. ; COLLECTION AND APPLICATION OF MANURE. The results of the most recent experiments indicate that manure should be collected in a pit having impervious walls and bottom; that it should be thoroughly compacted and kept well moistened; that it should be protected from the leaching action of falling rain and from streams of rain water flowing from the roofs of buildings or from higher adjacent ground. Decade ending— Talue | ss60...... 7 LAL Ooo 22 eae UT Ae eee 1 $345, 957.00 er ee eee eT Oa PO Oy 3215, 903. 00 | 1) i ee eee phe dt ee SE ee ab ee a oe Sees See ee | ee ee a Ae edie ety ey Al Se oe. | 43, 024, 557.95 4,450, 725. 74 1 Average annual value for three years, 1858 to 1860, inclusive. 2 Included with limes and oranges, 1862 to 1865, and with oranges from 1866 to 1882. 3 Value for one year, 1861. 4 Average annual value for eight years, 1883 to 1890, inclusive. Imports of lemons, by years. Year. Value. Lg ARR ee ERR. Siete chee pin. at $4, 345, 979.08 | OO Sale Myc ae ee epdinle RRP TS 2 3 5 ot cen 400. Cee ne 4, 560, 261. 17 a hn 2 ee ee 4, 993, $29. 87 CPs, See en ee on ea 4, 284, 815. 92 oN le ict et Shake A Petes. oe de 3, 917, 106. 75 BTR PP Ss saat ol AR Re 5, 027, 732. 95 aw cenCascuc Das bas aMeene dE oeece Dames 2 eased etciee bate ame ea ets ect 4, 025, 354. 49 L = ee eS ee 8 | ee Lemon production on a commercial scale in Florida is commonly traced to the introduction of choice Mediterranean varieties by Gen- eral Sanford about 1874. Much difficulty was for some years expe- rienced in determining the proper methods of curing and marketing the fruit, and just as a reasonable degree of success was attained the freezes of 1894 and 1895 destroyed a very large proportion of the groves of the State. As the lemon is less hardy than the pomelo and orange, comparatively little interest in its culture has been manifested in Florida since 1895.. In California commercial lemon culture is also of comparatively recent date, a beginning having been made at National City by F. A. Kimball in 1869. It is estimated by the California Fruit Grower that on January 1, 1897, there were 1,197,098 lemon trees in orchards in the State, of which 231,510 were of bearing age. The crop of 1896-97 which, as nearly as could be determined, amounted to 462,900 boxes, is likely to show a large annual increase and to greatly reduce impor- tations of this fruit. , LIMES, Limes were first separately scheduled in 1858, when imports amounted to but $2,024. So far as can be ascertained, the maximum importation was reached in 1891, when the value was $59,867.35. A distinct decrease has occurred since then, the imports of 1897 amount- ing to but $28,700.29. The following tables show the average annual Se =-— = SUBSTITUTION OF DOMESTIC FOR FOREIGN-GROWN FRUITS. 323 imports of limes by decades, 1860 to 1890, and imports by years, 1891 to 1897, inelusive: Average annual imports of limes, by decades, Decade ending— | Value. SBD GIS Clalit NR Se AERO ok Sa ee Ra, SMe | 1 $3, 321. 00 FP OA EIN SYR Sa TONE ha Omer ee yt 210,170. 00 929, 795. 80 UC Peer Nico ean CLS SRC VS SRR Sg eel 48, 765. 70 Sichiwe dtuied Hees us Cede ed usc ocdek db sidawosews 41, 437. 46 1 Average annual value for three years, 1858 to 1860, inclusive. 2 Value for one year, 1861. 3 Average annual value for nine years, 1872 to 1880, inclusive. Imports of limes, by years. Year. Value. OTe te te a bee sore thet cat ze peed $59, 867. 35 Oe eee ait pen ere te bieg ease sa eds 37, 829. 45 een ee) We Re dl ce ee te 47,196. 36 48, 763. 50 28, 103. 68 39, 601. 69 28, 700. 29 Though grown in a small way in southern Florida since an early date, the lime has never risen to distinct commercial importance there, while in California, except possibly in a few specially favored localities, its cultivation for market has not been attempted. IMPORTS OF ORANGES, LEMONS, AND LIMES COMBINED. To show clearly the growth of the trade in the more important citrus fruits, tables showing the combined average annual imports of oranges, lemons, and limes by decades, 1860 to 1890, and imports by years, 1891 to 1897, inclusive, together with tables of such of the more important manufactured products derived from the fruits mentioned as are capable of segregation, are given as follows: Average annual imports of oranges, lemons, and limes, by decades. | Decade ending— Value. | | gt ee, BOE RS re ee ee ee a 1 $837, 102.33 IPE atts SLO ety de SB Ss tee coe | 21,347,660.46 | bs eS gs RE Se ee ee ee ne 33,661, 843.56 | te ERR Saeed Sen 5, 245, 829. 89 | 1 | i pnp SIRS SESS I ea See eee Oe 6, 546, 572. 07 1 Average annual value for six years, 1855 to 1860, inclusive. 2 Exclusive of limes, 1866 to 1870. 3 Exclusive of limes for 1871. YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Imports of oranges, lemons, and limes, by years. Year. | Value. fom... ccc bwusetbband eaceeus Ub amecee eee e eRe Leeann |.) ee Seats oe Oe Ltn Je wcabon abound date eaeee 5, 808, 171. 52 TRO soc cues aden weleunenyouunes sheen weee Weaken aia ane seine 6, 737, 303. 47 fo SE ma am a weatueense es aeeeeee 5, 444, 638. 57 To, Mee aero SS ee Mie le ey yes my? Bary rye 5, 942, 725. 29 Fo RR a Se Re eS gts, SES a pepe Be pay 7, 761, 490. 14 WOOT 2 Oe ety) OE ae bros ene aenap wine ema 7,395, 701. 42 Decade ending— | Quantity. Value. Pounds. 1 oe A SSS eer ce See ae otto ay AE | 151,897.00 | 1 $102, 217.78 | Sees sien Bek tc ONL ie ene | 72-186.51 | 182,447.15 | TT Ve ee 2 ee es Ba he ph ay Bre pa 154, 217.61 211, 321. 96 COS!) een ee tT Se ee eae 225, 731. 00 285, 320. 63 1 Average annual quantity and value for six years, 1865 to 1870, inclusive. Imports of lemon and orange oil, by years. Year. ; Quantity. Pounds. 179, 412. 33 $270, 255. 39 ieee Soe ner anne Beemer ee kre se 215, 794. 88 402, 907. 00 WP 8 I eo a rae aa ani ce ea ken eee 222, 8380. 72 383, 226. 22 Sg Ee eS Oe AO ey eee 212, 876. 00 240, 487.00 ea eee a in alata at ae 238, 281. 00 216, 043. 00 a ee pes hae oe ec Sanne 2 Ok NE Sane Sra a elon oa 206, 656. 13 214, 302. 00 270, 023. 82 ee ee ee ee ed Average annual imports of lemon, lime, and sour orange juice,' by decades. | Decade ending— Quantity. Value. | Pounds. OS Sea 08 a ae nee a rege se pS ets) ee ye 2 $8, 662, 97 ON SEE MES Seeman re mena <= iis 3 345, 568 59, 916. 51 ON On oe SE SS eae ee aa 4553, 277 92, 434. 30 DIS Ne 2h ee i iv a 112, 076. 48 | 1 Lemon and lime juice only, previous to 1891. 2 Average annual value for two years, 1869 and 1870. 3 Average annual quantity for eight years, 1873 to 1880, inclusive. 4 Average annual quantity for three years, 1881 to 1883, inclusive. SUBSTITUTION OF DOMESTIC FOR FOREIGN-GROWN FRUITS. 325 Imports of lemon, lime, and sour orange juice, by years. Year. | Value. ER See ere Ree ee ee $140, 672.80. | I cididsk On dp asa nn onbhwuamcacs cebturUrbesp gusbecwass Gncn diay mane 156, 832. 75 IOGds steatede tne de jn cnlge ahideas abaw dagathnpeuh wdwnWpbpen hebewpade 195, 203.59 | LOOM ose in ced ca ees ee wcte wc cn edeocons cnccee cnemenaeccnncewesces 71,021.00 TODD. os dina winnictevda cnameuicsctiwinseces > oSseennstwenss aaepes wens aves 61, 884. 00 TSOG. coca ad ices seuss a piped onwcere res senen=enssenesenacsancenseee B4, 073.25 1897 74, 848. 00 Average annual imports of orange and lemon peel, by decades. a cote ik bhs Lowi tes Ee io] Ea Decade ending— Quantity. | Value. E CSRS er eae ie Nps: FF ais 5 Pounds eo Goa Mee ea dere Me eee eateries 1 $1, 383. 25 | 1880..-.....--2.2---neeeeeceee en ereee Lf, CORIO fas 2115, 600 6, 225. 51 PENN Re Soak ao Soke soe oie ss 0 Joe comesna can wine bwe 3 218, 500 5, 076. 25 2 a eR aot eas See” 2 yas eae ee ae eee ee 13, 540. 34 | 1 Average annual value for two years, 1869 and 1870. 2 Average annual quantity for two years, 1873 and 1874. 8’ Average annual quantity for three years, 1881 to 1883, inclusive. Imports of orange and lemon peel, by years. Year. | Value. Ee eee ee fe Be ee Sac Tanah ae i eees are $5, 222. 14 | PS RD Gi lee ts LE NOU Ree me Pane Re RMR ad PE 5, 185. 78 | ERE BERT D EEE LEL ea eters eenne ee 7,742.45 | Ee Sl ome RPE es sine a ae et ts Rede EERE NS 11, 734.00 | Wee raph wand bf ee ete os oars na ee a eee 20, 579. 02 ee Me ba iol Eee ae oe De 15, 853. 00 | eer Nee ea rk oath ay ae ee Se oe ee 28, 466.00 The above tables show that the total imports of the three fruits named were valued in 1897 at $7,395,701.42. If to this be added the value of imports of the principal manufactured products derived from them, viz, juice, oil, and peel, together with a reasonable estimate for items like pomeloes, preserved citron, orange and lemon peel, ete., known to be included under other heads, we may safely con- clude that the value of our imports of products of the genus ci/rws in 1897 exceeded $8,000,000. BANANAS AND PLANTAINS. The history of the development of the import trade in bananas is one of the most striking features of the American fruit trade. Accord- ing to the Fruit Trade Journal, a lot of 30 bunches was brought in 1804 by Captain Chester, of the schooner Reynard. In 1830 the first 326 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, cargo, Which consisted of 1,500 bunches, was brought, and not until 1857 was a regular trade developed between Baracoa and Boston. This continued until 1869, when an additional source of supply was needed, and Mr. William C. Bliss, the pioneer in the Baracoa banana trade, obtained a small cargo of the fruit at Port Antonio, Jamaica, and left an agent there to encourage its production. In 1870 he secured three cargoes and in 1871 seven cargoes from the same port. Imports of bananas are first noted in 1871, when they amounted to $229,924.12 in value, and gradually increased until 1882, when they suddenly increased to $1,190,591.43, an amount nearly two and a half times as great as the average annual imports of the preceding decade. This sudden increase was in large measure due to the short fruit crop of the season of 1881 throughout the Eastern United States. The banana trade received great stimulus and the imported fruit became known and appreciated in many sections where it had been but rarely seen before; after 1881 it grew rapidly until 1891. Since the latter date there has been an apparently steady, though slow, decline in value, probably due to the increased supply of domestic fruits of other kinds. The chief sources of supply are the Central American States, Colombia, and the West Indies for the Eastern United States, and the Hawaiian Islands for the Pacific Coast. The following tables show the average annual imports ‘of bananas by decades, 1880 to 1890, and imports by years, 1891 to 1897, inclusive: Average annual imports of bananas, by decades. Decade ending— Value. aE ena GG S siccic soz siteee cheek Reet bet ees emaraas $461, 735. 49 7 eRe eRe are SPER este ee cers) 2, 872, 241. 43 soy Seo ened aap eae Ru ee Pt al Beara ab 4, 943, 082. 20 | | Year. Value. | te OR Mie Pe he de AR A I SS es SS Se ls ee $5, 855, 682. O4 BOR tte ess Wa teen e apes eee aveGcesenea eas newatess 5, 000, 389. 65 I asi ds Stilt ooelt Side moeedinm ¢n5~ cetlokgr oe dala a San eee akehaen 5, 361, 183. 34 RRR SS a ese» EAL TREE ee ae ee i A OR SR ee NT 5, 121, 180. 27 4, 673, 833. 83 4, 503, 358. 51 4, 085, 947. 82 The only domestic commercial production of bananas is in southern Florida, and this can hardly be said to furnish a local supply in the localities where grown. The imports of plantains, which amounted to $7,596.23 in 1872, gradually increased until 1888, when a maximum of $31,786.38 was SUBSTITUTION OF DOMESTIC FOR FOREIGN-GROWN FRUITS. 327 reached. Since that year there has been a decline in the value of imports. The following tables show the average annual imports of plantains by decades, 1880 to 1890, and imports by years, 1891 to 1897, inclusive: Average annual imports of plantains, by decades. Decade ending— | Value. 1 Oy CARIN rE CL aa II TI EE AES eye ARES ARE tet a we A 1 $10, 902. 81 | pt Be BELT EF Sas CS RSE a Pe ae ee eee Cee Se oe 22, 258. 40 IRPLOUN Paleo ea ee ee te ed hod G ceaeiste wd ccc sere wcsubewawecd 24, 292. 97 | UU EE EEUEIEEIEEEEEESEEEEIEERaEEIEEE 1A verage annual value for nine years, 1872 to 1880, inclusive. Imports of plantains, by years. Year. | Value. | | | Tae Sere ee prs) it geet Peete Tae Cty eee eee 24, 749. 75 SEG Get BAD Son ack Dawe La ers Pe 17, 731. 85 aS, dR a OS ae 8 hee > Snel Sa ee 22, 106. 39 Bia age heekes DanC Sian el RE papi Mit peal Lelety ip lik nk teed eet 19, 264. 55 sete Elise) Bie eek hd oy yoy PRAVEEN ¢ 27, 244. 16 The plantain, though more highly esteemed in tropical countries than the banana, has never attained popularity in this country. PINEAPPLES. In view of the development of commerce with the West Indies at an early day it is probable that the pineapple, notwithstanding its perishable nature, was one of the first fruits that reached the South Atlantic ports. Imports were not separately scheduled until 1871, when they amounted to $187,960.98. The value of imports increased until 1876, when a noticeable decrease occurred, lasting until 1881, when the minimum, $121,659.70, was reached. After this they increased until 1894, when the maximum, $753,129.32, was attained. The follow- ing tables show the average annual imports of pineapples by decades, 1880 to 1890, and imports by years, 1891 to 1897, inclusive: Average annual imports of pineapples, by decades. Value. | Decade ending— Quantity. ee em eee Re em Re ee ee 1 Quantity for one year, 1897. 328 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Imports of pineapples, by years. Year. Quantity. | Value. ) Barrels. | | er SR 9 OF i 5 es SR le a | ad 558, 287.77 YC niece ee toc cob eaten 746,560.90 = i: Se a eee ee SS ee Ae as ae, Reyer ay eee 743, 861. 22 ij.) ” 2 ee ci eee Oe a Seat ae uu neean yee loudek eeeee ae ae ee 753, 129. 82 RE Sp Ae ie Rag BE Age oft Se PREY pptren a RC ES yi SRS 0, oe 314, 589.09 | 1, ee wee SE ee nae boa ae Le ee hs Me she ee 332, 067. 54 RCE AEC k OW Beet oe Aeon 271,635.53} 338,619.53 | Cultivation of pineapples in a small way in Florida probably began at an early day. A note in the New England Farmer for 1850 says: ‘“The cultivation of the pineapple has been commenced in Florida, and with a little protection occasionally in winter, it is believed this delicious fruit can be raised in that State in abundance.” This prob- ably referred to efforts in the vicinity of St. Augustine, where the winter temperature is now known to be too low for this species. In 1860 planting began on the Keys and proved so profitable that the area devoted to it has steadily increased, while its culture has extended northward along both the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of Flor- ida, and, with shed protection, has been very successful at several points in the interior as far north as Orlando. According to Webber, about 3,000,000 fruits were produced in 1894. The freezes of the winter of 1894-95 temporarily checked the output of this fruit, but the recovery has been so rapid that a largely increased production may be expected in the future. The variety most widely grown is the Spanish, but there is an increasing proportion of larger and better varieties, including Queen, Abbaka, Smooth Cayenne, and Porto Rico. In California, pineapple culture is yet confined to experimental plantings, which, in one or two localities, have been fairly successful. GRAPES. The imports of fresh grapes consist almost entirely of the large and meaty grapes of Almeria, commonly known in our markets as ‘“Malagas.” Auction sales of such in jars, at 35 to 40 cents per pound, were of frequent occurrence in New York early in the present century, but they are not itemized in the statement of imports until 1865, when their value was $17,645. After this the increase was rapid and reasonably constant until 1894, when a value of $816,602 was attained. The maximum quantity, as near as can be ascertained, was in 1892, when 228,934 barrels of about 40 pounds each were imported. The tables on page 329 show the average annual imports of grapes by decades, 1870 to 1890, and imports by years, 1891 to 1897, inclusive. SUBSTITUTION OF DOMESTIC FOR FOREIGN-GROWN FRUITS. 329 Average annual imports of grapes,' by decades. 3 | Decade ending— , | Quantity. | Value. | Rarreis, ' | 4870... 2 GRA Rea We 2 $69,393.13 | 7? aka ae eee ae eelae th ieee Ree Sy 241, 235. 91 OO ith Natit ie Lh RT ek NL EA AD BARE RORY IU AE SI eh 6 ghee er ee eo $189,742.17 | 502,284.70 | ‘Includes grape juice or pulp from 1871 to 1883. 2 Average annual value for three years, 1865, 1869, and 1870. 3 Average annual quantity for six years, 1892 to 1897, inclusive Imports of grapes, by years. Year. Quantity. | Value. Barrels. | ON ae ae ee ee es as ee eect waabia mae [mowtee wok amiewe $534, 820. 80 Ogee ee eet ok 2 NS aie ie Cte get om es 228, 934. 00 478, 118. 50 See eee ete. rae ee i son, SUN EE. Le ae 158, 869. 57 485, 763. 50 | Neal) kets iS) ieee © 8 ho Bel eee ee Dente eee ee 224, 468. 32 816, 602. 00 ees Pets Bees is SS ok Sowa wines 149, 791.91 335, 110. 00 ong ie 5 ee ear, Sad IR EN Ee aS See psy ees 205, 524. 75 490, 788. 09 SO oe A nds Sagi PE pe ne ene teeta eee 170, 864. 51 374, 440. 03 } On account of their firmness and long-keeping quality, these grapes occupy a position in our markets peculiar to themselves. At the present time they can hardly be said to compete with any domestic product, though by aid of refrigeration some of the meaty and late- ripening sorts of the vinifera type may be expected to lessen the demand for ‘‘ Malagas ” in future. Though efforts at the commercial production of this type in Cali- fornia for shipment in the fresh state late in the season have not, up to the present time, been eminently successful, no adequate reason is known for believing that they will not be so in future when the climatie and soil conditions essential to their successful growth are better understood. ’ OLIVES AND OLIVE OIL. Imports of olives were not scheduled until 1869, when theyamounted to $28,896.60. A rapid increase in the annual averages has occurred since that time, the maximum value for a single year being $510,534.88 in 1893. Since then there has been a distinct diminution in the value imported, largely because of domestic production. The tables on page 330 show the average annual imports of olives by decades, 1870 to 1890, and imports by years, 1891 to 1897, inclusive. 330 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Average annual imports of olives, by decades, Decade ending— Value TNO. Pee M ante: levy vee ety! 22 t: 435, 716.38 Bie i I OS a os eat Cie 2 ee eee 321, 050. 56 fe Lh ete one eee ak, Ge oe ae 361,894.09 | SE ha eT ee OR ere NCEE de PAE RS Dee ome ws 5 490, 709.39 | ae es eis 4 BS ee A eee ee 398,291.25 | Nuts AND Nut PRODUCTs. ALMONDS. * The first nut imported in large quantity was the almond, of which 264,818 pounds were received in 1821. From that date until 1843 no other kind of nut is scheduled. In 1859 the imports had risen to 5,439,210 pounds, valued at $444,757. Since 1865 shelled almonds have been separately scheduled, and the imports, in this form, which began with 116,899 pounds, valued at $17,660, in that year, have risen to 5,798,354 pounds, valued at $683,446.54, in 1897. ‘The extra- ordinary increase since 1890 in the imports of shelled almonds, as compared with almonds not shelled, is believed to be largely due to the fact that the several rates of duty that have prevailed during that period have been proportionately higher on almonds not shelled than on shelled almonds. The following tables show the average annual imports of almonds by decades, 1830 to 1890, and imports by years, 1891 to 1897, inclusive: Average annual imports of almonds, by decades. fy Decade ending— Quantity. Value. | | Pounds. | 1 | Pea Scere FOr liege RAE IN Priel Eh a Ro OBS. 637,866 |...... de A et [||| nee ORES ps Actes pase, Se Be Fame 2, 240,451 | 1 $197, 59. 00 RDO). Coe ta Pe ieee ees inci wer ese einen Sm 1, 493, 692 113, 840. CO RN! 52cm ae oe af ate Sie eee ee 3, 352, 759 254, 859. 00 |, ORR EO bP) QUT AS RRC oh od gee ee 2, 290, 157 234, 621. 00 jis) | Soak ee RE Se ERR Pk Pe Rae Sapa Bm a 2,514, 072 266, 551. 00 {CO eee Be SOE ote Ch it erg ee psa 3, 121, 444 309, 318. 00 | OO nea ome Re ake Pe ee ey ee Wee eR Te 3, 500, 835 264, 218. 73 | 1 Average annual value for seven years, 1834 to 1840, inclusive. SUBSTITUTION OF DOMESTIC FOR FOREIGN-GROWN FRUITS. 3395 Imports of almonds, by years, Year. Quantity. Value. Pounds. TEN vas cedtedwia Pasaccbies snnvee ncn Sanyoosuks 3, 390, 924. 50 $292, 510. 85 iad oa hak ae So neta cade s dawned a cueac'anbaea 8, 451, 840. 50 290, 744. 20 LAR a ee eee ate te tan oe eran emo hes aie lara: & hae 2, 780, 011. 00 270, 742. 00 Te Sack eet balsa co aaa pe he wes 3, 305, 860. 00 259, 139. 69 TR cert Gado! dhe danke REAR EN bob > «nd 46cm 4,178,419. 00 281, 296, 21 ee ee ak es aan site nao nem asda 8, 202, 684. 16 210, 690.15 (boy pack Gta) Re 2 A 4, 196, 609. 00 244, 408. 07 Average annual imports of shelled almonds, by decades. | Decade ending— Quantity. Value. Pounds. (SC BO ag tee Re ee tad eee a Se ee ree Se 640,530 | 1$107, 743.00 LORE SoU. Shes aorgnten Poot omeee eee aa 980, 873 169, 417. 00 NNR RU es ho a Col eee eee wed as 1, 684, 410 276, 470. 00 | PN tials 86 Ons a2 one Sane eee 4, 020, 227 611, 908. 00 | 1 Average annual value for six years, 1865 to 1870, inclusive. Imports of shelle? almonds, by years. Year. | aaantitr. | Quantity. i" Value. Pounds. | EL.) i ee ONO ot eel a) Bae aes oe a8 oR emit ae 3, 046, 750 $615, 418. 97 phe) REO EER elec 2 ae $C nt) ee eae 3, 598, 551 667,179. 46 i Oe RR A ho Sa ee ae ee 3, 758, 500 664, 562. 27 Ee ee ce ee eee eee es ee Re 3, 505, 178 519, 584. 34 4,188, 831 561, 064. 67 4, 245, 426 572, 105. 70 5, 798, 854 683, 446. 34 On account of its close relationship to the peach, the almond was at one time regarded as a very promising tree for the Eastern United States. Previous to 1855, the Patent Office distributed an importation of soft-shelled almonds to growers throughout the Middle and South- ern States. Its early blooming habit and susceptibility to injury by late frosts soon demonstrated the fact that though the tree succeeded it was valueless as a producer of nuts even in the Gulf States. In California many of the earlier efforts at commercial almond culture were unsuccessful, either because they were made with unreliable varieties or in unsuitable localities. But in 1885, when Mr. A. T. Hatch exhibited a collection of thin-shelled seedlings from the bitter almond which had proved to be of superior quality for market, and bore regular crops, new life was given to the industry. 336 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The production in California now varies from 500,000 to 2,500,000 pounds per annum, and the quality of the product compares favor- ably with all but the best of the imported nuts. Specimens of a num- ber of the leading varieties grown in that State from John Rock, Niles, 1897, A. T. Hatch, Suisun, 1891, and from Malaga, Spain, through Charles Heath, former United States consul at Catania, Sicily, 1892, are illustrated on Pl. VII. Almonds are also successfully grown in rather limited areas in Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, Idaho, and Oregon. ° ALMOND OIL, ° So far as known no almond oil is produced in the United States. The following tables show the average annual imports of almond oil by decades, 1870 to 1890, and imports by years, 1891 to 1897, inclusive: Average annual imports of sweet almond oil, by decades, Decade ending— | Quantity. | Value. Pounds. | I, ae PM A A 5 ee Na TS ll 115,228.00 | 1 $4, 888.68 eT a eevee oe Ol SR 25, 165. 00 9, 208. 39 ep 8. Ee a 40,599. 00 10, 531. 62 ee TE Ree me, 88, 138. 92 17, 729.87 1 Average annual quantity and value for eight years, 1863 to 1870, inclusive. Imports of sweet almond oil, by years. Year. Quantity. Value. } Pounds. Ue eo ee i ae ere ne ee os ir a 51, 384. 0 $12, 248.95 RD ee SS Pit a ie ON ee dene eee 60, 670.5 13, 636. 35 BOE ee ee ee no. Soe esau ecute cae 212, 919.0 39, 583. 50 WOE Pane LES 3 ree ee eee ene 59, 730.0 12, 682. 45 (2) ee ee teen Pi vee ere ee ea doe 74, 195.0 13, 103. 80 TOG 28 oe = Se So eee eee 71, 480. 0 13, 791. 00 BOF ee eet 3 eee eee eS 86, 594. 0 19, 059. 59. Quantity. Pounds. OE aS a a ee eee ees 3, 454. 76 or RR 6 Re 3, 573. 58 Boat aed BE ent oe peck a. 6, 632. 92 Yearbook U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1897 PLATE vit DG Passmore,fec it ALMONDS, A. Hoenn & Co. Lith |. DRAKE ta. DRAKE KERNEL. 2. LANGUEDOC, 3 A. NONPAREIL KERNEL. 4. PRima. 5A NE-PLUS-ULTRA KERNEL. 6. 2a. LANGUEDOC KERNEL. 3. NONPAREIL. 4 A. PRIMA KERNEL. 5. NE-PLUS-ULTRA. Ixt. 6A. IXL. KERNEL. 7. JORDAN. 7A. JORDAN KERNEL. SUBSTITUTION OF DOMESTIC FOR FOREIGN-GROWN FRUITS. 337 Imports of bitter almond oil, by years. Year. Quantity. | Value. | Pounds, | ete = ER 2 a 5h ee ee eee Cee 4,795.00 | $9, 958. 00 Pa akties Web ee ehdecatwduget bbbes byte Gene 6,149.00 | 11, 023. 00 ce ee ee ee a ene pe ee 8, 165. 80 11, 532. 89 hoe ee ee nhs wel nll kten akan h ie teak nes | 4,104. 00 6, 981. 00 OGG sow aeknawatune on cites aot sits ila lb od atte. tes | 6, 549.00 10, 566. 00 yo eae RPE LCi Sate Fee epg tS pia Ree at pb ee 6,195. 75 12, 141. 83 1897. - 2-2. -- <= -2 2+ enn ee eee eee eee ee eee eee] 10, 471. 90 12, 029.00 | FILBERTS AND WALNUTS. These nuts have been scheduled together, beginning with 4,890,385 pounds, valued at $118,721, in 1865. Since 1890 the shelled nuts have been separately scheduled. The greatest value imported in a single year was in 1891, when the imports of shelled and unshelled together amounted to $953,082.84. The apparent decrease in imports since - that year is undoubtedly due to the largely increased domestic pro- duction of walnuts. Filberts are not grown on a commercial seale in this country. The following tables show the average annual imports of filberts and walnuts by decades, 1870 to 1890, and imports by years, 1891 to 1897, inclusive: Average annual imports of filberts and walnuts, by decades. | Decade ending— Quantity. Value. vs eis Se 2S peeat : | Pounds. SB RITE ace ee ie 1 3,993,921 | 1 $170,089.65. | | [oie fee ee tj a Ie Se LRP ay ESM Oa oe eae | 4, 962, 243 289, 823. 57 VaR hee ey BO ee eS Ree 9, 523, 104 548, 694. 82 k het / Mo Ue ol acest o AOL Sad Si tp el Segal a eo Pa 2 12, 894, 106 635, 150. 56 1 Average annual quantity and value for six years, 1865 to 1870, inclusive. 21891 to 1897, exclusive of shelled filberts and walnuts. Imports of filberts and walnuts, by years. Year. Quantity. | Value. | Pounds. | to RS ERE Sree EU ean: p Pee 15, 119, 507.0 | $872, 043. 84 oT RR ee ee oe 12, 392, 096. 0 647, 628. 55 | Soe at UO On he ee a eae 11, 860, 846. 0 673, 705. 00 SES See eee oe See ee | 10, 122, 079.5 . Se eee eee 11, 670, 895. 0 . 922. 2 OS Oe ee 16, 226, 147.0 eRe aS) ES a re 12, 827, 174.5 338 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Average annual imports of filberts and walnuts, shelled,' 1891 to 1897, 4 Period. Quantity. Value. = ene PE ' Pounds, | 300)-2607 . .. 6 oe ee ee 1, 186, 735 $154, 374. 35 Imports of filberts and walnuts, shelled, by years. Quantity. Value. | 7 Year. | — ae fs SE Pounds. ) RE Sos iat 8 ee a, ale | 511,709 | $81,039.09 ee sos Mee) Sm) 8 ee 863,309} 98, 417.00 eee ee gio sit De be le 1,380,070 | 168,867.00 | EY ar ae SE eee eee ey 1, 008, 626 116, 573. 00 0 ee RN OG 1,395,559 | 155,415.00 | h. “a Ce Re 1,658,069 | 169, 014. 50 fale SN srt 9035 Cstiagd= to giynaces 1,489,803 | 151,295.06 1 Included with ‘‘filberts and walnuts” previous to 1891. Although scattered trees of the Persian (English) walnut were planted in the Eastern United States at an early day, no commercial plantings resulted from them. Like the almond, their blossoms suffer from late frosts too frequently to permit regular crops, though in a few sheltered localities the trees are rarely injured, and are reasonably productive. In California the walnut was introduced at the missions, and several commercial orchards are recorded by Lelong as having been planted from 1843 to 1865. The earlier plantings were of the ‘‘ Mission,” or ‘‘English” type, and in many localities the trees were found to lack produetiveness. More recently, improved sorts producing more regu- lar crops of ‘‘soft-shell” nuts were introduced, and since their general planting began walnut culture has greatly increased. The crop of the State for 1896 was estimated to exceed 8,000,000 pounds, and is increasing steadily. BRAZIL, OR CREAM, NUTS. Brazil, or eream, nuts were first scheduled in 1873, when 3,690,908 pounds were imported, valued at $170,628. The imports have fluctu- ated considerably from year to year, the greatest value, $471,347, being in 1892. Since then they show a material decrease. The tables on page 339 show the average annual imports of Brazil, or cream, nuts by decades, 1880 and 1890, and imports by years, 1891 to 1897, inclusive. ' SUBSTITUTION OF DOMESTIC FOR FOREIGN-GROWN FRUITS. Average annual imports of Brazil, or cream, nuts, by decades. Decade ending— Quantity. | Value. PAT ees a ny _| Pounds. | | eH 50e- son ee PPPoA eee ene 12,975, 738 | 1$143,709.31 | ee POR ee Wo heehee wae aan 23, 802, 099 188, 613. 32 SE, ot bee SOUL. oS oc oh cli thenrerianerctandipiawace aa eheeene | 330,514.71 1 Average annual quantity and value for eight years, 1873 to 1580, inclusive. 2 Average annual quantity for three years, 1851 to 1553, inclusive. Imports of Brazil, or cream, nuts, by years. Year. Value. | | } a ote Pa. SPN LEE eNO ee | $304,273.00 | ate PRM yN-F ASE Sa OS Sie eaten ace 471,347.00 | cp ER ee ee ey a ee ron 424, 893. 00 | Gta 6 ot oie teks wk Se ooo ct | 345,615.00 | FE LS TE Te RE ee en eciel anoe ee | 481,146.00 | Le SECT CERT SR Die Set eee me Se er | 961,357.00 | OS SESE ae, Ce Se a aN | 234,972.00 | 339 Brazil, or cream, nuts are the product of a tropical species, and are not grown in any portion of the United States. COCOANUTS AND COCOANUT OIL. Imports of cocoanuts amounted in 1861 to $28,767, and show a great increase since that time. The following tables show the average annual imports of cocoanuts and cocoanut oil by decades, 1870 to 1890, and imports by years, 1891 to 1897, inclusive: Average annual imports of cocoanuts, by decades. ) | $75, 006. 34 II IR eRe ae oe pen eo abe dae aaetaas | 302, 296. 81 | 1 722, 758.31 oS ne taed fe ag RARE ete IO cok Pee Mea eh de | 1751, 509. 72 Year. | Value. REE Ra ae aie e Seat Cee dat wlene von doen atace ene 1$922, 257. 33 8 EES TE Seep SU Sa So eet eas ee on ae Oe SE 942, 559. 78 8 ote tI ae SE SE ap a CE wpe 901, 234. 45 Ee he cesses a Gn an nw iad anc nann asunse 845, 169. 54 eee Gere. 8 oe cee dinendats. satecace vs olen 512, 218. 24 Se te ee ka canada beaabarss on swdaabeew ance 540, 083. 21 a 597, 045. 51 11890 to 1897, inclusive, includes desiccated cocoanut, etc. Decade ending— Value. | 840 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Average annual imports of cocoanut oil, by decades. | Decade ending— Quantity. Value. ——ee eer ee 161,402 | 1 $43,301.00 O80 8.5, 2 ee eee do... 2247,517 | 2134, 891.61 | 8OOD: 22205... = Se ee pounds-. 312,572, 520 550, 958. 63 | SeebNNS SoA a ee ea Seu 22, 666,083 | 1,049, 507. 60 ! Average annual quantity and value for two years, 1864 and 1865. * Average annual quantity and value for nine years, 1872 to 1880, inclusive. ’ Average annual quantity for seven years, 1884 to 1890, inclusive. Imports of cocoanut oil, by years. Year. | Quantity. Value. Pounds. | 1S ee aS aS a 10, 665,054 | $560, 833. 00 7 got Bad BE Sve aires Soe Cer Pe, | 22,142,858 | 1,287,989. 00 ONT RE Le Poe aE PS eres 27, 684,788 | 1,242, 542.00 OA al EEE Ee ee eR ee | 16, 262, 392 785, 988. 28 a PRON fey a PR | 31, 722,014 | 1,840, 208.00 SRE ee ak ee eee EC Pee 27, 407,234 | 1,165, 114.00 1 A ae eee A ERE PEIN Ate Rae oO | 22, 778, 247 963, 879. 00 The domestic production of cocoanuts, which is confined to the coast region of lower Florida, is unimportant. Imports of cocoanut oil, which were valued in 1864 at $23,942, rose to $1,340,208 in 1895, but show a decline in 1896 and 1897. PEANUTS. The imports of ‘‘peanuts and other ground nuts,” which at one time constituted an important item, valued at $194,387 in 1864, have fallen to $2,106.85 in 1897, while the imports of the shelled nuts have fallen from 1,104,018 pounds, valued at $34,401 in 1872, to 1,060 pounds, valued at $9.14 in 1897. These decreases are due to increased domestic production. The following tables show the average annual imports of peanuts by decades, 1870 to 1890, and imports by years, 1891 to 1897, inelusive: Average annual imports of peanuts and other ground nuts, by decades. Decade ending— Quantity. Value. Pounds. PE oer eee eae sk Se 16,522,844 | 2 $184, 465. 49 hiss RBA Ae | A hha ee ae Ce CSE E A 1, 849, 645 46, 662.16 RO eee ete ee yo NE a ee 170, 593 8,314. 24 PR TBO 2 te oS 9 Se Ce ee 149, 672 2, 655.13 1 Average annual quantity for six years, 1865 to 1870, inclusive. * Average annual value for seven years, 1864 to 1870, inclusive. SUBSTITUTION OF DOMESTIC FOR FOREIGN-GROWN FRUITS. 341 Imports of peanuts and other ground nuts, by years. Year. | Quantity. | Value. Pounds. pte Mae NH a Saget ey ER SE 304, 835 $6, 552. 99 LOGS eet echin wid autos Bde ancic ORL hewn Sas cite 128, 360 3, €61. 68 REE Se ovis ee eer ens aineh san bat kaa kare 73, B44 1, 006. 72 [OCR te Ua te dccan tae Pets eee rere 110, 369 1, 682. 62 TOO Sng ee Le ee ale ore oe eee) Oat SL wt 103, 674 1,215. 48 ReON Stl. Lod wi eee tts omit we eG bene ae an 189, 520 2,359. 61 DY TAS PCa ede ate touek nk sinivinh fem. cWele 138, 102 2, 106. 85 Average annual imports of shelled peanuts and other ground nuts, by decades. Decade ending— Quantity. Value. Pounds. Ar eR de eb te Se 1391,006 | 13$13,713.89 | LI Mab 98S (cdi is i eS ee 375, 342 14, 974. 95 cleo SRR AM os 22 eae a 54, 960 2, 223.97 ee Rey aye* Ok CRE. (ELE Saree apne 21, 658 2, 623. 09 1Average annual quantity and value for five years, 1866 to 1870, inclusive. Imports of shelled peanuts and other ground nuts, by years. | Year. | Quantity. Value. | | Pounds. | WM a id eats tik be acy pe ee 148,350} $18, 312.83 | 1892... ---.-- --------------0- ---- = 22 nn ee nen [oe eee oo eee eee] ee ee eee ieee i Te ee ree ee Fi tg Be ec 2 25 2.20 | Re) cn eS A on ahs wpa ets ol 157 9.00 PS ERE BES EY SS SE Re a Sea 1, 7% 24. 22 ce Se eee eee gata 2 a ee eee eee ee 243 4,24 EE PD CE ay gene haga ae era ee 1, 060 9.14 ‘ALL OTHER NUTS NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR.” The number of items included under this head varies at different periods. In 1843, when the caption ‘‘all other nuts not otherwise pro- vided for,” was first used, it included all nuts but almonds, and amounted to 1,133,302 pounds, valued at $34,535. Since then the more important kinds have been successively removed from this schedule. The most important item now included in it is probably the European chestnut, of which a considerable quantity is imported each year. The tables on page 342 show the average annual imports of ‘“‘all other nuts not otherwise provided for” by decades, 1850 to 1890, and imports by years, 1891 to 1897, inclusive. 342 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Average annual imports of ** all other nuts not otherwise provided for,” by decades, Decade ending Quantity. | Value. / ° | Pounds, | Te ee PMS Se Re Oe | 2.2, 456,890 | 1 $73, 898.00 Te ee SONS ET Pers eA APT! my SM: | 24,927, 624 173, 494. 00 | | i 2, Se ae ee ee SS A 32.156, 176 124, 119. 00 : » | | RE ec Pre ed a a Se dae ee ly 897, 037 35, 151. 00 LOSS SRT eh, SAAR ee eS Se 808, 068 32, 461. 00 pT ey ae lee ET eee Re ET 1, 944, 493 61, 678. 91 1 Average annual quantity and value for eight years, 1843 to 1850, inclusive. 2 Average annual quantity for seven years, 1851 to 1857, inclusive. 3 Average annual quantity for seven years, 1862 and 1865 to 1870, inclusive. Imports of ‘‘ all other nuts not otherwise provided for,” by years. Year. Quantity. Value. | Pounds. | ee Oe eee Le eee eee ee a 1, 629, 355. 0 $54, 156. 45 ab 5. oe eee ee os ce ow tee 1, 895, 571.0 71, 237. 52 ' | SS ee eee eR eee nee 1,891. 979.0 72, 359. 83 an Sosg Gta Sates Standen els oon eine eaten 1, 732, 864.5 54, 228. 25 i. NS eer okies Nene! Tae este y SREB SS 1, 652, 184.0 48, 618. 49 (| Ee Sane ioer ke ee nee ee = nee Oe ag see 2, 398, 671. 4 69, 840. 27 SOO sa caca ote escola So owen eka owet ee eens ee 2, 410, 8382.0 61, 311.58 The folowing table shows the imports of fruits and fruit products for 1897: Imports of fruits and fruit products, 1897. ot. EL | eee rhe. Fruits and fruit products. Quantity. Value. apa eR a pounds.-| 11, 917,756.00 $532, 554. 00 Ceeraits 2.2 cckscaig a tease et See do....| 28, 218,176.00 572, 803. 00 Plams apd pramnes ...<- a. ose cncsiedcud do... - 736, 987. 00 74, 165. 46 eS 2 otc Bee cd eee. oe eee do....| 8,837,572.00 532, 974. 50 WOGSOR.< 22-3 - 5 oe fen cn Seats eee Oe) se eee a ee 285, 617. 06 MAMRRPIDOS © 5 r a che < Sowtsnmn cane ood dewece feos re es ee 2, 699. 00 aunt. So See ee, ok. ee ee eee We Eee 3, 341, 646. 64 SOIR one ee es pe 4, 025, 354. 49 EI CG gc in ee ST a Be ee eee 28, 700. 29 Lemon and orange oil..........---- pounds. - 304, 270. 90 270, 023. 82 Lemon, lime, and sour orange juice. .....-..|....-.-.-------- 74, 848. 00 Grange 2G JOOP WOR i orc he os ast cebed Ubi ancad aoe 28, 466. 00 DST alte al pale Me eel ip « Pea ea AS Nh ) a a oe ese 10, 471. 90 12,029.00 Dh log ws ye hs ae | 12, 827, 174. 50 632, 858. 99 Filberts and walnuts (shelled) ---.--..---.--- | 1, 489, 803. 00 | 151, 295. 06 cin GIrreain, Mites. . £25... 250s eet Lippe! 234, 972.00 FOE SR RES eee © Sy per eae “bays Sa Oe eo | 597, 045. 51 EE ri Re ee ee ee et eo oa eT 22, 778, 247. 00 963, 879. 00 IIR ax ie oe Sn. Sukie a Me boe wo ban actin oe 138, 102. 00 2,106. 85 Penman (eeted ).... 22.20.22 5 1, 060.00 | 9.14 All other nuts, not otherwise provided for. 2, 410, 832. 00 61,311.58 | ipGiiie ane 52.25 P45 dss eels Praia saree 3, 602, 421.13 ee | The total value of the imports of fruits and fruit products and nuts and nut products in 1897 amounted to $20,962,781.99. EXPORTS OF FRUITS AND FRUIT PRODUCTS. The development of the fruit export trade of the United States is a subject of surpassing interest to the student of agricultural economics, but limited space forbids its extended discussion in the present paper. As has been noted, the export trade began with the shipment of apples and was for many years limited to that fruit. Shipments of ice from New England ports to the West Indies, which began in 1805, were accompanied by large quantities of apples, and soon after the exten- sion of the ice trade to India and China, which occurred in 1830, American apples could be had in the ice ports of those countries. It was stated in 1843! that the fruit dealers of Boston had at that time been shipping apples and cranberries to Europe for many years. In 1845 Newtown Pippins from the orchard of Robert L. Pell, of Ulster County, N. Y., which contained 20,000 trees, sold in London at $21 a barrel. At a later date shipments of the same variety and others from the Piedmont and mountain regions of Virginia were begun, and these districts have in recent years furnished the principal supply of ‘‘pippins” for export. Since 1881 the shipments of apples have constituted an important item of the transatlantic trade, which prom- ises to show a steady increase in the near future. The Eastern States still furnish the larger part of the apples exported, but frequent ship- ments are now made from the great orchard districts of the Mississippi Valley, and some profitable export shipments have recently been made from the Pacific Coast. 'Transactions American Institute, 1843, p. 125. 344 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In addition to apples, some other fruits, such as cranberries, peaches, plums, pears, and oranges, are shipped in the fresh state, the supply of all but the first named coming chiefly from California, Exports of dried fruits were at first confined to the apple, and after the perfecting of the fruit evaporator, which occurred about 1870-1575, increased rapidly. Theshipments of dried apples of the great crop of 1880 amounted to 22,623,652 pounds, valued at $1,247,891. Notwith- standing the attempted discrimination against them by foreign goy- ernments since that time, the wholesomeness and cheapness of American dried apples have caused a marked increase in their con- sumption abroad,as is evident from the large quantity, 30,755,401 pounds, valued at $1,340,159, exported in 1897. Since about 1895 increasing export shipments of dried apricots, peaches, and prunes have been made from California, and this branch of the trade prom- ises soon to reach large proportions. The development of the canning industry has resulted in a very great increase in exports of canned fruits, which were first scheduled in 1870, when they were valued at $81,735, less than one-twentieth of the value of the same item in 1897. Exports of nuts were first scheduled in 1888 when they amounted to $27,784. The increase since that time has been reasonably steady and the shipments in 1897 reached a value of $125,805. Pecans and shagbarks, which are largely used by confectioners, probably constitute the more important items under this head. The following table shows the exports of fruits and fruit products — for 1897. Exports of fruits and fruit products, 1897. Fruits and fruit products. | Quantity. Value. U0 01 Ch ee ee oe oe Serene ees barrels. - 1, 508, 981 2, 371, 148 Apples (dried) -....-.--- Spin. ie eter pounds... 30, 775, 401 1, 340, 159 TIIGIEN fos on a cpa at | 93, 969 11, 572 Gitar TES Shi 7. BY Reena A do....| 637, 672 77, 695 Cannee truite —.22 2. 29. eee eo 8 eee ese ene 1, 686, 723 Preserved: (other)... 505 be eee eee ee eens oe 43, 276 All other green, ripe, or dried fruits not elsewhere aechedulet 3 620 oo eee ee ee ee eee sens 2, 172, 199 Wetter 217 ek te ee ee ee ee oe 125, 805 BIRDS THAT INJURE GRAIN. By F. E. L. BEAL, Assistant, Biological Survey. DAMAGE CAUSED BY BIRDS. Aside from its importance as a principal source of food supply, the immense financial value of the grain crop of the United States gives a peculiar interest to any natural agency which affects its amount or quality. For this reason much time, labor, and money have been expended in the study of the insects injurious to grain and in devis- ing methods to prevent their ravages. But insects are not the only members of the animal kingdom that have proved destructive to this crop. Several species of birds feed at certain times upon cereals, and in some places, where these birds breed in vast numbers, their depre- dations become serious. The total value of the grain product of the United States is, in round numbers, $1,000,000,000 per annum. Any agency which reduces this value by only 1 per cent involves a loss of not less than $10,000,000, a sum sufficiently large to startle a thought- ful person. Several species of birds have been accused of serious depredations upon grain—either by attacking the seed at the time of planting or soon after germination, or by preying upon the immature or ripened erop. In the eastern part of the country the common crow is the most conspicuous example, while in the Mississippi Valley and farther west several species of blackbirds (Jcteride) have at times made such havoe as to cause serious apprehensions. The redwing and the yellowhead usually nest near water, and, when possible, directly over it. For this reason the prairie ponds and sloughs of the Upper Mississippi Valley, often of vast extent, afford such favorable breeding grounds that the region has become the theater of their greatest activities. It is the gathering place of the immense flocks which have often struck terror to the heart of the farmer as their countless hosts settled upon his fields. The nesting period is in May and June, and by the end of the latter month, or soon after, the young are on the wing. Since this is the time when the grain begins to ripen, it is natural for the old birds to lead their young to the fields for food. The molting season follows immediately after the duties of reproduction have ended, and is a trying one to the already debilitated parents. Under these circumstances the abundant and easily obtainable supply of nutritious food afforded by the grain- fields comes to the birds like a friend in need and enables them to recruit their exhausted energies. 345 346 YEARBOOK OF THE PEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CAUSE OF INCREASED NUMBER OF BLACKBIRDS5., It is highly probable that the changing of the original prairies into fields of grain has contributed to the increase of blackbirds by fur- nishing an abundant and sure supply of food at a time when it is most needed. Many instances can be pointed out where birds have increased in numbers since the settlement of the country, owing to the increased food supply resulting from cultivation; and in some cases, at least, this increase has taken place in spite of the fact that the birds were extensively shot for food. While the native prairies produced an abundance of forage for the larger ruminants and small rodents, they did not offer a great variety of plants having seeds large enough to be suitable for bird food. The immense areas of wild rice in the swamps and marshes, on the contrary, furnished a bountiful supply upon which the birds originally subsisted. Cultivation did not disturb this source of supply, but added another far more pro- ductive, and one which ripened at a considerably earlier date; for wild rice does not mature till September, while wheat and oats are available in July, and winter rye and wheat in June. Under these circumstances a great increase in the number of birds would seem to be a foregone conclusion, and in many States, notably those of the Mississippi Valley, the various species of blackbirds have at various times and places exceeded the number required to fulfill the best: economic conditions, and the result has been to a greater or less extent disastrous. It does not necessarily follow that these birds are wholly harmful to the interests of man; it merely shows that it is possible to have too many of them, that is, too many of the partic- ular species which feed so largely on grain. In States where these birds are less abundant but little damage is done. An investigation of the food habits of blackbirds shows that during the breeding months, and also to some extent during the entire warm — season, all of the species subsist largely on insects. When this is considered in connection with the fact that many of the species feed largely upon seeds of troublesome weeds, especially in winter, there is reason to believe that they really subserve a useful purpose in the economy of nature. They only become harmful when, by increasing out of proportion to their environment, the proper balance of organ- isms is disturbed. THE MORE IMPORTANT GRAIN-EATING BIRDS. In the following pages some of the more important species of grain- eating birds are discussed, and their special ravages pointed out. THE CROW. The common crow (Corvus americanus) ranges over the United States east of the Great Plains, more sparingly over the rest of the country, and to the northward extends beyond our borders. East of the Alleghany Mountains, and especially in the New England and BIRDS THAT INJURE GRAIN. 547 other Atlantic States, the crow has long been known as a ‘‘thief of cornfields,” having been so christened by the aboriginal inhabitants. The greatest damage is done in spring, when the birds pull up the sprouted grain. Dry, hard corn is not palatable food for the crow, as has been shown by experiments with a caged bird. In seasons of searcity ripe corn is sometimes eaten, but is not prefefred. Corn that has been softened and sweetened by the process of germination, on the contrary, is a favorite food and is eagerly sought. In the earlier days, when crows were more numerous and cornfields less so, the farmers had a constant struggle during the first two or three weeks after the corn appeared above the ground to save it from the crows. Various devices in the way of scarecrows were designed to frighten the marauders away, but most of them were only indifferently suc- cessful. More recently the plan of coating the seed corn with tar has been extensively used, and with better results. In the experi- ence of the writer, not a single kernel of tarred corn was disturbed, while rows of untarred seed immediately adjoining were almost entirely destroyed. It has been asserted by some people that the crow pulls up corn not for the sake of the kernel, but for the grubs that may be found in the manure about the roots. Careful investiga- tion has disproved this assertion. Crows do eat the sprouted kernels, although they also devour grubs unearthed at the same time, for they are great lovers of insects and their larve. But the result to the farmer is the same, and it is poor consolation to know that if the eorn had not been eaten by the crow it would have been killed by the grub. Some complaints have also been made that crows eat corn in the “milk” or ‘‘roasting-ear” stage, and from that time on until it is ripe. It is evident that much more extensive ravages would be necessary at this stage to cause as much damage as that incident to pulling the sprouted seed. As amatter of fict, reports do not indicate extensive injury of this kind. In the Mississippi Valley the crow does not appear to have attracted so much attention as in the East. During a residence of eight years in Iowa the writer never heard any complaints of injury to grain, nor did he observe any eases of this kind. Yet, some damage has been done, and instances of serious loss are on record, usually, however, arising from tearing open the husks and pecking the soft kernels. In these cases the ears thus opened are exposed to the weather, and often rot from being wet by rains. ‘ Food habits of the crow.—Investigations of the food habits of the crow, based on an examination of the contents of 909 stomachs,’ show — ———_—___—————— a 1*« The Common Crow of the United States,” by Walter B. Barrows and E. A. Schwarz, Bulletin No. 6, Division Ornithology and Mammalogy, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1895. 348 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. that about 29 per cent of the food for the year consists of grain, of which corn constitutes something more than 21 per cent, the greatest quantity being eaten in the three winter months. All of this must be either waste grain picked up in fields and roads, or corn stolen from cribs or shocks. A good deal is taken also in the three fall months, when corn is soft; and May, the month of sprouting corn, shows a slight increase over the other spring and summer months. The two months of July and August are the only ones in which wheat is eaten to any important extent. Only small quantities of other grains are taken. On the other hand, the loss of grain is offset by the destruction of insects. ‘These constitute more than 25 per cent of the crow’s yearly diet, and the larger part of them are noxious. If we add the mice, rabbits, and other harmful mammals destroyed, we have a total of about 25 per cent of the food consisting of animals whose destruec- tion isa benefit to the farmer. With the well-known propensity of the crow for searching highways and byways, stock yards and pas- tures, it must be admitted that at least one-half of the grain eaten is waste, the consumption of which entails no loss. The remainder of the crow’s diet consists of wild fruit, seeds, and various animal sub- stances which may on the whole be considered neutral. From this point of view it is evident that what grain the crow takes from the available crop is well paid for by the insects destroyed. THE CROW BLACKBIRD. The crow blackbird (Quiscalus quiscula and subspecies) is dis- tributed over the United States east of the Rocky Mountains, and remains through the year in most of its range south of Illinois and Pennsylvania. With the possible exception of New England, where it occurs only locally, it is one of the most abundant species. It nests in trees or bushes, and usually seeks the neighborhood of man for its breeding places. In the vicinity of cities it builds in parks and ceme- teries, and in the country comes to the farm for the food that may be found in the garden, pigpen, and stock yard. It nests also in bushes along the banks of brooks, and obtains much food from the shores of streams and ponds. For a month or more after the breeding season is over it is rarely seen about its usual haunts. During this period (the ‘time of molting) it gathers in flocks and retires to some secluded place where it remains during August, reappearing in full force about the first of September. At that time the flocks are usually large, and when they attack a field of ripening grain the result is disastrous. Food habits of the crow blackbird.