f i hae : “Se IS: ‘2 a 2" SS > s i) i t iS. ae Sa Se, = oe ot = > 2 “ a va) an ay ee mF ae Jak Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from University of Toronto http://www.archive.org/details/yearbookofagricu1900unit eS _—— = re ar. ee fA slture, 1900. FRONTISPIECE, WILLIAM SAUNDERS. LHorti TURIST AND LANDSCAPE GARDENER. BorRN DECEMBER 7, 1822: Diep SEPTEMBER 11, 1900. ] a4 seo ~ OYA AIUAR » WO YEARBOOK OF THE Seite Pes FA TES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Mae oe BE NAS ON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. pogo a [CHAPTER 23, Stat. at L., 1895.] AN ACT providing for the public printing and binding and the distribution of public documents. x x x * * * * Section 73, paragraph 2: The Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture shall hereafter be submitted and printed in two parts, as follows: Part One, which shall contain purely business and executive matter which it is necessary for the Secretary to submit to the Presi- dent and Congress; Part Two, which shall contain such reports from the different Bureaus and Divisions, and such papers prepared by their special agents, accompa- nied by suitable illustrations, as shall, in the opinion of the Secretary, be specially suited to interest and instruct the farmers of the country, and to include a general report of the operations of the Department for their information. There shall be printed of Part One, one thousand copies for the Senate, two thousand copies for the House, and three thousand copies for the Department of Agriculture; and of Part Two, one hundred and ten thousand copies for the use of the Senate, three hundred and sixty thousand copies for the use of the House of Representatives, and thirty thousand copies for the use of the Department of Agriculture, the illustrations for the same to be executed under the supervision of the Public Printer, in accordance with directions of the Joint Committee on Printing, said illustrations to be subject to the approval of the Secretary of Agriculture; and the title of each of the said parts shall be such as to show that such part is complete in itself. 2 > aa AZS | Sco cop. @ PREFACE. In spite of efforts toward diminishing the somewhat inconvenient bulk of the Yearbook, the present edition contains as many pages as its predecessors, and is more profusely illustrated. This volume, however, contains, besides the Report of the Secretary and the Appen- dix, thirty-one articles, five more than last year. With one excep- tion, every article was prepared by an employée of the Department, and each Division of original work is represented by one or more articles. Every article, moreover, except those prepared in the Division of Publications, covers some important line of work carried on in the Bureau, Division, or Office from which it emanated. Thus, the Yearbook for 1900 differs from some of its predecessors, which were more specially devoted to a review of the work of the several Divisions, but it is, névertheless, distinctively representative of the work of the Department. The illustrations comprise eighty-seven plates, nine of them colored, and eighty-eight text figures. Two of the articles, which were prepared in the Division of Publi- cations, while not relating directly to the work of the Department or, indeed, to practical agriculture, will, it is believed, be found of great interest to American agriculturists. The subject of rural free deliv- ery is so closely allied to the convenience and comfort of farm life, and has so greatly developed in recent years under the fostering care of the Government, that it seems to have a_most appropriate place in a volume devoted, as is the Yearbook of the Department of Agricul- ture, to supplying the American farmer with useful information on all subjects pertaining to his life and work. The work done, in a long life devoted to agriculture, horticulture, and kindred interests, by the late Mr. William Saunders is the subject of a brief notice by the Editor, which will, it is believed, fully justify the prominent place given to hismemory in this edition, Mr. Saunders’s portrait occupying the place of honor as the frontispiece. - Paragraph 2 of section 73 of the public printing and binding act of January 12, 1895, which precedes this preface (p. 2), affords expla- nation to those not already fully familiar with the Yearbook of the Department, of its proper place as a part of the Annual Report of the Secretary, and by reference thereto it will be seen that the Secretary’s individual report, which opens every volume of the Yearbook, is 3 4 PREFACE. reprinted in order ‘‘to include a general report of the operations of the Department,” as required by law. In the Appendix, which it is desired to make an indispensable book of reference to the farmer, the agricultural directory feature, intro- duced in 1899, has been continued. It has been revised and corrected as nearly as possible to March 1, 1901, with the exception of that part covering the organization of the Department. All agricultural asso- ciations and societies whose addresses are known were consulted. In some instances our requests for information were not answered, and in such cases the names which appeared in the Yearbook of 1899 have been dropped. While the limits of the Appendix will make it abso- lutely necessary to confine this directory to associations which are either National or State, it is earnestly desired to make it, with this restriction, as complete as possible, and the officers of all agricultural, horticultural, live stock, and other associations established in the inter- est of agriculture are cordially invited to avail themselves of an oppor- tunity for record in a publication which yearly finds its way into the homes of half a million farmers. ; A new feature of the Appendix is the publication of requirements for admission to the agricultural departments of the land-grant col- leges, and the cost of attendance. As the Yearbook goes into the hands of many farmers whose sons may be desirous of attending col- lege, it is believed this article will be found very useful. The statistics of farm crops, supplied, as usual, by the Statistician of the Department, have been rearranged so as to present together the facts and figures relating to each crop, thus affording one complete view of results for a particular crop for the year. This change will, it is believed, be found especially convenient and time saving to farm- ers who have occasion to consult these figures in studying and planning their operations. Altogether, including the Appendix, there is not a single Bureau, Division, or Office of the Department which has not contributed val- uable matter to the present book, and every Division is, consequently, entitled to share whatever credit attaches to the work. The care invariably bestowed upon the mechanical work and the earnest effort made to issue the Yearbook promptly, in spite of the enormous amount of work involved in the publication of a volume in an edition of 500,000 copies, call for the warmest acknowledgment on our part to the Public Printer and his principal assistants. Gro. Wu. Hi, Editor. Wasuineton, D. C., April 24, 1901. ‘ CONTENT &. Lo TU SRRESUAO TE ESS SSC S10 Re So a i i Aa ayy A SERRE Ai Se per Smyrna Fig Culture in the United States. -By L. O. Howard ............... Amplification of Weather Forecasts. By Alfred J. Henry ...............-.- Aeviculwural Hducanonin Hrance. By ©. B.(Smith ........2. 00.2665 essen Commercial Plant Introduction. By Jared G. Smith -......-.-......-.-2.-- Forest Extension in the Middle West. By William L. Hall -.....-.-..-.--. The World’s Exhibit of Leaf Tobacco at the Paris Exposition of 1900. By mona erred ose hs ene Does ee te LNs Te te sh Selgin 5 Bs Influence of Rye on the Price of Wheat. By Edward T. Peters ........----- penn nNOddeer by ames WW. Abbot. 22.2.2...) -seceaeccce acess cena ce Fungous Diseases of Forest Trees. By Hermann von Schrenk ......-.------ Rabies: Its Cause, Frequency, and Treatment. By D. E. Salmon..........- The Scale Insect and Mite Enemies of Citrus Trees. By C. L. Marlatt......- Tow Birds Affect the Orchard. By -Eo We. Te Beals vo. S22. 2.2 See ee Some Poisonous Plants of the Northern Stock Ranges. By V. K. Chesnut... Hot Waves: Conditions Which Produce Them, and Their Effect on Agriculture. Eng ee ee OO Wels ns oe et ae Ae oe ee oe SN Pe aa eects The Value of Potatoes as Food. By C. F. Langworthy -........--.---.---.- The Selection of Materials for Macadam Roads. By Logan Waller Page .-.-..- Practical Forestry in the Southern Appalachians. By Overton W. Price--.-. Commercial? car Guitare. BysM-Be-Walte. 22. i. 42-2 te ee Objects and Methods of Investigating Certain Physical Properties of Soils. By deen Rep eee oe Seen nS Poe ne. eee cede tascooees The Hood of Nesting Birds. By Sylvester D: Judd_....-.. 2.22.22 2.22.56 Development of the Trucking Interests. By F.S. Earle --....22..2..------- The Date Palm and Its Culture. By Walter T. Swingle...............------ Practical Irrigation. « By:C. E> Johnsten-and -J...D.-Stannard’. 5... 2)..2..-2+< Free Delivery of Rural Mails. By Charles H. Greathouse.............------ Successful Wheat Growing in Semiarid Districts. By Mark Alfred Carleton... Testing Commercial Varieties of Vegetables. By W. W. Tracy, jr...----.---- The Use and Abuse of Food Preservatives. By W. D. Bigelow..-...-..------ The Infiuence of Refrigeration on the Fruit Industry. By William A. Taylor- Our Native Pasture Plants. By F. Lamson-Scribner.......+....-.---------- Dairy Products at the Paris Exposition of 1900. By Henry E. Alvord.--.-.. Makin amoers. i bytine Fditors 2 22.0 . as -4 2032 ete ssea ce sp escecsces Appendix: Organization of the Department of Agriculture, December 31, 1900. ..-.--- Appropriations for the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal years ending: June sus 1899. 19G0carnd [IOP epee ee Shek load see Agricultural colleges and other institutions in the United States having Gantee aril a se TiCHITOre a ram ene tee te Co Sh geiee a ete Soe a sae Agricultural experiment stations of the United States, their locations, directors; and. principal lines:of work so. s 14,738,968 packets of seeds of all sorts, of which 13,531,469 were dis- tributed to Senators, Representatives, and Delegates in Congress, an excess over the two-thirds reserved by law for Members of Congress 9 of 3,705,490 packets. DIVISION OF ACCOUNTS AND DISBURSEMENTS. The appropriation made by Congress for the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1900, was $3,006,022. This appropriation exceeded the amount appropriated for 1899 by $176,320. The usual sum of $720,000 was also appropri- ated for equal division among the forty-eight agricultural experiment stations of the country. The expenditures and liabilities incurred during the year in connec- tion with the firsi-named amount were about $2,975,000. The unexpended balances of the appropriations for the fiscal year 1898, amounting to $42,391.42, were covered into the Treasury June 30,1900. During the year $4,440 was paid for rental for leased build- ings in Washington, D. C. THE PARIS EXPOSITION AWARDS. The final official list of the American awards at the Paris Exposition has not yet reached me; but the preliminary reports forwarded by the Department’s representatives at the exposition show that in the department of agriculture, horticulture, and food products the awards to United States exhibitors numbered 490. In group 7, agriculture, the awards were 28 grand prizes, 93 gold medals, 100 silver medals, 49 bronze medals, and 4 honorable mentions. In group 8, horticul- ture, awards on permanent exhibits were 1 grand prize, 4 gold medals, 18 silver medals, 7 bronze medals, and 6 honorable mentions. Exhib- itors of perishable horticultural products from the United States, in the several temporary competitions in horticulture, were awarded 5 grand prizes, 80 gold medals, 63 silver medals, 17 bronze medals, and 10 honorable mentions. These temporary competitions were held at intervals of two or three weeks throughout the season. The United States was the only country which maintained a continuous exhibit of fresh fruits throughout the exposition. In group 10, food products, the awards were 7 grand prizes, 41 gold medals, 57 silver medals, 54 bronze medals, and 21 honorable mentions. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 75 Of these awards, 14 grand prizes, 7 gold medals, and 7 silver medals were awarded to the United States Department of Agriculture, 1 grand prize, 12 gold medals, and 4 silver medals to the State experiment sta- tions, and a grand prize to the Association of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations. One grand prize was awarded to the Government of the United States, 1 to the Secretary of Agriculture, 4 to the Bureau of Animal Industry, 1 to the Bureau of Animal Industry and Weather Bureau, and 1 each to the Divisions of Agrostology, Chemistry, Entomology, Pomology, Statistics, Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, and Office of Experiment Stations. Gold medals were awarded as follows: Sec- retary of Agriculture, 2; Weather Bureau, 2; Division of Agrostology, Office of Experiment Stations, and the Director of Agriculture, 1 each. The Bureau of Animal Industry received 2 silver medals, and the Divi- sions of Soils, Entomology, Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, and the Office of Experiment Stations 1 each. United States exhibitors were awarded 7 grand prizes, 50 gold medals, 70 silver medals, and 6 honorable mentions for exhibits of dairy products, of which 4 grand prizes and 2 silver medals were to the dairy division of the Bureau of Animal Industry. In the department of forestry a gold medal and silver medal were also awarded to the Secretary of Agriculture. Tobacco was not included in any of the above groups, but in this, as in every other branch of the Department’s exhibit, recognition by the jury of awards was most satisfactory. The share of premiums awarded to our American tobacco exhibit included the grand prize, 9 gold medals, 5 silver medals, and many honorable mentions. AFFILIATION OF ALLIED LINES OF WORK. The development of the Department during the last few years has been rapid, and a study of the conditions existing therein leads me to believe that the time is at hand for a movement toward bringing together the related lines of work. It is fully récognized and appre- ciated, however, that whatever is accomplished in this direction must come through the harmonious action of all concerned and a full con- viction that the opportunities for broader lines of work will be increased. In the past the tendency has been to segregate the work to such an extent as to make it difficult to bring about close cooperation along the broadest lines possible. There can scarcely be any doubt at this time that the best interests of the entire Department would be subserved by aggregation rather than segregation, but all advances along this line must be made in such a way as to give the broadest opportunity for the development of each Division without in any way interfering with its integrity or organization. 76 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The future success of the Department will depend in large measure on each man being made to feel a personal responsibility as to the details of his work, and at the same time that he must lend his full support to matters of general policy which concern the Division of which he isa member and the Department asa whole. The broader plan, and one which it seems perfectly feasible to carry out, has for its object the arrangement of the work in such a close cooperative way as to bring the strongest support from every Division interested. Aside from the mere question of close cooperation and the possibility of undertaking many problems not feasible under the present plan existing in the Department, the intimate relation of the various allied groups will bring the investigators into more sympathetic union. Such a union can not help being advantageous to all concerned, and if recog- nized in the proper spirit, will go far toward advancing the best inter- ests of the Department. With a view of putting into practical operation a plan based on the principles outlined, four Divisions of the Department, closely allied by the nature of their work, have become affiliated and have perfected arrangements for a close cooperation and union along the lines set forth. ‘To this association I have given the name of Office of Plant Industry. NEED OF LABORATORY BUILDINGS. in my last Report an urgent request was made for new laboratory buildings. It was pointed out that the Department was conducting practically all of its important laboratory work in rented buildings, wholly inadequate for the purpose. It was further pointed out that the rent and other expenses connected with these buildings cost about $10,600 a year, and that a large part of this sum would be saved if proper buildings were provided. Plans were prepared and estimates obtained showing that the cost of a new fireproof structure, suitable for the Department’s needs, would approximate $200,000, and a clause asking for this amount was submitted in my estimates to Congress. The item was approved by the Committee on Agriculture and was reported to the House, but was ruled out on a point of order. I haye again submitted estimates for a building costing not less than $200,000, and repeat my recommendation that this amount be appro- priated. The very basis of the future growth and prosperity of our agricultural interests will depend upon what science is able to accomplish in the way of discovering principles and applying these principles in a practical manner. It seems fitting, therefore, that the very best facilities be furnished for this important and far-reaching work. As regards suitable laboratory buiidings, the Department 1s far behind many State institutions, and it is earnestly hoped that this difficulty may be overcome in the near future. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ek DIFFICULTY OF RETAINING EXPERT ASSISTANTS. One of the problems which the head of this Department is compelled to deal with in every year of his administration is that occasioned by the difficulty of retaining in the Department service some of the most capable and efficient of its workers. It is true that the facilities for scientific investigation on an extensive- scale are a great attraction to scientific men, and not a few of them in consequence continue in our service in spite of tempting offers from other sources. Nevertheless, in many cases it has proved impossible to retain some of our most useful men, and almost every year I am called upon to record the loss of one or more of our scientific staff, owing to my inability to give him a salary at all equal to that which is offered him elsewhere. It some- times becomes necessary to engage assistance in the conduct of some of our important investigations at a rate of remuneration in excess of that paid to those under whose supervision they are to work and to whose initiative the investigation is due. This year already three valuable workers have been lost to the Department, one having gone into the service of a foreign government and two others attracted by educational institutions. The difficulties attending the successful prosecution of our tobacco work for similar reasons have already been spoken of. The only remedy is for Con- gress to put it in my power to exercise a wider discretion in the matter of salaries to those intrusted with responsible positions in this Depart- ment—positions calling not only for scientific attainments, but for administrative ability, energy, good sense, and a wide knowledge of the economics of agriculture. EXPERIMENTAL FARM AT ARLINGTON. Congress at its last session authorized this Department to take charge of part of the Arlington grounds lying east of the Georgetown and Alexandria road. These grounds are susceptible of being made pro- ductive and very attractive, but at the present time require grubbing, draining, surfacing, and fertilizing. This work is being vigorously pushed; drain tile will be laid during the coming year; $10,000 should be appropriated to carry on the work. SILK CULTURE. The United States paid $32,479,620 in 1899 for raw silk, and $45,329,760 in 1900. This article is the product of the cheapest labor of foreign countries. We are demonstrating that tea can be grown probably in the Southern States, and that it can be gathered by colored children, whose parents are pleased with the additions these earnings make to the family income. This class of labor can pick mulberry 78 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. leaves and feed silk worms. Industrious families in the State of Utah have for some years given much attention to this industry, and have skill that could be utilized in giving instruction in other States. I respectfully suggest that $10,000 be appropriated by Congress to set research on foot regarding the production of silk, to the end that the money now paid to foreign labor be distributed at home. It isa question of utilizing labor which can not be employed in the more vigorous undertakings. Respectfully submitted. JAMES WILsoN, Secretary. Wasuineton, D. C., November 24, 1900. SMYRNA FIG CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. By L.'O. Howarp, Ph. D., Entomologist. INTRODUCTION. That an article bearing this title should be prepared by an entomol- ogist may seem at first glance unusual, not to say curious; but as is well known to those informed on the subject, and as will be readily seen by the readers of this article, the problem of establishing the Smyrna fig industry in the United States has been very largely an entomological problem. Fig culture has never amounted to much as an industry in this country. Fig trees grow abundantly throughout the South and in California, having been introduced by-the early French and Spanish settlers, and there have been more or less frequent importations since. As a domestic fruit, the fig is of considerable importance in all the Gulf and South Atlantic States. It is a common dooryard tree through- out this region. It has been grown with more or less success as far north as the lower Hudson River Valley, and where well cared for during the winter it will bear well for years, even at these northern limits. In the South figs are used almost entirely for houschold pur- poses. They are eaten fresh from the tree and are served on the table with sugar and cream. They are also stewed and made into puddings and pies, and are canned and preserved. In this section figs are occa- sionally, but seldom, dried for household use, as they ripen at the period of summer showers, which makes drying difficult. Much more of an effort to produce a salable dried fig has been made in California than in the South, especially during the last twenty years, and a greater success has been secured, probably on account of the drier climate. Fig trees were grown in California by the eariy Spanish padres, probably as early as 1710, and have flourished throughout the southern part of the State, one of the largest and most remarkable trees in America growing as far north as Chico (130 miles north of San Francisco), on the Bidwell place, where it was planted in 1356.1 1 The writer saw this tree in 1898, and it is certainly one of the great horticultural curiosities of the country. It is 11 feet in circumference near the base of the trunk; branches have grown down intothe ground and sent up new shoots, and the process has been repeated until a ground space of 150 feet in diameter is covered by this one tree, giving a dense shade over a space big enough to accommodate a large picnic party. Pe 79 80 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ATTEMPTS TO GROW THE SMYRNa« FIG. After the early attempts to dry figs in California had progressed for some years it was gradually realized that with the varieties then grow- ing it was impossible to arrive at a product which should compare in quality or commercial value with the Smyrna fig of commerce. Asa result, in 1880 and 1882, Mr. Gulian P. Rixford, of the San Francisco Bulletin, imported into California, by the aid of E. F. Smithers, United States consul at Smyrna, and A. Sida, an American merchant in Smyrna, about 14,000 cuttings of the supposedly best varieties of Smyrna fig trees. These cuttings were widely distributed and were knownas the ‘‘ Bulletin” cuttings. This effort received wide newspaper notoriety, and much was expected of it, but when the trees came into bearing it was found that the fruit invariably dropped on or before reaching the size of a marble. Many explanations of this lack of suc- cess were made, the one generally accepted being that the Smyrna fig growers from whom the cuttings were purchased, fearing competition in the United States, had sent worthless varieties. To test and remedy this matter, Mr. E. W. Maslin, of California, in 1885, planted Smyrna seeds taken from the best figs imported by the great’wholesale grocery house of H. K. Thurber & Co., of New York, and presented to Mr. Maslin for experimental purposes. He grew in four years large and flourishing trees, the trunks of which had in 1889 reached a diameter of from 4 to 6 inches. These trees are still alive, and will be the subject of future study. In 1886 Mr. F. Roeding, a banker in San Francisco and proprietor of the Fancher Creek Nurseries of Fresno, baving become convinced that California could be made to grow as good a fig as could be grown in Smyrna, sent his foreman, Mr. W. C. West, to Smyrna for the pur- pose of investigating the fig industry on the spot. Mr. West remained in Smyrna four months and succeeded in securing several thousand Smyrna fig cuttings, as well as cuttings of wild figs and a few of such varieties as are grown for home consumption. He was watched by the people constantly. He was refused the sale of cuttings, and finally succeeded only by buying through a foreign resident, who was not suspected of any intention to export. After a journey of several months the cuttings arrived in Fresno in good condition and were planted in 1888 in the Fancher Creek Nursery, 20 acres being planted that year, 20 more in 1889, and in 1891 an additional 20 acres. ATTEMPTS TO GROW THE CAPRIFIG. The importation at this time of the wild, or caprifig, cuttings was the most important step which had vet been taken toward the solution of the problem. This importation was due to the tardy recognition of the fact that the Smyrna fig, the standard fig of commerce, owes its SMYRNA FIG CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 81 peculiar flavor to the number of ripe seeds which it contains, and that these ripe seeds are only to be gained by the fertilization of the flowers of the Smyrna fig with pollen derived from the wild fig, or caprifig. Since time immemorial it has been known that in Oriental regions it has been the custom of the natives to break off the fruits of the capri- fig, bring them to the edible fig trees, and tie them tothe limbs. From the caprifigs thus brought in there issues a minute insect, which, coy- ered with pollen, crawls into the flower receptacles * of the edible fig, fertilizes them, and thus produces a crop of seeds and brings about the subsequent ripening of the fruit. The careful investigations of Count Solms-Laubach and Fritz Mueller, in the early eighties, and later those of Dr. Paul Mayer, have shown that the varieties of the wild fig or cap- rifig are the only ones which contain male organs, while the varieties of the Smyrna fig are exclusively female. In the caprifig there is said to exist in Mediterranean regions three crops of fruit—the spring crop, known as ‘‘ profichi,” the second, as ‘‘mammoni,” and the third, as **mamme,” the latter remaining upon the trees through the winter. The fig insects (the Oriental species being known as LBlastophaga gros- sorwn Gravenhorst) overwinter in the mamme, oviposit in the profichi, develop a generation within it, each individual living in the swelling of a gall flower (a modified and infertile female flower), and issue from it covered with pollen, enter the young flower receptacles of the Smyrna fig, which are at that time of the proper size, and make an attempi to oviposit in the true female flowers, fertilizing them at the same time by means of the pollen adhering to their bodies. The life history of the insect from that time on was not well understood, but the Blasto- phaga was known to occur again in the overwintering or mamme crop of fig's. ’ In order to be certain that the right varieties of caprifigs and Smyrna figs had been imported and grown, Mr. George C. Roeding (the son of Mr. F. Roeding), in 1890, artificially fertilized his young Smyrna figs with pollen taken from the caprifig flowers, shaking the pollen out of the caprifigs and introducing it with a quill into the young Smyrna figs. Four Smyrna figs were produced as a result of this artificial fertiliza- tion, and in 1891 one hundred and fifty fruits were produced by using a glass tube drawn very fine at one end to introduce the pollen. After gathering a little of the pollen at the end of the tube Mr. Roeding inserted it into the orifice of the fig and then blew into it. Asa result of this successful artificial fertilization, Mr. Roeding planted 20 more acres in 1892. Tn the meantime Dr. Gustav Eisen, whoas early as 1885 had published a pamphlet at Fresno entitled ‘‘The fig and its culture and growing, with especial reference to California,” had been experimenting and 1 The fig is not a fruit in the ordinary sense, but a flower and seed receptacle. 4 s1900——6 82 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. corresponding with European experts, and was probably the first sci- entific man to fully realize the importance of Blastophaga fertilization ata time when it was generally frowned upon. He had obtained from Solms-Laubach cuttings of caprifigs and Smyrna figs as well, had estab- lished these in the large nurseries of Mr. John Rock, at Niles, Cal., and in 1891 produced the same artificial fertilization of the Smyrna fig that had been produced by Mr. Roeding at Fresno. At Mr. Rock’s place at Niles there are now growing several Smyrna fig trees of large size and a number of caprifigs, and Mr. Rock has accomplished the interesting result of grafting several varieties of the Solms-Laubach cut- tings of caprifigs upon a single Smyrna fig tree. Dr. Eisen prepared and published in 1896 an important paper entitled ‘* Biological studies of figs, caprifigs, and caprification,” in the Proceedings of the Califor- nia Academy of Science, series 2, Vol. V, pages 897-1001. ; From the beginning of the work the Department of Agriculture had been thoroughly alive to the importance of its possible practical outcome, and by the close of the eighties the subject had become so well understood that it was deemed desirable to establish Smyrna figs and.caprifigs in a number of localities in California and the South- western States, with the ultimate view that so soon as the proper host plants in the best possible condition should have grown to the proper size the importation of Blastophaga would be attempted. Thus, after consultation between Prof. H. EK. Van Deman, then Pomologist, and Prof. C. V. Riley, then Entomologist, of this Department, caprifig cut- tings were secured from Turkey and were distributed by the Divisicen of Pomology in the winter of 1889-90. Comparatively few of the plantings from this distribution resulted successfully, but there are at several points in California and New Mexico a few large trees now living which have grown from this introduction. Much credit is due to the Division of Pomclogy, however, for these introductions, and had the persons to whom they were sent taken a uniform interest in the sendings and given them the best of care, the new industry just established would experience a more rapid growth than is at present possible. EARLY ATTEMPTS TO INTRODUCE BLASTOPHAGA. | The introduction of Blastophaga (fig. 1), the fig-fertilizing insect, was firstattempted by private enterprise. Mr. James Shinn, of Niles, Cal., obtained the first specimens in July, 1891, but want of sufficient capri- figs for their propagation made the venture a failure. There was at that time only one caprifig tree on his place. The tree had just fin- ished shedding, practically, all ripe caprifigs, and only a dozen ripe figs yet remained on the tree. There was absolutely no sign of a suc- ceeding crop, and the hatching Blastophaga had no caprifigs in which to lay their eggs. As Dr. Eisen has remarked, ‘‘ with only one caprifig SMYRNA FIG CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 83 tree, and that one bearing only one crop a year, this importation could not possibly have been a success.” These first Blastophagas were imported with the help of a missionary in Syria. In 1892 Mr. George C. Roeding secured several consignments of figs containing Blastoph- agas from Smyrna, most of which arrived in good condition. On cutting a fig open hundreds of the insects emerged, flying around in a large Mason jar, in which he placed the fruit, and these insects were afterwards placed in a covered tree to note the ultimate result. Mr. Roeding also tried two other interesting experiments, but which were foreordained to failure; the one was the introduction of native Blastoph- agas from Mexico and the other of native Blastophagas from Hawaii. In 1890 the writer remembers to have seen some caprifigs received by the Division of Pomology from Turkey which contained living Blas- tophagas, but there was at that time no place known to the Pomologist_ to which they could be sent. Mr. Roeding from year to year con- tinued his artificial fertilization of Smyrna figs at his Fresno place, and in 1897 a box of figs fertilized in this way was sent by Mr. Roed- ing to the Division of Pomology. The writer was shown some of these figs by Mr. W. A. Taylor, then. acting pomologist, and their flavor at once convinced him, if he needed conviction, that the true taste of the Smyrna fig was there. SUCCESSFUL IMPORTATION BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Up to this time the Department of Agriculture had made no serious effort to import Blastophagas, but being convinced by letters from Mr. Roeding, and from statements received from. the San Francisco Board of Commerce, in the late autumn of 1897, that probably the time had arrived for such an attempt, the writer was authorized by the Secretary of Agriculture to take charge of the work, and to attempt the importation and the establishment of the insect. He at first thought of having Dr. Hisen, so well qualified by virtue not only of his scientific attainments, but also on account of his special interest in this. subject and his well-known investigations and conclusions, com- missioned to visit Mediterranean regions for the purpose of collecting additional varieties of caprifigs, of sending overripe gall figs, and of bringing to this country, if necessary, an entire transplanted and healthy caprifig tree. He corresponded with Dr. Eisen on the sub- ject, the latter secured a provisional leave of absence from the Cali- fornia Academy of Sciences, where he was at that time employed, and the details of compensation were arranged. It happened, however, that just at that time Mr. W. T. Swingle, a competent botanist in the employ of the Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, was In South Europe on leave of absence, and it happened also that while studying at the Naples station Mr. Swingle had become inter- ested in the subject of the fig, its origin and botanical varieties, and 84 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the phenomenon of caprification. This fact coming to the writer’s attention, it was deemed advisable by utilizing Mr. Swingle’s services to save for other purposes the funds which would have been required to send out a new man. Another preliminary step undertaken by the writer was to visit California in the early spring of 1898 to inspect the points where Smyrna figs and caprifigs were supposed to be growing, so as to be able to decide upon the best point or points at which to attempt the establish- ment of the insect in the tolerably certain event of its successful intro- duction in living condition. Upon reaching Mr. Roeding’s place near Fresno, the writer was at once assured, by the thriving condition of the trees and by their great number (nearly 5,000 in all, including 100 Fic. 1.