—Crow blackbirds are fond of grain, and being of good size and abundant, evidently have the power to do great harm. Moreover, the examination of more than 2,000 of their stomachs shows that grain forms 45 per cent of the food of the year, and that corn alone constitutes 35 per cent. From this it BIRDS THAT INJURE GRAIN. 349 might be expected that they would attract much attention from grain growers, and such is the case. Hundreds of communications have been received testifying t6 their destructiveness; yet many of these acknowledge the fact that blackbirds eat a large quantity of insects, especially during the breeding season, and that many insects are fed to the young. This last is also borne out by stomach exami- nation. A review of the yearly diet shows that the greater part of the corn eaten is taken during the fall and winter months. That eaten in winter and early spring (March and April), except the small quantity taken from corncribs, must be waste grain, or picked up in places where grain is left in the shock for a long time. No one will begrudge the birds the coru gathered from the hog lot or about the cattle crib, but when they attack the ripening grain in September it is a different story, and in cases where the birds are so abundant that they take a large part of the crop, it will be difficult to persuade the unfortunate farmer that they did enough good earlier in the season to pay for his loss. There can be little doubt that in many parts of the country these birds are too numerous for the farmer to realize the best results from their services. THE RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD. The red-winged blackbird, red-shouldered blackbird, swamp black- bird, or ‘‘American starling,” as it is variously called (Agelaius phe- niceus and subspecies), is distributed over all of the United States, and breeds throughout this region except along the extreme southern border. As the bird almost invariably chooses a nesting site near water, if not directly over it, the species is usually absent during the breeding season from large areas of arid land, though cases have been noted where nests were found at a distance from anything in the nature of marshes or swamps. Breeding places.—Ideal nesting sites for this species are found in the prairie region of the Upper Mississippi Valley and in the vicinity of the Great Lakes. The abundant marshes and small ‘‘ sloughs” or ponds of the prairies furnish just the conditions required, and conse- quently the species is everywhere common. East of the Alleghanies suitable breeding places are less numerous, being for the most part restricted to swamps and the immediate vicinity of streams and lakes. With fewer nesting sites there are fewer birds, and consequently less damage to grain crops. In New England few complaints have been made, but some damage has been done where grainfields are near the natural haunts of the birds, especially in sections near the sea- shore, where marshes afford good breeding places. The immense quantity of wild rice that grows along the Atlantic seaboard has, per- haps, served to some extent to draw them away from the grainfields of the interior, as their ravages are much less noticeable in the East- ern States than in those of the Mississippi Valley. B50 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, From most of the States drained by the Mississippi River and its tributaries complaints both numerous and loud have been received of the ravages of the redwings. ‘The vast marshes of the northern part of this region and the small prairie ponds found everywhere are the recruiting grounds for immense flocks, whose numbers are almost beyond estimation. When these hordes settle upon a field of ripen- ing grain, not only is much of the grain itself eaten, but the straw is broken down and rendered difficult to cut. So extensive are some of the flocks that if undisturbed for a few days they eat or destroy a large percentage of the grain. Food habits of the red-winged blackbird.—In investigating the food habits of the redwing over 700 stomachs were examined. ‘These were colleeted in every month of the year, and show that a little more than 13 per cent of the year’s food is grain. This is a remarkably small percentage when it is considered that this bird has been the subject of more complaints on the score of grain eating than any other species. In order to understand thoroughly the grain-eating propen- sities of the redwing, a special study of its food for the five months from May to September, inclusive, has been made. Of the stomachs taken in May, 46 per cent contained grain. This percentage falls to 11 in June and then rises in July and culminates in August at 72, after which it decreases rapidly. The average for the five months is 46 per cent, that is, in every 100 birds taken 46 have eaten grain. If now we examine the grain-eating record as exhibited by the quan- tity of that food the results are quite different. In May grain con- stitutes 21 per cent of the food by bulk; in June it decreases to 5 per cent; in July it rises to its maximum of 42 per cent; in August it falls off slightly, after which it rapidly decreases and disappears. The average consumption of grain for the five months is 25 per cent of the whole food. Again, if the two months of July and August are con- sidered alone, it is found that out of every 100 birds 68 have eaten grain, but that the grain constitutes only 40 per cent of the total food for the two months. Percentage of grain destroyed by birds in the Mississippi Valley.— Still further restricting the study to birds taken in the Mississippi Valley in the same five months as above, the percentage of grain eaten shows an important increase. During these months 173 birds were collected in the States of Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Iowa, Nebraska, and Kansas. This number, though small, is sufficient to serve at least asa clue to the food during the period covered. Grain was eaten by 60 per cent of the birds collected in May, by 46 per cent of those taken in June, by 80 per cent of those taken in July, by 81 per cent of those taken in August, and by 45 per cent of those taken in September. Of the food of those taken in May, 27 per cent was grain of various kinds; in June, 23 per cent; in July, 51 per cent; in August, 45 per cent, and BIRDS THAT INJURE GRAIN. 351 in September, 24 per cent, or an average of 34 per cent of grain for the five months. When it isremembered that the food of the crow black- bird over the whole of its range, and during the whole year, consists of grain to the extent of 45 per cent, if seems strange that the redwing should be able to create so much more havoc, when we find that its food during the five grain-raising months, and in the greatest grain- raising States, consists of only 34 per cent of grain. ‘This renders more impressive the fact that the harm done by the redwing does not arise so much from the excessive quantity eaten by the individual as from the overwhelming number of individuals, which in the aggre- gate cause an enormous destruction of grain. Percentage of weed seeds destroyed by birds.—Of the different kinds of cereals, oats is the favorite with the redwings, constituting more than half of the grain eaten. Corn stands next in order, and wheat last of all. At the same time many noxious insects and much weed seed are destroyed. The former amounts to over 26 per cent of the year’s food, the latter to nearly 57 per cent. Seeds of noxious weeds, eked out by grain found seattered in the fields, forms the almost exclu- sive diet of these birds during the colder months. Even in August, when the destruction of grain is at its height, weed seed forms more than 30 per cent of the food. THE YELLOW-HEADED BLACKBIRD. The yellow-headed blackbird (Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus) is abundant in the Mississippi Valley, less common in the far West, and oceasionally straggles eastward to New England and the District of Columbia. Asa rule, it is not as abundant as the redwing, with which it is almost identical in feeding habits, even in its preference for oats and in its fondness for weed seeds. In complaints made against the redwing the yellowhead is frequently included as equally guilty. During the breeding season it is a hearty insect eater, and a number of the stomachs examined contained the remains of the well-known “army worm” (Leucania unipuncta), which was also found in stom- achs of the redwing. Of the other insects eaten the majority are harmful. THE RUSTY GRACKLE. The rusty grackle (Scolecophagus carolinus) of the Eastern United States and Brewer’s blackbird (S. cyanocephalus) of the West are similar birds, whose habits of associating in large flocks would indi- cate that they could do great damage to grainfields if they chose to visit them for food. Stomach examinations show that the eastern bird lives to a great extent upon animal substances, principally insects, and as the species retires to the extreme northern edge of the country and beyond to breed, it does not appear in most of the grain-raising States until the cropsof wheat and oats have been harvested. It feeds 352 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to some extent on corn, but the damage appears to be slight. Brewer’s blackbird, on the contrary, breeds over the greater part of its range and only retires from the northern part during a short time in winter. It is more of a grain eater than the rusty grackle and does consider- able damage in wheat-growing areas in the far West. Like the rusty grackle, it is a great consumer of insects. THE COWBIRD. The cowbird (Molothrus ater) is another species of wide distribution and great abundance, especially in the Upper Mississippi Valley. As these birds associate in flocks they might do much damage to grain, but their well-known habits are to search along roads, stock yards, and pastures rather than in open grainfields. For this reason they have not been observed to do much damage. VARIOUS OTHER DESTRUCTIVE BIRDS. In addition to crows and blackbirds, several birds have attracted notice in different parts of the country by their grain-destroying proclivities. The common mourning, or turtle, dove (Zenaidura macroura) is known to feed extensively upon grain, especially wheat, and where the species is abundant sometimes becomes a serious nui- sance. Stomach examinations show that these birds eat practically no animal food, but subsist almost entirely upon hard seeds, those of our most common weeds constituting their principal food supply dur- ing the winter months. They do most harm in spring, when they feed upon newly sown grain. That wheat is their favorite cereal is shown by the fact that many of their stomachs are entirely filled with it. As doves rarely associate in large flocks, they are not likely to become such serious pests as some of the gregarious species, and means might be readily devised for preventing their ravages during the short period in which they occur. In some portions of California complaints have been made that the valley quail (Callipepla californica vallicola). destroys wheat to a serious extent, but this appears to be local rather than general. The horned larks (Otocoris) are small, obscurely colored birds that breed on most of the plains and deserts of the Western United States, and winter in immense numbers in the Mississippi Valley region and to a less extent in other parts of the country. In wheat-growing sec- tions they do some damage to newly sown grain. But like the doves, their habits are not such as to seriously menace the grain crop. Sev- eral other native birds have at times caused complaints on the score of grain eating, but these cases seem to be unusual. The Mongolian, or ring-necked, pheasant (Phasianus torquatus), and possibly one or two other species which were imported into the Northwest Coast region about fifteen years ago, have since increased to such an extent that they threaten to become a pest by their inroads BIRDS THAT INJURE GRAIN. 353 upon the grainfields, Already numerous complaints have appeared in the newspapers of that region, showing that the harm done by these birds will somewhat modify the benefit that can be derived from them as game birds. Accurate data upon this point, however, are not at hand. DIFFICULTY OF PREVENTING DESTRUCTION CAUSED BY BIRDS, In a treatise on the destructiveness of grain-eating birds it is nat- ural that the reader should expect at least a suggestion of a remedy. Unfortunately it is much easier to point out the evil than to pre- scribe the cure. Stomach investigation shows conclusively that birds do not subsist upon grain alone, even at times when it is possible to obtain it. Moreover, the greatest amount of grain is not eaten at harvest time, but during the winter months, when other food is scarce and waste kernels can be picked up in the fields. If any kind of grain is preferred by a certain species, we should expect the bird to subsist upon that grain almost exclusively when it can be obtained, that is, at harvest time. That this is not the case, is shown by the fact that many birds of the same species have been shot at the same time in a grainfield, and while some stomachs were full of grain, others were only partly filled, and still others were wholly filled with other food. So many eases of this kind have occurred that it seems practically certain that few birds willingly subsist exclusively upon any kind of grain for a considerable length of time. With many species this is in notable contrast to their marked fondness for the seeds of certain useless plants, upon which at some seasons they sub- sist almost entirely. . If it be admitted that birds do not as a rule display an inordinate appetite for grain, the question naturally arises: What is the cause of the tremendous ravages they sometimes commit? Both stomach examination and field observation point to the same answer: Too many birds of the same or closely allied species are gathered together within a limited area. As already pointed out, the Upper Mississippi region presents such exceptionally favorable breeding grounds for blackbirds, especially the redwing and yellowhead, that they swarm there in countless numbers. Settlement and cultivation have not yet encroached mate- rially upon their haunts, but have added a source of food, which, coming before the great natural supply, has served to render the race more vigorous and prolific. An attempt to exterminate these species would be not only ill- advised but hopeless. States have offered bounties for their destruc- tion without perceptibly thinning their ranks. Is there, then, any remedy for the evil? The writer is forced to confess that he has none to suggest, except in the case of crows and blackbirds that pull up sprouting corn. This can be prévented by thoroughly tarring the 1 ee LAWNS AND LAWN MAKING. 363 AMOUNT OF SEED USED PER ACRE. The amount of seed to be used will depend somewhat upon the character of the soil, but more particularly upon the quality and kind of the seed used. The seed, of course, should be sown much more thiekly than for hay production, and allowance has to be made for the thoroughness with which the seed has been cleaned from chaff. Rhode Island bent and creeping bent are both likely to con- tain a large amount of chaff and imperfect seeds, and the quantity of seed sown should be sufficient to make allowance for this. Under the new methods of cleaning seeds of Kentucky blue grass, the chaff is almost entirely removed, but in the case of this grass there is often a lack of vitality, or germinative power, and it is always best to use a liberal quantity in seeding down the lawn. Mr. William Doogue, superintendent of public grounds, Boston, sows 4 bushels of Kentucky blue grass and redtop mixed in equal parts, to which about 6 pounds of white clover have been added, to the acre, or 1 peck to 300 square yards. Owing to the great variation in the weight per bushel of grass seeds of the same kind (due to the presence of more or less chaff), if is best to base the amount upon weight rather than measure, and from 50 to 60 pounds of seed of fine quality is not too much to use upon an acre of ground, or 14 pounds to 100 square yards, poor land requiring more seed than fertile land. Some advise as much as 100 pounds of seed to the acre. TIME OF SEEDING. In the State of Washington the time for seeding is given as from September until April; in Florida during the wet season, from June until September. It may be stated here, however, that in the latter State seed is rarely used, as the lawn grasses are St. Augustine and Bermuda, which are usually propagated by cuttings. In North Caro- lina, March is specified as the time for sowing lawn grass seed. In New England the seed may be sown from the middle of April to the middle of May or from the middle of August to the middle of Sep- tember. If the seed is sown in the spring, it should be as early as possible, or as soon as the land is in condition to receive it, in order that the young plants may become sufficiently well established to withstand the often dry and hot summer months. This applies, of course, to regions where Kentucky blue grass or the bent grasses are used for lawns. Another advantage of very early spring planting is that it enables the grass to get ahead of the annual weeds, which are not usually troublesome before midsummer. If seeding is done in the fall, it is necessary to sow the seed sufficiently early to enable the grass to become well rooted before severe winter weather sets in. Young seedlings are likely to be killed by winter freezing or thrown 864 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. out of the ground and destroyed by frosts. Fall planting has this advantage, that the grass, if it passes through the winter successfully, is in condition to crowd out weeds the following season, and at the same time be sufficiently well rooted to resist summer droughts. MANNER OF SEEDING, The seed must be sown or scattered evenly over the surface if a patchy and unsightly growth is to be avoided. It is best to select a time when there is little or no wind, and, if possible, immediately previous to an expected rain. Care must be taken not to cover the seed too deeply. nee) ka Wp we \ ‘i tL. 4 \ | » Wa) If } S, f ;: 7 . | ( , ZY : 2 >! \ > 5 do A S \ S = C ~ J o 9 Oo . 8 F1q.1.—A national object lesson—suggestion for a coastwise and continental highway SY R a4 / | ——————————————— eee The lines indicated would traverse the whole, or portions, of about two-thirds of the States of the Union, and their construction would naturally be followed by that of parallel lines, making a complete national system including all the States. HYBRIDS AND THEIR UTILIZATION IN PLANT BREEDING. By WALTER T. SwiIneLe and Hersert J. WEBBER, Special Agents, Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology. INTRODUCTION. Probably no question is of so much interest and importance to farmers and gardeners as the improvement of cultivated plants. Since the time of von Mons and Knight, the early part of the present century, this phase of plant culture has received considerable atten- tion, but probably much less than it deserves. The experience of gardeners the world over has shown clearly that the possibilities in the improvement of our useful plants are almost unlimited. In the words of H. L. de Vilmorin, ‘‘ No limit can be fixed as to the improve- ments which may be expected from care, thought, and selection. The gains of the last dozen years may surely be taken as the forerunners of better things.” The last half century has witnessed unprecedented extensions of the areas devoted to agriculture, and this has led toa demand, still imperfectly satisfied, for new sorts of cultivated plants adapted to the particular conditions of climate and soil in each new region. The great variety of soil and climatic conditions which this country affords renders it necessary to have many sorts of cultivated plants differing in their requirements. For instance, a tomato of the greatest worth for growth in the State of New York may be totally unfit for general culture in Florida, and the same is true in the case of almost all cultivated plants. The sorts cultivated in New York are almost wholly different from those cultivated in the South and the West. The revolution in methods of transportation effected during the present century has multiplied many fold the areas which can be devoted to intensive forms of agriculture, such as fruit growing, mar- ket gardening, floriculture, etc., and the increasing aggregation of population in cities has led to a much greater demand for such prod- ucts. These causes have also brought about an unceasing demand for sorts of superlative excellence which will warrant the expense and _ trouble of the most intensive culture. Again, the maximum productiveness in most of our cultivated plants has not been reached, and much ean still be gained in this direction. In striving to produce improved sorts, the size and shape of fruit or seed, color, quality, and a host of other features must also be taken into account. 383 884 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Doubtless many exceedingly valuable sorts remain to be introduced from other parts of the world, but even here the art of the plant breeder will in the end be necessary to secure in these plants varia- tions particularly adapted to the new conditions to which they are exposed when removed from the regions where they originated. In breeding plants two methods are commonly relied upon: (1) Variations arising naturally, supposed to be induced directly or indi- rectly by environment; and, (2) variations induced by crossing differ- ent varieties, species, or even genera. The first of these methods was discussed by one of the writers in the Yearbook of the Department for 1896, pp. 89-106, and the second will be considered here. Inasmuch as the sexuality of plants was unknown, or at least very imperfectly understood, prior to the last two centuries, while a knowl- edge of the sex distinction of animals dates from the dawn of human history, it is not surprising that while the hybridizing of animals was well understood by the ancients they did not know that crossing was possible with plants. Experimental proof of the sexuality of plants was published for the first time by Camerarius, December 28, 1691, and only after this discovery was the function of pollen and its neces- sity for seed formation understood. About twenty years later Thomas Fairchild, an English gardener, made the first recognized plant hybrid by crossing the carnation with the sweet william. (PI. XVII shows a hybrid carnation.) The plants grown from the hybridized seeds, known as Fairchild’s sweet william, were cultivated at least a hun- dred years under the same name, and possibly are still in cultivation. The first careful studies of hybrid plants were made by Koelreuter in 1760, and not till nearly the middle of this century was his work surpassed. In general, hybrids can be produced only between obviously related plants. With some plants, such as oaks and verbenas, hybrids are not of uncommon occurrence in nature, while with many others, indeed in the majority of cases, no spontaneous hybrids are known. Among plants which have been cultivated for a considerable period, however, it is not unusual for closely related species to cross, and the same is true even in certain species distinct enough to be classed in different genera, the latter forming the so-called bigeneric hybrids. What can be accomplished by close application to the work of plant breeding is shown by the extraordinary results obtained in this country by Burbank and Munson; indeed, no feature of agricultural, hortieul- tural, or floricultural work is more fascinating or more promising of valuable results. WHAT ARE HYBRIDS? The term hybrid is by many applied only to the offspring obtained by crossing two plants or animals sufficiently different to be considered by naturalists as distinct species, while the terms mongrel and cross OG Passmore fecit \ Hoen ACO Lith HYBRID CARNATION. 1. Scort, FEMALE PARENT. 3. HYBRID. 2. MCGOWAN, MALE PARENT. HYBRIDS IN PLANT BREEDING. 385 are used to designate the offspring of two races or varieties of one species. It was formerly supposed that all hybrids were more or less sterile, in contradistinetion to mongrels, which were believed to be very fertile. It has been found, however, that many hybrids, in the narrow sense, are very fertile, and that some mongrels are nearly sterile. Since it is impossible to indicate by any two words, such as hybrid or mongrel, the various degrees of difference of the forms crossed, the word hybrid is here used, comformably to the Century Dictionary, as a generic term, to include all organisms arising from a cross of two forms noticeably different, whether the difference be great or slight. Adjectives are sometimes used to indicate the grade of the forms crossed, such as racial hybrid, bigeneric hybrid, ete. Where a hybrid of two species is crossed with a third species, a trispecific hybrid results. The offspring produced by the union of two plants identical in kind, but separated in descent by at least several seed generations, is often called a crossed, cross-fertilized, or cross-bred plant, but it is not a hybrid, as the essential character of a hybrid is that it results from the union of plants differing more or less in kind, or, in other words, is the result of a union between different races, varieties, species, genera, ete. On the other hand, flowers impregnated with their own pollen, with the pollen of another flower on the same plant, or even with pollen from another plant derived from the same original stock by cuttings, grafts, etc., are said to be self-fertilized, and the offspring resulting from such unions are also termed self-fertilized plants. With some plants, such as tobacco and wheat, self-fértilization is the rule. In many cases, however, the flowers are so constructed that cross-fertilization is favored, as in corn, rye, ete., and in some cases cross-fertilization is necessary, all possibility of self-pollination being precluded, as in the case of hemp and other plants having the male and female flowers on separate individuals. METHODS USED IN HYBRIDIZING PLANTS. The process of hybridizing plants is in itself neither difficult nor mysterious, it being simply necessary to understand the general structure of the flower to be used. The flowers of tomato, pear, and orange may be taken as illustrating the common forms, although, of course, very many modifications occur. The envelopes of these flowers, as in the case of the flowers of most cultivated plants, con- sist of two whorls of modified leaves (figs. 3 and 5). The outer whorl, which is known as the calyx, is commonly green like the foliage and is divided into several distinet or more or less united lobes or sepals (figs. 3 and 5, cx), while the inner whorl, or corolla, is usually of some bright color other than green, and its different divisions or lobes are known as petals (figs. 3 and 5,¢). In some 1 A97—25 386 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, cases, as in the lily, the calyx and corolla are of the same color, so that they are not easily distinguishable; while in still other cases, as in oaks, walnuts, ete., the corolla is entirely wanting. The essential, or sexual, organs of the flower, the stamens and pistils, are found inside the calyx and corolla, and it is with these organs that the hybridizer is most concerned. The stamens, or male Fig.2.—Newly opened bud Fia. 3.—Mature flower of Fic. 4.—A flower of of Lorillard tomato, show- Lorillard tomato: ca, ca- Lorillard tomato ing stage in which flower lyx; ¢, corolla; s, sta- emasculated ready should be emasculated. mens; st, stigma. (Nat- for pollination. (Natural size.) ural size. ) (Natural size. ) organs, of the plant (figs. 3 and 5, s) are usually several in number, and are composed of an upper swollen portion, the anther, which is borne on a more or less slender stalk called the filament. In some flowers, as in those of the tomato, the filament is very short (figs. 3 and 5), and in others is entirely wanting, the anthers being borne at the base of the corolla. The very numerous small, yellow, powdery grains of pollen, which constitute the male fecundating elements, are borne in sacks in the anthers. When the anther matures these sacks burst open and the pollen is exposed. A quantity of this pollen must be transferred, either oe by natural or artificial means, to the stigma of the female organ in order to insure fecundation. The application of pollen to the stigma is designated pollination, and sue- cessful pollination—that is, the FIG. 5.—Section of a tomato flower: ex, calyx; application of pollen to the stigma, C, corolla ; 8, stamens ; Ps pistil ; o,ovary; st, followed by fecundation—is stigma. (Twice natural size.) a termed fertilization. The pistil or pistils (fig. 5,p), which are the female organs, occupy the center of the flower and are surrounded by the stamens. The upper portion of the pistil is usually somewhat swollen and more or less rough. It is on this portion of the pistil, known as the stigma (figs. 3 and 5, sf), that the pollen must fall to produce fecundation. In the majority of plants the stamens and pistils are produced in the same flower, as in the tomato and orange (figs. 3 and 7); but in cer- ! ! i ~w ~~ SI ¥ ~ NS AAA 5 - tie a ¥ ile Losses ~ al ee i> oe SS eee’ . — — al \\ \ | ) | | > « HYBRIDS IN PLANT BREEDING. 387 tain plants they are produced in different flowers on the same plant, as in walnuts, castor beans, ete., oron different plants, as in the willow, poplar, ete. In undertaking to hybridize plants artificially, it is well to remem- ber that in many plants the stamens and pistils when in the same flower mature at different times—a provision to insure cross-pollina- tion (the application of the pollen of one flower to the stigma of another). In a large majority of such cases the stamens ripen first, discharging their pollen before the pistil is receptive. The most important feature in the work of crossing is to exclude from the stigma all pollen except that which it is desired to use. As Darwin says, in reference to the breeding of animals, ‘‘The prevention of free crossing and the intentional matching of individual animals are the corner stones of the breeder’s art.” The prevention of self-polli- nation (the transfer of pollen to the stigma of the same flower) in perfect flowers, that is, flowers containing both stamens and _pistils, necessitates the careful opening of the flowers intended for hybridi- Fic.6.—Orange flower bud, Fic. 7.—Matureorange flower. F1G.8.—Anemasculated orange showing stage which should (Natural size. ) flower: a, shows where an- be selected for emascula- thers were detached. (Nat- tion. (Natural size.) ural size. ) zation while they are still immature, and the cutting or pulling off of the anthers before they burst and allow the escape of the pollen. This process is termed emasculation. In the tomato the stamens and pistils do not mature until after the calyx and corolla become par- tially expanded. In this case the stamens should be cut off near the base (fig. 4) with a small pair of scissors shortly after the bud opens (fig. 2), a process which is in this case somewhat difficult. In the manipulation of orange flowers mature buds nearly ready to open are selected (fig. 6), and the tips of the corolla carefully pried apart until the stamens are exposed. In these flowers the anthers are attached to the filaments by very slender threads, which are easily broken (fig. 7), so that the simplest method of removing the stamens is to pull them off with fine-pointed forceps. The latter may also be conveniently used in prying apart the corolla lobes of the bud. Dur- ing the process of emasculation in this and all other cases great care must be exercised not to open the stamens and accidentally pollinate the flower. All insects must be watched and carefully excluded. Fig. 8 shows an emasculated flower ready to bag. 388 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, After emasculating the flower a bag of some closely woven cloth or of paper should be carefully passed over the twig bearing the flower and tied around the stem below the flower in such a manner as to effectually exclude all insects and foreign pollen (Pl. XVIII, fig. |). ‘The manila paper sacks used by grocers are employed almost exclusively for this purpose. In afew days after emasculation and bagging, when the pistils have had time to mature, the sacks must be removed and the pistils pollinated, after which the sacks should be replaced as before and allowed to remain until fecundation has taken place and all danger from the action of foreign pollen is over. In most cases the sacks should then be removed, as they are likely to injure the development of the fruit. In some eases, as in the orange, Where the pistil is nearly mature when the bud is opened, the pollen may be applied to the stigma when the flower is emas- culated, thus avoiding the trouble of opening the bag later. The flowers selected for emasculation and hybridization should be full- sized, perfect in all respects, and conveniently situated. Those on the end of a twig frequently set fruit best. All the flowers on the branch which are not used should be cut off. Frequently several flowers of the same age can be selected on the same branch, emas- culated, and inclosed under the same bag. In hybridizing, many different methods are followed in applying the pollen. In most cases where an abundance of pollen can be secured the freshly burst anthers from one plant may be taken with fine-pointed forceps and rubbed over the stigma of the other until sufficient pollen has been transferred. This is probably the easiest and safest method in most cases. Some hybridizers transfer the pollen with a small ladle or camel’s-hair brush, and occasionally this method may be found somewhat convenient, especially where the pollen is brought from some distance and has largely escaped from the anthers. After each pollination it is of the utmost importance to label the bag in such a way that there will be no question as to what if contains. These labels should be allowed to remain after the bag has been removed. As fruits like apples, oranges, etc., approach maturity it is very desirable that they be inclosed in gauze bags firmly tied to the branches (Pl. XVIII, fig. 2). Such bags allow the normal develop- ment of the fruit, protect it from being picked accidentally, and in ease the fruit falls prematurely preserve it in connection with the label. WHAT PLANTS CAN BE HYBRIDIZED? It is a fact of prime importance that plants so dtfferent as to be classed by botanists in widely different families never yield offspring when crossed; for example, it is impossible to successfully cross Indian corn and lilies or the apple and walnut, Usually plants diverse PLATE XVIII. Yearbook U.S Dept of Agriculture, 1897 Fic. 1.—ORANGE FLOWER INCLOSED IN PAPER Fic. 2.—NEARLY MATURE HYBRID OR- BAG AFTER EMASCULATION. ANGE INCLOSED IN GAUZE BAG TO PREVENT LOSS BY DROPPING. patent | aepiacyy Wnt ape HYBRID “PRIMUS” AND PARENTS: F, CALIFORNIAN DEW- sale debit URSINUS), FEMALE PARENT; H, Hysrid; M, SIBERIAN RASPBERRY (R. IFOLIUS), MALE PARENT (ABOUT ONE-FOURTH NATURAL SIZE). (AFTER BURBANK.) HYBRIDS IN PLANT BREEDING. 389 enough to be considered as belonging to clearly distinct genera, even though of the same natural family, are perfectly sterile when crossed; forexample, Indian corn yields no offspring when cross-pollinated with wheat, nor does wheat when crossed with oats, although all belong to the great family of grasses. Plants belonging to the different culti- vated races or to natural varieties of the same species are almost invariably fertile when crossed. Indeed, as will be shown later, they are sometimes more fertile when crossed with a related species than when fertilized by their own pollen. Different species of plants closely enough related to be placed in the same genus by naturalists are very often, though by no means always, capable of being hybridized. Gaertner found that ‘‘one of the tobaceos, Nicotiana acuminata, which is not a particularly distinct species, obstinately failed to fer- tilize or to be fertilized by no less than eight species of Nicotiana.” Darwin states that ‘‘in the same family there may be a genus, as Dianthus, in which very many species can most readily be crossed; and another genus, as Silene, in which the most persevering efforts have failed to produce between extremely close species a single hy- brid.” Again, there is considerable diversity in results in certain reciprocal crosses between the same two species. ‘* Mirabilis galapa can easily be fertilized by the pollen of J. longiflora, and the hybrids thus produced are sufficiently fertile; but Koelreuter tried more than two hundred times during eight following years to fertilize recipro- eally M. longiflora with the pollen of M. jalapa, and utterly failed,” as have also many other hybridizers. Frequently even very closely related species absolutely refuse to cross. According to Bailey and Pammel, this is true of the pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo) and squash (C-‘ maxima). It is nevertheless true that hosts of very distinct species hybridize readily, and quite a number of cases are known where species belonging to different and quite distinct genera have hybrid- ized, producing the so-called bigeneric hybrids. For instance, wheat and rye, and wheat and barley, belonging to closely related genera, cross with difficulty, and Luther Burbank has succeeded in obtaining a hybrid of strawberry and raspberry. Focke cites the following instances of hybrids produced by cross- ing species belonging to different families: Gladiolus blandus Sol., belonging to the lily family, crossed with pollen of a species of Hip- peastrum, belonging to the Amaryllis family, produced seed which yielded four plants. Again, six flowers of Digitalis ambigua Murr (Figwort family) when crossed by Campbell with the pollen of Sin- ningia speciose (Gloxinia family) gave three seed capsules, from which several plants were obtained. Hybrids between plants belong- ing to different families are, however, very rare. The results obtained by hosts of experimenters and practical gardeners show conclusively that the majority of closely related species can be readily crossed, while very distinct species and species belonging to 390 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. distinct genera can be crossed in only comparatively few cases. It is impossible to predict what plants may or may not be hybridized. In breeding cultivated varieties if has commonly been supposed that seedless plants, like the pineapple and navel orange, could not be utilized because of their seedlessness. The writers have found, however, that in each of these plants abundant seeds are pro- duced when the flowers are crossed with pollen from distinct sorts (Pl. XIX, fig. 2). This suggests that fruits which are normally seed- less may frequently be used to advantage in hybridizing experiments, particularly when it is desired to secure improved seedless varieties. For instance, a pomelo with few or no seeds might possibly be. obtained by hybridizing the common pomelo with the navel orange. HYBRIDS INTERMEDIATE BETWEEN THEIR PARENTS. The characters of hybrids are almost always intermediate between the forms crossed, although sometimes they resemble one parent exclusively. As a rule, hybrids between distinct species are inter- mediate in the first generation and often exactly midway between their parents in all characters, while those between races or varieties of one species are variable in the first generation. Macfarlane has shown that not only do the hybrids he studied occupy a mean posi- tion as regards habit, size, shape of leaves, time of flowering, ete., but also in microscopic peculiarities of strueture. For instance, the starch grains of Hedychium gardnerianum are small, flat, triangular plates, measuring from ;}%, to ;}32> of a millimeter from base to apex (fig. 9, w), and those of H. coronariwm are ovate and measure from 732) to ~0, of a millimeter in length (fig. 9, b), while in a hybrid of these two species known as H. sadlerianum, the starch grains are intermediate in size and shape (fig. 9, 2). The thickened cells of the bundle sheath of the root of the so-called Philageria veitchii, a bigen- eric hybrid (Pl. XX, fig. 3,2) are intermediate, not only in size and shape, but also in the number of laminations, between .Phdlesia buai- folia, the male parent (Pl. XX, fig. 3, m), and Lapageria rosea, the female parent (Pl. XX, fig. 3, f). A skeletonized leaf of the same hybrid is shown on Pl. XX, fig. 4, h, in comparison'with its parents (Pl. XX, fig. 4, m and f). Other hybrids, though appearing strictly intermediate at first sight, are found on careful examination to possess, side by side, structures or organs characteristic of the parents and not intermediate between them; for instance, on the leaves of a hybrid of the gooseberry and black currant Macfarlane found the simple hairs of the former species and also the oil-seecreting, shield-shaped hairs of the latter, though both were but half the size of those on the parents. In leaves of the York-Madeira grape, a hybrid of the summer grape (Vitis estivalis) and the fox grape (V. labrusca), Millardet found sunken stomata, or breathing pores, like those in the former species, projecting ones like those in the latter, and many intermediate forms. PLATE XIX. 897 of Agriculture Yearbook U.S Dept —_ ~~ ee ee se Fia. 1.—CANES OF THE SECOND GENERATION OF A BLACKBERRY-RASPBERRY HYBRID, ALL GROWN FROM SEED OF ONE PLANT. (AFTER BURBANK.) Fic. 2.—SEEDLING PINEAPPLES, THE OFFSPRING OF MORE THAN USUALLY SEEDLESS PLANTS RENDERED FERTILE BY POLLINATION WITH ANOTHER SORT: 5, EGYPTIAN QUEEN CROSSED WITH SMOOTH CAYENNE: 9, ENVILLE CiTY CROSSED WITH SMOOTH CAYENNE; 21, ENVILLE CITY CROSSED WITH PUERTO Rico rn A mee io Syl logs i eae We ras : 4 yes A Pears dt ah hel iw 2 Sy ule ¢ « “AG TUN fh aie ps " ie e @ set , it | wg Se me ay hae yay (aa Sd Ly 5 Barents Wiser te. 3, se}! = 3% 35 ns lea +E = & ES re OA rer: i 575 ie Ly HYBRIDS IN PLANT’ BREEDING. 391 Not infrequently the color of the flowers of a hybrid is not a uni- form blend between those of the parents, but the two parental colors occur side by side in patches. This is exemplified by many of the hybrid carnations obtained by crossing Scott and MeGowan. One of these hybrids, produced by Mr. E. C. Rittue, gardener of the Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, is shown on Pl. XVII, fig. 5, though the bandsof reddish color in this case are not exactly the same tint as the pink flowers of the male parent Scott. Strasburger has aptly said that in such cases ‘‘the hybrid is a sort of mosaic made up of portions of the two parents.” The hybrid may in rare instances show parts of considerable size resembling almost exactly similar parts of one of the parents, while other parts of the hybrid may show an equally striking resemblance to the other parent. Instances of this are furnished by some grape hybrids, as will be explained more in detail in speaking of & some practical utilizations of © } é C an hybrids. 3 “ * © As will be shown in the fol- a €; ¢ lowing pages, hybrids which h were uniform and intermedi- ate in the first generation usu- 710.9. Stare eraine of hybrid and parents cow ally vary greatly inthe second — chium gardnerianum, one parent ; h, hybrid; b, H. and later generations. often coronarium, other parent. (Multiplied 500 diam- 5 . eters. After Macfarlane. ) consisting of a few forms nearly like the parents, and numerous forms representing all grades of intermediates. In some hybrids this variability is shown in the first generation. In most cases, however, such hybrids are still inter- mediate between the parent forms, inasmuch as they represent merely combinations of parental characters differently localized and in differ- ent proportions. Occasionally characters are shown by hybrids which can not be referred toeither parent. These will be discussed later. STERILE AND FERTILE HYBRIDS. Hybrids arising from the union of widely different parents are very commonly sterile, often producing little or no good pollen, and some- times, though not so often, having defective ovules and refusing to bear seed even when pollinated from one of the parent species. On the other hand, the offspring of two closely allied parents is usually fertile, often more so than the normal offspring. Formerly it was supposed that all hybrids between distinct species were sterile, but this is by no means always the case. Very frequently they are fertile with their own pollen and still more frequently with that of either parent species. The bearing of sterility on the practical utilization of hybrids in plant breeding is discussed on pages 408 and 409. 392 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FIRST AND LATER GENERATIONS OF HYBRIDS. The distinction between the first and second generations, when the hybrid is fertile, is often very marked, and this must be constantly kept in mind in order to have a clear understanding of the nature of hybrids and to be able to utilize them to the fullest extent possible in plant breeding. ‘The first generation of the hybrid is constituted by the plants grown from the seeds produced by the cross-pollinated flower, and in very many instances, though not all, the different indi- viduals are nearly uniform and approximately intermediate in char- acter between the parents. Naudin, one of the most careful and trustworthy writers on plant hybrids, says: ‘‘I have always found in the hybrids which I have obtained myself and of which the origin was well known to me, a great uniformity of aspect among the individuals of the first generation coming from the same cross, no matter how many of them there were.” Naegeli, however, who is an equally good authority, says: ‘‘The hybrids of varieties are especially liable to variation. When one variety is fertilized with another the descend- ants are often so various and so rich in forms that no plant is exactly like another.” This apparent contradiction is explained by the fact that Naudin hybridized almost exclusively clearly marked species, while in the paragraph quoted Naegeli referred to offspring of two varieties or races of one species, and considers their behavior different from that of specific hybrids. Naegeli says further that ‘‘in general the hybrids in the first generation vary the less the more distantly related the parent forms are, that is, the specific hybrids vary less than the varietal hybrids, the former often being characterized by great uniformity, the latter by great diversity of form.” If these hybrids of the first generation be self-pollinated or crossed among each other the progeny resulting constitutes the second generation. Hybrids between widely different parents, when fertile, usually yield descendants showing very great diversity of character, or, as expressed by Naegeli, ‘‘ the variability in the second and succeeding generations is the greater the more completely it was wanting in the first generation.” Whenever, then, we cross widely diverse plants and obtain hybrids intermediate in character and all nearly alike in the first generation, we may expect these hybrids, if fertile, and self- pollinated or crossed among each other, to yield descendants showing great diversity of character. This principle is of great importance in the practice of plant breeding, as will be more fully shown later. Should the first generation not yield the desired new forms or com- binations of parental characters, the possibilities are by no means exhausted, but it is quite possible that the descendants of these hybrids will yield valuable sorts. Sometimes the most extreme diver- sity of character does not appear until the third or even later gen- erations of the hybrid, but often the hybrid plants in the third HYBRIDS IN PLANT BREEDING. 393 generation are much like the particular forms of the second genera- tion, from which they descended, To bring out more clearly the behavior of hybrids in successive generations, their grouping on this basis has been attempted below. The aim has been to select examples under the different categories as well authenticated as possible and clearly illustrating the point under discussion, but here, as elsewhere, no attempt whatever has been made to enumerate all hybrids which are referable to the several groups. , GROUPING OF HYBRIDS ACCORDING TO AMOUNT AND NATURE AND THE TIME OF APPEARANCE OF RESEMBLANCES TO PARENTS. GROUP Fertile hybrids, uniform and intermediate the first generation, but very diverse in the second and later generations, often showing both parental forms and very many grades of intermediates. This is certainly the most common type of hybrids between species not very closely related, but is rarer when two closely related varieties or races of one species are crossed. The following example is given by Naudin: Closely related tropical species of thorn apple (Datura metel and D. meteloides) were crossed and the first generation consisted of three plants, all alike and approximately inter- mediate, possibly resembling the mother species (D. metel) more than the father (D. meteloides). In the second generation the uniformity observed in the first generation was entirely wanting. Of forty-two plants, twelve were exactly like the original mother species; twenty-eight were intermediates, showing various proportions of the parent characteristics, and consequently not resembling each other; and two resembled exactly the original paternal species. In the third generation hybrids are often still more variable than in the second generation, as, for example, according to Naudin, Nicotiana rustica, when ferti- lized by N. paniculata, yielded uniform and intermediate plants the first genera- tion, and twelve plants in the second generation, very different from each other, which gave in the third generation (grown from five lots of seed taken from five of the most diverse plants of the second generation) ‘‘ all the variations observed in the second generation and many new ones.” Furthermore, the five lots con- sidered separately were not more uniform than all taken together. Seeds collected from one plant produced very tall and very short individuals, some having broad and some narrow leaves, either smooth or velvety or crinkled or even; some of the plants had long-tubed and some short-tubed flowers, which were more or less sterile or absolutely sterile; some matured almost all their fruit and others did not mature any, and so on. It is a fact worthy of notice that in almost every case the most fertile plants were those most like Nicotiana rustica, those having long-tubed flowers, resembling the original hybrids of the first generation, being either entirely sterile or but very slightly fertile. GrouP 2.—Fertile hybrids which are strictly intermediate between the parents, not only in the first, but also in succeeding generations. Such hybrids as these, capable of propagating true to seed and not showing great variability in the second generation, are rare. Darwin states that Dr. Her- bert showed him ‘‘a hybrid from two species of Loasa which, from its first pro- duction, had kept constant during several generations.’ Another very interesting example is the hybrid berry *‘ Primus.” (Pl. X VIII, fig. 3), derived from the Western dewberry (Rubus ursinus) crossed with the Siberian raspberry (RR. cratagifolis). SYA YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. This particular plant was the only fertile one among all the hybrid seedlings of the cross. Of this berry Burbank says: ‘* None of its seedlings for any tested number of generations ever revert to the character of its parents on either side.” Possibly hybrids propagating true to seed often occur when very nearly identical races of cultivated species are crossed; even then, however, variations may be very numerous the second generation, but difficult to detect, because occurring entirely within the range between the only slightly differing parents. Group 3.—Sterile intermediate, more or less uniform hybrids. Sterile hybrids are very commonly the result of a union of widely different parents, being very rarely produced by crossing closely related forms. It is inter- esting to note that the first hybrid plant of which we have any record, a cross between a carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus) and a sweet william (D. barbatus), produced by the gardener, Thomas Fairchild, in London, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, was nearly sterile. However,it proved to be a valuable sort and was propagated by cuttings for more than a hundred years. Koelreuter, the first careful observer of plant hybrids, produced many hybrids that were sterile. For instance, a hybrid of Nicotiana paniculata and N. gluti- nosa, intermediate in many characters, was absolutely sterile. Luther Bur- bank recently produced an interesting sterile hybrid between the raspberry and strawberry. Of this he says: ‘*‘Out of seven or eight hundred of these curious hybrids, not one has ever produced a berry,though blooming with the greatest profusion, and as the blooms fade a bunch resembling a miniature strawberry forms, but never matures. The hybrids when young are practically strawberry plants, but with age produce canes 5 or 6 feet high, multiplying by curious under- ground stolons. The leaves are invariably trifoliate and the canes are thornless or nearly so.” Focke says that ‘‘the commonest consequence of hybrid fertilization is the imperfect formation of the pollen grains in the hybrid plants. Often the anthers of the hybrid are empty, containing no pollen at all, or they are small and do not open.” All students of hybrid plants agree that the pollen is much more likely to be imperfect than the ovules, and in some cases where the pollen is worth- less the ovary is capable of maturing seeds if fertilized with pollen from the parent species. Some hybrids show sterility by producing no flowers. This is said by Focke to be the case with certain hybrids of Rhododendrons, Cereus, and Hymenocaulis. This is rare, however, and very many hybrid plants are char- acterized by excessive rather than by diminished flowering. A remarkable case of a nearly sterile hybrid, which even when fertilized by the parent form yielded seed but rarely, and then in very small numbers, but which nevertheless was bred into a perfectly fertile variety propagated only by seed, is furnished by the so-called A2%gilops speltceformis, a wheat-like hybrid obtained by pollinating A. triticoides with wheat. A. triticoides is itself a hybrid of A. ovata, a small grass occurring wild in southern Europe, and common wheat. The hybrid A. triticoides grows spontaneously in southern Europe along the edges of wheat fields. About fifty years ago Esprit Fabre grew this hybrid from a seed of A. ovata. It was afterwards produced artificially by many experimenters, prov- ing conclusively that it isa hybrid of wheat and A. ovata. Fabre carefully hunted for seeds of this hybrid (A. triticoides), and finally in 1838 was successful. From this seed he grew plants which were very different from A. triticoides, being more wheat-like and more fertile. After several years’ cultivation he obtained, furthermore, a fertile cereal still more like wheat, propagating true to seed, which he called ‘‘4gilops wheat.’” The seeds of this were sent to many botanic gardens of Europe, where the plant was found to be as constant and fertile as a true species, and was named A. spelteformis by Jordan. Fabre’s account of the origin HYBRIDS IN PLANT BREEDING. 395 of this cereal was doubted by many botanists, but was afterwards found to be correct. It had been grown more than forty years when Focke’s work was pub- lished, and was said by him to have remained constant, except in the case of occasional specimens which varied in productiveness. This example shows that it is sometimes possible to breed races propagated by seed from almost sterile hybrids. When hybrids are capable of being propagated by cuttings, grafts, bulbs, etc.. however, it is, of course, possible to propagate absolutely sterile hybrids extensively. Group 4.—Sterile hybrids not uniformly intermediate, but variable, or at least oceurring in two forms, The hybrids of this character are certainly very rare, but few cases being referred to in literature. They are interesting in showing that variability in the first generation may occasionally occur in the offspring of species so distinct as to yield sterile hybrids, although such variability is usually found only in the highly fertile offspring of closely allied species or varieties of one species. Gaertner crossed two species of tobacco (Nicotiana quadrivalvus with pollen of .V. macro- phylla) and obtained hybrids of two different forms, the flowers and long, narrow leaves of the commonest form resembling the mother, while the character of the flowers and leaves of the rarer form was more like the father species. This hybrid was found to be completely sterile. Another even more remarkable case is that of certain hybrid foxgloves. Koel- reuter, Gaertner, and Focke observed that the hybrids of Digitalis purpurea crossed with D. lutea produced, in addition to a more or less constant interme- diate form, a number of forms very different in appearance. Focke observed among the hybrids which grew spontaneously from a cross-fertilized capsule that he had neglected to harvest when ripe, a number of aberrant forms, the most remarkable of them resembling in all particulars a different species (Digitalis tubiflorum). —— = HYBRIDS IN PLANT BREEDING. All mal forms of floral organs are much more common in hybrids than in individuals of pure descent,” and states further that double flowers are especially frequent in hybrid plants. Such examples could be multiplied indefinitely, but enough have been cited to show that these striking new characters are of superlative interest to the plant breeder. SOME SPECIAL FEATURES OBTAINED BY HYBRIDIZATION, INCREASED SIZE AND VIGOR, Hybrids between very different species are said to be often very weak when young, and also difficult to grow successfully. In some cases, however, crosses between very different species give unusually vigorous offspring. Burbidge says: ‘‘I have in several cases noted the healthy, vigorous appearance of Mr. Dominy’s hybrid and bige- neric hybrid orchids compared with the parent plants.” Darwin sub- scribes to the same view in the statements that ‘‘true hybrids raised from entirely distinct species, though they lose in fertility, often gain in size and constitutional vigour,” and that ‘‘ Clotzsch crossed Pinus sylvestris and P. nigricans, Quercus robur and Y. pedunculata, Alnus glutinosa and A. incana, Ulmus campestris and U. effusa, and the cross-fertilized seeds, as well as seeds of the pure parent-trees, were all sown at the same time and in the same place. The result was that after an interval of eight years the hybrids were one-third taller than the pure trees.” Burbank’s numerous hybrids furnish many instances of excessive increase in vigor, size of fruit, etc., resulting from crossing distinct species. A hybrid between the English walnut (Juglans regia) and the Californian black walnut (J. californica) possesses extraordinary vigor of growth, which may render it of exceptional value as a lumber and ornamental tree. ‘‘The hybrid grows twice as fast as the com- bined growth of both parents. The leaves * * * are from 2 feet to afull yard in length. * * * The wood is very compact, with lustrous, silky grain, taking a beautiful polish, and as the annual layers of growth are an inch or more in thickness and the medullary rays prominent, the effect is unique.” Another of Burbank’s hybrid walnuts, obtained by crossing the black walnut with pollen of the Californian black walnut, produces fruit of excessive size, it being much larger than those of either parent (fig. 12). The raspberry-blackberry hybrid ‘‘ Primus,” produced by crossing the Western dewhberry (Rubus wrsinus) with the Siberian raspberry (R. cratcegifolius) is also an interesting case. In his description of this hybrid berry, Burbank says: ‘‘It is also remarkable that the hybrid should ripen its fruit several weeks before either of its parents, and excel them much in productiveness and size of fruit, though retaining the general appearance and combined flavors of both” (PL 412 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. XVIII, fig. 3). Slightly increased size and vigor frequently result from crossing closely related sorts and species, as we shall see later, but the excessive increase in size in the above-described walnuts and raspberry-blackberry hybrids can hardly be considered otherwise than as a new character. From the preceding statements, it seems certain that even crosses between distinct species may frequently produce offspring of greatly increased vegetative vigor, and that this vigor may often be of the ereatest consequence in the breeding of plants, enabling the hybrid to endure much better than either of the parent species the deteriorating effects of unsuitable soils or climates. A case in point is that of Pri- mula venzot, the hybrid offspring of P. tyrolensis and P. wolfeniana. According to Kerner, both parent species are difficult to rear in gar- dens, even when the greatest care is bestowed upon their cultivation. The hybrid P. venzoi, however, will flourish in extreme luxuriance if planted close to them in the same soil and under the same external conditions. In some cases the increase in vegetative vigor secured by crossing distinct species is at the expense of fertility, but this is by no means true in all. Focke says that ‘‘it was formerly thought that the dimin- ished sexual fruitfulness is compensated by a greater vegetative lux- uriance, a statement the untenableness of which, as Gaertner showed, is most plainly demonstrated by the fact that many of the most fruit- ful crosses (Datura, Mirabilis) are also distinguished by a most gigan- tie growth.” On this subject Fritz Miller also says: ‘‘So far as my experience goes, the hybrids which grow the most luxuriantly are generally the most fruitful.” From results obtained by Millardet, it would seem that in some eases the exceptional vigor due to hybridization of distinct species might be secured without a noticeable change in the species which it is desired to breed true. These are the so-called false hybrids dis- cussed above, resembling one parent exclusively. Thus, Millardet hybridized two strawberries (Fragaria vesca with FI’. elatior) and obtained five very vigorous and fruitful hybrids of the vesca type. Seeds from these hybrids were planted and the plants of the second generation, also of the pure vesca type, were remarkably vigorous The beneficial effect of fertilizing plants with pollen of different individuals of the same species was conclusively proved by Darwin, and is now well understood. That unusual vigor frequently results from crossing plants of closely related sorts or different strains or races of the same species, and that this may be of great use in increasing the vigor and yield of many of our common cultivated plants, has not been so thoroughly realized; indeed the great economie importance of this fact has been largely overlooked. The increased vigor produced by crossing different sorts is well illustrated by Dar- win’s results in crossing tobacco, which is commonly self-fertilized. HYBRIDS IN PLANT BREEDING. 413 He found that simple cross-fertilization with the same strain had but little effeet, but when the flowers of slightly different sorts or strains were crossed the resulting seedlings showed the effect of the cross in an extraordinary degree. ‘‘ This was shown in several ways—by the earlier germination of the crossed seeds, by the more rapid growth of the seedlings while quite young, by the earlier flowering of the mature plants, as well as by the greater height which they ultimately attained. The superiority of the crossed plants was shown still more plainly when the two lots were weighed, the weight of the crossed plants to that of the self-fertilized in the two crowded pots being as 100 to 37. Better evidence could hardly be desired of the immense advantage derived from a cross with a fresh stock.” In eases where there is no particular object in keeping the varieties pure, a marked increase in yield may be obtained by using crossed seed. The valuable practical results which may be secured in this way are indicated by results obtained at the [llinois Experiment Station by Morrow and Gardner in crossing various sorts of corn. Of fifteen cross-bred corns tested, twelve gave a decided increase in yield over that of the parent sorts, ranging from 2 to 86 per cent in individual cases. In three cases a decrease in yield of from 8 to 20 per cent resulted. In the fifteen cases taken together an average increase in yield of about 16 per cent was secured. In some cases the cross-bred corns were grown the second generation without crossing and showed a decidedly larger yield than the parent varieties. ) Cali: fs <2 0 5 os. es Se CS ee ee es eee ee 7.0 0.6 Trace. Pri, Ms a he RRS er PO Ss, LS Ee 19. 4 0.6°| Trace. PPGRIO Cae Se. So sere oo a ee ee ee 9.3 0.7 Trace. op A pereles: Cal oo oo fo SEES cae ee ee Cee 17.2 0.7 0.1 PhO bom. Cas et at uk node eee eae ee ee ee 13.2 0.9 Trace. Pen rormaraimo. Oal = 565 Se 2 ae CO eee a ee ee 16.6 0.9 0.2 MU ROMOFOMEN, NOV i= i. fic ln eee eae eee ee Oe eee ae eee 4.1 1.0 0.3 Webcemrerns Get 252 3 fees PO Be ee ee ee eo eee 10.3 1.0 Trace. Pam neleh Oey... scutes: Se ee tee ee eee 5.6 1.2 0.0 Oiewement Ors. 2S eae en See ek te Se 8. ee ee ee 18.0 1.2 0.2 LLG. CS RS 6 ed Oe ee See me ee Dee EA eyed. = Sain Sail ney 6.3 1.6 0.3 PGI SN er me eee ons Oe a Fe a eS ee 5.0 Le 0.4 reper iG ee GNF a re ee Poke oe ee ees 12.1 LF 0.4 RPO GCr CLE: INE Gy 22 See ee We = oe Ad eae hs Be ee OE 5.9 2.0 0.2 Sp a ML 1 2 ab a pe Re eS eg ee Soe Se 8.5 2.0 0.2 — PRICE DELP OUR NG eee ee ee A ie eee nt ee Oe coats 9.0 2.0 0.3 Pp eee Aes 2S eee Bare en. a ee eee Lit eee Tet 2:8 2.0 pene, We os oo eh Ae a BJ. ce eee 14.0 3.4 0.6 ONS SS Co Reg Re, LES SAE IL ee Ne See Oe OTe oe ae 18.6 3.7 ees 8 SOME INTERESTING SOIL PROBLEMS. Mean annual and seasonal rainfall—Continued. a —— 439 Locality. Annual Septem yg Inches Inches. Inches. SEC, PF OOUNOI COON. Jarl nalatak eve dS a dover ala doen bith wis Suu ews 9.0 4.0 | 2.2 MSEEN UT PAREIDy WE RIEL. dc dein dame d Se edde abd unas ste ade wedcasdtmhe 15.4 4.5 | 0.8 REDS WECM his cahdno Ads bagbh RG dwad~ C 10 (Cockscomb. ) Centered CYANHS.-....-. 1-0 eee C 14 (Cornflower. ) Oonbees SCARDENS <. .- <. 2. oo scenes ncn nnws C 10 Germinates vigorously when fresh. If tested in soil, seeds should be planted on edge. CNL et PERE eee mp es, G 16 Convolvulus tricolor. ......-...=..----; C 14 (Dwarf Morning-Glory.) 1G@=sand or soil in greenhouse flats. 2C=blotters in germinating chamber, unless otherwise stated. Wee oh i we |) ADDITIONAL NOTES ON SEED TESTING. A51 Methods for testing flower seeds—Continued. Kind of seed. on - ee COREE TE TRIO OG a on we cu adwe vonran easasa Datura cornucopia. . ... 2.26.50 ---050-. TRIOS scan cpdacndnnnne sense snc 'itene (Larkspur. ) METOLIUS hx dh Gear howe tie kn tes obi Siawn ante (Pink and Carnation. ) Se ee ere ee (Foxglove. ) SS Re Stee rere | NE RS Oy SE Be Be ee ica Seeeenpe Gomphrena globosa...........-.-...--- (Globe Amaranth. ) DRE 22 Pou. Soda wan on edn nese (Everlasting. ) (Candytuft.) | NERD tt Sein 2 was aa ae (Balsam. ) | poe eh sat | | (Cypress Vine.) | PesiGee DOHG-NOR n 5.8. ose cee anew non (Moonflower. ) | batheras tatifolivie 26. i022... -22-<.55 (Perennial Pea.) | peuae THs OGOTAtUs........5..-2-. 6<~--0< (Sweet Pea.) | Linum grandiflorum. --.-..-- poe ee tee (Ornamental Flax.) | CE eS 2 ees ee / (Lupine. ) | i ee EN ee eee ee) (Ten Weeks Stock.) | LES Teas FS SE i a ee eee) ee ee | Ae Oe ee eee ene eee (Four o’Clock.) Sn) ll ee es a lo a gl ee (Evening Primrose. ) LE Rae ee 2 (Poppy.) Lp a TRI es i | Va) See ne A i a ae ) (Castor-oil plant.) Seed bed. C Q Q AAaARA® Dura- tion of test. Days. 10 23 Remarks. Germinates slowly and irregularly. Should be placed in hot water at 95° C. and allowed to cool to about the temperature of the room. Same treatment as Datura. Seeds should be clipped. | Germinates better if clipped. | Germinates with difficulty. Seeds should be planted very shallow and kept constantly, but slightly, moist. Avoid excessive moisture. Place glass strips between the blotters to admit sufficient air. 452 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Methods for testing flower seeds—Continued. Kind of seed, Boot tion of Remarks. est. Days Ta ae eae as eee ee nae EE Eo Se G 16 (Scabious. ) BenineMeNYE °-- onc cow ebusceoue nonce C 10 WeeG@teh 222) a ccusendanadeee be eub oon Cc 10 (Marigold. ) Thun hergit. .- cae s J, Fic. 2.-Soy BEANS GROWN IN GRASS GARDEN, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. WASHINGTON, D. C. LEGUMINOUS FORAGE CROPS. 495 Alfalfa requires clean ground, and should never be sown on weedy or poorly prepared fields. The seedlings are very susceptible to changes of temperature, and are more tender than those of red clover; so that they are more liable to be crowded out by weeds or a nurse erop. : In Louisiana alfalfa is grown in two-year rotations upon low, allu- vial valley lands, and may there be cut at intervals of from six to eight weeks throughout the season. In the Northern States three crops per annum is perhaps the average. CUTTING AND CURING ALFALFA. Alfalfa should be cut for hay (Pl. XXXI, fig. 1) at the time the first flowers appear. After that period the stems rapidly become woody, the amount of crude fiber increasing and the amount of fat and crude protein decreasing until the seed is fully ripe. The yield is slightly greater at the time of full blossom, but the quality of the hay is not so good as that cut a few days earlier, when fewer flowers have opened. After the period of full blossoming the lower leaves commence to fall, and as there is a much larger percentage of crude protein in the foliage than in any other part of the plant it is desira- ble to retain as many of the leaves as possible in the forage. The average yield of hay is higher than with red clover, amounting to nearly 4 tons per acre. Yields of 6 to 10 tons of dry hay per acre in one year are sometimes reported. On land adapted to its cultiva- tion, alfalfa does not attain its fullest development until after the third year, and if the land is occasionally partially broken up and fertilized with lime and fertilizers containing potash and phosphoric acid it will hold the land, yielding three annual crops, for twenty- five or fifty or even one hundred years. Alfalfa is more difficult to eure into good hay than some of the other leguminous forage plants, because the leaves break off very easily. For this reason the hay is cured in windrows or is made up into small piles 5 or 6 feet high and as narrow as will stand, using the same precautions to prevent heating and molding as are customary with other succulent hay crops. The second crop is the one usually cut for seed. The third crop contains the largest amount of crude pro- tein. Stacks of alfalfa, whether cut for hay or seed, will not turn rain, and a cap, or stack cover, of grass, hay, or canvas should be used. The average yield of seed ranges from 5 to 10 bushels per acre, and, as there is always a good demand for alfalfa seed, it is one of the best money crops of the Western farmer. FEEDING AND FERTILIZING CONTENTS OF ALFALFA. One hundred pounds of freshly eut alfalfa contain at time of flowering 28.2 pounds of dry matter,! and of this the amount digestible ‘Appendix to Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 1896. 496 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. is 3.89 pounds of crude protein, 11.2 pounds of carbohydrates, and 0.41 pound of fat, so that the nutritive ratio is 1 to 3.1. One hundred pounds of alfalfa hay contain the following digestible constituents: 10.58 pounds of crude protein, 37.33 pounds of car- bohydrates, and 1.38 pounds of fat, with a nutritive ratio of 1 to 3.8, At the Massachusetts Experiment Station 1,000 pounds of the dry substance of alfalfa hay was found to contain 81.1 pounds ash, 16.5 pounds crude fat, 760.2 pounds carbohydrates, and 142.2 pounds crude protein. The fertilizing value! of 1,000 pounds of dry matter is 22.75 pounds of nitrogen, 5.61 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 16.53 pounds of pot- ash. In Colorado 1,000 pounds of alfalfa hay were found to contain 22 pounds of nitrogen, 4.14 pounds of phosphoric acid, 25.48 pounds of potash, and 20 pounds of lime, and during one year three crops amounting to 3.8 tons per acre contained 167 pounds of nitrogen, 31 pounds of phosphoric acid, 194 pounds of potash, and 152 pounds of lime. In Kentucky the analyses of freshly cut alfalfa showed 4.22 per cent of crude protein, 0.81 per cent of crude fat, 10.9 per cent of carbohydrates, and 2.14 per cent of ash. Thus, it will be seen that the composition varies somewhat in different portions of the country. These differences in composition may result from such causes as differences in development or variation in the amount of available plant food in the soil. To secure the best results in feeding alfalfa hay, cut when it con- tains the largest amount of crude protein, it should be fed with some such fodder as prairie or timothy hay, ensilage, straw, or corn stover, containing an excess of carbohydrates over crude protein. A narrow ration like green alfalfa is suitable for young pigs and is considered one of the very best crops to be fed to young animals, but for fat- tening mature animals or for the production of milk the ration should be a wider one. Alfalfa hay is much richer than clover hay, con- taining for every 100 pounds 54.5 pounds of digestible substances, of which about 11 pounds are protein. The relation of the crude protein of alfalfa hay to that of red clover is as 11 to 7.' Altogether, alfalfa is one of the best forage crops grown in the United States and is adapted to cultivation in a greater range of latitude than red clover. It has succeeded as far north as central New York, southern Michi- gan and Montana, and as far south as southern California, Louisiana, and Florida—a wider range than that of any other of our forage plants except Indian corn. Its points of superiority over other legumes are that when once well rooted it withstands drought; it may be cut oftener, thus yielding a larger amount of hay or green forage per acre in the course of a year, and the hay is richer in muscle-making crude protein than any of the clovers. Its disadvan- tages are that its tough, woody roots make it difficult to plow under; 1 Appendix to Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 1896. LEGUMINOUS FORAGE CROPS. 497 it requires better drainage than red clover; is more liable to cause bloating of sheep and eattle; is not as well adapted to pasturing, and is more tender while young, so that it is more difficult to get a stand. COW PEAS. Cowpeas have been in cultivation in this country for about one” hundred and fifty years, having been originally introduced into South Carolina, They have spread from that source and from other impor- tations of seed direct from China and India, until now they are in general use throughout the region south of the Ohio River and on the Pacific Coast, and as a soiling crop in the New England and Northern States. There are over one hundred named varieties of cowpeas grown in this country. These are distinguished from one another chiefly by the color and shape of the seed, the arrangement of peas in the pod, and the general habit of growth of the plant. Thus, there are the bush peas, which grow in an upright form, having short lateral branches from a single central stem; there are trailing varieties with prostrate runners 15 or 20 feet long, and there is every possible gradation between these extremes. The peas are of every shade of white, yellow, green, pink, gray, brown, red, and purple to black, of uniform color or variously mottled, spotted, and speckled. There is also variation in the length of the season of the different varieties, from six weeks to aS many months. The usual method of cultivation of cowpeas is to sow them alone broadeast, or in drills, or between the corn rows at the last cultivation, the rate of seeding varying from 8 to 24 quarts per acre. Care must be taken not to plant the seed before the ground has become warm, as, like other beans, the cowpeas do not germinate well if the soil is wet and cold. —This crop is even more susceptible to unfavorable conditions than Indian corn, but in midsummer the vegetation becomes most luxuriant. Cowpeas are the best soil renovators for the Southern States, and will grow on land too poor to support any of the clovers, producing a large amount of herbage which may be plowed underas green manure. Cow- pea vines are, because of their luxuriant growth and long, trailing stems, difficult to make into good hay, but by proper care, curing them in racks or over poles, so that the air may enter into every portion of the pile, an excellent quality of hay is produced, and if the bunch varieties are sown rather late in the season, they may be mowed with- out difficulty. Cowpea hay containing 89.3 per cent total dry matter averages higher (10.79 per cent) in crude protein than clover hay. It is even more difficult to make good cowpea hay than good alfalfa hay, so that the content of crude protein often falls below that figure. One thousand pounds of cowpea hay! contain, according to an average of all available American analyses, 19.5 pounds nitrogen, 5.2 pounds ' Appendix to Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 1896, 1 Ny | eV, Yep. \ } We batoed S AA AY A, NGO ZOU REN ‘ grows best in well-culti- vated lands, making as rank a growth as the sun- flowers along the creek bot- toms in Kansas and Ne- braska. In from three to four months from germination the plant has ripened seed Fic.19.—Florida bebaus weed, grown at the Mississippi and. ey be plowed under Agricultural Experiment Station—plants 7 to 8 feet adding ral large amount of high. organic matter to the soil and at the same time reseeding the field. Where beggar weed is not spontaneous the seed should be sown broadcast at the rate of 12 to 18 pounds per acre, and covered lightly. A thick seeding is bet- ter for hay than a thin one, as in the latter case the stems become coarse, woody, and indigestible. According to analyses of beggar weed made at the Florida Experi- ment Station,! 100 pounds of hay consisting of the upper portion of the plant, mainly leaves and branches, contained, before maturity, a iS Can ae Ay} Lisa: ‘Florida Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 11, 1890. LEGUMINOUS FORAGE CROPS. 503 19.42 pounds of crude protein and 65 pounds of carbohydrates; and when seed was ripening, 15.75 pounds of crude protein and 69.15 pounds of carbohydrates. Analyses at the Department of Agricul- ture gave as high as 21 per cent of crude protein before flowering. Digestion experiments have not been made, but as the hay is readily eaten by horses, mules, and cattle, and seems to be relished by them, it is undoubtedly as digestible as red clover. This plant, like other leguines, takes a part of its supply of nitrogen from the air, and does not depend wholly on the nitrates in the soil. It produces a greater bulk of feed than the cowpea, and grows without much care on culti- vated lands, but rapidly degenerates into an insignificant weed if the field is no longer cropped. Beggar weed thus becomes one of the most valuable forage plants of subtropical regions on rich lands, excelling cowpeas both as a hay plant and soilrenovator. Yields of from 4 to 6 tons of hay per acre are not unusual. THE FIELD PEA. There are many varieties of the field pea (fig. 20) in cultivation, showing conclusively that it is one of the oldest forage plants, and yet it has not been brought to the atten- tion of American farmers so largely as itdeserves. In Canada the acre- age is about the same as that of winter wheat. Much of the success of the Canadian farmers in fatten- ing beef and pork for export is said to be due to their extensive use of pea and oat hay and pea meal. F1q.20.—The Russian blue field pea, grown The field pea is adapted to cultiva- tom Canadian seed at Washington, D.C. # A ‘ ev 1897: a, flowering branch; b, pod. tion in the northern tier of States, from New England to Washington. It is sown in early spring at the proper time for seeding grain, using from 1 to 14 bushels of peas and an equal quantity of either oats, wheat, or barley. The crop is ready to cut for hay when the dominant variety in the mixture is nearly’ripe. If there are more peas than grain, then the yellowing of the pea vines and pods marks the proper time for cutting, or if the oats exceed the peas the mixture should be cut when the grains are in the dough stage. For a seed crop, the peas are often grown alone. The field pea is not suitable for cultivation in the Middle or South- ern States, because of the ravages of a vine mildew which affects the AOA YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. yield of forage and seed. It requires a long, cool season, with gradu- ally increasing heat toward the time of maturity, According to average analyses, 100 pounds of Minnesota-grown pea hay' contained 12.4 pounds of crude protein and 66,2 pounds of fat and carbohydrates. Of this, 7.6 pounds of protein and 41.5 pounds of the carbohydrates were digestible, giving a nutritive ratio of 1 to 5.7. One hundred pounds of the seeds contained 99.2 pounds of dry matter, of which 80.2 pounds were digestible, having a nutritive ratio of about 1 to 3. The average of all American analyses* shows a nutritive ratio for the seed of 1 to 2.8 and for pea meal of 1 to 3.2. This shows the peas to be a richer food than wheat bran, but less con- centrated than the gluten, linseed, cotton-seed, and soy-bean meals. The field pea is an excellent soiling crop for late spring and early summer use, furnishing a large amount of succulent forage, which is relished by cattle. It deserves wider cultivation by Northern farmers. CROPS OF LESS IMPORTANCE. In addition to these widely grown and well-known leguminous for- age crops, there are several which have only local importance for particular soils or special purposes. There are also many native spe- cies belonging to this group of nitrogen gatherers that have not passed the experimental stage of cultivation, but which might be recom- mended for trial by those who wish to have a more diversified list of forage plants on which to draw. Of the former class, perhaps the most important are alsike, or Swed- ish clover, for wet meadows in the northern tier of States; the broad bean, or horse bean, in New England; the white, blue, and yellow lupines for reclaiming the sand dunes along ocean coasts; the velvet bean forthe Florida orange groves; serradellain Pennsylvania; Japan clover in the South; the spring and winter vetches, which serve a like purpose with crimson clover and are adapted to a wider range of eli- mate; sainfoin and sulla taking the place of alfalfa in the South; goat’s rue in the central Roeky Mountain region; the white-flowered variety of crimson clover in Virginia; white clover in every pasture, and melilotus, or sweet clover, for the reclamation of sterile lands. Each of these sorts has had its especial merit, but some have undesir- able qualities. Thus, the seeds of horse bean and the lupines contain alkaloid poisons highly injurious to stock. The melilotus is offen- sive to cattle, and in rich ground becomes a weed; and fresh alsike clover forage is bitter and gives a rank taste to milk. Others of less value might be cited, such as the flat pea, which is one of the most widely advertised, although with very little to reeom- mend it. 'Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 36. 2 Appendix to Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 1896. LEGUMINOUS FORAGE CROPS. 5O45 SOME NATIVE FORAGE PLANTS. The eastern half of the United States is well supplied with legumi- nous forage crops. There are fully two dozen kinds of known value to choose from. ‘The soils and the climatie conditions are similar to those of Europe, whence have come most of our cultivated crops, as well as our farming methods. But the West has soils and a climate of its own, necessitating longer trials before any variety of forage plant can be pronounced a success. It is not possible to transplant bodily to this region a Kuropean system of agriculture. Thus far the Kast has not undertaken the cultivation of a single wild legume of all the species which form its rich native flora. The needs of the West are greater, and, as might have been expected, a number of wild sorts have been tried, though none are as yet cultivated on a large seale. THE DAKOTA VETCH. The Dakota vetch (Lotus americanus) is botanically related to the birds’-foot trefoil and the square-pod pea which are useful European species. It grows throughout the northern prairie region from Kansas to Montana, and is abundant on the Pacifie Coast. Ranchmen in the Upper Missouri Valley consider the Dakota vetch one of the best for- age plants onthe range. Where it is abundant, cattle are sure to get fat. It has been cultivated to some extent on plowed lands. It is quite a common practice to save the chaff that collects in the hay-baling machines and in the wagon beds when hauling hay to the balers. This chaff, containing often considerable quantities of seed, is seat- tered over the bottom lands in the valleys to further increase the amount of veteh in the hay. Analyses of South Dakota grown hay, consisting entirely of this vetch, gave 17.6 pounds of erude protein in each hundredweight of hay.’ The per cent digestible has not been determined, but it is undoubtedly high, as cattle become ‘‘ seal fat” where Dakota vetch is abundant. The Dakota vetch seeds freely in good seasons. In times of drought or shortage, stock eat it down closely and prevent its ripen- ing seed. Hence, the stand on the open range varies greatly, depend- ing on the abundance or scarcity of other feed. This vetch often grows 2 to 3 feet high in good soils and seasons, or may not be more than a few inches high during dry seasons or on sterile soils, but it roots deeply and is well adapted to its native prairies. The seed may be had for the gathering, and need not cost any more than clover or alfalfa, if the trouble is taken torun the chaff through a fanning mill. THE GROUND PLUM, The ground plum (Astragalus crassicarpus) is a prairie legume found throughout the Mississippi Valley. It has straggling fleshy stems, narrow leaflets and racemes of purple flowers, and produces ' South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 40. 5OG YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, every year an enormous number of succulent pods, whence the plant received its name, Sheep and cattle eat both the pods and leaves, In Texas, where the razor-back hog runs at large on the ranges, the ground plum is rapidly becoming extinct, and is only found in fields and pastures protected by hog-proof fencing. The pods, or ‘‘ plums,” are sometimes used as a vegetable. The ground plum appears very early in spring, long before the clovers are ready to use, at a period when rich, succulent food is needed for cows and young stock. If it proves to be adaptable to eulti- vation, it will be a valuable addition to early spring soiling crops. The pods of the ground plum attain their full size from the last of April in southern Texas to the first of Junein North Dakota. They are then succulent and juicy. Later, asthe seeds ripen, the pods dry out and by midsummer have become hard, tough, and inedible. THE METCALFE BEAN, One of the most valuable groups of American Leguminosee is that of the wild beans, which are botanically closely allied to the common garden beans. ‘There is one species common to the Eastern United States, from Maine to Louisiana, occurring in copses and thickets, and valued in woodland pastures. In the Southwest there is a great variety of wild beans. They are scat- tered through every mountain canyon, on wooded slopes, and through the little parks along the streams. Formerly they were much more abun- dant, but are now relegated to cliffs and canyon walls, inaccessible to sheep and cattle, or to dry valleys, far from living water. In the mountains between the Rio Grande and the Gila the wild beans formerly supplied a great amount of feed for deer and cattle. Wherever there were wild beans cattle became fat. One of the best of these wild sorts is the Met- ealfe bean (Phaseolus retusus). This bean and all of its near relatives are perennials. They develop enormous fleshy roots that are often 4 to 6 inches in diameter and weigh 30 pounds or more. The top of this fleshy root (fig. 21) is usually 6 or 8 inches below the surface, so that the ground may be plowed or given a shallow cultivation without destroying the beans. The vines (fig. 22) grow out in every direction from the crown much like sweet potato — rs ————— = a SS ? ==> Figc.21.—The fleshy root of the Metcalfe bean. LEGUMINOUS FORAGE CROPS. 5OT7 vines, varying from 6 to 10 or even 20 feet in length at the end of the first season. The racemes of scattered pink flowers (fig. 23) appear from July to September, and the pods and seeds (fig. 24) ripen freely in cultivation. FiaG. 22.—Leaves of the Metcalfe bean. All perennials which grow in semiarid and desert regions have some especial adaptation for preventing the loss of water. These may -inelude modifications of the protective surfaces of leaves and stems, such as thickening of the epidermis, the development of a dense coy- ering of hair, or it may consist, as in this case, of an enlargement of the stems or roots, thus providing reser- voirs in which water and plant food may be stored up during the season of growth for use during periods of drought or scarcity of water and food, Because of this special modification, the wild beans ought to be of greatim- portance and value in Southwestern agriculture. As drought- resistant crops, they should be much superior to any forage plant which has not this fleshy perennial root. The Metealfe bean is one of the most promising of our native forage plants. The amount of forage which it produces is naturally large, but it also shows a tendency to improve in quality and quantity with cultivation. demand for drought-resistant forage Fic. 23.—Flower cluster of the Metcalfe bean. There is constant and growing crops in the West and South- west, and the cultivation of those leguminous forage plants that show an adaptation to natural conditions is an exceedingly promising line of work. HOS YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TEXAS PEA. The Texas pea (Astragalus nuttallianus) is a perennial. It is like the ground plum in habit and general appearance, but with narrow curved, bladdery seed pods on an upright stem. It is abundant in central and northern Texas, preferring the drier ridges and stony hills, while the ground plum grows best in moister valley lands. It is mueh relished by cattle and is disappearing wherever the ranges have been overstocked. It grows well on cultivated land, increasing in height and amount of seed produced, thus indicating adaptability to improved conditions. The seeds ripen about the first of May, after which the leaves and stems die down and, becoming brittle, are broken to pieces and blown away. On the ranges the Texas pea supplies a large amount of highly nitrogenous forage in early spring, when such feed is most needed in the Southwest. With plenty of rain there is always plenty of grass for summer and au- tumn grazing. Forage plants that will supply feed before the grass starts are of the greatest possible value to stockmen. ‘The wild peas and vetches ought to be protected from exter- mination, and more extensively grown. THE STOLLEY VETCH. Another early pasture plant from central Texas is the Stolley vetech, which grows wild on the granite soils and red prairies. This vetch has the same habit and much the appear- ance of the hairy vetech. It branches from the base, the weak, trailing vines being 2 to 33 == feet long. As many as 50 or 60 stems and ex gaa: ngnalarion Met- branches have been observed from a single root. This vetech has a somewhat local distri- bution, occurring in central and western Texas. It grows in the ereek bottoms and among the underbrush along streams, and where pro- tected from destruction by cattle, spreads to the open prairies. The seed lies dormant in the soil through the summer. With the coming of the fall rains it germinates, grows slowly during the winter, and blossoms about April 10. By the first of May it covers the ground with a dense mat of tangled herbage. The seeds ripen uniformly about the first week in May, after which the vetch straw dries and breaks up after the fashion of other annual plants. Cattle are very fond of this vetch, and devour all that is not protected by fences, so that it is now practically extinct except in favored localities. This vetch is one of the most promising of the many native sorts. Itis reported as abundant in central Texas, and is there highly esteemed by stockmen. The Stolley vetch bids fair to be one of the very best early spring forage plants, and deserves further and more extended trials. UTILIZATION OF BY-PRODUCTS OF THE DAIRY. . By Henry E, ALvorp, C. E. Chief of the Dairy Division, Bureau of Animal Industry. INTRODUCTION, In making butter or cheese, a raw material (milk) is transformed into a commercial product. The process nay therefore be regarded as manufacturing, even if done on a farm where the milk is produced. When milk or cream from a number of farms is brought together at one place to be made into butter or cheese, under either the cooper- ative or the proprietary system, the establishment is considered a factory, and the industry is properly classed among manufactures. This classification has been adopted by the United States Census, where the butter and cheese made on farms appear as farm products in one volume and the same articles made at creameries and cheese factories are included among the products of manufactures in another volume. Regarding all butter and cheese making as a species of manufac- ture, the same principles should apply as to other manufactures. The eost of the work is of great importance, and should be carefully studied with a view to exercising every possible economy. ‘The sell- ing price of the finished product depends upon the market conditions rather than upon cost of production. Any saving which can be made in producing the raw material, or converting it into merchandise, ought primarily to benefit the milk producer, especially if the manu- facturing is done under one of the advantageous forms of cooperative dairying. Experience shows that in most lines of manufacture there are waste products, and upon the careful management of these often depends the difference between profit and loss in the business. The manu- facture of butter and cheese may be included in this statement. All cow owners, therefore, who make milk into butter or cheese, as well as owners and managers of creameries and factories, are concerned in studying economy of production, and should be interested in the important subject of the proper utilization of the waste products of the dairy. QUANTITY OF PRINCIPAL BY-PRODUCTS. Butter and cheese making result in three well-known residues, which constitute the waste, or by-products, of dairying, namely, skim milk, buttermilk, and whey. For every pound of butter made there are 15 to-20 pounds of skim milk and about 3 pounds of buttermilk, and for every pound of cheese nearly 9 pounds of whey. The 909 510 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, aggregate of these by-products is therefore enormous, The butter and cheese annually produced in the United States leave as residues at least 24,000,000,000 pounds of skim milk, 4,000,000,000 pounds of buttermilk, and 2,500,000,000 pounds of whey. ‘This is about equal to 75,000,000 barrels of skim milk and buttermilk combined and 7,000,000 barrels of whey. It is easier to deal with these quantities by the barrel than by the pound, although the latter would be more accurate. Some people are able to make skim milk and buttermilk worth $1 a barrel, or more, while others find difficulty in getting from ita value of 30 cents. This difference amounts to over $50,000,000, or an average of $4 for every butter and cheese making cow per year. The item is one of consequence, and the way in which these materials can be made to yield the most value is well worthy of careful consid- eration. SKIM MILK. Skimmed milk, or skim milk, should be first considered. It is by far the greatest in quantity. of the by-products of dairying, the most valuable and the most susceptible of varied and profitable uses. Skim milk is that portion of milk, or ‘‘whole milk,” which remains after removal or separation of the cream. The process of removal is gen- erally known. as skimming, although changes in method have been such as to largely substitute the term ‘‘separating.” The object of skimming or separating is to get all the fat out of the milk. The more completely this is done, the better the skimming. ‘Theoretically, skim milk contains no butter fat. Practically, however, it is impos- sible, by any method in vogue, to remove all of the fat, and therefore skim milk always contains more or less. The quantity depends upon the method of skimming and the skill with which it is done. METHODS OF SEPARATING THE CREAM. There are two distinct methods of getting cream from milk, with modifications of both. The older plan is to let the milk rest undis- turbed, or ‘‘set;” the fatty portion, which is lighter, naturally sepa- rates from the watery and heavier part of the fluid, ‘‘rises” and forms cream at the surface; this is known as the gravity method. The modern way is to employ mechanical devices which exert centrifugal force and throw the heavier parts of the milk outward from the center of revolution, thus separating the cream; this isthe centrifugal method, commonly called the separator plan. The success of the gravity method depends upon the conditions of time and temperature. The milk may be set in vessels shallow or deep. The higher the temperature to which the milk is subjected, the shallower should be the vessels or the body of milk and the longer the time required forcreaming. Deep vessels and low temperature, usually secured by setting in cold water, hasten creaming and effect more complete separation of the fat. Mechanical creaming is the most effective, and can be done in the UTILIZATION OF BY-PRODUCTS OF THE DAIRY. 511 least time; its completeness depends upon the efficiency of the machine and the skill of its operator, PERCENTAGE OF FAT IN SKIM MILK. There is consequently material variation in the portion, or percent- age, of butter fat which skim milk contains, and this is about the only difference of consequence which is found in different lots of skim milk. Centrifugal separators are operated in ordinary practice so as to leave less than 0.1 of 1 per cent of fat in the skim milk; sometimes as little as 0.01 of 1 per cent. A number of trials with machines of eight different styles in this country gave an average result of 0.13 of 1 per cent of fat. A similar set of 171 trials in Germany, with sep- arators of nine different patterns, gave an average of 0.243 of L per cent. ‘‘At the present time it is considered that where more than 0.1 of 1 per cent of fat is left in skimmed milk a centrifugal machine is not doing perfect work” (Wing). As the separator system is very rapidly extending, V.1 of 1 per cent of fat may be adopted as the standard maximum fat content of skim milk. Skim milk from separators is the best skimmed; it is superfluous to eall it ‘‘separator skim milk,” because it is simply skim milk in the best sense, that is, the most completely skimmed. The deep-setting gravity method of creaming, when well managed, leaves from 0.2 to 0.4 of 1 per cent of fat in the skim milk; careless treatment may increase this to 1 per cent, but no such loss is consistent with good dairying, and half of 1 per cent should be the maximum allowed. The old-style shallow- set method of creaming usually results in a comparatively high per- centage of fat’ in the skim milk. This method may be so skillfully managed as to leave not more than 0.3 of 1 per cent of fat, but 0.5 of 1 per cent and more is not uncommon. No dairyman ean afford to lose as much as half of 1 per cent in his skim milk, and it is absurd to call any article by this name which contains 1 per cent of fat or more. Such milk is not skimmed, or is but partly skimmed. It certainly is not ‘‘skim milk.” COMPOSITION OF SKIM MILK. A fair standard for the composition of skim milk is 90.5 per cent of water and 9.5 per cent of solids, including the fat. The State of Mas- sachusetts prescribes a legal standard of 9.3 per cent total solids for skim milk. The solids other than fat are casein and albumen, rang- ing from 3 to 3.5 per cent; milk sugar, from 4.7 to 5 per cent, and ash, from 0.7 to 0.8 per cent. The solids of skim milk sometimes rise to 10 per cent, but it should always be remembered, in using this article, that in 100 pounds only 9 to 10 pounds can be relied upon as being food material; the rest is water. THE BEST USE OF SKIM MILK. The best use to which skim milk can be applied is as human food, in its natural, uncooked state. The value of the article as a desirable Al? YEARBOOK OF ‘THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and useful portion of an everyday diet for most people is not at all appreciated. ‘his use of skim milk ought to be very largely increased. In the course of dietary studies made at the Maine State College during the year 1595 special attention was given to milk, for the rea- sons stated in the following from the report of Director W. H. Jordan: (1) Milk has a widespread use as an article of diet, and in all civilized coun- tries is an important item of food supply. (2) Milk is a very valuable food. It contains a mixture of the three classes of nutrients in forms that are readily digested and assimilated. (3) Milk is a low-cost animal food in proportion to its value as based upon chemical analysis. It isshown * * * that when milk is purchased at $2 per hundred pounds the cost of a pound of edible solids is 15.7 cents, while the cost of a pound of edible solids in beef at $10.50 per hundred pounds is 34.3 cents. This is a comparison of the retail cost of milk (fresh and not skimmed) with the cost of hind-quarter beef when purchased by the carcass. Beef bought as steak at retajl prices would have a much higher comparative cost. (4) Notwithstanding the high quality and general distribution of milk as a food, it seems by many to be regarded as a luxury in the purchase of which economy must be exercised. This attitude toward this particular food may in part be explained by the somewhat prevalent notion that a free supply of milk in the dietary is not economical, because it is supposed that as much of other foods is eaten as would be the case if the milk were not taken. This belief runs contrary to certain generally accepted facts which relate to the physiological use of foods, and it only remains for experimental data to prove or disprove its correctness. Again, milk is not given full credit by people at large for its true nutritive value. Surprise is generally occasioned by the statement that a quart of milk has approxi- mately the food value of a pound of steak. It is important to demonstrate, for reasons of economy, whether, as is the custom with many, it is wise to purchase the least possible quantity of milk and exercise little care in buying meats. Trials were accordingly made by which a large number of young men, students at college, were furnished milk as a part of their daily diet, the quantity being varied during successive trial periods. The milk was much relished by a large majority of the students, and at the time the quantity was greatest there was no indication of any effects injurious tohealth. Whenafter a fixed, although liberal, allow- ance in one period, milk was supplied to be used ad libitum in the next, the quantity thus voluntarily consumed increased 55 per cent, the increase amounting to about 1 pound of milk per day to each person. It was conclusively shown that such free use of milk diminished the consumption of other foods. In the springtime the additional milk replaced other animal foods, while in the fall it replaced vegetable foods, this by a process of selection entirely natural and almost invol- untary. The daily cost of food per man was 8 cents less during the period when milk was furnished in unlimited quantity than when the supply was limited. Following are the main results of these trials, as summarized in the report mentioned: (1) The cost of the animal foods bought for the commons of the Maine State College during two hundred and nine days was 69 per cent of the total food cost, varying in the different periods from 63.7 to 73.1 per cent. This shows very clearly UTILIZATION OF BY-PRODUCTS OF THE DAIRY. 