—Blastophaga grossorum: a,adult female; b, head of same from below; ¢, head of same from side; d, male impregnating female; e, female issuing from gall; f,adult male—enlarged (after Westwood). caprifies), that no better place could possibly be found, or could be prepared in several years. A plat of this orchard is shown in Pl. I. At some personal expense and on his own initiative, Mr. Swingle began in the spring of 1898 to send a number of caprifigs containing gall insects to the Department of Agriculture at Washington City for shipment to California, and made a careful study of the different varie- ties of caprifigs. The first shipment arrived at Fresno in April, 1898. It had been sent from Naples, the locality in which Dr. Paul Mayer had made his investigations. Mr. Swingle had adopted an ingenious and eminently successful method of packing. Each green caprifig was carefully and closely wrapped in tin foil, the end being covered with wax. On arrival at Fresno the female Blastophagas were seen to be emerging from the gall figs. In this first sending were quite a num- ber of specimens of Philotrypesis caricw, a parasite of the Blastophaga. Mr. Roeding readily distinguished between the female Blastophagas and this parasite, and destroyed all the parasites noticed. A caprifig 777879 7576 @O00000M00 eCCNDDDDDNONO GOON ANNO OOO GOR OOO! COONDODCODOGCONONDGND ONOGONOOI OX oo0000m00 00000 oo0000000 oo0000000 DOO pOO $m00000 on0000000 oe00000000 o0Q0000000 POCOOFOMODGDVDVOVCVOVDNDODONDPONCGCOCNOGD OOOGO000 0X o00000%00 POCKCOOOMOOHOCOCOCNOND too0CCOCOFt 90000000 S253 54.55.58 57 535960 Bt 62 6364 6566676569707) 7273 56.950. 4344 454697 CODOOROOOPODDODODDDNDGOVOO0O00000 SPOQ00DDGDOPODDDVDD ONO OGPO00000000 —GOB00800G0O POSCCOGCOCOO S SCC0OPOVDVNONDCNVNOOGOMOOGCONCNNO foHezovexonokevonex pelokovoleloleleye) CC0D0D0DNNDNOHPOOCOMNODNOONOND NDODODODDDOVODDODOOROYOD0000000 wMODDDDDDOPOD0000000G000000000 OCOD0D0D0CODOOMPOOO0C0O00ND POOCO00O oo0000000 NMOOOOO0C00OD 58 39 40.454: 57. 7MOOO000000 mm00000000 oD00000000 53 8435 36, OOOXXKXXX OOOXXXXXX 82. 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SO RS OG VT SPROO-O0G45 “BO08 lo T700% IBOOO0 OU edcoCoO C00xK» YOOB S00 Ox: fovorolaialens) xx XM speeaseca tee mz r MES : } / _: Zs + : “yD | DipRanniae Bmaz0R Bat 30 TAIG wos F | ea a NEE EY neneetee tis eaten ~~ . i 7 7 - ¢ Ma , F; SMYRNA FIG CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 85 tree was inclosed in a thin cloth tent and subsequent sendings of capri- figs were placed in this inclosure, and the Blastophagas were liberated. Then a year elapsed without result. Either none of the caprifigs on the inclosed tree was stung by the Blastophagas or no larve devel- oped, so far as Mr. Roeding could observe. In the meantime Mr. Swingle had been transferred to the Section of Seed and Plant Introduction of the Division of Botany and commis- sioned as an agricultural explorer to work at the introduction into the United States of desirable plants. In the course of his work he went to Greece, and from there sent additional varieties of caprifigs to this country, which were forwarded to Mr. Roeding and planted under dif- fering conditions. In the winter he went to Algeria and sent other cuttings and one large caprifig tree. As the spring opened Mr. Swingle again began his sendings of caprifigs, packed as before, and which as before were placed by Mr. Roeding under the artificial inclosure. This time, as before, Mr. Swingle adopted the innovation of sending the winter generation of caprifigs instead of the spring (“‘ profichi”) generation, and to this important change is doubtless due more than to any other cause the success of these sendings, since, so far as can be learned, all earlier importations had been of the profichi generation. On March 31, 1899, six boxes of caprifigs were received by the writer and for- warded to Mr. Roeding, on April 5 one more box, and on April 6 the eighth and last. On April 6 the first boxes were received by Mr. Roeding. The fruits seerned to be ii excellent condition. He cut several open and found them full of Blastophagas in the pupa condi- tion. All of the figs were cut open and placed under the covered tree. It must here be said that most of the persons connected with the work had little hope of the establishment of the fig insect by this methed, on account of previous failures. It was tried because the opportunity offered and because of the variations referred to in the method of packing and the careful tenting of the single tree, in the hope that some might succeed in finding fruits of the right size for entering and for oviposition. Mr. Roeding, in acknowledging the receipt of the sending of March 31, and promising to cut them open and put them under the covered tree, said: ‘‘ But I anticipate no results, and I do not think a success will be made of this matter until fig trees with the figs attached are sent out here during the winter months.” Most of the figs shipped from Washington, D. C., on the 5th and 6th of April arrived at Fresno in a decaying condition. In view of previous failures and this lack of confidence on Mr. Roed- ing’s part, the pleasure of every one concerned in the results which followed can readily .be understood. In the latter part of June, 1899, one of Mr. Roeding’s men was engaged in gathering caprifigs and extracting the pollen for the purpose of artificially pollenizing Smyrna 86 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. figs by means of the usual blowpipe process, and on the 23d of June he found one fig which contained evidences of the presence of the insect. On the 24th of June the tented tree was examined, and it was found that all the figs had dropped and shrivelled up with the exception of about 20, which were still green and plump, and which subsequent evidence showed contained developing Blastophagas. Other figs show- ing evidences of Blastophaga were found on outside trees, and by the end of June were found other wild fig trees upon which young figs, presumably the second crop, or mammoni, were beginning to develop. On the 30th of June a tree 1,500 feet away from the tented tree was found bearing two caprifigs containing galls and male insects. About the middle of July Mr. Roeding found a few neighboring Smyrna trees which had been fertilized by the Blastophaga without any effort on his part. About the end of August some of the caprifigs of the seeond crop (mammoni) had begun to come to maturity, but many young caprifigs were also present, and the insects entered them. By November 10, when Mr. Swingle visited Mr. Roeding’s orchard, many swollen cap- rifigs were to be seen, which had been supposed to be the overwinter- ing, or mamme, generation, but on that date and for a number of days subsequently thousands of the insects emerged, thus producing at least a partial fourth generation of the insect, a fact entirely unpre- cedented in the history of the species, so far as the writings of the European authors inform us. These entered at once the young indi- viduals of this generation of figs, as could’ readily be observed at the end of November, when the writer visited the orchard, the minute wings of the insect being found adhering to the bracts on the outside of the fruit, while living males were still found in the older figs from which females had issued earlier. CARRYING THE INSECT THROUGH THE WINTER. In November, for the purpose of protecting a goodly number of overwintering figs containing insects from possible freezing weather, Mr. Roeding built a cloth house 28 by 17 by 16 feet high, in which three trees were inclosed, in all bearing fully a thousand figs. At the time of the writer’s visit (November 23-25, 1899) the cloth house was found to have been admirably designed. There was a high square framework of joists (Pl. II), with the canvas buttoned on over nails, so that a free circulation of air could be allowed and the trees could be entirely uncovered with a minimum of trouble in fine weather when no frosts were anticipated. The estimate of about 1,000 gall figs was confirmed and other trees outside the tent were found to carry a few caprifigs of the overwintering generation. Although Blastophagas had issued on the 10th of the same month, and although November 24 Yearbook U. S. Dept of Agriculture, 1900. PLATE Il. Fig. 1.—A 10-YEAR-OLD CAPRI TREE (ROEDING’S Capri No. 1). [Tree, in prime condition, as seen on March 30, when the young foliage was not yet fully devel- oped; had been protected during the winter by a canvas tent, and the illustration shows the framework of the tent.] (Reduced from an original photograph. ) Fic. 2.—A 10-YEAR-OLD CAPRI TREE (ROEDING’S CAPRI No. 2). [Tree, in prime condition, as seen on March 30, when the spring foliage was not yet fully devel- oped. In the background are the rows of Smyrna trees.| (Reduced from an original photo- graph.) 5 SMYRNA FIG CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 87 was a bright warm day, with a’temperature of 83° F., there were no signs of any insects issuing. One of the larger figs, in which the eye had opened, showing that the insects had probably issued on the 10th, was opened and was found to contain 1 dead female and 3 living males, the latter very lively. At this time some extremely small caprifigs were seen, and with a warm winter promised to be receptive to any Blastophagas which might subsequently issue. On the terminal twigs the buds seemed almost ready to swell. From this time on the winter was passed without any occurrence worthy of especial note. About December 15 there was a: frost of 29° F., and there were several light frosts later. On January 1, 1900, some of the large figs dropped from the tree under the cover and were found to contain fully developed male and female insects. AN ASSISTANT SENT TO FRESNO IN THE SPRING OF 1900. As the time approached in the spring of 1900 for the issuing of the hibernating insects from the overwintering crop of caprifigs, the writer decided to station an expert assistant at Fresno during the entire season of 1900 to follow closely the biology of the insect, to watch and study carefully all conditions in order that, in case of pos- sible emergencies, no opportunity should be lost through lack of expert entomological knowledge. Mr. E. A. Schwarz was chosen for this purpose, not only on account of the fact of his wide entomological knowledge and standing as a close observer, but also because he had been familiar with the subject of caprification for a number of years and was well posted in regard to the European literature. Mr. Schwarz arrived at Fresno March 11 and remained in Cahfornia until early in November. He spent most of his days in the orchard, watched and assisted in all of the cultural features, made almost hourly observa- tions upon the insects, and advised with Mr. Roeding and his assist- ants at all times. The following brief summary of the summer’s work is drawn largely from Mr. Schwarz’s correspondence and from an account which has been transmitted to the writer by Mr. Roeding: Upon his arriyal at Fresno, Mr. Schwarz found that two of the tented trees and some of the trees outside of the tent, all belonging to the same variety of capri trees,! bore about 400 apparently sound overwintering caprifigs. By March 18 many of the spring crop were seen to be as big as cherries, and with difficulty distinguishable from the smaller overwintering individuals. The larger overwintering 1There are three varieties of caprifig trees on Mr. Roeding’s place, which, for want of better names, have been called Capri No. 1, Capri No. 2, and Capri No. 3. Pl. II (fig. 1) shows a 10-year-old Capri No. 1, and (fig. 2) a Capri No. 2 of the same age, both trees being in prime condition. Pl. Ili shows a branch of a Capri No. 1, and Pl. V shows the upper parts of a Capri No. 3. 88 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. specimens continued dropping, and all were found to be more or less affected with rot. To Mr. Schwarz it seemed probable that these larger individuals, which are pulpy in their character and which still contained full-grown insects, were not true mamme, but simply hiber- nating mammoni of the mammoni crop of 1899. In Europe this phenomenon is known; the belated mammoni are said even to stay over winter on the trees, maturing in the spring, and thus hardly to be distinguished from the genuine mamme in general appearance. In these larger specimens, which were taken to be belated mammoni, the insect was found all through the winter in the pupal or adult condi- tions, whereas Mayer and Solms-Laubach state that in Europe in the mamme the Blastophaga hibernates in the egg or larval condition. The issuing of the insects from these figs had evidently been prevented by the presence of a large amount of saccharine matter, and the greatest hope at this time was that the smaller figs, evidently the true mamme, would contain the insect in the proper condition to issue at the proper time. This generalization held not only for the figs upon the tented trees, but upon the others outside. THE EMERGENCE OF THE INSECTS IN THE SPRING. The adult Blastophagas from these overwintering small figs began to issue March 28,and continued to do so for about five weeks. If the weather had been fair and warm this period would have lasted prob- ably only three or four weeks, but bad days intervened, and the time was extended. Upon issuing, the adult female Blastophagas immedi- ately entered the spring generation of caprifigs, which were in the proper receptive condition. Mamme, from which the Blastophagas were issuing or were about to issue, were transferred to other trees, with the result that on June 10 Mr. Schwarz wrote that at that time the total crop of good profichi was estimated at about 6,000. With knowledge gained later, a much larger number of good profichi figs could have been obtained if the transferring of mamme had been concentrated upon fewer trees, but since the orchard contained three varieties of capri trees, and since their qualifications were not well understood at the time, it was deemed best to distribute the insect over as many capri trees as possible. Some interesting practical informa- tion was thus gained—the Blastophaga emerging from the mamme oviposits preferably only in such profichi as are shaded, evidently not liking to work in the sun, and probably because the figs grown in the shade are cooler and fresher. The most valuable figs for this purpose seem to be those which grow on the small inner twigs which never reach the top nor the sides of the tree. Unfortunately, this inside growth in the orchard had been carefully trimmed out on most of the trees. This affords a cultural point of value for future experience. The average California horticulturist, judging from the writer’s SMYRNA FIG CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 89 experience, finds his ideal of a fruit tree in its symmetrical and beauti- ful outline, but while this may be good for other fruits, it apparently does away with the bearing capacity of a fig tree of the Smyrna class. THE SPRING CROP OF CAPRIFIGS. A natural spread of the insect was allowed to take place from two of the overwintering trees, but it was found that only a few neighboring trees could be caprificated in this way. The result of the transfer of the mamme to other trees was that a sprinkling of good profichi was gained, either good or poor, according to the variety or individu- ality of the trees, and of course also according to the number and quality of the suspended mamme. It appeared also that the mamme suspended previous to April 10 produced better results than those sus- pended afterwards, and it seemed that a caprifig tree in good condition requires at least 25 mamme to have a chance to be fully caprificated. This number, however, experience may lessen very greatly; in fact, at that time, while it was supposed that the method adopted of scattering the few mamme all over the row would not be favorable for a commer- cial purpose on account of the trouble in gathering the scattered crop, it has been found not to be so unfavorable after all. Many of the pro- fichis, as above indicated, drop either by rubbing or by the action of severe winds, or by means of a disease which Mr. Schwarz terms ‘* the ostiolum disease.”' The insects themselves in this crop are, many of them, lost in numerous ways: They may issue as cripples and not be able to fly; they may be caught in spiders’ webs; they may be caught in the sticky exudation from certain of the figs; they may lose their wings in attempting to penetrate, without success; they may die through entering figs which are too small, or several may enter the same fig; they may be blown away by the wind; they may enter figs which are too old. It was also noticed that the insects are very shy, and that when they issue from the mamme they drop to the ground on the slightest provocation. In these various ways, It was estimated that more than 50 per cent of all the Blastophagas issuing from the over- wintering figs were lost, and of course in every subsequent generation the same thing occurred. | All of the profichi, or spring generation of figs, which had not been fertilized, continued to drop from the trees until June 3, and on June 10 for the first time there appeared to be a swelling up or puffing up of what appeared to be the ripest fertilized figs of this generation. These ripest figs within twenty-four hours became softer and assumed the pale olive-green color so characteristic of the ripening mamme. The characteristics of this generation of figs in different stages of growth are worth especial mention. When quite small they are globular, —$—_—— ane = = Mr. Schwarz subsequently decided that this disease is due to the presence of female flowers. 90 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. pale green, and delicately pruinose. Just before fertilization they are bright green, shining, and long stemmed. After caprification some of them become gradually more rounded or even transversely oval, dark green, hard and firm, and very pruinose. Just before ripening, viz, just before the issuing of the insect, the ostiolum opens and gradu- ally assumes a more decided yellow color, and shortly after the first issuing of the Blastophagas the outer layer of -cales becomes erect and quite stiff. As soon as the first batch of Blastophagas issues, the figs commence to collapse and appear shriveled, but other insects continue to emerge for several days afterwards. (Fig. 2.) Fic. 2.—Caprificated and noncaprificated caprifigs (drawn from nearly dried-up specimens): a, out- side appearance of noncaprificated fig; b, outside appearance of caprificated fig; c, interior of capri- ficated fig; d, interior of noncaprificated fig—all natural size (original). THE SECOND GENERATION OCF BLASTOPHAGAS. Blastophagas began to iss1e on June 11. After that date the daily temperature increased, and the Blastophagas commenced to issue at an earlier hour,every subsequent day, until on June 24 they began to issue at 6 o’clock in the morning. No Blastophaga was observed to issue in the afternoon or evening. A fig gives out insects only fora short time each day, commencing again the following day, and continu- ing for four or five days, and perhaps longer. The number of Blasto- phagas issuing from one fig each day is extremely variable, but reaches in some figs 50 or 60, perhaps more, which come out with a rush. The whole flight for each day does not last more than three or four hours, so that after 10 o’clock in the morning on June 24 yery few specimens could be seen. Although the issuing from the overwintering crop lasted over four or five weeks, fully 95 per cent of the profichi generation gave out all of their contained insects in two weeks. CAPRIFICATION. As soon as the first Blastophagas of the second generation were seen issuing on June 11, Mr. Schwarz commenced hand caprification, and sueceeded in performing this function for about 20 trees.’ The next day 1Tn Pl. V, at the lower left-hand side, is represented a twig of a Smyrna tree bear- ing young figs, which show the striking difference between specimens caprificated by SMYRNA FIG CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 91 a number of workmen joined him, and by June 15 and 16 a force of 9 men was at work. The active work of caprification was carried on from the 11th to the 20th of June. It was early found that the estimate of 6,000 healthy profichi was altogether too small, and the entire force was kept very busy. An estimate was made that it would have taken at least 17 men, working assiduously for a week, to caprify one-half of the orchard of appr oximatély 4,000 trees, namely, 10 men to do the picking and stringing, 5 to do the distributing and suspend- ing, and 2 to carry the strung figs from headquarters to the distribu- ters. The expense in wages for half the orchard would be in the neighborhood of $125. The appliances necessary for caprification were found to be a num- ber of stepladders, especially small ones; fruit baskets, or light boxes, for the collection of the figs; shallow wooden trays, into which the picked figs are laid for inspection; harness needles and raphia fiber, for stringing; scissors and sharp knives, for cutting the ends of cae raphia; gasoline, for washing the eels: a pucker. of salt water, for the frequent washing of the hands; poles, short and long, for iwaeiae the strings of caprifigs; hooks and crotches, to support the poles; flags, sticks, and labels, to mark the caprified areas on trees. Finding only brief directions in the literature, Mr. Schwarz decided at first to devote 10 caprifigs to the average Smyrna tree, but the num- ber was increased to 12, 14, 16, or even 20, wherever the trees were aboye the average in size. Recaprification with a smaller number of figs, varying from 2 to 10, was carried on at intervals of from three to five days, as far as the provision of profichilasted. A second recapri- fication would be desirable; but for this purpose another varitty of caprifigs, bearing either earlier or later figs, will be necessary. The system adopted was about as follows: At 6 o’clock in the morning all hands turned out and proceeded to pick over the capritigs (either by hand or by pulling them off witha bamboo pole fruit picker), assembling finally at headquarters, where the figs were laid out in trays for inspection. This inspection was to eliminate the worthless figs, and to keep only .those which were pretty sure to give out a good supply of insects... Doubtful ones were kept separate and were suspended on experimental the Blastophaga (the two figs on the left side of the branch) and not caprificated specimens (the three figs on the right side of the branch)—nearly natural size (pho- tographed July 2). ‘The large figs along the right side of the plate are nearly ripe caprificated Smyrna figs (reduced from natural size), the cut specimens representing that stage where the stems of the female flowers, greatly thickened, secrete the largest amount of saccha- rine matter (photographed August 20). The small twig with figs at the upper left-hand corner of the plate represents the earlier mammoni crop of caprifigs (Roeding’s Capri No. 1), the large fig at the tip of the twig being nearly ripe and about ready to give forth the winged Blastophaga females—natural size (photographed August 20). 92 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. trees. During this inspection the stringing of the figs began, and all hands joined in this tedious, dirty, and slow work. One or two figs at each end were strung with a strong needle upon a bit of the raphia fiber. After stringing 20 or 30 the needle and fingers become covered with the sticky, milk-like fluid which exudes from the stems, and the washing of fingers and needle becomes necessary. After stringing a couple of thousand of the figs each operator became aware that this mill possesses some poisonous quality. The tips of the fingers become sore and burn like fire. They aggravated this evil at first by washing the hands in concentrated salt water, so that they could proceed with the work only with considerable pain. The Japanese laborers simply rubbed their hands with dust, and probably this is the best way of get-_ ting temporarily rid of the milky stuff. Each string of raphia was then hung over a pole, which was suspended at some little distance from the stringers. The method of stringing and inspecting is illus- trated in PL IV, fig. 1. After about 600 figs were strung the poles with their strings of figs were taken up, and the distributing party of five men started with the figs into the orchard, where the figs were suspended on the branches or wound about the twigs. This is illustrated in Pl. IV, fig. 2. Two rows of trees were thus cap- rified at a time, and the shaded portions of the trees were chosen. When the supply of figs was exhausted flags were planted on the row at the tree where the work stopped, and the distributers returned to headquarters to help the stringers until another batch was ready for distribution. In this large orchard the distributing party had to walk at least 10 miles a day, each row being almost half a mile in length. The plan of throwing the strings into the trees was tried, but was not very successful. In this way about 18,000 profichi figs were distributed, and more than 1,300 Smyrna trees were successfully caprified. Then also to the number of trees which were caprified by the transfer of figs must be added an unknown number of trees from which a crop of Smyrna figs was to be expected by the natural spread of the Blastophaga. At this time the loss of Blastophaga by spider webs was observed to be very great. Mr. Schwarz estimated that several hundred thousand spec’*- mens were lost in this way. The effect of caprification on the young Smyrna figs becomes readily visible within a few days, and is illustrated by the figure of a twig at the lower left side of Pl. V. Before the Blastophaga enters the fig the latter is transverse and strongly ribbed, as shown in the three figs on the right side of the twig. A few days after fertilization the fig swells up and becomes rounded and sleek, as shown by the two specimens on the left side of the twig. The figures along the right side of the plate represent (ona somewhat reduced scale) the ‘* botanically” Yearbook U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. PLaTE IV. FIG. 1.—CAPRIFICATION. (The process of sorting, examining, and stringing the profichi figs, preparatory to their distribu- tion upon the Smyrna trees. For further details, see page 92.] (Reduced from a photograph taken June 13.) FIG. 2.—CAPRIFICATION. (Distributing the profichi figs upon the branches of the Smyrna trees. For further explanation, see page 92.]_ (Reduced from a photograph taken June 13.) Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900 CAPRIFICATED AND NONCAPRIFICATED FIGs. [For expianation of plate, see footnote. pages 90 and 91; also page 92. PLATE V. SMYRNA FIG CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 93 ripe Smyrna fig, the cut specimens showing that stage where the female flowers secrete the largest amount of saccharine matter. The first figs were caprified on June 11, and the first ripe one dropped to the groundon August 2. By August 8 quite a number had dropped, but what may be termed real dropping did not begin until August 15, and ripening continued from that time on well into September, the whole period covering from four to five weeks. This gradual ripen- ing is the most serious drawback, since the figs must be gathered every other day. This is an expensive affair in California, even with the cheap Chinese laborers employed. HARVESTING AND DRYING. As just stated, as the figs dropped they were collected every other day by laborers who went through the orchards ,provided with recep- tacles for collecting. This continued from August 8 for four or five weeks. No fertilized Smyrna figs were observed to drop to the ground prematurely. A great loss of insects, however, is occasioned by two or more (as many as five) Blastophagas.entering the same fig, whereas only one is necessary for thorough fertilization. Another loss was from the Biastophagas entering the figs which were beyond the recep- tive stage, and which were found dead between the scales of the ostiolum. As the figs ripened another loss became apparent, many specimens turning orange yellow and a small area remaining hard and wrinkled. The bright orange color renders such figs easily recogniz- able, and if the defective spot is small, no great injury results. More- over, during the expansion period of the figs many of themcrack. The expansion due to the abundant secretion of saccharine matter is so powerful that the delicate skin of many figs, and, unfortunately, among the finest and largest, can not stand it, and the fig splits in two, usually across the ostiolum. Sometimes it splits into three parts and opens like a rose. If the split does not extend very far the fig is not rendered worthless, but if it extends across the surface the fig is lost. The loss caused by birds isalso very great, especially by the California house finch or linnet (Carpodacus mexicanus obscurus). Myr. Schwarz found that these birds never nest on the fig trees, but on the shade trees along the roads, on the garden trees in the vicinity, and on the willows and cottonwoods along the ditches. They do not fly far away from their nesting places, and there was consequently little damage done in the central part of the fig orchard. Along the borders, how- ever, hardly a single good fig was harvested on account of these birds. He advises, therefore, that a Smyrna fig orchard should not be planted in the vicinity of large shade trees or orange groves. Souring of the figs was not noticed in tbe early part of the season, but began later to a limited extent when showers occurred. When the Smyrna figs’ 94 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ripen the ostiolum opens wide and remains open so that a match can easily be inserted and often moderate-sized insects can enter and feed on the sugar. Some of them are caught in the sticky sap and die within the fig. When the figs are ripe and fall, ants and beetles of the genera Notoxus and Carpophilus enter in this way. Wasps and other insects, notably among them a species of Blapstinus, eat holes through the skin if the figs are allowed.to remain on the ground longer than a day or two. On account of these and other losses, only about one-half of the crop of Smyrna figs was gathered this year in Mr. Roeding’s orchard. The entire crop was estimated by Mr. Schwarz at from 12 to 15 tons of good figs on the trees, all resulting from the inhabitants of less than 450 winter figs! : It was found then that there are not less than seven or eight well- distinguished races or varieties of Smyrna fig trees in the Roeding orchard. Caprificated figs of all these varieties were obtained, and while that variety which has been called the ‘‘Commercial Smyrna” fig proved to be better adapted for drying than the other varieties, few would deny that some of the latter were of more delicate flavor than the commercial variety. Whether or not practical methods of drying these figs can be found must remain for later experience. Some of the more striking of these varieties are shown on the accom- panying plates. Pl. VI, fig. 2, illustrates the ‘‘ Black Bulletin,” which is one of the Smyrna figs introduced by the editor of the San Francisco 3ulletin. Pl. VII, fig. 1, represents the ‘‘ Purple Smyrna” fig, a tree of the most beautiful shapely outline, closely resembling from a distance the Chinese umbrella tree. Fig. 2 of this plate shows the White Bardajic Smyrna, the most readily distinguishable variety on account of its pear-shaped fruit. This may prove to be of exceptional value. Pi. ViU, figs. 1 and 2, represent 10-year-old ‘‘ Commercial Smyrna” trees in full bearing, the fruit, however, showing very indistinctly in the illustration on account of its color. It may also be of interest to state that the second crop of the San Pedro figs has been successfully caprificated by the Blastophaga. After the collection of the figs they were transferred to the drying ground, dipped into a boiling brine made by dissolving 3 ounces of salt to.a gallon of water, and then placed on trays, the time of drying varying from two to four days, according to the weather. The dip- ping of the fig is supposed to bring the sugar into the skin, hasten the drying, and make the skin pliable. After the figs were dried they were placed in sweat boxes holding about 200 pounds each, where they were allowed to remain for two weeks, to pass through a sweat. The only other treatment they received before packing was to wash Sa ee Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. PLATE VI. Fic. 1.—UPPER PART OF CAPRIFIG TREE (ROEDING’S CAPRI No. 3), SHOWING ABUNDANT CROP OF CAPRIFICATED SPRING FIGS (PROFICHI). [The photograph taken on May 23, and Blastophagas commenced to issue from the figs about June 11.] (Reduced from an original photograph. ) Fic. 2.—THE ‘BLACK BULLETIN”? FIG TREE (15 YEARS OLD). PLATE VII. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. Fig TREE (10 YEARS OLD). PURPLE SMYRNA” les. We Uitalee BARDAJIC’? SMYRNA TREE (15 YEARS OLD). Fig. 2.—THE WHITE *‘ Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. PLATE VIII. Fic. 2.—PARTIAL VIEW OF THE ‘‘COMMERCIAL SMYRNA” FIG TREE IN FULL BEARING (10 YEARS OLD). SMYRNA FIG CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 95 them in cold salt water, for the purpose of removing all dirt, and figs which were overdried or improperly fertilized (called ‘* dummies” by Mr. Roeding) rose to the top when placed in the solution. PACKING. More than 6 tons of the product, dried in the manner just described, were put up in half-pound, 1-pound, and 10-pound boxes in layers, and 1-pound cartons. They were taken to ene of the leading packing houses in Fresno in sweat boxes, the same size as is used for raisins and other dried fruits in California. In the height of the season from 200 to 300 hands are employed in this packing house. The neat appearance of the women and girls, and the cleanliness observed in the handling of the fruit are features of California packing houses, which are certainly not equaled in similar institutions in Smyrna. The figs were first graded by machinery, a long tray with small holes in one end, which increased in size toward the other end, being used for this purpose. The three largest sizes were packed, the smaller grades being simply pressed in 50-pound boxes without packing. After grading, the figs were passed through a closed trough of boiling | hot water, an endless chain with buckets attached being used for this purpose. This thoroughly cleansed the figs and softened them so that they could be easily handled. The work of packing was done exclu- sively by women and girls, and the splitting of the figs was practiced as in Smyrna, a short-bladed knife being used for that purpose. The layer figs were packed in 10-pound boxes with three and four layers in a box, these layers being the finest and largest figs. The cartons consisted of 1-pound packages wrapped in waxed paper and packed 10 to the box. The largest figs in this mode of packing are known to the trade as 6-crown, the next in size 4-crown, and the smallest size 3-crown. Each brick of figs, as it is called, is neatly wrapped with colored ribbons, making when finished a very attractive package. QUALITY OF THE PRODUCT. Chemical analysis made by Professor Hilgard, of the University of. California, showed that figs submitted to him by Mr. Roeding con- tained 1.42 per cent more sugar than the best imported Smyrna figs. Samples which the writer has received are of exceptional edibility. The flavor is delicious and precisely comparable to that of the imported _ figs, except for the lack of the slight acidity noticed in those ordinarily bought on the market, and which is of a rather disagreeable quality. Wholesale grocers to whom the writer has shown samples speak with strong approval of their quality, and there seems little doubt that a great and profitable trade in figs of this grade can readily be gained in the United States. 