513 the direction in which economy can most effectively be exercised in purchasing a food supply. (2) The freer use of milk did not, as is supposed by some to be the case, increase the gross weight of food eaten. The extra amount of food consumed replaced other animal foods to a nearly corresponding extent in the first trial and caused a proportionate diminution in the consumption of vegetable foods in the second study. * * % * % *% *% (4) In both trials the increased consumption of milk had the effect of materi- ally narrowing the nutritive ratio of the dietary, a result which, in view of the recognized tendency of Americans to consume an undue proportion of fats and carbohydrates, appears to be generally desirable. (5) The dietaries in which milk was more abundantly supplied were somewhat less costly than the others and at the same time were fully as acceptable. (6) These results indicate that milk should not be regarded as a luxury, but as an economical article of diet which families of moderate income may freely pur- chase as a probable means of improving the character of the dietary and of cheap- ening the cost of their supply of animal foods. In the Maine experiments referred to above, fresh whole milk was used, having a fat content of 3.6 per cent. It can not be doubted, however, that the same general results would have been obtained had skim milk been used instead. ‘To some this would have been less acceptable, but while the total quantity consumed might have been less, the daily cost would also have been still further decreased, and the ‘‘balance” of the daily ration would have been still more im- proved. The use of skim milk instead of whole milk as food, in its natural state, is simply a matter of taste and habit. It must not be forgotten that a quart of skim milk contains more protein than a quart of whole milk, and the former is better and cheaper than the latter as a substitute for meats and other animal foods. A report upon dietary studies made at the University of Tennessee in 1897, contains the following: What is needed is to use foods better adapted to the needs of the body; in other words, food which contains more protein. Suchare * * * and milk, which is of itself an economical and well-balanced food, and skim milk, which has all the protein and half the fuel value of whole milk, and is, in most localities, the most economical source of animal protein. * * * The nutrients in milk are equal in physiological value to those of meats, and are far less expensive. SUGGESTIONS AS TO TRADE IN SKIM MILK. An eminent contributor to the Journal of the British Dairy Farmers’ Association lately wrote: ‘‘The question of how to dispose of more separated (skimmed) milk to the public without reducing the price of pure (whole) milk, is, to my mind, the most important dairy problem of the day.” Earnest effort should be made to accomplish this object. Health and police officials having in charge the regulations for milk supply of cities and large towns should study the problem as one in which producers and consumers are alike interested. The advantages to be gained by an increased use of skim milk will repay the trouble 1 Aa97——33 514 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. incident to devising local methods for preventing fraud in connection with the sale of this article. One way which has proved efficient in some places, is to allow skim milk to be sold only from vehicles, stores, and cans in which no other milk or cream is kept, carried, or offered for sale, all to be plainly marked ‘‘skim milk,” with, perhaps, the maximum price at which it may be sold. Such restrictions, however, seem to be unnecessary. In the factory towns of New England, skim milk from near-by creameries is sold in large quantities among the families of mill operatives at 4 cents and 3 cents a quart, and some- times for 2 cents, to the great satisfaction of all concerned. The most common retail price for skim milk is half the price of whole milk at the same place. It furnishes a supply of cheap and wholesome food to those needing it, and has been found to interfere little, if at all, with the regular trade in whole milk. Skim milk is so bulky, compared with its value, less than one-tenth part being useful as food, that transporting it for any distance is very expensive. This diffi- culty has been partly overcome, in a few instances, by evaporating a portion of the water or partly condensing the milk. ) e F wi a Pig i-a E Fi 28 sl SERB e/a/8/8/8| 2) 8 (8 [58 HRM /A4I/SA/AIS IR [alana a lAaAlAa la fa MAINE. In. | In. In. | In.| In.| In. | In. | In. eS 20) 4.2) 4.7 3. 8} 4.9! 3.2) 24.6! 37.6) 14.7 49 oo) De 40] 3.3) 3.6 4.2] 4.3) 3.4) 22.3) 34.8) 14.9 48 en 23] 3.0) 3.7 3.9} 3.6) 8.2) 20.8) 80.6) 11.2 46 0 ae 53] 3.4] 3.8 3. 2] 3.6) 3.2 20.4) 31.4) 12.3 47 | SS See 24| 2.8) 3.4 3.3) 3.6} 3.4) 19.9) 29.2) 13.4 45 Po 25) 3.0) 3. 3. 6| 3.8) 3.1) 20.5) 25.4) 15.2 48 NEW HAMPSHIRE A eae 42) 2.8) 3.3 3.7) 3.9) 3.4) 20.2) 27.6) 12.7 50 pe ee ee reas 48) 2.3) 3. 3.4, 3.7) 3.0) 19.1) 28.9) 12.8 53 Lakeport” _ és ico cc. 252 23) 2.7) 3. 4.0) 3.8) 3.6) 20.9) 26.9) 16.3 49 BSTRSRON 6. 54 ode cde anne 24 2.4) 3.4 4.0 4.0) 3.5) 20.7) 31.0) 14.1 53 VERMONT. pony. Pe ae 1.9 3.1) 3.2) 4.0) 3.6) 3.5) 19.3) 34.4) 11.8 59 Lunenburg -..-..........- 44) 2.6) 3.6) 3.5) 3.9) 3.8) 3.4) 20.8) 40.8) 12.5 53 PRUE Ws apd cee 5c. 24) 2.5) 3.3, 3.5, 4.1) 3.7) 3.4; 20.5) 29.4) 14. 52 1 Formerly Lake Village. THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, YEARBOOK OF Monthly and seasonal averages of rainfall, 608 April to September—Continued, pei . > ‘Treyures pena BIISSARts G SSSSS2 825823385 B2ASB6R BBIABRR BEESSBB5 Bsns -uB JO e3vjUe010g | :: 5 B Sekasee5 8225888 SESzFSS Beene E52 Iresupest Sazeeszee 8 SESSERR BESZzzRE BLESS BEeeree BEBBE BEGBe TINUE JO IBEX | SSS SS Stee al (oon Renken hone! oa hoohen hon henhonhen hon! ahaa hank on hen hoe han! oaln hoon hoe ha ha Loa hom ham kom han hon hein! ion oe on <<... * ee ol , =) DONG O19 DoD MOSWMAOWS CO CVER CD UO | SSdsssssaes 6 6llUSSRSRS OO SASSASd 6 OeesddaS | SMS Adddasdg > sages ae cas cc Sa ‘ 5 Ca) DOHASNE WD HAOARNAS Midwest anda DReHOHARHK= WHOM URTV | SSasSRSSRRE Fe BRIRR5 SSBSIBRR BBIGESB GRRBSSS BRRBLSIS BARS ed BP ee thre rT) 1D OVO HAD Nae 19D HMODARNANe CORNY Si HO HO ID IN Oi O Cena TS3OL SRUURRRRAR R RRARRARR ISNSRARGA ARRAAAR RRARRAR RRARRARH RRKAN . pH RN OD HOD XR NOHORDOS ID HAAS ROHDDSS MmOSOSHD DD D Did t= HOS De DRe toqutezdeg Sed 05 od od od od cd 0d ra] CS odes ed ots C9 65 6 05 25 05 CR OD OD Hi HO 03 HH ti C5 Ok Hod Od CLES CB 65 O05 HOS Od H CO Wid od od : ma Lp OD HOD SH SSID GNIS R SSrOSS SRNHAMEAOS MOASAND £ABOWMOHHD DORMrROCO BMNSS , ysnony Sot st ti tH id HH Hi ~ aH i tH Had HOD HOR Hi tied od Had Hag sad =H Hi 09.609 05 05 05 i ~H Hod od i ot HH Sots SB ; WSR HOB H or) TAs SOD Od Ot NARDOSSSW ID ADH HE CD SBOHANSS 1D bs HH AI MOORS 8 Ajne IG HOD 69 05 05 05 HS Od on) HH ti Hod HH HOS HOR Hi cs od C915 HH Hi i 1G HOLS HH i aH Hi 05 05 Hd 05 013 Hidcain 2 7 RANSOM ro) SANDS TD Die SQDGGSS Minoan won °£,xeODGHOTER °z£z»-nHHNS eune Ky 0 6d od C5 5 oS cd CB OD ra) C9 od cD 5 CR OS HOD HER Edo 09 09 CS 6S C9 19 65 015 09 Hd 66 od HOS 05 CD HOS 65 HH eH OS OS od Hod cd +H 4 i {SR SHE ORNGMS es) BSAHOORNR SHSRS HH SA HOARND SHHSOSIO OHS HHOS SCRNRHSOm OO AVL 0S OS Hod od 05 Hd ti os C5 05 05 615 C9 HH C9 69 65 C8 Hi HOS 0d CO HH Hod od od Hod 65 HH OD CO HOS oS HH Hod oH tied sod 4 ; sHHARDSONSE = Snes Did SAH sHigR CMRI ~CUAUIAO OOH CUA OR) CUM Ss THdy | KG 09 05 05 Ok Od 5 od oS 05 a) 09 69 1 65 5 0 COLE ORES od OV OR C9 65 09 C9 O15 O19 09 CD GL O86 69 6 09 OD 05 CES C9 cS C5 OS C9 HOR OD O85 “4 be | SENSSRZIRG 3 RSRBRS SRGRSRRS RARBSRA Cae A at Aes SRASRARR x 3 save Jo 1equInyN ; IBN teens et Seresce Se OQ HO OD OD 19 C1) CO ei te p EA 2 =SS25= SALES ro uopesoy | Ser aass@@S =F BaUSRE RRSREESE | ABERIHS iSZIH Re HSSS55%5 "abe 3 ‘ ics a it ot 3 a at | ~838S58885 a SBSBES RBBB BALS ARisaNaoS SAS483R SSFRARBB aaa S 8 i came ofREESLRER ~ ERRRES RRSSLEEF BEexccek EXSELEL ERERELEES ESEED O -opngyswy ~HRGSSRSSR 3 SARBSR SBURGRSA NARS SR RSSSARS BrBRBRa RBA _ 0 SSSSS5S53 = SS5559 SSSISRRS BSSSSS8 SASBSS8 8833238888 BRD = eB tie a ee a ' Ua ae er a rie ee Fane ee ea et ae Ce ear eat a ee a fons ¢ eaten OG ih) teri res nay tr ere ee Pe wos eee ‘ win Sok tn ane. bane ae le Lt er ee er re ea F 6h Keele Sythe wo ah eS Oe 9 pear oe o8: (Og, Oars AGE? pcasenrs Oc eet ht 4: hoe Sted dic fe Ae eee ff TS oak Be! ar a — t e er e ae ee enk R A e R catee i | Rese ee eer eee at eee eee ee oe eee ee ee Ree eR ee a - Re ee ee ae oe ee ee a a ee ee Cee cee a 2 ee ee ae a eae ged er pea oe Ss A ee ee ee ee eee Pee ey eae eM Ree ee | Se eee Oe mM 'mS ' ¢ tf Pt ~ i=! ’ pagel es Fe i rt ER ee ae 3 S ii Jiscis a 9B 'SSESE | LiBEUE ii ® Ri iaei & Si ime f 64 Saat ida & w io = a eh] 'S i] 7, SESS = 160084: ‘ Op: N 10 & ag a POSE 'im'o = Pe = | . 4 Bish ace 9 8 zk ESBS By eesgs! E eckubSy 2 Pr IBBES & Peg dees BP By soe 2 oeao oo Q2 Z ho, ao: © 366 Aah! 30 Q Ok =! a 4 PepostMwso fF DU SO Oona g 4 PO Sy 3 4 2Q2kO =e hb BP aa ges | n g682 3 $9%o0,g009 g ¢ 0 BUM aaeoer aos aeos as A 8G hres Hz ‘aA dacs GOA Bed A Seaegeetas ” 5 REBStS SHSsbaca aSqeeoeg § oSceP es fd Geqkases ALESD. 5232505322 GO Om =o 3005054 BLeo008R rPiodeg @ ga2h0 0 ‘« Ss o BO ° PHS fon asa RPHOSRo Hy 5 ° ° “aneaznee A maesae n > Sear A, Ff Re AB se (a) as Oe aera en el a ee <{ t SR oskuee Be. by 8 Psi o Bo tipge:: F we B (a ae ‘Bigg ti & BPSUEPSSERPSR GPE Rien)? sos) 3 — | ' Bee a ~ %, ' ; 4 8 a pa | ' a oe | Pipe bs oe SEPP (on) ee: ee A 19 6 Rh CO BS eSBb ig 2 8s % iBEnos -Z BS 1B Be | Tt tinge | eee FA Fig i Begek: ins ag S590 '5 a me 8 oe Aas am ale oe og: # S499 ag (hao 4 iba |B S Aid 1 ORS fosagse, “ 52 “ goers aaegvace Bassssseiucs seasSsscbacas as Oppneaeso ; e) “ 3) ae at bt 5 fe) 2 HSgcpase 8 85583 Susteces sagacdgessee HALE Ree ST esos ces SOSARaee WZ, 456MSZ0 Bes aaw 44505s sonar 4495000anaSs4eea0 8 paeiaeas an pune 2 Clarksville. 1 Combined with Springdale. SEASON. 611 RAINFALL OF THE CROP Monthly and seasonal averages of rainfall, April to September—Continued. ‘TTeyUrer TenT S882 8S RAB85BB RXSE S8FSRs SRES SESREE BEBE RKSZRELRB -ue jo wooed ‘TTesyUypet UINUITUIUE JO IBdX | BD Soe oe oe oe | SAA te Ae oe oe oe Ae Be oe | Cot= 09 Ni- CO adss {7 SUSRAK SSSR wBSRAAK S55 RAN Ban HRAURRES pif BR Sraages “EaWt Sqeaee G7e0 Gubag Shae Bae weees TROL | EHHAN g SHO oSS GS SSSR Sinase SSxe3 ood es ss Haz SHAtHHSHS 3 p In 31 2 6 31 1 CORNRAINNANR GR OD OD HOD OD Hd + NOOO eo ASDANe SN COMmNO INI SSION OD te © =H Ge be l= A 09 Saas NANl*S be iv be oH | ‘oune Edscss oes OS OS CO i di sid soda tid i diodes es akesos edes esos +i itiedis 06 iadis sodas 2 —————— . 3. $s 42 14/104 25] 7,159) 21) 1.3) 2.6] 1.4] 1.5) 1.2 72 Fort Bridger . ....5. s<< 41 28/110 30) 6,753) 17) 0.9} 1.0) 0.5) 0.5) 0.9 46 IDAHO. Boden Clty: < iuccits stare 43 37/116 00] 2,768) 27] 1.3) 1.6) 0.8] 0.2] 0.2 32 Fort Lapwai......<.-<.: 46 18|116 54) 2,000) 12) 1.3) 1.8) 1.5) 0.4) 0.6 39 UTAH. Corinne............----.| 41 80|112 18] 4,232} 23) 1.1] 1.1] 0.6 0.4] 0.3 35 Camp Douglas-.-.-..--.-. 40 46/111 50) 5,024) 23) 2.0) 2.4] 0.7| 0.8) 0.7 43 eee ne 41 12/111 57] 4,307| 23 1.5) 1.5) 0.6) 0.2) 0.4 35 Promontory -....-.---.-- 41 35/112 35) 4,905) 27) 0.8) 0.8} 0.5) 0.2) 0.4 4) Salt Lake City --.-...---- 40 46/111 54) 4,262) 29) 2.0) 2.0) 1.1) 0.9) 1.3 44 Prerrace «|... o> aoacaanens 41 30,118 30) 4, 22) 0. 4| 0.6} 0.2) 0.1) 0.1 4 NEW MEXICO. Santa Fe__....-....-....| 85 42/106 Ol) 6,989} 37 0.7) 0.9) 1.1) 2.7) 2.7 66 Fort Stanton .........-.. 83 29/105 31] 6,151; 19) 0.6) 1.0) 1.7| 3.2] 3.8 69 Fort Wingate. -.....-..-- 35 28/108 32] 7,038} 30} 0.9| 0.5} 0.6) 2.4| 2.3 55 COLORADO. Colorado Springs. --....- 388 51/104 46] 5,978) 12) 1.4) 2.4] 1.9) 3.2} 2.2 84 Denver *- 35>. 2. = ioe 89 45/105 00] 5,182) 27) 2.0) 2.7) 1.3) 1.7) 1.4 70 Fort Garland. ......-..- 87 25/105 23) 7,921) 20) 1.1) 1.0) 1.2) 2.4] 2.0 70 Vert Lavon s... .J.i4 22 88 06|102 80) 3,910} 17) 1.0) 1.8) 1.4] 2.2) 1.8 77 1 Combined with Havre. AREAS EAST OF ROCKY MOUNTAINS ADAPTED TO AGRICULTURE WITHOUT IRRIGATION. The averages for the crop-growing season and the amount of rain that fell in the season of least rainfall are graphically shown on Pls. XXXVITI and XXXVIII, respectively. The particular signifi- eance of the figures and charts lies in the fact that they broadly out- line the areas in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains that are adapted to agricultural operations without irrigation. The exact amount of rainfall required for the suecessful cultivation of crops has not been fixed nor can be in terms of rainfall alone. On the Pacific Coast and over comparatively small areas in the arid regions wheat and other cereals are grown with a seasonal rainfall considerably less than 15 inches; but it should be remembered that the climatic con- ditions, as regards temperature and humidity, are quite different from those which obtain in the wheat region of the Northwest. The character of the soil, especially as regards its ability to retain moisture, PLATE XXXVII > 4 Ts, } i i i 4s i! {| it f | amsttlll Scale oASh ades Cta70 echoes” A J i 7°” |NORMAL RAINFALL OF THE UNITED STATES me, EAST OF THE ONE HUNDRED AND FIFTH MERIDIAN, APRIL TO SEPTEMBER, INCLUSIVE. LO Yen ROE Fae Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1897. SE AF Ve cai os - al ad So é 9 vr a in ( , r hy. PUG.’ : 7 : 5) r a “ mel ory" * J f they eh, maipeaali y We rg neti waht , 4 ; k oan) PLATE XXXVIII ST ee Ven be MM CDPD SOM Ht >. = SS MM hhaha ted J Asi Adis C204 ALLA ee Cre hp ; ts "4 ; \ i] of Shades \ : | | - oa Scale 8 A, ee | " f Me ¥ KS f Ms TMi #9 a i he. ‘i ‘ ‘3 cnches \ | | . — State Agricultural College of Colo- | Fort Collins--.--- A. Ellis. rado. Connecticut -....- Storrs Agricultural College ...-.---.-- So a B. F. Koons. Delaware - .._....- Delaware College --..----------------- Newark... ...._- | G. A. Harter. State College for Colored Students -_| Dover.----.------| W.C. Jason. Florida ..........- Florida Agricultural College ------.--- Lake City -...-..-- W.F. Yocum. Florida State Normal and Industrial | Tallahassee--...- T.De S. Tucker. College. 623 AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND OTHER INSTITUTIONS IN THE UNITED STATES HAVING COURSES IN AGRICULTURE—Cont'd. — INSTITUTIONS HAVING COURSES IN AGRICULTURE. wien 4 erri- Name of institution Location. President. Goorgia...........| Georgia State College of Agriculture | Athens........... H.C. White. and Mechanic Arts. Georgia State Industrial eitneat eet: OOMCIL « ccs wsns R.R. Wright. DOs vi ckax actual University of Idaho. ........ aon h: MOR OIW a craknard cies ¥. B. Gault. Dlinols . . ..<...«é0«) Wn vereiey Of LUINOIS.5.. .0-26 +....-.- UPbaaet - sncsestins A. S. Draper. i eee ee Purdue Untvrerelty......-.......-.-.-- Lafayette........ J. H. Smart. ee ees Ie Iowa State College of Agriculture | Ames -...........| W. M. Beardshear. and Mechanic Arts Kansas -. ...---| Kansas State Agriculturai College...| Manhattan -...... T. BE. Will. Kentucky. ....-..- Agricultural and Mechanical Col- | Lexington ......- J. K, Patterson, ege of Kentucky f pe one Normal School for Colored Per- | Frankfort -.-..... J. H. Jackson. Louisiana. -.......- bon ae State University and Ag- | Baton Rouge----- T. D. Boyd ricultural and Mechanical College. Southern University and Agricultu- | New Orleans ....| H. A. Hill. ral and Mechanical College. to” ee The University of Maine_........-...- Orono.. .| A. W. Harris. Maryland.......-.- Maryland Agricultural Colle eRe College ‘Park. ..-- R. W. Silvester. Massachusetts...-| Massachusetts Agricultural ollege.- Amherst .....-..- H. H. Goodell. Michigan._........-- Michigan Agricultural College..-....'| A eer ricultural | J. D. Snyder. Jollege. Minnesota -----.--- Tho University of Minnesota... Minneapolis -....| C. Northrop. Mississippi .---..-.- Mississip < scars aland Mechan-| Agricultural | S. D. Lee. ical Col fo) rp Oulbue Agr Honitaral and Mechanical | Westside ---.----- E. EL Triplett fa) Missouri -........- School ot ‘Aer iculture and Engineer- } Columbia --.----- R. H. Jesse ing of the University of Missouri. [Estioits Bawhiiebe ee he Jefferson City -..| I. E. Page. Montana --.-...- ..-- The Montana College of Agriculture | Bozeman ----.--- James Reid. and Mechanic Arts. Nebraska -..-.----! Industrial College of the University | Lincoln ----..---- G. E. MacLean. of Nebraska. it it Nevada State University. -...........- Reno _....._.....| J.B. Stubbs: New Hampshire-.-| The New Hampshire College of Agri- | Durham -....-..-| C. 8. Murkland. culture and the Mechanic Arts. New Jersey. ------ Rutgers Scientific School. (The | New Brunswick.| Austin Scott. New Jersey State College for the Benefit of . Sacmmaamiee and the Me- chanic Arts. ) New Mexico --.-.- New Mexico College of Agriculture | Mesilla Park-_-_--- C.T. Jordan. and Mechanic Arts. New York -....-.. Carneit University —.—.....-.--2-.-..- Lisette” SAREee eer + . G. Schurman. North Carolina...| The North Carolina College of Agri- | West Raleigh---..| A. Q. Holladay. culture and Mechanic Arts. The Agricultural and Mechanical | Greensboro-..--- J. B. Dudley. College for the Colored Race. North Dakota -...| North Dakota Agricultural College..| A g fe cultural | J. H. Worst. ollege. 0 is} > Shape Rae Ohio State University -.-.-- Columbus..-......| J. H. Canfield. Oklahoma -.....-.| Oklahoma Ageiveibairal and Mechan- | Stillwater __-.-.- G. E. Morrow. ical College. COrogem: _-. ..-.-.. Oregon State Agricultural College ..| Corvallis......--- T. M. Gatch. Pennsylvania_--_.-. The Pennsylvania State College ---...- State College -...| G. W. Atherton. Rhode Island --.--- Rhode Island College of Agriculture | Kingston ---...--- J. H. Washburn and Mechanic Arts. South Carolina...| Clemson Agricultural College -....._-- Clemson College-.| H. S. Hartzog. Colored Normal Industrial, Serre Orangeburg --.-- T. E. Miller. tural, and Mechanical College of South Carolina. South Dakota. ---- South Dakota Agricultural College..| Brookings .......| J. W. Heston. Tennessee -.-...-- University of Tennessee.......-...... Knoxville. ....... C. W. Dabney. |) Sa State Agricultural and Mechanical | College Station..| R. H. Whitlock. College of Texas. Prairie View State Normal School...| Prairieview ----- L. C. Anderson. i The Agricultural College of Utah -- -| Logan - SRE Sore J. M. Tanner. Vermont.........- University of Vermont and State Burlington -..... M. H. Buckham. Agricultural Colle Virginie. 2...c0..~ Virginia Polytechnic nstitute (State Blacksburg -....- J. M. McBryde. mc and Mechanical Col- ege) The Hampton Normal and Agricul- | Hampton --..----- H. B. Frissell. tnral Institute. | Washington --.-.... Washington Agricultural College | Pullman -..-----. E. A. Bryan and Sc hool of Science. West Virginia....| West Virginia ishoeinens- ; -| Morgantown ....| J. H. Raymond. The West Virginia Colored Institute _ RRS Sc aa wes cod - H. Hill. Wisconsin -....... | University of Wisconsin .----.-.......- Ct ee C. K. Adams. Wroming......... University of Wyoming ..............| Laramie -.......-. F. P. Graves. LES | Laramie 624 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES, THEIR LOCATIONS, DIRECTORS, AND PRINCIPAL LINES OP WORK:' } Num- Num.- | ber of Stations, locations, and directors.; ber in | teach- | staff. | ers on staff. Alabama (College), Auburn: | fe Pe ns ee eee ake ll 8 Alabama (Canebrake), Union- town: Fe etn ns ee B ikiccoucee Arizona, Tucson: a aWe POUMOY cect. ua cnc wen cne 9 4 Arkansas, Fayetteville: fT -Penneee 2-2 Sas 8 4 California, Berkeley: Wena es ee 26 9 Colorado, Fort Collins: J MCC 1 i ee ee 18 6 Connecticut (State), New Haven: We J OUDIBOIY |. ct i oge ann teen 1 Ol eae Connecticut (Storrs), Storrs: WH©: Atwater... 225 .5.4242 6 1 Delaware, Newark: TOMS. CGE rc ek on ak 6 4 Florida, Lake City: Were Wooums 2s 25c..cseacsak 8 4 Georgia, Experiment: Be. ROGOIB Sse canis. 6 1 Idaho, Moscow: 1B SCE Ps i a eee 7 6 Nlinois, Urbana: i. DSEVONDONRG:? << dana cnewnaee 10 7 Indiana, Lafayette: O38sPlum beso ss Aso. 10 6 Iowa, Ames: Orr Curtiss.) oe 16 15 Kansas, Manhattan: HOR, Feo Will 2.5 2coe asa nece 12 7 Kentucky. Lexington: WE Eercel en ee 9 3 Louisiana (Sugar), New Orleans: Wim. OC: Stubbs =. 3-25 %:. S i se Louisiana (State), Baton Rouge: Won: Go Stubbs. 22..3. 52 9 Principal lines of work. Botany; analysis of fertilizers and food mate- rials; soil improvement; field experiments; horticulture; diseases of plants and ani Field experiments; diseases of animals. Meteorology; field experiments; canaigre in- vestigation; diseases of plants; entomology. Chemistry of foods; field experiments; horti- culture; diseases of plants; feeding animals; diseases of animals. Physics; botany; meteorology; chemistry and geographical distribution of soils; field crops; horticulture; technology of wine and olive oil and zymology; chemistry of foods and feeding stuffs; entomology; drainage and irri- . gation; reclamation of alkali lands. Chemistry; botany; meteorology; field experi- ments; horticulture; entomology; irrigation. Chemistry; analysis and inspection of fertili- zers and foods; field and pot experiments; horticulture; seed tests; diseases of plants; Shasitntrg of feeding stuffs and dairy prod- ucts. Food and nutrition of man and animals; bac- pata 5 | of dairy products; field experi- ments; dairying. Chemistry; field experiments; horticulture; diseases of plants; feeding experiments; diseases of animals; entomology; dairying. Chemistry; field experimenis; horticulture; entomology. Field experiments; horticulture; pig feeding; dairying. Physics; chemistry; botany; field experiments; entomology. Chemistry; bacteriology; field experiments; horticulture; forestry; diseases of plants; feeding experiments; entomology; dairying. Chemistry; pot and field experiments; horti- culture; feeding experiments; diseases of animals. Chemistry; field experiments; horticulture; diseases of plants; feeding experiments; en- tomology; dairying. Soils; horticulture; seed breeding; diseases of lants; feeding sxperiments; diseases of an- imals; entomology. Chemistry; soils; fertilizer analysis; field ex- periments; horticulture; diseases of plants; entomology; dairying. Chemistry; bacteriology; soils and soil phys- ics; field experiments; horticulture; sugar making; drainage; irrigation. 8 | Chemistry; botany; geology; bacteriology; soils; field experiments; horticulture; feed- ing experiments; entomology. 1The stations published during the fiscal year 1896-97 a total of 408 books and bulletins, with | a total of 15,785 pages. These were distributed to over half a million addresses. EXPERIMENT STATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES. 625 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES, THEIR LOCATIONS, DIRECTORS, AND PRINCIPAL LINES OF WORK'— Continued, — ———___ Num- Num.- | ber of Stations, locations, and directors.} ber in | teach- staff. | ers on Principal lines of work. staff, Louisiana (North) Calhoun: Wm. ©. Stabbesi. cn seotcactin ith paieie Taek Chemistry: soils; fertilizers; field experi- ments; horticulture; stock raising; dairying. Maine, Orono: Wh BD, VY O00 aes nite a kona ee ab os 12 6 | Chemistry; botany; analysis and inspection of fertilizers and concentrated commercial feeding stuffs; horticulture; diseases of lants; food and nutrition of man and an- mals; diseases of animals; entomology; dai- rying. Maryland, College Park: ERE OIE ine tan aaa gihah inn mie ll 2 | Chemistry; soils; field experiments; horticul- ture; feeding experiments; entomology. Massachusetts, Amherst: } Bay, Fat GOOGO Neehtnwes chew cosas i Se A Chemistry; meteorology; analysis and inspec- tion of fertilizers and concentrated commer- cial feeding stuffs; field experiments: horti- culture; diseases of plants; digestion and feeding experiments; diseases of animals; entomology. ra Agricultural College: OB GES coi 8 MS erate 5 oop ee Be: 17 7 | Botany and bacteriology; field experiments; horticulture; forestry; diseases of plants; feeding experiments; diseases of animals; entomology; dairying. Minnesota, St. Anthony Park: Waris ligcettc. .37. ed ise 13 9 | Chemistry; field experiments; horticulture; lant diseases; plant and animal breeding; eeding experiments; diseases of animals; entomology; dairying. ee Are or gricultural College: ° W.L. Hutchinson..........-.--. 13 4 | Chemistry; botany; soils; field experiments; horticulture; feeding experiments; ento- mology; dairying; irrigation. Missouri, Columbia: Eeow ) WHUGES Sib. oes ceebatss 11 6 | Chemistry; field experiments; horticulture; diseases of plants; feeding experiments; dis- eases of animals; entomology; drainage. Montana, Bozeman: 3 Ry EROP Gere. occ ates eect 7 4 | Field experiments; diseases of plants; feeding experiments; diseases of animals; irrigation. Nebraska, Lincoln: Gilt) Mae beat: go. 5 ene 17 8 | Chemistry; botany: meteorology; field experi- ments; horticulture; forestry; feeding and breeding experiments; diseases of animals; entomology; irrigation. Nevada, Reno: ei SONI cad Shack ne cts pride 7 4 | Chemistry; botany; soils; field experiments; horticulture; irrigation. New Hampshire, Durham: G5. MORI oleo nk foes 12 5 | Chemistry; field experiments; feeding experi- ments; diseases of animals; dairying. New soreey, (State), New Bruns- wick: i. be VOOPROOS 2. i. -.28)snaee 10 1 | Chemistry; analysis and control of fertilizers; field experiments; horticulture; food and or of man; dairy husbandry; irriga- ion. New car (College), New Brunswick: ; BE ae Vy OOTneCS'_.- 24. 22.2.5. 9 4 Botany; diseases of plants; diseases of animals; entomology. New Mexico, Mesilla Park: : AE SOROOD Seas as cans cceuns 10 5 | Chemistry; botany; field experiments; horti- culture; diseases of plants; entomology. New York (State), Geneva: WE, COWEN seliise do) 222 BR Addiszes Chemistry; meteorology; analysis and control of fertilizers: field experiments; horticul- ture; diseases of plants; feeding experi- ments; poultry experiments; dairying. New York (Cornell), Ithaca: I. P. Roberts ' ' ' , ‘ - ' ' ’ ' ' ‘ ' — ~ ~ Chemistry of soils and feeding stuffs; soils; fertilizer investigations: field experiments; horticulture; diseases of plants; diseases o animals; poultry experiments; entomology; dairying. 1 The stations published during the fiscal year 1896-97 a total of 408 books and bulletins, with a total of 15,78 pages. These were distributed to over half a million addresses. 1 A97——40 626 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES, THEIR LOCATIONS, DIRECTORS, AND PRINCIPAL LINES OF WORK'—Continued. | Num- Num.- | ber of Stations, locations, and directors.| ber in | teach- Principal lines of work. staff. | ers on staff. $$ eer North Carolina, Raleigh: | a RR ce eS 19 7 | Chemistry; analysis and control of fertilizers; field experiments; horticulture; composition of feeding stuffs; digestion experiments; poultry experiments. North Dakota, Agricultural Col- ege: oe “Wee Ik tee 12 6 | Field experiments; horticulture; diseases of plants; feeding experiments; diseases of animals; dairying. Ohio, Wooster: OC. Fe heme eS 5 1 eee eae Soils; field experiments; horticulture; dis- eases of plants; breeding and feeding ex- periments; entomology. Oklahoma, Stillwater: Sr. ee, ORTON 66 EE 8 ae | Botany; soils; field experiments; horticulture; ; stock feeding; entomology; irrigation. Oregon, Corvallis: ©, Te Gate eh oe ed 9 9 | Chemistry; soils; field crops; horticulture; diseases of plants; digestion and feeding ex- periments; entomology; dairying. Pennsylvania, State College: Serer en 16 9 | Chemistry; a eterna NE fertilizer analysis; | field experiments; feeding experiments; dairying. Rhode Island, Kingston: J. 2. Washburn... 10 3 | Chemistry; meteorology; soils; field and pot ; plants; poultry experiments; oyster culture. South Carolina, Clemson College: ba RAS OS 16 10 | South Dakota, Brookings: | J: Et SNOpERe neon eee ee 9 Soils; analysis and control of fertilizers; field experiments; horticulture; dairying. or } } | | | Bacteriology; chemistry of soils and soil phys- | ies; field experiments; forestry; diseases of | plants; entomology. Tennessee, Knoxville: | C.F. Vanderford -......-.--.- 10 | 3 Chemistry; botany; field experiments; horti- culture; entomology. Texas, College Station: pi fre SBN | | eee a ee a 14 8 | _ ture; feeding experiments; diseases of ani- mals; dairying; drainage and irrigation. | | | Chemistry; botany; field experiments; horti- culture; diseases of plants; feeding experi- ments; diseases of animals; entomology. Utah, Logan: Neen. (st oo oe 11 9 Chemistry; bacteriology; spolcoeniaans soils; field experiments; horticulture; forestry; — _ feeding experiments; poultry; dairying; | irrigation. Vermont, Burlington: P ol By Ae) A | fo eae: ER Ee ae 13 5 | Chemistry; analysis and control of fertilizers; | field experiments; horticulture; diseases of plants; feeding experiments; dairying. Virginia, Blacksburg: | : Ra OS eG ee ee eke ae 10 8 | Chemistry; fertilizers: diseases of plants; dis- | eases of animals; feeding experiments; ento- mology. Washington, Pullman: R ’ u Brg e 25 Bie nce 8 8 | Chemistry; soils; bacteriology; field experi- | ments; horticulture; diseases of plants; feed- . ing experiments; entomology. West Virginia, Morgantown: ; 4 Piet. BOOWATE <6 no. oo sne mcrea ns 12 6 Chemistry; analysis and control of fertilizers; | field experiments; horticulture; feeding ex- | periments; poultry experiments; entomol- ogy. Wisconsin, Madison: : / ; OY. Fig OT 19 9 Chemistry: soils; field experiments; horticul- Wyoming, Laramie: i> ye MEL eS Tae: ep 10 6 Geology; botany; meteorology; waters; soils; fertilizers; fieldexperiments; food analysis; feeding experiments; entomology. 1The stations published during the fiscal year 1896-97 a total of 408 books and bulletins, with a total of 15,785 pages. These were distributed to over half a million addresses. PUBLICATIONS ISSUED JAN. 1, 1897, TO DEC. 31, 1897. 627 NOTES REGARDING DEPARTMENT PUBLICATIONS. The publications of the U.S. Department of Agriculture are of three classes: (1) Serial publications, (2) scientific and technical reports, and (3) popular bulle- tins. The first two classes are issued in limited editions and are distributed free only to persons cooperating with or rendering the Department some service. Sam- ple copies will be sent if requested, but generally a plicants must apply to the Superintendent of Documents, Union Building, Was iington, D. C., to whom all lications not needed for official use, except circulars and bulletins printed by aw for free distribution, are turned over. They are disposed of by him at cost of printing. The popular circulars and bulletins treat in a practical way of subjects of. par- ticular interest to farmers, are issued in large editions, and are for free distribution. The Farmers’ Bulletins are of thisclass. Some of them are out of print. A list of such as are available for distribution at any time will be forwarded upon request. There is no list of persons to whom all publications are sent. The Monthly List of Publications, issued the first of each month, will be mailed regularly to all who apply fcr it. Init are given the titles of all publications issued during the pre- vious month, with a note explanatory of the character of each, thus enabling the reader to make intelligent application for such bulletins and reports as are certain to be of interest to him. For the maps and bulletins of the Weather Bureau, requests and remittances should be directed to the Chief of that Bureau. Also the index (card form) of experiment-station literature is sold direct to applicants by the Office of Experi- ment Stations. For all other publications to which a price is affixed, application must be made to the Superintendent of Documents, Union Building, Washington, D. C., accompanied by the price thereof, and all remittances should be made to him and not to the Department of Agriculture. Such remittances should be made by postal money order and not by private check or postage stamps. The Superin- tendent of. Documents is not permitted to sell more than one copy of any public document to the same person. The Public Printer may sell to one person any number not to exceed 250 copies, if ordered before the publication goes to press. PUBLICATIONS ISSUED JANUARY 1, 1897, TO DECEMBER 31, 1897. The following publications were issued by the United States Department of Agriculture during the period January 1, 1897, to December 31, 1897. Those to which a price is attached, with the exception of publications of the Weather Bureau, must be obtained of the Superintendent of Documents, Union Building, Washington, D. C., to whom were turned over all copies not needed for official use, in compliance with section 67 of the act providing for the public print- ing and binding and the distribution of public documents. Remittances should be made to him by postal money order. Applications for those that are for free distri- bution should be made to the Se¢retary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.: OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY. Copies Farm Drainage. Farm. Bul. 40. (Two reprints) _....................-- 30, 000 Washed Soils: How to Prevent and Reclaim Them. Farm. Bul. 20. Sanweey TMTINtey +. .< * 5. Abe eee Eee eh aka ea eres ees 40, 000 Report of the Secretary of Agriculture, 1896. (Two reprints) _._.._.__.- 36, 000 Civil Service in the Department of Agriculture. Cir.5__.....__ 2. . 2... 5, 000 Sources of Principal Agricultural Imports of U.S. during Five Years ended June 30, 1896. Cir. 12, Sec. Foreign Markets .__._.._..__.______ 10, 000 Agricultural Products Imported and Exported by U.S. in Years ended June 30, 1892-96, inc. Cir. 11, Sec. Foreign Markets__...-.____.._.2___ 10, 000 Freight Charges for Ocean Transportation of Products of Agriculture. Oct. 1, 1895, to Oct. 1, 1896. Bul. 12, Sec. Foreign Markets. Scents... 5,000 Report of the Appointment Clerk for 1896_...__...._..._..__._.. is Biss 500 Distribution of Principal Agricultural Exports of U.S. during Five Years ended June 30, 1896. Cir. 13, Sec. Foreign Markets .____-.________.____ 10, 000 Hamburg as a Market for American Products. Cir. 14, Sec. Foreign Mar- | SOS eee pea ets ye a ne i, 10, 000 ne Castor-Oil Plant: .Miso. Citutetie ccs: . - 555005. « conical ccs “2,500 The Mississippi River Fiood.. Wiest Geo so ok, oc enh Se ee 5, 000 The Mississippi River Flood. Miso. Cir. 8... .-..-) en cb eee 5, 000 Exports of Cotton from Egypt. Cir. 15, Sec. Foreign Markets........... 5,000 628 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Copies. Protest Against Proposed Legislation Restricting Experiments of the Department of Agriculture. Clr. 8 . is.ccnisc wed ccs pecstsed donesabese 10, 000 Our Trade with Cuba from 1887-97. Cir. 16, Sec. Foreign Markets _.. ._- 10, 000 An Ideal Department of Agriculture and Industries. Yearbook reprint 500 United States Wheat for Eastern Asia. Cir. 17, Sec. Foreign Markets... 10,000 Hawaiian Commerce from 1887-97. Cir. 18, Sec. Foreign Markets_ _____- 10, 000 Austria-Hungary as a Factor in the World’s Grain Trade; Recent Use of American Wheat in that Country. Cir. 19,Sec. Foreign Markets____-_- 10, 000 Report of the Chief of the Section of Foreign Markets for 1897____._.___- 250 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture, 1896. 50 cents....--._-.---- 500, 000 Proceedings of National Convention for Suppression of Insect Pests and Plant Diseases by Legislation, at Washington, D. C., March 5 and 6, 16007. -Miso. Bak -Woontefsoec ole 5 Ca eee eee 2, 000 CONGRESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS. Operations of Bureau of Animal Industry for Fiscal Year 1896. Sen. Doc. No... 45,:34¢b .Cong.. 20: R068. < <.h.. (With reprint). 3 ae ee 3, 500 Alfalfaor Locern. Farm. Bul. 31, (Reprint). §:5 eee eee eee 20, 000 Notes on the Grasses and Forage Plants of Iowa, Nebraska, and Colorado. ml” SB eeittee oe wn is cate atc tk Vea eee, oo. an 4, 000 Meadows and Pastures: Formation and Cultivation in the Middle Hastern eeten. Sern, shee C6 eee) ee 30, 000 The Renewing of Worn-Out Native Pastures. Cir. 4. (Revised edition). 2,000 DIVISION OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. Bird Day in. the Schools. Cir.4%.. (Repritit) oii si ec oe eee 3, 000 Report of Chief of Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy, 1896 ______- 250 Some Common Birds in Their Relation to Agriculture. Farm. Bul. 54, PWith renrint). . 25552. enc ett eh ee eee 70, 000 PUBLICATIONS ISSUED JAN. 1, 1897, TO DEC, 31, 18977 629 Copies. Extermination of Noxious Animals by Bounties. Reprint, Yearbook, 1896_ 500 The Blue Jay and Its Food, Reprint from Y eaFrDOOk, 1000.2 ov. i523 5.8. 500 North American Fauna No. 13. Revision of the North American Bats of the Family Vespertilionidie. 10 cents - tA udena bade abd Witickieei” + Dy COE Report of Chief of Division of Biological Survey, Ci rca ie aad 100 DIVISION OF BOTANY. Contributions from U.8. National Herbarium, Vol. V, No. 1. General Report on a Botanical Sur yey of the Coeur D'Alene Mountains in Idaho during’ the Summer of 1895, 10 cents......-.-...----------+- -------- 2, 300 Notes on Some Pacific Coast Grasses, Cont. U.S. Nat'l Herb. Vol. I. ..-- 100 PRNGEE GE Se Ae eG LOR LOWOL 5 «Gb aahic> anebiice dba 18 an mkedenhsee sane 500 Wid Gertin. Olt. Ben ceed celt elke da cana tae) wneud ce. -aardaaus 15, 000 Preliminary Revision of the North American Species of Cactus, Anhalo- nium and Lophophora. Cont. U.S. Nat'l Herb. Vol. I.....---..-2------ 500 List of Plants Collected by Dr. Edward Palmer in 1890 on ‘Carmen Island. ts brs a PORE V CISL Cc ON nies ic nhle w ween wale ties mies 100 List of Plants Collected by C. 8. Sheldon and M. A. Carleton in Indian Sermo at four. Oont. U.S. Nady terd: VOL. Dec. 2.5 62-2 ne Dee 100 Systematic and Alphabetic Index to New eee of North American Phanerogams and Pteridophytes. Cont. U.S. Nat’l Herb. Vol. 1I_____--- 100 Three New Weeds of the Mustard Family. By Lyster H. Dewey, Assist- ia Sab Roa IGA) Ob IOURI Ved UHEe BOO kee tt eso Oa ed 10, 000 Weeds and How to Kill Them. Farm. Bul. 28. (Two reprints) -.-.._._- 40, 000 Notes on the Plants Used by the Klamath Indians in Oregon. Cont. U.S. STM k SECL OE AN OL, Sune ae 6 ann | ee EE ah ig tr Eh el 2, 500 The Water Hyacinth and Its Relation to Navigation in Florida. Bul. 18. De RT EEE SIAL PUR AITETLLT L PRS, SERS Te Lee eh Ly A iO Eee pee ee eo 2 Spee es 1, 500 The Vitality of Seed Treated with Carbon Bisulphide. Cir. 11 __......-- 10, 000 Seed Production and Seed Saving. Reprint from Yearbook, 1896____.._- 500 The Superior Value of Large, Heavy Seed. Reprint from Yearbook, 1896_ 500 Some Common Poisonous Plants. (With reprint.) Reprint from Year- STR IE SR ey a eg NG Sat eee 4: AA AM aS et Loli Gh, Mu tN Abe 2 500 Migration of Weeds. Reprint from Yearbook, 1896_..........--......-- 500 Studies of Mexican and Central American Plants. 10 cents._........... 3,500 THO WED NOS kee AAT: Eee) (0 He CORPUS. Oooo, oS ads cee 10, 000 Observations on Recent Cases of Mushroom Poisoning in the District of CR i UE ah. aha wtiencseatis les Siecle lea aah, Se ck ict Ae ei * 3,000 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. Facts About Milk. Farm. Bul. 42. (Three reprints) _...............-.- 110, 000 Hog Cholera and Swine Plague. Farm. Bul. 24. (Three reprints) _____- 140, 000 Regulations for the Inspection and Quarantine of Animals Imported from Canada into the United States, January, 1897_._...........-..-..-..-- 3, 000 Exports of Animals and their Products. Cir. 17 -._..._.-....-_...--..-- 10, 000 Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry for 1896 _________- 500 The Cheese Industry of the State of New York. Bul. 15. 5cents__..... 10,000 Dairy Schools. Bul. 17. 10cents. (With reprint) - me jcaghl RO Standard Varieties of Chickens. Farm. Bul. 51. ( Three repr ints) - ee 300, 000 The Dairy Herd: Its Formationand Management. Farm. Bul.55. (With st 70, 000 List of Officials and Associations Connected with the Dairy Interests in the United States and Canada for 1897. Cir. 18 _...2...-..-22-......- 10, 000 Butter Making on the Farm. Farm. Bul. 67... .5. 2520.) sels. ekne. wane 100, 000 Factory Cheese and How it is Made. Cir. 19. (Reprint) _......_...---- 5, 000 Care of Dairy Utensils. Reprint from Yearbook, 1896___.__..___.________- 1, 000 The Country Slaughterhouse as a Factor in the Spread of Disease. Reprint from Yearbook, “1896 - Kuba Sable née Hoe cowses She Preventive Vaccination Against Blackleg. 2G “ng Eee anne: 1, 000 Directions for Use of Blackleg Vaccine. Cir. 21 ...._................-.. 8, 000 The Dairy Industry in Missouri and Kansas. Bul. 18. 5 cents......-.:. 6,500 Some Modern Disinfectants. Reprint from Yearbook, 1896.._.._..____-- 500 Creameries or Butter Factories: Advantages, Location, Organization, and Equipment. Reprint B.A.1. An. 06m; 16007..... <.5..csvcvecectid lauds 6, 000 630 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Care of Milk on the Farm. Farm. Bul: 68.......- 0000. ee os Ducks and Geese: Standard Breeds and Management. Farm. Bul. 64___-. Directions for the Pasteurization of Milk. Cir.1. (Revised edition) -__- Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry for 1897 DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY. Changes in and Additions to Methods of Analysis Adopted at the Thir- teenth Annual Meeting of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemiets:: Ole. O22... 5... nei eet esbé Bes Se Cu Report of the Chief of the Division of Chemistry for |. “VT Methods of Analysis Adopted by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, September 5, 6, and 7, 1895. Bul.46. (Two reprints.) 5 cents The Sugar Beet: Culture, ye Development, Manufacture, and Statistics. Farm, Bul. 52. (With ‘two reprmm) oo2. | 6 cgi et Gaels i eee Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual Convention of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, held at Washington, D. C., November 6, 7, and 9, 1896. Bul. 49. (With reprint.) . 10 canta 2 foc. USA Ae Needed Reforms in Fertilizer Inspeption.: Cir. 8..2. 252: cicsmtd. chai Potash and its Function in Agriculture. Reprint from Yearbook, 1896___ Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Convention of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, held at Washington, D. C., August 23, 24, and 25, 1894, Bul. 43. (Reprint. ) 2 a GN APL Proc eedings of the Twelfth Annual Convention of the Association of Offi- cial Agricultural Chemists, held at Washington, D. C., September 5, 6, and 7, "1895. Bul. 47. (Reprint. ) 10. cents: 225-025 eo See Experiments with Sugar Beets in 1892. Bul. 36. (Reprint.) 5 cents ___ Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Convention of the Association of Offi- cial Agricultural Chemists, held at the Columbian University, Wash- imgton, D. C., August 13, 14, and 15, 1891. Methods of Analysis of Dairy Products, Fermented Liquors, and Sugars. Bul, 31. (Reprint.) 15 cents _ DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY. Some Insects Injurious to Stored Grain. Farm. Bul. 45. (With three roprante) oo 02% 2b ce eee eS: Se ee ee eee Insects Affecting Domestic Animals: An Account of the Species of Impor- tance in North America, with Mention of Related Forms Occurring on Other Animals. Bul. 5, newseries. 20 cents. (With two reprints) --_ Report of the Entomologist for 1806. .;.: 2. - 22 2.2.0 222 ...1 ee _ Insects Affecting the Cotton Plant. Farm. Bul. 47. (With reprint) ---- The Ambrosia Beetles of the United States. Reprint from Yearbook, 1896_ The Plum Plant-louse. Reprint from Bul. 7, new series----_--..--..---- Some Important Results of the Work of the Division of Entomology. Bal. 7; new. series. 10 cents’ ......5..8 Wasi) .. e e eee The Mexican Cotton-boll Weevil. Cir. 18, second series -...- .-...2..8200 Important Insecticides: Directions for their Preparation and Use. Farm. Bul. 19... (Roeprink) - oe cnc onde che ee The Clover Mite. Cir. 19, second series. (With two reprints) ----------- Some Little Known Insects Affecting Stored Vegetable Products: A Col- lection of Articles Detailing Certain Ori ginal Observations Made Upon Insects of this Class. Bul. “8, new series. 6 conta... 602 2h Joel eek. The Mexican Cotton-boll Weevil. Cir. 18. (Revised Spanish edition) --- es ee Cotton-boll Weevil. Cir. 18; revision of No. 14. (German edition ) A Study in Insect Parasitism: A Consideration of the Parasites of the White-marked Tussock Moth, with an Account of Their Habits and Interrelations and with Descriptions of New Species. Technical Series mo 5b. .S-cents..... cc aretes 0s.cbs i: BR eee i ee ee General Index to Insect Life, 1888-1895___.______.__-. Ai Re ee The Strawberry Weevil. Cir. 21, second series..... _2_--..:.....2-----.- The Woolly Aphis of the Apple. ’ Cir. 20, second series __.... -..22-<--2F. The Periodical Cicada in 1897. Cir. 22, second series. The Buffalo Tree-hopper. Cir. 23, second series wee te eee Hee KH KH eR eee mR ee eee et OTK Ree KH eK eK Ke mre eer err rrr rere ee i 2, 000 S 130, 000 s8 8 888. Ss PUBLICATIONS ISSUED JAN. 1, 1897, TO DEC. 31, 1397. 6381 Copies. The Asparagus Beetles. Reprint from Yearbook, 1896_....-.....-----.-- 2, 000 The Use of Steam Apparatus for Spraying. Reprint from Yearbook, 1896_ 1, 000 The San Jose Scale and Its Nearest Allies. ul, 6, technical series. 5 GOS AS. Fo Ce Cee CA hse wn shi ce . pa Sade edidaaiss. uid AG ad 1,500 Insect Control in California. Reprint from Yearbook, 1896...........--- 7,000 The Two-Lined Chestnut Borer (Agrilus bilineatus Weber). Cir. 24, sec- Po Psat ee ad ss Ae veer a “ssh deeate hen Cb tts les aaa eae ee Soles 8, 000 The Ox Warble (Hypoderma lineata Villers). Cir. 25, second series .... 8, 000 Important Insecticides: Directions for their Preparation and Use. Farm, Bul. 10: ‘(Thinieovee@edition) ith < Wil dos eke Soe oe 80, 000 The Pear Slug (/riocampoides limacina Retzius), by C. L. Marlatt, First Assistant Entomologist. Cir. 26, second series_.........-..--.-------- 5, 000 The Present and Future of Applied Entomology in America. Reprint from, Bul; O; Hew wWeties.<5 320. oh. ads ic Se ee ee 100 Proceedings of the Ninth Annual Meeting of the Association of Economic Entomologists. Bul. 9, new series. 10 cents__.....:--...-..--..-.---- 2, 000 Bee Keeping. Farm. Bul. 59. (With reprint) ---...-..-2.-.---.---.---- 40, 000 Revision of the Tachinide of America North of Mexico. OWith renrine ls ioe cee Chee es Report of the Special Agent and Engineer for Road Inquiry for 1896_.__- Progress of Road Construction in the United States. Bul. 19. 5 cents__ peice Paving for Country Rodda: Cire26. «200 Je ets, ele State Laws Relating to the Management of Roads. Bul. 18. (Reprint.) NEI ao ie a nee ni de oe Ee ee Se RAs a FOU ae ee State Laws Relating to the Management of Roads. Bul. 18—Supplement puoi 18, (Reprint.) ~~ Hegmipe 1 2. Se. occ). eae Going in Debt for Good Roads. Cir. 26_..._..- 22222. Petes Atle ge BeAr ek BO Cost of Hauling Farm Products to Market or to Shipping Points in Euro- Deen. Cwranmtries.,.. Cir: 27). 2205.5 gamema on Dab MALS MG eed eR Jz The Forces Operating to Destroy Roads. Cir. 29...........2...-2-. 2-2. Highway Maintenance and Repairs. Highway Taxation; Comparative Results of Labor and Money Systems; Contract System of Maintaining Roads. . Cir. 24 (revision of Nos. 16, 20, and 24)__....2..--.-.-.-22.. Na DIVISION OF SOILS. 633 Copies. 750 634 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Copies. An Electrical Method of Determining the Soluble Salt Content of Soils, with Some Results of Investigations on the Effect of Water and Soluble Salts on the Electrical Resistance of Soils. Bul. 8 5 cents... ....-.- 1, 500 Irrigation on the Great Plains. Reprint from Yearbook, 1896__. ______- 500 Soil Moisture: A Record of the Amount of Water Contained in Soils dur- ing the Crop Season of 1896. Bul. 9. 5 cents..............-----.-----. 1,008 Methods of Curing Tobacco, Farm. Bul. 60._.....-...-.--.-.. ba ital --- 20,000 The Mechanics of Soil Moisture. Bul. 10. 5 cents................------ 2, 000 DIVISION OF STATISTICS, The Farmers’ Interest in Finance. Cir. 3. (Reprint) .-......-......--- 10, 000 The Cotton Crop of 3006, “Girs4_>.: eos eos ce Se ee ee 17, 000 Local Taxation as Affecting Farms, Cir. 5......-....---.--<-----+----- 100,000 Ceres! Crons of 1606, Cin, O.. - -.wer i hss ts 52k eee 0 eee 30, 000 The Cotton. Crop of 1006.) Cit. Fos... sect ~ tee eee be oe _.. 14,000 Report of the Statiatician for 1806. ... <2: - - 2 ee te 3, 000 Index to Reports of the Division of Statistics, U. 8. Department of Agri- enltare, Nos. 184 to 144. 3006. 6 25 he ee eee 1, 000 Crop Reports for December, 1896; for January-February, 1897; for March to November. Reports Nos. 144 to 154, new series__..-_-._--..----- 2, 089, 000 Beport of the Statistician for 3607 =... 5.0) che. Cacia cedtcees eee 5, 000 DIVISION OF VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY. Spraying for Fruit Diseases. Farm. Bul. 38. (Two reprints) .........-- 70, 000 Report of the Chief of the Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology Me BOOS noo oe cn Seca. oe law we be = ae ae 250 Peach Growing for Market. Farm. Bul. 33. (Three reprints) .-___.---- 70, 000 Some Destructive Potato Diseases. What They Are and How to Prevent Them. . Farm. Bal. 15. (Two reprinte) .. . . ~~~ ckk dle eee 90, 000 Howto Grow Mushrooms. Farm: -Bul. 0322. >_. 2... 622 eae eee 100, 000 Sooty Mold of the Orange and Its Treatment. Bul. 13. 10 cents___-_._- 1, 600 Improvements in Wheat Culture. Reprint from Yearbook,.1896___..___- Methods of Propagating the Orange and Other Citrus Fruits. Reprint from VYearboak. 31908: .-. is Oc den wee see a t . at, Se ee 500 Diseases of Shade and Ornamental Trees. Reprint from Yearbook, 1896_ 1,000 Olive Culture in the United States. Reprint from Yearbook, 1896_-.__._- 500 Influence of Environmentin the Origination of Plant Varieties. Reprint fram Yearbook, 1606 2.2: . 2.2% seniSwadht niece ee nets hi ess ba. See 500 Grape Diseases on the Pacific Coast. Farm. Bul. 30. (Reprint) -------- 10, 000 The Bermuda Lily Disease: A Preliminary Report of Investigations. Bul. AA. OBE, oe ew cle wee ead oe ene cation on oes See 1,500 Report of the Chief of the Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology for 360 eo be ae ow So eee. oe. Ces ee eee 250 WEATHER BUREAU. Monthly Weather Review. Vol. XXV, Nos. 1to10. 10 cents each.-..-- 39, 325 Report of the Chief of the Weather Bureau for 1896 __..__.__.___-------- 8, 000 Aerial Investigations. Reprint from Report of Chief, 1896 __..._._.._.--- 500 Averages of Atmospheric Pressure, Temperature, and Wind from the Rec- ords of Automatic Instruments at Twenty-eight stations, 1895-96. Banrint from. Beport of Chief, 1896 .. oon. coc - ANId ANOO-YDATISTIYE ‘ST *-++-qooj F ‘1oqoure “TR +9003 OOL ‘3US3I0H (AvdIN] Vas fol snurg) (‘ANIqQ 'T1Ing) io oa ANid AHUATHL “CT "4903 000'9 OAOGR BPBADN B.LA1ATg JO Sedo]s U1ojSOM !U0SOIO PUL BIMAOJI[VO *‘poOOM JO SOSN PUY SOIISLIOWBABYO ‘OZIS TA AOrs SUEpUNdY JO BUOe | so ron puv sofoods Jo oure yt “ponUTpUo)—"o}a ‘4aquir)? wof aqonyna ysou sagnyg papug oy} fo saa fo sorads paupuny auo fo svt 649 TREES IMPORTANT IN FORESTRY, ‘uoLse.I oy} Jo oonAds 1oquIT} [edroutid oy} Sureq sty} ‘(vugn.t y992,7) oonadg pox oy} osye sepn[OUy » ‘soxoqd ‘o.IBATIOpOOAM ‘osvi1edood -SUTIP[ING-}voq ‘SuToue; ‘Stay 1OL10JUT “HOTJONAJSMOY AOJ Laq unt sv ATOTYD pos. *PpoTIIvV.13-9S8.1B09 SABATR JsOTT[R ynq ‘sotoods OATJVU dO jo qeyy 03 aoLTedns !