96 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE SECOND CROP OF CAPRIFIGS. When the caprification of the Smyrna figs began, about the begin- ning of the second week in June, the second crop of caprifigs, in which only could the life round of the Blastophagas be maintained, was just beginning to appear, but in such small numbers as to cause a real break in the succession of crops. The advance individuals were readily entered by the second generation of Blastophagas, but it was deemed rash to depend solely upon the chances that when a goodly number of the second crop should be ready there would still be enough issuing Blastophagas to enter them; so a trip to Niles was undertaken early in July, and six profichi were carried back to Fresno. At this place a colony of Blastophagas had been successfully established in April, eighteen overwintering caprifigs having been taken there from Fresno. Between July 21 and 27, Blastophagas issued from two of these Niles caprifigs at Fresno. At Niles, however, they did not hatch out until the first week in August, and at the latter place very few of the second crop (mammoni) figs had developed. Thus, in case the break between the spring and second crops at Fresno becomes so marked another year that Blastophagas issuing from profichi figs are unable to find mammonis in which to oviposit, the Jater issuing Blasto- phagas may be brought in their profichi from Niles, and the sue- cession of generations maintained. Thus all caprifigs of the second crop at Fresno, which developed from the buds subsequent to July 5 {the issuing period of the protichi generation of Blastophagas having been June 11 to July 5) did not get any insects (disregarding here the artificial importation from Niles). They kept on developing, vigor- ously, however, on into September, but in the meantime the first mammoni generation of Blastophaga developed from the comparatively few mammoni figs which were in a receptive condition between June | il and July 5, began issuing August 13, and continued to issue on into September. This practically means that there were two genera- tions of Blastophaga covered by one generation of caprifigs. Judging by the observations of last year (and it will be remembered that the Blastophagas issued in great numbers the second week in November), there are unquestionably four generations of Blastophaga at Fresno, contrary to preconceived ideas. Moreover, Mr. Schwarz writes that from a study of the dates given by Dr. Paul Mayer he has not the least hesitation in asserting that at Naples, Italy, there are also two mammoni generations of Blastophaga. Mayer’s dates, September 4 and October 28, when he observed the mature insects, plainly indicate two generations, for it is very improbable, judging by Mr. Schwarz’s careful observations the past summer, that the period of issuing of one generation of Blastophaga should occupy eight weeks. Dr. Mayer came near assuming two mammoni generations of Blastophaga, but preferred to cling to the three-generation theory, and tried to SMYRNA FIG CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. Q7 explain away the difficulties by the assumption of early and late trees. At Fresno there is no such thing as early and late trees. One variety of caprifig is five or six days later than the other, but there is no ereater difference. These second-crop figs, which were not entered by the Blastophaga, dropped just as did the noncaprified Smyrna figs, most of them drop- ping when very young. The changes which take place in the second- crop figs which have been stung are practically the same es in the Smyrna figs. The final expansion is not very marked, but is accom- panied by a noticeable change of color, from a rather dark olive green toa beautiful sea green. At the time of issuing of the insects the ripening mammoni are globular or very slightly elongate, white, and not particularly soft, but they turn quite soft and yellowish on the second day after the issuing of the first insects. On the fourth day they usually drop, having acquired a dirty ochreous color. From the majority of them a few female Blastophagas still issue when the fig is on the ground. All of these figs are of remarkably small size, only a few specimens being a little larger than a large cherry. — In consequence of their small size, the number of Blastophagas issuing from each is correspondingly small. No exact count was made, but there are hardly more than 100 galls in the largest figs and less than 50 in the smallest. The females issue, as with the profichi generation, in the forenoon. At first they come out about 10 o’clock and continue until nearly noon, but as more figs become active the insects come out earlier, and by the lst of September they commence to issue at 7.30 and continue until about 10 o'clock. The time occupied in the development of this early veneration of Blastophagas in the second crop of figs was practically two months, since from June 11 to July 5 the issuing profichi generation of Blasto- phagas were ovipositing in the advanced second crop of figs, and the issuing of their offspring occupied the interval from August 13 to about September 15. FOURTH GENERATION OF BLASTOPHAGAS. The later generation of Blastophagas in the second crop of figs, that is, the fourth generation, beginning from the overwintering mamme, proved to be a mere repetition of the first mammoni generation, taking place in what is unquestionably the same crop of figs. The first set of figs of this crop came just in time to catch the profichi Blastophagas (June 11 to July 5). The next set did not get any of the insects (July 5 to August 13). That which was receptive subsequent to August 13 caught the early mammoni generation of Blastophaga, and the figs becoming receptive after September 12 did not get any insects. The interesting point about the later mammoni generation of Blastophaga is that it consists of what may be termed a recuperation of the 2 41900-——7 98 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Blastophaga to a larger number of specimens after the great preakdown suffered by the scarcity of available second-crop figs during the first mammoni generation. On September 16 Mr. Schwarz found that he had many thousands of inhabited figs of the later mammoni generation of Bl: astophag: i (fourth generation). On September 13 he cut open two average-sized mammoni and found the interior of normal form, pale yellowish in color, and crammed full of well-developed galls, in which the Blastophaga larvee were already plainly visible without a magnify- ing glass. On September 17 the offspring of the profichi Blastophagas brought down from Niles commenced to issue. The duration of the first mammoni generation commencing on July 21 was therefore only fifty-eight days, a trifle shorter than the average duration of the Fresno insects. By September 24 almost every available fig in proper condition had been taken possession of by these insects, thus forming a second mammoni generation four and one-half weeks later than that formed by the Fresno Blastophagas. On the 29th of September Mr. Schwarz visited Niles and examined the situation there. He concludes that there is every reason to sup- pose that the Blastophaga can be permanently established at that point, and that as a station for stocking or restocking other places with Blas- tophaga the importance of Niles can not be overestimated. The value of the ability to transfer the insect to localities having another climate can not fail to be very great. Thus, the importation of the Niles profichi to Fresno resulted in a mammoni generation of Blastophagas which is intermediate between the two Fresno mammoni generations, and this no doubt will increase or did increase the chances of produc- ing a greater supply of healthy wintering figs. The value of a similar transfer of winter figs in April, or even later, will be still more impor- tant, as it will produce later profichi insects at Fresno. POSSIBLY ONLY TWO TRUE CROPS OF CAPRIFIGS. As the autumn advanced it was noticed that no break could be seen in the fig crops between the mammoni and the expected mamme, such as undoubtedly occurred between the profichi and the mammoni. Solms-Laubach says that in Europe there is no sharp distinction between mammoni and mamme, and that those of the former crop which do not mature in the fall remain as mamme over winter. ‘The question arises, then, Are there two separate crops of figs or are the hibernating figs, known as the mamme crop, simply all late developing and overwintering mammonis? Mr. Schwarz observed that there is not the slightest difference in the mode of growth and location on the twigs between the mammoni and the mamme, which both develop on the new growth of the season. The first crop of figs develops on the old growth, and is accompanied by a liberal sprouting of leaves. SMYRNA FIG CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. QY Toward the end of May the appearance of the second crop is also accompanied by the appearance of a set of leaves, but after that time no new leaves sprout and the leaf buds on the trees in October plainly belong to the first crop of the next year. If there were a third crop of figs would there not also be a third crop of leaves 4 ISSUING PERIODS OF BLASTOPHAGA. To sum up, the issuing periods of Blastophaga during the season, both in California and in Naples, Italy, are shown in the following table, which will doubtless make perfectly clear the somewhat com- plicated conditions described in previous paragraphs: Dates showing the issuing periods of Blastophaga. ee a he ae : ST Fe | Issuing periods of Blastophaga in California. HOH oe tee ra maat | Generation. 7 : i . Fresno, | Exesno,import-| Nites, cording toP. Beate Mayer. ) sway iad | ei | sakes) Mamme..... Marmes—Aipr- 25) |. otosemase eee see ace aee || End of March | April. | to April. 1!) eProfieh: 2- ~:~ June 11-July 5 | July 21-July 27 | Aug. —Sept.3 June 22-July 27 | June. First mam-j| Aug. 13-Sept. | Sept. 17-Sept. |..........:.....- Septet. = 5. sae. moni. 12: OR. | | Second miamr| (OCt.ib.-. 5. cn |e cccke serqaeeecee|> see aac ae 5a HROCt 285-225 Soc.cc October. moni. IT | Dates of issuing are of great value when we consider the question of the practical handling of the insect. Those above given may be modified by subsequent experience or by differing weather conditions, but they will probably remain approximately constant. ABSENCE OF PARASITES. A very fortunate aspect of the situation in California at the present time is the absolute absence of parasites of the Blastophaga. Else- where the Blastophaga has its parasites, and the very important one in South Europe, Philotrypesis, although introduced in the original. importations which wr. Swingle sent from Naples in the spring of 1898, and present in great numbers, was killec off so far as possible by Mr. Roeding, and in fact the whole importation failed. The Algerian importations in the spring of 1899, from which the success of the experiment dates, appeared to contain no parasites whatever, and in the whole course of his summer’s work at Fresno Mr. Schwarz never saw one, so he feels sure that it does not exist there. Nor did he see any trace of the work of the Nematode, which is said by Italian writers to be a constant inhabitant of caprifigs and edible figs. Unless, therefore, parasites of Blastophaga are introduced with wild figs from Lower Calitornia, Mexico, or Florida, it is unlikely that Blastophaga 100 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. grossorum will have parasites in California. It has, however, other unimportant natural enemies like the Chrysopa and ladybird ijarvee, but its greatest natural enemies are found in spiders. Webs con- structed across the surface of a leaf or between the figs and the nearest leaves, geometrical webs between branches, simple runways spun atong branches or between branches, all catch many Blastophagas. Those across the surface of the leaf seem the most destructive, and Mr. Schwarz found frequently from 100 to 150 specimens of Blastophaga ‘aught in one of these webs. One little wolf spider was observed to ‘atch Blastophagas as they emerged from the figs. Certain birds extracted the galls from ripening caprifigs. ) Mh i" nmr My VE il! FiG. 3.—Blastophaga grossorum: a,adult female with wings extended, seen from above; b, female not yet entirely issued from pupal skin and still contained in gall; c, antenna of female; d, head of female from below; e, adult male; f, the same—all greatly enlarged (original). LIFE HISTORY OF BLASTOPHAGA. So far, we have referred to the life history of the fig-caprifying insect only in the most general terms. The illustration (fig. 1) which is given of the insect in the early part of this article is a copy of an old one drawn by the famous English entomologist, Prof. J. O. West- wood, and which was published in the Transactions of the Entomo- logical Society of London, 1882, plate iv, in part. It is an interest- ing figure, and illustrates rather well the difference between the male SMYRNA FIG CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 101 andthe female. It shows the peculiar mouth parts of the female, which enables her to gnaw her way through the tough seed-like gall, and shows also the male in the act of fertilizing the female and the female in the act of issuing from the gall. It is, however, incorrect in some of the rather important structural details, as will be seen by comparing it with fig. 3, here given, which has been drawn under the writer’s supervision from living specimens reared at this office and in Cali- Fic. 4.—Abdomen of Bidstophecas female, viewed from pencil from above, and from the side— enlarged (original). fornia. The entomologist will at once note especially the difference in the details of the thorax in both males and females, and especially will the difference in the length of the abdomen of the male be seen. (Figs. 4 and 5.) : The male is always wingless. It has no ocelli, and its compound eyes are greatly reduced in size. The fact that the male rarely leaves the fig in which it has hatched might almost be inferred from these facts of winglessness and partial blind- ness. When this wingless male issues from the seed-like gall in which it is contained, it seeks a female gall in the interior of the same fig, gnaws a small hole through its cortex, inserts its extremely long, almost telescopic, abdominal extremity through the hole, and fertilizes the female. The female subsequently, with her powerful jaws, gnaws the top of the gall off and emerges, crawling around the interior of the fig and eventually forcing her way through the ostiolum, almost immediately seeking for young figs, which she enters, and should the fig entered prove to be a caprifig, lays her eggs at the base of as many male flowers as she can find, and then dies. Should the fig entered, however, be a Smyrna fig, either through the fact of the capritig from which she issued having lic. 5—Female Blastophagas issuing from the galls—greatly enlarged (original). 102 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. been hung in the branches of a Smyrna fig tree, or from the fact that she has flown to an adjoining Smyrna fig tree, she walks around among the female flowers seeking for a proper place to oviposit, discovering eventually that she has made a mistake, but, nevertheless, probably trying to tind a proper place for oviposition by thrusting her oviposi- tor in here and there. It is this futile, wandering search, covered as her body is with pollen from the capritigs, that produces the extensive and almost perfect fertilization of the entire number of female flowers. THE EGG. The egg when seen in the ovary is very long and slender, but when found in the fig it is less than three times as long as broad, al- most regularly ellip- tical in shape, white and slightly shining, with a delicate petiole of about 14 times its length. On dissect- ing a male flower into which the egg has been inserted by the female Blastophaga, it will be found to Fic. 6.—Blastophaga grossorum: a, egg; b, young larva; c, outline of have been pushed in same in gall; d, full-grown larva; e, mouth of same—enlarged transversel Vv > .bo the (original). ————— axis of the flower nearly to the center, with the petiole reaching out to the cortex. Its dimensions are, length, exclusive of petiole, 0.092 mm.; width, 0.046 mm. THE LARVA. The young larva is a delicate little creature curved upon itself and showing no visible segmentation, much as indicated in fig. 6,6. It takes many days development of the caprifig before the larva becomes visible with certainty without the most careful observation under a strong lens. The first sign which indicates that one is watching the larva and not the sap in the gall is the visibility of two brownish spots, which are without doubt the mandibles of the larva. When these spots become visible, with a very powerful hand lens (one-fourth inch Tolles triplet), the larva is more than two-thirds grown and the segmentation of the body has become noticeable. It is a very difficult thing to dis- sect the larva out of the gall without crushing it, but it can be accom- plished with care by the aid of dissecting needles. No casting of the skin has been observed. The full-grown larva presents the appearance indicated in fig. 6, 7, and occupies the position in the gall shown by the SMYRNA FIG CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 103 dotted lines in fig. 6, c. With the growth of the larva the gall at the base of the male florets becomes hard, and greatly resembles a seed, turning light brown in color. THE PUPA. The male and the female pupz each occupies a greater portion of the interior of the gall, and the advanced female pupa, almost ready to emerge, presents the appearance indicated in fig. 7. DURATION OF THE EARLY STAGES, This is a point upon which it is very difficult to secure exact data. From the table of dates of the issuing periods printed on page 99, the duration of a genera- tion, excepting, of course, the hibernat- ing generation, seems to average between sixty and sixty-eight days, say, sixty-four days. Itseemscertain that more than fifty days are given to the larvalstage. Oviposi- tion takes two days, or perhaps longer, and the last larval stage with the pupa stage, and what may be termed the immature imago stage, lasts only a few days. All of the long intermediate period is occupied by the immature larval stages unless there should prove to be a prolonged egg state, which is very improbable. These three stages seem paralleled by the three outwardly visible changes under- gone by the fig, and which have been described in preceding para- graphs. The first swelling of a freshly stung fig, about four days after the entering of the insect, probably marks the hatching of the egg. The long intermediate stage of slow almost imperceptible growth is identical with the duration of the larval stage, and includes also the pupal stage. The final and sudden expansion of the fig always marks the issuing from the galls (but not from the fig) of the male imagos. In the hibernating generation the duration of the final stage is greatly prolonged. On March 15 Mr. Schwarz found the insect in fallen overwintering figs as larva, pupa, immature imagos, and occasionally mature male imagos, and this lasted until March 28 or later. The same state of affairs was found in figs sent to the writer by Mr. Roeding as early as February. It seems probable that before a sudden drop in temperature occurred at any time subsequent to the middle of October the insect would hibernate in all of the different Fic. 7.—Blastophaga grossorum: Male and female pup in galls— enlarged (original). 104 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. stages in which it might happen to be at the time, because it is the presence of the insect which makes the fig adhere to the branch during the winter. THE OUTLOOK FOR THE NEW INDUSTRY. The success of the present season’s work at Fresno indicates that in very many localities in the interior valleys of California good crops of Smyrna figs can be raised, and there is little doubt that many persons will at once start orchards of Smyrna fig trees, with the proper sprin- kling of caprifigs. This statement holds not only for California, but unquestionably for good fruit-growing regions in New Mexico, Ari- zona, and Texas. Mr. A. M. Gildea, at Del Rio, Tex., for example, has now several 10-year-old caprifig trees in good condition, growing from the Department of Agriculture sendings of 1890. This experi- ence, however, does not enable us to make any predictions of value regarding the Gulf region. Experimentstations in Louisiana and more Southeastern States, and fruit growers in those States who can spare the land and the time to conduct the experiment, should by all means try itonasmall scale. We possess very little information which will enable us to predict with any certainty the outcome of such experi- ments. The climate of these regions differs so radically from that of the Roeding place at Fresno that unquestionably not only will the ‘aprifigs and Smyrna figs have different seasons, but the insect will be considerably altered in its life-history periods, even if it should flourish in such parts, and that itself is a fact of which we can not be absolutely certain. It is for these reasons that we earnestly advise that the experimental work at first should be done upon a small scale. A few trees only of several varieties of caprifigs and of Smyrna figs should be started, so that much valuable land need not be occupied. After these trees come into bearing the work of a season or two will indi- cate the probabilities of success, and then, if the results warrant further outlay, more trees can be started. We are sure that the insect will flourish in a dry climate where there is little frost. Persons residing in such locations can begin planting at once with a reasonable certainty of a profitable outcome. In all other regions planting should be done experimentally and in a small way. The work which has been done so far in California will be followed up by this Department. Further observations upon the Blastophaga will be made, and its habits will be carefully followed during succeeding generations, while the Section of Seed and Plant Introduction promises to secure cuttings of all possible varieties of caprifigs, and to distribute them at proper points, so that in the emergency of the dying out of the insect at one place it can be reestablished at another point within our own territory. SMYRNA FIG CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 105 Aside from the manipulations connected with the operation of cap- rificating the Smyrna trees (see pp. 90-93), it may safely be assumed that the management of the Blastophaga, for the propagation of the species, will not cause any trouble throughout the year, provided that a sufficient number of capri trees are planted in the proper way. Each of the three Asiatic varieties of capri tree represented in the Roeding orchard has peculiar advantages and disadvantages, all of them, how- ever, being valuable varieties. The mode of planting them in two long rows (as shown in the plat of the orchard in PI. I) caused considera- ble work as often as the Blastophaga made its appearance outside of the figs. For the present, it is recommended that the capri trees be planted i ina grove by themselves, so that the insect will have the great- est possible cuaaee of spreading by natural means. The Smyrna fig stands in the same relation to other varieties of figs as the Washington ‘navel orange stands to ordinary varieties of oranges, and its superiority as a dried product over all other varieties wie develop without caprification can no longer be questioned. The annual output of Smyrna figs is estimated to be from 12,000 to 15,000 tons, and these figs sell at wholesale in the New York market at from 10 to 20 cents per pound, while the best grade of California figs, as hitherto raised without the assistance of the Blastophaga, does not bring more than 75 cents for a 10-pound box, and when the Smyrna figs arrive it is difficult to sell California figs at any price. The successful production of the Smyrna fig described in the foregoing pages practically awakens a new industry for the United States. In 1894 we imported 13,440,604 pounds of Smyrna figs, the palin of which was $698,894. After the adoption of the facil law of 1897, which fixed an import duty of 2 cents per pound, shipments to this country decreased, and the importations for 1898 amounted to 7,992,544 pounds, the valuation of which was $382,784. The following year the importations increased to some extent, and the price was higher. In that year we imported 8,535,967 pounds, and the valuation was $504,800. It seems very probable that in the near future these i importations will practically be stopped, as our whole country will be supplied with home-grown dried figs. The transportation charges from California, before the construction of a trans-isthmian canal, will keep the prices high in the Eastern States, but it is safe to say that with the better character of the product the total consumption of dried figs will increase. But this feature by no means comprises all the possibilities of the industry. America will compete with the Mediterranean coun- tries in the open markets of the world. The character of the product, even of this first year’s crop, shows it to be superior to the Geeual product, both from chemical analysis and from expert opinion. Experience gained this year assures a much better result next year, 4 sal1900——8 106 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. not necessarily in the quality of the fruit itself, but in methods of drying and packing and of producing an attractive product for the market. Cleanliness in packing, prevention of the disgusting worms so often found in the imported Smyrna figs, and other similar points will be carefully attended to by American packers. At present there are by no means enough trees growing in California to bring about this result; but the right varieties will be planted by the thousands during the coming year, and in four or five years will be producing substantial crops. AMPLIFICATION OF WEATHER FORECASTS. By Aurrep J. Henry, Professor of Meteorology, Weather Bureau. GENERAL REMARKS ON WEATHER FORECASTING. The purpose of this paper is to promote the understanding of Gov- ernment weather forecasts and to encourage the making of local pre- dictions by persons whose working hours are spext for the most part in the open air.’ The time at the disposal of the forecast official of the Weather Bureau at the central office in Washington City for the purpose of forecasting probable weather changes, cold waves, and severe storms is about thirty minutes in the morning and forty at night. It is impossible in this short time to do more than express the character of the anticipated changes for each State or district east of the Rocky Mountains in any but the most general terms. The local or State forecast official, on the other hand, is concerned with but a single dis- trict. He is at liberty to amplify the national forecasts or to put forth a statement of his own, in which the anticipated changes may be given - in as much detail as the conditions seem to justify. Persons who use the forecasts constantly should cultivate the habit of carefully noting the weather changes in their respective localities, especially the sequence in which such changes occur, for it is only by acquiring 2 knowledge of local weather signs that they can use Goy- ernment forecasts to the best advantage. DAILY WEATHER FORECASTS AND THEIR TERMINOLOGY. The Weather Bureau issues from its Washington office two fore-. casts daily, at about 10 a. m. and 10 p. m., respectively. The obser- vations on which the forecasts are based are made at 8 a. m. and 8 p- m., Eastern standard time. The morning forecast covers a period of twenty-four hours, beginning at 8 p. m. of the day on which the forecast is issued. The first twelve hours of the period is always referred to as *‘to-night;” the second is given the name of the day to which it may refer. Thus, ‘* Fair to-night and Tuesday” would be the form of a forecast issued at 10 a.m. Monday. ‘*To-night” in this case would begin at 8 p. m. Monday and run until 8 a. m. Tuesday, 107 108 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. while Tuesday would end at 8 p. m. of that day, not midnight, as some might suppose. The forecast made at 10 p.m. is for a period of forty-eight hours. A forecast made on Monday night would take the form ‘Partly cloudy Tuesday and Wednesday.” This forecast, it will be observed, does not apply to the night of either Tuesday or Wednesday. ‘* Fair weather’”—that is, the absence of rain or snow—is indicated by several terms. The first of these is the word itself. It may be used singly or be preceded by the word “generally.” ‘Generally fair,” as used by the forecaster, is less positive than ‘‘ fair” alone.. It signifies that the probability of fair weather over the whole district and for the entire period is not so great as when ‘‘ fair” alone is used. ‘** Partly cloudy” is another expression that is used when the indica- tions favor cloud but no precipitation. ‘‘Threatening” is used when in the judgment of the forecaster the weather will be overcast and gloomy, with the appearance of rain or snow at any moment, yet a measurable amount of precipitation is not anticipated. A forecast of ‘‘rain” or ‘‘snow” may be expressed in various ways. In the late fall, early spring, and the winter season it is most com- monly indicated by the single word ‘* rain” or ‘‘ snow,” as the case may be, thus: ‘* Rain to-night.” And when used in this form it is expected that the rain will continue for several hours. In other seasons of the year any one of the following terms, viz, ‘‘local rain;” ‘‘ showers,” and ‘*thunderstorms,” may be used. Local rain and showers are almost identical in meaning. The word ‘‘ thunderstorm,” of course, carvies its own significance. Any one of these terms indicates that the rain will not be general over the whole State or district. The most marked feature of precipitation in the warm season, as compared with the cold, is its unequal distribution over relatively small areas. A shower cloud may form and pass over several counties or it may dissipate within 5 miles of its origin. Indeed, we may say that it is only in exceptional cases that general and continuous rains fall in the summer season. In some seasons local rains may occur in some part of a State every day of the month, but the science of meteorology is not yet far enough advanced to delimit the path of a local shower and the exact time of its occurrence. Forecasts of local rains, showers, or thunderstorms indicate that the conditions are favorable for the occurrence of precipitation in the dis- trict and for the given period. ‘*Clearing” isa word frequently used which carries a broader mean- ing than the word itself signifies, viz, the occurrence of precipitation in the early part of the period; thus ‘** Clearing to-night” would indi- cate that rain or snow, whichever might be falling at the beginning of the period, would cease shortly thereafter and that the weather would be clear during the greater part of the time. Yearbook U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900, PLATE |X. Fic. 1.—CirrRus CLoups. [Lig ht, feathery clouds that float at an elevation of 4 or 5 miles above the earth’s surface. When in the form of plumes with frayed and torn edges increasing cloudiness and rain or snow are indicated. } FIG. 2.—CIRRUS, MERGING INTO CIRRO-STRATUS CLOUDS. [A transitional form often seen when rain or snow is approaching. The cloud layer gradually thickens until the sky is obscured. ] Yearbook U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. PLATE X. =) Fic. 1.—FAIR-WEATHER CUMULUS CLOUDS. [These clouds, it should be observed, have level bases and rounded tops without the dome-like structure of figures—a type of cloud often seen after a spell of rain.] FiG. 2.—CiRRO-CUMULUS CLOuDs. {Small round masses of clouds usually at an elevation of 4 or 5 miles above the earth’s surface. These clouds are typical of fair weather.] Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900 PLATE XI. FiG. 1.—CUMULUS CLOUDS. {Cumulus clouds, as in the above, illustrating the formation of a central core of ascending warm air, generally precede local rains or thunderstorms by a few hours. ] Fic. 2.—NEAR VIEW OF LARGE CUMULUS CLOUDS. [The small detached clouds on the lower left-hand margin of the cloud are almost invariably seen in advance of thunderstorms. Cumulus clouds, like those shown, rarely give rain at the point of observation, since their prevailing drift in these latitudes is eastward. ] AMPLIFICATION OF WEATHER FORECASTS. 