(Suo0ajs sazeqjo 0} SUIpiIooo¥) Suoms you ‘4jos ‘qysry “suoT}IsOd poprys Ut ‘SelVIC S[PPIFL Puv UTeIsvemWION ul Aparey Alquqoig ‘uanos6 pidpy =*“suoT}yeN4gts ApeyYs ‘Tlosqus ASTOUT ¥ YSwOT] UV ‘ERVUTTO PUB [IOS 4SIO]T (4) ‘Suruuey Ul pesn YaIvq {1oquiny roy APoryo pesQ *SOSINOO JOyBAL ‘sosn puv Aqryenb utr Suole sedojs urezyunour jo uoTjVIseIOjor AIO 0014 VW soonads U.10}S¥O JO POOA\ OY} SOT UTOSOY “399J OOC'TI 03 O00’ ‘sedoys Ajjoawas ‘Arq [--77""7 7" §""-Zu0I4s you 4Jos ‘yy ST, A190 A ‘sosod.ind ours 0} 10J posn pur ‘90.10ur -M109 UL PeYysInsuTystp Jou st aoquaity ey} WOmA wor ‘oonadg youl_ oy} oXVT “19Ipivy Sureq ‘Furjuyyd u.szsjsoa 0} pejdupe 10330q Ajlquqoid ynq ‘eonadg youlg exI'T ‘jens poos jou ‘ourd oqmAd Jo yeyy ueyy 9298D]2 O10 PUB ‘4AHWOAZS “4aYHNO?Z $SeT4 *IOMO18 ‘sejod ‘sepid ‘sysod ‘surprmadrys ‘eq pider ‘eonidg AvMAICN uURyy SpBYys ssa_ sornpuyg | -UIN[ A0J Os]e ‘d[nd 107 Ajosav] ysour pasQ ‘sdureAs 90M “plod ul Jey[euIs yonur ‘sjios Auoys ‘Aap ‘yqBry [~~~ oon 8u0148 ‘4jos ‘4a SVT “G}4.014 Jo SoT}s]1eyoVIBYyS puB ‘eyuvUIT[O pue [Iog | “POO JO SOSN. PWH SOTISLIOJORIVI(/) ee — ——— eaiieeiaien Ue Sas See a — — —————- $e *4- 990] 9 ‘coqgourv “TP *+ 900J OCT ‘FUFTeT COLQIIIVD syswoyopIs 09017) (G00udg GNV'T-ACLL) "STOTIBAOTO MOT :4S¥OO U10JSOMT}.AIO N pus wysupy |----- = AOQUdS VMLIS “6r ‘+. gooj ¢ ‘1eqeure “IP ‘+ 9093 OOL “‘3US1eH (“mjos vad ) (‘a0nudg ALIN AA) 00°01 -eq ‘UOLse. UTBJUNO_,, AYOoIy 2uUUupupabua [vijueo ul guetwIdoTeAep 4seg - ul a ‘UOTVVATO YSIQ !pavayy.aou pUBsuOpse. 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Ut JuouIdoTeAsSp 4Jsog Cul DL M) Be ‘IOS ySTOUL TOIL ‘spuvy uroyjod [--""-" 777 Suo0s4s Jou “4jos ‘4ysrry |--- 7-7 48voo ULOJSOMIJALON [7-77-77 WI UAATIIS LVAUD = “+ qooj fT ‘10zoure 5 “Ip '+ 4003 OL ‘9US10H = é ‘poom dnd puv (‘LOTTI Dawnsznq sa2qV ) a>) ‘SUOTQBNIS pourwap A[JoojAod ul ur puv ‘osanu (Spavoq-xoq) iequIn, WOULUIOD LOZ pos < st co ‘T1MOusuepun sv ATUO ofqen[VA ‘“LeMous prdeyy (Ul AVaIIYD AO WIV) ‘TIOS OT[} [ILM 4Ou{UOO UT PAV B ‘sdUIvMs pu¥ spooa dutep ‘prop | e[qvinp tou 3uo014s Jou :4J08 ‘4yst[ A1OA | -[ LOU puvsozerg ULOJsBoTJION |--T mee TIA WVSIVE ‘ie "+ qooj F ‘1ejoue E -Ip ‘+ 9003 OOT ‘FUSI0H a (‘Aare g = (‘pqoy)) 40200109 sa1qPy) oH ‘sosod.ind 914 *BIUIOFITVO 2 -semop 19] 4O 1OF posn puv‘sqny 1043nq 10 S¥ILOIG UL yUOUIdOTsAep Jseg CNVSIVed a ‘LOC UIN[ OFUL porInjgovjnuvul A[[BUOTSBIDO MOVIQC ‘HI NVS'IVG) a, ‘storyenqis Apeys puv [ooo ‘SUOTIVAOTO YSIyq ‘edoys oyIoug <3) ‘200 000 PUY ONO'S NEEM {oq ‘suoLUBO puB sodoTS JsfoOPY |---- 77 Suo014s you ‘4jos ‘4qsty Aaa A | PUV SUIBJUNOU UleJsoMYNMOG ~~ 7 UlI WLINM 06 = ~ i = ‘YP MOIS JO SOMSTIOJOVIVYS PUB ‘ozPVUII[D PUL [IOG ‘DOOM JO SOSN PUB SOTISTLOJORAETL ‘T[] MOIS JUBpPUNe Jo SUOTSEw qrunt] pus Poel ag 8 jo owe EY ae |. runt r. 5 ‘ponurzU0g—'979 ‘waquing wof azqnnyna ysow saqynig papug ayz fo sao} fo sawads paupuny auo fo 8svT 5 ‘s]ONDp UISEL JO eomesqe oy Aq S ‘yore, pur ourd moray sev [TOM sv ‘yt Tory poysInSuystp Ayisvo st ynq ‘sesn puv ‘Aq17eub “10j0o ut eonids sejqmieser poom ey, ‘ould 07 ‘sox oa -1BUt YST[Sug wt A[pepoodse ‘ose ynq, ‘eonads 0} ATUOCTIUMOD 4SOUL ‘IY JOU OLB TOIT Seer} 07 pu poo 0} por[dde Ajquon beady st eulvu oy, = ‘SHOUODSIPUL OLB JYSIO YOIM &} jo ‘soreds use1yS1e4ynoqy ‘JeoImOD UMOID ‘silopees yuUBpUNnqe puequonberg ‘“[[oAA uolywuIm1eS Jo 1aM0d AILEY} OAsosead you Op ynq ‘1BeA ~ 4sry ommgeur ‘Sura yuojstsazed ssey 20 ozout v Aq posopour Ayaed ‘ie[pnSueisy spoos ‘erngeul UoyM AVAL SUIT[BT pus ‘ULyY SoTBOS ‘soyouBAq oly UO JooLe Surpuvgs ‘~eorapurpAd souog = ‘sBrM4 oY} UO OFL][-QuIOD JVYAoULOS PodUvAIV ‘JUNC 1oyZeI “YUE ‘O[SUps SOABOT — *601]8)1dJODIADY) o ‘(pUDIUUDUpPLOU SaIgy) SELodSs OATIBU OY] UL} ON[VA OIOUL JO oq 04 THddg SOYOXD oMLOg *ATJUEYSiSaod ynq “ATMO[S Mois Ajyensn :Aprey > SSset Asout YyYyNOA Itoq} UL pue ‘soonads ey} UBY} suOIgUNgIs porodutoy A[UAAO JSBOT 4B AIO [000 PUB OFBUTT[O JO OLN{SLOUL UO quopuodep o10ul tS «=: [IMS SMOTINGLAISIp UIeyUNOU PUR ULeYJAOU JO ‘OpeYs JooouvINpuUs 4voId A1loy} JO JUNODOY UO Ajureut A.ijsoi0F 0} uvjtoduly—‘suly “IIT FORESTRY. 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UNE SBET *poyesedoad — qsout ‘TIos oT] 07 OATISNBTXe puv poet qaoys pprdps yno Burwury, ‘:8uarpeeu IIa ‘dummqs ett} mors Apsnoso0Sta synoads :1eMois predps ATSurpoooxg ‘eto AUBOT ‘dind-1oded pur ‘O.IBM TOPOOA IOJ ‘(Soxoq .eyow.o ATTBIO -odse) sexoq pue soywio AOJ ‘steadied Inoy puv aBsns 10j eSvaedooo ut ‘10q -WIN]T OINgIuIny pus Surpring se pes— ‘peyIoM ATISBO SE foeT}FI[T SYooyo ynq ‘( TOATSSOOXO CaivA\ SULLOJ PoUTe.Lasso.10 euros) ATeJRALOpOUL SHULIGS pooM oly, ‘SUO.LIS"4SIOUT BUT ISeq Inq “sTTos Jo AJolrvA voy poydepy ~-o9TqBanp 1ou Zu0.14s Jou ‘4Jo0s ‘4ysI[ Ato A |---“SsuUrezUNnOy AYOoY OT} JO Jsvy *“£aysosoj ut Arepuooes {SurTpsett IYSIT 3.7854 liters -....-.-..- 0.087 hectoliter....----> .-: 378.54 centiliters. Panne 222... 0.4535 kilogram ------ 4.535 hectograms .-..-.---- 453.5 grams. Ton (2,000 pounds) --| 907.1 kilograms ----.-- 0:9071 tonne ~.22.5 =-- =~ 2 TSGGRG! ..... co cock wes | OO Ce FIDE E oo nace osc enan = 3c xaeaen ac aa eee SOME FOREIGN MONETARY UNITS. In actual business transactions valuations of foreign coins vary slightly from the figures given below. Rates of exchange in commercial use are subject to change daily. Equivalents of foreign coins in United States money. Pound sterling (Great Britain)-......-... 64. S065 | Colon (Oates) ...ccacces se>cassnssu> ue $0.926 — Pound sterling (Egypt) ---...--..-...----- 4,943 Peso (Colombia, Ecuador) -----.--..---- 424 Franc! (France, Switzerland, Belgium) .193 Peso paeee a: ol Se ee 365_ Mart (Germany). 2... omcc- he acns ener .2388 | Peso (Central America) -..--.-.-..---.-.-- -416— Crown (Austria-Hungary) -..---.--------- . 208 Peso. (Argentina) 2-222. >... --.6 See 965 Crown (Sweden, Norway, Denmark)... 268 Dollar (Memeo) oo" s.- + 2... -. eee “94a Tunis Ceuasiay >... .24c- 26% .-32=----+-=-- 772 Dollar (British North America) -.....-.- 005% Piaster ( ES ape EASE ie a Sere . O44 Dollar (Newfoundland) _...... 2-22 1.014 Florin (Netherlands) -..-:... .-..-------- 408 | Wem (Janan) =3.... ....-/sc. seas ee .498 Tig MUL S hy 57 | 2 pa eee rae aap pe a ee . 546 Tael? (China)....-.-..- einen $0.62 to .69 irom {Portugel). . 52805 opener ences 1.08 Biapee-lindin) ..>..-...25 ae aeons .201 Boligianny (Boivin). 2... os ee 424 POL CROUE) owen eon: Sot ee - 424 1 The lira of Italy, bolivar of Venezuela, peseta of Spain, drachma of Greece, and mark of Fin land are also worth 19.3 cents each. 4 2 There is a different value for the tael for every commercial center in China, but it is withi the limits given. 673 TREATMENT FOR FUNGOUS DISEASES OF PLANTS. “qrmaz 93 Surqods 4tteaord 03 pesn eq prnoys WOT{ZN[Os O39 BuO two Teddoo pwovrmOUIUIE ‘suOstes JoA\ UI Aaesssooou eq AvuI s¥ ‘epeur oq suorzeortdde 1znoj uvyq} o10ur JI “‘qWIoq JO] AeAsue ATTeteTes [TTA suonwordds ours oj ‘1oq30303 zn900 Ajuenberj yor yovyq } en @SBeSTP STU SF ‘ssey eq Avur ssur{eaids jo 19q TINT 943 3B} eTq Bqoud ST 41 Te }VOAL Arpuy “WoRNnyos oe} vU0q.1¥o 1eddoo [vow -TUOUIIB TILA OpEUI oq prnoys 3 puv SYOOM OM ‘(T) Worgnyfos eyeuogieo aod ‘Aressooou oq Avul monvordde yyxIs W |-doovourmoumury "SJOUY 8G} JO UInjor O43 QUOAGId 0} pmo [TTLM TIO peesul] 10 oueSOIOy TILA seoRjins 3nd 04} Suyureg ‘aqissod z9aoueq At peuing puv Yo 4nd oq prnoys sjouy oy “OPPOLSUD] O42 WIL potes00 oFvT]OJ Sur -doyaaep A[Moeu ey} JO SoOVjANS AeMOT puv zaddn eq} deoy 02 eprul oq pmmoys IOAvepue oT] puR ‘yooIs AresImU 03 qvordde A]Teedso st quent3¥ve13 OY Frees geu oq Avul uoMvoydde qixIs y “YJ0UI SuTTpoo jo sosvava yasaoid 03 ‘8INjXIUI 9} Jo suoTTes (ye A.eAd 03 seouno } Jo uoMdodoad ¥ Ul eprloLsuny 84} [ILM poulIquios eq AvuUl U9e13 sLIBg “SHAVUOT * 10} BT skep uwoeyimoy eprlolsunjy ouresg “STIVA -o1d §=a0oqyBvomM JOM JI ‘10}RT SyYooM OMY eplolguny suleg ee eee ee me eww weer ‘uorzeordde q4y1y ‘UMOIS JTVY SI qInay WoT eprorsuny ottieg | *I9JVT SyYOOM OMY eploisuny oureg *IOYVT SHOOM OMY eplorsuny ours * 1098] skep wooeqzinoy eplolsuny ouleg ‘sTrvAord Ioyjyvom JOM jt ‘AoZoureIp UT qour jrey-ouo SI JINIJ UOT A eplorisuny oumyvg “Ares -S900U JI ‘109 BT sf{ep uoeqimMoy eprloisunjy oureg “mOTy -eoydde yyanog ‘ULOOT UT ore sjyuvid woah eplolsuny oureg er1ozeq gsnl eplolisuny oureg *I9]BI SYOOM OMY eplorsuny ours ‘1998 shep w09qImMoy | @ploLsuny ouleg ‘SOJNUTUL OAT 1OF o8BI OF oT jo oingeao -U10} B YU 1OFRAL Ut poos Fvog “SUTT[VJI O18 sejod meq eplolsuny ouleg “101 ¥BI sfep uoseyiMoy eprlolsuny oureg ‘uoreor[dde par, ‘UMOIS JT BY OU SoAvOT UDT A eplolsuny oureg ‘UMOIS PAI4-0u0 =—O.IB SOeAvOT TOT A eplorisunjy oureg *I0}¥ SyYOOM OMY eplolsuny ouresg ‘109 BT shvp ms04zanoy epprsuny oureg *‘sInoy Inoz IOJ OAVOT PUB SHOVS Ul ov ‘Burpuedxo e1v STOySsnyo I9MOY WOT Ar eplolsuny oureg ‘194Bl[ SAVp OATOMI IO 104 eploisuny oureg ‘u0ry | -wortdde ‘puooeg ‘uodo spnq jro uoyM ‘vnUltoy uUoTLBs “Mop -09 ‘(%) O4NgxTOr xnvep.og -[rur AuMop edviry ‘uodo spn e10jod ‘ByNMA0J; uoTTV -0¢ ‘(%) OLNgXTUL XNBEpJIOg |---- yor youTq odvayy ‘rnodde = eLOjJod ‘B[NUIIOJ WOT] ‘qouy youyq 26 ‘(G) OANGXTUL Xuvepdog | unjd puv AED *podo -joAop AT[n}J st oF#uryo Iojyje ‘B[NULIOy UoTTR c -09 *(%) OLNGXIUL XNVOpPA.Og |~-4qAITq Jvoy Art0eyH ‘sinoy «noy I0}JBVA P[OO UI pees Wwog |-------- qnus Aolreg ‘Sut -pjoyun oie spnq 4ma ueyM ‘“elnULoy UOT] -09 *(@) OLNGXTUL XNBOpPIOg he a ae qvos ofddy *ployun SOARoT wet A(T) WOLNTOS oyeT0q ‘snsunj ofoy-joys -ivo 1eddoo [eovrmowury good 10 puowyly ‘TOTVOTTdde 4saLyT | ‘OSROSICT ‘SB[NULIOJ OY} JO S1oquinu 943 0} Surpuodsoer100 91qv4 oY} UL s[TeIOUINU 94} ‘[qQvI OY} MOT[OF Se[NULIOF OT, Jajal OU ‘sesoyjuered ul slequinu o1v seplolsuny oy} Jo sourvu oy} SuLMoOTIO,7 ‘quaujned, fo spoyjawu pup szunjd fo sasnasep snobun gy THOT] SULYVUL IO SVTNUIIOF 94 OF ‘SJUOUIYVOIY SHOLIVA OY} SULYVUL JO SpOyjoUL puv seuITy JO JoqUINU 94} WALD orev ouIeU YORE oysoddo suumn[oo UL pu ‘AT[VoJoqeYd[e posuviie o1v poyooye syuvld oy} e[qey SULMOTIOJ OY} UT ‘SACIOIONOd YOd SVINAWUOI—-SINVId JO SHASVESIC SQOONOdT YOd INAWLVAUL 45 LAST DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, THE YEARBOOK OF G74 “TOT TBOM JOM ATOA JO OSB ur Aressooou oq Avut uorzuottdde 4yXxIs VY *IOTZBOM POO [Tuan prnosrs oy. UT UTBUIeI 0} WoT} SULMOTIV JOU “LOTILA Ssqueid sv TOOS sB Sup oq praoys seozujod sqypnsea ysoq 10,7 “poqgiato oq Aut syuoutr -JRO1] PWOOSS PUT 4SAy 9] Pavyo1o oy} uy ‘Adosanu oj 10j AT[Teroodso st stqy, “*qMOTOTNS O18 1OQULM Ut sSutéeids oM4 ‘SOABROT OT} JO SoOVjANS Jopun OT} JOM 0} TOWB og P[NoYs ovo [BIloedg “Burpiog Aq poztyt -1048 ATSNOTADAd toed OARY TOMA "sseq uBeT ut ind Wet pus Arp 07 Jno prods aq, P[MOYS poss of) ‘OSn oBIPOTIUIT IOJ pepectk& Jou Jr ‘SuUpYwVos PuooeEs OY} AoJT VT Ajjensg ‘SYIBUIOY | ee ee ee oP 7) | SYOOM OMY eplisuny ourng *10} BT SYOOM OMY eplorisuny oureg *19}¥T syHOOM OMY eploisunjy ourug *I9} BI SHOOM OMY eplorisuny ourug ee ee *I9JOUIVIP UL qToOUL jJ[eq-ouo SI JInadj uoTM eploisuny eueg *IOYBI SYOOM OMY epldoisuny euleg *LOYBT SyHOOM OMY eplolsuny oureg ‘Aa 04 yno preids pu 1048 plod GIA pees [oop *1O4BT syooM OMY eploisuny oueg “LOPBT SHOOM OMY eplolsunjy oureg "IOV SYOOM OMD eploisuny our TLBS s[ejod uoyM eploisuny oeurg “LOPE SHOOM OMY eplolisanjy oeurrg *I94BI SHFOOM OMI eploisguny oureg ‘qsnsny 10 Avy Ul [SBA oulLg see —_—eeeeeeeeeeee ‘worzeordde q4sta ‘u0T} -sordde Y1an0 ‘aorzeortdde par, “(o88T) 10yeM Joy Ut ‘sojnuIUL §=ue4 10} poos yvog 1948] STOOM OMY eplorisunjy oureg *10}¥T SYOOM OMY eplouny oeulvg *104R] SHOOM 9014 eploisuny oulvg a91ojoq ysnl eplisunjy euleg ‘UMOIS J[VY O18 SOAVOT TOTAL eplolisuny oulvg ‘UMOAS J[VY O18 SOABOT UOTM eplolsuny ouresg "LOB SOOM OM} 04 sep uo4y YSVA ouleg ‘soqn -UIUl W194 AOJ ofl 9B 10qvA yoY, Ul poss yBog “uoTy -wortdde puooeg (8) ‘A OCT OF ofIT 4B 10yeA UIA. UL OJNUIUL EUO 1OJ poos Yvog "TBs SUIOSSOT 1oyje ‘e_nuaoy UOTTR. -09 ‘(%) O4n}xTul xnvep.og ‘soynurut Aq.11q4 puv 1noy euo (¢) UOT{NT -OS OJBVUITIGNS SAISO.1.100 ur seoyvjod yvos pus 4yNnH ‘TSIq Soyour g 0.18 squid UoyA ‘B[NUItoy uol[es -06'(%) OEANJXIM XNBOP.LO_ ‘Jeol UI UST M PUB ULOOTC 04 OSB90 $90.1} moet A (T) WOL4NT[OS 04vI0q -Ivo seddoo [vovruowmury ‘uodo spnq 4ina uoyA ‘BynUILoy aoT[V -0¢ *(G) OAN{XIUL XNvOps0g ‘SUT[[OMS 0.18 Spn usyM “e[NULLOJ UWOT[e -0¢ ‘(Z) O9ANGXIUL KXNBOP.AO_ HS spnq 9.10 -oq ysnt ‘e[nuLoj uoT[e -0¢ *(Z) OANYXIUL XNvOpIOg ‘AIenaqo J 10 ALVNUBL UI (F) YSBVA UISOY *(€) A2T 04 oOTT 78 109BM ULIEM UL OUI OO LOJ poos Yvog ‘MOTYBOT[Ade Asay ‘popunuoj—juaujna.) fo spoyjaum pun szunjd fo sasnasrp snobun yg “‘4nuIs SULAUIS Foy A, ‘Aq SIIq Jeol pu yods 4maj ooum? De ae BOS 03¥40q ‘OSBOSIp UN -a0dso1oe]yy pur JUS Lo 401 0FBIOg ‘qSN.l Jeol Goved pave ‘ounad ‘un[g “"-" qq 3tq. Jeol ave =--------- [ino YoRog ~prout 4400s osuvig ween een eeene 4nUIs BO “OSBOSICT - —_”- — TREATMENT FOR FUNGOUS DISEASES OF PLANTS. 675 FORMULAS FOR FUNGICIDES, (1) Ammoniacal copper carbonate solution: errr CRT POMUNON A do cc wets rasan Ganees cenciadudun sh vate ounces... 5 Ammonia (26 Der COME). ese cees cemewe ewe iweiw dt tae pints... 3 bt fgart| » SEAR RRR Reed of Sa ae aS AS oe a tae lei. cae gallons... 50 Place the copper carbonate in a wooden pail and make a paste of it by the addi- tion of a little water. Then pour on the ammonia and stir until all the copper is dissolved. If the 3 pints of ammonia is not sufficient to dissolve the copper, add more until no sediment remains. Pour into a barrel and dilute with 45 or 50 gal- lons of water, and the mixture is then ready for use. (2) Bordeaux mixture: Ree Oe 4.15 2 58 Seah Paka dle dni aw esd WERE LAS pounds... 6 POM EMORY TOMB Os 30 oid wd Ss wales ARs prey ee ons of RE, PS. G0:. 25 @ RE eam I EE ik beg) Riedie histone aed Sak Web de ~ eons gallons__ 50 In a barrel or other suitable vessel place 25 gallons of water. Weigh out 6 pounds of copper sulphate, tie the same in a piece of coarse gunny sack, and sus- pend it just beneath the surface of the water. In another vessel slack 4 pounds of lime, using care to obtain a smooth paste, free from grit and smalllumps. To accomplish this, place the lime in an ordinary water pail and add only a small quantity, say a quart, of water at first. When the lime begins to crack and crumble and the water to disappear add another quart or more, exercising care that the lime at no time gets too dry. Toward the last considerable water will be required; if added carefully and slowly a perfectly smooth paste will be obtained. When the lime is slacked add sufficient water to the paste to bring the whole up to 25 gallons. When the copper sulphate is entirely dissolved and the lime is cool, pour the lime milk and copper sulphate solutions slowly together at the same time into a barrel holding 50 gallons. The milk of lime should be thoroughly stirred before pouring, and the barrel of liquid should then receive a final stirring for at least three minutes. For the 22-gallon formula use 22 gallons of water instead of 50. For further directions in making large quantities see Farmers’ Bulletin No. 38, pp. 5-8. (8) Hot-water treatment: This treatment is used for smuts of oats and wheat. Place two large kettles or two wash boilers on a stove; provide a reliable thermometer, and a coarse sack or basket for the seed. A special vessel for holding the grain may be made of wire or perforated tin. The vessel should never be entirely filled with grain, and in the kettles there should be about five or six times as much water by bulk as there is grain in the basket. In the first kettle keep the temperature of the water at from 110° to 120° F. and in the other at 132° to 133°, never letting it fall below 130° lest the fungous spores may not be killed, nor rise above 135° lest the grain be injured. Place the grain in the basket and then sink it into the first kettle. Raise and lower it several times and shake it so that all the grain may become wet and uniformly warm. Remove it from the first kettle and plunge it into the second, where it should receive ten minutes’ treatment. Shake about repeatedly and also raise the basket containing the grain completely out of the water five or six times during the treatment. If the temperature falls below 132°, let the basket remain a few moments longer; if it rises, a few moments less. Have at hand cold and boiling water with which to regulate the temperature. At the expiration of the ten minutes remove the grain and plunge into cold water, after which spread it out to dry. The seed may be sown at once, before thoroughly dry, or may be dried and 676 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. stored until ready for use. In treating oats keep them in water at 152° for ten minutes and spread out to dry without plunging into the cold water. (4) Resin wash: BOG Bosc. oo ce esdiceviw cers cdwercnertcusne=cooe nee pounds... 20 OCanatio soda (06 ber cant)... .o 503. J. ese e we neeeeueeee. ee do_... 4} Fish of) (GPQ@UB) «23 Acc os bs capidepceen Vas calacee eee ee pints.. 3 Weiter to make 22. oro ee eee eo cose eee gallons__ 15 | Place the resin, caustic soda, and fish oil in a large kettle. Pour over them 13 gallons of water and boil until the resin is thoroughly dissolved, which requires from three to ten minutes after the materials begin to boil. While hot add enough water to make just 15 gallons. When this cools, a fine yellowish precipitate settles to the bottom of the vessel. The preparation must therefore be thoroughly stirred each time before measuring out to dilute, so as to mix the precipitate uniformly with the clear, dark, amber-brown liquid, which forms by far the greater part of the stock preparation. When desired for use, take 1 part of the stock preparation to 9 parts of water. If the wash be desired for immediate use, the materials, after boiling and while still hot, may be poured directly into the spray tank and diluted with cold water up to 150 gallons. (5) Corrosive sublimate solution: PwiPPOst ve SURES. on co eee eerste see ee an aoe ounces.. 2+ WUE SS ecw edas cw ndlewie ar dees eleehane see gallons._ 15 This solution is use¢ for potato scab. The corrosive sublimate is dissolved in about 2 gallons of hot water, and after an interval of ten or twelve hours diluted — with 13 gallons of water. The potatoes to be planted are immersed in the solution for one and one-half hours, after which they are spread out to dry, then cut and planted as usual. A half barrel is a convenient receptacle for the solution. The potatoes may be put into a coarse sack and suspended in the liquid, first being washed. Corrosive sublimate is very poisonous, and should be kept out of the way of children and animals, All treated tubers should be planted, or, if not planted, destroyed. Potassium sulphide: Potassinm sulphide: .c. 0... eo A de eee ee ounces... 24 We GOR ce ee ee oe ee ee ec ne eS sere gallons... 5 Dissolve the potassium sulphide in water, and the mixture is ready for use. FOODS FOR MAN. Ordinary food materials, such as meat, fish, eggs, potatoes, wheat, etc., con- sist of — : Refuse.—As the bones of meat and fish, shells of shellfish, skins of potatoes, bran of wheat, etc. Edible portion.—As the flesh of meat and fish, the white and yolk of eggs, wheat flour, etc. The edible portion consists of water and nutritive ingredients, or nutrients. The nutritive ingredients are protein, fats, carbohydrates, and min- eral matters. The water, refuse, and salt of salted meat and fish are called nonnutrients. In comparing the values of different food materials for nourishment they are left out of account. FOODS FOR MAN. 677 USES OF NUTRIENTS, Food is used in the body to build and repair tissue and to furnish energy. The manner in which the valuable constituents are utilized in the body may be expressed in tabular form as follows: ye Se AS Pe eee © Forms tissue (muscles, White (albumen) of eggs, tendon, and probably curd (casein) of milk, fat). lean meat, gluten of wheat, etc. Allserveas fucland yield Ce ee eA Form fatty tissue. energy in form of heat and Fat of meat, butter, olive muscular strength, oil. oils of corn and wheat, etc. Darbonvyarates -5.... 2-5 7... Transformed into fat, Sugar, starch, etc. Mineral matters (ash)_..._..-- Aid in forming bone, Phosphates of lime, pot- assist in digestion, ash, soda, etc. etc. The fuel value of food.—Heat and muscular power are forms of force or energy. The energy is developed as the food is consumed in the body. The unit commonly used in this measurement is the calorie, the amount of heat which would raise the temperature of a pound of water 4° F, The following general estimate has been made for the average amount of poten- tial energy in 1 pound of each of the classes of nutrients: Calories. SAUD CE INI toi ae ee acca e de. cago sis 1, 860 Semen Clee BUR OP De Se Se BP iso SS epee cde weal Sara le de wc ed 4, 220 Tt pose, Ol CAT UONVGTALOS =< 5. l'on ae oct ees Daceee 1, 860 In other words, when we compare the nutrients in respect to their fuel values, their capacities for yielding heat and mechanical power, a pound of protein of lean meat or albumen of egg is just about equivalent to a pound of sugar or starch, and a little over 2 pounds of either would be required to equal a pound of the fat of meat or butter or the body fat. Within recent years analyses of a large number of samples of foods have been made in this country. In the table below the average results of a nuinber of these analyses are given. Average composition of American food products, ' Food materials (as pur- Icarbohy.| Fuel val- chased) _ Refuse. wlatnety pound. ANIMAL FOOD. Beef, fresh : Chuck, including shoul- |Per cent.|Per cent.|Per cent. | Per cent. Per cent.|Per cent. | Calories. . OS 2 19.9 54.1 15.3 So eres 81.8 10.1 ala 55.9 1.5 1, 255 CU ainsi Sac dels anne Gutters caw aaah 20. 4 7.0 8,1 63.4 ik 1, 650 OFream: CPACKGPS.. 2.04 cnan|encens nce 7.0 9.3 13. 1 69.2 1.4 2,010 Sa ae 2 es © a. 4.3 1 BN 8.8 74.2 1 Mag 1,955 DOGS Or BOR Ol Gd cndn beabebieeewuw cone 8.0 10.3 9.4 70.0 1.8 1, 900 Pe Gu eee ak vadicch tees nce cue 44.8 4.6 9.5 59.6 1.5 1, 220 Sugars: LUE Bee pe eee @ eee 25. My is PS 68.0 | 3.6 1,315 Mr. (rei GMNUNR ban) ts ooo edvesdhe cre nunses la ekeasinan| aonn wpadite OOS Oe weed 1, 860 DS SPT, te ti niieinitilll beondhas tiup ced detsen nadabipuy cubed 10rd bea gee 1,305 Vegetables: PAG CTOs tin ore sitchen ns ll gn tebinmis 13. 2 22.8 1.8 59.1 3.6 1, 590 Beans, Lima, green ......|.......... 68.5 (Pe: ct 22.0 ee 570 tr kit: eens oe ee 87.3 2.2 4 9.4 ro Pz PIO es dba dir ln ci haa ee 20.0 70.0 1.3 a 4 il | 9 170 SS a eee 15.0 76.8 1.8 8 4.9 1.2 140 EE IEE PES Eee] ae ae 94,4 1.4 ae! 3.0 1.1 85 Corn, green (sweet), edi- DOP ULOMN Gee sn ace eS ce |e 52 81.3 2.8 pica! 14.1 Py 350 SSUGUINDOLS. oA. -- same woe 15.0 81.6 atk 2 2.1 A 60 OO i saci wrco ae anaes 18.0 (geal pay | 3 2.7 8 &5 Un oe, a 8 10.0 78.6 1.5 4 8.9 6 | 210 PDR ex «ob cade co eaeeee 20.0 63.9 1.3 5 12.9 1.4 285 Peas (Pisum sativum), RR ae cc asatomau Maueelee ees 10.8 24.1 a ft 61.5 2.5 1, 640 Peas (Pisum sativum), i: i, eae eae 50.0 39.0 2.2 3 8.0 5 200 Peas (cowpeas), dried-...-|.-...-.--- 13.0 21.3 1.4 60.9 3.4 1,590 CES tn, 2 a eee 15.0 67.1 1.8 a | 15.3 an 825 Sweet potatoes.-........-.- 15.0 58.9 1.5 .6 23.1 9 480 PINION 3.6 Sate rec doe GE See ole atin a itn 92.4 2.1 .5 3.1 1.9 120 MNERBIN o choo u lu toee eu 50. 0 43.3 8 3 5.2 4 125 MNSEIBAIOR ietuhid oie eect ois onli Gabor ew 94. 4 8 «4 3.9 i) 105 PONDS 3 os nl deanna ss oe 62.2 1.0 owt 6.1 6 135 Vegetables, canned: my, BYOCN scnc. 32) on acces loasyen ecu. 15.7 2.8 1.3 19.3 9 465 Peas (Pisum sativum), POT Gs soit. Ui ead a ka okie dP e de aia 85.3 3.6 +2 9.8 Bit 255 ORR LOCOS cs boas dndsead ees oPX ote owe 94.0 Be 2 4.0 .6 105 Fruits, berries, etc., fresh: PURI oe cata ts eteaen < 25.0 61.5 4 4 12.4 3 255 WOHTIAMIM 2 ton Boece ake 40.0 44.5 at .5 13.7 .6 290 ee a ee ee 25.0 59.1 1.0 1.3 13.3 3 320 MOTORS ee ie ol so dant 30.0 62.5 pf 6 5.8 4 145 Oralipes 224s faces 4 27.0 64.5 ‘6 4 G4 4 160 oes ys een eek eas eee 25.0 62.9 5 .6 10.6 4 235 PAM DOTTIEE Li eakice di ennust the 85.8 Ob AAA none 12.6 6 255 Ere wWoerries. si. oc. 10.0 $1.8 -9 .6 6.1 .6 155 Watermelons...........-: 58.0 39.0 Se ee cosa cue 2.7 vk 55 Fruits, dried: NIOGS. - ce ues ee ae 36.2 1.4 3.0 57.6 1.8 1, 225 ER oe a osd pk es 12.0 18.3 1.9 4.5 61.9 1.4 1, 37. reise VN Fi SO ee EA ae ees 22.5 ee eee es 70.0 2.4 1, 395 eres, fee Re Se Se 14.0 2.5 4.7 74.7 4.1 1, 635 Miscellaneous: Cocoanut, prepared. ....|.-.....-.- 3.5 6.3 57.4 31.5 1.3 3, 125 oHeoiaAte) LW. 32. oc eles ee 10.3 12.5 47.1 26.8 3.8 2, 720 ocdm, powdered . .......- <2) -.esaa-er 4.6 21.6 28.9 37.7 7.2 2, 320 1 Average of a number of kinds. DIETARY STANDARDS. Dietary studies have been made in considerable numbers in different countries, The results of such studies and experiments to determine the amount of food required by men engaged in different occupations have resulted in the adoption of dietary standards, Some of these follow. 680 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Standards for daily dietaries. Nutrients. l « Fuel Car- Protein. Fat. bohy- value. drates. European: Pound, | Pownd. | Pounds. | Calories, Man at moderate WORK «ioc uccu cues San deelacouebececetce 0.26 0.12 1,10 3, 055 Man OS DATO WOR Morn cd caetode coed date naicutesdeeesseees a2 22 99 3, 370 American: Man without muscular WOPrk....-cccccwseeccecncevencs- sete encased Siacioy alist 3, 000 Man with light muscular work....-.......------s------ Me dwn wewun lo wianee 3, 000 Man with moderate muscular work...........-------- HF eee eee 3, 500 Man with hard muscular work:.....-....-------«------ x.) en 4, 500 The table of composition of food materials shows the amount of water, protein, fat, carbohydrates, and ash content and the total fuel value per pound. The protein, fat, and carbohydrates all furnish energy. In addition to furnishing energy, protein forms tissue. Since protein and energy are the essential features of food, dietary standards may be expressed in their simplest form in terms of protein and energy alone. Observation has shown that as a rule a woman requires less food than a man, and the amount required by children is still less, varying with the age. It is customary to assign certain factors which shall represent the amount of nutrients required by children of different ages and by women as compared with adult man. The various factors which have been adopted are as follows: Factors used in caleulating meals consumed in dietary studies. One meal of woman equivalent to 0.8 meal of man at moderate muscular Fabor. One meai of boy 14 to 16 years of age, inclusive, equivalent to 0.8 meal of man, One meal of girl 14 to 16 years of age, inclusive, equivalent to 0.7 meal of man. One meal of child 10 to 13 years of age, inclusive, equivalent to 0.6 meal of man. One meal of child 6 to 9 years of age, inclusive, equivalent to 0.5 meal of man. One meal of child 2 to 5 years of age, inclusive, equivalent to 0.4 meal of man. One meal of child under 2 years of age equivalent to 0.5 meal of man. These factors are based in part upon experimental data and in part upon arbi- trary assumptions. They are subject to revision when experimental evidence shall warrant more definite conclusions. METHOD OF CALCULATING DIETARIES, The following may be taken as an illustration of the way in which the table of composition of food products and the dietary standards may be practically applied. Suppose the family consists of four adults and that there are on hand or may be readily purchased the following food materials: Oatmeal, milk, sugar, eggs, lamb chops, roast beef, potatoes, sweet potatoes, rice, bread, cake, bananas, tea, and coffee. From these materials menus for three meals might be arranged as follows: Breakfast.—Oatmeal, milk, sugar, lamb chops, bread, butter, and coffee. Dinner.—Roast beef, white (Irish) potatoes, sweet potatoes, rice pudding, and tea. Supper.—Bread, butter, cake, and bananas. The amounts required of the several articles of food may b2 readily approxi- mated by any person experienced in marketing or prepa--ng focd-fo- a family. Thus, it may be assumed that four adults would consume for breakfast 14 pounds lamb chops, one-half pound oatmeal, one-half pound bread, 6 ounces milk, 2 ounces sugar, and 2 ounces butter. From the table of composition of food materials the nutritive ingredients which these foods furnish may be easily calculated. Thus, FOODS FOR MAN. 681 if oatmeal contains 15.6 per cent protein and furnishes 1,860 calories per pound, one-half pound would contain 0.078 pound protein (0.5 lb. & 0.156 = 0.078 lb.) and yield 930 calories, and if lamb chops contain 15.3 per cent protein and furnish 1,115 calories per pound, 14 pounds of lamb chops would furnish 0.23 pound protein (1.5 1b. X 0,153 == 0,2295 Ib.) and 1,673 calories. The others may be calculated in the same way. The assumed quantities of food materials which the four persons would consume in a day and the calculated protein content and fuel value would be as follows: a Menu for family of four adults for one day. ; f | Fuel Food materials. Protein. | value ——_ —____ -_——_ —— - = ———— - - See ~~ Breakfast: Ounces. | Pound. | Calories Orde) US Ae Ae 2 Se AO Se ae ee ee LS See a eee. ceed 0. 078 930 Pe a epi Ga Say xp alan og ee auranpaia > ae phe aera ence 017 122 Se Satna Wane ea cana andie nase sd napagekens\Uactauawasl «. it lemeapeeeae 232 OI CLECED BOG) doen cntns watdnd eweteymance news . 229 1, 673 ERE SOO Gla nie an ape cm mreln aharmeipunl acarn gaia oledese acm . 048 6 RE Os wet ae ots on dee dab saienn Coleseidctalescescecs| © |) (Bre sce aee 434 RE SM te ek oe See fe inn cana dew lpccnedSemGlae du dened | . 010 417 Oe 0 ees en ee eee Se! Ceara 382] 4,411 Dinner: } Se bOR. CONGO): scncawcues twhe vawandiNddan utube Lode dent .270 1,2 Cor EOS OS Ree SS ANS a * ERE Sak CE ad SS eee ee y .013 244 Pee POLRCOGS 6 25— at. cadena Wawa ebebia Lene dO tbie Sotelwbsten bane y -O11 360 12 CIN RSE Oy = RE Se a SE TP se 8 eS pe ones a . 036 453 LETT 2) rp a oder Fic mS SORORTWE p per AE a8 og Re ES a a Oe Cee ee 434 RI neg oben whe Saeed ab a be ee a eee eta Ra een sean aes . 020 407 Ee te Se ee ee LOE a” POS TRF oa Se ee Ee ed ee . 033 161 BRE ee ek cts eae ee Ses Seat ee tesa c ie eee te 012 122 SI hres ee cera eeclecks dnc ses Settle Sinn tar el ee Cee eavasew Medmcie. Le wonirane del PO te Oe ee oe heen ceo a eon wane dawe saad oben bebo uece an cndloe ow ewoekc .010 410 IRs oh a Se erabh te hinew raeeniaig' s uniehah Sanhiee =~ g corka) @apen~> bale eee 405 | 4, 056 Supper we Bévad Rn aie seein Se elite nica ane e a Le cae eee | eee eos O71 904 EWG UOR Eee oe ee ee oe ag eke ee eee ae ee bee ce). Bee See LDN: 52h. Seen SOT Ba eae op ae ee ie ele any SR, ay | ee . 005 217 OES ERE Be irr Lae to nop EE ee, rh Sy NE, lS ae ee . 085 825 RON od, MRI ag She nh OLA) ee ee te a Me Sa 111] 2,380 EE OTEAL cea Meee on a Spa fe ne oe oehoe 808 | 10, 847 PGOT RIES See es nets at ens Goa rete Pot ce ee el . 224 | 2, 712 1 Coffee and tea in themselves have little or no nutritive value. In the menu, allowance is made for the milk or cream and the sugar that would ordinarily be added. The American dietary standard for a man at moderate muscular work calls for 0.28 pound protein and 3,500 calories. It will be seen that the menu suggested above is insufficient, that is, more food must be supplied. For instance, cheese might be added for dinner and pork and beans and milk for supper. The amounts of protein and energy which a sufficient quantity of these articles for four persons would supply are shown in the following table: Food added to bring the day’s menu up to the dietary standard. Food materials. Weights. Protein. | Poh on: Pounds. | Ounces. | Pound. eck 5: OREBRO ane Ueed~ > Sunk Seiad eee ee ee ER Oe So et eee 4} 0.073 Iie cies cain puss ws chns on scon waned aDvibd euaededbial-uawas wus 12 . 167 1,193 nok este MEEIE Rae ass cag bapapere= oseand Wn adex=cdue’ aeeeetes Leeks ¢ = = 4 _ &29 Se BOR me tw 6666 bone ae Od se BES SSN OOS BHESS CaAeEe td ceTEe a Odese 4 jaaccca anes . ‘ | eee SANPENEE SICA ELEOCE BO) ZEUINL oo ain gaa wits chon seem ncochen ony Pecan athe | 251 3, 225 682 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. These additions would make the total protein 1.149 pounds and the total fuel value 14,072 calories for four persons, or for one person! 0,287 pound protein and 3,518 calories, which are approximately the amounts required by the dietary standard, Following the above method the value of any menu chosen may be easily caleu- lated. Itshould be borne in mind that approximate rather than absolute agree- ment with the dietary standard is sought. It is not the purpose to furnish a pre- scription for definite amounts of food materials, but rather to supply the means of judging whether the food habits of families accord in general with what research has shown to be most desirable from a physiological standpoint. If economy is necessary a study of the tables will show that it is possible to devise menus which will furnish the requisite amounts of nutrients and energy at com- paratively low cost. COMPOSITION OF TYPICAL AMERICAN FLOURS. A comparison of the values for food of the principal kinds of American flour may be made from the following tables. It will be remembered that the proteids, carbohydrates, and gluten are the principal nutrients. The ash, water, and fiber may be considered as waste, while the ether extract is comparatively unimpor- tant. HIGH-GRADE PATENT FLOUR. A high-grade American patent flour has approximately the following compo- sition : Per cent Water: =. coke ence Se es eee ee es 12.75 Proteias (factor 6.25)... 3. hoe. Joe ee 1.00 Grime mah . 8 os oak bee ask RE ee eee . 50 Mintetrlitem ©) occ 5 os erence ck een sed ee ee caste bia xi 3 ala 26. 00 Dry wi nten oo 3 i i ck ee eas Loe Ce eee ee 10.00 Carbohydrates (factor 6.25)... s.ncoocenwenic Sse Gee 75.25 COMMON MARKET FLOUR. It is probable that as a whole the flours which are exposed for sale in a market like that of Washington, D. C., will be representative of the flours of the whole — country, as very little of the local supply comes from the wheat grown in the vicin- — ity. The data obtained, therefore, from the analyses of a large number of samples — bought in the open market may be relied upon as giving a fair indication of what a typical common market bulk flour is. The composition of such a typical flour, — as indicated by the data recently obtained, is approximately as follows: Per cent. WV IEE os anil oye AS GE ee SL Ok Wy Ea ee ae eee 12. 25 Proteids (factor. 6.25) 65 2.2 cc te 2 os. 2 eee 10. 20 TRIE, oF ee oe Pek ci a ee Oe nS a na a 24. 50 rg erro be A Se lier) 1 cag ees Cc oe eae 9.25 Bithar GstPaven oe keg si ome ee Cae eee 1.30 NE hee ce hi oe ire RENN Me te), clog Dies eee SI 2 ts 60 eGR es Bag, hain eh The ek ke 1a ee mae oe”. 30 Carbohydrates. (factor 6.25)! s.....-.s28e fos. cu, eee 75. 65 COMPOSITION OF TYPICAL AMERICAN FLOURS, 683 BAKERS’ FLOUR. The typical American flour which is sold under the name of bakers’ flour, and which, as a rule, is regarded as somewhat inferior to the high-grade patent flours, has a composition which, as determined by the foregoing analyses, is approxi- mately represented by the following numbers: Per cent. GOD oe we hd ahais eaters Patil amee dhl take slike Gidw lcd re Us ae sane wae See eae 11.75 Proteids (factor 6.25)... 2... PON athuteosdueaneacin wig a ap 12. 30 SIE PAMENL no anki ne tadaadth feduan SLUMS Neen k tesivees Se eee 13.10 et i, Te Se ee epee ot Ons ae RT ee SiC a me SI MERRIE cusd sacri in a Hiakdbiees, Ptah elepid cl wena swans 1.30 ER tae ah inkt At tas gp & 9 Gham tke evsinem ates bs ekgnchs sade peal > 5 ahd w ) laren SS 4. 44 1.29 Chere Ce ee ee Ti) ad, ee ee Meee acne SLE Ree . O4 -16 Whole plant. 22.25. Se Ae) ee AOE ee) eS raked Sel Fe ' 10.13 3.32 oo a | oo ————— SS SSS Bettuce. leaves?:...2. 22225 100 86.28) ~$3:71 |] |. _ ..86-1...2. 2202233 eee an Obs copay 2368 228 ot BP Se 100 10. 1-18. 2 56-. 62 . 82-. 85 IPE Fo oo do tie eek Seane 100 87.4.) |j|j§«.T78| . 88) c-- uss 2 Se eee eee nies 7s afi sr 8 kos eat es ee B274086')'82: to36 |.-b.. 22s ) Pe ay Boneblack pene pce (dissolved honevuiaek) ...--1............1 teas | te’ Ss 27° tel@ - 1......- 2.0 eee Ground DONG. _..22 5252-2 ....) 2.060 £O 6 tO 3: lb tons, |: tote... ke Stesmed: pone. |... -- 2205... -- 1.5to 2.5 610 Si 16toR | tee ss A eee Dissolved bone. .-.......-..--- 2 to 3 Me 1) Ste 8 VIS Vtoh:! bela ame py Cy. Sn PePera aera, rs See) FE Let fe Et ee | ee Be ns ee 3. Supplying potash: DEPRES OE ORME 65 sins wind > isp doe Reena Taney Eee tae diese: 50 45 to48 btadek. of potash (high rian Tien CV aap. 555 Bed Pe ee re tae eles fis 8 os lk ag AE ope: Sank 48 to 52 5to L5 Sulphate of potashand mag- MONS Ook os neo cake neo sdu cs ahh al ake nt one aie Manet. eee eee 26 to 30 1.5to 2.5 BRINGS « . bso Coos ek ens oe pee OE WAGE la ee eee oe ee eee 12to12.5 |30 to32 ee EN ET SN BRM eMOR NEN TINEA Fk 9 lage ger trae 16to2 42 to46 Gottea-hull ashes *2 32006 ee 2. a ee ee ae 7 to 9 BtoB \') sts Wood sahes funleachadg) 2. oh. eck iced tone poe al'teeca oe es toe 2to.8. bask uae Wrood ashes tleosched)'*. 2 store ae oe eee ee wo eee Ito RG Vite 2°" Se TODECCO BOING n.d ict ae ache a® By Dibadess andes a 3 to 5 5to 8 ao ae FARM MANURES. Cattle excrement (solid, fresh) -- EO [eansicecealte sce eee Prn i (eee ce Gathosrine (fresh). ..-...:i.i ar G26 10 PORCibs so.20) sess es Wm 20 I GHOREIMG, +2 2.25225. 40 x 40 Apple, dwarf ........- 15 X 15 20 X 16 30 X 30 10 x 10 18 x 18 20 XK 20 Peet 24 X 24 |) 13 X 13 || Pecan .......-....---- 50 x 50 20-56: 20P tl Pla tes Sos oes. oe 20 X 20 40 «x 40 16 x 16 18 x 18 | Wednrits.02 ssae~0s 50 x 50 Pear, dwarf.-..........| 16 x 16 ' 16 x 16 | 40 x 40 Q a x br |: ae ae eee eee = x = ! Blackberries--.---.---- : *< (LOL 6 2 eee eS x Xx > 2 X 12 || Kaki -....-.---...--.- 20 X 20 | Raspberries --..-..-.-- | 6x 4 J EEO a 2 x 30 OU VGrass ita re % = | Ak ce ce and goose- | | - be , « 25 | Da yerries. 16x 20 x 20 |, Orange andlemon..-| 30 X 30 || Strawberries ---.....- bell DOG A Cherries, sweet---.-.-- 30 x 30 | 25 X 25 |} uh oes 24 X 24 || Grapednebelsdain cst 8 X 10 || ae bee 6x 8 1 Cranberries ......... | 2X 2 REVIEW OF WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS, SEASON OF 1897. [From Climate and Crop Division, Weather Bureau. } An elaborate and detailed review of the weather and crop conditions of the United States, during the period of planting, cultivation, and harvesting, for obvious reasons can not be given in the few pages to which this paper is limited. 1 Aag7——44 690 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The following summary, therefore, is confined to a brief discussion of the condi- tion of the more important staples and marked climatic features during the erop season of 1897, and the presentation of meteorological tables and diagrams show- ing the departures from normal temperature and precipitation during the period from January 1 to October 25. An explanation of the diagrams and more detailed reference to the temperature and rainfall data contained in the tables will be found at the end of this paper, SUMMARY OF THE SEASON, BY WEEKS. March was « very wet month in the States of the central valleys and on the central and north Pacific coasts, while there was more than the average precipi- tation over much the greater part of the country east of the Rocky Mountains. The month averaged colder than usual in the valleys of the Upper Missouri and Red River of the North, throughout the Rocky Mountain region, and on the Pacific coast, the first and second decades being exceptionally cold from Minne- sota westward, the average temperature for the week ending the 15th ranging from 20° to 35° below the normal in Montana, the Dakotas, and northern Minne- sota. In all districts east of the Mississippi River and from the Lower Missouri River southward to the Gulf coast and Rio Grande Valley, the month averaged milder than usual, the temperature excess ranging from 3° to 6° per day over the greater part of the territory named. Farming operations were retarded by wet weather in the States of the central valleys, and at the close of the month the season was considered backward, notwithstanding there was an excess in temperature. By the close of the month some corn had been planted as far north as Tennessee and the southern portions of Missouri and Kansas, while farther south greater progress had been made, — planting in Texas and northern Louisiana being about completed. Cotton plant- ing in Texas had progressed favorably, and some had been planted in South ~ Carolina, but in other States of the cotton belt practically no planting had been | dong up to the close of the month. Wheat was winter killed to some extent in Missouri, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin, and Ohio, and in Michigan an d Indiana the crop sustained damage by floods, but in Kansas, Oklahoma, Arkan-— sas, and Texas it was in promising condition. By April 12 corn planting was finished in portions of the more southerly States and was in progress as far north as Missouri and Virginia, but preparations toe ce planting in Tennessee and the States of the Ohio Valley were much retarde: fy by excessive moisture. Some improvement was reported in the condition o: of winter wheat in Missouri, and in portions of Indiana, and in Kansas, Oklahoma, — Arkansas, Tennessee, Kentucky, the Virginias, and Maryland the crop was grow-- ing finely, with favorable conditions reported from Ohio, southern ea and Nebraska. By the middle of April but little spring wheat had been soy and seeding was principally confined to the southern portion of the spring-wi ‘ region, none having been sown in North Dakota, where the soil was too wet. Cotton planting was more general and was in active progress over the central portions of the cotton belt, some having been planted as far north as No: h Carolina. The week ending April 12 having proved unusually cool throughout the Gulf States and central valleys, with frosts as far south as the northern portions of the Gulf States from the 8th to the 10th, garden products and frur ts sustained some injury and cotton in Texas was unfavorably affected. j The week ending April 19 was also abnormally cool throughout the cent ral and southern portions of tho country, with freezing temperature as far south a the Lower Missouri and Ohio valleys, further retarding corn planting, but in New England and in the Rocky Mountain and Pacific coast States it was milder than usual. At this date the condition of winter wheat in the principal winter-whea “Th f WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS. 691 States of the central valleys was very unpromising, and in Wisconsin, Llinois, and Indiana considerable was plowed up for other crops. By this time some spring wheat had been seeded in the uplands of the Dakotas and Minnesota, where, however, excessive moisture continued to delay seeding, but good progress had been made in Iowa and seeding was about completed in Nebraska. Some oats had been sown in South Dakota and Michigan, while farther south, includ- ing the Atlantic coast States, the bulk of the crop had been sown. Owing to excessive moisture, some rotting was reported from Ohio and Illinois, but the outlook for oats was generally favorable, exceptionally so in the Southern States. Cotton planting was in progress in Oklahoma, southeastern Missouri, Tennessee, and the Carolinas, and was nearing completion over central and southern Mis- sissippi. The cool weather continued injurious in Texas. The temperature conditions of the week ending April 26 were very favorable, but there was too much rain in the States of the Missouri and Upper Mississippi valleys. The succeeding week (ending May 3) was too cool throughout the States of the central valleys, but the light rainfall in the valleys of the Upper Mississippi, the Red River of the North, and the Missouri afforded favorable opportunity for farm work, which had been much delayed in consequence of excessive rains the previous week. In the Rocky Mountain States and in Oregon this week was decidedly favorable, but it was somewhat too cool in Washington. The week ending May 10 was exceptionally favorable in the States of the Upper Mississippi and Missouri valleys, both for farm work and growth of crops, but in the Southern States the conditions were less favorable, being too cool, and in some sections too dry. Under the favorable conditions prevailing in the principal corn States planting was being pushed rapidly, and was in progress as far north as southern New England, Michigan, and South Dakota. In the Middle Atlantic - States and southward of the Ohio and Lower Missouri rivers corn planting was generally nearing completion. In the Southern States insects were reported numerous and destructive to corn, which was also unfavorably affected by the low temperatures and in some sections by drought. Spring-wheat seeding was practi- cally completed over the northern portion of the spring-wheat region, and over the central and southern portions the early sown had a good start and was grow- ing well. Winter wheat continued promising in the Middle Atlantic States, Ken- tucky, and Tennessee, and some improvement was reported from Ohio and Indi- ana. In Oregon and Washington the outlook for winter wheat was very promising, but in California the crop had been greatly injured by hot winds. Cotton made slow progress over the central and eastern portions of the cotton belt, the weather being too cool, and complaints of insects and bad stands were quite general, while the effects of drought were unfayorabie in some sections. In Texas, however, the condition of the crop was generally improved, but it was suffering for rain over the southern and eastern portions of the State. The week ending May 17 in the central valleys was favorable for farming operations, but too cool for rapid germination and growth. On the Atlantic coast the temperature conditions were more favorable, which, with abundant rains, caused rapid advance of crops, but farm work was retarded to some extent as a result of excessive moisture. In the States of the Rocky Mountain and Pacific coast regions the weather conditions of this week were exceptionally favorable. The week ending May 24 was generally favorable for farm work, but in the States of the central valleys, lake region, and Middle Atlantic coast cool nighis proved unfavorable for some crops, while need of rain began to be felt in the cen- tral Mississippi and Lower Missouri valleys and in the South Atlantic States. Cotton experienced a general improvement in Texas, Alabama, Arkansas, and Georgia, but cool nights proved injurious in Tennessee and Mississippi. In Indiana and Ohio, where corn planting had been much retarded, rapid progress 692 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. was made. Planting was well advanced in Michigan, and continued in Wiscon- sin, Minnesota, and North Dakota. Considerable replanting was necessary in Nebraska, Missouri, Illinois, Kentucky, and portions of Kansas. Winter wheat continued in promising condition in the Middle Atlantic States and Tennessee, but the outlook in Kentucky was less favorable. In Illinois the condition of the crop was so poor that some fields were plowed up for corn. During this week spring wheat made good progress except in North Dakota, where little improve- ment was experienced. The week ending May 31 was generally unfavorable, being much too cool in all - districts east of the Rocky Mountains and too dry in the Southern States, while — excessive rains in New England retarded farm work. On the Pacific coast this — week was favorable in California and Washington, but too dry in Oregon. The week ending June 7 was unseasonably cool and unfavorable to crop growth ~ throughout the central valleys, Lake Region, New England, and the Middle Atlan- tic States, but in the Southern States the temperature conditions were more — favorable. On the Pacific coast rain was badly needed. By the middle of June corn, while generally backward, had made good progress _ in the principal corn States, but as a result of cool weather and frosts, suffered — serious injury in Wisconsin, Minnesota, and North Dakota; and in New England, the northern portions of the Middle Atlantic States, and the Upper Ohio Valley its growth was retarded. The cotton crop experienced a general improvement throughout the cotton belt, and was generally clean, with insects less numerous, It however needed warm, dry weather over northern Texas and showers in other sections of the State. Except on the Pacific coast, winter wheat had made further ~ improvement, and harvesting was in progress in southern Kansas, Missouri, and Illinois, having been nearly completed in some of the more southerly States. O n the Pacific coast the condition of winter wheat was only fair in Oregon; in Cali- fornia high temperatures had proved injurious, but the reports from Washington were more favorable. Spring wheat was reported as improved in Minnesota an 1 North Dakota, where the effects of low temperature had been injurious, Except over the central Rocky Mountain region and California, where it wai unseasonably cool, the week ending June 21 was generally favorable for the growth and cultivation of crops. re While somewhat too cool for the best results in the more northerly district with excessive heat in the Southern States, damaging local storms in portions 0} New Jersey, Alabama, Kentucky, and Missouri, and need of rain in portions of of the Ohio Valley, Gulf States, western Kansas, and Colorado, the week ending June 28 was, upon the whole, favorable for the growth and cultivation of ¢ es and the harvesting of grain. Cotton made rapid growth in Oklahomaand Tes and a general improvement was reported from other portions of the cotton regio; although in the central and eastern portions the plant was reported small backward, and a general rain was much needed over the central and western po r- tions. Corn made further improvement in the principal corn States, having m a ‘ rapid growth in Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, and Oklahoma, In ~ 7 more northerly sections, however, the crop continued backward, and hot winds ii Texas and drought in Arkansas and the east Gulf States rendered the outlook les favorable than previously reported. Winter-wheat harvesting continued unde favorable conditions. By this date (June 28) harvesting was in progress a " north as the southern portion of Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio, and the cron maturing rapidly in the more northerly sections. Excessive rains caused § injury to the wheat in shock, and harvesting in California was somewhat retat 4 by cool weather and showers over the northern part of the State, while Oreg and Washington experienced beneficial rains. Spring wheat generally ni favorable progress and the early sown was heading. o) WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS. 693 In the States of the central valleys, Lake Region, and New England the week ending July 5 was very favorable, the high temperatures being especially benefi- cial to corn. In the Southern States the conditions were, however, less propitious, excessive heat and absence of rain proving injurious to most crops. In the prin- cipal corn States, corn made rapid growth, but in the Southern States it was suffering for rain, while in Missouri excessive rains retarded cultivation. The bulk of the winter-wheat crop was harvested south of the fortieth parallel; i. e., about the latitude of the central portions of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. Harvest- ing in Missouri was retarded by heavy rains, which caused further damage to grain in shock. In Nebraska good progress had been made with winter-wheat harvest, which was about to begin in Michigan. In California, the grain was reported as shrunken less as a result of hot winds than had been anticipated. The week ending July 12 was exceptionally warm over the greater part of the country east of the Rocky Mountains, but was generally favorable, except in some of the Southwestern States, which were much in need of rain. In all States of the central valleys corn made rapid growth, and cultivation was fin- ished, except in the more northerly sections. Over the central and eastern por- tions of the cotton belt there was a general improvement in the condition of cotton, but in Missouri, Arkansas, and Texas it was suffering from drought; picking had begun in Texas. Winter-wheat harvesting continued in the more northerly sections east of the Rocky Mountains and in California, and had begun in Oregon. Spring wheat continued in promising condition over the northern portion of the spring-wheat region, but its condition was somewhat less favor- able over the southern portions, hot winds having affected the crop injuriously in portions of South Dakota and rust having caused damage to some extent in Iowa; the outlook in Oregon and Washington continued excellent. During this week light frosts occurred in Idaho and Nevada, but caused no serious damage. While the week ending July 19 was generally favorable, some damage resulted from excessive rains and local storms in portions of New York, New Jersey, and northeastern Alabama, and the drought continued in portions of North Caro- lina, Texas, Tennessee, Missouri, and Kansas. In the principal corn States of the central valleys, with the exception of portions of Kansas and Missouri, corn made favorable progress, the reports indicating rapid growth in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, South Dakota, Nebraska, and Iowa, but it was not altogether well cultivated in the last-named State. There was a general improvement in the condition of cotton in the central and eastern portion of the cotton belt, and also in portions of the western section. In Texas, however, .