109 . LOCAL SIGNS OF FALLING WEATHER. Persons whose working hours are largely spent in the open air soon become familiar with the changing aspects of the sky and the condi- tion of the atmosphere as to its moisture content, viz, whether rela- tively dry or humid. If careful observers of natural phenomena, they note also the shift of the wind and the sequence of weather which fol- lows. In this way and without special effort a fund of weather wis- dom is soon acquired which needs only to be properly correlated in order to serve a most useful purpose. The greatest advantage will naturally accrue to the individual who reads and accurately interprets, not only the Government forecasts, but also the local weather signs. In the remainder of this paper the local signs of falling weather will be briefly described. CLOUDS. Clouds are formed from the moisture that is always in the air, in varying quantities, even over the desert. Like the air itself, the moisture that is within it is invisible so long as it remains in the form of agas. Whena mass of air is cooled by any means whatsoever a portion of its water vapor is condensed and becomes visible—a mist or cloud is formed. A familiar illustration of cloud formation in nature is afforded when a current of warm, moist air strikes a cold mountain. The colder surface of the mountain condenses some of the moisture that is in the air, forming a cloud which frequently obscures the top of the mountain and floats away in the prevailing winds. This simple phenomenon indicates to an observer on the leeward side of the mountain that a warm, moist current of air, with probably rain or snow, is approaching. In some parts of the world the formation of a cloud cap on a mountain top is not an indication of precipitation, yet in the majority of cases it is believed to be a reliable prognostic of falling weather. In general, the formation of cloud after a clear spell is the first sign of coming rain. Unfortunately, there is no definite interval between the time of the first appearance of clouds and the occurrence of rain. Rain may not fall for several days after the first appearance of clouds, and, on the other hand, it may begin within two or three hours after the first cloud makes its appearance. The various cloud forms generally observed in the United States, with their especial significance, are given in Pls. IX, X, and XI. THE TEMPERATURE AND MOISTURE OF THE AIR. An increase in the amount of moisture in the air is indicated in various ways. It is especially noticeable to the senses when coupled with a high temperature. Man does not need a thermometer to tell him that the air is oppressively warm, nor a hygrometer to tell him that there is an unusual amountof moisture present. A pitcher of ice 110 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. water on a hot summer day is not a bad sort of hygrometer. The pitcher is naturally cooler than the surrounding air, and consequently some of the water vapor in the air is condensed and collects on the outside of the pitcher. It will be remembered that water vapor changes to the liquid state when the air is cooled below a certain point. The principle illustrated by the pitcher of ice water is repeated on a grand scale in nature every time rain or snow falls. First, there is the cooling of the air and the formation of cloud, the latter being com- posed of minute particles of water; second, there is the further cool- ing of the cloud mass, so that its particles join to form small raindfops, which fall tothe earth by their own weight. When a rain cloud strikes the top of a mountain, rain does not necessarily fall, but small mist- like particles of water are deposited on the relatively colder surfaces of the rocks and other objects on the mountain sides and top. These particles coalesce and run down the sides of the objects on which they are deposited precisely as frequently happens on a pitcher of ice water ona warm, humid day. If the mountain were warmer than the cloud mass there would be no condensation, but some of the moisture of the cloud would be evaporated and float away in the prevailing winds. An unusual amount of moisture in the air in summer produces a feeling of closeness; physical labor is more enervating than when the air is dry and crisp. The change from sultry, oppressive weather is nearly always brought about by a series of thunderstorms, sometimes lasting over two days. Summarizing the indications that may be drawn from the tempera- ture and moisture of the air, it would appear that an increase in the amount of moisture in the air is a sign of a change from fair to foul weather, both winter and summer. In the colder months an increase in the temperature of the air above the average for the season, coupled with an increase in moisture, is a sign of rain or snow within twenty- four to forty-eight hours. In the summer an increase of temperature alone is not always an indication of rain. But these are not infallible rules. The old proverb ‘* All signs fail in dry weather” is as true to-day as when first formulated. THE WIND AND ITS SUCCESSIVE CHANGES. The wind is less prophetic in character than the clouds, since it is affected by the form of the land over which it blows. Thus, it has a tendency to blow up a valley in the daytime and in the contrary direction at night, no matter in what direction the valley may extend. Winds also have a tendency to blow toward and up the sides of a mountain slope in the daytime and down the side of a mountain at night, and this movement of the air generally extends for some dis- tance out from the foot of the mountain on the level slopes. There are also the well-known land. and sea breezes of all countries where, AMPLIFICATION OF WEATHER FORECASTS. TAY during the twenty-four hours of the day, the temperature of the land becomes alternately warmer and colder than that of the sea. These winds (vallev, mountain, land, and sea breezes) are called diurnal winds. They are caused by differences in temperature that are not general, but confined to the valley or mountain slope of a particular locality. In order that these differences of temperature may arise there must be clear weather and unobstructed sunshine. It is easily seen then that all such winds must be most active in fair weather, and that when they cease, or fail to appear at the usual time, the atmosphere as a whole must = e come under an influence gr eater than that which 6 oduced the diurnal winds. In the open country or other exposed situation where the true direc- tion of the wind can be determined, it should be noticed first, what is the prevailing direction of the wind in fair weather, and what is the direction from which storms usually come. The direction of the wind during the twenty-four hours immediately preceding the storm should be especially noticed. To do this a short journal or diary of the weather should be kept. The direction of approach of storms in the United States varies in different localities. It is quite important that each observer determine for his immediate neighborhood the shift of the wind with the approach of storms, during the colder months at least. In the warm months the winds are light and rather variable, and changes in direction have not the same importance as in the colder months. The rain of summer generally occurs in connection with thunderstorms; it will be found that these are most frequent for a cer- tain direction and with the wind in a particular quarter. Beyond the fact that more thunderstorms come from a westeriy quarter than from any other direction, little can be said that will be of value in forecast- ing their approach by the direction of the surface winds only. The coming of a thunderstorm can generally be foretold a few hours in advance by the form and movement of the clouds. In the colder months, viz, November, December, January, Febru- ary; March, and April, the winds are stronger than at other seasons of the year, and storms also move with greater rapidity. The signs of falling weather in the colder months are the formation of a high sheet cloud covering the whole sky, an increase in the tempera- ture and moisture of the air, and the change of the wind to some easterly quarter. The precise direction that the wind takes, whether northeast, east, or southeast, varies for different localities and the direction Poa eek the storm is approaching. In New England, the Middle States, and the Ohio Valley northeasterly winds precede storms that eed from the southwest, and southeasterly winds precede storms that approach by way of the Lake region. On the Pacific coast southeasterly and southerly winds precede rain storms. je) YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In Wyoming and other Northwestern States the heavy snowstorms of winter and spring generally come from the north or northwest with a strong wind from the same direction. The direction of the wind depends very much on the position of traveling storms that pass across the country. The storms of the cold season have certain well-marked character- istics that should be easily recognized by every worker in the open air. ‘These are: (1) The changes in the aspect of the sky; (2) the direction of the wind before, during, and after the storm; and, (8) the shift of the wind, whether with or against the sun. The clouds that precede the storm by from twenty-four to thirty- six hours are almost invariably light, wispy cirrus, of the general character shown in Pl. TX, fig. 1. Soon after the appearance of clouds of this class a sheet cloud forms at aslightly lower elevation and grad- ually thickens until the sun is hidden. Pl. LX, fig. 2, illustrates the sheet cloud in the first stages of formation. The subsequent clouds are much darker than those above mentioned, and appear to form at much lower elevations. When the sky becomes overcast the wind generally freshens, the temperature rises, and the air becomes humid; in popular speech, ‘* it feels like rain.” LOW PRESSURE AND HIGH PRESSUR®. The weather experienced from day to day depends upon the fre- quency and the course followed by areas of low pressure, and the sue- ceeding areas of high pressure which generally follow them. These are exceedingly variable both as to direction and rate of movement. Some move rapidly from the Northeastern Rocky Mountain slope to the maritime provinces of Canada at a uniform rate, while others have arapid rate of progression at the beginning, but quickly slow down and finally cease to move. There are, however, certain characteristics possessed by both highs and lows, which, if once fully understood, would greatly assist the individual observer in making a forecast of the weather for the morrow. The diagram (fig. 8) is a reduced copy of the daily weather map of December 15, 1892, and is introduced to illustrate some of the characteristics above mentioned.. If we divide the diagram into four equal parts by lines passing east and west and north and south through the word dow, and calculate the average temperature for each part or quadrant of the oval figure, we will find it to be 17° for the northwestern quadrant, 50° for the south- western, 59° for the southeastern, and 35° for the northeastern. The distribution of temperature is also shown by the dotted lines (isotherms). In the upper left-hand corner of the diagram the temperature is 10° below zero (—10); between that line and the one next below, tempera- ture varies from 10° below to zero, and so on until the lower left-hand corner is reached, where it will be noticed temperature is 60° above AMPLIFICATION OF WEATHER FORECASTS. LAS zero. On the lower right-hand corner temperature is only 40° above zero. So far as temperature is concerned, therefore, we note that the right-hand’ side of an area of low pressure is warm and the left cold. The direction of the wind is shown by the small arrows in different parts of the diagram. These, it will be noticed, are disposed about the center of the storm (the inmost oval marked ‘*‘ Low’) in a rather orderly system. The wind does not blow directly toward the center, but rather spirally about it, as discovered a little more than half a cen- turyago. Inthe southeast quadrant the winds havea general southerly direction, in the northeast quadrant easterly winds prevail, while in Fic. 8.—Weather map (reduced) of December 15, 1892, showing typical winter storm. the northwest and southwest quadrants the winds are mostly north- west to west. An observer stationed in lower Michigan at the point A will have fresh easterly winds, shifting as the storm center approaches him around to the south by way-of southeast, and as the center passes him shifting still farther to the west or northwest. This is what is meant by ‘‘shifting with the sun.” On the other hand, an observer in South Dakota at the point P first experiences a wind from the north, and as the storm center approaches and passes him the wind backs to the west by way of northwest, and this is the meaning of the term **shifting against the sun, or backing.” The weather experienced in the two locations, A and #, will differ as regards both temperature 1A person standing in the center of a storm, facing in the direction in which the storm is moving, will have the warm side on his right hand and the cold side on his left and in the rear. 114 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and precipitation. At station A the temperature will rise, and it will continue high until after the center of the storm has ape: say to ©. With the shift of the wind to the northwest the temperature will begin to fall and the downward tendency will continue for twelve to twenty-four hours. The observer at station G will experience cold weather from the start, but the fall in temperature will not be quite so great as at station A. At station A the storm will begin with a& warm rain, turning to sleet and snow as the center passes and the wind shifts to a westerly quarter. At BP the precipitation will be mostly in the form of snow. CONCLUSION. The foregoing few generalizations apply equally well in all parts of the country east of the Rocky Mountains. They will be found most useful, however, in the middle and upper Mississippi and Ohio val- leys, the Lake region, and the Middle States. As soon as they are thor oughly under been) the local observer will be able to detect in the atmospheric changes, apparent to the eye or apprehended by the sense of feeling, the coming of an area of cloud and precipitation with its attendant whirling winds—warm on the front and right-hand side and cold in the rear and on the left-hand side. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. By C. B. Smita, Of the Office of Leperiment Stations. INTRODUCTION. France has a remarkably complete system of agricultural education. It is more comprehensive than our own, in that it reaches a wider range of people, and its different parts are more closely coordinated, the whole system being under the control of one central authority. lt begins in the rural primary schools with the simplest facts of agri- culture, extends through every phase of practice and theory in special schools, and culminates ina national institute, where the highest forms of agricultural instruction are given by a staff of the first men of science of France. In this system there are schools for the sons of farm laborers who expect t6 continue in the vocation of their fathers; schools for the sons of the peasant proprietors and the small-farmer class who expect to return to the farm; schools for the sons of landed proprietors who will manage estates and act as leaders in agricultural progress; schools for training teachers of agriculture, managers of agricultural technical industries, and high officials for serving the state at home and abroad in agricultural positions. Not only do these schools give instruc- tion in agriculture in general, but there is also extensive provision made for the conduct of special schools to meet the wants of different sections of the country. These include schools of dairying, viticul- ture, poultry raising, irrigation and drainage, cheese making, silk making, fish culture, forestry, horse breeding, technical agricultural industries, horticulture, veterinary science, ete. In this article it is proposed to outline the general provisions of the scheme observed in France for agricultural instruction and to describe some of the more important schools. | NATIONAL DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. At the head of the whole agriculturai system in France is the National Department of Agriculture. The department was created in 1881 for the purpose of promoting the interests of agriculture. It is made up of four great technical divisions, namely, agriculture, breeding of horses, forestry, and agricultural hydraulics. The purpose of the department is to obtain and distribute agricultural information, to stimulate agricultural research and teaching, and to further the agricultural interests of France. To aid in this work an extensive 115 G6 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. series of publications has been instituted. These publications report the laws of the country relative to agriculture and the official acts of the ministry of agriculture, give the annual and decennial agricultural statistics of the country, and contain agricultural reports, memoirs of specialists, and papers on different phases of agriculture. Various reports of agricultural schools, departmental professors, and experi- ment stations are also published. Supplementary to these publications, the ministry encourages authors by buying and circulating agricul- tural books acknowledged to be useful to agriculturists. From $5,000 to $7,500 is expended each year in this way. The issuing of publications, however, is only one of the means of encouraging agriculture. Far more effective than this is the extensive system of agricultural teaching adopted. Since 1898 the supervision of this teaching has been intrusted to a ‘‘ Superior Council of Agricul- tural Education.” This consists of 30 members, and is charged with the general supervision of all institutions affording agricultural instruc- tion founded or subsidized by the ministry of agriculture. ‘All proposals for the formation of new schools are submitted to the coun- cil, and it receives the reports of the directors and professors. The council meets at least once a year and forwards a general report to the minister of agriculture, containing its views respecting improvements or alterations of the system as a whole. The minister of agriculture is the president of the council. * * * Members other than those holding their positions ex officio are appointed for four years, one-half of the number retiring every two years. Fifteen members of the council form a permanent association, which meets to consider urgent matters whenever summoned by the minister of agriculture.” For the more detailed work of inspection there are three inspectors- general. These organize the Paris and district agricultural shows and inspect the national schools of agriculture and the Agronomic Institute at Paris. In addition, there is one inspector for each of the eight agri- cultural districts of the country. These inspectors have the supervi- sion of the lower agricultural schools and of the departmental and special professors. They also organize and preside over district shows. With this brief survey of the general system of supervision, some of the more important institutions provided for agricultural teaching may be noticed. THE AGRONOMIC INSTITUTE. This is the highest institution giving agricultural instruction in France. It is located in Paris, and was first opened to students in 1876. It is a post-graduate school of university type for all other agricultural institutions in France, except the School of Forestry at Nancy and the School of Horse Breeding at Le Pin. Its purpose is to qualify students for (1) agriculturists and proprietors of estates; (2) a AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. PET. professorships in the national and practical schools of agriculture and for departmental and normal-school professors; (8) administrators, capable of taking charge of special agricultural investigations, as inspection, phylloxera investigations, ete.; (4) directors of agricul- tural experiment stations; (5) chemists or directors of agricultural industries (sugar making, distilling, starch making, manufacture of fertilizers), or agricultural engineers (mechanical, drainage, irriga- tion, etc.). The institute has at its disposal suitable laboratories and buildings, and in addition about 65 acres of land, which is used for the growing of plants and research work of the professors, for the object of the school is not only the teaching of all the known facts of the sciences relating to agriculture, but also experimentation in new fields. The teaching staff, consisting in 1899 of a personnel of sixty-five, contains among its members many of the highest scientific authorities of France. Such familiar names as Boussingault, Hervé-Mangon, Schleesing, Aimé Girard, A. Carnot, Risler, Delesse, Breuil, Tassy, Prillieux, Miintz, ete., are found on the first faculty roll of the institution, some of whom are still occupying chairs in the school. Candidates for admission to the school must be at least 17 years old, and are subject to competitive examination in the natural sciences, French composition, and descriptive geometry. For graduates of universities or the national schools of agriculture and veterinary sci- ence, the examinations are somewhat modified. Under certain condi- tions students may be admitted to the lectures without examination, but are debarred from laboratory work, and are not granted a diploma. Tuition is about $100 per year for regular students, and $10 for students attending the lectures only. The school has no dormitories. Work begins at 8 o’clock a. m. and continues until 4 p. m., with an intermission of one and one-half hours at noon for lunch. All exer- cises and studies are compulsory. There are six scholarships having an annual value of about $200 each, and four of a value of $100 each, offered by the state. Free tuition goes with these scholarships. There are ten other scholarships giving free tuition alone, and in addition certain other scholarships offered by the city of Paris and Seine department to native-born students. The course of study occupies two years, with a vacation of three months each year. Two months of each vacation are required to be spent in actual agricultural practice, either in France or abroad, and a report of the work must be handed in. Excursions to fairs, stock markets, etc., are a prominent feature of the course. The subjects each year of the course are as follows: First yEAR.—Vegetable physiology and anatomy, descriptive botany, mineralogy and geology, mathematics, agricultural mechanics, physics 118 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and meteorology, general chemistry, general agriculture, viticulture, general zootechny, political economy, rural hygiene, agricultural zoology, and-the anatomy and physiology of animals. SEconD YEAR.—Vegetable pathology, microorganisms, agricultural chemistry, special and colonial crops, comparative agriculture, arbori- culture and horticulture, agricultural machinery, agricultural hydrau- lics, special zootechny, agricultural technology, farm law rural economy, economic forestry, and agricultural bookkeeping. Upon the completion of the course the degree of agricultural engineer is granted. The first 60 who have attained a standing of at least 70 per cent for the whole two years are exempted in time of peace from two of the three years’ compulsory military service. The two students standing highest on the examination list are eligible for three years’ special missions either in France or in foreign countries, with a Gov- ernment allowance of $579 per annum. The first 10 or 12 on the list, depending on the needs of the state for foresters, are eligible to stu- dentships in the National School of Forestry at Nancy, and are given an allowance of $300 per year. The three highest among those desiring work in the Government horse-breeding school are made eligible for such positions. Nine others, selected on the basis of scholarship, are eligible to positions equivalent to one-year fellowships either in the laboratories of the institute or elsewhere in agricultural industrial occupations, with an allowance of $20 per month. Former students at the institute who possess the bachelor’s degree in addition to the diploma of the institute are eligible for attachéships, consular, and other administration positions. A recent report shows that of 882 graduates of this school, 91 per cent are engaged in agricultural occupations or industries immediately related thereto. NATIONAL SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE. There are nine national schools of agriculture in France—three of general agriculture, three of veterinary science, and one each of horticulture, dairying, and technical agricultural industries. NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS. The most noted of these schools is located at Grignon, near Paris. This school was founded as a private institution in 1826, and is the oldest agricultural institution in France. It was placed partly under Government control and patronage in 1849, and in 1872 was reorgan- ized, together with the agricultural school at Rennes in western France and the school at Montpellier in the extreme south of France, into a national school of agriculture, under the direct control of the state, and supported entirely by it. The three national schools of agriculture are more practical in nature AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANOE. 119 than the National Agronomic Institute, and correspond more nearly to the State agricultural colleges in this country. Their purpose is to fit young men for positions as managers of estates and as teachers of agriculture. The teaching in these schools is both theoretical and practical. The course covers two and one-half years at Grignon and Montpellier and two years at Rennes. Only day students are received atRennes. At Grignon and Montpellier students may obtain full board, or half board, or they may board away fromthe school. Tuition with full board costs $232 per year at Grignon and $193 at each of the other two schools. With half board, tuition is $116 per year. Day students pay $80 per year. Students hearing the lectures and taking practical work, but who do not take laboratory work, pay $40 per year. They receive neither diploma nor certificate. Military discipline is observed at the schools, and is very strict. Deviation from the rules without previous permission or failure at the sessional examinations entails expulsion. Candidates for admission to the full course in these schools must be at least 16 years old, and are subject to both a written and an oral competitive examination in French, elementary mathematics, physics, chemistry, and natural science. Those who pass the written examina- tions are permitted to take the oral examination. The number of vacancies in the school is fixed annually by the minister of agriculture, and seldom exceeds forty. Men only are admitted. Students stand- ing highest on the examination list have first choice as to the school which they will enter. Upon the completion of the course the diploma of the school is con- ferred by the minister of agriculture. It carries with it two years’ exemption from military duty, and counts a certain number of points on the entrance examination at the National Agronomic Institute. The teaching in the different schools is made to conform largely to the agricultural requirements of the districts in which they are located. Thus, at Grignon general agriculture, as the growing of cereals, roots, and forage crops, the breeding of stock, pasturage, and the general agriculture of northern France are dealt with especially. At Mont- pellier the farming is more subtropical, and the cultivation of the orange, olive, mulberry, and the vine, and the processes of wine making are studied especially, as well as methods of irrigation and the replanting of moorlands and mountain sides. The school has given special attention also to parasitic diseases, the combating of the phy!- loxera, and in renewing the destroyed vineyards of the district. The school at Rennes is located in an important cider-producing and pastur- age district, and hence much attention is given to these subjects. The courses of study in the different schools are very similar, only slight differences appearing in the more practical part of the work. The course at Grignon may be selected for illustration: It consists of agriculture, botany, general and agricultural chemistry, economics, 120 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. rural legislation, rural engineering, construction and repair of agri- cultural machinery, physics, meteorology, agricultural technology, sylviculture, viticulture, and pomology. Lectures are also delivered by specialists in geology, mineralogy, horticulture, and entomology. The students also receive instruction in military tactics. Connected with each school is a farm for practical work, an exten- sive library, and well-equipped laboratories. The farm at Grignon contains 321 acres of arable land and 370 acres of woodland, besides various kitchen, botanical, and other gardens, especially adapted to the study of certain branches. Specimens of the best breeds of sheep, cattle, pigs, and poultry are kept, and experiments made with differ- ent crops and fertilizers. Attached to the institute as annexes are several establishments for making researches and experiments. These are the poultry farm at Joinville le Pont, in the neighborhood of Paris; an experiment station for determining the best kind of seeds to be sown, when to sow them, and when to harvest; another for experi- menting with different kinds of agricultural machinery; a laboratory for the special study of fermentation as applied to brewing, and to wine, cheese, and butter making; anda laboratory of vegetable pathol- ogy, where plant diseases are studied. The machines are taken apart and reassembled by the students, and their uses and modes of repair explained by expert machinists. At Montpellier a school for the breeding and study of silkworms has been organized for the better instruction of the students and a meteor- ological department added for the same purpose. These national schools train the major portion of the leaders in French agriculture. They supply most of the departmental and spe- cial professors of agriculture, the teachers of the lower agricultural schools, and the managers of estates and technical agricultural indus- tries. The many receive higher agricultural instruction in these schools, while but comparatively few are able to take post-graduate work at the National Agronomic Institute. NATIONAL HORTICULTURAL SCHOOL. The National School of Horticulture at Versailles was established in 1873. The old kitchen garden of Louis XIV was placed at the dis- posal of the school for practical work and demonstrations. The place consists of about 25 acres of fruit and vegetable gardens, greenhouses, forcing houses, ete. The institution has a three years’ course in theo- retical teaching and practical horticultural operations. Tuition is free. Pupils board themselves. The age of admission is between 16 and 26. Students must be physically capable of performing manual labor, and are subject to a competitive written and oral examination. The number admitted each year is limited to forty. There were sey- enty-seven applications for admittance to this school in 1900. The AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 12 student body is made up largely of the sons of the laboring and mid- dle classes. Some eighteen scholarships in this school are offered by the state and by various departments and agricultural societies to the students who receive the highest entrance examination marks. Schol- arships are about sufficient to cover the board and lodging of the holders. The teaching force of the school consists of twelve pro- fessors and four chief gardeners and overseers. The course includes instruction in orchard and small-fruit culture and the growing of vege- tables, flowers, and ornamental shrubs in the open and under glass, nursery methods, greenhouse architecture, elementary and descrip- tive botany, bookkeeping, drawing, the English and French lan- guages, leveling as related to horticulture, elements of mathematics,’ physics, meteorology, chemistry, geology and mineralogy, pomology, zoology, and horticultural entomology. Theoretical teaching in these subjects is supplemented by practical work in the vegetable garden, forcing house, botanical garden, orangery, grape and peach houses, nursery, rosary, flower garden, and on the lawns, walks, and terraces of the grounds. Laboratory work in physics, chemistry, and botany is also given. The school hours are from 6 a. m. to 9 p. m. in winter, and from 5 a.m. to 9 p. m. in summer, with intervals of one and one-half hours for meals. Four hours in winter and two and one-half hours in sum- mer are given to theoretical teaching. At the end of each two weeks pupils make a report to the director cn their work. In addition to the work of the school, excursions are made to a number of the more im- portant horticultural establishments for the purpose of observation. A general examination is held at the end of each year. Those who have completed the work receive a diploma from the minister of agri- culture. In 1894, 89 per cent of the graduates of the school were engaged in horticultural operations. There is a wide demand for their services throughout France, and the school is believed to meet a spe- cific want in French horticulture. NATIONAL DAIRY SCHOOL. The National Dairy-Farm School was established in 1888. It teaches the theory and practice of butter and cheese production, is a station of information for the district on all subjects pertaining to the dairy industry, and conducts experimental investigations along dairy lines. It is intended to meet the wants of young men who expect to take up dairying as an occupation, and of all others who wish to acquaint them- selves with the latest and most improved dairy practices. The school is well equipped with all the latest machinery and appa- ratus necessary for the production of first-quality products. The milk used is obtained by a cooperative arrangement with neighboring farm- ers. A field of about 7 acres is attached to the school. Here soiling 4 a1900 9 122 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. crops are grown intensively. The botanical garden contains plants which are known to affect the quality of milk. The course lasts one year, and is gratuitous. It includes dairy farming, chemistry, tech- nology, zootechnics, bookkeeping for dairy farms, the elements of gen- eral physies and chemistry, mechanics, microorganisms, and botany. Practical work is had in the manufacture of butter and the varieties of cheese best suited to the French market. The teaching staff consists of a director, professor of technology and chemistry, veterinary surgeon, professor of zootechnies, two experts in cheese manufacture, and a milk inspector. Candidates for admission to the school must be between 17 and 30 years old. Those holding the diploma of a primary school, farm school, or of a practical agricultural school are admitted without entrance examination. Oth- ers are examined in mathematics and the history and geography of France and her colonies.. Pupils room and board themselves. There are a number of scholarships for deserving students, which are obtained by competitive examination. The school is especially valuable to the district in which it is located. It gives practical advice on all matters pertaining to dairy interests and conducts experimental work in feeding milch cows, to determine the effects on the quantity and quality of the milk of certain rations and methods of feeding. NATIONAL SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES. The National School of Agricultural Industries at Douai was founded in 1893, for the purpose of giving professional instruction to young men who purpose to become foremen or managers of sugar factories, dis- tilieries, breweries, or other technical agricultural industries. The school is restricted entirely to French students. All students are non- residents. The full course covers two vears. Tuition is about $96 per year. There are a few scholarships for deserving pupils. Candi- dates for admission must be at least 16 yearsold. Special courses are offered to pupils wishing to study a particular branch. Graduates of the National Agronomic Institute or of the national schools of agri- culture are required to spend only one year at the institution. The staff of the school consists of a director, subdirector, eight pro- fessors, four tutors, and one mechanic. The general course includes elementary and applied mathematics, mechanics, industrial drawing and construction, physics, chemistry, agricultural zootechny, rural and industrial law, and bookkeeping. The technical course includes instruction in the manufacture of sugar, distilling, brewing, and divers other technical industries, as the manufacture of starch, vinegar, ete. Theoretical instruction is supplemented by practical work. For this purpose, according to a recent report of the Victorian Royal Com- mission on technical education, ‘‘the school is provided with all the AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 123 appliances essential for the manufacture of sugar, the distilling of alcohol, and the brewing of beer. The producing capacity of the machinery amounts to 220 gallons of alcohol and 260 gallons of beer per day, and the sugar can be extracted from about 20 tons of beet roots daily. Diplomas and certificates are awarded at the end of the course to students who succeed in obtaining the standard marks, and this document can be specialized for any particular industry or industries.” PRACTICAL SCHOOLS. These schools are intermediate between the national schools just noted and the farm schools to be described later. They are intended for the sons of the peasant proprietor and small farmer classes. It is expected that those who attend them will return again to the farm, not finished agricuiturists, yet well grounded in the fundamental princi- ples of agriculture. Many of the students in the national schools are graduates from these practical schools. d The practical schools are not wholly national, but are usually in part departmental, local, or private schools. The Government pays for the teaching and usually for a few scholarships, approves the course of study, and has general oversight of the schools, but all the buildings, equipment, and the farms connected therewith must be sup- plied loealiy. Usually the schools are held on domains and in build- ings remodeled for the purpose. The farms attached vary in size from 100 to 350 acres. The course in the different schools varies from two to three years, with a tendency to reduce the number to two years. It is about equally divided between theoretical instruction and practical work in the stables and on the farm. The practical work is diversified in the different schools to correspond to the general needs of the district in which it is located. The theoretical teaching, however, is fairly uni- form in all, as follows: Arithmetic, geometry, surveying, leveling, linear drawing, agricultural geography, physics, meteorology, agricul- tural chemistry, zoology, entomology, botany, plant diseases, general agriculture, special cultures, farm machinery, farm law, animal hus- bandry, sanitation, horticulture, tree culture, farm accounts, morals, French, and military exercises. The schindl staff generally consists of a director, who may also be a professor; one professor each of agriculture, a sics and chemistry, and natural sciences; a veterinarian; a supervising principal; a superin- tendent of agricultural work; a superintendent of horticulture; anda military director. The professors in the schools are usually graduates of the National Agronomic Institute or of the national schools. The cost to the state for teaching in these schools varies from $3,500 to $4,800 per annum for each gckoul: Candidates for admission to these practical schools are subject to an 124 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. examination in French, arithmetic, and the history and geography of France, unless they hold a certificate of elementary education. The age of admission ranges from 14 to 16 years, and the average number of pupils in each school is from thirty to forty. ‘Tuition, board, and lodging at the schools vary, according to locality, from $77 to $116 per year. ‘Tuition alone is $10. Pupils usually board at the schools. At the present time there are forty-three of these schools in different parts of France. Twenty-four are agricultural schools, two schools of irrigation and drainage, five schools of southern and Aigerian cul- tures, four schools of viticulture, seven dairy and cheese schools, and one school of aviculture. These schools have proven especially valuable in improving the agricultural operations of the peasant farmers of France. The knowl- edge of their worth has extended far outside of the boundaries of France, and they have been imitated in nearly all of the countries of Europe. FARM SCHOOLS. The French farm schools are practical schools of apprenticeship. They are designed primarily for the purpose of training the sons of the peasant laboring class-in the practical details of farm work. The use of farm machinery and tools, care and management of animals, the seeding, cultivation, and harvesting of crops, and other farm work are taught practically. Theoretical instruction is given in the French language in arithmetic, surveying, leveling, farm bookkeeping, and the more general principles of agriculture, horticulture, and arbori- culture. These schools were first established by private initiative, and up to 1845 nine had come into existence. At this time the Government became interested in them, anda law was passed organizing them all ona uniform basis. State aid was given for defraying the expenses of the teaching personnel and for boarding the apprentices, but leav- ing to the director or proprietor of the estate on which the school was located the care and responsibility of the direction of the school and the expenses and profits of running it. The state requires the farm on which the school is conducted to be a model for the surrounding neighborhood. Each year a programme of work must be submitted for the approval of the administration. The schools are inspected by the district inspectors of agriculture and are reported upon by them to the minister of agriculture regarding their control. The teaching force of these schools, besides the director, generally consists of a superintendent, who teaches the apprentices the use ot tools and farm machinery and directs the field operations and the indoor work of the barn and stables; a bookkeeper, who teaches farm accounts and takes such elementary classes,as may be necessary; a AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 125 gardener, to direct the operations of the vegetable garden and orchard; and a veterinarian, to give instruction on the hygiene and character- istics of animals and discuss the more simple operations of first aid to be given them in time of need. ‘This force is sometimes supplemented by specialists, as a chief irrigator, viticulturist, dairyman, ete. The period of apprenticeship at these schools varies from two to three years. Pupils are admitted when 16 years old, and the average number in a school is about twenty. Those who do not hold a certitfi- sate from the primary schools are examined in the elementary branches and must pass a physical examination. Upon the satisfactory com- pletion of the course, a diploma is given and a bonus of $60. Those who do not obtain a diploma receive a bonus of $39. Supplementary to the farm schools are a number of other schools of a like grade. These include two sheep-farm schools, one silk school, fourteen cheese-making schools, one school of fish culture, and two primary agricultural schools. é At one period these farm schools were very popular in France. Up to 1850 some seventy had been established. From that time on the number gradually decreased until the present time, when there remain but fourteen. Many of the original schools have been converted into the practical schools of agriculture, previously noted. Others declined because the peasantry were unwilling to part with the aid of their children for two or three years when they might learn about the same thing and at the same time earn from $50 to $75 per year on a well- managed estate. At the present time most of the farm schools are in the south of France, where agriculture is least advanced, and the work at most of them closely approximates the work offered in the practical schools. AGRICULTURE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. The schools thus far described are given up entirely to agricultural teaching. There remains for discussion the public-school system, in which agriculture is but one branch of the general course. Agricul- tural instruction is given in all French normal schools for men, and by the laws of 1879, 1887, and 1888, it has been made obligatory to teach in the rural elementary schools the elements of the natural and phys- ical sciences, with their application to agriculture. According to the French programme of 1887, which is translated in full in the Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Education for 1895-96, agricultural instruction in the primary schools is as follows: ELEMENTARY PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.—Llementary course (pupils 7 to 9 years old): First lessons in the garden and school. J/ftddle course (pupils 9 to 11 years old); Ideas appropriate to what the child has read; object lessons and excursions for the purpose of familiarizing pupils with soils, fertilizers, tillage, and common implements. //igher 126 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. course (pupils IL to 13 years old); More methodical instruction on tillage. implements, drainage, fertilizers of all kinds, sowing, harvest- ing, domestic animals, and bookkeeping; ideas about horticultural prop- agation, tree culture, and grafting. SUPERIOR PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.—Advanced course for boys and girls over 13 years old: Practical ideas about vegetation, the duration of growth, and reproduction (by seeds, buds, grafts); different kinds of Jands, manures and their use, and rotation; the use of agricultural implements and machines; principal operations in agriculture, such as breaking up land, planting, transplanting, drainage, and irrigation; principal crops of France and of the locality; diseases of plants, para- sites; legumes, fruits, flowers; use of sash; training and pruning fruit trees; care of domestic animals; bee culture. About 3,400 of the rural primary. schools have gardens attached to them. There are 160 superior primary schools, in which more than 15,000 pupils receive instruction in agriculture. Official circulars have been issued by the ministry of agriculture sugeesting the ideas and purposes involved in the agricultural instrue- tion to be given. ‘These direct that the instruction shall be addressed less to the memory than to the intelligence of the child. It should be based on the observations of facts in country life and on simple experi- ments with familiar objects, and designed to prove the scientific fun- damental ideas of the most important agricultural operations. The children should learn above all things else the reasons for the opera- tions rather than the manner of performing them. Still less should they be compelled to learn a list of definitions, precepts, or agricul- tural recipes. The aim of the elementary instruction is to give the greatest num- ber of country children that degree of elementary knowledge which is essential to enable them to read a modern book on agriculture or attend an agricultural meeting with profit; to inspire them with a love of country life, so that they may prefer it to that of towns and facto- ‘ies; and to inculcate the truth that agriculture, besides being the most independent of all occupations, is also more remunerative than many others for industrious, intelligent, and well-instructed farmers. It was difficult in the beginning—and the difficulty has lasted well up to the present time—to initiate the teachers into the spirit of the new teaching in the primary schools. Books on agriculture were placed in the hands cf the pupils; agricultural rules, even though sometimes debatable, were taught as axiomatic truths; the memory rather than the understanding was consulted, and the learning of words rather than the observation of facts was made the basis of agri- cultural teaching. In order to supply teachers with an adequate knowledge of the AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 127 principles of agriculture, a course of agriculture was established in all the normal schools for men. It was not intended that the normal schools should be turned into agronomic institutes, but that agriculture should be given an honorable place in the school curriculum. It was desired to give the graduates of such schools an exact knowledge of the soil, the means of improving it, the methods of cultivation, and the general management of farms, gardens, and stables. According to the minister of education, it is sufficient if teachers in the elementary schools teach simply the elements of agriculture, give wise counsel in the neighborhood, and, if necessary, combat effectually routine and prejudice. To accomplish this the instruction given by the teacher should be accurate and clear. The ideas of the pupils should be rec- tified by visits to the best farms, by some laboratory work, and by frequent tests in the garden or demonstration field of the school. The object of the course in the normal schools is not to teach the business ef farming, but to study the phenomena cf life and the condition of its development, to inspire a love for the country, and to develop the natural tendencies of children to become interested in flowers, birds, ete. In the normal-schooi programme for teachers two hours a week are devoted to agriculture, zootechny, and-rural economy in the second year of the course, as follows: (1) Vegetable growing—study of the soil; the means of modifying its chemical composition and physica properties by fertilizers; irrigation; drainage; cultivation; rotation of crops, and special crops, such as cereals, legumes, ete. (2) Zootechny— feeding of horses, cows, sheep, and swine. (3) Rural cconomy—prop- erty in land; methods of exploitation and capital required; bookkeeping. In the third year of the normal course one hour a week is devoted to fruit-tree and vegetable growing, as follows: General ideas of culture; planting and preparing the soil; work in the orchard and garden. It is expected that the professors will emphasize the methods and products of the localities in which the schools are located. DEPARTMENTAL AND SPECIAL PROFESSORS. Thus far there have been described simply the schools in which the youth of France receive instruction in agricuiture—the National Agronomic Institute, the national schcols, the practical schools, the farm schools, the rural primary schoois, and the public normal schools for men. There still remain the farmers themselves, who need instruction, and besides the whole system of agricultural instruction needs to be bound together and unified. For the purpose of general] supervision there are, as already mentioned, the three inspectors-general and the eight dis- trict inspectors. There are also the departmental and special profes- sors. A department in France may be compared in a general way to a county in the United States. In 1894 ninety of the departmenis-of France had been supplied with departmental professors of agriculture, 128 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. as authorized by the law of 1879. There were also 114 special profes- sors. The respective functions of these two officers are as follows: The departmental professor is charged (1) with giving a two years’ course in agriculture in the public normal schools (see page 127), thus grounding the future teachers in the rural primary schools in the prin- ciples of agriculture, and (2) with holding at least twenty-six insti- tutes a year. The object of these institutes is to teach the farmers of the district facts regarding seeds and varieties, the use of commercial fertilizers, treatment of vines, replanting vineyards, and the means of combating drought, excessive moisture, insect ravages, ete. He lectures always on subjects of most interest to the local agriculturist, and is under the direct control of the department of agriculture, though paid in part by the department of education. The special professor gives (1) a-course of agriculture to the pupils in the last two years of the superior primary schools, and (2) short courses to adults in some of the rural wards. The course for adults given by the special professor differs from that given by the depart- mental professor in that ‘‘ the province of the first is to inform; that of the second to teach.” The special professor gives short courses of from four to ten days’ duration, according to the needs in different localities. It is intended that this work shall supplement the informa- tion acquired in the superior primary schools and in schools of practi- cal agriculture, to refresh the memory of older students of agricultural schools, bringing up to date the latest agricultural information, and to prepare the farmers to follow with profit the instruction of the depart- mental professor. _ These annual reviews of agricultural progress are believed to be of much practical benefit to rural interests. The lack of experience sometimes found in young professors is commented on unfavorably, but on the whole the agricultural teaching of the departmental and special professors is in good favor. During the year 1893 more than 300,000 farmers and teachers were in attendance at the departmental institutes. The departmental professor has still another role in agricultural teaching. Not only does the French Government require that farmers be taught the theory of agriculture by word of mouth, but they must also be taught the fact by ocular demonstration. For this purpose small fields of demonstration have been created, where the good effects of fertilizers or tillage operations, varieties, etc., may witness to the locality the truth of the theories presented in the institutes and con- ferences. These fields of demonstration are under the direct control of the departmental professors. They are popular with the people, and are ranked among the most powerful factors for increasing French agricultural productions. In 1894, 3,362 of these fields of demonstra- tion had been created in the different departments of France. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 129 EXPERIMENT STATIONS AND LABORATORIES. In addition to the fields of demonstration already noted, there were in 1894 seventy-seven establishments in France for agricultural analy- sis and research. These also render much service to the agricultural population. In the laboratories fertilizers, food stuffs, soils, seeds, waters, etc., are analyzed, and in the stations original investigations in agricultural problems are undertaken. These experiment stations are usually smaller institutions than our own, and in comparison are relatively weak in working force, equipment, and resources. They are, however, of very great use to the localities in which they are located. SUMMARY. To sum up, the various fac tors which enter - into the agricultural educational system of France are: Z (1) The rural primary y schools, in which are taught the elements of the natural and physical sciences as related to agriculture. The aim in these schools is to create in the pupils a love of nature and to give them a knowledge of the simplest facts in agriculture. They ak the masses. As a preliminary, there is involved the systematic train- ing of teachers in the departmental normal schools for this work. (2) The maintaining in each department and nearly every commune of trained agriculturists, who conduct successive short courses in agri- culture especialiy adapted to the needs of the community at the time, manage fields of demonstration in the locality, thus manifesting to the eye the truth of the theories presented and the value of scientific methods in agriculture, and act as a bureau of agricultural informa- tion for the community at all times. They teach the farmers them- selves. The experiment stations and laboratories, widely distributed throughout France, serve much the same purpose as these trained agriculturists, and undertake some original investigations pertinent to the locality. (3) The semiprivate farm and practical schools for the training of sons of farm laborers, peasant proprietors, and the small-farmer class in the best farm practices, and grounding them in the basic principies of scientific agriculture. They train the men who are to do the actual work on the farm. (4) The national schools, giving a higher grade of instruction in agriculture, horticulture, forestry, veterinary science, and the tech- nical agricultural industries to sons of the large landed proprietors and to the more apt pupils of the lower schools. They train the teachers and leaders in agricultural progress and furnish managers of eer, tural industries. (5) The National Agronomic Institute at Paris, serving as a kind of . 130 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. post-graduate school in agriculture of a university type, and command- ing the services of a corps of the ablest scientific men in France. Here the latest facts in scientific agriculture in France and elsewhere are accumulated and published, and original research work in agriculture is undertaken. It trains teachers and leaders capable of raising and maintaining the agriculture of the country on a high level, of serving in governmental positions, or of molding the agricultural policy of the state. Summarizing, then, for the whole country, it will be seen that, besides obligatory teaching in ail rural primary schools, France has, in all, 12 institutions for teaching agriculture of the first and second degrees, 43 for teaching the third degree, 34 for pure practice of apprentice- ship, 3,362 fields of demonstration, 77 establishments for analysis and agricultural research, and 214 departmental and specia! professors of agriculture, who give instruction yearly to 300,000 adult farmers and conduct agricultural classes in the normal schools for men and in the rural primary schools. COMMERCIAL PLANT INTRODUCTION. By Jarep G. Smiru, Chief of Section of Seed and Plant Introduction. INFLUENCE OF INTRODUCED PLANTS ON AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT. At all times the introduction of new plants into a region has been an essential part of the development of its agricultural resources. Of the more than one hundred thousand species of flowering plants, only a few hundred have been brought into cultivation, and a score of these supply the daily food requirements of two-thirds‘of the human race. With the exception of the pumpkin and a few grapes and small fruits, a few forage plants, grasses, and native. drug plants, every crop required for the manifold needs ef a diversified farming industry and grown on a commercial scale in the United States has been introduced from foreign countries. These introductions have taken place grad- ually, as the necessity or the opportunity arose. Corn, wheat, cotton, tobacco, oranges, apples, many grapes, flax, hemp, sugar cane, rice, hops, barley, beans, cabbage, oats—all these originated in foreign lands. The native plants of this country, excepting only the grasses and forest trees, have played an unimportant role in the agricultural development of the land. COOPERATION WITH EXPERIMENT STATIONS IN PLANT INTRODUCTION. The work of systematic plant introduction must necessarily be under- taken in its initial stages in cooperation with the State experiment stations. If an attempt is made to distribute new and untried seeds and plants direct to the farmer without thorough investigation of all phases of the growth of the plant, the work necessarily becomes so diffuse that it is impossible to control it or secure adequate results, The experiment-station workers are better acquainted with local con-., ditions than private experimenters, and hence can be more effective in controlling a new disease or checking the spread of destructive insects. Their judgment is often better as to what constitutes merit in anew crop. They can exercise that selection which is so often necessary, developing a plant through the years in which it is being adjusted to the new condi- tions and environment until its type has become fixed. Many crops, such as fruits, nuts, drug plants, forest and timber trees, and grasses and forage plants, require long and careful experimentation to confirm the judgment of the introducers in regard to their excellence. No crop 131 1382 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. should be attempted on a commercial seale until it has received such vareful trial. Furthermore, no crop should receive the wide advertis- ing that necessarily accompanies indiscriminate distribution unless it has been tested on the grounds of an experiment station. Even then distribution should be limited to those localities in which the erop is known to succeed. The office of the Department is to direct lines of plant introduction, and to check, as far as need be, that unbalanced optimism which often follows hasty experimentation. It is » common characteristic of the human race to want something for nothing. The ideal forage plant would be one producing 10 tons of hay per acre, with 10 inches of annual rainfall, without cultivation or the use of fertilizers. Thousands of dollars are fio away yearly by American farmers, planters, orchardists, and stock raisers in an attempt to reach the unattainable—to secure crops which will place their growers in a posi- tion of affluence without effort, care, or attention. In many lines of agriculture American farmers are far in advance of those of any other country. Further advance must come from fur- ther specialization, in farming just as in commercial enterprises. It is here that the Department of Agriculture can help the farmer. A century ago wheat was wheat and an apple was an apple. To-day there have been developed varieties of apples and strains of wheat to suit localities where in the old days neither could have been grown. There are more than a thousand varieties of each, bred up to satisfy conditions, uses, and tastes which a century ago did not exist. A transfer of many of the localized plant industries of Europe, Asia, and the Orient to suitable situations in our own land, and their establish- ment on a firm basis, is a logical field for systematic plant introduc- tion. Astudy can be made of the soils, climate, methods of cultivation, harvesting, and marketing of the special product; similar regions can be picked out through the agency of the experts in the Department and in the experiment stations, and the new industry transplanted to the place where it is most iikely to succeed. A successful importation of this character will well repay much purely experimental work, both because of the added wealth to the United States as a whole and because of the resultant diversification of. American farming. Every new industry established on a substantial and paying basis may mean incidentally diminished imports of that product, but the more impor- tant result is that it gives employment to peopie and increases the potential wealth of the country. Seeds and plants from foreign coun- tries are not necessarily valuable just because they are foreign. The value of such introductions lies in a proper understanding of the local conditions under which the plants are grown or marketed. These conditions can not be thoroughiy learned from books or by correspond- ence. They must be investigated personally in all their phases and every cause predetermined that will lead to a successful result. COMMERCIAL PLANT INTRODUCTION. 133 There are many agricultural products in foreign countries which would fill no niche in the necessities of the people of this country. The American farmer prefers good dairy butter to the sunflower oil f the Russian peasant and meat rather than the bean curds of the Chinese. But the cultivation of the sunflower may be undertaken, using our improved methods and machinery, as feed for poultry or in combination in feeding rations; also the soy bean for forage and hay to fatten animals. New varieties of sunflower may be obtained from Russia or new soy beans from Japan to satisfy our needs in these par- ticulars, while the cultivation of specialized crops, such as the Aus- trian pickle cucumber, Bohemian horse-radish and hops, Smyrna fig, French truffle, and Algerian date, may be attempted on a commercial scale with a direct application of all the methods of cultivation used in each of those countries. COMMENCEMENT OF SYSTEMATIC PLANT INTRODUCTION. 7m ' uv Seed and plant introduction was first undertaken by the Department of Agriculture on a systematic scale in 1897. Previous to that time there had been many introductions, some of which were successful, adding much to the value of the agricultural products of this country. Among these were Turkey wheat from Russia, the Washington navel orange from Brazil, and sorghum and Kafir corn from Africa and China. There are now about 600,000 acres planted to Kafir corn in the State of Kansas alone, and it has been predicted that within ten years at least 2,000,000 acres will be grown annually in that State. It is probable that any one of these introductions has more than paid the cost of the whole work of the Department of Agriculture since its inception. PURPOSES OF THE PLANT-INTRODUCTION WORK, The work of plant introduction naturally and logically falls along a number of parellel lines, each of which may be of great importance. INTRODUCTION OF NEW CROPS. One of the purposes of plant importation is the introduction of new crops, in order that there muy be grown within the borders of this country al! of that wide range of plant products now purchased abroad. The agricultural imports of the United States amounted during the last fiscal year to about $420,000,000, approximately one- half as much as the agricultural exports during the same period, and equaling about 12 per cent of the value of the total farm products of the United States. About two-thirds of the value of agricultural imports consisted of plant products. The range of temperatures, soils, and climatic conditions is proba- bly as great in the United States as in any other region of similar area in 134 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the world. Our farm products vary widely from cotton, oranges, tea, and sugar cane, in the extreme South, to barley, oats, and potatoes, in the North. With the new dependencies, such as Porto Rico, Hawaii, and the Philippines, the climatic range is greatly increased, and it might be safely affirmed that almost every one of the products now imported from foreign countries will some day be grown in the United States. The figures of imports! of breadstufts, including corn, oats, rye, wheat, and other cereals, average nearly $3,000,000 per year; for foreign vegetable fibers, including cotton, we spend annually about $23,000,000; for fruits and nuts, $18,000,000; for indigo, $2,000,000; for rice, over $3,000,000; for spices, nearly $3,000,000; for sugar, $89,000,C00; for tea, $12,000,000; for tobacco, $7,000,000 to $17,600,000; for such vegetables as heans, peas, cabbages, onions, potatoes, and cucumbers, $2,000,000. We also buy drugs, dyestuffs, condiments, hops, vegetable oils, opium, plants, trees, shrubs, vines, ginger, cocoa, seeds, starch, vanilla beans, tanning materiais, gums, and many other articles. ‘The establishment of any one of these as a new industry on a commercial basis would be well worth all of the time and all of the money expended by the Department in the effort. There are two ways in which the objects to be accomplished may be attained: One is the devoting of all the time and all the money ayail- able along a few lines of investigation; the other, the sending of explorers into each of the foreign countries from which we buy any con- siderable proportion of our imports to procure samples of everything which that country produces, in the hope that some of these products will, in the course of time, upon trial, prove adaptable to our conditions. Tn one case all of the energies of the explorers would be devoted to the study of a few crops, such as hops, brewing barleys, raisin grapes, drugs, date palms, vice, or wheat. In the other, an explorer thor- oughly cognizant of the needs and conditions of a given region in the United States would be sent to some foreign country where the climatic conditions were similar, in order to introduce into that region all or as many of the new crops as would in his judgment be desirable. If all the energies of a force are devoted to the investigation of a few chosen problems, the results can be more nearly predicated, and it is probable that more can be accomplished by the expenditure of a given sum in a given period than by the methed of general exploration. In either case, the utmost care must be maintained to prevent the introduction into the United States of bad weeds, serious plant diseases, or destruc- tive insect pests. Extreme vigilance is required. It is often a difli- cult matter for an explorer to obtain the best, especially when dealing with producers in a country that is a commercial rival of the United 1'The statistics of importation here quoted are from a forthcoming report of the Section of Forcign Markets (Bulletin No. 23, Our Foreign Trade in Agricultural Products, 1891-1900). COMMERCIAL PLANT INTRODUCTION. 135 States. The actual cost of exploration in foreign countries must in all cases be considered in connection with the results to be achieved. Agricultural exploration in its most important sense must be consid- ered a special line of investigation in order to secure quick and satis- factory results. - INTRODUCTION OF IMPROVED STRAINS OF CROPS. Besides securing new crops for new regions, an extremely valuable line of work, and that which appears most profitable, is the introduc- tion of improved strains of crops which have long been cultivated in a given region. The area devoted to wheat amounts to about 44,000,000 acres in the United States and the average yield per acre is only 13 bushels. If, by the introduction of new varieties of wheat from other wheat-growing regions, the average could be raised to the extent of only 1 bushel per acre it would mean an increased produc- tion of 44,000,000 bushels yearly. No one will deny that such an improvement is possible. Varieties have already been obtained, espe- cially in the line of soft white wheats, hard winter wheats, and hard spring wheats, that yield as much as 10 bushels above the average. The Millers’ Association of Kansas and. Oklahoma has taken steps to import for distribution among the wheat growers of the States named 20,000 bushels of a variety of a red winter wheat, originally imported by this Department from the Crimea, in Russia. This wheat is not only superior in yield to varieties previously grown in that region, but is more hardy to winter cold and shows greater resistance to rust. Another commercial importation of this character—that is, the improvement of a crop already well established—is that of the Kiushu rice, which was secured through the Section of Seed and Plant Intro- duction by Dr. S. A. Knappin Japan. This rice has now been grown three seasons in southwestern Louisiana and southeastern Texas. The best experts say that it does not deteriorate under cultivation. Hon- duras rice, the variety previously grown, deteriorates within three years, so that it is hardly worth sowing. The percentage of head rice quickly decreases, because the grains become more starchy and break in milling. The Japan rice, on the contrary, has a short and very hard grain, which breaks very little in the milling process, #o that a greater quantity of head rice (rice with unbroken grains) is produced. Not only is there more head rice, but the yield per acre averages fully 25 per cent more than that of Honduras rice. Gne lot grown at Crowley, La., gave the following milling record in November, 1900: Eight hundred and seventy-one sacks, weighing 161,600 pounds, yielded 94,500 pounds of head rice, 9,400 pounds of screenings, and 3,500 pounds of brewer's rice, and the whole crop gave a profit of 3.85 per barrel of 162 pounds. It was practically all head rice. The Department’s importation of Kiushu rice has reduced the 136 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. amount of broken grains, or brewer’s rice, produced by the mills in southwestern Louisiana until it is impossible to get enough to fill orders. All this helps the rice farmer, because the head rice is worth about $5.25 per hundredweight, while brewer’s rice averages only about $1.75. The introduction of an improved strain of any crop previously eulti- vated thus becomes a measure of great commercial importance. The United States produced in 1899 over 73,000,000 bushels of barley, ralued at nearly $30,000,000, and the exports during the year ended June 30, 1900, amounted to 23,700,000 bushels. There are three gen- eral classes, the six-rowed and four-rowed barleys, used for feeding purposes, and the two-rowed or Chevalier barleys, used for brewing. The American feeding barleys are as good as any, but this much can not be said of the brewing barieys. The best German, Bavarian, and Moravian sell for prices 20 to 30 per cent above those of the best Amer- ican barleys. Barley for feeding purposes is rich in nitrogen, with the grains hard and flinty in cross section. Brewing barleys, on the contrary, contain a much smaller percentage of nitrogen, and are softer and more starchy in cross section. They are also brighter in color and have thinner huils, and there is a very considerable difference in their fayor in the amount of wort which can be obtained from them during the malting process. The best Bavarian barleys were worth on Novem- ber 1, 1900, in the local Bavarian markets, from 95 cents to $1.05 per bushel. On the same day the quotation for the best American barley on the New York market was 60 to 65 cents per bushel. Adding the cost of ocean freights, which amount to from 17 to 22 cents per bushel from New York to the German and Austrian markets, there still remains a considerable difference in price in favor of the foreign grain, and this difference in value is solely due to the superior quality of the grain. Very little Bavarian or German barley is imported into the United States, but the imports of Bavarian and German beers manu- factured from the superior German and Bavarian barleys amount to about $1,000,000 annually. In each case where an importation is made the seeds or plants should be placed either where the experiment will be under the supervision and dir@ction of the Department of Agriculture or of the workers in the various State experiment stations. A trial should be made of all seeds and plants imported in order to determine beforehand, in a meas- ure, their adaptability to American conditions. If this is not done, it may result in much loss to individual farmers or planters, but as soon as the fact is definitely established that a new crop or new strain has merit, a wider distribution is justifiable, provided the distribution is accompanied by full information in regard to all of the conditions governing the growth of the plant. Following the successful estab- lishment of a new crop or a new agricultural industry, the sale of the COMMERCIAL PLANT INTRODUCTION. 