- rain was needed, and cotton was shedding badly in some localities in the central and southern portions of the State. Winter-wheat harvest east of the Rocky Mountains was completed, except in the more northerly sections, and harvesting continued on the Pacific coast, the weather conditions in Washington and Ore- gon being very favorable. Some spring wheat had been harvested in Nebraska and it was ripening in lowa and Oregon; in the Dakotas the weather conditions were not favorable for the late sown; in Minnesota a splendid crop was promised on the highlands, but the outlook on the lowlands was less favorable. The week ending July 26 was very favorable to agricultural interests on the Pacific coast and generally in the States of the central valleys, east Gulf, south and middie Atlantic coast, but over portions of New England, and the valleys of the Ohio and Red River of the North there was too much rain, while drought pre- vailed over the greater part of Texas and in portions of Arkansas, Missouri, and Kansas. Excessive rains caused damage to grain in shock in portions of the Ohio Valley, Tennessee, and middle Atlantic States, and severe and damaging local storms occurred in portions of New England, New York,and New Jersey. Corn continued to make rapid growth in the States of the central valleys, Lake Region, 694 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. New England, and the middle Atlantic coast, but in central and southern Kansas, Texas, and Louisiana it was suffering serious injury from drought. Cotton generally made favorable progress, although complaints of rust and shedding — were received from portions of the eastern section,and drought was causing the bolls to open prematurely in southern Texas. Owing to excessive rains this week was not favorable for completing winter-wheat harvest where unfinished in some of the more northerly sections, and spring wheat sustained injury by heavy rains in North Dakota. In Minnesota, except on lowlands, and in South Dakota the outlook for spring wheat was promising; in Washington and Oregon the crop was nearing maturity in excellent condition. } The weather conditions of the week ending August 2 were generally favorable in the south Atlantic and east Gulf States and in the Ohio and Upper Mississippi — valleys and upper lake region, but in New England and over the greater portion _ of the middle Atlantic States, including western New York and portions of the — Upper Ohio Valley it was too wet, while the States of the Lower Missouri Valley — suffered seriously from hot, dry winds, and drought prevailed over the greater — part of Texas and in portions of Arkansas, Tennessee,and Louisiana. The con- ditions on the Pacific coast continued favorable. Much injury was done to the hay crop and to maturing and shocked grain by heavy rains in New England and portions of the middle Atlantic States. Considerable plowing for fall seeding was done in Illinois, Ohio, Tennessee, and Virginia. In the States of the central valleys and in the Atlantic coast and east Gulf — districts the week ending August 9 was generally favorable, but portions of — Missouri, western Tennessee, Mississippi, and Kentucky suffered from drought — and excessive heat. In the west Gulf States the week was very unfavorable, owing to excessive heat and drought. On the Pacific coast the general conditions were favorable, although very warm in Oregon and Washington. Corn continued to make favorable progress and, while rains proved beneficial in Nebraska and Kansas, the crop had been permanently injured in portions of these States. Aft this time it was estimated that the bulk of the crop would be safe from injury by frost by September 15, and that the late planted would be safe by October 1 : Except over portions of North Carolina, Florida, Tennessee, Arkansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma, where cotton made fair progress, this week was not favorable for cotton, complaints of shedding being general over the southern portions of th belt, while worms and rust were reported from some sections. In Texas, Louis- iana,and Arkansas cotton on uplands was suffering from drought. Picking w 18 becoming general over the central and southern portions of the cotton region, an ‘‘ first” bales were marketed in Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, and Florida. Spring-wheat harvest in the Dakotas and Minnesota was well advanced, but was delayed by rains to some extent in South Dakota, where a part of the crop, whieh was overripe, sustained injury. Very favorable reports concerning wheat } tinued from Oregon and Washington, although hot winds in the last-named Sta ie were detrimental. : rought continued in portions of Missouri, Tennessee, and southern Texas, and the need of rain began to be felt in Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, and portions of Vil ginia and North Carolina during the week ending August 16, while there was toc much rain in New England. The conditions were generally favorable for crop in the Southern States, in Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, Wisconsin Michigan, Ohio, and in the Middle Atlantic States. On the North Pacific coas the week, although very warm, was favorable for harvesting. In the prineipa corn States of the central valleys the weather was not wholly favorabie, veing te cool and over a large area too dry. Good rains, however, improved the corn er in Kansas and Nebraska. The week was generally favorable to cotton, exce] ot North Carolina and portions of South Carolina, Missouri, and southern Te where it suffered from drought, but generous rains over the greater part 0 é4 i < WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS. 695 cotton belt arrested premature opening and shedding. The spring-wheat harvest was about finished this week in South Dakota and southern Minnesota and was progressing in the northern part of the latter State and in North Dakota, where heavy rains caused injury to overripe grain and interfered with harvesting. Spring-wheat harvest was also in progress under favorable conditions in Oregon and Washington, The week ending August 23 was very unfavorable in the States of the central valleys, Lake Region, New England, and over the greater part of the Gulf and South Atlantic States, more particularly to the important staples corn and cotton. This week was marked by exceptionally low temperatures over the greater part of the country east of the Rocky Mountains, and light frosts occurred in the lake region and Upper Mississippi Valley. Drought continued over portions of the Virginias, North Carolina, Tennessee, Missouri, and southwestern Texas, and began to be felt in portions of Nebraska, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio, while excessive rains caused damage along the Gulf and South Atlantic coasts. On the Pacific coast and in the Rocky Mountain region the week was generally favor- able, although unusually warm in Oregon and Washington. Spring-wheat har- vest continued in northern Minnesota and the Dakotas, but was delayed by local rain in North Dakota, where some of the overripe wheat was lost. Wheat harvest continued under favorable conditions in Oregon and Washington, being well advanced in Oregon. The succeeding week, ending August 30, proved too ccol in the lake region and New England and too dry in the States of the central valleys, but in the Middle and South Atlantic and Gulf States and generally throughout the Rocky Moun- tain and Pacific coast regions it was favorable. Early corn matured rapidly in Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, and South Dakota, but the crop made slow progress in Dlinois, Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, and the late crop was generally needing warmth and moisture. sossouuey pue AoT[vA O1GO \ se or t+ | Bly ee Wie Basi ER Pe $07B1S JNO ) 0 Sipe hires ek ee es $04JBIS OUBITY FyNog puv o[PPHAL | ‘kL *OAIS -nypout —Avy —lludy 62 “IB *STLOTIOOY OFT Uee ’ —Suipuo syooA\ 10, moat ‘sual hunm sof suorypasasgo uodn pasng jousou ay} WOLL LEST fo uosnas ay} wos saunjzundop eanpouaduay 701 WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS. ity T+] SF +) 2 — 10° — | 60° — a eat 10 1 ae 00° 00° | figeme: ntneiriabbsgter mies so VITIOFTVO It) 99° i 39° — 2° + | H’ — / Is’ — 198° + | 98° + | 80° — | Ot 0 OL’ co" en ae ee 4sBoo OgMvd WON T- — 1: +] 9 — w" — |e: = oo: oe +] To: — | &- —) or | ome 60" 60° Ss ad REN aE: uoTsey UrequnOW, Ayooy se: —i 90° +| e° — | os — | 29° — | St’ — | BF — | 93° — | OF — | eg" — cg" 90° li cl, bacco =r lg SAQT[VA Hinossiy puv tddisstssty teddy ee eet OF | | | Oe — | oe ee 78° + nga be Saul See a uolsey OHV] 1° —| 18° —| SF: — | Bo: — | GO: — | SB — | Ge — | IF — | 68° — | Se: gras ee at 38 So alae, (ae sessoutay, pus AoT[¥A OTFO se — Bf’ — St — | bh — | | ee) ee | OO — | 8 | ee eh '0— oe" — 1 Oe eee 80}B}S JIN) So°T+)| 680+) S8"O— | L°0— | OF 0+ | FL°0— | F'0— | 89°0— | LL" 28 '0— 13'0+ 960+ | 10° 69 '0— |" S07¥Ig OFFUUTZY YINOG puv eTppHL “0G * 0+ | 6L'0— | -s0yNgg OFYULPY YINOg PUL eTPPHT a | | | | | | | | | | —aequreydeg “suOTIONg —SUIpUS SYOOM LOT | Seperetial JP Sein 2 | 9: — | 0° — | Nee 0 * — * — 83° — ce" ites 5 1 Ga A (lara ini ici dant hap. 5 BIUAOF TBO) et |e te | oo Sears 06 a SOR om ee ber tr ee eee a ne ae qSBvoH OfPBd YPION oS (eo Tit +) }o° + Fi poe ieee Chet be toe) Oe 13° + 1 Sab: ZR inlabebskesdahenetate aoe en yooy ee ee 1) OL pee 5 le ee iy |) dolores 89°F te" es’ + ieee hee re SAOQTTVA ; Tinossip~ puv rddssis aedd9 a ee oe | a= 1 fe gee a 1 te Zw’ + g0° = — ee | ee UOLSOYy OAV'T ee ow rs | Ses 5 Ae Go" + 1 5 a 80° 6L° + eee leech Glee essouuey, pus Aaj[VA OTGO oe. — |S" —|—| n° + , Tae 6. + as Ch, = ¢9° — 8g" 69° + LOS ee eg seqyeys Jay LO | t'0—- | 060+ ) & 0+ 8F'O— ¢O'T+ #9 '0— ee 0+ LL°0— *E° | 8 —Avy —SuIpue syooM 10,7 Wotd ‘supal hunu sof suorpasasqo uodn pasng jousou ay} wouf £68— fo uosnas ay} of saunguodap Uoypopidwud "62 IBIL *SUOTJONg THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, YEARBOOK OF 702 ANre INDIAN 2D SOS MH HOD HOD he Stet et OD OD 11D , ‘< i yy : co a / ~~ an ‘ -— 16> (82° ys ee e+ fe+ jt— jst 10 | Mia alia ib, 6 te pl bilge Siedler 5 — |[t— |#— |e— |2— [8=— [P+ [8+ |o+ fot EF {s+ fers pe ei idle Bae da — — {s— |o— je— |e— |tF |9+ |t— jet [O+ [er g + re . r 13 |S Pee a Le” ee ee eee ap cara Ao a — |0 7— Ie— |Or /|0 S— (Oe eS e+ OF Pee err ees eee ee eee = ot Fe a ee ee eee PS -p F _ i+ is [3 ps Sr 9 Sk eee Cee ie ee * | Ga Bie eee ts ee ee _ Sob 6" 8 AOS ee | ae ee Sach} Ocha aces. 2 Sear e dopeerets ea ae ee + ++ |1+ |0 (t=. 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Feed Faia (amnesty ie Ascot tach ht or sas IQON ‘OUrWOTVA ae fy Rema: eee fe ois a Io 2b Sea ie QR ty RS Soke caakert res a ae qa N “vyBUIO SED: Feet b> Gace: 6 a SRM Fs 26 cen kt Samia taco che a ane rs suLy “Y{proouo,) see | pols” | warty Fee Poe aa Uwe res hee Sereere ea sat OW £110 eusrEDy ,— — a eh a ee ee OS ae ee ee Set ae ¢ ae 6 . iia, Papa :AO[[VA LINOSST]T 4 = L1— a+ $'T + wom sie ee RRA RSS 2 OW “S}R0'T (38 + g— g— le 23 + eat ete ts a ee oe os goes | Thaseg: | * nae 5 Oh Bessa Vi Se ds chika’ (inven abe aeieaietaes ary Tir ‘ploysutidg Nee eee oe eS Re, eee ek Le eae BAO] ‘seuOW Sed +. |/7— |g— 9+ Sg Oe es (ental cie cnaknaeaieaidat apm hts tt td VAOT ‘yLOdueABC a es eee Mok, Be nal ee eee ae teas toa vt Yo = ' (rT i |[aoe= Seni eaccena seeps =e sree wa wEeeon@=== uu ‘ . seme 4 cae? :Aot{wA Tddississt toddg af ad gerd ie ae ego [ay bo) ores RE inn ennai bess tae ee eee way “yaad + a4— iit—- jet ilo a men pe tet te See IIL OS8onmg + | 7— g + ht Mle agen, Eee Dues Gee yf BE ge TES STA “OOXNBVATEAL «iF een Rane De Gn (Cy Ge eaniek preterit exareinst oct TOL ‘Ueavy, puvtp + {2 te Ge ye Gs dee gd crane ies hea Qa youn “vuedTy a, A ae oes Seidethisnes esse ee TOUT ‘910.430 October— For week ending— Temperature departures for the season of 1897 from the normal based upon observations for many years. Stations. CV MoCONs ll + ++ ttt tttttt+ YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Nat rie GUD DE ID eH SH be +Httttttt+++ tht+++ett+t+ AN ririririsN Ll+ | l++++ Nwtw NNoMmon CVAD Had tH OR TAR et CO Ht | +++++ CDODixt nm +t+++++ oo fe) ‘ ' '‘ ' ' H 3 ee ee South Atlantic States: & cy eo ne NOs MO es waweee waawne gs ‘3 a iQ: ’ ef : @ OMA of ber seiuas i PPE SCEer| Sas4s ad BE gs Sen cas 55 Baas<40F4 New England: - a, | ees BEGIN Ocoee ewewes Charleston, S.C. .-......-...-. Jecusonville, Pla-..--......--- Bavanneh: Ga... 22 sesseescns Gulf States: Charlotte, .Wilmin OD Pi tH OOO CO +ttt++t+t+++ Get r too Kod +ttttttt +++ See ey ttttttt+ ++ OV AH OVOD =H OD be B19 69 09 +ttttttttt+ Be OD 1D SH SH eH ORAL I Ot +++++++++++ — HOR 2 eH 1D Ab Or eS +++++++4+4+ | + HRHN HO WHOM ID Rr ++++ +4+4+4+/4+ OO OR ONAN OOO rir ttttt++++ | | SHO nMOMOOMHN |. JSR 6. oreten Poi HH HAD OOlD9 ON ++tt++++++++ rai i OD GR OD 69 1019 OO © +++++++t+ ASCMmCOCtNRNR CONS +++++++1] + NHANONARNS coeDeD +11 +790) ee Oo NOCMID Hr +t+t+++++ +++ DOMWAnDanwn 20D ++++t+++ +++ OH HOD OR Red COR +++4++I111 LE] — THORNRNOOC Roe +++ ee HMO HOSOAIOWAHA OO itt ttt HONOONNAAOS COS 19.19 CD SH RN ANVRO +++++++ KOA OoOConmmAgRg ++ +111 ARNO ri ri OD CR HOD OD |++++++++++ AMIN ND Ot OHO ++t+t+++++ + BH OD 19 19 OD SH Olid Mri +++++++4++++ i i ae Tate. ROCK APE «2 -cncces cos ES TeeGate Peete sos vscesnck 9 Mt ed ers ae Mi een ur New Orleans, ERIM MADD ec iccae he wees wwiwne Shreveport, La.......---.--.- AIBStING COR cpeacsccshcuncas Chihiro ld Wt) iia ae ee Banseantonio, Tex. <.ccc.. 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Sh ! ‘ wane eee e nnn F o[OH “treated amet IQON ‘09}VTq TION anle wenn ween ---O£M ‘ouuesogD OR pro Fiiieg iRERS: SAnNAASE A= 1+ | . ; | i Dm _- TBD ‘AD ORV'T 91US aut ph mph ae eee Yse A ‘ouvryody anne nnn nnn nn enee quoyg ‘wueoyy b++t++] ++] PI+LL ELL leet Fel esl Par wa ey 1 a ae Pe Pe ree pee hte vet PEL PT 4eeed 4] Pie tere Slice ie RAR ARRAS Bdghh ae Be Pe Ey eee. || a “AR 1] | || | ax +4 SoM ht Pall ing ~ eleleteieiaieteeieieieiietaied Yyeg ‘§ ‘UoImM FL weeeeen-weneee IqeN ‘ourjuele,A cinta ot mcm IqoN ‘eyRuUO sox gira ipl “ “uIpaoou0,) woe nena enn OW “AID svsuev waneeeeeeeeeee- OM ‘pleysuridg he —_ -_ ‘ S NERA See Lhd ddl oP Bias ies ee WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS, :AOTTVA TNOSsTTT PE a baba ip drewiclciaaet > OW ‘SNOT 3g OS al ee ee Il ‘Ore, Pita alata cyt iate Il ‘pleysupidg gars ie pI VAOT ‘SOULOPT Sod Seep es ws VAOT ‘Qt0dueAtg sigs epee Re hep SIM ‘OSSOID UT Be al spacial de Sep 2 uuryy [NV 4S tli itl] +| 11] Phe bd fel tl dda PP RRS I 7 ee - Cpa Hrsernn wv) ¢ Pe ee eS + ans o Tage whe? ewe, 4 6 Yer are S17O. @ i 6 26s GAG "4 pf —"s j i ‘ ee ee ee ee Ss i> Ba a = . . i a ae . . Ce Pu ) i ' :AoTTVA 1ddississtpy aoddy uly “qynlad aj | 2 FEE Se Py Le | 25,581, 861 738, 394,000 | 232,312,267 | 2,176,466 31, 751, 868 24, 58 i Lid ES eee eee eee 27, 063, 835 661, 035,000 | 209,253,611 | 2,163,657 27, 978, 824 15, 16 Lo. = aS 27,278,083 638, 854,850 | 187,576,092 | 2,038,485 26, 555, 446 13, 6 Lb 27 028,553 662,086,928 | 214,816,920 | 1,944, 780 26, 727, 615 13,3 emer 2 ee OE tet 27,878, 406 824, 443, 587 , 655,068 | 1,890,345 27, 210, 070 i1; ieee See 27, 565, 985 707, 346, 404 , 485,033 | 1,831,201 24, 369, O47 9, 1 ee ae ee 25, 730, 375 698, 767,809 | 147,974,719 | 1,708,561 27, 363, 324 12,23 1 All values in this and the following tables are in gold. sea STATISTICS OF THE PRINCIPAL CROPS. 711 Acreage, production, and value of the principal farm crops in the United States, 1866 to 1897—Continued, Year. eee eee were Barley. Buckwheat. Area. Production.| Value. | Area. |Production. | Acres. | Bushels. Acres, Bushela. 492, 582 11, 285, 807 7,916, 342 1, 045, 624 22,791, 839 1, 131, 217 25, 727, 000 8. 27. 74 1' 227) 826 21, 359, 000 937, 408 22, 814, 100 24948, 127 1, 118, 993 19, 863, 700 1, 025, 795 28, 652, 200 20,298, 104 1, 028, G93 17, 481, 100 1, 108, N24 26, 295, 400 20, 792, 213 536, 092 9, 841, 500 1,177, 735 26, 718, 500 20, 264, O15 418, O15 8, 328, 700 1, 397, 082 26, 846, 400 18,415, 830 418, 497 8, 133, 500 L 387, 106 82, O44, 491 27, 794, 229 454, 152 7, 837, 700 1, 580, G26 32, 552, 500 27, 907 , B24 452, 500 8,016, 600 1, 789, 902 36, 908, 600 27 , 867, 522 575, 530 10: 082, 100 1, 766, 511 38, 710, 500 24, 402, 691 666, 441 ‘668, 800 1, 614, 64 84,441, 400 21,629, 130 649, 923 10, 177, 000 1, 790, 400 42, 245, 680 24, 454, B01 673, 100 12, 246, 820 1, 680, 700 AQ), 283, 100 23, 714, 444 639, 900 15, 140, 000 1, 843, 329 45, 165, 346 30, 090, 742 822, 14, 617, 585 1, 967,510 41, 161, 330 33, 862,413 $28, 815 9, 486, 200 2, 272, 108 48, 953, 926 30, 768, 015 847,112 11,019; 353 2,379,009 50, 136, O97 29, 420, 423 857, 349 168, 95 2, 608,818 6L. 203, 000 29, 779, 170 879, 403 11, 116, 000 2, 729, 859 5 "360, 32, 867, 696 914, 394 12, 626, 000 2, 652, 957 59, 428, 000 31, 840, 510 917, 915 11, 869, 000 2, 901.958 56, 812, 000 29) 464. 890 910, 506 10, 844, 600 2, 996, 882 63, 884, 000 37, 672, 082 912, 630 12,050, 000 8, 220, 834 78,332, 976 32,614, 271 837, 162 12, 110, 329 3, 185,302 67, 168, 344 42, 140, 502 844, 579 12, 432, 831 3, 352,579 86, 839, 153 45, 470, 342 849, 364 12, 760, 932 3, 400, 361 80,096, 762 38, 026, 062 861,451 12 "143, 185 3, 220, 871 69, 869, 495 28, 729, 386 815, 614 12. 122) 311 8, 170,602 61, 400, 465 27,184, 127 789,232 y 668, 3, 299, 978 87, 072, 744 29,312,413 763, 277 15, 341, 399 2,950, 5389 69, 695, 223 22,491, 241 754, 898 14, 089, 783 2,719, 116 66, 685, 127 25, 142,139 717, 836 14, 997, 451 Potatoes. Hay Area. | Production. q “Value. | Area. | Production Acres | Bushels, Pushets, | Acres Tons. 1, 069, 381 107,200,976 | $50,722,553 | 17, 668, 904 21, 778, 627 1, 192, 195 97, 783, 600 et AGe 486 | 20, 020, 554 26, 277, 1,131,552 106, 090, 000 62,918, 660 | 21,541,573 26, 141, 900 1, 222, 250 133, 886, 000 57, 481, 362 18, 591, 281 26, 420, 000 1, 825, 119 114, 775, 000 74, 621, 019 19. 861. 805 24, 525, 000 1, 220, 913 120, 461, 700 64, 905,189 | 19, 009, 052 22, 239, 400 1,381,331 113, 516, 000 , 692,129 | 20,318, 936 23, 812, 800 1, 295, 139 106, 089, 000 69, 153, 709 | 21, 894, 084 25, 085, 100 1, 310, 041 105, 981, 000 65, 223, 314 | 21, 769, 772 25, 133, 900 1,510, 041 166, 877, G00 57,357,515 | 23,507, 964 27, 873, 600 1, 741, 983 1A, 827, 000 77,319, 541 | 25,282, 797 30, 867, 100 1, 792, 287 170, 092, 000 74, 272, 25, 367, 708 31, 629, 300 1, 776, 800 124, 126, 650 72, 923, 575 | 26, 931,300 39, 608, 296 1, 836, 800 181, 626, mo 79, 153, 673 | 27,484, 991 35, 493, 000 1, 842,510 167, 659.5) 81, 062,214 | 25, 863, 955 31, 925, 233 2, 041, 670 109. 145, 494 99, 291, 80, 888, 700 35, 135, 064 2,171, 635 170, 972, 508 95, 304, 844 | 32,339,585 38, 138, 049 2, 289, 275 208, 164, 425 87,849,991 | 35,515, 948 46, 864, 2, 220, 980 190, 642, 000 7d, 524, 290 | 38,571, 593 48, 470, 460 2, 265, 823 175, 029, 600 78, 153, 408 | 39, 849, 701 44, 731, 550 2, 287, 136 168, 051, 000 78,441,940 | 36,501,688 41, 796, 499 2, 357 , 322 134, 103, 000 91,506, 740 | 37, 664, 739 41. 454. 458 2, 533, 280 202, 365, 000 81, 413, 589 | 88,591, 908 465, 643, 094 2, 647, 989 204, 990, 545 72, 704, 413 | 52,947,236 66, 829, 612 2,651, 579 148, 078,945 | 112,205, 235 | 50,712,518 60, 197, 589 2, 714, 77 254, 426, 971 1, O24, 521 | 51,044,490 60, 817, 771 2, 547, 962 155, 654, 819 103.56 7,520 | 50,853;061 59, 823, 7 2, 605, 186 183, 054, 108 681’ 801 49, 613, 469 65, 766, 158 2, 737 , 973 170, 787, 388 91,526,787 | 48,321,272 54, 874, 408 2, 954, 952 207, 237, 370 78, 984,901 | 44,206, 453 47, 078, 541 2, 767, 465 252, 234, 540 72,182,850 | 48,259, 756 59, 282, 158 2, 534, 577 164, 015, 964 89,643, 059 60, 664, 876 — Value. EES se ee eS ee 2S = SESESEERNRRESSRRSES ZERSSESSSREEESZETE _~wewereeuerwreweweweweweewewe ee WOoOow~Vee S350 Poe I — => J SE PSA NIN ANNIAR AANA AN DMMNMIAAS R 415, 131, 366 Pe | mat Benseen —wewewevweleletCC NO eh ehU lh 3 ask seanBe 3 4 Senysnsay 45 3 wv @ ewe eee — —— ~ 2 a z Bis BEERS Bs 712 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Acreage, production, and value of the principal farm crops in the United States, 1866 to 1897—Continued, Year. Acreage, production, value, and disposition of the corn crop of the United States States and Terri- tories. Maine.......- aaa New Hampshire. - Vermont. ...---.-- Massachusetts ---- Rhode Island--.-.- New Jersey. --.--- Pennsylvania -. -- Delaware .......2- Mississippi - ---..- Louisiana. .-.-.-.- "Paras oi see Arkansas .-.-. 5-2 Tennessee PROS os in 1897, by States. [From Division of Statistics. ] Crop of 1897. Acreage. Binkcteke Value. Acres. Bushels. 866, 411 818, 176 $172,213 296 6,201; 811 37, 415, 155 ge Tobacco, Cotton. Area. | Production. Value. | Area. Production. | Acres. Pounds, | Acres, | Bales. 520, 107 388,128,684 | $37,398,393 |_.........-- 2, 007, 254 | on 494, 333 813, 724, OOO 20, 572, 660 |... -ne) a ee | 80, 09 80, 095, 051. 051 he 1, 902, 967, 933 01,0 72,952 782, 870, 651 | 41.1 1,491, 350, 595 411, 617, 337 Acreage, production, value, and disposition of the wheat crop of the United States in 1897, by States. — Division of Statistics. ] ‘rop of 1897. Retained ; | — and con- vee States and Terri- ;—— ci : Stock on hand sumed in o ¢ tories. | March 1, 1898, county pet v Acreage. |Production.| Value where hechesbi grown. stows Acres. Bushels. | Bushels. | Per ct.| Bushels. Bushels. GS 5k nels 1,494 24, 651 $26, 130 10, 353 42 24,061 a. one New Hampshire. - 511 8,176 8, 994 1, 962 24 8, 09: Vermont. ......-.. 3,518 59, 806 62,198 14, 952 25 59, 208 598 Massachusetts ..--| 5... .22:-.. | 5 Sana Et cu as poe seer Ee ee ee ee | a aL + ee Rhode Island ----- ESeee on Seen eee oe - > a DLE see eee) Eley eee So Connecticut --.-..- 150 3, 000 3, 000 750 25 AL ee =e MewF ork... uss 344, 608 7,374,611 | 6,637,150 | 2,138, 637 2 5,530,958 | 1,843, 653 New Jersey ------- 116, 464 2, 154, 584 | 2,003, 7 646, 875 30 1, 594, 392 560, 192 Pennsylvania---.. 1, 434, 498 28,259,611 | 25,716, 246 9, 608, 268 354 18,368, 747 | 9,890, 864 Delaware -.------- 57, 187 , 229,520 | 1,155, 749 295, 085 24 396, 561 872, 959 Maryland .-.-...-... ; 12,277,056 | 11,417,662 | 2,700, 952 22 3, 928,658 | 8,348,398 Virgae .2aa0 2. 704, 322 &, 461, 864 7,775, 715 | 2,197,485 26 5,240,156 | 3,211,708 North Carolina. -- 521, 210 4,169,680 | 3,919,499 | 1,125,814 27 3, 961, 196 208, 484 South Carolina --- 87, 095 757, 726 894, 117 106, O82 14 742, 571 15, 155 ag Sane foe! 173, 824 1, 633,946 | 1, 682, 964 204, 110 18 1, 568, 588 65, 358 i Ee pee Sr i rN | er = Rn 2 ad ay ee oa SE RS fer ne Alabama......-... BO, 286 302, 860 305, 889 27, 257 9 281, 660 21, 200 Mississippi ---- ---- 1, 237 2,370 12, 246 2,598 21 12, 246 124 Loti i a ne omen mie see ee BRS! Meee meee ces, FE pe ee a 444, 826 7,028,251 | 6,255, 143 983, 955 14 4,919,776 | 2,108,475 Arkansas -...-.--- 169, 821 1, 783, 120 1, 497, 821 481, 442 27 1, 604, 808 178, 312 Tennessee --.....-- 897, 540 10,052,448 | 9,549,826 | 2,111,014 21 6,634,616 | 3,417, 832 West Virginia --_-. 439, 062 5, 883,431 | 5,236,254 , 765, 029 30 4, 942, 082 941, Kentucky. ..-..-.-.-. 903, 187 12, 283, 343 | 10,932,175 | 2,579,502 21 8, 598, 340 , 685, (2 See ee 2, 251, 428 38, 049, 133 | 33, 483, 237 10, 653, 757 28 19, 405,058 | 18, 644, 075 Michigan .......-. 1,519, 240 23, 700,144 | 20,619, 125 : »’ 037 26 14, 694, 089 , 006, 055 pe ee ee 2,513,477 32, 675, 201 | 20,080,929 | 6,861, 792 21 16,010, 848 | 16, 664,353 SR INOIs 5 eee oe 1, 465, 570 11,578,003 | 10,304,423 | 1,736, 700 15 8,567,722 | 3,010, 281 Wisconsin -..-.--- 615 », 262 , 690,775 | 6,460,251 | 2,307, 232 30 6, 152, 6 1, 538, 155 Minnesota .....-.. 4, 607, 008 59,891,104 | 46,116,150 | 14,972, 776 25 25, 154, 264 | 34, 736, 840 isd eae 1,011,778 13,153,114 | 9,864,836 | 3,551, 341 27 9, 864, 836 | 3,288,278 ae ee 1, 567, 162 14,104,458 | 11,988,789 | 2,679, 847 19 10, 860, 433 | 8,244,025 Wee: |..... SP Fs 123, 076 2,707,672 | 1,895,370 758, 148 28 1,553, 836 | 1,353,836 Washington __..-.. $56, 368 20, 124, 648 | 13,684,761 | 6,238, 641 31 6, 641, 134 | 13,483, 514 ee ae 1, 067, 943 18, 155, 081 | 13,071,622 | 4,901, 858 27 8, 169, 764 | 9,985, 267 California ......-. 3, 239, 402 32,394,020 | 26,887,037 | 4,535, 163 14 11,337, 907 | 21,056,118 Oklahoma .-....--- 546, 818 10, 389,542 | 7,896,052 | 1,088,954 10 3,948,026 | 6,441,516 Tobe 39, 465, 066 | 530, 149,168 |/428, 547,121 121,320,500 | 22.9 | 261,223,218 |269, 125,950 E es a Acreage, production, value, and disposition of the oat crop of the United States in 1897, by States. [From Division of Statistics. ] Crop of 1897. Retained ; : and con- Chien Sietesand Tex. | —— | Stock on hand sumed in coun tories. | March 1, 1898. county a Acreage. |Production.| Value. where wn grown altel Acres. Bushels. | Bushels. |Perct.| Buwshels Bushels. 1 ST 133, 540 4,139,740 | $1,324,717 | 1,862,883 45 8, 982, 753 206, 987 New Hampshire_- 30,236 | 1,058,260 | ~ 4027139 | °349;226| 33) 1,047,677 0, 583 Vermont ........-. 105, 971 3,497,043 | 1,119,054 |} 1,508, 728 43 , 392, 132 91 Massachusetts ---- 15, 274 488, 768 161, 298 156, 32 488, 768 ib.....snee Rhode Island ----- 8, 690 118, 080 40, 147 66, 125 56 114, 538 3, 542 Connecticut ---.--- 20, 999 608, 971 207, 050 188, 781 31 596, 792 12,179 New York _....--- 1, 482, 356 45, 953,036 | 12, 407,320 | 22, 057, 457 48 40, 898, 5, 054, 834 New Jersey -.------ 10?, 226 2,555, 650 | 766, 695 638, 912 25 2,351, 198 204, 452 Pennsylvania. - --- 1, 129, 168 31,842,588 | 8,597,485 | 12,737,015 40 26,110,881 | 5,731, 657 Delaware -.------- 18, 710 411, 620 94. 673 15, 254 28 214, 042 197,578 Maryland.-...--... 80, 758 1, 938, 192 503, 930 658, 985 34 1,317, 971 620, 221 Viewinia ........-. 436,091 5, 238,092 | 1,517,597 | 1,726, 920 33 4, 605, 121 627,971 North Carolina--- Ev ae 5,820,581 | 2,153,615 , 338, 7 23 5,587,758 | ‘232,823 South Carolina - -- 247,129 8,830,500 | 1,723, 72: 344, 745 9 3, 677, 280 153,220 Georgia .....-.----- 394, 110 5,517,540 | 2,317,367 662, 105 12 5, 407,189 110, 351 Paes. 2. ot 43, 979 395, 811 209, 7 47, 497 12 379, 979 15, 832 Ajabvama.._.-.....- 302,295 3,929,885 | 1,689, 829 432, 282 il 3, 851, 238 78,597 Mississippi. ---.--- 119, 330 1, 670, 620 735, 073 267, 299 16 1, 653, 914 16, 706 Louisiana... ..-- 38, 963 565, 334 252, 827 139, 720 21 658, 681 6, 653 RE CEE SY G52, 446 16,311,150 | 4,404,010 | 3,588, 453 22 12,233,362 | 4,077,788 Avkaneas -......... 310, 872 5, 284,824 | 1,743,992 | 1,748,992 33 5, 073, 431 211, 393 Tennessee -------- B84, 289 3, 842,890 | 1, 076, 009 960, 722 25 3, 304, 885 538, 005 West Virginia ---- 157,121 3, 142, 420 942,726 | 1,131,271 36 2,953,875 488, 545 Kentucky ---.....-- 435, 662 7,841,916 | 2,117,317 | 2,352,575 30 7,214,563 627, 353 Gia... ........ 934, 606 29,907,392 | 5,981,478 | 11,364, 809 38 22,729,618 177, 774 Michigan .......-- 882,325 22,940,450 | 5,276,304 | 8,258, 562 36 17,664, 146 276, 304 Indiana ...........| 1,116,132 33, 706,582 | 6,404,251 | 10, 449, 040 31 19, 886, 883 819,699 a a 2,899, 953 92,798,496 | 16,703,729 | 36,191, 413 39 45, 471, 263 227,233 Wisconsin -_-_-__.._-- 1, 827,215 62, 125,310 | 11,803, 809 | 27, 335, 136 44 42.2 880, 099 Minnesota -------- 1, 582,377 41,147,002 | 7,817,980 | 16, 870,271 41 30,448, 781 698,221 ye eee. 8,457,370 | 103,721,100 | 16,595,376 | 42,525, 651 41 61, 195, 449 525,651 Missouri -_.....__ 1, 008, 553 22,078,166 | 4,194,852 | 7,506,576 84 19,208 870,162 _ oS Fee 1, 611, 670 38, 680,080 | 6,962,414 | 14, 698, 430 38 31,330, 349,215 Nebraska ----- .--- 1, 668, 745 51,731,095 | 7,759,664 | 23,278,993 45 32, 073, 279 657, 816° South Dakota ---- 620, 348 13, 647,656 | 2,456,578 | 6, 004,969 44 11,191,078 | 2,456,578 - North Dakota _--- 495, 528 11, 397,144 | 2,963,257 | 4, 786, 800 42 10,941, 455, 886 Montana .....-...- 61, 664 2, 589, 888 854,663 | 1,165, 450 45 , 396 233, Wyoming......... 3,693 479, 255 167, 739 148, 569 31 Colorado-.____.-.--. 87,310 2, 968, 540 949,933 | 1,068,674 36 New Mexico--_-_--- 7,290 258, 795 106, 106 38, 819 15 ae Eee ae eee oS ESE Ch TE ee ot ES 23,953 838, 276,657 352, 109 42 OI i So SS ae a ee ee = igh aah ee 28, 834 1, 046, 674 334, 936 512, 870 Washington ---..-. 79, 636 8, 822,528 | 1,337,885 | 1,529,011 Qrezom .. .— ... ._- 179, 868 5,755,776 | 2,014,522 | 2,417,426 Califernia ..-_._.- 57,173 1, 029, 114 504, 266 154, 367 oS a OED BS eee Se | cet AB | Fee ae at ES elite eae 2h ae 25, 730,375 | 698, 767,809 |147, 974,719 |271, 729,082 | 38.9 | 494, 620, ee ore AA STATISTICS OF THE PRINCIPAL CROPS. 715 Colton crop of 1896-97. {From Division of Statistics. | ‘Movement and mill purchases., Taken from ports and (a) other States. (a) ' | Waa. ae Total States and Territories. | Move- Taken | mai ‘ f ment by | Bought from os crop. (a) | railand | by mills.| Total. other cores Total. | water, States, | POT: ES SSE SaaS Sea & 777, 199 68, 658 845, 857 OO es 12, 068 833, 789 MRUCAUAR . 5S wegen Sacks 614, 733 1, 459 616, 192 Le pee 10, 549 O05, 643 hw ge Ce eee ee oe $6,000 42.23... 455 48, 780 es if) 48, 730 SSS ae ee 1,241,598 | 227,831 | 1,460,429 | 166,827 | 8,262 | 170,089 | 1,209,340 Indian Territory -.......... Orem 12 2. ee «ER SRS aa ees 87, 705 TS os 2 ee 1D CE a ee || eee? ee ee 61 Kentucky ........ a eat St ee 414 24, 214 24, 628 PAR j__.....2 24, 214 414 SMU Jp Glas: eactadelpon 623, B02 14, 922 638, 314 56,141 | 14, 922 71, 063 HT, 251 Mietingl: cic. Sh oced. J 1,224,265 | 16,868 | 1,241,198] 40,128 |...) ._.. 40, 128 | 1,201, 000 Sy aa ee ee 24,119 2, 435 26, 554 a ee 2,435 24,119 North Carolina... -..........- 822,046 | 245,177 567, 223 43,350 | 2,078 45, 428 521, 795 eS pee Seer es e th ee Rh oe: | Re | BAT PIES 35, 251 South Carolina ............. 675,215 | 207,782 972, 997 24, 687 | 11, 897 36, 534 936, 463 OS eee 228, 325 30, 746 250,071 | 22,200 '1........ 22,200 236, 781 ——— tt eee 2, 164, 462 12,499 | 2,176, st 47,759 | 6,501 54, 260 | 2,122, 701 7 11,539 |” 39, 405 50,944 | 39,405 |......-.| 39,405 | 11,539 Total..................| 8,079,227 | 981,991 | 9,061,218 | 489,853 | 38,660 | 528,513 | 8,532,705 ae aut cy aIn commercial bales. Tite ee The world’s cotton production, by countries. [From Division of Statistics. ] Country. | 1834. (a) | 1992. (a) | Country. 1834.(a) | 1892. (a) Pts) Idianiie._............ 5 ell OE tale aT NI oh aie percrsiaes 85, 000 125, 000 eS ee ae fentichen sepa OR Bo. | 75, 000 231, 000 RO RE et etd ee Sa 1,260 || Asiatic Russie — ......]......- 375, 000 TD cate nc asdiee s 2 cba | Seales) ge Oe SPREE: PTE Sees: 500, 000 oe EPS | REO Pea? OR eee 63, 700 1, 398, 000 SUES Core es a ee oe IN hy 6 es a ee is 5 Earnie 1, 509, 000 LE Ln SMa Sy Bee | ARR ene ie Od he ee a ee ee 462, 500 2, 992, 000 Peru and West Indies--- 20, 000 58,000 || United States_-.....---- 1,150,000 | 10,688, 000 EON Se et a escteg eceance 87, 500 80,000 || Elsewhere ......--..-.-. = AR I je 2 TT Oe nee: =, Pa an A (ps Rea Epa 5s 91, 500 —_|—_—__—___ oo ly ae 275, 117,000 Total world’scrop-| 2,251,200 | 18,179,570 a In 400-pound bales. The above table is intended as an approximate estimate of the world's cotton crop at the a time, as compared with 1834, a considerable proportion of which is home comsumption; ence the greater magnitude of the crop here shown as compared with that in the first table. The figures for the latter year were compiled by Levi Woodbury, Secretary of the Treasury (Doc. No. 146,1836). The figures under the column for 1892 were compiled from the latest reports of United States consuls for that and subsequent years and from other reliable authorities. The world’s cotton crop—1865 to 1895. [From Division of Statistics. Thousands of bales, except imports into the United States.] United States. ‘Imports into Europe from all other | countries (in bales of 400 pounds). Proportion. : S |eg | ae Total : Commercial | Total = = apy 8 gs s EI crop | = year. | crops | United | dling b |B a| of the) of | 3g United! States jupland| & r & d5 phe 3 world.| + 8 | Se THE (balesof} New | £ E B Salaa 5 Am | a? 4001bs.).| York.| @ | w as jae] «a b 16 Cents. | Pr. ct.|Pr.ct. MN inn ich 6300 | 90,083 | 83.38 | 150 549 | 239 1,316 | 2,338 | 2,695 | 13.25 | 86.75 Ss SS 2,269 | 15,706 | 43.20) 222 279 | 161 77 | 1,721 | 2,460} 5,011 | 50.91 | 49.09 _ ja eee 2, 087 2,315 | 31.59 | 220 805 | 129] 108 / 1, 2,147 | 4,593 | 53.25 | 46.75 cs eae 2, 519 1,287 | 24.85 | 309 355 | 145 8 | 1,476 | 2,370 | 5,187 | 53.86 | 46.14 1.) es ee 2, 366 8,805 | 29.01 | 281 353 | 207 92 | 1,578 | 2,511 | 5,171 | 51.52 | 48.48 a In commercial bales. b Estimated. 716 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The world’s cotton crop—1s65 to 1895—Continued. United States. Imports into Europe from all other countries (in bales of 400 pounds). : ; a nd Total : Commercial | Total /!mports| Price $ 188/23 crop |, |# year. crops | United | dling ; | & IBS| ad of the} o@ | 8 United| States lupland,| ‘a ro & ae world.| + be States. 1 # lic|en| # —2 1 (a) (balesof| New | & 3S |38| aa 5 An | 4 4001bs.).| York.| Bia” | me] oe =) ro) Cents Pr. ct.|Pr.ct. TAT. ne esc 3, 122 4,245 | 28.98] 217 379 | 136 79 | 1,057 | 1,868 | 5,291 | 64.69 | 35.31 To | es 4, 352 2,992 | 16.95] 281 396 | 119} 1380] 1,384 | 2,310| 7,075 | 67.35 | 82.65 . TOGO... ens 2, 974 7,235 | 20.481 3877 489 | 138] 121 | 1,526 | 2,651 | 5,915 | 55.18 | 44.82 Lv. Re eee 3, 11,064 | 18.15] 2438 484 | 143 | 105 | 1,155 | 2,180] 6,452 | 66.99 | 33.01 1874 - 4,170 9,065 | 17.00 | 252 532 93 98 | 1,817 | 2,292 | 6,869 | 66.68 | 33.37 ee Sire 8, 8382 5,373 | 15.00 | 216 552 88 69 | 1,420 | 2,345 | 6,551 | 64.20 | 35.80 | [ee 4, 6,129 | 13.00} 169 749 89 55 | 1,134 | 2,196 | 7,844 | 70.00 | 30.00 ) Se 4,474 6,641 | 11.73} 149 625 89 37 930 | 1,830 | 6,741 | 72.85 | 27.15 | | aes 4,773 7,580 | 11.28 68 458 51 73 813 | 1,463 | 6,849 | 79.387 | 20.68 | ee 5, O74 7,484 | 10.83 47 616 3l 42 868 | 1,604 | 7,248 | 77.87 | 22.18 1 a ee. 5, 761 8,869 | 12.02 78 583 24 33 | 1,074 | 1,792 | 8,812 | 78.44 | 21.56 i ee 6,605} 11,125] 11.84/] 195 727 26 83 | 1,098 | 2,019 } 9,589 | 78.85 | 21.15 TPB 5 5, 10,850 | 12.16 | 166 597 38 32 | 1,677 | 2,510 | 8,570 | 70.71 | 29.29 Tae 6,949 | 10,204} 10.63] 154 620 24 30 | 1,520 | 2,348 | 10,406 | 77.44 | 22.56 ee, es eee 5,713 | 17,549 | 10.64] 1380 703 62 30 | 1,553 | 2,478 | 8,963 | 72.35 | 27.65 as 5,706 | 12,789 | 10.54 99 808 65 | _ 29 943 | 1,944 | 8,850 | 76.72 | 23.28 86 6,575 | 12,681 44 96 709 46 30 | 1,306 | 2,187 | 9,686 | 77.42 | 22.58 io es 6, 505 9,811 | 10.25 | 208 734 41 28 | 1,575 | 2, 10, 087 | 74.15 | 25.85 OR if¢ 18,744 | 10.27 | 151 638 | .27 34 | 1,141 | 1,991 | 9,991 | 80.07 | 19.93 pl es ee ‘ 19,9383) 10.71 91 760 28 35 | 1,600 | 2,514 | 10,499 | 75.79 | 24.21 i (ee 7,311 | 21,515\ 11.53; 118 788 30 43 | 1,887 | 2,866 | 11,886 | 74.88 | 25.17 i Re See 8,652 | 52,272 9.03 | 1238 971 28 47 | 1,264 | 2,433 | 12,604 | 80.69 | 19.31 > iC ae 9,085 | 71,659 7. 64 86 | 1,206 63 49 | 1,122 | 2,526 | 18,214 | 80.88 | 19.12 i 2 ae 6,700 | 108, 420 8.24 | 206 | 1,12 69 58 | 1,092 | 2,545 | 10,521 | 75.81 | 24.19 Jo oe 7,549 | 69, %.67 | 153 | 1,388 48 25 | 1,162 | 2,786 | 11,668 | 76.18 | 23.87 ut. |; Sek eee eee 9,476 | 123, 3380 6.26.) DIGS fT 1s |. = ee 774 | 2,040 | 13,157 | 84.50 | 15.50 ain aiMrmreial bales. b Includes countries other than Brazil. This table does not give the actual cotton production of the world, but only so far as shown by the United States crops and the imports into Europe from all other cotton produce aaa tries. There is comparatively little home consumption of raw cotton in Peru, the West Indies, Turkey,and Egypt. On the contrary, East India in recent — has consumed large quantities of her own growth. The crops of China and Japan are unknown, but the former is estimated at 1,500,000 bales and the latter (including Java) at about 100,000 bales of 400 pounds, all of which is consumed at home. A small amount of cotton was exported from China to Europe during the cotton famine, from 1861 to 1866, which is included in the above table. To arrive at the world’s crop, in uniform bales of 400 pounds, the United States crops were reduced from commercial bales to bales of 400 pounds and added to total imports into Europe. Y The world’s consumption of cotton. oy [In thousands of bales of 400 pounds each. ] ) Veins Great Slats p| United | East Britain. eee p,| States. | Indies Bes ee ot oe Dao dicts emaaeaetas bane ceenae 3, 572 2,956 2,118 371 9, rent ven ie Oe A eT eee | Cee 3, 640 3,198 2, 197 389 9, -. fay. eet IES, SE aie ail od ie Siete 3, 744 3, 380 2,375 447 9, EEE ES PSA Se eee ee 3, 666 3, 380 2, 244 520 9, ie I RE SS I SSPE EIS SS 3, 433 3, 255 1,909 584 9, eo So Be 3, 628 3, 465 2,278 630 10, a ee eae Se) 3, 694 3, 640 2, 423 veal 10, 2 i So ee See oe 3, 841 3, 796 2,530 771 10, 4 6: a ee eee eR i 3, 770 4, 069 2, 685 870 ie . > | 2c. a re Seer See 4,016 4, 280 2,731 988 12, _ > "SiGe. At. See eae ae 4, 233 4,538 2, 958 1,155 L, _ > baud eg SL Cos Se, 3,977 4,524 . 8,220 , 142 1, | 2 2 ee es. 2 eee 3, 583 4,576 3, 189 1,147 LR, ee. eee = ee ee) #040 | 42784] 2830) U199] 19°85 RE eet ET. » aR ie 4,080 5, 096 3, 219 . 38, 73 This table (compiled by Messrs. Ellison & Co., Liverpool) includes the cotton actually sumed by all the leading countries of the world engaged in fits manufacture w mod machinery, except Brazil, Canada, China, Japan, and Mexico. STATISTICS OF THE PRINCIPAL CROPS, 717 Wheat crop of the world, 1893 to 1897, [From Division of Statistics. ] Countries. | 1893, | 1804. / 1895, ! 18096, 1897. | Bushels. Bushels, Bushels. Rushela, Bushels. United States......... 8045, 132,000 | 460, 267,000 | 467,103,000 | 427,684,000 | 580,149,000 2 29% Re. Se, Be 22.416,000 | 20,507,000 | 18, 183, 000 19,184,000 | 29, 760,000 MeITODE 5.2 a4 Redes +30 as 16, 108,000 | 17,714,000 | 32) 777/000 14,825,000 | 18, 837;.000 Rest of Canada.......-.....-- 4,126,000 | 6,362, 000 6, 500, 000 6, 800, 000 8, 000; 000 Total Canada...........| 42,650,000 | 44,583,000 | 57,460,000 | 40,809,000 | 56, 597, 000 = 2 Metis ees Se. fe, 731,000 | ~ 8,570,000 | 10,035,000 | 10,000,000 | 12,000,000 Total North America..| 445,513,000 | 513, 420,000 | 534,598,000 ry Sl Ee Ce eae Bey | 39,000,000 | 16,000,000 | 15,000,000 | 12,000,000 | 10, 500, 000 Bot lt) eee ee ce ee 57.000, 000 80, 000, 000 60, 000, GOO 48, 000, 000 82,000,000. 2 ye SISUR UR oon cadtnsnna caw wactas 5, 703, 000 8,915, 000 10, 000, 000 6, 900, 000 , 600, 000 Total South America -.| 81,703,000 | 104,915,000 | 85,000,000 | 66,000,000 | 46, 100, 000 Great Britain. ..........-...-- 50, 800, 000 | 61,038,000 | 38,348,000 | 58,851,000 | 53,327,000 247. MI ett noe ce 1, 665, 000 1, 532, 000 1, 109; 000 1,191; 000 200, Total United Kingdom_| 52,466,000 | 62,570,000 | 39,457,000 | 60,042,000 | 54,527,000 ES Oe ee | 275, 000 275,000 | 260,000 | 300, 000 300, |S: SE ees 20 3, 893, 000 4, 362, 000 3, 705, 000 4,704, 000 4,572, 000 Seeabatte A re 4, 661, 000 4,162,000] 3,467,000 3, 689, 000 3,700, 000 JE OG Ce ee eS 4, 971, 000 4, 166, 000 4, 282, 000 5, 400, 000 4, 400, 000 , DENOMNCSG!.oL- oo. 2x. cos 17,305,000 | 17,618,000 | 18,730,000 19, 200, 000 19; 000, 000 SRG Sar cosas ee 279, 754,000 | 344,184,000 | 339,599,000 | 340,271,000 | 251,298,000 ~/F 7 AOE? eS 95, 266,000 | 105,600,000 | 812218) 000 69, 772, 000 86, 647, 000 = SU Se See ee 5, 500, 000 9, 000, 000 7,000, 5, 600, 000 9, 000, 000 43 & * SSE, Se 135, 228,000 | 121,595,000 | 118;162)000 | 145, 233; 000 86,919,000 4g Pyaar —— 5540... ---.0 Countries. 1893, | 1894. 1895. 1896. 1597. | : ; 7S ~~ . Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels, | Bushels. West Australia..._........-..-. 445, 000 587, 000 176, 000 194, 000 | 252, 000 South Australia...........-..| 9, 531, 000 14, 047, 000 8, 027, 000 6, 116, 000 | 2,893, 000 Queensland “os Ue eee eee 477, 000 426, 000 562, 000 128, 000 620, 000 New South Wales---.....-.-- 7, 082, 000 6, 708, 000 7, 263, 000 5, 359, 000 9, 132, 000 RR eee 15, 282, 000 15, 736, 000 11, 807, 000 5, 848, 000 7, 299, 000 NORTE, .. «oii sedsntin ee cee ten 1, 051, 000 860, 000 899, 000 1, 202, 000 1,327,000 Row Bealané 2.5.. 6c..s...<-s- 8, 642, 000 5, O46, 000 3, 727, 000 7, 059, 000 6, 113, 000 Total Australasia _....- 42, 458,000 | 43,300,000 | 22, 461, 000 25,906,000 27,636, 000 RECAPITULATION BY CONTINENTS. North America. -__-..- en 445,513,000 | 513,420,000 | 534, 598, 000 478, 498, 000 598, 746, 000 South America -_.........---- 81, 703,000 | 104, 915, 000 85, 000, 000 66, 000, 000 46, 100, 000 ee eS TP Ren 5S 1,519,063, 000 1,515,228, 000 |1, 451,988,000 | 1,498, 262,000 | 1, 146, 358, 000 DS EES SS. SS eS | 431,516,000 | 430,513,000 | 410, 281, 000 355, 387, 000 358, 990, 000 De Se ea 38, 921, 000 54, 795, GOO 48, 442, 000 37, 457, 000 36, 200, 000 Australasia ................. | 42, 458, 000 43, 360, 000 32, 461, 000 25, 906, 000 27,636, 000 Grand total_____._..._-- 2, 559, 174, 000 2, 662, 226,000 |2, 562,770,000 | 2, 456, 505, 000 ) 2,214, 030, 000 The best estimates which can be obtained for the principal wheat growing coun- tries of the Southern Hemisphere for the year 1897-98 are given below: pe ee Re ee ee NE Me SP 50, 000, 000 = Se eee ee 0 ese phd oan oe aan ea ~ ade eee 15, 000, 000 SONU = 5 Ag oe ee. ct oe Mic = setts antiiet —oe rn 8,500,000 | Australasia (including New Zealand) ----_--...---.--.-.-.---------- 30, 500, 000 Ge ee ee 198, 000, 000 — Average yield per acre of the principal farm crops, 1893 to 1897, [From Division of Statistics. ] Corn. Wheat. "1897. | 1893. | 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897. b States and Territories... -—_—_—__,_——— 1893. | 1894. | 1895. 1896. Bush. | Bush. .| Bush.| Bush.| Bush. 30.3 9 by z = oo oy = SN eee: ' 39 42.0 z ; 16.0} 21.1] 19.2 New Hampshire --....--...-| 31.7 | 34.3] 40.2) 42.0] 34.0] 15.0] 20.0] 19.3 Waa 2 ee $2.4| 40.8] 45.6] 41.0] 35.0] 16.8] 22.7] 29.0 Massachusetts ............-.- 33.5 | 34.5] 48.9] 48.0] 32.5 = feneae Island _....-_-..--<.. 24.4] 31.4] 30.9] 34.0] 31.0 Cempecticut .._..5. 5-25. =.= 28.2| 31.0] 87.9) 38.0] 31.5 Tee SOR. 20.0 ee ee 29.5 | 28.2] 385.6] 34.0] 31.0 : 14.8; 18.1 NOW GOLaby. .—...-.-.-~—~-- De hee at Be Oat ft ar {ow , | SS*SanaReR ANSE a le SMNARA REL ie inasisnimaesainala ina t{ al 4 CNOMmMMOSCKHOHSOSO ' ~— zy somooe C rc ; | | | EC shaReenneenane oe io oO ww -) 2 SRRAEHAARAEESS a a ganda M2) //)) 111 edladsnmecanae ad ae | Fs , sco~4 < | t- e re Ke ween im im itis | ryt 16 te PRM S SOS SOW HID HO ac emaaee i tl : g | a ¢ 5 i | fidada Ga {1111111 8 daddaneadacen | eaMeaaBAA | | A F seiilibiceeineiae al doves] pee iii iii tds i ij ipwenweascannae imeoomenen | ila” | | is Sidudsesias | | % AANAB SS it ii ws Ss iano innmaadas | il | “Fasseuaecaucces | ils Pal eee ee iti tii | ty iq euseueuecsesen inveerenae | ; - | |g ie cislsinieisalalaiat #4 kale | AMR AA litt ia iS sasenasiaadedese insiemssaal | | | as rp i aS arte 12: oom 2° a 1: | gooooocooncccomeccoooosooooncoooooocooeon 12 To l—1—1—) ' ' a wk. RASAAS | AM: |e i RERAMRRAHMANE SSeS iene ddnatisinde ie ides | ila : - passceces ‘So; 656 ii | a ae lcoscuececeouceccccouseTscecelousconeneee \¢ | cose tile | & 2suaeanes mat aie |e 5 ‘ssasdandadhastsniadsnsestinannannas SHisaan 1A ligeie | | # FA mer ¥ gasneannes et ft 2 ial, POCENGLGiEn ehLULtCOetet Let eter ier areca 2200 CO et tile g\% SAAMHARAA RSAS | A | os FRIRARRBRARA SSSA ORM IMARNNAMASH SMA MMSam OB SAA | ile Bre SCTE =| — Ss saganaag uous sansanaeuse qu TeceeaSeenuee ie fgere ; ile | 18 }e~sdad SSR (RAKE |S ‘2 iddddanadiesiisddisstideteisadaddnsscensase | ia eae by ig | quiescence heer ji |e eure none etme onan aera yenecuneouyeeLeneTy | aerer new | & — Hira ists: i | al L Zeaea avian dndcssve SRIAANKNAANAS SAAR ih ‘RAR | R | PEEEEEET EEE ETE | PERERECUPcaneCeee RPP ARO PARRA DMGRAMEE aT iecivontcc un SEE 4 : Fg B Gittigiiiliitié BE PUCEECCSURUCECCERCECROUESRGEEURERORCSSURGUERR GET. ee eee ORR RUEE, oD ee Alem! SPEC BeeeTT CRREEE CPUUMEOURESEBNORDOGgauGE Jo)... ae 1a] | ttle dl yao dled tall y St t fed ) ‘Ba ‘a i OORT a as tet | BJ ie f Heber a tls $b MReephaccested 12 dec] fecalide 4 reels i © «Seber hae ee | HALE ErEee aveLesuess4sitci lots bbactaaped | | Reeaboessesesasa | Peanoete AS re beta se debe aRdeS Soae Rear on aoe ee oes a 72() YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Average yield per acre of the principal farm crops, 1893 to 1897—Continued, | Hay. ‘ Cotton. States and Territories. _ a's a nS | 1893. | 1804. | 1895, | 1806. | 1807. | 1893. | 1804. | 1805. | 1806. | 1807. Tons. | Tons.| Tons.| Tons. Tons. Bales. Bales. Bales. Bales| ele Wisi 0 0.08 0.05} 1.08] -2.00) 1.30 boccccccheccocc clecvececleccsueeee - New Hampshire -_..-__----- 1.06 . 95 95 See eee eee eee ee = WORTNOIG «cena cuwccans ed Ph Bry! 1.20 1.07 1.25 5. ae ee eee Massachusetts ....-.-ceccecet. 2.358 | 3.08) 2.30 | 2.88) 3640 Vemcccc cle cocec cleccecccleee-caneeee Rhode Talend ....d60scccaa-e . 83 75 01) 21.30) 1.15 |....20-|-....--| 006.22 +) -cnsueeeee ConnectlewB. oo e<...:. [cc 11.58 | 9.48] 8.87 | 15.93] 15.40 MPMMIIBGEON. ~-26-028-c005 2 13.21 | 14.35 | 6.84] 7.98| 9.90] 9.74] 6.47] 6.85 | 13.32] 15.98 PI RCT 34 Uae Ls 11.61 | 14.22 | 14.52 | 12.32 | 13.25 | 9.63! 7.61 | 9.40] 12.24] 12.24 PST ES es 15.85 | 11.00 | 18.29 | 19.61 | 17.64 | 7.05 | 6.44] 7.80112.12] 8.30 PROUT 5. as wapiskla nena e oe ewe eee ao moean eT eat ee LL tee ee Be? 5.47 | 8.84] 14.44 Indian Territory --....-..... eS en eee eee Seid eee ieee eee ee ee General average -__--- 8.21 | 8.86 | 6.64 | 6.06 6.98 | 6.16 | 6.48! 6.99 | 8.97] 10.86 | | j Oats. Barley. States and Territories. 7 —_—_ |_—_— 1893. | 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1893. | 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897, | DoD oh Can ane Te pee em pe eae at | $16. 54 gi, 74 |$13.63 $12.40 | $9.92 ($17.49 |$17.23 $16.85 |$13.16 $13. 75 New Hampshire --..........- 14,71 | 15.24 | 12. 92 13. 30 | 13.30 | 17.71 | 15.87 | 14.84 | 15.53 | 13.50 Wermgnores. obs ue-Goe 15.29 | 16.78 | 14.37 | 12.56 | 10.56 | 16.50 | 16.74 | 15.60 | 13.53 | 13.11 Massachusetts .......-.._.-- 14.41 | 13.72 | 12.24 | 12.60 | 10.56 | 22.77 | 13.67 | 14.68 | 17.40 | 22.77 Hhode island... ..-.-.._...: 12.13 | 14.10 | 12.64 | 9.30 | 10.88 | 21.92 | 21.60 | 17.63 | 17.40] 15.12 Ganhecwcu te... 2.35) us-u 10. 00.) EE. OB |: S80 POD. ORR ee oe ete et: ee ees Eo NGW SORE. wee ee ee 7.20} 8.62] 8.88| 8.58] 8.371] 12.18] 9.80| 18.55] 9.05] 10.50 roe Py) gee ene 8. ST. | 20.70) | TO Se ee Bey Tens acer teem ens Pree a Bebe noe eee Penisyivania ......-........ 9.38 | 8.47 | 8.56) 7.43] 7.61] 9.50] 7.97 | 8.28] 6.88] 9.55 Wiptpaee ee ese 0: 00:}- 6.600) .B. 66.5 Gy Bear oie ol ee eee eS eee eon te 1.43.) 8.00. )) 0.00 f" GH ts Gees eC el alca cio en eee e fe 7 TRE eee | i oe ee) ee) gl oS: Eee ees Pe Es ae North Carolina -.._.--.-_--- 6.20 | 4.80] 5.7% LA (ae De i ES a SS Pee A ter at South Caroling... ..-..-2.) 625, | 6706) 7.48) B28.) eee Rens pe) ae Ph 85) Ria etl Betine, aaa ie we 6.02 1 6.88.) (6.62 1 £292: 1* 6 Se iio NS eee eee (oat Ht. ee BE Ey OG fae O40) F203)" 6 6S CBR eae fe ee ke ee oe hes ga SO Bee Rta.) coe) an eee tee) 696) C26) B70 Be eb tenn! Vi: ee eee Sy ele RES S Oe A eae ey TS aS ee ais PS Cr Rs TIS, Sg 7.08.) 20, 08D MO Ba Oe oon UB oe Sree so SP ORS 10.54 | 12.75 | 5.38 | 6.80] 6.75) 8.99] 8.41111.66] 6.00! 10.7% ES ene oie 7.53] 7.40] 8.13] 4.96] 5.61 ]_... 2 ee eS oe 5.7 5.11] 6.08] 4.29] 2.80] 8.31] 7.73] 11.55 30 | 10.62 West Virginia .............. 8.06") T.80T) T.4e tL ONS 600 te oe feces hk. REE. 5 ES es aa 7.55 | 7.56) 6.81] 5.04] 4.86] 8.67 | 13.49 | 12.65 2) 8.00 LE Ale Ee ei ah pep ee 8.58 | 9. 39 6.97 | 5.27] 6.40 | 10.67 | 13.68] 11.56| 7.68] 11.69 Michigan.-........--.-------| 8.32 | 8.87] 5.50) 5.70] 5.98) 8.04] 10.30] 7.78| 9.37] 8.60 IR eh aes bank aek ns 7.70) 9.69 | 4.58 | 4.64/ 5.74] 8.95! 9.82] 6.00! 6.70 8. 36 a ee ee ee 7.34 | 10.47 | 4.15) 4.20) 5.76} 9.28 | 11. 9.00] 7.35] 9.50 Wrineontines cos. Sac. tL 7.45 | 9.87 | 6.08] 5.95] 6.46 | 10.32 | 12.87] 9.96] 7.40 8.9 J ee ee 6.45 | 8.43) 5.59) 495) 4.94) 7.96] 9.63] 8.64] 5.44 6.12. Re ee ee os on 5.70 | 7.17 | 6.47 | 3.380) 4.80] 7.46] 6.51] 6.44] 5.52 5.76 Lg EE Se ee eee Be 5.85) 6.7 4.99 | 3.06) 4.18] 8.00] 7.14] 7.34] 4.38 7.60 EE ee ee eee 5.00] 5.55) 3.04] 2.08) 4.82] 3.81] 4.31] 3.31] 1.02 4.38 Uo je | ea es 3.30 | 4.54) 3.33] 2.00] 4.65) 3.72] 2.45] 6.82] 3.78 5. 28 South Dakota...............| 5.387 | 2.65 | 4.385] 8.58] 3.96] 5.08] 4.72] 8.71] 5.48 4.40 North Dakota... ..<. <.5...: 6.13 | 7.51] 5.14] 3.96) 5.98] 4.7L] 7.24] 6.08] 8.38 6.07 nr S28 A oe oe ee 12.5 12.43 | 15.75 | 14.57 | 13.86 | 15.05 | 9.00 | 14.75 | 13.75 | 19.00 , on. eee ae mn ae 9.60 | 14.50 | 15.99 | 16.96 | 19.93 |... ee ae a 7 ee 9.88 | 6.2 9.60 | 8.40 | 10.88 | 14.15 | 16.04 118.78 | 9.20 New Mexico. -..........-.....] 14.89 | 17.50 | 17.96 | 10.80 | 14.56 | 12.53 | 18.90 | 19.04 | 12.35 PUAN ets ate. aids suru emi atotb aebial wake ce &fumieee enn aeS 14.04 | 18.75 | 17.99 |....... 1 A97——46 722 Average value per aere sling the abies farm crops, 1893 to 1897—Continued, States and Territories. / Oats. YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. : G—v—$r Barley. on 0.14 mn 82 $11.55 316. 92 $15.18 1896, | 1897. | 189, f 1804. | 1895. | 1896, | 1897, ) 7 ———— We ee Si cox cwntebeess a) $9.21 \$11. 22 7. = $11.38 | $13.95 — Nevada ee Ae TS y. 16. 57 ttre tee =: f BE nics oo anstedpsanebaewehe 13.57 | 12.32 10. ‘21 | 12.60 | 11.62 is 90 | 15. 82 10. 99 3.37 | 14. Washington. ..........-.---- 13.90 | 11.32 | 11.28 | 14.40 | 16.80 | 15.64 | 10.78 | 14.17 | 10.40 is SNE EE AR Ss 10.55 | 7.48 | 7.78! 6.93 | 11.20] 10.44 | 12.74) 8.84) 9.81) 1663 5 | COS “ees OR Re RE S 9.69 | 15.66 | 10.96 | 13.64] 8.82) 9.45] 6.84| 8.12) 10.87) 18.42 ONIN, «ao icc av x weawiode odo wkd] ows clea be wreaks cle irae allig mane calc reieoel ll tee led Ls no wee = Indian Territory -- i ORES & EGR: SERS RES PSTN PEE , General average --...-- Rc 6.88 | 7.95 | 5.87] 4.81] 5.75 - cx ES |. -, i i Hay. = Cotton. States and Territories. — NT > me Maine ...~-> « aR ee ee $11.16 $9.12 : $9. 87 > he @ SS New Hampshire -..._... ...- 16.54 | 9.97 | 11.88 | 12.38 | 13.23 |_-....-|..-.4-|-------| RR Sie Ree FEE IO 11.80 | 11.93 | 13.01 1 Sh: SY eee eee cee Massachusetts -.....-----.-- 19.98 | 19.53 | 19.43 | 20.00 | 19.46 |. ._...-|...--.-]--<.---] Thode Island. ;.... .~<.-.-<-- 16. 27 | 13. 5. 169) ) 18-2841 36. 7 i... eres, Connecticut......<-.-<; -.<.-: 17.33 | 18.546 | IR) 1 |. STATISTICS OF THE PRINCIPAL CROPS. 725 Prices of principal agricultural products on the farm December 1, 1893 to 1897— Continued. Hay (per ton). Cotton (per pound). States and Territories, ——— ; SERS GE REEL CITA ie | 1803, | 1804. | 1805, | 1896. | 1807. | 1898. | 1804. | 1805. | 1806. | 1897. | Cen ts.| Cents. Cents.| Cents.) Cents. MERINB dons cicace Patou stan ois $12.13 | $9.60 | $9.68 |$10, 25 $9.75 win c| -wncow ode cheese icacaicie eal New Hampshire ...........- 15.60 | 10.50 | 12.50 | 12.90 a OU ie wawows a OP eS a ne See EONS Cine ch cn dne ch wear 10.63 | 9.94 | 12.25] 10.28 | 9.25 ee EE fT ee eT Massachusetts ............-. 17.33 | 15.50 | 17.50 | 16.40 | 13.90 |... RS OB » Inaction Leteeeniie bie Salandu, satvecaccceu: 19.60 | 16.33 | 17.25 | 16.60 | 14.50 |....... pple peti ST GConanactiout ; cc. capconccenss 59. Be 1.2, OS 2 ae tae Tk UAB. OO te ececalawnnvosleus ered oe” 2) a a 13, 6B.1..0:-08 | 10:70: F008 | 8.98. lone can. 50... cab cesta eceel een New Jersey .......----- _.---| 17.43 | 14.09 | 12.64 | 14.85 | 10.75 |......- REE GCS Wma Py Pennsylvania .............-. 14.40 | 11.81 | 12.80 | 12.15) 9.15 /-.- penead bar bcenabtinatguual Peale wate. oe Soe ean ee 17.00 | 15.00 | 12.16 | 13.00 | 10.00 |. ...... ae eae PRR ee) eS sh Maryland ..-..<.cckwsc pS, SS eee 7.04 | 7.82 | 6.80) 4.85) 6.16 |_-2.... ke a8 | 741 6.2 6.4 J eS a ere eee 460) 6,26) 8: 26°) “2.0: | S40 |.22.3..-15 ip ae aoe 6.7 SDI MBE We! ... 0 casera See che 4.87 Neie ope. ecee 1-00 fio ke Lee 2 3. er y Re (Se ey So, IOGROUR Ga. poeeasuces BnOt. fv akeec}! eee) ees fi ey Wee be ccaunls este cues wee oe Pe es. | eee North Dakota. <2. .25.0-22-<5. Sve | POeOk fh Ske |, Ovowel ‘oneo: coo. c mas cnedte alee eae pS Re ee eee ee 8.17 2h CO Teese A eee, Sees OT” We Olebiis 22 coe waet Seek 8.00 | 10.00 | 6.50 7.14 SO toecese cl ee Pe ht ob eee eee 4 Ts "ee ape aes ae 6.98 | 7.54) 5.87 | 6.22) 5.50 ]_.....