137 seeds or plants will inevitably be taken up by seedsmen, nurserymen, and horticulturists, and when this stage is reached the Department of Agriculture can safely leave to them the further exploitation of the crop. On the contrary, the Department of Agriculture can better stand the expense not only of foreign exploration but of the years of experimentation which so often yield no commercial results. INTRODUCTION OF NEW VARIBTIES FOR PLANT BREEDERS. Another line of investigation in which systematic plant introduction ean be very helpful to American plant growers is that of introducing new varieties for the professional plant breeder and plant selector, but this work takes a longer time than the introduction of improved varieties, and for this reason must long remain of only secondary importance. Nevertheless, the Department can be of great assistance to many experiment-station workers and private investigators by procuring from all over the world seeds and plants for use in such investigations. SUCCESSFUL PLANT IMPORTATIONS. Almost every new crop which is brought in and every improved strain of plant must necessarily become changed in the process of cul- tivation under new conditions and in new environments. Selection of the best in cultivation in the United States must be coordinate with selection of the best things from foreign countries. New strains from foreign countries are often extremely important because of the supe- rior vitality of the plants themselves and the strong individual char- acteristics shown in their resistance to disease, alkaline or acid soils, drought, and winter cold, or in their ability to mature a crop with the minimum supply of water. The Jannovitch Egyptian cotton is an excellent example of this, because of its superior resistance to the wilt disease, which has proved so disastrous to the sea island cotton growers in the South. Turkestan alfalfa, which was procured in central Asia, has proved to be more resistant to drought, to winter cold, and to alkali than the common strain, and it also grows and makes a crop with less water. TRIALS OF VARIETIES BY STATE EXPERIMENT STATIONS. There have been many successful importations during the past four years, as reported by the State experiment stations. Considering the fact that much time must often elapse before satisfactory progress can be made, there are many gratifying indications of the value of systematic plant introduction. ALABAMA STATION.—The Russian field pea has proved to be one of the most promising new forage plants at the Alabama station. It has proved eminently valuable as a forage plant and soil cover and for 4 ai1900——10 138 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. green manure. This and the hairy vetch fill an important need in the South. ARIZONA STATION.—The director of the Arizona experiment station states that the importation of dates from Algeria is an extremely valu- able one for the development of a new industry in the southern por- tion of the Territory. Enough trials had been made previously to know that the date palm would grow and produce fruit abundantly in the Salt River Valley.. Fully 90 per cent of the trees which were brought in have commenced to grow. The economic cacti from Argentina and from the Mediterranean region have found in Arizona a region which apparently supplies every condition necessary for their growth and development. The fruit and forage value of these can not of course be fully known for some years to come, but the fact of their having taken kindly to the region is a good indication of their usefulness in the future. A frost-resistant lime is growing finely. The kei apple from South Africa has grown eight months out of doors, and although retarded somewhat by extremely hot weather, promises in the course of time to make a fine green hedge. The Khiva winter muskmelon has done excellently on the experiment station grounds at Phoenix and also in the hands of a number of ranchers to whom 1t was sent. CALIFORNIA STATION.—An achievement of overshadowing impor- tance in California has been the final establishment of the Smyrna fig industry by the successful introduction of the fig-fertilizing insect.* Prof. E. J. Wickson considers that the industry which the fruit grow- ers will be quick to establish will soon be yielding a product worth a miilion dollars annually. The introduction of the best white wheats from Australia, Japan, China, and Europe ts one of the best results which has recently been accomplished for California agriculture. California has long stood in need of new varieties of this class to replace the old which are running out, and it is believed that this one effort will return more value to California than the whole work of seed and plant introduction hus cost since its establishment. The securing of date trees true to name is another notable accomplishment which will be slower in reaching results because of the nature of the plant and its limited multiplication, but it is the writer’s opinion that the next generation will count this one of the greatest agencies for the development of the warmer portions of the arid Southwest. At the Amador substation, Prof. C. H. Shinn reports that March rape, from France, was sown in November, 1899, on both slate and granitic soils, and on the granitic-slate wash at the foot of the hills. It grew from 3 to 3} feet high, blossomed from April 15 to 30, and 1The details of the establishment of the Smyrna fig culture in this country are given in a separate article in this Yearbook.—Ep. COMMERCIAL PLANT INTRODUCTION. 139 ripened seed by June 1. It yielded 32 tons per acre of green forage without fertilizer or irrigation. A plat sown on a slate soil long used as a garden and rather rich, but not irrigated, yielded at the rate of 47 tons per acre and grew 4} feet high. This rape suits the Sierra foothills much better than dwarf Essex rape, and is worthy of more general cultivation in that region. Goat’s rue from France, sown on a slate soil in March, made a strong growth, and was cut for fodder in July, when it was 24 inches high. It made a second growth of 20 inches by August 30 without fertilizer, but with some irrigation. Unirrigated plats made one cutting and kept green allsummer. The Narbonne vetch yielded 124 tons of green forage per acre and the hairy vetch 16 tons. The common, scarlet, purple, and hedge vetches also made a very fine growth, indicating that they are worthy of more extensive planting in the Sierra foothills. These vetches did even better in northern California. The European lupines and many forms of field peas have also done well, as have thé soy beans, cotton, sorghums, and the Russian millets. At the Pomona substation the large Victoria field pea from Russia has proved a very desirable acquisition as a green manuring plant for winter use in the orchards of that portion of California. The series of vegetable marrows from Italy made a remarkably vigorous growth on damp, semialkali soils. They are considered superior to the sum- mer squash now on the market, bearing equally well and being of much better quality. Three varieties of soy beans from Japan made an excellent combination, supplying a succession, the earliest variety being entirely out of the way before the last was near maturity. At the Tulare substation a white broom-corn millet from Tashkend, Russian Turkestan, was more resistant to drought and alkali than wheat. It made good hay and would be profitable for either hay or chicken feed. Professor Shinn considers this an acquisition to Cali- fornia, better than the ‘‘ Golden” or any other of the older varieties of millet grown in that State. An improved variety of wild furze, haying a somewhat irregular pyramidal shape and with less rigid spines than the wild form, has proved a remarkable plant in its resist- ance to alkali and drought. It may, under further trials, be devel- oped into a good range forage plant in the drier portions of California, CoLoRADO sTaTion.—At the Colorado experiment station some of the varieties of wheats introduced by this Department have been of great value. Prof. L. G. Carpenter states that the finding of one variety better than those in common use will amply justify any expenditure undertaken. At the Plains substation four varieties of Russian muskmelons have proved to be of exceptional value—the Kochanka, Apricot, Lida, and Tiflis-Erivan No. 2. These are in addi- tion to the Khiva, which has proved to be so marked a success in Colorado, Utah, and other Rocky Mountain States. 140 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. GEORGIA sTATION.—At the Georgia experiment station the Egyptian clovers are reported as being very promising, having made a rapid, vigorous, and robust growth. These clovers, if successfully intro- duced, will prove extremely valuable for winter soil cover and green manure crops in the Southern States. Iowa station.—At the lowa experiment station a variety of oats from the province of Perm, in Russia, yielded at the rate of 72 bushels per acre, while five other foreign varieties yielded 50 bushels per acre. A variety of emmer, from Russia, yielded 40 bushels per acre, and four varieties of imported barleys from Russia yielded from 57 to 68 bushels. KANSAS STATION.—At the Kansas experiment station the winter Ivanof rye from Russia did extremely well. The chick pea, or gar- banzos, from France made a very fine growth, and seemed to be quite promising compared with other legumes tried. Three varieties of soy beans from Japan did finely, and one of them, a late variety, produces pods without any rank or bitter taste, indicating that it might be developed into a good garden vegetable. Prof. H. M. Cottrell says: Some of the most valuable work done for the State of Kansas was the introduction of the Kafir corn by the Department of Agriculture a number of years ago. In west- ern Kansas it is a sure crop nine years out of ten, while corn can not be depended upon more than one out of every three. As soon as the farmers learn how to feed Kafir corn western Kansas will be as great a cattle-feeding section as eastern Kansas and Jowa are to-day. The introduction of Kafir corn has been of sufficient value to Kansas to pay for the cost of all importations of seed made by the Department of Agriculture. A second introduction that promises to be of great value is Bromus inermis. From present tests we look forward to its taking a valuable place in Kansas agriculture. Kentucky sraTrion.—At the Kentucky experiment station three varieties of soy beans from Japan did well, and the early maturing ones seemed especially adapted to cultivation in Kentucky. The hairy vetch has proved extremely well suited to the locality and soil and promises to be of great value as a forage plant. Micuican station.—The director of the Michigan experiment station reports that the sand lucerne Medicago media is destined to be a great soil renovator on sandy soils in that State. . ‘It is one of the best hay plants now in use on the experiment station farm, yielding this year (1900) 5 tons of cured hay to the acre on a sandy knoll. I regard the value of this one importation as sufficient to warrant the Government in maintaining the Section of Seed and Plant Introduction if no other services had been performed.” Missourr station.—At the Missouri experiment station Prof. J. C. Whitten reports that the everlasting radish from Japan proved to be one of the sweetest and best radishes ever grown. Its particular merit is that as a garden radish it does not become strong and woody, but remains crisp and tender during the entire summer. ‘This radish has COMMERCIAL PLANT INTRODUCTION. 141 also attracted attention because of its possibilities as an autumnal forage crop. As the cool weather of autumn approaches it begins to develop a thick leafy growth at its crown, just at the surface of the ground, the plant apparently utilizing the food stored in the large root for this purpose. Cattle and sheep eat the leaves and crown growth with relish, and, as it makes this growth at a time when other green feed is not abundant, it will probably be a valuable new forage plant as well as a good vegetable. The silver-ribbed chard from Italy is more tender than any other variety ever grown at this station. It is brittle, delicately colored a fine creamy white, with thick, fleshy, tender stems. The vegetable marrow, ‘‘Charles Naudin,” from Italy, is of merit because it produces a succession of fruit from early summer until frost, and is enormously productive. The vines continue to grow in length throughout the summer, and as they lengthen a suc- cession of fruit is produced, so that when frost comes there are tender fruits near the new growth of the vine and fully ripe ones near the base. The vines grow to be 30 feet in length and bear 15 to 20 fruits. It is used like the summer squash, and is superior in flavor to the best. NEBRASKA STATION.—At the Nebraska experiment station, Prof. T. L. Lyon states that there have been two importations of very notable importance. The first is Hungarian brome grass, the value of which can hardly be estimated at the present time, but which is undoubtedly very great. The second is Turkestan alfalfa, which promises to extend very considerably the area of alfalfa cultivation on the uplands in western Nebraska. Prof. F. W. Taylor, formerly of the Nebraska experiment station, secured in 1896 a variety of Russian oats, the ‘‘Local Cherson,” admirably adapted to the prairie soils and climate. It has been grown three years at the Nebraska station, where it matures earlier and yields better in ordinary seasons than any other variety tried. New HampsuireE station.—At the New Hampshire experiment sta- tion the Lida muskmelon from Russia has been very promising. This melon is of medium size, round to oval, strongly ribbed, with deep salmon-red, juicy, and delicately flavored flesh. The skin is thin, flesh thick, the seed cavity small, and it matures in New Hampshire. It is a valuable muskmelon for northern localities. New York stration.—At the New York State station a Russian cabbage, not in itself especially well-bred, indicates a possibility of supplying a very valuable type, as it isa strong grower and exhibits great hardiness under extreme climatic conditions, but it will take several generations of careful selection to develop its full capabilities. Norrn Caro.ina statron.—At the North Carolina experiment sta- tion the very early Violet de Barbentane eggplant proved to be resist- ant to bacterial blight, which entirely destroyed the American sorts of eggplants in adjoining rows. Prof. W. F. Massey states that it is 142 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the earliest eggplant he has ever grown. It is very productive, exempt from blight, and is little attacked by insects. Its earliness, its resistance to drought and intense heat, and its wonderful produc- tiveness mark this as being an extremely important importation, although as a market sort it may not compare with old established varieties, because of its shape and color. It is shaped like a ripe cucumber, and is light purple. In flavor it is far superior to the old varieties. Nortu Dakota statron.—At the North Dakota experiment station two macaroni wheats have yielded far above the ordinary varieties, and ave produced large enough crops to warrant the establishment of the macaroni manufacturing industry in that State, thus putting on foot a new line of business enterprise as well as adding a new crop for the farmers. A Russian variety of oats and one of barley rank second among the whole list of varieties tried. A Russian spelt outyielded any variety previously grown by 5 bushels per acre, and a Russian buckwheat yielded 10 bushels more than the best local sort. The latter solves the problem of successful buckwheat cultivation in this region. Two of the imported Russian broom-corn millets gave enormous yields of seed, indicating that they will be profitable to grow for stock feed. Prof. J. H. Shepard says: ‘‘ I have no hesitancy in saying that the Department of Agriculture has given this State many thousand dollars’ worth of value in the importations which I have mentioned.” OREGON sTaTIoN.—At the Oregon experiment station Turkestan alfalfa gives promise of being perhaps the most valuable of introdue- tions. Itis found to be well adapted to rather dry soils or semiarid dis- tricts where irrigation is impracticable. It is hardier and grows with less moisture than the common varieties. The broom-corn millets from Russia are also valuable. They mature quickly and produce an enormous amount of seed. Two crops can be grown in one season. There are also two varieties of Russian wheats, which give much promise because of their yield and their superior drought-resistant qualities. Ruopr Isuanp AND Missouri stations.—At both the Rhode Island and Missouri experiment stations Perilla arguia, an ornamental plant from Japan, made a very handsome growth. Its foliage is very attractive, the mixture of purples and greens in the color of the ° leaves being quite unique, making it very attractive for massing in beds where plants of this character are desired. Sourn Daxora sration.—At the South Dakota experiment station the Tambof and Voronezh millets and the Zhelanni oats from Russia have proved valuable. Prof. J. H. Shepard says: The station is using every endeavor to propagate and distribute seeds of these three varieties among the farmers of South Dakota. The Turkestan alfalfa has proved COMMERCIAL PLANT INTRODUCTION. 148 hardy, and will materially extend the area of alfalfa production in South Dakota. A macaroni wheat from Russia, the Pererodka, has grown so well that it indicates that macaroni factories can be established in South Dakota. The Malakoff sugar corn is from ten days to two weeks earlier than the earliest variety, and is quite drought resistant. Though the ears are short, being only from 3 to 6 inches long, every stalk bears from two to four ears, and it is the sweetest corn ever triec at this station. TENNESSEE sTaTion.—Prof. A. M. Soule, of the Tennessee experi- ment station, says ‘‘some of the seeds sent us, when compared with other varieties, were highly successful—in several instances head- ing the list.” Among these are Sandomir winter wheat from Poland and Yaroslaf winter wheat from Russia. The Shatilof and Swedish Select oats from Russia are very promising, and an early soy bean from Japan was the best of seven varieties, yielding 6 tons of forage per acre. Texas station.—At the Texas experiment station the green gram from western China promises to be a superior forage plant. This bean has great drought-resisting qualities, makes a large quantity of foliage, and a very heavy crop of beans. VERMONT STATION.—Several varieties of legumes, including the edible podded sugar peas and lablab, or Madagascar bean, were tested at Middlebury, Vt., under the direction of the Office of Experiment Stations. Dr. C. F. Langworthy states that a dwarf variety of the pea had pods large enough for use in about six weeks from planting. A great advantage of these peas is that the pods are best for table use when the seeds are only partially grown, perhaps a week before they are large enough for shelling. When the pods are old enough to be rather tough, the peas are in fine condition for shelling. Those tested were of superior flavor, and fully equal to the best varieties of shelling peas. ‘**Tt seems unfortunate that the edible podded pea should not be better known, as it is of very pleasing flavor, and apparently of easy cultiva- tion.” The edible podded lablab beans planted May 1 made a very large growth of vines. The blossoms are white, nearly as large as sweet peas, and of a very pleasing appearance. A crop of beans was obtained about the first week in October. They were greenish-white in color, and tender when cooked. The success of this bean in Yer- mont was probably due to the phenomenally long autumn. In ordinary seasons it would not be likely to succeed so far north. Wasuineton sration.—Prof. W. J. Spillman, of the Washington experiment station, states that the Hungarian wheats have yielded very largely compared with other varieties, and, although they have not as yet been grown in quantities large enough to judge of their milling qualities, it is his belief that they will become valuable in the great wheat-growing section of the Northwest. All the varieties of the chick pea, or garbanzos, seem to be eminently adapted to the soil and climate of eastern Washington, and the indications are very strong 144 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. that this will become a very valuable legume for this section of the country. The smooth brome grass is growing rapidly in popularity among the farmers of Washington, and is now fairly well established as a standard grass in this State. WISCONSIN sTaTION.—At the Wisconsin experiment station the Swedish Select, Tobolsk, and Zhelannii oats from Russia have shown themselves to be particularly adapted to northern latitudes. The Rus- sian emmer and the Black Voronezh broom-corn millets appear to be very promising varieties. JANNOVITCH EGYPTIAN COTTON. The Jannovitch Egyptian cotton was grown in South Carolina under the direction of the Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology. In common with other Egyptian varieties it shows a marked resistance to root disease. It has many good qualities, chief among which are the length and quality of the staple and the vigor of the plants. When planted beside upland cotton, and compared with the latter, it has dis- appointed the planters by its small bolls, which make the cotton hard to pick, and also by its small yield. When compared with sea island cotton, however, it was found much easier to pick. The bolls appear whiter than the sea island. It does not seem to be adapted to all por- tions of the cotton belt, being too much inclined to run to weed on the rich, moist soils; nor does it grow large enough in the poor soils in the northern or hilly counties. The best success may be expected with this cotton in those parts of Georgia, Florida, and Alabama where the sea island cotton is more or less established, not only because these soils will probably prove to be best adapted to Jannovitch cotton, but also because the planters are accustomed to the cultivation and han- dling of long-staple cotton, and are already provided with the necessary roller gins. The Jannovitch will undoubtedly be of great value for use In producing new varieties of long-staple upland cotton by hybridi- zation with our native sorts, and it may also prove very useful in efforts to produce a variety resistant to the root disease. FOREST EXTENSION IN THE MIDDLE WEST. By Wii11aMm L. Hatt, Assistant Superintendent of Tree Planting, Division of Forestry. INTRODUCTION. There is no question but that a certain amount of forest planting on the prairies is profitable to the owner and helpful to the country. To what definite extent such planting can be carried with profit has not been and can not be demonstrated except by trial. Those who have studied the question most thoroughly and over the greatest area are convinced that.extensive planting will be profitable, but their specific recommendations, both as to extent of pianting and methods of procedure, have been local in scope and application. No system for general operations has been proposed. It is the purpose of this article to go somewhat beyond local recom- mendations, and to show that the time has arrived for the extensive development of forest plantations throughout the Middle West, to indicate the sphere of general planting, and suggest a plan of pro- cedure in carrying out the work. Profit is the only basis upon which this system can be carried into effect, and the only inducement for attempting it. Before a man can be induced to plant trees with the aim of reaping a forest crop he must be convinced that such a crop, for the time it occupies the land, will be more profitable than any other. The growing of timber is an investment on much longer time than the growing of any ordinary crop. Money is invested which can not begin to give returns for several years. No one will begin such an investment unless he feels that, in the end, it will be more profitable than any series of short- time investments he could make. PAST PLANTING. Two facts are clear concerning Western plantations: First, there is a general aimlessness and lack of system in beth planting and manage- ment; second, there is but a small percentage of thrifty plantations. In nine cases out of ten, planters have taken little thought to make their trees serve any definite purpose of utility. In localities where post timbers are scarce and dear, yards and fence rows have been filled 145 146 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. with trees of no practical value; where winds are terrific and almost constant, plantations have been established toward the quarter from which no winds blow; trees that thrive best close together are planted far apart; those that thrive in porous soils are unhappily placed on clay. It all shows that there is not yet an adequate conception of the value of forest trees and the purposes they can be made to serve. Some plantations, established with no thought of returns, have grown into considerable value on account of the posts, poles, and fuel they have produced; but these are exceptions. A limited number of plantations have been established and devel- oped for profit. Most of these are Catalpa plantations in Kansas and Nebraska. Locust (Black Locust), Black Walnut, and Ash have been much planted in these and adjoining States. Some Red Juniper (Red Cedar) has been planted in Nebraska and Jowa. The majority of these plantations fall short of their maximum returns from lack of congenial soil or proper management, but some of them are striking exceptions to the general rule, revealing skill and wisdom in their conception, and giving promise of rich returns. A 10-year- old block in the Catalpa plantation of L. W. Yagey, near Hutchinson, Kans., showed a net value of 3197.55 per acre. A 25-year-old planta- tion of Red Juniper of F. C. F. Schultz, near Menlo, Iowa, showed a net value of $200.54 per acre. Many other plantations showing the same values could be named. These equal or exceed the returns given by agricultural crops for such a period of years. The value of the above-mentioned plantations proves vbenheetane that timber can be grown for certain uses in a comparatively short time, and that it has a high value when grown. Past planting shows that the growing of forest trees is a profitable - enterprise, but it also shows that the work must be begun and carried out with judgment and skill if satisfactory returns are to be had. No mere probabilities of soil or trees can be accepted; no slipshod methods can prevail. The same careful management must prevail in tree grow- ing as is required in any other business. We have ample experience from past operations to understand fully the conditions necessary for success. For more than twenty years planting has been carried on, under great diversity of soil, moisture, and temperature, with all kinds of trees, and by every sort of method. The results present every degree of variation from absolute failure to perfect success. A careful study of these experiences reveals in every locality the methods requisite to the successful development of plan- tations. ' The Division of Forestry has this year made extensive investigations in plantations of this character. The estimates here given are based upon actual measurements of the trees and present prices in the market. FOREST EXTENSION IN THE MIDDLE WEST. 147. THE PRESENT TIME PROPITIOUS FOR FOREST PLANTING. The diminution of natural timber in the Mississippi Valley has been general. On the eastern side the destruction of forests has been greatest because there the supply was greatest. The valley of the Wabash River is now cleared in most places to the banks of the stream. A prominent farmer of Vigo County, Ind., told the writer recently that he had but a half dozen remaining white oaks to use for posts, and that he would soon have to grow his own posts or buy them. That this sentiment is prevailing throughout Indiana, is shown by the fact that the Division of Forestry has been called upon this year to make plans for the planting of a number of tracts of timber of from 5 to 50 acres each in different parts of the State. | On the west side of the Mississippi a condition of greater scarcity pre- vails. Little timber is left in western lowa and Missouri. The valleys of eastern Kansas, which produced large quantities of Black Walnut and Bur Oak, have largely been cleared. (Pl. XU, fig. 1.) Arkansas holds the greatest supply of valuable timber in the Middle West, but it is filled with sawmills, many of them of immense capacity, running day and night. The most valuable post and tie timbers of Arkansas are White Oak and Bur Oak, the supply of which is rapidly diminishing. There yet remains a remnant of Red Juniper in southwest Missouri and eastern Indian Territory, but it can scarcely last a dozen years longer, as the regions are now penetrated by railroads, and it is being shipped out as fast as it can be cut. Originally, the Red Juniper grew in con- siderable abundance in northwest Oklahoma along the Canadian and Cimarron rivers. A few years ago posts could be bought for 4 or 5 cents each. The supply is exhausted, and at the present time but a few posts can be obtained at even 12 or 15 cents each. The Red Juniper of the Platte Valley in Nebraska has gone in the same way. No natu- ral supply from either of these regions need be reckoned on in the ‘future. Osage Orange.as a native timber is exhausted. The consequence of this diminution of post, pole, and tie timber has been a general rise in prices. Good fence posts are now selling throughout the region at from 10 to 20 cents each. Ten years ago they could be bought at from 8 to 12 cents. Telegraph and telephone poles are worth 50 per cent more now than twenty years ago, and rail- road cross-ties 25 per cent more. In the Great Plains, where there was no natural timber, prices have always been high and are now not much higher than ten or twenty years ago. On extensive areas of the Great Plains and the Mississippi Valley, prices of posts, telegraph poles, and cross-ties much exceed the cost of growing them. This difference promises profit in timber growing. While prices are high enough for profits under present conditions, yet conditions are bound toimprove. Every vear finds the natural timber 148 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. supply scarcer and prices higher., Mr. J. Hope Sutor, general manager of the Ohio and Little Kanawha Railroad, after giving the matter care- ful consideration, estimates the value of a cross-tie fifteen years hence at 75 cents. Mr. Sutor also says ‘‘no material has yet been found as a substitute for the wooden tie, and no satisfactory economical method of preserving the life of the wood or prolonging its durability has yet been discovered; and, excepting the minor questions of properly season- ing and piling, the use of the tie plate, suitable ballast and perfect drainage, and incidentally climatic conditions, no serious consideration of the future tie supply has yet been had.”’? What is here said of cross-ties is true of all other timbers used in contact with the ground. While no metallic substitute has been found, their durability has not been greatly prolonged. The use of these materials must continue and will grow rather than diminish. Mr. Sutor’s estimate of 75 cents for a cross-tie fifteen years in the future allows for an increase of about 50 per cent over present prices. This is a conservative estimate, and it is not unlikely that posts will increase as much and telegraph poles much more in that time. From every reasonable point of view, it appears that great profits are to be made in the growing of forest trees in the next twenty-five years. Every condition is so favorable that the matter passes from probability to certainty. That operations should begin in the Middle West rather than in other regions is due to the fact. that there the most favorable conditions exist; there the supply of natural products is most nearly exhausted, prices are highest, soil most fertile, and peo- ple most familiar with the processes of developing plantations. Opera- tions will not progress far in that region before they begin in regions of the extreme East and West. SPHERE OF GENERAL PLANTING. It is necessary in this connection to point out the purposes for which timber may be grown, the sections for successful operations, and the extent to which planting may safely be carried. While it is easy to go from fact to assumption on such a theme, yet the argument goes no further than to cover such simple operations as we may be positive about, in regions of which we have personal acquaintance. PURPOSES FOR WHICH TIMBER MAY BE GROWN. FENCE posts.—The timbers best suited for this purpose are Osage Orange, Locust, Hardy Catalpa, Red Juniper, Mulberry, Black Walnut, Oak, and Ash. Osage Orange posts have been obtained from native timber and from old hedge rows, mostly from the latter source. This tree has been used 1 Address delivered at the July meeting of the Central Association of Railroad Offi- cers at Louisville, Ky., and published in the Railway Age, July 27, 1900. PLATE XII. Yearbook U. S Dept. of Agriculture, 1900 Fic. 1.—NATURAL BLACK WALNUT AMONG GREEN ASH AND HACK- BERRY. VALLEY OF VERDIGRIS RIVER, WILSON COUNTY, KANS. CROOKED, MUCH-BRANCHED TRUNKS. Fic. 2.—HARDY CATALPA, WIDE PLANTED, SHOWING RESULTS IN NEOSHO COUNTY, KANS. PLATE XIIl. Yearbook U.S Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. FIG. 1.—FOURTEEN-YEAR-OLD HARDY CATALPA, BEING GROWN FOR TELEGRAPH POLES. PLANTATION OF GEORGE M. MUNGER, GREENWOOD COUNTY, KANS. Fig. 2.—THIRTEEN-YEAR-OLD BLACK WALNUT, GROWN FOR Posts. THE WIDE PLANTING HAS RESULTED IN LOW BRANCHING. Co- MANCHE COUNTY, KANS. FOREST EXTENSION IN THE MIDDLE WEST. 149 extensively as a hedge plant in eastern Kansas, Missouri, Iowa, and Illinois. Hedge rows sometimes turn out as many as 25 posts to the rod. It has seldom been planted except in this way, but will grow well in plantations. Its durability in contact with the soil is greater than that of any other wood commonly used, and it justly ranks high as a post timber. It requires from twelve to fifteen years to reach suitable size for posts. Locust (Black Locust) is a well-known post timber. It grows rapidly, is well adapted to hard, stiff soils, and stands more drought than any other timber used for posts. These properties make it very popular in many parts of the West. The Hardy Catalpa has been more abundantly planted as a post tim- ber than any other tree. It is especially popular, and deservingly so, in eastern Kansas and Nebraska, where several large plantations have been made. It does best on deep, porous soils. Its durability in the ground has probably been overestimated by some but not fully appreciated by the public generally. When cut at the proper season its durability nearly equals that of the Osage Orange, but if young wood be cut when full of sap it is subject to attack by a fungus which destroys it rapidly. If to its durability we add its rapid growth, good form, lightness, strength, elasticity, immunity from checking or becoming unduly hard, we have an array of good qualities that to many men of experience place it first among post timbers. It requires from eight to twelve years to become large enough for use. Red Juniper (Red Cedar) is a durable and valuable post timber, com- manding good prices everywhere. Its main drawback is its slow growth, and it may never become popular as a domestic post timber except in limited areas. Twelve or fifteen years are required to grow it. Mulberry, especially the Russian type, has made a good record in some sections of the West. It grows rapidly, is usually more or less crooked, but lasts well in the ground. It does best in porous, sandy soils, and when grown thickly in the row. It can be used inten years after planting. Black Walnut posts are used extensively in some localities. Posts. from the old wood last a long time, but those from the young wood soon decay. It is of slower growth than Catalpa and Locust. (PI. XIII, fig. 2.) Oak, principally White Oak, Bur Oak, and Post Oak, has furnished more posts in the past than any other timber, the native trees being used. As the supply is exhausted in various sections its use will largely cease; it grows too slowly to be planted extensively. Ash, principally White Ash and Green Ash, has been planted throughout northern Nebraska and South Dakota. Its growth is rather slow, from twelve to fifteen years being required to produce a post of 150 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. good size. Its life in the ground is quite satisfactory, and for the region it seems to be the best post timber. The use of posts is now enormous, and on the increase. Fences requiring them are the only kind now being established in this region. No rail fences are being built, and no hedges planted, except a few in Oklahoma. This being true, a very great demand for posts must ensue and continue from year to year. Since posts sell for higher prices in regions remote from natural timber, on account of added transportation costs, it follows that such regions are the best in which to have an available supply, and, if the conditions are favorable to the — erowth of timber, plantations will there prove most profitable. But in ten or fifteen years many regions which now have an abundant sup- ply will show a scarcity, and prices will be high, so that in such localities it would be profitable to be planting timber even now. TELEGRAPH, TELEPHONE, AND ELECTRIC POWER AND LIGHT POLES.— The timbers most used for these purposes are Tamarack, White Cedar, and Red Juniper. Their value is fully known, and if the supply could hold out nothing would displace them. Their life in the ground is about ten years, so that every decade sees one generation of poles worn out and another cut to replace it. To the poles required for renewal is to be added the number required for new lines and systems. The total is very large. The telegraph lines of the country require nearly 600,000 poles annually, at a cost of not less than a million dollars, and the telephone and electric car lines and light systems use as many more. The price of poles for such uses varies immensely, ranging from $1 to $50 each. If an advance in the price of post timbers is to be expected in the next fifteen years, a much greater advance may be expected in timbers of this class. A post may be grown compara- tively quickly, and in an exigency almost anything can be used; but a telegraph pole must be long, straight, and of good quality. Timbers that fulfill these conditions are few, and a number of years are required to grow them. When the natural supply runs low, high prices will prevail. The man will be fortunate, then, who has a plantation of salable Red Juniper or Catalpa. Here again the Catalpa will show its excellence. . RAILROAD CROSS-TIES.—The timbers most in use for this purpose at the present time are White Oak, Post Oak, Bur Oak, White Cedar, ted Juniper, and Chestnut, with White Oak preferred. Prices range from 80 to 60 cents each for standard sizes; 620,000,000 cross-ties are in use in the railroads of the country and 90,000,000 are required » annually for renewals, taking the timber from an estimated area of 200,000 acres. Railroad officials realize that tie timber is becoming scarce, and assert that prices are rising rapidly. Street car and sub- urban lines are now using many million feet of lumber for cross-ties. It is certain that timber can be grown for railroad ties at a profit. ‘SNVM ‘ALNNOD GHoO4s "ANVdWOD GVOUTIVY SIHdWAI) GNV LLOOS LHOY ‘ALIO SVSNV\ 4O NOILVLNVY1d -MVHO *S310d HdvVY¥D31IF], YOsS 3ZIS$ 318V ‘SS5Y] 1LSSYO4 OL GSldVOV 113M NOILOAS YW “ASTIVA Y3SAIY SVSNVMYW SHL NI SASSY] GSLNV1Id JO HLMOYH—'S? ‘SI4 -LING SNIHOVOUddY VdIVLVD AGYVH O10-YVSA-ALNIMIL—'| “SI Yearbook U, S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900 PLATE XIV. FOREST EXTENSION IN THE MIDDLE WEST. 151 Two extensive plantations of Catalpa at Farlington, Kans., established twenty years ago, have now some trees large enough for ties. The soil of the locality is not well suited to the Catalpa, and the manage- ment of the plantation has not been the best. Hardy Catalpa and Locust can be grown to the proper size for cross-ties in fifteen years under favorable conditions of soil and management. Only in certain localities of the West will the Oaks be planted for this purpose. The White Oak requires thirty or forty years to make the growth that the Hardy Catalpa makes in fifteen, whereas it is generally conceded that there is little difference in their value as tie timbers. GENERAL LUMBER PURPOSES.—When timber is large enough for cross-ties it is approaching readiness for other uses. There will always be great demand for this class of lumber for use in furniture, cars, implements, and vehicles. Whether it will be profitable to hold plantations for these uses rather than to sell them for the uses men- tioned can not as yet be determined. (PI. XIV.)’ SECTIONS OF SUCCESSFUL OPERATIONS. Two features must characterize the sections of the country that per- mit of successful work in forest growing: First, the natural conditions must be congenial to the species used; second, the section must lie in or near a territory of eocd demand. SPECIES AND SECTIONS ADAPTED FOR PROFITABLE PLANTING.—It is generally known that each of the species named above thrives best only in certgin sections, and it has already been stated that the demand is greater and prices higher in some sections than in others. The attempt is made below to point out for each of the species mentioned the sec- tions in which these two requirements are to be met. Some localities are omitted on account of minor area, others on account of lack of information concerning them, still others because one of the two requirements is not present, and only those which can be recommended with absolute assurance are mentioned for each species. Osage Orange.—Valleys of the Red River, tributaries, and adjacent lowlands from western Arkansas to central Oklahoma; valleys of streams in eastern Indian Territory, eastern Kansas, and western Missouri. Locust (Black Locust).—Oklahoma, Indian Territory, southern Kan- sas to Arkansas River, uplands of eastern Kansas and western Missouri; also hillsides of southern Indiana and Ohio. Hardy Catalpa.—V alley of Arkansas River from west line of Arkan- sas to Garden City, Kans.; valleys of other streams in central and eastern Kansas and Nebraska to Platte River; southern Jowa in local- ities having porous subsoil; also southern Illinois and western Indiana. The Wabash River Valley is especially favorable. 152 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Red Juniper (Red Cedar).—Valley of the Platte River, eastern Nebraska, eastern third of South Dakota, central, western, and north- ern Iowa, hillsides of southern Ohio, portions of southwest Missouri. Russian Mulberry.—Sandy valleys of central Oklahoma, central Kansas, and southern part of central Nebraska. Black Walnut.—Valleys with rich, deep, well-drained soil in eastern Kansas, Missouri, eastern Nebraska, southern Iowa; also valleys of Wabash and Kankakee rivers in Hlinois and Indiana. Bur Oak.—Valleys of Niobrara and Missouri rivers in Nebraska and South Dakota; immediate vicinity of Devils Lake, N. Dak.; also valley of the Red River of the North. Post Oak and White Oak.—On waste land of gravelly or sandy nature in eastern Oklahoma, Indian Territory, western Arkansas, and on the same sort of land in Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. Ash (Green Ash and White Ash).—Northern Nebraska, eastern South Dakota, southeastern North Dakota, southwestern Minnesota, and western Lowa. Tamarack.—ULake and swamp district of Turtle Mountains, North Dakota; marsh districts of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan. Not likely to sueceed where marshes have been drained in northern Illinois and Indiana. Of the trees considered, the Hardy Catalpa has better prospects for success, in its section, than any other. This is due to the ease with which it can be managed, its rapid growth, and its adaptability to a large category of uses. That it thrives in but a limited section is to be regretted. Nevertheless, its territory is large enough for great quantities of it to be produced. VALUABLE TREES OTHER THAN THOSE MENTIONED ABOVE.—lIt is freely admitted that there are many trees valuable for planting in the Middie West not included among those given above. All the Elms, Maples, Poplars, and Willows are omitted, and the writer knows well that they have a high silvicultural value; but in a system of forest operations instituted for profit and carried on under competition, such trees can as yet have little place. They have been widely planted and will continue to be planted for shade, shelter, and ornament, but not for profit. In their influence upon the country they have a high value, and as a class they are not to be lost sight of or disregarded in forest planting; but since this article concerns itself only with those elements that lend themselves readily to the immediate extension of forest opera- tions, a general discussion of these trees is not included. EXTENT TO WHICH PLANTING MAY BE CARRIED. The area for profitable tree planting ten years ago was thought to be limited to the Great Plains. It extends now to sections in the entire FOREST EXTENSION IN THE MIDDLE WEST. Las Middle West. Since the profits of timber growing have become man- ifest, people have become imbued with the tree-planting spirit. There will be more trees planted in the spring of 1901 than have ever been planted before in a single year, but the number to be planted will fall short of the number required. If 500,000 acres of timber should be planted annually, well distributed throughout the Middle West, the production would yet be inadequate to meet the requirements of the country, and the planters could still hope for liberal profits. Ulti- mately this figure will no doubt be reached. METHODS OF PROCEDURE. PLANTATIONS ALREADY ESTABLISHED. The area of planted timber in the Middle West aggregates many hundred thousand acres. Some of this timber is on the decline, some at its best, and some growing into greater value each year. To the last class belong most of the plantations made for profit. Notable among these are the large Catalpa plantations of central and easterm Kansas. Nearly all of these plantations were established and maintained at: first by careful and businesslike methods in the hands of skillful men. Such methods were continued three or four years, and, the young forests well established, the owners thought the battle won and remitted their attentions. The time came for thinning, but it was not done. ‘The trees struggled with one another, and some of the most vigorous managed to thin for themselves by killing their neighbors, but at a great expense to their own growth and vitality. This is true of several of the well-known plantations. They need judicious thinning under the immediate direction of one who fully understands forest operations. ‘Their management from this time on may make a differ- ence of thousands of dollars in their returns. It would be an act of wisdom on the part of the owners to seek the advice of practical for- esters in the future management of these plantations. A large number of plantations have been established within the last three years. From these, excellent returns may be expected, for in almost every case they are in the hands of men who appreciate their importance and know how to manage them properly for the object in view. Within the last year nearly one hundred plantations have been estab- lished in cooperation with the Division of Forestry under its plan of practical assistance to tree planters. In each case an expert of the Division has made an examination of the land, and, after consulting the owner on the objects to be attained, has prepared a plan for the establishment and management of the plantation. Profit has not been the sole object in all cases, but it is a leading feature in nearly all. The Division will direct the management of these plantations from 4 41900 LE 154 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. year to year, and it is believed to be possible in this way to make them fully successful and profitable to their owners. Most of them are small, ranging from 5 to 50 acres, but many will be extended over larger areas in the future. (Pl. XV.) FUTURE PLANTATIONS, It may be expected that the plantations to be first established will be small. On individual farms such tracts will be planted to timber as can be spared from annual crops, usually from 5 to 20 acres. Some- times men of large farms and ample means will afforest 100 acres or more. Larger operations than can be handled with ease and thorough- ness should not be attempted. The main object of such plantations should be the production of materials required on the farm and in the immediate locality. While operations will be carried on generally in small plantations, the time has come when men of means can get large returns from the development of plantations on extended areas. ‘There are reasons for believing that the work can be carried on more successfully by com- panies than by individuals. The long-time nature of the investment adapts it more especially to company control. The life of a company is permanent, while the life of an individual may cease at any time and throw the investment into hands that fail to carry it out. Com- panies are also likely to operate on a larger scale than-individuals, and large operations will give better returns than small ones. All planta- tions of this class should be extensive enough to warrant the perma- nent employment of a resident forester of skill and ability, and should be carried on in sections most suitable to the work. ‘To find such sections is the first step, to fail in which is to fail utterly. RAILROAD PLANTING. The question arises, Since the railroads will be large consumers of timbers that will have to be grown, why should they not establish plantations along their lines? The question has been considered by a number of companies, and operations have been attempted by a few. There is no reason why they should not undertake the work and carry it out successfully. Most of them hold land that is well adapted to forest trees, and by planting tracts of sufficient size toe meet their demands, they will greatly reduce their future expenses. It is as prac- ticable for railroads to produce their own timber as it is to mine the coal they use. WORKING SYSTEM. While men may be convinced of the profits in forest plantations, those not familiar with their nature and requirements will find many obstacles to surmount if they attempt, unaided, the work of develop- ing them. The subject is yet too new for men generally to have given Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. PLATE XV. LV9S1 Farm of Mr} Randolph, 1Mile East of Waterman, Parke CoLndiana S.E 44 See. 2and NEV Sec. ul ae 9,We22"Pr. Mer. RESIDENCE (} ee ory DVTIVOTITIVITIVIV IVT AT 777, 7, L ORNAMENT |G a | Y PLANTATIONS AACRES 4 TOTAL AREA! OF FARM = 151,28 ACRES “ u % - Y | - bn Y pppposen 3| Ld EGA MILLE! L PLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLDLLLLS : awe YL LLL K , OMI, S & 7D v Re Y4 Scale inch = “othains = 40f0dS aN. y 40423 4 §Charns 0 20Rods x _ PROPOSED. COMMERCIAL = Ds? PLANTATION P lanting Flan fi 5 ACRES | for Ornamental Plantation: TE trees 12ft.x12fe. MATL Te TL TM LT Mar TM OE 7 =Solt Maple = 75 treesprAcre| |\L=BlackLocust=75 ~ - « 7 =Tulip-tree =151 eae lor Commercial Plantation: trees aft.xalt. CLLLLLLLLLLLLLL LILLY LLL Li aL Jf Lgl LINE NE. va j 22 trees DP Acre |) Laced iL LL. ji LH Stuck fet DIAGRAM SHOWING A REPRESENTATIVE PLANTING PLAN FOR A SMALL FARM. FOREST EXTENSION IN THE MIDDLE WEST. 155 it thorough and exhaustive study. Even farmers have no clear con- ception of the adaptations of trees to soils or to particular sections of the country, and very few seem fully to understand the best methods of developing a forest plantation. For the individual, these are difli- cult subjects, requiring both study and travel, but what is difficult for the individual in this ease is easy for the Government, which, through the Division of Forestry, can readily investigate the entire subject and determine such matters as sections of adaptation, kinds of trees to be used, and soils and methods best adapted to each species. It is appropriate that this information be supplied free of charge to the person entering upon forest operations, and to this end the Division of Forestry instituted the plan of practical assistance to tree planters. Its purpose from the first has been ‘‘to give such aid to planters that wood lots, shelter belts, wind-breaks, and all other economic planta- tions of forest trees may be so well established and cared for as to attain their greatest usefulness and most permanent value to their owners.” Under the provisions of this plan, the farms of applicants are vis- ited and examined by an expert of the Division, who makes a careful investigation of all conditions affecting tree growth. A planting plan is then prepared for the owner upon the basis of local conditions and requirements. The plan embodies complete and detailed instruc- tions concerning the location, establishment, and management of the plantation. In no case does the Division furnish seeds or trees, or participate in any degree in the expenses of planting and caring for the plantation, but the visit of inspection is always free, and the plant- ing plan is usually without cost to the planter. GENERAL RESULTS OF THE COOPERATIVE PLAN. A careful study of the conditions of the country in connection with this work is convincing that the time is at hand for great extension of timber growing by reason of the returns to be received fromit. The sphere for planting is extensive and profits, under good methods, are certain. At the same time the Division of Forestry is able to give more efficient service than in the past, on account of more extensive study of the conditions, needs, and possibilities of the country. It stands ready to advise on choice of soils and kinds of trees, on local obstacles or advantages likely to affect success; to give opinions and advice on lines of forestry that have greatest prospect of profit, as well as to point out regions where such lines can be most propitiously carried out, and to prepare planting plans embodying methods to be followed in the establishment and management of such plantations. That planters will continue to seek Government cooperation is assured by the great favor which the work is meeting. The visit of the expert forester to an applicant usually has a salutary influence 156 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. upon the entire community in which he lives. Frequently several plans are made in a community where but one was anticipated. It seems reasonable to hope that the influence of the Division may be thus extended to almost every locality where trees can be profitably grown. Its influence will be not only that of stimulation, but of regulation and direction as well, in all planting operations. From such a system of forestry will arise maximum returns to the individual and greatest benefits to the community concerned. At the same time the people will become educated to a higher appreciation of the value of forests, and the country at large will gain a unique and valuable accession to its forest system. THE WORLD’S EXHIBIT OF LEAF TOBACCO AT THE PARIS EXPOSITION OF 1900. By Marcus L. Fioyp, Tobacco Expert, Division of Soils. GENERAL REMARKS. The cultivation and manufacture of tobacco has become an industry of great importance to every civilized country of the world. Few products of the soil contribute more to the support of the Government than tobacco, and this applies to most countries whether producing or importing. At the world’s exhibit in Paris, where all the countries were invited to display the resources and products of their soil, at least thirty countries placed on exhibit leaf tobacco, hoping by this contest to extend their trade and create new demands for their leaf. Many of these exhibits were small, attracting but little attention, as the leaf displayed by them did not represent tobacco of commercial importance. Among the leaf-tobacco exhibits most worthy of note may be men- tioned those of the Dutch East Indies (Sumatra, Borneo, and Java), Cuba, Mexico, Brazil, Turkey, Italy, Japan, France, Germany, Russia, Hungary, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Greece, Servia, Canada, and the United States of America. THE EXHIBITS OF LEAF TOBACCO FROM COUNTRIES OTHER THAN THE UNITED STATES. The countries which produce tobaccos that are imported into our own country and which compete with us for the trade of other nations are the Dutch East Indies, Cuba, Mexico, Brazil,and Turkey. There- fore the tobacco produced by these countries claim our especial atten- tion and consideration. None of the countries above referred to had on exhibition more than 100 samples, nevertheless all the types and grades produced by them were represented. It is just to say that each country showed great care in the arrangement of its exhibit, and the exhibits attracted considerable attention. SOME OF THE COUNTRIES EXHIBITING. Dutrcn Easr Inpres.—The Dutch Government exhibited tobaccos from Sumatra, Borneo, and Java. The leaf of the island of Sumatra 157 158 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. is of a rich light-brown color, very thin and elastic, with small veins, and of desirable size for cigar wrappers. The leaf ranges from 14 to.20 inches, making it serviceable for wrapper purposes, and as a rule it burns freely and gives a clear, white ash. These are the only points of merit that can be justly ascribed to the Sumatra leaf. It does not possess that rich aroma necessary for the filler of a fine cigar. The tobacco farms of the island of Sumatra are largely owned and operated by the Dutch, who spare neither time nor money in the production and care of their crops. Their system of cultivation, harvesting, curing, fermenting, assorting, and baling has in the past led that of every other tobacco-producing country. The tobaccos pro- duced in Java and Borneo are quite similar, but not in any way equal, to those grown in Sumatra. All these tobaccos are controlled by the Dutch, and are shipped to Amsterdam and Rotterdam for marketing. Cuba.—Although the island of Cuba produces both filler and wrap- per leaf of exceedingly fine quality, its exhibit merely consisted, of a few carrots’ of fillers. The Cuban leaf is of a rich brown color, of medium body, and narrow and small in size, ranging from 8 to 18 inches in length. The quality of the best Cuban leaf is recognized wherever fine cigars are made or used, having stood for years without a vival in richness of flavor and aroma. Mextco.—Mexico’s exhibit was more extensive than that made by Cuba, and the arrangement was a credit to the country. The Mexican leaf, as a rule, is large in size, of dark color and heavy body, with coarse veins and an exceedingly strong flavor. A few carrots were exhibited of wrapper grade that were of desirable size, thin, elastic, and of a beautiful light-brown color. In some respects the Mexican tobacco closely resembles the leaf produced in Cuba, and it is culti- vated, harvested, and cured in a similar manner, although the style of the bale is different, except in the smaller grades, which are packed in carrots, as is done in Cuba. Braziu.—The exhibit of Brazil was of leaf produced in that country. This leaf is of medium size, brown in color, and of medium body, pos- sessing fair qualities, but it is poorly handled. Although it is quite popular in Europe (Germany alone controlling about 75 per cent of Brazil’s production), the price of this tobacco is from 10 to 12 cents per pound. TurKey.—Turkey’s exhibit consisted of only one type of tobacco in many grades, that being the world-famed small Turkish leaf. The quality of this tobacco is known and appreciated wherever cigarettes are used. The exhibit was well arranged, attracting considerable attention. 1 Packages in which the tobacco is made up, in shape resembling the carrot; hence the name. EXHIBIT OF LEAF TOBACCO AT PARIS EXPOSITION. 159 Iraty.—lItaly exhibited its several types of tobacco. The dark, heavy leaf, similar to that grown in Virginia, is grown from Virginia seed, and the White Burley is produced from Kentucky seed. These types are grown on the dark, heavy, fertile soils of the middle and northern parts of Italy, while on the light, sandy soils of the southern part of the country is produced a leaf from Turkish seed that is quite similar in appearance and quality to the real Turkish tobacco. The method of culture, harvesting, and preparing for the market the heavy, dark tobacco and Burley types is about the same as employed in this country. Japan.—Japan’s exhibit may be said to represent only one type of tobacco in many grades, the samples differing somewhat in appear- ance. ‘This, however, is due to the fact that they represented tobac- cos grown in the various tobacco-growing districts of Japan. The leaf is from medium to large size, broad, of a medium, light-mottled color, dry, and poor in quality, suitable only for cigarettes and pipe smoking. France.—France exhibited several types of tobacco, all being dark, coarse, and heavy, suitable only for plug and snuff. The French tobaccos are grown principally from Virginia seed. The arrangement of the exhibit was exceedingly fine, a special building being devoted entirely to the display of the leaf tobacco produced in that country. GrERMANY.—Germany exhibited types of tobacco from its two impor- tant tobacco-producing sections, Baden and Alsace, the leaf produced in Baden being considered the best. This leaf is from medium to large size, of fair body, heavy, with coarse veins, and not well suited for wrapper purposes, though the tobacco has some quality. It is liked by the Germans and Europeans, and is mainly used for cigars. Russta.—Russia exhibited several types of tobacco. The installa- tion was poor, and the leaf was not well handled. Asa rule, the leaf is exceedingly large, very coarse, dark, heavy, and only suited for plug chewing and snuff. In southern and Asiatic Russia a very good tobacco is produced from Turkish seed. It has a small, bright-yellow leaf, similar in appearance and quality to that grown in Turkey. Huneary.—Hungary’s exhibit was very fine, attracting considerable attention. This country produces several types of tobacco which are handled with great care. The dark or heavy type is of a rich dark- brown color, medium size, thin, with small veins, though not elastic. The leaf is dry, possessing some quality; it is used largely for cigar fillers and wrappers. There is also produced a small, bright-vellow leaf, resembling the lemon yellow of North Carolina, though thinner; it is papery, with but little quality. Thisis used entirely for cigarettes and fine cut for pipe smoking. . Bosnia AnD Herzecovina.—Bosnia and Herzegovina had a well- 160 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. arranged exhibit. The leaf is from medium to large size, of bright but uneven colors, very dry, possessing but little quality. The same types are produced here as are grown in Hungar ue and the leaf is quite similar in appearance. GREECE AND SERVIA.—Greece and Servia grow only one type of leaf, which was exhibited. This leaf is produced from the Turkish seed, closely resembling the real Turkish tobacco. The resemblance is more especially true of the leaf grown in Servia, where the quality of the leaf is equal to that grown in Turkey. CanapA.—Canada’s display was a creditable one. The leaf is exceed- ingly large and coarse, produced from Virginia seed, and is only useful for plug and snuff. THE UNITED STATES EXHIBIT. THE COLLECTIVE EXHIBIT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The collective exhibit made by the Department of Agriculture of the United States may justly be considered the largest and most com- prehensive display of leaf tobacco ever gotten together. The exhibit was planned by the Secretary of Agriculture and the work of collect- ing and preparing the same was placed under the immediate direction of Prof. Milton Whitney, chief of the Division of Soils, who was assisted by the writer. In order to obtain good, representative sam- ples of all the types and grades of tobacco produced in this country, each important tobacco-growing section was visited and arrangements made with the leading packers and growers for a full line of samples, which would represent all the types and grades produced in the respec- tive localities. Thus, a collection of nearly 2,000 samples was prepared and exhibited. THE TYPES OF TOBACCO IN THE COLLECTIVE EXHIBIT. MANUFACTURING AND EXPORT TYPES.—The manufacturing and export types, such as are used for cigarettes, fine cut, pipe smoking, plug chewing, and snuff, were fully represented from the States of Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Ohio. Each type and grade was shown, shading in color from the finest bright lemon yellow to the dark mahogany, and from the dark mahogany to the raven black. These samples were carefully graded according to their commercial use, and also classified according to the requirements cf both domestic and foreign trade, each sample bearing a label con- taining this information. The differences in the export types (known to the trade as ‘‘ foreign”), which are cured and manipulated according to the demands of the various foreign countries, are worthy of special consideration. To the general public such differences are sometimes hardly perceptible, but in the trade the slightest difference in shade, EXHIBIT OF LEAF TOBACCO AT PARIS EXPOSITION. 161 color, thickness, shape, or length of leaf, is taken into account in determining to what country or trade the tobacco is best suited. For example, Great Britain gives preference to a long, narrow, olive-green leaf, which is required to be heavily fired; in fact, the stronger the odor of hard-wood smoke the more acceptable the tobacco is to the British trade. The Austrian Government prefers a long, broad, silky leaf, from medium to light-brown color. The Italian Government uses the same type, only of shorter size and darker in color; while the French prefer a tobacco that has been made exceedingly dark by means of steaming and hard pressure while hot. Thus, each of the foreign countries has different requirements which must be met in the manip- ulation of our leaf. The tobacco sections displayed much pride in this exhibit, showing great care in the arrangement of the samples contributed. Each foreign country could find in this exhibit leaf selected especially to meet its requirements. . Crear Typrs.—The finer grades, the cigar types, were represented by samples from the States of Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Ohio, Florida, and Texas, showing every grade and type of cigar leaf produced in this country. Great care and skill had been displayed by the contributors in the selection and arrangement of the samples. The exhibits of cigar leaf which attracted greatest attention from the general public, and especially from the jury, were made by Ohio and Florida, as will be shown by reference to the awards. Our exhibit of tobacco comprised only the raw leaf, supplemented by a large collection of photographs which showed the various stages of the production of the leaf from seed bed to harvesting and barn curing. In a few instances samples were exhibited illustrating the different stages of the tobacco in the process of manufacture. THE INDIVIDUAL EXHIBIT. After disposing of the collective exhibit, the jury began the consid- eration of samples of special types contributed by individuals. There were twenty-five individuals or firms that contributed to the American exhibit, nine receiving gold medals, five silver medals, and the remain- der honorable mention. In many other cases the jury would have awarded gold medals, as in the case of the Baltimore Leaf Tobacco Association, the Louisville Leaf Tobacco Exchange, the Cincinnati Tobacco Warehouse Company, and Sutter Brothers, but as the exhibits, which were exceedingly fine, and so recognized by the jury, were by associations and packers who had not declared themselves growers, no special consideration could be shown them under the rules. The exhibit made by the Baltimore Leaf Tobacco Association consisted of a complete line of samples representing all grades of Mary- land leaf and the same type of leaf grown in Monroe, Guernsey, 162 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Belmont, and Noble counties, Ohio. This tobacco is used exclusively for cigarette and pipe smoking, and is decidedly an export tobacco. France and Germany are our largest customers for this special: type. The principal merit of this leaf is its free-burning quality. It is quite thin, and is of a dry nature, having but little flavor or aroma. The exhibit made by the Louisville Leaf Tobacco Exchange and the Cin- cinnati Tobacco Warehouse Company represented all grades of dark shipping and White Burley tobacco grown in Kentucky and Ohio. The White Burley attracted considerable attention. The leaf is large, bright in color, thin in texture, and is used for plug fillers and wrap- pers, for fine cut, chewing, pipe smoking, and cigarettes, and is one of the most popular types of manufacturing leaf produced in this country. Owing to the high price paid for this tobacco by American manufacturers, only a small percentage of it finds its way into foreign markets. TYPES OF TOBACCO LEAF IN THE INDIVIDUAL EXHIBIT TO WHICH AWARDS WERE MADE. FLortma-GROWN SUMATRA LEAF.—The first exhibit in the individual samples to be considered was the display of the Florida-grown Suma- tra leaf by the Owl Commercial Company as compared with the leaf grown on the island of Sumatra. In considering these goods much of the preconceived ideas of the merits of the leaf grown in Sumatra. had to be overcome. Although this island has stood for years with- out a rival in the production of « fine cigar wrapper, yet the leaf grown in Florida from Sumatra seed was there to claim superiority, which claim was fully sustained by the jury. Upon investigation, it was found that in appearance and style the Florida-grown tobacco was equal to the Sumatra product; and it was further ascertained that twenty-five more leaves of the Florida-grown leaf of 16-inch size were required to weigh one pound than of that grown in Suma- - tra, giving to the Florida-grown leaf greater wrapping capacity. The jury voted to the Florida-grown leaf 20 points of merit and to the Sumatra-grown leaf 18 points. (Pl. XVI.) FLORIDA-GROWN LEAF FROM CUBAN SEED.—The Florida-grown leaf _ from Cuban seed also received favorable consideration, being voted 18 points of merit against 18 points received by the Cuban product. While the jury recognized that the Florida-grown leaf was a close rival of the Cuban product in point of quality and aroma, the Cuban leaf was found to be richer in flavor and aroma. The jury would have voted to Cuba more points of merit than to Florida had it not been that Florida exhibited leaf grown from Cuban seed that was exceed- ingly fine for wrapper purposes, whereas Cuba only exhibited filler leaf. These results have not come to the growers of tobacco in Florida by chance, but are the legitimate outcome of well-directed energy and “ Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900 Baldwin ‘ MOEN « CO. LITHOCAUSTIC, BALTIMORE FLORIDA GROWN SUMATRA LEAF -T OBACCO.