- = eee: eae HT Pier MIGRIOG s bvco~s ik cick wade 6.00-111,00) 800: S40). TOs Be ee Sead Fe) ge Eee nce ie POO 8.23 | 12.00} 9.00| 8.75 | 5.00 ]......-. & ee Ae Ree es ecu Led eee 5:37 i BO. AE ON C2 76 oe en ges Speers 7.0 MOUMHEO. <3. ceuctes ls cco 10.00: 7:26 @ 961 SRR Oe tice a Oe eee * SS aS 725.8 5.50) B86) Ce ee Biles. ches i ee WMSIEMEOG SS oes. census O17 1: Tail OTR Oe) Oe Oi ie) fie cal el ee ROR CA ieee eee cecGe lt. 8.10 | 5.86] 6.12| 6.60] 7.75 waseee=|eeseee | seen =|eeeee- ee ees! POSE eta 2) pei cine Se ee 7.87 | 9:50:1) 7.064) 6:60 | °9. Cee =. ae (Es ee Bawa Natt ys RAINING a nse nn | oem cep binge] - aac io [46] 75) 62) 67 Indian Territory -.--...-..-|.--...- feasko. ye apwnat 3 SATs | |e t Oistec 6.4 General average -.-..- 8. 68 8.54] 8.35 | 6.55 | 6. 62 | 6.99 4.6 | 7.59 6.6 | 6.65 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 726 #23" cs" 06° frg° fat OUT fat Ott OLT f0T ost ts'T feel oe T fe'1 oe “T $121 Ge 'T $28°'T ee ‘T fe6° 06° #13" cs" 96° | C6 * 06° '0°T 0o0'T CIt ett PLE Stl foe “T ce ‘T a f12°1 fab 18 02 OF 1S “agryonr [ON *(yeqmeo aod) oosmuBig weg 13" §9G * '9G" ige* ¢3° 68" CF IGP" fgt° igh: fag" der #o° #g¢° Cf bead ¥e° ioe" | 9G" icg* 8° 8° 4G" HE" I8E" tse" FRG Jt: =. Had i i “0$ ON ‘stno’y “49 "L68T O} a “‘ * a" ¥e" gS" tes" Hee" 7oe° | 08° 18° 98" a ~~ JT doquieseqy " foe" 0g° es" 462" 462° | 68" 68" 98° 168° 6g" | T doquaeao Ny say a" fie" |e fog" IIS" toe’ tee" ae" 68° 18° a fIp* | 777" T f0q0900 : foe” ice | 08° 19g" tog" tle" ig’ | oF 1° 40%" | OF" cy’ | g toquieydeg a — f se’ ltr a 1 9° eg’ | 6F* 1s Aa Rh ee Tas Tysnsny & ON "C68 ea" 1S° | FIF $1 | LF tor’ | “OF ¥9* eg + SF 9¢ #g° ~* [ doqu1eseq ug" 9° | SF 4a" | teg" ea’ fea" Lg" cg 09° 19° “"[ JoquloAo N tg" wm OL OF Ca ae La gq" | TL 6S" icq" fog" | 09° “-"= T aqoqyooO gg" Lg’ |fag° ELG" weg" | gc" OL" 29° 19° | #9" 9° | Fe9 ~[T doquieydeag for’ fap’ | GF It tt) a $94 0g Lg" 9¢ g¢ rae #g Tog: eens Tysnsny “F681 #8" ¢e° toe" oe’ Hoe: .%e° | OF 6h" tF' ey’ EGP’ Hr’ CO f9F° -- LT qoqureseq ge" te" | ee" 09 Fre'o$ Hee: t9e° | 68° eg" Ta’ | LF OF" icp’ | 0G" ~~ T Loq UteAO NT 8g" 1g" | 8° 406° tee’ | SF" fap’ | gg" T° oc’ | 6F 1¢° “-"" 8 LOqO0JOO 98° ce’ | foe" #1g" fie" ttt’ 0g" Lt’ toF" cp’ | OG" “T daqureydeg 9" ce’ #983" igg* 8g" IF 1g SF° Ly’ OLEOP" top: “Vie “SSS h sie [ysnsny “S681. OF" ee’ tse’ far’ 5 ae is ae TS" 0g" 6F’ Ss T¢ fg" | gg° ¥¢° | "> T doquie9eq, cm ee OS tIt 41° | SF Ec" 2g" "[BUTULON S16 fog’ | gc fag" | [ Loquteao NT Ch" te’ sl EG” iGr* aay" | «LP $9F* 09 6¢" #. cg’ fgg" $1¢° |f¢g" “-"* [ LaqoqyoO St* Lt’ fat i 19h" | 19" oc’ . 1c’ _ |feq° [9° “T doquteydeg LF 0S 07 oF 0S | fF 08 16F aa ‘0S |fee ‘8 04 €¢ 0S 0 e7 £9 08 500 0g 0} Lg ‘0S | 09 A Ae: 6 0$ |f6¢‘'0$ 04 6G°0$ |----- T sndny “nopjali S$ “ONT “@ “ONT ONT ON ONT ONT ON pax AIWDALS | "C68T |. | ___—. PSE ALLY Srey RS [ned 4S : “AYO SBSUBY ‘OBROTTO ‘TZBUUTOULL) ‘SUBvILIO MON “puoultpory “MIO MON *u04so_ ‘eyed (THHSNd UAd) NXOO [sorjstqyeqg Jo uoIstAT wodq] ZEST ‘saps pau) ey) fo sarjvo Burpoa) up sponpoud poungyno.tbp poryousd fo sand aynsajoy Mh (27 STATISTICS OF THE PRINCIPAL CROPS. : : . > : : 706 fp ccd s sahd betas setae 96° 6° = [fe0'T 0'T "a cat nf ie - %. a ” v9 #2) ee i ee 0° 6L Tere tog SI't ét't |. ins cp" TH" cy" el ToL GL th z el. el tos i6L TOT OOT fee: = fee: iteg: sa" | 9° foo on 19 > epee fro" 19" | f29 to9 tay, 0O°T j|fec" oy 9c" co’ | §o° Pe) {19 ie Sati ttn f9" Igo $39 L770 | ‘ Jit ‘ ; ail f1¢ f19 Wao, : te at hee tel Poe ee aes TL ae 40L to5". a $i lle ola | |< Se tc Coe Tn | | ce 7) to" 196° 9° fog: cg" 9° fo 19 Ob YP ai Bee ee GL" 160 too Sn S| Ma OF 4\ ee Se) eae eich 19° 19° #99 116° 96" a heal 19° 889° {60 $19 6) Gl fey GL ) | ities Me he ee eet kes, . ‘ : : : ¢° ’ eg 9¢ fog gg 09 19 foo ee a 5 Se Sa ee he ae eS eee fog’ gg | so gg tRL° re- RR | gs°. itt¢" es" tig’ jftg 10" hess ee Gg" t2g¢ ge ign” Se" site" ish’ AG a go° fe: Sc °° Le Seeeseen cere fg" to" |teg 2G 06" fig’ bE | 1g fog" | oh ay eg" eo tgp ee ce 3) i TS 7° fgg jog j 7 ; ; Sar a ot ual SSS pet egeee nat 4 ; ~ : : : L ‘Ege g¢ igo £9 09 6g 19 feo #39 a A i. le eH | Ig" 09 10¢ “08 rai to" |fee W |oseeeeeeeeen wees 69° 80° t9 OT wi fa: | eg" gg" | go" i909" COMMS fe «Vertes ce ae It OL* tes: é fat tot (fac: Lg" 9° fig: ig0° tag" | 89 RS Pesieasare et | MI 60 Ort 20. HS i" co" ¥¢ ‘gy fey" $1g¢° ge fag" =" ir +9 tego tog x ‘1 feo" . . 7) One 2 ys ett eter eenewens Lb o° lige’ tou pe i a > a > >" 4 if ion: ys er es Cc eees gL" el’ jigs’ tf 1 Sn oe /89: 90° |r ctl): iiianphadl Re Remearenee | Sai | Sage ig: (et tel | oo 199° | OL" g9° | o9° GL" ’ | RPS pila fee aie A tt), |$6L° ? . b’ LOS | 22°08 £208 | G9 '0$ 122 0$03 t22 08 | 94 '0$ £8 08 04 148 08 | 148 0807 tex pe Hl ag eB ich Dh Ag bh de Bi x. ‘pany 6 “ONT | “ae “pat & ‘ON "pat & ‘ONT Pat & ON e°ON & ON “(THHSOd UAd) LYAHA ; > . ; ; 4 Teg 12 112 6g ge ee fee ce fog Tog [ Jaq ure9eq, + a i: a. We ¥%° tae ee" 7 192 is : OF" 68" toe 0g" ath Te: 18° tog *" T4OquIeAO NT at ‘otis = fe oe |e oe ie OW TR ee (EE HEE JP tape rade Olt Or tz Re 196" | % %" 1g" 0g ° Ig eh z i te" 426" a ea ' [Tae pr Ol 6% ifs t 1g % ifs a be ica tf ine £6 fee’ tee TEE Nehchiowd we é Vv “LOST YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 728 i #1e° | Se" #76" te" FG" | So" #16" |7-""* T toqe 0 teL° Qs* | ét 6t’ fst | 6T” st’ jist’ f° |fte- Te" | 8& 3 g3° fee" | Te" a fer° = {fzT° 10G* GI | & Hg" | 86" ts" te | & Te" 86" #16" | ¢ doquieydeg: 06° tis* | Fe ha an i) oo" oo 60 | Le" cg* | 8" 63" 486" | 86° fee" ee" Ba poof Ton "apy ONT | ‘oat $16" C6" | 08" lite" eh foe’ fee" tés’ [Fee fie" |fse- 8g" | Sg" Fe" tee" 4e8° | OF" ~“T Aoquts.0q, 26° S6° | h6e* Ig" foe" | Ge" 6" | 6B" HSS" LOE" 88° ge° fee: fee: fee" | Be" Fue’ | T tequieAoN #e0'T 0O'T | fee" isc" | ee" fig’ |t6a° fsa" | fee" Tee" | FTG” 88" 4 48" eg" lies" fee" | FLe" 1g° |7--* T 40q0490 GOL fe0'L |toe" fee" oe" 1¢* toe fee" |. 18" 68" ise’ | fe" ve* |e tee" fee" gg" | T lequreydag GIT fer't jtss- ee" eee le | «Be" tee" | Te" foe’ | 68° se’ ffs" OF 5 OE asnsny “F681 #20°T COT jbse" #1" ls’ |tle’ Ss” es" ee" f1e° | 8&° ce" He" |e" a6" | 88" ~“T cequs0eq ort GOT jt9e" 86" tle” | ELS" #96" | 86" {66° 88" ce" fe" te" te° = «| E18" ~“T10q UL9AO NT ‘IT OT jtle" le" foe" | fsa" 86" te" =| ee" 8° OG ° ce’ ¥e°«jie" 47g" | Fie" 1g° | 77>" B 40q079O OL'T f20'T |f€e T8e tLe" 19° | 66" «(94 «16°08 | FE tea" | F96" 19%° =|: FE° ee" Tg" |f08" foe" fee" ce’ |, aequieydag Ott GOT {fee foe" f6e° ra igs €" =| a" ze’ Ci fee” ead ce° | 98" fUg* Ge"? oe ca L ysnany “E681 cet fret | 18° ee" fe". | 6s fIe" 98° femal OU Se OF" 6e° |f9e" Ss a ““T aq ureseq $e'T Gt | 66° isc" _ |foe" ie OC: er 08° ice” Fs a ge" 9g" fce" = |Feg* 1 ae “"T LOqUIgAO NT #161 Go't |f6e* 0} t6c°0$ | Ee" s 196° rTIg" a: iee" Tee" | «OF = a. a a f0F" = |" -"* T 40q0909 cet eT |e" fee" ea s tee * TFS" rE" | Th’ 04 0F 08 86" “T doquteydeg OF “1$03 Fe “TS | oe 0s ee 800418 ‘0S | 96°08 108 0 ogon ve ‘0$ |fse0$04 Ee-0$ | OF 0S tae ‘0$ 04 ‘ ‘0$ of “0901 #6 “08 tr ‘0$ 04 TF'0$ |---*~ T4snsny ‘T “ON ‘ON "opryar & “ON ‘paxiu g°ON | . ON "Pax G ‘ONT ‘o ‘ON “pari GON | “pax s‘ON | ‘022YM G ‘ON “COST (THHSOAG UAd) SLVO iF ' OST fr |fz6" FO8 * | 69° 596" TO" > rete 86" 766" i SIRES T zoqureceg cot ST | 0OT 6" 6° 166" 96" A EBT Go PETS ae 00°T FO'T Crea oe BREE | OE [10q U10A0 NT ost fet tre" 196° | FL8° 16° 3c6" OY ee OR TO ee ee C6" C6" siege | aaa le mee Pb oe T 1040990 fe'T f269'T | 6° 0} 6 °0$ FIO'T | 16° 68° _ |396° BO EOS 5° 0= | Ree 96° 00'T. 9G". fT Tt toquieydeg fe 1807 FLF'T$ | 60S 408 0S $L 0S 9F £1 °0$ [FLL “0S OF 11 '0S | SL°0S pts se 8 18.04 SB UG [Ooo eee oon ee apyrym TON “AOJUIN PIAt “ULIYZPAOU T “ONT “4OPUIN Pat “LO2UIM Pat ‘gio pad “Pad & "ONT “LOJUIMN Pat | é "ON | & ‘ON é ‘ON “ON & ‘ON *LO8T i ma mone Fe | ‘sm™mo'y 49 ‘neg 439 "AJID SusuBy ‘OSROITO ‘IWVUUTOULY «| “SUBOTIMO MON | “PUCUITOIY | ‘HIOK MON ‘mOysog ‘eyed ‘ponulju0opD—(THHSNd Yad) LVAHA “‘paenuyuog—Lesr 0) cesT ‘saynzg poyug oy} fo sarpio Burpwa) ur sponpoud younynnuby podvourtsd fo saniad oy0soj0y.A 729 STATISTICS OF THE PRINCIPAL CROPS. ‘Eg ‘ON BIPXTD Tok cei printrss cc’ oe baie tesa a: ee. fC" eg° 69° 1? fll Protein canes rh eee tol th a ee aie shaadi he £9° *TBUTUION “*T SESSS Sess gserg 43s das dsds4 duds 2232 28888 $8288 82888 Ssss estes 5. 5. 14. 13. 1. 12. 13. 13. 7. 6. 6. 7. 7. b. 2. 2. 3. 2 3 3 3 g 15 ee) 00 i) 50 00 00 50 00 50 50 00 00 50 50 50 00 50 ; 00 00 00 00 00 50 50 50 Middli ahs eae ey eee ee Oy ee te eet ee Ce eae on ee ee eee ew ee) Oe ee ee ae Haai4 0 ddeiiel «= Sis | tig) Ssieist sesee sssse0Osesses 6 S82 8 88888 tees Sod oda Comes asian sted essididis yoo ete ree Nee > (a oe A oe A oe Boe Be | 5s . = ~ ps ee & < sez = essiss cesess S SES df 5 i es Seer 2S222 S2238 ss88S8 ss88 22se2 re SEES genes wedded reeed xxee yeeees fs = = BE Ssessee sssse sess sess ‘“sesegs S = uigeg dedis gees SSH 4 SSsse pane Oe ee ee ee int ied a hg, re ae eo - 1 » oS! bogs g pats 2 22c38 g 22,28 g GAtae y o2ced ands S easesn & SESH Sass é ESE Z g ma 6S S58 a 2 28 - S38 34 a Base cand .-F, Pt eed eS B55 Bezcok sesck Ee8ek 288eh Zao EEE YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 732 ‘Gurppry i ‘(TB J MeO 10d) OOSPOUBIYy WBE | is0° FL0 abo: 890" 490° igo" Fc0" Fe jar c0* GQ FeQ* icy’ 8FC0)° ten- ico" jen’ foo’ | #¢0° 390° tio” fa0" 390° t90° $90" $90" #90 ° 0" 910" #10" 310° TELO* $10° 110° 510° tt10° | £20" 320° 043 810 “OS 7120" ry Pop: € ' 221)-08 | $008 120-08 0:08 “Burppuyr “‘Burppuye “‘Puryppryt ‘Suryppye ‘Dur PUt ‘smoy 4g ‘TyeUUTOUT, SEO" FLO 890° 7190" 9Tay- ey: Fc0 50 IEC" EC)” “ECO GO” LQ) “ 2200 . 390° ‘ #90" E10 "10" tN" £10" #10" 2F 10" 93 10 . Bhs 410°0$ #1008 “‘Purppuyyr | “‘Hurppayye ‘SUBILID AON | “puoUITpOIy 8008 “Puppy ‘yIOK MON 41008 “‘Burppyy “moysog --T doquiaceq --g LOG UIDAO NT “"T 1eq uled9qT ~" | Loq UL9AO NT Ee “ ¢ toquuaqdos ai T4asnany "S68T ~-T loquieseq ~*[ 1oq UleAO NT “~*~ T 4040100 “[ toqureydeg 7 Ane Lysnsny ‘F68T > a>. See Le Kansas Nebraska South: Dmwora- 2. oo ooo. Noth Dakota... .:4. 42... <2: Montana W . Waschineton--.-.=...-26s..— DERN See, 0 ook sa eae PareOrNiA ~~ dees Bes 63, 162 63. 35 4,001, 549 |_....- |e wenee ew ae een 10, 230 76. 54 Oe oe aS | ee cuss e fae be = - > ” 2 oe ih en ee i d 5. , 781, 46 4, 511 25 $262, 7 79, 980 64. 24 5, 137, 961 7,342 0. 74 592, = 565, 719 49.25 | 27,862, 207 36, 686 63. 82 2, 325" mee 30, 577 52. 95 1, 619, 177 5, 243 68. 91 361, 270 130, 972 47.91 6, 274, 811 12, 625 70. 95 895, 684 238, 714 37.25 8, 891, 021 36, 733 51. 54 1, 893, 283 146, 991 47.16 6, 931, 7 112, 528 53. 64 6, 036, 220 67,113 51. 36 3, 446, 710 98, 340 61.27 6, 024, 111, 380 45. 59 5, 077, 374 165,202 | - 64.72 10; 001 SI 37, 300 38. 95 1, 452, 8, 438 63. 55 536, 274 130, 915 40. 52 5, B04, 161 131, 036 50.15 6, 571, 322 199, 482 35. 40 7,061, 779 162, 432 49. 45 8, 029, 440 142, 879 29. 54 4, 220, 299 90, 004 56. 28 5, 065, 747 1, 148, 500 17.30 | 19,866,178 265, 349 30. 96 8, 214, 550 237 , 927 28. 40 6, 756, 888 146, 974 36. 52 5, 367, 264 327, 424 35.17 | 11,516,319 160, 920 37. 67 6, 061, 550 153, 381 35. 25 5, 406, 535 7, 487 43. 37 B24, 727 380, 835 32.46 | 12,363, 042 113, 348 35. 89 4,067, 779 666, 836 41.37 | 27,590,382 17, 761 43. 16 766, 482 418, 786 46.44 | 19,446, 741 2,756 46. 43 127, 969 613, 542 36.13 | 22, 166, 072 44, 309 40. 54 1,796,173 1, 040, 767 36.05 | 37,519,129 86, 553 40. 09 3, 470, 267 412, 296 43.07 | 17,757,998 4, 802 45. 42 218, 092 464, 410 39.35 | 18,276,398 8,588 44.97 386, 231 1, 022, 242 34.01 | 34,770,027 32, 861 39. 94 1,312, 466 802, 878 25.28 | 20,292, 746 199, 306 31.98 6, 373, 297 | 749, 879 26.12 | 19,589, 882 80, 212 34.48 2,765, 356 592, 985 30.53} 18, 102, 648 42,590 37.23 1, 585, 5 287, 867 28.97 8, 339, 207. 6, 627 39.59 262,394 170, 036 37. 94 6, 451, 888 7, 008 56. O4 392, 712 171, 795 18. 23 3, 131, 388 915 32.77 29,984 73, 733 14. 93 1, 100, 948 1,511 46. 08 69,620 151, 721 22. 86 3, 469, 095 8, 755 43. 14 377, 687 83, 18.18 1, 524, 176 3, 507 32. 50 113, 973 51,973 25. 28 1, 313, 620 1,081 24. 67 25, 434 67, 619 17.21 1, 163, 489 1,615 26. 14 42,218 50, 347 12. 82 645, 200 1, 408 21.91 30, 843 130, 691 13. 69 1, 788, 895 936 23.72 22, 20 173, 157 24.05 4,163, 817 1,427 44. 09 52, 910 193, 588 20. 61 3, 989, S54 5, 782 28. 64 165, 608 417,396 28.96 | 12,085, 909 56, 898 38. 33 2, 180, 836 42, 227 17. 34 732,177 7,931 26. 60 34.26 | 478,362,407 | 2,190, 282 43. 88 96, 10 Maine New Hampshire --.. TaN a2 | are Se copy Ee eee Massachusetts =~.» 22 ..--.- Thode Island)... 2k se Honnechiant.....-- 4. s Now Mork: ...-.--2 1% So 4 Maw JOnsey o> te Pennsylvania Delaware-.:..-.-. bs I Ss ee Maryland 018 SOS TS TE a aed ee North Carolina ee wee ee ee ee eee were - ee Mississippi .:..-....-....<..--« op isiaten: 2....- 4. ob Sees 4 West Virpinia.-.2.o.-cce563 Kentucky ee Milch cows. | Cattle, other than milch co Ss. Number. 195,919 | 132) 840 or SRESERE NIRSSSSSUSSRA we RR bh et et FS Se 8 © eosmocr Value. | Number. i Valu . ; $5, 397, 568 107, 294 $22. 03 3,938,706 |. —- 76, 827 24. 59 7, 256, 021 135, 139 22. 07 5, 725, 371 74, 184 25. 82 858, 772 10, 676 30.18 4,549, 958 65, 30. 08 44, 869, 248 544, 735 26.17 7,523, 998 42, 406 25.14 | 27, 495, 588 550, 981 23. 64 924, 404 ; 22.90 3, 890, 739 109,175 22. 63 5, 189, 122 356, 19. 07 3, 801, 523 821, 9.92 2, 123, 582 152, 160 9.55 6, 629, 115 503, 593 8.92 2, 296, 808 350, 295 7.50 3, 702, 425 442, 736 7.02 3, 974, 706 370, 876 8.31 2,307, 673. 220, 9. 61 14, 449,520 | 4,823, 295 15. 27 3, 600, 684 305, 522 12.03 5, 177, 466 379, 168 13. 41 4, 189, 362 , 604 20.79 5, 848, 730 392, 162 20. 65 Average STATISTICS OF THE PRINCIPAL CROPS. 735 Number, average price, and total value of farm animals, ete,--Continued., Milch cows, | Cattle, other than milch cows, States ’ ories, | Aw - hates anid Territor! Number. ey Value. | Number. gh Value. Ohio .....2.....-22-.--+---+--| 720,441 | $20.35 | $21,400,003 | 006,127 | $27.16 | $16,463,012 J ee rE re 4D4, 561 30. 85 14, 028, 207 DMS, 505 23. li , O62, 319 i aS eee PERE 605, O16 20, 20 17, 692, 747 675, 608 25. 25 17, 060, 685 1 ON Ae Rae ee er | 1,003,218 | = 82.85 82,955,711 1,304, 192 27.72 36, 150, OLL WY IIOOUNERY induc wtinwa vente cuca} Cea 28.70 | 23,872,821 607, BAL 22.76 13, 830, 060 nt See 633, 993 27.50 17, 434, 808 03, 922 20.99 12, 465, B24 I es incr Us Gee ss Ss | 1,214, 345 81.95 38, 798,323 | 2,207,739 28.71 63,395, 211 SERINE. nis nikon venetneiested 606, 530 26.75 17,829,678 | 1,537,523 24. 80 88, 129, 028 RE SE 20.15 19, 072,437 | 2,035, 774 26. 38 53, 705, 755 PRB OU ONIN cnet Seis CoeeR xe 571, 591 30. 65 17,519, 264 | 1,213, 764 26. 82 32, 548, 295 Month JRO «cc cnoken..ne-- B41, 579 28.10 9, 598, 870 432, O79 25. 08 10, 836, 978 North Dakota. _... ee et 27.35 4,587, 115 245, 282 23. 08 5, 660, 008 OMI s 5 ctiecnadcubinsasece | 42,713 31. 30 1,336,917 | 1,082,498 22.00 23, 814, 965 We OMNIS hc. chee Sane | 17, 960 31. 85 572, 026 688, 02 23. 82 16, 390, 696 GObOtNNG 5535-260 cae: 85, 660 32. 50 2, 784, 242 935, 826 26. 07 24, 392. 775 Meee Wiewies: 5... 5.050002 65-. / 19, 126 26. 55 5OT, 795 731, 216 16. 86 12, 329, 397 AMINE can Wht bapa nee bss 18, 222 26. 25 478, 328 509, O82 15. 34 7, 807, 026 RIT See a ais wl So eae ok 5D, 564 23. 95 1, 330, 758 822, 464 17.75 5, 725, 345 oe ey, Sie, ee aes ee | 18, 105 27. 85 504, 224 241, 201 17. 04 4,109, 350 JE US Ss ed eee 29, 167 25. 50 743, T58 49, 142 18. 61 6, 498, 582 COS oe a ae, 120, 297 25. 85 8, 109, 677 294, 862 18 5, 436, 952 oS ee 115, 427 23.30 2, 689, 449 667, 030 17.93 11, 957, 188 California ....... SS hteh son | 342, 392 28. 65 9, 809, 531 810, 615 18. 91 15, 328, 334 Lo NAS SE et bee a 2,5 26.2 On, ¥ 42 Py ype Oklah ) 35, 59D 26. 20 932, 458 212, 814 22.42 4,771, 600 Total .-.. ~-----2--0--| 15, 840, 886 | 27.45 434, 813, 826 | 29, 264, 197 20. 92 612, 296, 6B4 Sheep. Swine. States and Territories. | lAverage!| + . Average ¥ +4) wi) Number. | price. | Value. Number. price Value Maine: ........ ee set | 232, 668 $2. 84 196 76, 067 $7.71 $585, 474 New Hampshire .-.........-- 76, T54 2.96 227, 959 55, 825 8.15 454, 972 SE EES 161, 107 3.38 543, 897 75, 453 7.88 594, 194 Massachusetts .............. 41, 262 3.56 146, 997 57,131 8. 54 488, 010 Rhode Island -...--....-..... 10, 769 3.2 34, 731 14, 146 7.86 111, 187 Connecticut... .....22.-..... 30, 820 3. 52 108, 363 54, 274 9.83 533, 514 gs EE RAR «eS 825, 446 4, 04 3, 332, 739 638, 849 7.24 4, 626, 44 oh eased: eee 41, 067 3.78 155, 198 150, 368 7.25 1, 090, 545 PaMMayivanie » 5.2622 6- 5 -. 782, 77 3.41 2,669,266 | 1,033, 001 6.78 6, 999, 613 PIR WTO os . Seewine cs 12, 852 3. 59 46, 112 50, 055 7.16 358, 394 ge Se od EA 132, 170 3. 28 433, 452 328, 567 5. 69 1, 870, 366 eS See SS gi 380, $ 2. 57 980, 581 955, 781 3.45 3, 297, 444 North Carolina -............ 290, 445 1.47 425,502 | 1,426, 774 3.03 4,318, 844 South Carolina... .2.2...... 70, 787 1.58 112,197 | 1,031,150 3. 94 4, 062, 731 Se ee ee ae 341, 233 1. 67 568,494 | 2,073, 254 3. 66 7, 592, 255 I ne ee 89, 890 1.77 158, 925 456, 519 2.13 972, 386 ee ee ee ae 219, 356 1.28 279,898 | 1,848,158 2.51 4,648,117 Ray co Seen 266, 356 1.40 372,898 | 1,919,019 2.83 5, 432, 741 en See eS ee 126, 769 1.41 178, 808 751, 413 2.91 2,186, 611 iNT Tae is ge ee Sale Pe a 2,649, 914 1. 67 4,409,457 | 2,826,302 3.14 8, 874, 588 CTT See ee ee Oe SER 136, 1.40 190,688 | 1,293,051 2.17 2, 805, 920 rMOUIO ose ok tk 828, 808 1.% 575,907 | 1,688,338 3.23 5, 449, 956 West Virginia .............. 448, 994 2.88 1, 292, 204 352, 727 3.93 1, 386, 217 DN eh Se 649, 612 2.46 1,599,995 | 1,475,831 3.36 4,963, 219 Rb Se ste cobs tn i 2, 416, 346 3. 42 8,274,777 | 2,330, 355 5.47 12, 737, 720 i aaa te eee | 1,355, 391 o. 46 4, 695, O75 727, 757 5. 70 4,148, 943 Cl EE SE Sa pa 667, 853 3. 54 2,361,863 | 1,326,961 5.17 6, 857, 735 a Se eee ites ~ 8 CD 601, 168 3.44 2,065,914 | 2,159, 425 5.57 12,019, 360 CONTE ee ie Be 715, 809 3. 20 2, 287, 725 920, 557 6.18 5, 689, 042 MONOD: w... wea nwaencneset | 406, $29 2.86 | 1,164, 631 433, 003 5.39 2,331, 722 IE i inci edith ness ee eee 573, 218 3.56 2,044,095 | 3,625, 831 5. 99 21, 704, 225 PTE 7 OL Ss ee. Se ST 655, 428 2.63 1,727,708 | 3,105, 072 3. 98 12,358, 188 NN i epee ees be ERR 226, 659 2.78 631,586 | 1,692,916 5.10 8, 641, 489 ee ee ey ey ek 266, 163 2. 85 759, 362 | 1,327,128 5.38 7, 146, 582 Boutn semmote ~. 220. cl. 349, 709 2. 65 926, 029 142, 617 5.55 791, 524 (fetch DP): a 552, 668 2.48 876, 028 119, 105 5. 32 633, 045 Pe ee Sa ae 3, 247, G41 2.40 7, 804, 081 46, 961 7.26 340, 935 EE a * 1, 940, 021 2.95 5, 714, 382 22, 345 5. 84 130, 572 OSS SEs er 1, 625, 089 2.38 3, 869, 445 22, 035 5.10 112, 379 Ne wWemerIed. <. < -2s.2 5-52 2, 844, 265 1.89 5, 364, 284 29, 905 6. 07 181, 524 Sow ON eS ee ee 845, 239 2.10 1, 773, 734 24, 772 8.40 208,181 ON NG Ri Le ai eae eas 1, 978, 457 2.10 4, 144, 868 47, 335 6.31 208, 471 1” eS aS ee 549,518 2.20 1, 206, 467 11, 349 3.94 44,716 pS he ae ae San 1, 651, 343 2.19 3,612,313 71, 432 4.61 $29, 553 Washington............--..- 744, 925 2.18 1, 622, 446 168, 546 4.96 835, 989 athe Eos ke ae .| 2,682,779 1. 66 4,451, 150 220, 847 8. 68 801, 896 “SSE SS TS ae eo ees 2,589, 985 2.23 5, 785, 915 467, 676 4.08 1, 906, 247 CN ae aaelee ae -a e eae 25, 56 2.07 52,846; 84,010) 4.72 396, 429 RIN 2k xtc Sania 5 ain | 87,656,960 | 2.46 | 92,721,133 | 39, 759, 993 4.39 174,351, 409 a YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 736 eS £8S ‘816 ‘ST | FFF ‘S66 's | scr ‘con ‘oe | z86‘e9e'6 | 990‘9c0'ee | ooF‘oTe’6 | SBT ‘Fee‘9T | seF‘co6‘s | 986‘9E8‘6S | LAr ‘LER'B [OP TROL 6ke “Tat G89 ‘6LF 'T 969 ‘SOF 663 ‘F80 °T 9FG (10% 620 ‘T20 ‘T C16 ‘€6F 98L E92 , G6E ‘029 . 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U7 hs MM ene tas laced pene an aden ae arte 1 [®401, sO [Sen lot‘ont | sna age ese ee re eee soones . puv soryord Surpnjour ‘10q430 [TV 1&8 (cen | esr Se FS ‘O¥G Wir ee re ol. See peuuBo ‘so[qRjese A 123 ‘TS9 IIL ‘€08 2£0 ‘OOL OL ‘SEB ak) DUE Maoe $00}B4Og £68 *69 G98 ‘89 828 ‘09 O19 ‘26 OT at ee suOoluO 1&9 ‘9Lg SFL ‘968 989 ‘SFL £16 ‘688 ““spoysnq=ssseess see svod puv suvog :S0TQ BJO A | Pre a RT Fez 'S80'F% | G66 ‘F89‘06e | 668 ‘T6'%G | £80 ‘E80 ‘99% Opa" "aaa Te}OL 818 ‘CFT‘T | O89'868'TS | G6 ‘669, ch 0 SSUTMIUTTAY PUB STIO4S 996 “686 ‘Ge | GIE‘T6L ‘896 | FOL ‘eG ‘ces | BCS ‘LOE ‘8G |“ Spunod=----~-""7"-""""-*"08" yeor] :painjovjnuvuun ‘oooRqoy, *‘ponuljuoo—auALLVN AIA VLADTA e————— ee | | “68ST “F681 "€68T *pozt0dxe sepoi4ay "ponuatuwog—LéEsr ‘oF aune papua supa aay ay) Burunp saqynjg pazwug ayz fo (ousawop) szuodxa younjyqnowby AVERAGE PRICES FOR IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 749 AVERAGE PRICES FOR IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. |From Section of Foreign Markets.) Average import price of agricultural products imported into the United States during each of the jive fiscal years 1893-1897, and also during the six months ended December 31, 1897. [The import prices of merchandise here given represent “the actual market value or wholesale rice of such merchandise as bought and sold in usual wholesale quantities, at the time of expor- tion to the United States, in the principal markets of the ie | from whence imported, and in the condition in which such merchandise is there bought and sold for exportation to the United States, or consigned to the United States for sale, including the value of all cartons, cases, crates, boxes, sacks, and ye of any kind, and all costs, charges, and expenses inci- dent to placing the merchandise in condition, packed ready for shipment to the United States.” (Act of June 10, 1890.) The export prices are the actual market values in the port of shipment. ] ANIMAL MATTER. i | Years ended June 30— : Articles imported. Seas SS ee ee ee = = ended | 1893, | 1804. 1895, | 1806. | 1997, |Dec. Bl, i Gattis, free of duty ............... head...) $120. 83 $17.14 | $6.63 $20.56 | $119.41 | $119.51 @euue, Gutiable ....cc.derecknce. oe ae 7.91 10. 43 4.95 6. 89 7. 80 10. 41 ee GALtLO. .... <.. <2 onuepeeeee a oe. 3 13. 87 11.75 §.11 6.93 7. 87 10. 61 Horses, free of duty --.........-... do....| 384.40 551.55 330.17 196. 34 138. 85 187. 29 Horned, dutiable.....2.c).-ciasdo =.) 106. 18 103. 96 53. 88 50. 72 58. 38 112. 14 tel DOYESS..... ~~. <..a5sssheRee do....| 154.57 214. 01 80. 56 66. 82 66. 42 129.10 Sheep, free of duty .............-- do....| 22.55 24. 84 15. 90 10. 85 13. 70 13. 81 een, GUUEDIC . <..0.ucwnknce denubn dou 8 3. 46 3. 02 2. 25 2. 54 2.45 2.79 etal shoen I Ee dou. 3. 66 3.25 2. 34 2.65 | 2.61 2. 87 Pepa einer oo So. ee. a See pound-. . 200 . 201 274 278 | | Bristles, crude, not sorted, bunched or a Ae ae pee oS DOOM ala keks eck oc eementns 399 2.231 | -611 -a19 Bristles, sorted, bunched or prepared, Y BIE Senin once seeped dale aieoiewmn pe ihianen shewmdieweush ene . 958 912 | 0B . 853 4 UE To aR ES Re ae BS pound... . 943 1.041 . 956 . 913 : . 853 pn on ee eS do-_-.- . 184 . 162 7 . 164 . 168 (oS a ROOM do... 140 143 141 139 | 135 131 TS get aan Hin Sires winnie: dozen 118 lll | 120 5 . 094 | 082 . 050 Silk: | | eile ele, A ound.. 04) .618| . 434 rh ea - 264 Raw, or as reeled from the cocoon, oes 5 | ee ee ig Ries i RG Ee. Ro 3.91 3.15 | 2.76 3. 28 2. 84 2.94 Ne aie his Stankaane- pound -. 755 OAT 449 . 372 285 . BOA Pepa BA eee coe dec ok was do..-. 3.51 2.75 2.43 2. 86 2.37 2. 57 Wool, class 1, clothing: ey 3. PRR cee ee Cae AEC ES AR TE el Fe ee | 158 . 166 Oe ge th ee Rae, |) A EL GOsh. sieens ose ERS PS SE a a es ! - 265 . 281 Wits! WOGl, Glass ¥. os. 22 don. . 182 . 164 153 166 | -171 . 180 Wool, class 2, combing: CO eee ee a | os See ry eens) IES oe Sd eee 2 . 189 .197 eS RE EES oe rh eS | eb ZI Ne heey Seva 211 .210 PLE WOON, CURGS 0 Scan on ce dnenn do...- 218 | . 208 . 196 | - 220 .189 .197 Wool, class 3, carpet: / , Sei SE POG sat wien th asenonite do... ~|noeeeeceec|eseeee ene] anne ee eees ies 105 . 089 eee: ARES eR URIRRAERE BO aes Pyaar fob «ncpambnhedaetaea sabe Pree .118 . 087 Total wool, clasa3 ...........---.- do.... 096 | 082 O91 | 097 105 099 GAL WOOIR: ~.- saeneet tweak g0:.c. 122 | eel 124 | .141 152 . 130 eG) 3.) wu acto men eee G0... 092 ' 097 O88 : 006 16 Grease and oils commonly used in soap Sakina, O60 <0 cnc. as POURS: . 039 | . 0835 (O66: bo te ee RON eo i nisi Patented alee GO ede lantactcronhaeusnadel: . 202 220 227 287 Hides and skins, other than goatskins, POUNG - 2... ~~ 22. ne weer een enn nn owen [a eneee an snlaneeen ane . 088 124 - 106 -lil Total hides and skins. ...... .-..OUMG-iok..s andadeeedeacten 115 .145 . 135 146 bo, gE ORE pes Ee ee gallon... .451 ) . 368 41 . 383 |. ee eee Oils, animal, n. e. s., except whale and init eth fas i er TS ee . 383 | 343 . 820 . 827 .158 . 232 IOC its decdde awnccbaal pound ... {-: .iaeslnbcsteoreneeetencs A Ss ee Sausage, bologna .............-.... ee eee A lo ininik ss Wh SA tae Sos 225 ee VEGETABLE MATTER. Argal, argol, or crude tartar....pound..| 081 . 067 . 068 . 096 O84 081 BUM. cence inc 6 bunagesiteanstenie ushel.. . 468 455 410 379 . 310 . a4 CRY COMMIS ) on. onde cewtinws das ese Goa. . 673 . O86 456 438 . 329 . B05 a te Le RRS ae ee Abo TN pe ee do... & .418 471 . 262 . 274 . 260 . B52 8 eS he ee und 051 058 - 066 067 1 . 055 RU Ale EE By yushel #21 740 . 486 1.89 2.36 . BOT bead ooo Gees tee, aor.21 72 | ‘e51) [ee] 657] 77] “oan 750 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Average import price of agricultural products, 1893-1897, ete. —Continued, Articles imported. VEGETABLE MATTER—continued. WOE SI in na cee ee eee barrel... Chocolate, other than confectioner y and sweetened chocolate. __.- pound... Cocoa, or cacao, crude, and leaves and aad... 3... pound... Cocoa, or cacao,pr epar ed or manu fac- tured.......- Ene ““ponna.- Total cocoa or cacao - eae eeu Oe Ps eee ae oe do__.. Chicory root, raw, unground. ___- do... Chicory root, r¢ asted, ground, or other- wise prepared... ............pound-- Total enicory root .........-..-<-- ae... Coffee substitutes, n. e. s_______-- a0. 2-2 Total coffee substitutes. --......__- 1 a ee Cotton, unmanufactured--------- go... Frias e008 tow OF A8 oo s e ton-.- Plax, hackled, oteé......<...c.. eer, ORS Hemp, and tow Of. < o2-<0 vee ov-cs-wGOs o.-| Hemp, hackled, etc.-_........-..--- do...-| Istle or Tampic O fee 52. ca go.2: Jute and jute butts _..............do-.... yogis | Gab es) ey spay SEs Fa iri Tel ie oe a Ty ee SED eee ee AN Qo. =~. eT . 8 ee a0.2.: Prune juice, or prune wine __.-gallon_. CWRPRIES. «oa 60 oc ccntedes oes ae poee et: 0 A ie ee EY Sek Se do... Ter ee eno) cen on ee ado. Plums and prunes —. 224. ..--cses-2 do: 2-3 PRMIBID ES 2 oh occ cea n oe dace GO: 22 WAN Ones oes oye ee OO. 525 1 eee a ee ae Bad ton_- DS da cco unk, ie ae pound... RRR see oor eee he eee ee do CN 7 an ee bushel... Malt eens 3 in bottles or jugs - gallon.- Malt liquors in other receptacles.do--_- Total malt Hauors: .-.<<- 2. 5 22 Co Rn, OOOO Sr ee pound... CHWO ORF no eee eres gallon Volatile or essential oil_.______. pound... Opium, crude or unmanufactured, OSs) en a A RN IS. aD oS Wabi Opium, prepared...........-.--- pound... ne OPN. «2.2 doe h ascot eat | eae Were 23-53 a -pound.- Rice flour, rice ‘meal, and broken rice, tag | Se REE ES PRESS A SAS MRS Total rice and rice meal __.____- ound-.- Linseed or flaxseed __.........-- ushel.- Spices, unground: : J Rs el a ieee pound... Pepper, black and white-.._-- do. =. eee eS a ee ae OS do.-.- Spices, ground, etc ......_....-._- dou OU) GDIOOE < oot oo decks ee docs; Spirits, distilled: Of domestic manufacture, returned, praok eallon i252. 6) oe eee Uy a eee proof gallon-- RIND oa ato eck See uGe gG-25 a SR Sees Sete do.2 lL . SEES ee ee eee eee pound Oo ed Ae ee ee ere ee ton -- LUT, Sean Seer ene eae gallon..- Beet sugar, not above No. 16 Dutch SEES | Sty) OS eee pound. Sugar, other than beet, not above No. 16 Dutch standard.-_._--..---- pound... Sugar, above No. 16 Dutch aad. Th; SS eee ee eee ee eee ag uae a ee ee pound... Tobacco, leaf: Suitable for cigar wrappers--do---- EO are ee on eee Gos. 1893. $5. 42 218 - 120 5 Si SE naa ae Bagesees > 3 SSS Years ended June 30 1894. $4. 85 1895. SRSSRee ae ee ee RABRENEBS gue pees CI _ aoe 021 1896. 1897. $4.91 $4. 41 173 163 - 103 005 -1l4 - 105 - 146 ul -013 014 . 033; . 035 -014 . O14 . 038 - 037 -O17 -O17 - 119 ; 179. 21 168. 488. 62 375. 125. 26 124. 243. 05 273. 58. 78 53. 22. 09 23. 76. 30 73. 65. 47 60. 41.13 66. . 880 ; O17 - 020 - 054 we weylseguesEeegezeazeeeNacy $4. 34 Sf GEGE EE tet ete geenseeSs EVISRENENS sigeeuerebaes o, BBENB3S sStgey ase . Pope ph, ESE . Pr ° 0 ee SNSZ SSSgk S2e gree 3, ene e- eee LA AVERAGE PRICES Average Cae 121 . 100 . 093 . 079 077 . 064 Cee. kee ee oa: 5.- . 008 . 008 . 008 . 007 . 006 006 OS Ra Ce Se bushel _- 1.19 1.18 1.17 . 910 . 820 . 899 ieee ee. = ee so ound - - 071 . O44 . 056 O44 . OB4 . 61 Alcohol, including pure, neutral, etc., WOES MOB DOU So cin canis stinseus Dae we oe 323 . 358 . 268 . 257 . 336 481 Brangy =..:..-2-- oo oe proof gallon-.- Ay f: . 805 . 942 .978 1.07 1.46 oy EOE ae ee PRE | ae. 1.20 1.11 1.29 1. 36 1.36 Litaa Bourbon whisky -.-.-..- -----.------ g0...2 . 942 . 906 1.03 1.34 . 742 87. TRG WGI. So snade vawotes -- sence de 0.222 1.26 1.04 1.97 1.70 1.80 2.01 Distilled eae, 7". SO. ee te . AT . 431 . 389 . 450 .451 93 Total distilled spirits -........._-. go.2> . 932 . 878 914 . 967 . 834 -893 SS SS Soe ob eee | pound... . 032 . 032 . 031 . 028 021 - O17 pe a eee eee ee gallon_- 19 111 . 093 . 106 . 088 -O74 eel ae eae | eal pound . 037 . 038 . 032 . 085 . 082 . 089 rime. Samer no. 2a ee Se ee . O47 . O44 - 046 . 049 . 047 . 051 Re AIR IS Ree eS ih go.) . O47 . O44 . O45 . 049 . 045 -050 Surety’ riewn e ee s Co eS pee 2) Pe Race lela] AARC RN - OUT |... .snocnvaheeeeeeeee 7 onseeo. lent ==) 2-2... =. tee 6..© & . 090 O85 . O87 . 085 080 087 Tobacco, stems and trimmings_--do-... . 084 052 - 025 . O21 022 018 © Total tobacco, unmanufactured --do_-__- . 086 083 . 086 . 083 078 085 Beans and peas -.-............-- bushel... 1.91 1.76 1.77 1.33 1.23 3) ONE i ee eee a5...5 1.06 1.01 . 876 . 738 817 824 pO Oe ee Pee Go... . 828 812 . 730 - 546 556 - 772 I oe es ee ee es allon -- . 140 140 . 141 . 138 13 ‘Wine, 2n botéles .:..--. =<. acu ozen.- 4. 64 4. 62 4.04 4.05 4.14 4.22 Wine, in other receptacles --..- gallon... . 522 474 485 . 434 426 SUGAR STATISTICS. 153 SUGAR STATISTICS. Value of sugar imported into the United States from the principal countries of supply during each fiscal year from 1893 to 1897, inclusive. [From Section of Foreign Markets. } Years ended June 30— Countries from - een iPr] Annual average, which imported. 1803. | 1804. 1895. 1896. | 1897. | 1893-1897. Dollars. | Dollars. | Dollars. | Dollars. | Dollars. | Dollars. |Per ct. oe Ee Se A a 60, 637, 670 | 63,147,745 | 40,100, 204 | 24,102,835 | 11,982,473 | 39,994,186 | 39.37 hn ae 9, 526,959 | 11,198,222 | 6,882,916 | 12,528,755 | 20,844,019 | 13,886,174 | 13.67 B17 ee 8, 502, 226 9, 461, 857 7, 403, 658 | 11,336,796 | 13,165, O84 9, 973, 924 9. 82 Dutch ‘Bast Indies...| 4,783,268 | 7; 808: 871 5, 759, 436 i 388, 487 | 13,090,323 | 8,566, 077 8.43 British West Indies.| 9,487,479 | 6,890, 949 3, 989,614 | 4,700,527 | 5.893.877 | 6,192, 489 6.10 key Guiana ...... 5,017,661 | 4,216,414 | 2,517, 7: 3,414, 368 | 3,657,025 | 3,764, 3.71 | RNS eee 2,921,946 | 5,688, 714 2 701, 287 3,776,486 | 2,136,989 | 3,445, 084 3.39 has dane Islands...| 2,865, 966 3, 655,627 | 1,111,006 | 2,270,902 | 1,199,202 | 2,220,541 2.19 Santo Domingo-..... 2,054,243 | 2,875,810 | 1,188,951 | 2,459,302 | 2,05 59, 169 2,127, 495 2.09 Puerto Rico ...2.-... 3, 228) 933 9) 304 051 994, 1, 707, 308 1 577,911 | 1,980, 457 1.95 Co 2,122,316 | 2,357, 754 458,779 | 1,771,980 | 2,311,309 | 1,804, 428 1.78 United Kingdom ....| 1,024,189 1, 824, 072 976, 266 | 1,402,694 | 1,452,004 | 1,335, 845 1. 32 “PSU eee i Se eee 96,277 | 2,657,425 | 2,616,423 | 1,212, 862 1.19 Austria-Hungary .-..} 1,098,793 | 1,428, 083° 178, 472 958,402 | 1,957,027 | 1,128,155 Le Netherlands. .......- 79, 354 789, 668 296, 761 1, 182, 605 1, 916, 933 853, 064 . 84 J 6 a 386, 486 800, 218 668, 287 920, 301 313, 803 617, 819 61 BIOSS Ut. Sacco enanoe 8, 059 428, 506 1,412 859,359 | 1,421,317 543, 731 . 54 Dutch Guiana --__-... 397, 065 426, 541 195, 589 289, 243 380, 959 337, 880 .30 Danish West Indies - 431, 217 473, 153 205, 3383 261, 728 316, 781 337, 642 33 LoL Sa Se = 70, 939 193, 476 289, 060 92, 692 74, 191 304, 072 a) Hongkong --....--..-- , 448 435, 738 236, 292 853, 610 87, 465 279, 311 27 ISAT Mod... wt acbeecue ee 134, 514 49. 725 461, 054 417, 850 212, 629 4 | Other countries -_-_-- 333, 378 f 211, 701 822, 914 _1,19 194,047 047 461, 789 45 MOURN ee PSN 100. 00 Quantity of sugar imported into the United States from the principal countries of supply during each fiscal year from 1893 to 1897, inclusive. [From Section of Foreign Markets. ] i Years end une 30— ight “et . Annual average, imported. 1893. | 1894. 1895. | 1896. 1897. 1898-1897. Pounds. | Pounds. Pounds. Poun | Pounds. Pounds. |Per ct. Re Ra 1, 848, 652, 253 2, 127, 502, 319 1, 845, 763, 398 1, 093, te 312 577, 790, 1731, 497,575,891) 36.52 Germany -...--- 326, 827, 509 358, 649,535) 311, 182, 968 525, 991, Ps 604, 233, 071, 625, 376, 948) 15.25 Dutch East In- | ees 183, 492, 832 288,013,620, 280,464,270 567,670, 780 634, 171,629 390,762,626) 9.53 io 289, 553, 529, 326, 574,584, 274,385,228, 352,175,269 431,217,116) 334,781,145) 8.17 British West | arigies: . 23. 332,968,755 256,821,752) 193,498,237) 217,421,118 322,103,866) 264,562,745) 6.45 | es 114,598,997, 258,447,122 180,262,089 191,457,878 140,773,692) 177,107,945) 4.32 British Guiana} 159,061,559) 134,455,359) 110,848,960, 146, 433,256) 175,639,179) 145,287,663, 3.54 Philippine Is- ee 22,413,780) 124,052,343) 68,770,492 145,075,344) 72,463,577 106,555,107) 2. 60 SantoDomingo| 64,036,960) 89,421,821) 66,492,169 116, 972, 841 131, 279. 582| 93,640,675) 2.28 PuertoRico...-| 99,617,911 75, 546, 030) 56, 352, 954) beng 810) 86,607,317) 79,941,404) 1.95 - _..----| 71,822,733) 80,479,170) 24,338, 139) 2, 721, 186 130; 423, 987; 75,857,043) 1.85 me ee ©. 785, 000). .-05t 2 23, 250,815 00, 335. 817) 124,055,211) 51,471,281) 1.26 United King- ) ee 81,964,310) 58,241,416, 40,610,295 56,992,162 68,250,019 51,211,640, 1.25 Austria Hun- eee 34, 391,679) 44,536, 822 7,411,234 40,708,929) 105,138,128) 46,436,358 1.13 Methaviands. a 2,717,110) 23,829,548) 12,600,208! 40.965.863) 82,248,664) 32,472,278 .79 Breance 2... -- 157, 204 13, 909, 622 35,832 34,810,370) 92,169, 241 28, 216, 454 . 69 | ae 10,575,216, 21,189,075, 23,696,923 31,827,859) 11,437,760) 19, 745, 367 48 Danish West . Co 13, 894,070) 15, 558, 546 9,131,589, 12,202,619) 16,999,347 13, 557, 234 33 Dutch Guiana - 14, 798,065; 12,787,452 8, 704, 544 12,299,609, 18, 043, 833 13, 344, 701 33 eee eric | ---... -.-..-- 8, 595, 345 8,776,030| 26,564,115) 25,895,460) 12, 966, 190 a Hongkong ----- 7,847,396] 11, 208, 629 8, 351, 495, 2, 046, 973 “3 243, 630 8, 538, 625 a argos... ...- 20, 480, a 8, 846, 249 8, 329, 961) , BOL, 887 1, 098) 330 7,011, 924 ae Othercountries| 12,358, 2: 11,532,522] 16, 162, 679) 15,611, 408| 63,622,921] 23, 857, 550 58 Total... . 574, 510, = 896, 3, 896, 338, 5 4,918, 905, 733)4, 100, 278, 7 ys 100. 00 3, 766, 445, oe 345, 5, 193, sai, 754 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Average price per pound of Standard A” sugar in the New York market and average consumption of sugar of all grades, per capita of population, in the United States from 1878 to 1897. [From Division of Statistics. ]} Consump- Consump- . yen tion per Average | “tion per Calendar year— ~ capita of Calendar year— bg capita of opula- pound. | Ppp™ pound. pope Cents. | Pounds. Cents. | Pounds, 8. 94 44.8 1888 ee eee ee ee ee 6. 69 56.7 8.53 407 ERO S oo ee eee 7.59 61.8 | 9. 48 4353 iP REDO. cisec lade Sdetewe ae 6. 00 52.8 9. 84 PSE eee SA eS 4.47 66.1 8. 87 46,451) 1808 os See ee ese _ 421 63.5 8.14 02) |) $808 3 Se aueaesseeee 4.72 63.9 6. 37 RO.d || 1806 . Set. eee 4.00 66.0 6. 06 BSS 8 it R806 Coc crc eee 4.00 62.6 5.81 BBD i 0808; pesca eee eee 4.41 61.6 5. 66 BT BOT & ee Se ee 4.38) .« 64.5 TEA, COFFEE, AND LIQUORS. Consumption of tea, coffee, wines, distilled spirits, and malt liquors in the United States, per capita of population, 1870 to 1897. [From Division of Statistics. } Distillea | Malt Wines. | spirits. | liquors. — Year ending June 30— Tea. Coffee. Pounds. Pounds. | Gallons. |Proof gals.\ Gallons, 10 0. S07 ‘5.aL 1500 2S RE 5 be Bt ee 32 iT aN RS CSSD TE RRA ES Wats 1.14 7.91 40 1.62 6.10. 1 EG NORRIE Cog ene“) SONS 1.46 7.28 41 1.68 6.66. WA es aaa Gee i Rae 1.53 6.87 45 1.63 7.21 EE Pe Rn Mat Re oe 1.27 6.59 .48 | 1.51 7.00 a ee 1.44 7.08 45 1.50 6.71 RES FE OEE EG COREE SE 7 | 1.35 7.33 45 1.33 om 1, Sek RO RED VR GE RRR Ee 1.233 6. 94 47 | 1.28 6.58 SONGS See indy LY Be NOUR So ae 1.33 6.24 47 | 1.09 6. 68 NSN ied. ee ee eee 1.21 7.42 1) 11 7.05 — (7S a Rag Seca iy Ramah Fs $2 1.39 8.78 56 1.27 8.26. TOES ant ree WORE? ee PSE 1.54 8.25 47 1.38 8.65 TOR Bi en hs ead ae en FA ee 1.47 8. 30 49 1.40 10.03 TG 6 re eece i co ee, rie oe Se 1.30 8.91 48 1.46 10.27. iT? ES aS prea! hl Me Rib OSM Sab A 1.09 9.26 87 1.48 10.74 SORES 5 Ged 845) Sai ae yes to een 1.18 9. 60 .39 1.26 10.62 1 RE ee Seat beep heed ae > 1.37 9. 36 45 1.26 11.20 1 ROS aa ian dele ans Seis te: ee. 1.49 8.53 55 1.21 11.23 a PS Re ne Oe LR i eR 1.40 6.81 61 1.26 12.80 1: Ras Sie “ede ga ee Sy he 1.29 9.16 56 1.32 12.72. TT ae: Se ane oP hot it RT oO Rem rh 1.33 7.83 46 1.40 13.67 1, REN ak ie BNR Nd Sac OPER ti cheat 1.29 7.99 45 1.42 15.23. : Te a ae ee PON a PEE OS ar 1.97 9.61 44 1.50 15.10 SOND. Pee in. hs, oe pe oben peal Ved, ee 1.32 8. 24 48 1.51 16.03. BARE tobe fae ee Be, te, ote ee ee 1.34 8.01 31 1.33 15.18 SOEs. Deca bes. ee oe eae eee cee 1.38 9.22 .28 1.12 14.95, TORS ee ee hs. eke ee ae ee een 1.31 8. 04 26 1.00 1 MRE a ae aoe 1.55 9,95 .53 1.01 TRANSPORTATION RATES. 755 TRANSPORTATION RATES. Grain in sacks by steamers. [Rates, in cents, per 100 pounds. | (Compiled for Bulletin No. ld of the Division of Statistics, from reports of the St, Louis Mer- chants’ ee ] From St. Louis. Mo., to - a "Memphis, Tenn. Vic keburg. Miss, New Orleans, La. lon Sat lc Longest ! | Longest |Highest. Lowest. ‘ine ect. Highest. & Lowest. inef eat. Highest. a a Lowest. ineffect. 4 n / | } | Ge bP | | 11.9 | 14.3, 3 Ci 19 ie 19 (| 33 14 | 19 "ae 50 | 7.4 7.4| 50 10 10 | 3 10 | 10 EERE ne 20 | 10 12. 5 | 35 its) 17.5 | 2 } 10 2.5 1880. _- a 12.5 20 30 20 20 | 15 20 1 See 22.5 | 15 15 30 20 4 30 38 15 22.5 1862. ...... 17.5 | 12.5 12.5 | 30 20 20 | 20 20 | ee 7.5 12.5 17.5 | 2% 20 25 | 22. 12.5 | 2» tS 15 13 15 22. 5.'| 20 20 17.5 12.5 12.5 Jt ee | 15 15 22.5 | 22.6 22.5 17.5 15 17.5 TOMB: desnos 1 | 10 10 20 | 17.5 17.5 17.5 15 17.5 LOT een 20 10 10 20 17.5 w 20 15 17.5 |! Se 15 10 10 20 17.5 17.5 17.5 | 12.5 | 12.5 | (a 17.5 10 ll 25 17.5 17.5 » 20 17.5 | 17.5 . SS 12.5 10 10 17.5 15 17.5 17.5 15 | 5) , _— a 20 10 10 25 17.5 | 17.5 20 15 15 1892. ...... 20 10 10 25.5 17.5 17.5 20 15 17.5 12 12 ° 17.5 17.5 17.5 17.5 15 17.5 1894_...... 1b 12 a 20 17.5 17.5 20 12.5 20 Se a 10 10 20 12.5 15 20 i) 10 CO 12.5 | 16 10 | 17.5 | 15 15 15 WwW 15 Sh. ae ) 8 8 Ss -] 15 | 15 15 15 15 15 ————— C _— Miscellaneous commodities, New York to Chicago by rail. AVERAGE RATES FOR LESS THAN ee QUANTITIES, IN CENTS, PER 100 {From Bulletin No. 14, Miscellaneous Series, of the Division of Statistics. ] | heel: | | Crock- Soap » | en ery — ; Year Coys a Toad. amd ae on iomseg so Molas- | Rice. Castile Com. imple : ‘ F § and | — | ated | fancy. ass | / } | _ geaeey ea 137| 137] 60 | 117} 117} 117 117 | 60 60! 60) 7) 9 1808 oan Bk | 56) 103) 103... 87 |-----|--------) 36 | W356 ocee | 99] 9] | Petes 2 a RRS Tiare med - 92 | ae ms'| 18) ae eh. oe eee ee a ee 98 69 if er Se a. 8h) wo, 49-36 58 | 36 46) 46) 71| 46 etc see. 105) 10 | 8) %8 81| 43 72 | 43 55| 51} 93) 55 ae | ae BL | oe aL BL 50 Bl 40; 381; 62; 40 jess... 8r “eae 87 | 4] 871 87 62| 37 | 37) Te 49 ae Ee fl CEES. | 48| 2) 2] 40 | 24 41; 2%3/| 48) 8 1876 _- ae as | 87} 20! 20] 2) 2) 2] | 37] B ee 9 ees 33| 56} 33| 38] 50| 33} 40| 33 65 | 40 | eee eae 41; 41) 41] 41) 41; 41); 41; 41; 62) 41 SRE 40| 40). 40) 40 40 | 40| 40) 40| ool 40 is 9 ae 40) 40 40) 40 40/ 40) 40| 40 60, 49 deep) Se] | | | | | BR] Sl SB] a) & Se i ee 35| 35 35 | 35 35| 30/ 30| 35 60, 3 | 2a 2 35| 35| 35] 35 35 | 25 25 | 35 60) BS _oae 9 eee | | wl | 20 | 2 45| 37 a 4 ae 3 | 35| 35] 85 Si.) -21.2 60 35 aa 3 ee 5) 46) 35, 35| 35] 33] 33| 35 | «3 eee 73 49| 35) 49 357 35 | 35 | 35 35 | 35 63 BS "ae 75 50! 35 | 50 35 | 35) | | 3) 3 65 | 35 . 75 50| 35| 50 35 85 3| 3) 3! 3 6 3 | ae 7% | 50| 85] 60 35| 35 | 3] 3] 3% 49| 33 =a 75 50| 35| 50 35 | 35 | 3/ 3 | 35) 3% 3 | 3 . J ee 75 50| 35] 6580 35} 35 So DB 6 3 35 | 35 eel 75 50| 85 | 50 85 | 35 | 35 | 3 33) 35 35 | 35 ~ 75 50! 35| 50 35 | 35 35| 35| 9] 3 35| 35 Sa 75 50| 35| 50 $5 | 35 | $5 | 35 35 | 35 3 | 3 = =a 75 | 50) 35 a 35 | 35 3 | 35 as) 6 £3 R 756 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. AVERAGE RATES FOR CARLOADS, IN CENTS, PER 100 POUNDS. [From Bulletin No. 14, Miscellaneous Series, of the Division of Statistics. } Crock- Ast ery 6 Furni-| ous Bag-| and | Cof- Sug-| Molas- Year. eatin tural Lead.| cinz.| earth-| fee. | Starch. ee | nes, | Rice. |\Castile mple oa and | mon. ments. | Bh .2 | | pt eee 137 137 60 | 117 87 4 57 117 60 60 93 108 se nans 122 122 56; 108 pf eee i a EY 2 56 56 ee 99 99 oF BREE Pere eee a PEE 54 5+ 1870 63552235 113 113 61 OB 22 cwelecees 7 1 Pee Sail) BEL op 98 60 peepee i} sl1| 30f 71/49) 36 58/36 46 | | =| 48 1872 ....------ 105 105 93 93 81 72 43 55 51 93 55 1873 .....-.--- 69 54 31 62 31 31 50 3L 40 31 62 40) 1874 ....--..-- 81 49 37 74 37 37 2 37 49 aT 74 49 $970 3.502243 53 33 25 48 2 24 40) 24 41 25 48 33 Ty eee 3 23 a7/ 2| | gs] 20] | 20| sr] a ISTE wscaccesss Y 39 33 56 33 50 33 40 33 65 40 lee 7 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 62 41 1 ae 75 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 60 40 0: | Beer 75 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40) 40 60 4 aaa ieee 65) s3| 3 | a3| 33| 33| | 33| Gl] om 1 emcins 56} 26| %| 2 26 | 26 26 | 24| 2] 26| 441 28 12. eee ee 75 36 35 35 35 35 35 30 30 35 60 35 > Caer Se 75| 36| 3] 35| 35| 35 35 | 2} 21 35| 60| 35 1888 a BR, er oe ee oe 27 | 20| 20] 27] 45] a7 - ae 8 75 35 35 35 35 35 35 25 25 35 60 35 1685 = 67 31 27 35 31 27 27 25 29 35 (4 3L no, eee 63 30 25 35 30 25 25 y 30 25 63 30 1) pepe ae 65 30 25 35 30 25 25 25 30 25 65 30 it: Se Sees 65 30 25 35 30 25 25 25 30 25 65 30 pf dates ae 65 30 25 35 30 25 25 25 30 25 44 26 08 <2. 2s o- 5 65 30 25 35 30 25 25 24 30 25 25 23 NOOR Soc wcae <5 65 30 25 35 30 25 25 24 30 25 2) 2 JERE. cae =o 65 30 25 35 30 25 25 24 30 25 25 25 ROOD Socks awe 65 30 25 35 30 25 25 24 30 25 25 25 1806 .205<0258 65 30 25 35 30 25 25 24 30 25 25 25 1807-233 65 30 25 35 30 25 25 24 30 25 2% 25 AVERAGE RATES, REGARDLESS fe halls SHIPPED, IN CENTS, PER 100 [From Bulletin No. 14, Miscellaneous Series, of the Division of Statistics. ] Dr Cotton | Boots Year. * piece and Tea. | Drugs. * | goods. | shoes. Ee toe enna cae camannaen= mip ama pee = pian = pte 137 137 137 1387 oy Ay RS See Be | ES 3 Se en Een t 122 122 | 122 122 Uta Rk Ee eet Se AE ae eens 99 | pa RE Ba Ce ae SR ie eg a Sse. Eo 113 113 | 113 113 | aan SS Re eee ee 8 Se lc 81 $1 | 81 81 1 ES ET ET INR OR SS. PRS SEAS BRR * 105 ¥3 | 105 | 105 RR ee ae eae: a ea eens Soe cane ornm wasn 69 Gd 69 69 i ee ee a Oe aii ee eas S ae eae 81 81 81 81 TS RR aE GR nee en ee SS is 53 53 53 53 TID Be SRR es ee RE 2 Cae ee ee ee ae oan ole 39 39 39 39 BOs see 5: ek ee ee ae © ae ee 72 72 72 72 | ESSE GE ae TEI OA SS aa SSR ae 77 77 77 77 Se ie ca (Ae ee ae ee eee 75 75 75 75 (| RE es PCS Sa aieee a ey oe m2 75 75 75 75 en > fie Ck 2S) en as oe oe 65 65 65 ee Bae 8 2 oo 8 ee a ee ee ere ee 56 56 56 ee GM bo oie kp ae, ee A 2 ee ee 75 75 75 pl” AE eT a a eS ee ee Re 2 75 75 75 75 CO a Rae = ee ees 2 ee 56 56 56 DO SS SS Se re ate ee 75 66 75 75 CE ERIE Ses SRR PS ek RS RRS ee ey 5 eae 75 50 75 75 1 eee ee ES Re ee ee ee et ee ES 73 49 73 73 LARS SE? Ee yy Ph Le ee 75 50 75 75 es ee ae ee le ek en Bee ee 75 50 75 75 GA ere aed See OE AE ee ee 75 50 75 75 2 RO Se a SS TE ee. Nee: - 75 50 75 (6) SRS TRS BS SRS ee eye tee - 75 50 75 75 0 A SC SS SD ER aie SY ae eS Sees yee 75 50 75 75 OG Re eee Se ARS i eh ee on Dera 75 50 (6) 75 OS Eine Sa ae Eee ee ee 75 50 75 75 TE ae ot ES Ca I A end nants — 75 50 75 75 TRANSPORTATION RATES. T57 Live stock and dressed meats, Chicago to New York. AVERAGE RATES, IN CENTS, PER 100 POUNDS. [From Bulletin No. 14, Miscellaneous Series of the Division of Statistics. Dressed hogs Horses Dressed as Year. Cattle.) Hogs. |Sheep.| and Refrig mules beef. erator yar cars ats HARES x tats ac x that ttn aide pi nites ates 0! aretha ad eaters re ak, Nedra in ot Veancerieiec a aire SE: bc cede soelcaboesieene ss aiid gegen vente ot ciintedliion Lockie eta season ik Wie aue baie ands dilsa6 aaaNene aS siwebaln aonbhae a SE Sree LE he ES a ba 4 i Sa RAY | 85 |...222----|enenneenne | Be Sete ir ele | hee: Se A ke c Vi os ani pty ce Ge EGE OEE? ee SR I a eee. Ve Rk ees fh Pe ees ee ees A gi Re ESP ES RE EES SS CYS 72 adwlewina vane Sauces Macedo eesenea scececs sauna os wiser tiensia ak mhae pwr ares te Sanhw cous ‘ we SPrrrirtri.s. Sion occa els a sis ps a taal nt Se hen iw woe 47 45 61 60 82 oa‘an at sin ated wc ee kt RE ee eS ee 55 43 65 60 S56 |. caceduo~s|ewereee iohapietic' scien aisle Welinicsia, weosawr Gane een ee aia BD5 31 61 60 OO | vc ccswenvel canes eee OS es 1 aE a ee ee 36 20 53 60 fn Pee ep ee teebtee tn Sacitnwonedas itena main 40 82 50 60 Pee (ee Oe ae ee ee 81 28 44 60 1 eee BAD ae ot ee 31 26 43 60 Pe ee NS oo actu cee deren ens 33 30 42 60 61 53 48 SAGs 2 cy Sa a 33 32 40 60 62 59 54 AE EET ee 22 26 31 60 46 46 | 44 A OE RS eS 25 30 30 60 47 47 45 eS ee ee eee 23 28 30 60 39 39 39 ‘cal A EN SAAT IE SES 27 30 30 60 45 45 45 i nda san odin S otek ale ll la PU a ts 28 28 30 60 45 45 45 rede OE es Se ee ke NS SER 28 20 30 60 45 45 45 Mee 2 wn dus Soee eee wen aes 28 80 30 60 45 45 45 AONE Mea er wm aergor ye he So Le te 28 30 30 60 45 45 45 Bee i eos sthcle Ge wi ton ae eres 28 30 30 60 45 45 45 ABE PS 8 2 ee tpn = ee a TEE 28 30 30 60 45 45 45 Grain, Chicago to New York. AVERAGE RATES, IN CENTS, PER BUSHEL. [From Bulletin No. 14, Miscellaneous Series of the Division of Statistics.] Wheat. Corn. : P Via lake Via all Via lake and rail. Via all rail and Sail. rail, Year. es RED OF by) ail an See WR CL See Stent iy (sported bit | peeked Be (oceeon Be | poemed bal chosen or port y | porte ported by | ported by porte ew Yor Chicago ew Yor Chicago | Chicago Chionae” Produce | Board of oduce | Board of | Board 5 Board of Exchange.| Trade. |Exchange.| Trade " Day Apia Ee ee: MR ee Ae LR. PY 06. 61452. 231M 36.19 Ber ae Sik ae mde mca ape ee en a ee es Ce eee eed OA. SE Vs ett 32. 48 EY Re EE aa Seed eo ee al Sods se tg eee a 32. 48 Bed nee auctor e pine dl saree aa eek eon ee ae re 5 Oe, SO 38.81 8 D2 GER oR, aS EE YR NPD 8 g Pe ee 39. 54 Ss a grits nied nom ervreseg pmlc altaaete eh taceriges ck igre se Tia a ee eg ck! 33.88 | .........--- 31. 63 Boch iinoems on wt tai cating oe , : =< = .2 8S .| 3 8 =S8533 433 Segue | HSSONNA Kd ee Sse | Nw ge, es SES8" fon © * = ,=& St 8B RBBB SBS Poy es mich cho 29 my cS od Ses Ske ace (aS, sa “5 ORR 20, ry iad <>) S80 be Bee ee ed Eee ee see La ee eee A el ' ' ’ ' ' ' ‘ + St Te eer er ey lS sed ce). > tae eee Fe ce we Oe eee xs ‘ rs ' i ae ae a et K, i. th bod’ oF fo hanes Pal ert 5s ¢ 0 8 8 ) £5072 eo , £8 6° 6 © 6.44.8 } Caen en. a. ee ee ee, a ~t_ le ek ee ees) el , SS Bo -F Wo , Va Fe woe es Se ie See ,rP 8 Fw Oe Ne oe iy oe Average freight rates, in cenis, per ton per mile. Statistics. ] {From Bulletin No. 14, Miscellaneous Series of the Division of ‘UU UoILy puvosvoryy | ‘809BIS poepytal) bai Ur SABATIVA ITV ‘a YU OTA hes a N puv sae harness Jamal 2 “AMY OYLOVG uo “CMY [neq “4 puv seyNeMIpl'o BOHM | "AMY oyloed pue aaa ON Bee. ‘a “A [BazUeH sTouryyy “AMY orto puz prpedwret) AMY OSBdITHD puv cult M F400, becca ald etter el SO ee el ee oe ek a ee Oe pe ee Oe eee Sanees eeabheesaaacseecesae: pu Ga for} MND Gri) SBEEG ~ alse #3 HERE fbetais RERESAE S5e BEE Pea een eee rete Pierre ys LoD ED Fe Be A aoe foe Bo ee oe ee Be hoe eh oe he BEES ZGREG AEE EREGERRSZRESSASEES ee ee ee en oe es a a ee ee ee a ed a ee he NNNNRNRNNNS SAAR AAs AAs Meester | BERRRN= coe Se RNASS SEES Se aeeas NNNNNNNF SSA see AAAS 2e39E0S7225 ISU SaRRELGRESSELS pte ee a eee re see BERELSSRRESLSSSCNGRAR SARA ER SSS eiekelel elise SHARSRASS EASE PESERZSSsecuauss Ta Ce a Dee Wee ie Me als de A Seas aS St St et "YY BruvalAsuueg ‘AMY UloyyNog uvs THOMA puv o10yy oxV] ‘a “a OM ‘YY A9Aly uospny pue [eijue, yIoX MON ‘yy AuRqly pus u0qysog ‘MY Sanqyoyry Year. | ARRR SESE siiulebee hear vo. Sik Bessie = = .o ¥ ‘¢ @@ © « @ bs” © 6. wD @ owt oa oe, ee eee eee SSS See sii iiaussenen o 6 «0 Ok & le 8 6 we Ce el Sh mn “8 Oe Bee 2 oe oe ee eee 1030 105 089 057 944 969 942 | 8282 iSR2s22Reecacess 09 A869 65 ee br bch rr ee Me ee) So Veet Cee Bo ' ' , 8 ' ' ' ' ' ' ‘ ' ' ' ' ' | a | a a Ae OS Te ee) ey ' ' ’ ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ‘ ‘ ' ' ‘ ' ' ' ' ' ' ‘ ' ‘ ' ' ‘ ' ' ? ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ‘ ‘ ' ' ' ' ' ' ' MRAOHNMA ISK KHOSHNHBAsSoLwaged 268 He Or we RRR Nvielv ke SPEEG SEE SEE REE SEL EPL EBEEEBES be ee ce ee ee ee hc ee ee Oe he Be ee Be ee ee | TRANSPORTATION RATES. 759 Average rates, in cents, per passenger per mile, {From Bulletin No. 14, Miscellaneous Series of the Division of Statistics. ] : : ’ y ; 1879____| 1.888) 2.137] 2.044) 2.090} 2.221) 2. 253] 2. 228) 3.630] 3.066] 2.971) 2.908 1880. - 999] 2.041] 2.135] 2.222] 2.15¢] 2.959] 2.514! 2.806] 2. 868 3.476 . 988} 2. 152) 1.895) 2.959) 2. 164) 2. 666) 2. 856 ; io | © ° o |o | wt | : o Baer a A ls |g ig | & q |4 cal ms ‘ E ; @ co) fo by | ioe) Paget - | bh ri. Ag mit E , |e! £ yt E A af ele as sila [nal | & | el Sel 8 oa | 2 Pe) See) | GG) S |eel sal a ids] ee) 3 | Seal ed Year.| ai | 4 | Og od g mee l|oF| £ | S8ie3] 2) 8 | F/ & mw | oS | ; | BB we | 4g | of a os 3 i: i > | PR i's oO , J a re | © Ser. taal 24 ee te 2 | So | Bes cr | oa =o | § |ol| & y | ag 3 z DL a £5 — ie os be ps og 28 F oc 18818 51a = | 8 o8 | pigs) &§ | 2%) 2 aig iz a/a/5 Ie | & | edt ie Tele | AS (She heehee ae Ks Ss Se BAS, EE ead ote oiidlinnns a a eS St ee. | 1967... 1. 603 ae ee 1.641)... 2.074) 2. 2.708) 8.1901......|eessee|eceeee 2. 7 | 04 SS th. = 2.021). .....| 1.928) 2 2.791| 2.982) ...... | cundehddetee 2.845) 2. 164 1869...) 1.696) 1.974 .....- 9.324|.-.-_- 1.872) 1 2. 914| 3.047) 2. 807'--..-- ease, 2.894) 2.144 1870_---| 1.945) 2.343) 1.770] 2.470) 2.204] 2. 167) 2 8.200] 3.426! 3.273\--..-- 4.301) 3.194 2.392 1871 010) 2.517) 1.920] 2.396) 2.503] 2.322! oo. 3.358) 3.435] 3.322)...... 8.775) B. 340) 2.632 1872 923| 2.275) 1.863] 1.904) 2.321] 2.379! ._ 2... . 992} 3. 084] 3.220] 3.404). .2.- 3.730) 3.240) 2.521 1873 820| 2.176) 1.799) 1.927] 2.221] 2.317). 2-- 3. 66} 3.097| 3.131) 3.099 .-.... 3.541) 3. 10: 1874 2.229) 1.929] 2.088) 2.214) 2.349) 2 542) 2.966) 3.063) 2.995) 2.949) 3.394) 3.412 1875...-| 1.910] 2.180} 1.885] 1.955] 2:08) 2.259) 2 2. 882| 2. 687| 2.690) 2.755) 2.878) 3.219 1876...-| 1.864) 2.099] 1. 693] 1.859] 1.846! 1.819} 1. 2. 804] 2.626) 2.805) 2.614] 2.974) 3.018 1877... .-| 1.947| 2.174) 1.953] 1.772] 2.182] 2.185] 2.192! 3. 726| 2.942) 2.772] 2. 994| 2.798) 3.140] 3. 167 1878... O78) 2.198) 2.255) 2.217) 2.258) 3.738) 3.122] 2. 933) 3. 020 3. B45 2 1 2 lV NNN NNN NNNUNNNNNNNNNY Soteceeeuseare oak fame fe fl fh fe fl re ofa ot ro rf re a ZC) Jel rh rh © - oe) a 1882. - 715| 1.993) 1.808) 1.948) 2.156} 2. 249] 2. 024) 2. 605) 2.288) 2.505) 2.579 2. 706) 1883 - - - 790) 2. 088 1.673} 2.196) 2.297) 2.193) 2.373) 2.424] 2.504) 2.516 2.614 1884 -_-- 651) 1.908] 1.942) 2.189) 2.170) 3.258) 2.222) 2.379) 2.225) 2.572) 2.553 2, BAZ 1885 - - 833) 1.838] 1.419) 1. 756) 2.058) 1.950) 1. 569) 2.270) 2.211) 2. 466) 2. 563 2. 103) 1886 - - 756) 1, 853) 1.845) 1. 890} 2.098) 2.114) 2 31} 2.208) 2.420) 2.415 2. 436} 1887 ....| 1.89 | 1.880} 1.989) 2.039) 2. 260) 2. 125) 2 2.268] 2.328) 2.538 2.3904 2. 245 1888 _...| 1.978) 1.976} 1.967} 1.851] 2.280} 2.111) 2 2.197) 2.312) 2. 445 2. 429) 2.349 1889 - _- 957) 1.869) 1.932) 1. 722) 2. 286) 2. 076} 2 1.927) 2.285) 2.415 2.370, 2.165 1890....| 1.915) 1. 858} 1.910) 1.584) 2. 254) 2.094) 2 i} 2. 022) 2.149) 2. 359 2.403) 2. 167 1891__..| 1.869} 1.818) 1.905) 1.601) 2.105} 2.070} 2 2.073) 2. 322) 2.408 2.483) 2.142 1892. ...| 1.916} 1.828} 1. 887) 1.589) 2.183} 2. 028} 2 2.101) 2.308) 2.464 2. 448) 2. 126 1893__..| 1.869) 1.835) 1. 832) 1.551} 2. 195} 1.968} 1 1.999) 2.095) 2.414 2.432 2. 108 1894__..| 1.851) 1. 794) 1. 857} 1.509) 2.069} 1.993) 2 1.925) 1.891} 2.191 2.365 1.986 1895-_...| 1.819) 1. 770} 1.837) 1.560) 2.215] 1.971) 2 1. 995) 2.146} 2. 411 2.318) 2.040 1896_...| 1.769) 1. 752) 1.838) 1.641) 2.148) 1.950) 1 1.979) 2.108) 2. 375) 3 2.187) 2.019 1 Bs, ok 9 2. Page. Abattoirs, number under inspection ....-.....-....--2------22.-20----eeee 248 table of antemortem inspections, 1891-1897 _..........---.---.-. 20 Accounts and disbursements, annual review ._................-- 22-222 --- 57 Division, organization and duties..... __._.- 621 Acreage of farms by geographical divisions and census FOR... dst tae 587 Adulteration of seed, study by Division of Botany ...............-..2------ 94 or misbranding of food and feed, Connecticut law ____..____- 427 Agaric (mushroom), royal, resemblance to poisonous species ......._..__-- 458 Agaricini, group of toadstools, Seer WP! ce ae bk oe ee ele. oa ee 455 Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, Association, committee on Bemis Cerne. ise tas. 0. oe Saa L IUL Se 95 other institutions having courses in agriculture. 622 interests, savings by weather service............-.....-.--..- 31 machinery, relation to size offarm...______................. 586 occupsnons it, United Statesii is: cic 2 5k. oPs2s isc. ell... 584 » production and prices, article by George K. Holmes........ 577-606 products, average prices of imports and exports, 1893-1897__ 749-752 GiscGasiom Gimme orcs sis os a 590 exports and imports, 1893-1897._._.._..__....__- 736-752 principal, prices on farm, Dec. 1, 1893 to 1897____- 723-725 table of comparisons of hand and machine labor_. 600-603 wholesale prices in leading cities........_..___-. 726-732 publications, early, Cost. . .-lage let eee sc aS 209 science, Scope OF WOrK: ... . 2 cESa vee. aia ee ee ee 294 Agriculture, Department. (See Department. ) high-scngol COMPRESS... 50d eh ee eet CoUeae ee 287 in Alaska, need of appropriation for inquiry -...._....._____- 49 necessity of statistics....i. 3. 2 gee eee ke ei De 259 scientific, relation to progress in production.__._.........__-- 605 Secretary. (See Secretary of Agriculture. ) short and special courses... .2.J.0....-020.-4.-2-4 eae eer 281 Agrostology, Division, annual review of work ........... ....--..----..---. 42 investigations in Southwest and South____._____- 170, 172 organization and duties... 2 ee. sr eee 621 review of work for farmer.._..............-..... 160-175 soope Of Worn i251 52s Gr, Io eee ten ee 161 transfer of corps from Division of Botany_-________- 93 Air, lack in soil as cause of root diseases of plants... _...._..._.._..__.._-. 101 movement under weather conditions .....................-.-.-...-..-- 7 mpper, study with, Kites... 52a ae em kee pia aee 31 miabama, note on species Of graspes=. i552 .0e ea cee. i 173 secondary schools of agriculture_..._................-- HOS SECTS. 288 table on cost of fertilizers and profit on cotton _._.__._.__- MLB Pus 599 varieties of wheat, oats, and corn for cultivation...._.._.._.___- 116 Alaska, agricultural difficulties and possibilities, discussion ..___.._______. 572 outlook of coast region, article by Walter H. Evans. 553-576 cheap production of hay at Cook Inlet_...---..........-2---- 2.2... 564 eominission, work |... 2s seus eee sneak fun Ae oe eae 50 comparison ‘of agriculture with Northern Weroge su. 2u.c co Pete. 573, 574 discussion of annual rainfall______- dads TS Seaee WSU. ck 557 berries.......... Ws livehwen se eenle .ceuseeeeeeeee. 564 cereals. . ..... 5240 ce eee ee ea eee peu ee forests... -. ~t avod mend saath oSese Sawa. ot eee garden products - abe'catted bese abba EN eam nete Je 566 762 INDEX. Page Alaska, discussion Of STASSES . .cciewcesecoscaduuned¥ucutpaneueenneeuees> ae 562 meteorology with reference to agricult ie ES. 554 MOUS ncn cv cvescedced Geenns abaul eee eee 558 Stock raigin® ...- 6% 223s base a ae 571 general topography --..--.-.-----+2--< +--+ ---0e cere eee e eee er eee 553 investigation of agricultural possibilities _........-...-..--.------- 141 methods of cultivation .. <<< .6é< ¢ae ~sets Zen ae . =o ee le 345-354 useful and harmful, HaG ooo SoVe ee ee ee a 670 Biscayne Bay, establishment of experimental factory for sisal hemp = yeaa 2306 wammsmmice of lime, use as insecticide _ 2 Ue ah 640 Blackberry, note on hybridization with raspberry ---.--_--. eye eee {Dae Blackbirds, cause of increased numbers..._.........-...-.-.. 6 ia tor, A 346 notes on range and habits _.-.. . co et Rae... 348, 349 Black cherry, range, characteristics, uses, suggestions for use......._..... 661 rot of grapes, work of Department in combating -_-- -- > 107 walnut, range, characteristics, uses, and suggestions for gr owing _- 659 Blackleg or anthrax, efforts to prevent losses..........-...--------.--. Ast 24 764 INDEX. Page. Blackleg, plans of prevention; use of vaccination. --..........-.---------- 254 Blight, leaf, susceptibility of certain fruits... ..........---.-.------------- 109 methods of combating: .... ....s8ss de seses cee ea a eee 105 Bluegrass, Kentucky, usefulness for lawn making..---..-.-----------.------ 358 Boleti, edible toadstools, notes on less common species.. .....-...--------- 466 Books. (See Library.) Bordeaux mixture, formula.........-.---s-s9<: = gn SU ee ee eS ECR eee 675 Boston, method of lawn making. ........2.....<. -sWcc be tea eee eee 368 Botanical investigations, annual review-.......-..------.----------------- Botany, Division, information from correspondents as to distribution of weeds organization end duties ...... .. 50icteye- acne eo eeeeee 621 reports of investigations .. ....0<0ss2< .v ot ee Oe 21 note on danger of bloating from alfalfa and red clover __. 497 swine, early appropriation for investigation of disease. _________ 237 antemortem inspections, 1891-1897 ___ BA As onan Weta bea oe 20 appearance of disease with Gulf coast herds after (civil) war______- 241 average price and total value January 1, 1898, by States__._...____- 734 miscussion of Texas, of Spamish, faveiais-< 25 Sakasi 240 efforts at eradication of tuberculosis__._................-..-___._.. 254 export, inspection, tagging, and certification_____.____- eee ek 244 ‘* feeders,” effect of superior quality of Texas grasses.__.._. ___.._- 171 v imports, quantities and value, 1893-1897 ____._....__..._._._._.___. 736 ie AIASES, TOES =. . «256 no a ed 8d ee es eee ieee 569, 571 inspection and quarantine against Texas fever_____.___.___.______- 23 note as to quarantine on Canadian frontier _.____.....__._________- 251 on ease and cheapness of vaccination __.._._....._...._-____-_- 255 number and value, 1879-18981, 893-1897 ____.__._.___.__.._______. 733,64) a. numbers inspected, 1801-1807 ...0...¢./2-41 eee ta ore ee 250 & offensiveness of sweet pea or melilotus__..._._..._.._..-...-.-.__-- 504 profit as compared with cotton____... -.._.-- Fact, ss ps ban ae 173 ranges, forage problems.____._.____. ; eee des aw ame Dae. 42 sheep and hogs, losses by disease in last census year_..._.._.-.____-. 238 southern inspection in quarantine against fever. _._._..__.__,___-- 21 Cedar, ranges, characteristics, uses,and suggestions for growing........... 654 red. (See Giant arbor vitae. ) Cedars, growth in Alaska__.__._- Lick cei le ah Stn Iie Gib the Sc ts hee CNN 561 Cépes, edible toadstools, note on importation . ...____.______- Spaeal BBE ee 465 Cereal crops, table showing average value and yield _.__..__.__. Poh ae sree 592 Cereals, early tests on Department grounds _...._._.......-..--- 1-2. .--- 202 estimate of losses in United States by rusts and smuts_.___._.____- 103 in Alaska, discuasloti.... 2220S eae te oe ee ki, Co wie Se 568 . suggestion as to annual loss by injuries from birds._............-- 345 for growing in certain Statese..- snc. 0. 24. eee ne 116 Chantarelle, parasol fungus and fairy-ring fungus, description, etc ..____-_. 463 Charts of Weather Bureau, explanation -_._...........-2..--2- 2. 2---ne-ee 7 showing rainfall, use in crop bulletin..................-.----22.--. 67 Beeenical investigations, proposed. os 2niis .osiws eWandnness acs eeubeboen.~s- 36 Chemistry, Division, annual review of work. ..........--..-.-..--.-.-.---- 34-38 cooperation with scientific investigators. .._..._.___.. 83 miscellaneous work_._........-----. pibdawel wake Cie sud 82 organization and duties. ...............---- - fapgice sine 620 766 INDEX. Chemistry, Division, report of work for the farmer. -_..........-...-.-.----- study of soils _. ~. A work on the composition and adulteration of foods. Cheese and butter, manufacture from whey---_..- ce hE ew os factories, disposal of whey for milk-sugar making. 23 2 eee v filled, making; note on laws____...- OF ue Ree imports, quantities and values, SNOG-NG0T'f EF BO LOLOL proposed inspection for import dese xd. ou LE Ce See OLA remarks on manulnovure... 22.255). ibi le eee bic Cherry, black; range, characteristics, uses, suggestion for growing .__.-__- borer of Australia, attack; indication of presence; history _.-.-.-- notes on disease in orehard...._. ...... -.----2------2e-ceeeee ee Chestnut, range, characteristics, uses, suggestions for growing |: ).52 22 798- Chickens, use of skim milk ...;.. .. 2925.52. See: Jt. eo aaa Chicory, prospective profit in growth in United States _-.......-..-_.-._--. Chinese sand pear, character and use ._.._. ....-----------.-+----e+----- tea plant, introduction by Commissioner of Patents and others - Chlorosis, hybridization as means of combating----.--.. .-.--.------------ Chlorotic and lang diseases, use of whoy...... 22.) Sea eee Cinchona, hybrid, note on quinine content _...--.:--..8.5.1. 200-2 - Cinchona plants, note on distribution from Experimental Gardens---..._-- Citrus fruits, estimate of losses in Florida by diseas® 222225222... -) ee notes ON Crosses _.....--.-- SP, Ree CR Ae teat eee remedy for soale inseots ......--.. 2.2.2 St Se water as protection from frost -....2..:.-.---:----:<22s08o Clay soils, relation of soi] moisture to movement of water . Sle Se Climate and crop bulletin from Weather Bureau .__..--.--. --..----------- service of Weather Bureau .: >... 5... sh eee need of farmer of information as to relation to crops. ...--.------- reports, note as 6 iawee |... . £2: 2. SGA eee Climatic conditions and soil, effect on varieties of plants _..--.-.---.-----. relation to tree growth ___..........-..-- he Pere Climatological information, collection and use _-__-__- Re es Clouds, effect upon frost. ....:-. SG SEI See eee Clover beetles, importation, notées.-.. ..024 105... eee crimson. (See Crimson clover.) red, discussion -of walue eas trop... 22552201121. % S22... tee seed, examp'e-of impurity... 226200 io. os Re eee ‘* sickness,” opinion -.as to-cause.......--... A eee white, use in lawn-nminiting 22... es ee SE. 1 See with wheat, indorsement -._-_-_.--- ile Cue OL. SS ee Gaal. freight rates. by years... 982: 2320 A RS: 2 eee Coca plant, introduction into United States :. 2.2.25... 24. 34.2 eee Cocoanut palm, introduction into United States_-__.-.-.-..-----.---------- Cocoanuts and cocoanut oil, statistics of imports, 1870-1897..-..._--.--- ue Coffee, note on distribution from Experimental Garden_.-.. -- Wl 30. Lee tea, and liquors, consumption per capita, 1870-1897_..-.-..--.------ Cold waves, distribution and use of warnings .... -........--------------- origin and nature. 2048.01 Pp Re Bor ee eee Colleges and. other institutions with courses in agriculture __-..-...------- Colorado, note on cooperative work in tree-planting __-.. ...---------.----- southwestern, study. of forage plants ...-.....-......---.------- Golts, use iof. skim milk... too ee Ea ee eee Commercial fertilizers, analyses ___..- eee! 2a a Ob. ae needs and methods of use _.._......-_-----. Je Common schools, need of nature teaching Condemned meat, disposal as fertilizer Cendiments! feeding situs, diseuspion....... 2. oo Lo Nee eee Congressional publications ‘of Department, east 2) 250 2 ee... ee Conifers, description, characteristics; wood, its properties and uses_..----- (See also Deciduous conifers. ) ; studies by Division of. Forestry ....--.-. 2. -2.-.----_-+- 25-2 eee usefulness for tree-planting in arid regions So LL Connecticut experiment station, inspection of food and feed hee note on law to prevent adulteration or misbranding..- -...--- progress in-road-building = <. 22/02 S248 eee Conservatories, early suggestions of Willian: Saunders for construction ._. INDEX. T67. Page. Consular reports, relation to study of jitters Wn. . «dacs. cea » Rie Contagion, dissemination by stock cars ...............-. .---.-- cabs ductal 25 early carelessness as to spr OS ETERS ST EDY Pere TS hae? s5) Se of pleuro-pneumonia, eradic “ation by slaughter of animals... __. 239 Contagious diseases, necessity of inspection for control _....-....-...-----. 23 note on wisdom of quarantine - _ 20 reason for exclusion of our stock by Great Britain. 238 Convict labor in road-building ; eed pcb. St see Re 179 Cooking, suggestions for use of pilin GL. 6 fxs eseens LK je bbins *ae Cooperative road construction, progress... 0... 6.6.2. ce cee ccceee cect weds 77 Cooper, Hon. Elwood, production of olive oil at Santa Barbara, Oal cum 332 Copri inus, edible mushroom, GeaCrimts0N, O60... 5.6.28 ob eu. ee 462 Corn, acreage, production, v alue, and disposition of the crop of 1897, — States 712 and milk, table showing comparative values as feed for hogs. dastse » ORE average value per-acre, 1893-1897, by States.....................--- ee WING Jeo lle, UY SUNSOBlsolG. coca sige t SUL in) 1 farm prices, December 1, 1893 to 1897, by Stetieoe.c- suck. oo oe et ee 723 fly. ribbomt footed; injuries to small grain ___... .__.. oh le he ee 549 hy PER ap NCTE AERIS So x Sal Sie wis eds aie hin s wu: oo Sa 414 _increase of yield of, by cr ossing varieties... _____. walt oath and See 413 PIG, BYGKMEDEMEIMION oF 0 NO ueisias. 2... core Sle swe 678 POnOG Geena MOO. os Ou. asi. co es cle Ee ee 448 note on field for development of foreign market ___....._._.__...-- 277, 27 production of oil; also sugar from stalks _._._______.- ety 209 sawfly, enemy of wheat, Mee te OU ee ee ne cy pesos 549 statistics of area, production, and value, TT ee ee eee 710 table showing average value and yield ..._._-_......-.._.-..--.-.-.--- 592 tarring of seed as protection against birds_..__.... _.-....------_--- 352 varieties adapted to Southern States .......-.--..-.-.-..-. 2-22-22 --- 116 wheat, and cats, investigation of zones---_..-..-...-----...----.----- 52 wholesale prices in leading citaes, 1892 to 180Tos. oc dk be 726 Cornell University, description of work in College of Agriculture Ci Sd 283-287 Corrosive sublimate, formula for solution as fungicide ._-__......._..___.- 676 ~ Cottage cheese, making from, Skis Foams: ries sles oe. . Seat ts Soe . §20 ere ee WORE, DIGS... io Sceek oe Seat o bas epee eee 594 average value per acre, 1893-1897, by States_........._.._.......--- 722 yaoisl; coee—1607,, by hates . 2. eee ese ae 720 poll Weewil; diuamaenh wtady. . 2. 2s. hintowteee lose ee ee ee 38, 86 7 ceet Obanatieatr..... . 2. 5 2. J lea. Deo Oee obee ams 56 chon, 2nect.of ‘inventions. - -:..¢.<24- 52h ee ee te 2S 597 movement and mill purchases; also world’s crop___-..-...---- 715 demind fer ingh.grades.. 7... =. . 3 ee Oar ch eka 116 ~ Egyptian, value of importation into United ines: Ge int deta a3 117 farm prices, December 1, 1893 to 1897, by States......._._...__.___. 725 profit as compared with PN St Sy RR Rear 173 returns showing advantage in use of fertilizers _._._._....__...___- 598 seed meal, discovery of large adulteration ............-.-.-.-.------ 424 Oil, NSS agains IMSS qc sice in 2h oe ed tere est soe eos 639 L statistics of area, production, and value, 1866-1897______- anager ta 712 . wholesale prices in leading cities, 1892- OR ica Snape he, 731 « world’s consumption, 1880-10062. <2 addon ss ss pe eawaten -e eta eek ek we 716 Cottonwood, range, characteristics, uses, and suggestions for growing-_--_. 668 COVILLE, FREDERICK V., review of work of Division of Botany for farmer 90 Cowbird, note on range and GaseRee: 10 STRAIN: <6- an seup Bo2 occas AS. 352 Cowpeas, varieties, planting, cultivation, and feeding and fertilizing values. 497 Gas emount and value Of MGNUTe. > seus oi cas earns es oes Atasiwie se 688 and calves, skim milk and whey as feed____._.____.. ie bela stds a 519, 525 danger from poison’: 53...< see wee oe Hiatt bP ce Sa ae PY 97 Crab apple, improvement by crossing. -...._.- iat he Ehret Tics odcbanthotinc aes 420 iueer, methods of separating ....2 025/35 uaapeslauynes< 43 0h un wan enn sabe 510 Creeping bent, usefulness in lawn WARNE 0 nase ks iadecatii wes. snl eee 359 Crimson clover, soils, range of climate, at.. 24624 «bates tats aes aes sites Crop and climate bulletins of W onthe: Depeet a.u:4: ual arid es ase 27 service of Weather Bareen .3 <5 «si dane! Jenks se ocs 67 weather conditions, season of 1897... ... .. os..-200-5--2.------- 689-697 forest, notes on growing and using... .-...-. .-....-....-.--.--.--. _- i100 note on relation of character to soil conditions. .. _._.._.._..__.__._. 134 768 INDEX. Page. Crop, pests, foreign, study by Division of Entomology~--.-.--.........---.--- 8Y production, note on relation to methods of cultivation._._.._._...__- 129 reporting, aprovemens ... ....5<- leu ec. seem welts aanebnae aan 56 reports, change in manner of publication re ee tbe gue Sao eae 212 distribution ___-_- segbwe. 32 6 eee eS eae 57 foreign, relation to markets....._--_.-- et SURE Sock ae 275 monthiy, Gisivibublon .~. 2 2. cis uu. we as ee 269 note as to Issue. 2 ooo. bc. woe eee eee ee 206 season, rainfall, article by A. J. Henry ee Peer ee 607-618 Crops and farm ani imals, principal, etatistios: .2 2... ee ae eee 710-735 best for nonirrigable localities in southern Great Plains... _..__.-.- 92 cereal, average value and yield ...: ... 6.22 sed. eds ie Sa aee 592 experiments with oats, beans, and buckwheat under control ___. _.-. 30 exported, table showing percentage. -._. ..-..-.-- 2. eee een ewe ceewee 591 farm prices, Notes... . -. 2 2c. 0.5 e+ s oe eae nel eee a ae 593 forage, economic importance in feeding____....... -.--.----.--.---- 489 leguminous forage, article by Jared G. Smith. -...__.__-.-.....-- 487-508 of less importance than clovers and peas __-._-..------- 504 | need of farmer of information as to relation to climate____.______-- 118 new, inquiry in botanical work ...<...2:.2:. 2. -03.)..82. 4. 2 investigation by Division of Botany _.............------------ 98 note on difficulties of introduction ._..........-...---.---< -.--° 225 note as to use of unmerchantable residue _______--- a's wba dae ce 295 notes on need of diversification .....<.. 2... 52. v2.22 ste. Fe principle of adaptation to new climate = 2. 0.202 noteees eee 111 profitabie for different climates... .... .-.. 2.21.22 2.15... 56. oe special, value of forecasts . >.. ...- 2.222.222: - 2. AL statistics of increase and decrease by sections and time pees) .-. 581-583 suggestions for introduction of new kinds - .ol. 3. e See 10 table comparing results of hand and machine labor__.._-.-------- 600-603 truck and gar den, attention by Department to diseases ______.._--- = Cross-bred plants, increased vigor as compared with parents__.._____------ 403 Cross-breeding, making of better quality and flavor in tobacco, ete _-_-.---- 419 of plants. (See Hybridization. ) Cross-fertilization, three factors mentioned by Willis.----. stu .cucok gee 403 Crow, notes on range and habits_-_-----. ee Cuban tobacco, improvement of Florida tobacco by hybridization. Sg 419 Cucumber tree, range, characteristics. uses, and suggestions for growing.. 653 Curly mesquite, usefulness for pasture wis tS ink mm «wag ER a 162 Currant worm, manner of attack; importation_-__-_-..-.---.--.--.-------- 550 Currants. statistics of imports, 1830-1897. __. 'S...\- ne Cutter, W. P., article on the library and its work for the farmer______--- 220 Cypress, bald, range, characteristics, uses, and aerate for growing.... 653 family, description, qualities of wood, etc . « wnt’ wncinlie gic aera Dairy course in University of Wisconsin, period and*purpose---.---------- 282 products, average composition.°-~-2/_.. 2... .. 5 vA ee 678 imports, quantities, and values, 1893-1897. __.____ ....----- 736 ¥ utilization of by-products, article by Henry B. Alvord: ..... 23233355 509-528 v work of Bureau of Animal Industry... .......: .:-. 2. -..-s. SUS Dairying industry, suggestion for substitution of crops.__-----..---------- 118 Dairymen and dairywomen, number in United States.__.----..-.---.------ 261 Daxota, date of killing frost. -22: 2 fc ee ee ASS 618 North, supply and use of rainfall in wheat region. ...... 22 22a 433 vetch, value, cultivation and analysis.-............-..--..----.---- 505 Danger signals, desir ability of standard _...- 22.0092. 2232 See 31 Darwin, experiment in pollination of ‘cabbage: ........-- .. 2S 403 remarks on cross-breeding . ..-. -..22242s5.2. 22 393, 406, 408, 409, 411 Date palm, note on introduction nie United States * 2.022222 1) a Dates, statistics of imports, 1830-1897_____ _- 22820. Deadly agaric, description; danger of mistake for common mushroom....- 458 Beciduous-conifers, description, etess222 2/60 SIA Tl co, ee 652 Decorticating machinery for ramie, trials and results ____-_---.--.-------- 231 Denmark, rival of United States on London market; bacon___.._.-------- 15,272 Department grounds, improvenient..:: 227222 ei 25 ee eee 202 — of Agriculture, appropriations = -3. ....... 2 eee 622 character and cost of early publications BF 2 209, 210 INDEX. 769 Page. v Department of Agriculture, functions in foreign meat trade ._.......... 10 — of qualified statistical agents: in every State 57 GIGAIOR a wisn cin cd awadiiddnn's eawag eee 619-622 a icy as to sugar beets............- i pmhdhiwet 10 proposed help in eager > + of women........... 19 rule for propagation of foreign plants. ..... ~~ 187 BOOUO GE WOON vinta wisiilancty Ws « «Sea ees 9 summary of plans and policios. _........-.--..- 58 tests of forage plants...............- th athe 162 WORK OF TOTMET «6 wien cin as isenhes ee wens 59-278 work for farmer's home . : titan 18 Desert and semiarid regions, modifications of per ennial plants. sa eis oh ated 507 Deserts in Western States, moisture of soil at slight depths.............. 488, 434 TELA VO NUIDIGIEY . .isa'c cies ws ss cen eee em 436 met, Dy sienio, necemmty.of Trulli. chee nncncc win de od idvieseahl aa 112 Dietaries, method of calculating -............--- chp Demis elated tein ee ee SOLAR SURRGRTGS, CISCUBBION . 60.00. oo acne ecb t as eaka snk, we dee saben ee 679 Disbursements and accounts, annual review .............-.---..-..-.----- Disease of plants, cause of losses; ie rer gs eee 100, 103 early suggestions by William Saunders...._.__._- ceoess 182 investigations in progress in the Department __-_..._...- 110 Disinfection, need of compulsory, for cars and stock pens___..._........--- 25 Documents, ‘disposition OF SUGGS ETOM BAO als > sgh ae ok. au ate ae 54 DODGE, Cuas. RICHARDS, article on ‘‘ The present status of flax culture in OIA UNNI heh a this AR ooo ot we 471-486 review of work of Fiber Inv estigations._......-- 224 Dopag, J. R., note on articles in Annual Reports of Department. ____--__- 211 Domestic science, GRU PNOUG ce BOMOONS gushes aos oot ao ts eee --- 17 value of Department investigation ini Shey .<. Achee. ..... 18 Doticus, apple borer, attacks on apples in Australia_..-...----...-..-.-.-- 547 Dove, mourning or tur tle, habit of feeding on wheat___....._..._.. eee 352 Drake Star orange, immunity PROGR MEADE coke pri chs. deta «2h os ccs cn ae 417 Dried apples, and other dried fruits, notes on exports ee ee ee ee 344 TPMUIGA, CISCUGSION nin ia Siseiaia abet A Si e a n ee oe 312-319 Drought, bad distribution of rain as cause in Southeastern States..._._.__. 613 condition, 2elation to 270s8.s s2.(.d6 obs eetowk < Sase wnn oes cee 64 doterminaiien Of,]ine 2 1.2. s..0e ce ARS a ei nae needa H+ n nied ewe 45 grouping of years from 1871 to 1896 ................----..-----+- 614 period of danger in Eastern States. .........---...--5.------.-.-- 130 Droughts in central valleys of United States, breaking a et ee Te 76 power of withstanding in W Gaara leia ses tuhresae! celtic 430 Barnings of farm laborers, in 1800:..'.:2s.25ds8t ae ae LL nad oe 590 Eastern and Western United States, comparison DGONN fa Ss IC 8 129 States, note on supply and use of rainfall ._-...........-.-_.... L. 432 variety of SOUS. 2200-5. 222UL S.C st 1 es 126 Education, agricultural, enumeration of most efficient means___._________- 285 for farmer, best way to reach teacher and pupilin rural school. 284 features.of New York plams.. oi. ii. Davie eee 283 in agriculture, note on provision by Congress._........___._._- of farmer, summary of progress ---..-..-.----2.25---+...--.--2- 289 popular, for the farmer in the United States, article by A. C, ee esr eee a en, eee ie ae 279-290 rural, reading circle 48 MeCRREs - ssiwedeswinciderdawakenih ls se 293 Educational movement for home work for women_...._........ .__...._-- 17 &¥ Egypt, imports of cotton into United States __._...........2 222222 e eee. 117 Egyptian cotton, experiments in ginning...-...............--.-.-..-.-..-. 33 Electrical method of determination of soil moisture, notes.__.._____.___- 131, 436 measurement of soil moisture ._.._...............---. Electrification in cold waves, benefit to man and animals_____._._________- 75 Ellsworth, Henry L., publication as to distribution of seeds ._...___._____- 208 Elms, ashes, maples, and other varieties, characteristics and uses of wood__ 664 Emasculation, notes on operation in hybridization of plants -..........-... 388 Emulsions, pr eparation and use. agaimt: Insegths.. g60s5bb ede 12-5 ec al 639 Engineers, value of information from Weather Bureau observers __.______- 69 England, average prices of wheat, 1041 to 1896, table ........_...... 2.22. 594 1 A97 49 \ CT 295 770 INDEX. Page England, inoculation experiments with commercial bacteria-.-..-.-.-.-..-- 299 note on law in regard to feeding stuffs (see also London)...._._... 426 v English merchants, good effects of experimental shipments of butter._.._. 256v Entomological investigations in contemplation ----.-.--.-..-.----------- fee 39 Entomology, Division, annual review of work......-...-.-.--.------------ 38 investigation of orange fruit worm in Mexico___._._ 543 organisation and duties... .....-~.<.<..-+<<5---._... See eee property and product, averages......-..9.. {= 2 See INDEX. 771 Pago. Farm capital, relation to farm implements .................------.-------- 590 crops, percentage of increase or decrease..............--....---..... 588 principal, average yield and value per acre, 1893-1897 ___.__. 718-722 implements, relation to products and capital.......... 22. -- 2.2... .- 589 labor, statistics of wages ......-...-:.-....s.- ps7 Sede tS a tees 586 Iaborera, carnings tiptoe. lc, i bel cc eee eae Ukets edule lands, fences and bulktings; yerder scsi cus seis sic dee 25 sce wese cate 262 masiures, Observations G0 TOG Sole ee i ii Ss i nc os nwancedaare 295 population in the United States, table by specified occupations ---.--- 585 PUI ang production NOT MGTO cS. viw. Ls. os foes Usa taba 593 for agricultural products, December 1, 1893 to 1897, by States. 723-725 of wheat and freight rates from Chicago to New York ....___. 595 products, comparison of results by machine and hand labor_-.- .-- 600-603 POP IMPROVE AOPOs oe. Ss 0k es ei veunt ... SL. eee 565 ; Lake regions, note on indigenous fruits 2. o = 2 3ST coc 3. sce eo 307 Lambe; use of akin milesic 2 es wh wx ee ee a 519 ; LAMSON-SCRIBNER, F., article on ‘‘ Lawns and lawn making” __._._____- 350-372 review of work of Division of Agrostology --______- Land-grant colleges and experiment stations -.-_......--..----------------- Lands in West, injury by excessive application of water___.-._..-_.-.--.-. Larch, Western, range, characteristics, use, and suggestions for growing_. Larks, horned, damage to newly sown whéat...<_) Sea es ee oe Laurel, danger to animals edb ee kg STE ee ee Lawes, ‘Sir John B. , proof of uselessness of condimental feed Lawn grasses, selection of varieties. 260.02). Ue ee 357, 360 making, amount of seed per acre, manner of seeding_---___-.----- 362, 364 preparation of land .2< 2.00 (35 295. ee. nee ee Lawns and lawn making, article by F. Lamson-Scribner.--_-.......----- 355-372 mowing, use of turf, methods of removing weeds Laws against forest fires, SyMOpSIS._ -_ 25-222 50. 2 nw cao eee on. road building petese ies. ea ee Oe ee ae 373, 3874 Leaf blight, susceptibility of certain fruits 109 mildew of grape, experiment to prove origin .--.._....-.-----.-.---- Le Duc, Commissioner, remarks in annual report as to animal diseases- --- Legislation in this country regarding feeding stuffs. .........2.0 oe eee note on act of Congress for general inspection of live stock- __- Legumes, deep-rooted, mechanical effect on soil. .__-._-.....----..--------- Leguminous cropa, some disadvantages. .-.-22-..2...-2. 22252053. forage crops, article by Jared G. Smith..-.......-.... ---- 487-508 plants, use in securing supply of nitrogen in soil 299 Lemon and orange trees, need of more hardy varieties in citrus region----_- Lemons, estimate of losses in Florida by disease imports 12858; notes ‘on importa... -... <<. -< ....- +e - =e eee limes, and oranges, and products, imports_-_-....-...-.-------- 323, 324 Libraries, distribution of publications. -). bode. 3. 2e4 oe ee that receive Department publications.__....-......-.---------- Library, contributions to agricultural literature; usefulness-__-_-----_--- 2 the, article by W. P. Cubier-siprarian:...- 2 ee ee 22 Lice, plant, importation in nursery stock Lime as fertilizer for red ‘dlover’_ 22 oe eee eee bisulphide, use against insects ....---5--. s<- ane 2 ee 528 Lupines, soils; poisons injurious to stock..............-....---.----------- 504 Lycoperdon, poisonous fungus, description, etc... _-. am Ac onlin ated oy Me eo 469 maecnive Sa MARG 1AD0r, COMPAFIBONS ....-. . 2.2. - onnessbensnccenns ran 599-603 Machinery, agricultural, proof of value by statistics............_. 2-222. 264 ig: 1 TUS” A Sy ea al eg eae apen isle 5 be pale: > ee SeOMNS Vilig; ACM AM UME CUPCUEO.. .. ko on se enn ccnv ced one 480 relation to increase in production of cotton.._...._...-..2- .-- 597 ORR, I RRR ne eamanewneneiadamement 377 Machines, remarkable effect on agricultural production .__._.-_..___-__._-- 604 Magnolia, range, characteristics, uses, and suggestions for growing________- 662 menine, law TOr Conirol Of foeding stuiis.-...............-.-.-..-n-.--2_-- 427 State college, results of study of milk as huiman food...___..______- 512 Maize. (See Indian corn.) Malaga grapes, introduction into California-.......__.....-.-..--.----.--- 313 Malarial fevers, notes on prevention by products of blue-gum tree________- 192 mer UL poming, Ten stance Of SOUr OTANPG. 8. a ne in ap - nos saeen-- 417 Mallein, note on distribution. __________- A iy ape ROSA dh ty ech a es so 27 jaminnie ame Dirds, economic relations... -... 22-405 ecm Bs studies of food habits.._-_._.____-- EL aco ae De 121 Mango, note on introduction into United States__..._.......-.--___--.._-- 200 ery TTR WM. CINORBIONE 8 le cee ae oo ei 687-689 pusmeGrenionm an canes OF lonseg y. 53 n8 oi on ord oe woe 296 SrA NY SUMO ne one Dun Steet pete he aan eee 301 Spran, ee Sees OUR PAPI ee eee ae oo ne iain sae 297 Manuring, necessity of weighing and record for satisfactory experiment... 302 Maples, ashes, elms, and other varieties, characteristics and uses of wood_._ 664 Maps, colored, of Biological Survey, value to farmer _-___._..._...--____._- 119 distribdiaom by Weather Bureat - ooo as... one en ce 27 DeeeeraoL, Rutter, tenpsoc Ondo 3 conditions, knowledge required by farmer_...___..._.__...._____- 260 for butter, relation of uniformity of supply.-_..-..___..---._____- 16 fins: Inok in United Senese 252. ae sin oe ee 480 > note on variation of values of staple crops _______.....-..-.-.----- 115 emnreer Ene OCG LINES OU os nie tc esd hse ao oe 596 Markets, farmers’, effect of chemical study of foods___.__.___._.._________ 82 foreign, agrarian opposition to American products; packages__ 271, 272 relation OF 00d TOBNAS fen a2. ook ng tenes Vea 7 Y world's, foe Tarapaen ss oe ee ee os ee 12 Boerner erase from Ospe Cody Ne. nce oc cocks we doc ons sees cana aia, ee Marsh lands, drying by Eucalyptus plants _.................-.-.-....._--- 192 Massachusetts (experiment) station, on adulteration of cotton-seed meal... 424 recent law for collection and analysis of feeding stuffs ___.- 427 TORC-TM Pro VERO D MAN ae wig sn wpe ee ep eine oi 373 Meadow grass, rough-stalked, usefulness in lawn making ...._.....______- 361 an a nour, study of composition. sce eee 36 Meat, condemned, disposal as fertilizer; use of seal in marking.._.________ 249 oF inspection by Bureau of Animal Industry_.............__- Sa : 19 general, undertaking of Congress_______.__......-....-_- 248 ~ propomed exbertslors = 5 io incre tenet han seein eecaien 22 bd products, imports, quantities, and values, 1893-1897 ......__..___.__. 7 vy Meats, cheapness of production in United States.__...........-- 2. 10 Vv freight rates, by years ...._.._-- ese Peers Bloc anita bien Dieeest a8 596 note on value of maintaining trade by inspection._.__. bp ae ees YS 25 Medical profession, use of Weather Bureau..........................---.- 70 TSO INDEX, Page. Melilotus (see also Sweet Pen) eh - se 6 case ee ee oo cw eee sec eee et oe 504 Merriam, C, Hart, review of work of Biological Survey for farmer _...-- 115 Mesquite, curly, usefulness as PASCUTO STAGE. «ocd. soe pcb so cedatediwanumeell 162 Metcalfe bean, growth and adaptation to withstand drought. -_._._....-. 506, 507 Meteorological science, praction], nromrene isi. vs a: fies dnldwddwne cab vane 60 service in Weather Bureau, extension ....___. > Jae 81 stations, paid, of Weather Bureau, distribution and work - 68 Metric system, English equivalents; notes .......-...--.-------- -eecerere- 672 Mexican cotton-boll weevil, study .. -. - 5 2c. iosi woes baa ccs coneeeeb ae 38, 86 frontier, principal problems of animal quarantine.___._--.-...--- 251 oranges, need of quarantine against orange fruit worm.-.-.-....-- Mexico, fruit insects other than orange fruit worm .-__-....._.. ..-.-.-.---- 546 number of animals imported and inspected ._-_-_....--..---------- 21 Mice, note on destruction by CfowW ii... s..2iis-0s+ cues cee cceeiadee eee 348 Michigan, snocess of flax industry .... .~.. - 6.2.0.2 ccc cs wee cece cee 484 Micro-organisms, note on preparation of plant nutrition in soil.___....---- 294 Microscope, use in study of fungous diseases -__.__....-.-.-.-------------- 103 Microscopic inspection of pork... . --.... ~~ 2. n=. ant buicto pean 20 fof Oxp0ré..2 23 60k gS. 3s one ee 247 PAYMONG. 6.25. hs ack +s aden wes Cee ee 22 Milch cows, best nutritive ratio... <2 50 ese cee cn se se 489 number, value, and average price ....-.. .--.------ --n-s--<= 733, 734 Mildew of grapes, experiment in Garden and Grounds to show origin-.--. 185 or blight, of potatoes, description... . ._ -. .2.. =. <-...--...--1 ae 103 vine, danger to field pea in Middle and Southern States.__.....-... 508 Milk as human food, results of dietary studies at Maine State College-.-_--- 512 bétter taste, from alatke «2c. oon so kc b whws ek ce Oo epee ee 504 classification of by-products... .-....-...-.2<-+<:+--.--.-~- == 509 products, proposed inspection for export....._.-_.--.-.-----. -------- 23 results of studies at University of Tennessee of food value_.__......... 513 skim (see‘aiso Skim milk) ...0.:22:2..221.6.2 242. caees eee 510-523 sugar, manufacture from whey... .....--..<-.~--mene----=se55eeeee 525 price; tariff; use of waste at factories_..._.........-----.-. 526, 527 Millet from Chesapeake Bay islands, note___-_.-.....-..----------------- 163 Miner’s inch in irrigation, definition | o.2s4a72 bos 6 Se ee 102 Publications, annual review of work i2<2ce-6i ooh oss Ssh eee 52 direction by act creating Department____________.-.--.-_---. 205 distribution to “divisional ” list :-.... os. 22..-2..23_ 2 207 brarie@e: i cofssd. cu. wes 223 Division, organization and duties._...........-.-...-.-ss eae 621 review of work for farmer. ._. =. sceck 2 See 204-220 early agricultural, notes... ses. .se..61-<- ode e ee 209 Grat divisional, notes... ..<... ......- dieu. foes Se 213 growing demand, cost... .. 2.5. 0d Jn s So ce 219, 220 hurtful restrictions =... ...< cc, s: -¢ bees ee ee 54 issued January 1, 1897, to December 31,1897 _.-.__. ....__-- 627-635 of Department as means of education _.......--.-...2i22---- 279 comparison of present with early expense ___. 210 reprints for private individuals ... ......)-....... 0 2 table showing number issued in five yearsending June 30, 1897 - 53 total annual issue of Department ._........ ...--:-..2-2.22222 208 work of Department, development __......... ..---..------- 208 Puffballs, poisonous fungi, description, etc -.-. -..---.------------------- 468 Puget Sound, investigation of flax region ----.-.---.-.-------------- geutze 229 region, success of flax industry Sate Lives Lonel u ali ee 484 Pyrethrum, or insect powder, use against insects.._........_----.--------- 639 table showing decrease of imports; growing in California_.... 98,99 Quail, ravages on wheat fields in California.............-------------.---- 352 Quarantine against insects, national, proposed plan _.__-..-----.-.-------- 529 and inspection ‘of imported aninials. 32-2 21417. | a 23, 250 use to control Passa fever: i eee eee el ee . es 242 Quince, note on use as stock for pear: .-... 2-22) 1021-4 =.) eee 184 notes:on disease-in orchard. 2.620225 02202... A eee 109 Rabbits, note on. destruction by crow 2) --.... 2... 2 2 eee 348° Rabies, investigations in Bureau of Animal Industry _-----..--..--------- 24 INDEX. 785 Page. Rail transportation, average rates per passenger mile, 1867-1896... ...... 759 Railroad rates, freightand passenger, table by years _.............--..----- 596 transportation rates, by classes of merchandise.............-.- 755, 756 Railroads, extension, effect on improvement of land ....-. 0.02.2. eee, 579 Railway embankments, note on use of grasses to prevent washing... ~~. ~~. 162 Reo wersauon in amount... <2. 220. seek ce Lb Soe. 6 eee 615 Rainfall, amount necessary in West (see also Precipitation) ..........-----. 124 and temperature for United States in 1897, by weeks ..........- 690-697 relation to Tax growing '. . i ...d-5 25 Seren 477 reports in climate and crop service... .. .- nei 67 temperatures, publication in National Weather Review --- -- 70 areas east of Rocky Mountains tillable without irrigation. _.-....- 612 availability on different soils in United States......... -..-..---- 129 from storms from Southwest-.-..---..-.---- Peper se 75 - least, at sixteen stations, April to September...... .........-.---- 614 mean annual and seasonal, table for various Western points----_. 438 of crop season, article by A. J. Henry ..-......-- avn Aiea ane 607-618 Sareea GE CIBGTINEONE 2 0. 8 soe rd nc apd nga hb beeen . 436 eet: LPOUT DMG. oa. Ve bn od lm wae ve mn ote 64 Beto Sh So 1UOTORNG DY LOPCRG & =... ..4..-.-.-25 2.0 sn. auanteeeee 146 relation to underground water drainage... -...--.--------------- 437 Brmaileetweenel tO De BENSCLOG. -.-.... + 2... oe ee 613 table of monthly and seasonal averages, April to September .... 607-612 table showing mean annual and seasonal for several Western points 430 winter, peculiar use by certain Pacific Coast soils ..... ---------- 432 Raisin grape, investigation of disease in California.--...-...--.----------- 106 Rese TOT UAL MEMEO 2s c-Si tes oa So aim) ap eee ie iS et 312, 313 in California, note on growth of industry. -------- fa ee 120 savings by rain warnings in California..........-...-:..-----.---- 65 emis and hemp machine, proposed TTIAl. <_< 22.2.2 = i255 55 noe sama 33 pee ene Demp. Heriuning OF MOGIry Aol tel - 2 eo 225 investigations, direction in fiber office_..... ...---.--. ----..-------- 230 note on propagation and distribution from Experimental Garden. 199 muses, Ceoue, sorage Problema: _—-. oa oi ad eed Sieg ese ot See 42 of Northwest, causes of decrease in stock-carrying capacity....... 168 Southwest, investigations by Division of Agrostology --- ...---- 170 Raspberry, note on hybridization with dewberry -- ------------------------ 393 Pee: TO TObNIhi. COIN PATINOR.... en paste oncogene ate ee ee 488 Reading circle as means of rural education --_-._.--.....-.-------------.--- 293 aa clover, discussion of value Re GTOp. sak et ee as ce ee ee 492 Desert of W yotting, discussion. «2025 ok a ee See ca ae - 169 Rust Proof oats, adaptation to Southern States_-....-..--.------------ 116 -winged blackbird, notes on range and habits.......-....-.-..-------- 349 Redwood, range, characteristics, uses, and suggestions for growing -- --- -- 655 Registers (herd books), set in library.-.-.-.....---------- «oe eee 221 Reprints of documents for private individuals_..........-..-.---. ---------- 55 Reservations, forest, notes on extent, management, and laws....--.------- 159 Resin wash, use against insects and fungous diseases __---. ..._..-------- 639, 676 ang Of flax, savings; Gotulls. < -. -- oo ns pas ~~ - - 5 Sd ee 479, 483 Rhode Island, note on progress in road building--.-_.-.-.....---------- Sn ee object lesson road at agricultural college, Kingston_........ 379 Rinderpest, note on danger of importation. ......-----.--.----.--.------- 256 River and flood service of Weather Bureau......-.....-.-.-.-------------- 65 end building, OOUVICH MROORS o¢ 2. oo —~ os uk cameleon ae ne ea ns ee see 179 constraction, cooperative, Progress _.._-.<. ssaxae) - +a Se0e~- 5555. 5. - 177 Inquiry, office, annual review of work-.--.....-..--------.----.------ 41 letter to agricultural colleges and experiment stations. 374 TOVIRW.- OL WOTK ORME ICE oo oka tn ss ho saenS oe -ocite 175 Inquiries, Public, office, organization and_duties__---------..------. 621 making, early experiment on Department Grounds--.--.-....--------- 202 object lesson, cost and wearing qualities .............-.------------- 378 moads, losses by reason of badness... ones ei se see se oesne cee bn--erens 176 object-lesson, article by Roy Stone ..2......- 2... 22.26. -----2 525-50 373 interstate and neGlosial .ii. x ....denc8 enh Sass nde 380 with steel trackway, cost of material per mile -._....----.--------- 42 Rocky Mountain region, eastern, study of forage problems-------..--.----- 165 1 A97 50 786 INDEX. Page Rocky Mountain region, goat's rue as forage crop............---.----- ooo Mountains, origin of storms in northern plateau ____._.______.___.. 75 Root diseases of plants cdcneun ss decceuswacsitecdss uae eee : 101 grafting, test of methods.____......._-__. bell eS SR 0 Fal te eS a 52 growth, effect on fruit of restriction... __- E eS suds ee eeieel 35 eee. 194 Roots, mention of study of asphyxiation ____.._............--.----- 2 <2 ee Rot of grapes, experiment in Garden and Grounds to show origin -_._.___. 185 Rushes, value for grazing in Texas... oo a eee 171 Rusk, Secretary, adoption of Farmers’ Bulletins for Department, etc_____- 215, 216 Russian apples, review of introduction into United States _......_.__..__- 189 practice of flax'oulture; mobs... ;..< 222.6 0S cc eee ee 475 thistle, restraint of spread in California ...-..........-.....-----. 96 Rye grasses, usefulness in making lawns_______-_._...-----.--- Ae 359 note on crossing with wheat........ .-2.6-. 025i Se eee 389 statistics of area, production, and value, by States -__-___- : 710 SALMON, D. E., article on work of Bureau of Animal Industry for farmer. 236-258 Salt determination in the soils -... 2. . .o..0.. ou «ce donne beces eee 133 Sand-binding grasses, discussion .. ........65. -- onan ee eee eee eee 173 Sand dunes, growth of beach grass and young pines at Provincetown, Mass. 175 use of lupines for reclamawon.:_......2.05.5./... eee 504 San Francisco, insect inspection not sufficient for all United States_______- 552 rain warnings for raisin districtz..- =... 5 eee 30 wholesale price of wheat, 1892-1897_........_._.._--- ; 727 San Jose scale, study by Division of Entomology __._...._.-.....-..------- 85 Sault Ste. Marie, need of ‘money for Weather Bureau building--_.._.-..._-- 29 SAUNDERS, WILLIAM, review of work of Experimental Ganace and Grounds 180 Scab, Department efforts for eradication ......_............2.. 2) eee 25 of sheep, danger of importation, cause and prevention_.... pe cE 251 Scale insects, importation in nursery etock.... 0 ee 537 method of use of hy drocyanic acid gas for destruction ______- 638 on citrus fruits, remedy........°.. - eee 188 peach: and San Jose, probable origim .-. 2. 5.) 2 ae hee 533-534 San Jose, investigation of spread fo . oc Goo. sos a ee eee ae 38 study by Division of Entomology... .-....-.-.....--..----- 86 Schools, analysis of enrollment with reference to agricultural education... 289 of agriculture of high-school grade, need___.____.._-.....-------. 288 Science, application to agriculttire......... ....-.-. 4... -)-, ro Lee 134 effect of growing Various Crops... 2-22 .- eens ese acusce--5. COL elemonts of plantiood.. ......--~ ..upsud nu cheb ack ae 73 signal stations of Weather Bureau; WC RIUGB... oa RGN mee 10 growth w ithout rain or irrigation on certain California soils - 432 Sugar cane, danger NNN Sse he es ou wird rs a ae 62 content of beets, relation to selection of beet seed_......._.......... 80 increase in fruits and vegetables by hybridization. __.._.__..______- 417 milk, grades and prices of PLOGEOL LOM: WRAY qs es Bs ct aca 525-527 v outlook for home supply for home demand _____.____.__._._______-- 10 v values and quantities of imports oy one oS): 7 a 753 Sulphide, potassium, formula for use as fungicide ________..___..___.___- 676 PueeDIGe, THO WE INR mnEe: ©. tie hee ye ies aie ciektins eae! Suc. | | 640 usefulness against bacteria.on pear...........--.............-.... 185 Summerville, 5. C., experiment in tea-culture_____. outs Sly, ae Sunflower, valuable results of study in Division of Chemistr y.. tii Lehane 82 Superintendent of Documents, sale of Department publications ._____.___- 207 Superphosphate, use as preservative of manure._.._____...._..--__..-_.-.- 688 v Swine, average price.number, and value (see also Hogs)___.____.___-. 264, 733, 735 SWINGLE, WALTER T, , and Herperr J. WEBBER, article on hybrids and their utilization in plant-breeding __...........-.-.---... 1.2.22. --- 383-420 Sycamore, range, characteristics, uses. and suggestions for growing - od re 668 Sylviculture, publications relating tp fae sca eee Roe Re 148 Tallow weed, value as early forage in Texas. ._.._....._.........--------.-- 172 Tamarack, range, characteristics, use, and suggestions for growing _______- 653 Tamarinds, statistics of imports oo. co ee ae ee ce 319 Tanhark, waste of trees after removal...._........--_._._...........-..... 154 Tarring of seed as Protection agaiiak Hinge Wo sta. aces Seen 352 TayLor, WILLIAM A., article on “The fruit industry, and substitution of aumeescic for foreign-grown frdlis” —2- 42.0 2 eee se 805-344 Tea, coffee, and liquors, consumption per capita, 1870-1897 _._._. .________- 754 culture, experiment of Dr. Charles U. Shepard in South Carolina _._ 195,196 Technical and scientific publications of Department, distribution..________ 207 Temperature and humidity, relation to soil moisture ________...____._ 2 _- 122 moisture’ for’ tea ctlvare. co) on cn ce ee ee 195 precipitation conditions by sections, edie .-..--- 690-699 rainfa)l, relation to flax-growing -..._..........._..._.-- 77 charts, kinds published by Weather Bureau ____.__. _______- 71 departures for 1897 from normal, by sections and stations__ 700-709 extremes in arid regions and relation to tree-growing -.-...__- 156 fmonmessee, notes on tobacco sOlls.- 8 heme ne deme nse es 127 Teosinte, note on introduction and usefulness...___._____................. 163 Testing flower seeds, table on methods. .-_...........-.-........------.--. 450 Texas, central, varieties of wheat, oats, and corn for cultivation___________ 116 cyclonic storms from Gulf as cause of heavy rainfall___._._______. 617 fever, danger of importation from Mexico; quarantine_____. _____- 242, 251 discussion of work of Bureau of Animal Industry. ._.._____- 240 estimate of savings by regulation -...................-.....-- 258 inspection and QWaArentine — oo on. 65.-.nsun sabes dane een 23 prevention of spread by destruction of ticks ___..........__.. 24 number of cattle inspected in noninfected area_......-..-...2222--- 21 ai 790 INDEX. x Page. Texas pea, growth and value as forage. ............ 2-2. eee ececececees----e 508 value as forage of clovers, vetches, and grasees. . 3-22 cceeee.-- ~- 171,172 weather service for sugar industry. Pw Galen = oe gadeue Tee. - 30 Texture of soil, relation to availability of rainfall___..._ ....-......_-- 125, 129 Thrips, grape, remedy suggested by William Saunders. .2...... see 186 Tick, Southern cattle, discovery of relation to cause of Texas fever; notes. 243, 244 destruction for prevention of Texas fever............--... -..------ 24 Tide lands, grass for Bol@ing .. 2: 5c. . 5 5.3 se eos cs ae Pee 175 Timber physics and forest technology, remarks_- Sos Bek 153 supply, relation to tree- -planting for shelter and firewood ____-____- 156 Toadstool, relationship te mushroom; notes... .2.624.20.. Jee 453, 454 Toadstools, discussion of edible kinds other than mushrooms. _ ask dee ede edible, less important forms; notes _.........-.....--...------- 467 including mushrooms, edible and poisonous, summary of rules. 469 Tobacco, failure of a variety to hybridize with other varieties of species. 339 improvement in quality and flavor by cross-breeding._.._-.._--- 419 method of testing seed. =... '/. 0 tao cee ta eee 449 note on treatises in library... ... 22. /2!...-2- ie ones eee 221 results obtained by Darwin by cross- -fertilization...._._.-------- 413 soils, notes on studies; and types .;.- 62.2.5.) .2)- eee 127, 134 statistics of area, production, and value, 1866-1897__......._-.--- 712 use against grape thing.) 3} .6o...cle.. |. eee. See eee 187 value of frost. and storm wartiings .2.. 2... 2.27055. ee Es weather conditions, 1807. 2 fee en eee 690-697 Tow mills, prices of flax straw ....0....--o02 i rel eae 472 Train oil, use against insects. _--_-. Be OE SL, oe re 639 Transportation as an influence in depressing prices of farm products ___-_-- 595 average freight rates per ton per mile, 1867-1896 .._.______- 758 - facilities, effect of improvement_-_-__...........------------- 177 ow of butter, improvements... .-..2_2 5. 2.472. eee eee cattle, bad conditions and sufferings in early trade___-__- 246 regulations against Texas fever ___.___- - ced Oa 242 rates, agricultural products; passenger___._-_...___-.--- La relation to development of orange industry _-__..._._.------ Tree planting, experiment with conifers on Nebraska sandhills_____._____- 157 in arid regions; experiments at State agricultural stations_. 156 Trees and fruits, early suggestions as to pruning .-...-...-. 150 jee 18 broad- leafed, description, classes, oto. 2.2.2... 35. . eee eee 655-669 effect in increasing humidity of air; notes__..._.._-_..-.---------- 146, 149 most important in forestry, list of one hundred_...___.....--.----- 644-669 shade and ornament, study of diseases variation in development with varying periods of life; measurements. 1 Trichine, alleged infestation of pork cause for prohibition of our pork: Ji. 2 cause of prohibition of American pork by Germany.-_-_----...--- 247 Trifoliate orange, note as to hardy hybrid_.-..._..........._..--- eee 415 Truck and garden crops, study in Department ._.___..._.._.._--.----.---- 111 growing interests, weather service ............-...------e-----mees soils of Atlantic coast, note on uniformity_.....-........---_--_--.- 126 TRUE, A. C., article on ‘Popular education of the farmer in the United iT | SL ng ete ila re RMN: we 279-290 review of work of Experiment Station for farmer_._.___.___- 135 Traffies and morels, description, ete ss—. . > 6 sa25- cucu cen>-s- sn eee 467 Tuberculin, distribution by Government 2.2 ee ee requirement of test of cattle from Canada_..._-........._.---- 251 Tuberculos's and hog cholera, efforts for control __._....-...-.-.---------- 5 efforts for protection and eradication__............_.------- 251, 254 Tulip tree, range, characteristics, uses, and suggestions for growing_------ 663 Turf, continuous, character of grass necessary for formation._.._..____- 397,358 — method of fixing on ‘slope to form terrace... 6) .