- v < » Z 3 + - Bs . ’ . * a A - ak EXHIBIT OF LEAF TOBACCO AT PARIS EXPOSITION. 163 a liberal expenditure of money. It is a reasonable supposition that in the near future the Florida leaf grown from Sumatra seed will drive from our markets the leaf grown on the island of Sumatra. The leaf grown in Floridaand Texas from the Cuban seed is identical in appear- ance with the best leaf produced on the island of Cuba, giving some evidence of the rich flavor and aromatic quality peculiar to the best tobacco grown on the island. It is a reasonable hope that with the same intelligent work with the Cuban variety that has been expended in the production in Florida of the Sumatra leaf, Texas and Florida will soon produce a tobacco that will doubtless be found fully equal to the leaf grown in Cuba, especially in the medium grades. ZIMMER SPANISH AND LirrtE Dutcu.—The next exhibit that attracted great attention and admiration was that made by Cullman Bros., of Zimmer Spanish and Little Dutch, the seed leaf grown in Ohio and the seed leaf grown in Wisconsin. This display, witch rep- resented only fillers and binders, was excellently arranged, and showed the leaf of each type in all its grades. It also showed the raw leaf and the leaf fermented and ready for manufacture. This collection may well be classed as the most unique and comprehensive display at the exposition; and while these types have no special foreign competition, they stood out as tobaccos of excellent quality, being voted by the . jury 19 points of merit collectively. Here, too, it is highly probable that with a change of method in the cultivation, harvesting, and curing of the Zimmer Spanish the quality of the feat could be greatly improved and a tobacco produced that would be quite as acceptable to the smoker as the lower grades of Havana filler. CONNECTICUT BROAD LEAF AND CONNECTICUT HAVANA SEED LEAF.— The exhibit made by Sutter Bros. of Connecticut broad leaf and Con- necticut Havana seed leaf was in every way a creditable one, receiving great admiration from the jury, which would gladly have given official recognition of the merits of ne tobacco as a cigar wrapper had the exhibitors been registered as growers as well as packers of leaf tobacco in the application for repr a en. This firm also exhibited a full line of samples representing the various grades of leaf produced in the States of Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, and New York. The Wisconsin. leaf is used principally as a binder, there being a very small percentage suitable for wrappers except perhaps for cheroots and stogies. The Pennsylvania leaf is large, coarse, and dark, and is only suitable for filler purposes. It would be a much more desirable leaf if it were smaller. The New York product may be said to contain a larger per- centage of wrapper leaf than the tobacco grown in Wisconsin, although it is not so acceptable for binder purposes, the quality not being so good, 164 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. MANUFACTURING AND EXPORT.—The manufacturing and export types of the exhibit were next considered. These types include cigarette, pipe-smoking, fine-cut chewing, plug, and snuff tobaccos. - Of course, the dark tobaccos grown in Tennessee and Kentucky are almost without foreign competition, a fact which is also true of the White Burley grown in Ohio and Kentucky, and the old line of smoking tobaccos grown in Maryland and Ohio. The exhibit made by E. K. Vietor & Co., of Richmond, Va., deserves special mention, as it repre- sented every type and grade of leaf produced in that State, from the raven black to the finest bright lemon yellow. These samples were artistically arranged, showing the leaf to the best possible advantage. Every foreign country that buys Virginia tobacco could find in this exhibit tobacco selected to suit its special requirements. This is also true of the exhibit made by M. H. Clark & Bro., of Clarksville, Tenn. The entire exhibit of the last-named firm was composed of the dark types of Tennessee tobacco—or tobaccos from what is known as the Clarksville district, which includes a part of Kentucky. By special manipulation and selection of the leaf, each foreign country that buys these tobaccos could find in this exhibit samples representing the grades it uses, prepared specially for that particular country. Bright-yelow.—The bright lemon-yellow leaf produced in North Carolina, Virginia, South Carolina, and eastern Tennessee perhaps at- tracted more attention than any other type of tobacco on exhibit. The largest and most complete display of this type was made by Col. John §. Cunningham, of North Carolina. The cultivation of this tobacco began in 1852 in Caswell County, N. C., and has steadily grown in favor, being especially adapted to the manufacture of cigarettes. It is also very desirable for plug and twist wrappers and fillers. This tobacco was considered by the jury in connection with the Turkish- grown leaf, from which it is quite different in appearance. The Turkish leaf is exceedingly small, from 4 to 8 inches, while our bright lemon-yellow leaf ranges from 12 to 20 inches. The flavor and aroma are quite similar, and when manufactured into cigarettes our leaf is very acceptable to the smoker. Although the jury was inclined to favor the Turkish leaf in point of quality, the fact that the American leaf is useful in many more ways than the Turkish leaf | was also recognized. For example, when all-tobacco cigarettes are | made our bright lemon-yellow leaf furnishes the wrapper, besides being desirable for plug wrappers and fillers. The Turkish leaf will | not yield more than 200 pounds per acre, at a cost of about 50 cents per pound for production, while the lemon-yellow leaf will yield from 800 to 1,200 pounds per acre, and the farmer can make a profitable sale of this at from 18 to 20 cents per pound. With all these facts in consideration the jury voted to the American leaf as many points of merit as to the Turkish leaf, both receiving gold medals. (Pl. XVIL) Yearbook U. S, Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. PLATE XVII e ig an er * =a || % se / 4 x i a H x. \ 1 —__ = = SS, Te Baldwin. 4. KOEN €CO LITHOCAUSTIC, BALTIMORE BRIGHT YELLOW LEAF AND TURKISH LEAF TOBACCOS: 1, BRIGHT YELLOW, VIRGINIA AND NorTH CAROLINA; 2, TURKISH. EXHIBIT OF LEAF TOBACCO AT PARIS EXPOSITION. 165 THE JURY AND THE AWARDS. The tobacco jury was composed of sixteen members, fifteen being foreigners, representing foreign interests, and one American, repre- senting the American interest. As each member of the jury was directly interested either in the production or manufacture of tobacco, each was thoroughly acquainted with tobacco, and could quickly see the merits or demerits of the leaf. As before stated, about thirty countries entered this contest, exhibiting leaf produced by them. The time occupied by the jury in examining the exhibits was about six weeks. After examining the exhibits at the spaces where they were displayed, the jury requested the person in charge of each exhibit. to send a line of the best samples to a room prepared for jury work, where a more thorough examination of the leaf was made. These facts are mentioned to show that it was the purpose of the jury to do absolute justice to each exhibit and exhibitor. When the work of examining the various exhibits was completed, during which time each juror made his own notes relative to each exhibit, the voting of awards began, the following scale being used: From one to five points of merit entitled the exhibitor to honorable mention; from six to ten points, bronze medal; from eleven to fifteen points, silver medal; from sixteen to twenty points, gold medal, and from twenty-one to twenty- five points, grand prize. In considering the collective exhibits of leaf tobacco made by all of the countries, it is gratifying to note that the American exhibit was voted twenty-five points of merit by each juror, being the full limit of merit, and giving the grand prize. LESSONS OF THE EXHIBIT. Many of the foreign countries are trying to produce the bright lemon-yellow type of tobacco from our seed, but so far they have failed. The quality and usefulness of this tobacco is recognized, and it is rapidly finding its way into all the markets of the world where cigarettes are made. All the tobacco-producing countries are striving to improve their leaf; and while those sections of our country that produce this type of leaf may be proud of what they have accom- plished, it is important that they strive by every means to further’ improve this product. It is the opinion of the writer that if the seed which produces the bright lemon-yellow tobacco were hybridized with the Turkish seed, good results would be obtained and a more accept- able cigarette tobacco be produced. The fact that to-day America is the greatest tobacco-producing country of the world should not_ cause us to rest satisfied with what we are now doing. The other countries are sending their agents to this country to study our soil, our climate, and our methods, with the hope that they will be able to produce the types grown here which they use. In like manner we 166 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. should study carefully the soil, climate, and methods of those countries that supply so much tobacco to our country, and never be content until we have produced here a tobacco that is equal or superior to that of any country in the world. When this is accomplished we will be able to exclude all foreign tobaccos from our markets, and to success- fully meet competition in the markets of the-world. This can only be done by the farmer acquiring a thorough knowledge of the require- ments of the manufacturer, as without this knowledge he works in the dark and his efforts are often misapplied. The countries that have a monopoly of the tobacco industry employ men who thoroughly under- stand the requirements of the trade to look after the production of tobacco. These men so educate the planter that he knows just what style and kind of leaf is wanted, and makes every effort to produce it. We are, as before stated, annually consuming millions of dollars’ worth of tobacco imported from Sumatra, Cuba, and Turkey for the reason that these tobaccos fill a place in our trade that we have so far been unable to fill with any of our domestic products. This has been going on for more than twenty years, and yet, with these products right before us, we have never until-within the past few years made any attempt to produce in this country tobacco that would take the place of these imported goods. It has recently been clearly proved that in Florida and Connecticut a leaf can be produced that in every respect equals the imported Sumatra, a leaf that will be quite as acceptable to the trade. Florida and Texas have also in recent years produced from Cuban seed a leaf that is identical in appearance to the leaf produced on the island of Cubd, and while we have not succeeded in getting the exact flavor and aroma peculiar to the best Cuban product we have approached it, and it is reasonable to believe that further improvement can be made. As soon as a foreign agricultural product is introduced into this country and finds a market, it is our plain duty to at once try to produce on our own soil just such an article. Whatever is manufactured in a foreign country that meets with favor in the trade, the American manufacturer at once tries (and generally with success) to produce an article, suited to his trade, of better quality. In like manner the American agriculturist should endeavor to produce what- ever types of tobacco are demanded by the trade. a iy INFLUENCE OF RYE ON THE PRICE OF WHEAT. By Epwarp T. Prrers, Of the Division of Statistics. -WHY THE INFLUENCE OF RYE IS UNDERESTIMATED. That the price of an article is influenced by the supply, not only of the article itself, but also of other articles which may be used in its stead, is a familiar principle of economics; but, owing perhaps to the insignificance of the rye crop of the United States, the influence of the rye supply upon the price of wheat does not seem to receive in this country the attention to which it is entitled. And what is true of the United States in this particular is true, in a greater or less degree, of most other countries, since rye is not an important crop in any part of the world outside of Europe, and even there it is important in only a minority of countries. Its importanee in these latter is, however, sufficiently great to raise it for Europe as a whole nearly toa level with wheat in the extent of its production. For the five years from 1895 to 1899, inclusive, rye formed 49 and wheat 51 per cent of the combined European crops of these two grains,’ and the European production of the two together formed 69.5 per cent of the world’s production of the same two cereals, so far as the latter is known or has been approximately estimated. Of the world’s production of wheat, however, Europe contributed during the same five years only 55.5 per cent, whereas she contributed of the world’s production of rye no less than 94.1 per cent. The magnitude of the figures for Europe is, no doubt, somewhat exaggerated by a greater approach to completeness in the crop statistics of European countries than in those of a majority of other countries, and this exaggeration is probably somewhat greater in the case of rye than in that of wheat, for the reason that no attempt has been made to estimate the rye crop in a number of countries whose wheat crop is included with some rough approximation to accuracy in the estimates of the wheat crop of the world. But after all needed allowance is made on this score, the broad fact remains that Europe contributes a much larger propor- tion of the world’s rye crop than she does of the world’s wheat crop. The significance of this fact, in its bearing on the subject under con- sideration, will, however, become more apparent, if the matter be put in a different form, by saying that while the extra-European countries contribute between two-fifths and one-half of the world’s wheat crop, 1On the basis of weight the proportion of wheat would be slightly larger. 167 168 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. they contribute, so far as can be determined from the figures available, considerably less than one-tenth of the world’s rye crop and less than one-third of the world’s total production of these two great bread grains. From this fact, it would only be natural to infer that while the extra-European production of wheat is large enough to have an impor- tant influence on the price of breadstuffs, it is not large enough to be a controlling factor. RELATION OF THE AMERICAN WHEAT CROP TO PRICES. How moderate is the influence upon general prices exercised by the great wheat crop of the United States, is a matter of common obser- vation, and this point is well illustrated in the following table, in which the quantity of wheat produced in this country is given for each of the years from 1887 to 1899, inclusive, along with the quantities exported and the average export prices for the corresponding fiscal years: Wheat crop of the United States and exports of wheat therefrom. Exporis for the fiscal years, beginning July 1, 1887 to 1899, inclusive. Wheat crop Wheat exported as grain. Wheat, including flour. Year. of the United|- 2 cs States. Average Portion Quantities. Values. export | Quantities. Values. of crop price. exported. Bushels. Bushels. Dollars. Cents. Bushels. Dollars. Per cent. TSS fete eee 456, 329, 000 65, 789, 261 56, 241, 468 85.5 119, 624, 344 111, 019,178 26.2 P8882 ole. -12< 415, 868, 000 46, 414, 129 41, 652, 701 89.7 88, 600, 742 86, 949, 186 21.3 ASSOe. exe e a 490, 560, 000 54, 387, 767 45, 275, 906 83.2 109, 430, 467 102, 312, 074 2250 189025522255 399, 262, 000 55, 131, 948 51, 420, 272 93.3 106, 181, 316 106, 125, 888 26.6 1 f:\)) Se See 611, 780, 000 157, 280, 351 161, 399, 132 102.6 | 225, 665, 812 236, 761, 415 36.9 1892 oem enn 515, 949, 000 117, 121, 109 93, 534, 970 79.9 191, 912, 635 169, 029, 317 37.2 ae BS eee 396, 1381, 725 88, 415; 230 59, 407, 041 67.2 164, 283, 129 128, 678, 811 41.5 1 SO4ee ee 460, 267, 416 76, 102, 704 43, 805, 663 57.6 144, 812, 718 95, 457, 591 31.5 TROD eee os: 467,102,947 | 60,650, 080 39, 709, 868 65.5 126, 448, 968 91, 735, 085 27.1 1806. 497, 684,346 | 79,562,020 | 59, 920,178 75.8 | 145,124,972 | 115, 884, 525 33.9 W807 eee ne } 930, 149, 168 148, 231, 261 145, 684, 659 98.3 | 217,306,005 | 214, 948, 377 41.0 18985... -. = 675, 148, 705 139, 432, 815 104, 269, 169 74.8 222, 618, 420 177, 363, 039 33.0 ASOD! | Se oe | 547, 303, 846 101, 950, 389 73, 237, 0SO 71.8 | 186, 096, 762 140, 997, 966 34.0 It will be seen from the above table that the highest average price of the entire period covered followed the largest crop but one pro- duced within the same time, namely, the crop of 1891. ‘On the other hand, the comparatively small crops of 1893, 1894, and 1895 were followed by the lowest prices on record,’ a much larger crop in 1897 being followed during the fiscal year 1897-98 by a price almost as high as that of 1891-92. ——) 1The average export price for the fiscal year 1893-94 (67 cents per bushel) was paralleled in 1826-27, which was the only year from 1816-17 to 1892-93, inclusive, when the average fell below 70 cents per bushel. Even the latter figure was reached in only one year, namely, 1821-22. INFLUENCE OF RYE ON THE PRICE OF WHEAT. 169 RELATION OF THE AMERICAN WHEAT CROP TO THE WORLD’S SUPPLY OF BREADSTUFFS. Such a want of correspondence between the size of the American wheat crop and the price of wheat, as above described, is, of course, to be expected, for large as the American wheat crop is, when com- pared with that of most other countries, it is after all but a minor part of the world’s wheat supply and a still smaller part of the world’s supply of breadstuffs upon which the price of wheat is more or less dependent. During the five years 1895-1899 it formed 20.4 per cent of the former and only about 13 per cent of the world’s supply of wheat and rye together,’ or rather of that portion of the supply which is included in the published tables on the world’s crops. Were it pos- sible to make those tables include all the wheat and rye actually grown, the percentages for the United States would be smaller than those just given. It has, in fact, already been shown that the wheat crop of all countries outside of Europe forms considerably less than half of the world’s reported wheat crop, and that their combined wheat and rye crops form less than a third of the world’s reported production of these two cereals. WHEAT PRICES AND THE WORLD’S WHEAT CROP. Even when it is fully recognized that the comparatively small dependence of the price of wheat on the size of the American crop is only what might be expected under the circumstances, it may still seem at first sight that this price ought to be controlled by the size of the world’s crop of that grain. It is, however, found on comparing the average export prices of wheat shown in the table on page 173 with the published figures on the world’s wheat crop, that the connec- tion between large crops and low prices, and on the other hand, between small crops and high prices, is by no means so close and con- tinuous as might be supposed. In fact, if attention is confined to the wheat crop, it is found that the price of that grain shows in some cases a much closer connection with the size of the European wheat crop than with that of the wheat crop of the world. This is especially noticeable in the price for 1891-92, following the European crop fail- ure of 1891, which was 10 per cent higher than that for the preceding year. Such an increase, it would seem, must have been due to a con- siderable decrease in the supply; but while there was a large decrease (some 200 million bushels) in the wheat crop of Europe, there was none, but on the contrary a small increase, in the wheat crop of the world. It would be a mistake, however, to infer that the European deficiency in the wheat supply was the cause of the increase in price. _ 1If the rye crop of the United States were added to the wheat crop of the same, the percentage of the world’s total would be raised from 13 to 13.7. 4 41900——12 | 170 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. EFFECT OF VARIOUS FOOD CROPS ON THE PRICE OF WHEAT. The true explanation is that while there was no general deficiency in the world’s supply of wheat, considered as a single cereal, there was such a deficiency in the world’s supply of breadstuffs. Of these bread- stufis, wheat, albeit the most important, is only one; and being largely interchangeable with others, above all with rye in a large part of Europe,’ it is affected in price by the supply of bread grains in general, and to some extent even by the supply of substitutes for bread, par- ticularly potatoes. Had the European scarcity of 1891 been confined to wheat, it would have been fully counterbalanced by the abundance of that grain elsewhere, and instead of a rise in its price there might have been a slight fall; but the same conditions which caused a failure in the European wheat crop affected various other important European food crops. In Russia, where some provinces suffered a scarcity approaching famine, there was a deficiency not only in wheat, but in rye, barley, oats, potatoes, and several minor food crops. In Germany the failure affected rye, spelt, and potatoes, as well as wheat. In both of these countries the effect of the bad season on the rye crop was a matter of far more serious import than its effect on the wheat crop, for the reason that the former cereal is far more extensively grown and far more largely depended on as a bread grain than is the latter. It has been shown that in the whole of Europe, rye, during the five years 1895-1899, formed 49 and wheat 51 per cent of the total produc- tion of the two Aas but in European Russia rye formed, during the same period, 67.3 per cent and wheat only 32.7*per cent of the production of the same two cereals, while in Germany the preponder- ance on the side of rye was still greater, the percentage being 72.3 against 27.7 per cent of wheat. In the Scandinavian countries, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Austria, as well as in Russia and Germany, rye is a more important bread grain than wheat. THE DEFICIENCY OF BREADSTUFFS IN 1891. It is, of course, conceivable that even in large rye-growing countries unfavorable conditions might be confined to districts in which wheat greatly preponderates, and that a short wheat crop might thus be ACC jomipanted py a goon rye crop in such countries; but a case of this 1In the United States it is eS es with maize to a considerable extent, but in most of the bread-eating nations this is not the case. There is, of course, a large demand for wheat which is not readily satisfied by any substitute, and a like remark will apply to the other great food stuffs, but there is apparently a consider- able percentage of the bread-eating populations among whom the preference for one grain over another is not so strong as to hold out against any very considerable advantage in the way of cheapness on the side of the less-favored product; and this percentage is probably larger in the great rye-producing countries than elsewhere. INFLUENCE OF RYE ON THE PRICE OF WHEAT. LTA kind would be decidedly exceptional, and such a case did not occur in the year under consideration (1891), for not only in Russia and Ger- many, as already pointed out, but in a number of other countries in which rye preponderates over wheat, did the former suffer along with the latter. Statistics of the rye crop for the somewhat extended period ‘under consideration are not at hand for the whole of Europe, but an indication of the extent of the failure of this grain in 1891 may be seen in the figures for Russia and Germany, which together produce some- — thing like three-fourths of the rye crop of the commercial world. In 1890 the rye crop of these two countries’ amounted to 949,987,000 bushels, against 728,357,000 bushels in 1891, the deficiency in the lat- ter year, as compared with the preceding one, being 221,630,000 bush- els, or nearly 22,000,000 bushels greater than the deficiency in the wheat crop of the whole of Europe. About 65 per cent of the total deficiency in the European wheat erop of 1891 occurred in countries where wheat is the chief bread grain.” Had the remaining 35 per cent been made up by other coun- tries of the same class, the extent of the deficiency in wheat might substantially have measured the extent of the European deficiency in breadstuffs, in which case, being more than offset by an extra-Euro- pean surplus, it should have been attended by a fall rather than a rise in their price. But in the actual case, the unfavorable conditions which characterized the season in great wheat-growing countries like Hungary and France, affecting the supply of breadstuffs there chiefly through the failure of that grain, chanced, as already shown, to extend into countries where, besides affecting that supply through the failure of wheat, they affected it ina far greater degree through a failure of other bread grains, especially rye, thus producing a total effect upon the supply of breadstuffs which the extra-European wheat surplus was very far from counterbalancing. The deficiency in the European bread grains other than wheat can scarcely have been less than 250,000,000 bushels, for the deficiency of rye alone in Russia and Germany amounted in round numbers to 222,000,000 bushels. Hence, if the deficiency of 200,000,000 bushels in the European wheat supply be also taken into account, there is a total deficiency of 450,000,000 bushels in the European supply of breadstuffs, a deficiency against which the extra-European countries had substantially nothing to set except their surplus* of wheat, amounting to only 258,000,000 bushels, and ‘Including in the ease of Russia only the 50 governments of European Russia proper and the 10 governments of Russian Poland. *About that proportion of the total deficiency was occasioned by the wheat crop failure in Hungary and France, deficiencies in other countries of that class being about balanced by surpluses in Italy and Spain. *It will be kept in mind that the deficiencies and surpluses here under considera- tion are those of the year 1891 as compared with 1890. 172 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. thus leaving a net deficiency of nearly 200,000,000 bushels in the world’s supply of bread grains, a deficiency which satisfactorily explains a material increase in price. PRICE MOVEMENT AND VARIATION IN SUPPLY. While the figures just given refer to the year 1891, as compared ‘with 1890, the correctness of the views advanced is, on the whole, sufficiently well attested by the figures for other years. Statistics for all the bread grains, or, indeed, for any except wheat, are not avail- able for the whole commercial world for all the years for which the average export price of wheat has been given. It has, however, been seen that of these grains rye is next to wheat in importance and that nearly three-fourths of the world’s rye crop is produced in two coun- tries, namely, Russia and Germany; hence, if the rye crop of these two countries be added to the wheat crop of the world, there will be a much closer approach to the world’s supply of breadstuffs than is made by taking the wheat crop alone; and comparison will show that in most cases there is also a much closer approach to a satisfactory explanation of the movement of prices in harmony with the law of supply and demand. This will sufficiently appear upon examining the table to be next presented, in regard to which it must, however, first be explained that the figures it contains on the world’s wheat supply are made up by adding to the crop of the Northern Hemisphere for each year one-half of the preceding and one-half of the succeeding crop of the Southern Hemisphere. The reason for this procedure will be readily perceived. The vears for which prices are given in the table, being the fiscal years beginning on July 1 of the years 1887 to 1899, inclu- sive, commence about the same time with the harvest of the Northern Hemisphere, and the crop reaped in that harvest is substantially the one marketed and consumed during the fiscal year.t | On the other hand, the contribution of the Southern Hemisphere to the supply for the first six months (July to December) of such year must come out of the crop reaped in the preceding winter (that is, in the preceding south- ern summer), whereas its contribution to the supply for the other six months (January to June) must come mainly out of the crop reaped a year later, that is, in the closing weeks of the calendar year in which the given fiscal year begins and the opening weeks of that in which it ends. It is obvious, therefore, that by the method adopted the actual supply for each fiscal year is more closely approximated and the rela- tion of supply to price more accurately indicated than by taking either the whole crop reaped in the Southern Hemisphere in the middle of 'TIt would be interesting to consider in this connection the stocks carried over from one year to another, but the lack of trustworthy records covering so long a period renders that impracticable. INFLUENCE OF RYE ON THE PRICE OF WHEAT. iy gs: the given fiscal year or that reaped a year earlier. It may be added that while the figures presented as the world’s wheat supply can not be taken as including all the wheat grown, they include either official returns or the best attainable estimates for the countries contributing appreciably, either as importers or as exporters, to the wheat move- ment of the commercial world. The following is the table: Movement of supply and of average export price. Average Increase (+) or export decrease (—) price of | in world’s supply. | Average Wheat sup-| wheat in i export World’s ply plus |the United ; price of Year. wheat j|ryecropof| States for Wheat wheat supply. | Russia and_/| fiscal years plus rye| inthe Germany. | beginning | Wheat | crop of | United July 1, 1887,| alone. Russia States. to 1899, and Ger- | inclusive. many. a’ ——| | — | ~ Millions of | Millions of | , bushels. bushels. Cents. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. TERRE SA ieee” seen eects cas 2,485 | 3, 530 Bon Oifice seco J 2gne|/sagcSoo2 5: CCU ee eee 2, 439 | 3,411 89.7] —1.9} —3.4]) +449 TES, \ oe ee Bk es Ce See 2, 302 | 3, 102 83.2 | GAGlhs = Chil = 79 Ube}! Us Sap eee Pee She oeeceaoes ass 2,377 |} 3,327 93.3 + 3.3 + 7.3 +12.1 TSOM aeee see eae nc cee etsaaen sere 2,435 | 8,163 102.6 + 2.4 — 4.9 +10.0 TSU sae 8 ee Lene ppp eeeeraen eas 2,490 3, 407 79.9 + 2.3 + 7.7 —22.1 1b Ree ee Sse ear er Boome DACeaES 2,57 3, 652 67.2 + 3.2 + 7.2 —15.9 LE ae cake eiiabeaenccedesuacears 2, 646 3, 840 57.6 + 3.0 + 5.1 —14.3 TSO Se eee Ps ean sos ela seme tee 2,577 3, 654 65.5 — 2.6 — 4.8 +13.7 UE SSAC Se - Sees ee SRC Rep eaSer 2,498 3, 597 75.3 — 3.1 — 1.6 +15.0 ib PAS ee oe ES Age o oe bEocese 2, 252 3, 195 98.3 — 9.8 LS? +30.5 IS ae Oe Se BS eae area ear ease 2,982 | 4, 046 74.8 +32. 4 +26.6 ~~23.9 JDS¢. es SE Sa eR eae eS 2,762 3, 976 | 71.8 —7.4| -—17 | — 4.0 It will be noted that the figures for 1891 (fiscal year 1891-92) show an increase of 2.4 per cent in the world’s wheat supply, along with an increase of 10 per cent in the price, but, as already pointed out, there was a decrease in the supply of breadstuffs, and this is indicated by the figures on the world’s wheat supply plus the Russian and German rye crop, which show a decrease of 4.9 per cent. In all the other years except 1889, 1890, and 1899 (fiscal years 1889-90, 1890-91, and 1899- 1900), an increase in the supply is attended by a decrease in the price, and a decrease in the supply by an increase in the price, just as might be expected; but it may be noticed that with three exceptions (years 1889, 1890, and 1896), the change in the price corresponds more nearly to the change in the world’s wheat supply plus the Russian and German rye crop than to the change in the world’s wheat supply alone. EXTENT OF EFFECT ON PRICES. It will be seen that in nearly all cases the change in the price is con- siderably greater than the change in the extent of the supply. Thus, 174 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the figures for 1888 (fiscal year 1888-89) show that a decrease of 1.9 per cent in the world’s wheat supply and 3.4 per cent in that plus the rye crop of Russia and Germany is attended by an increase of 4.9 per cent in the average export price. If the next two years be for the present passed over, it will be found that in 1891 (fiscal year 1891-92) a decrease of 4.9 per cent in the world’s wheat supply plus the rye crop of the two countries just named was attended by an increase of 10 per cent in the price. For that year there was an increase in the world’s wheat supply considered alone, but, as already pointed out, the decrease in the total supply of breadstuffs accounts satisfactorily fora rise in price. The figures for the next year show an increase of 2.3 per cent in the world’s wheat supply, and 7.7 per cent in that plus the Russian and German rye crop, with a decrease of 22.1 per cent in the price. So also for each of the subsequent years, except 1898 and 1899, the fall or rise in price is considerably more than proportional to the increase or decrease in the supply for the corresponding year. A similar relation between crops and prices has been observed by various writers, and Tooke, in his History of Prices,‘ especially points out that, while no definite ratio or series of ratios has been found to exist between changes in supply and the converse changes in price, ‘‘a decided deficiency of supply is commonly attended in the case of corn fi. e., wheat], more than in that of most other articles, with an advance in price very much beyond the degree of the deficiency.” He also adds” ‘* that an excess of quantity operates in depressing the prices of commodities generally, but of corn [wheat] more especially, in a ratio much beyond the degree of that excess.” Greatly as conditions have changed in many respects since this was written, it is not surprising that Tooke’s conclusion upon the point in question should find support in the figures now under consideration, because the demand for bread- stuffs is still a comparatively inelastic one, diminishing but little in years of scarcity and expanding but little in years of abundance as compared with the demand for many other commodities. Increased facilities for transportation have rendered it comparatively easy to use the surplus of one locality to relieve scarcity in another, and thus greatly to moderate the fluctuations of prices, but in connection with a general scarcity or a general superabundance the tendency observed by Tooke seems still to manifest itself. SOME APPARENT ANOMALIES CONSIDERED. Returning to the years 1889 and 1890, which have not yet been discussed, it may be noted that in the former year there appears to have been a decrease of price in connection with a decrease in the 'Page 13, vol. 1, edition of 1838. ? Tooke’s History of Prices, vol. 1, edition of 1838, p. 17. INFLUENCE OF RYE ON THE PRICE OF WHEAT. iv supply, and in the latter an increase in price in connection with an increase in the supply, the result in each case being the opposite of that-which the law of supply and demand requires. But even if the requirements of that law in respect to the precise relations between supply and price under any given conditions were definitely known, such figures as those in the table on page 173 could not be expected to exemplify them with any close approach to exactness, for the reason that a large allowance must be made for the influence of factors not shown in that table, such as variations in the stocks held over from year to year, in the size of various supplementary food crops, and in the cost of transportation, to say nothing of the margin of error neces- sarily existing in all estimates of the world’s crops. An examination of the facts for the two years in question (1889 and 1890, fiscal years 1889-90 and 1890-91) brings to light the existence of circumstances, additional to those shown in the table on page 173, tending to exert just such an influence on prices as appears from the figures on that subject to have been exerted, and thus serving to explain the seemingly anom- alous relation between the figures on supply and the figures on price for those years. Among the circumstances just referred to may first be mentioned the fact that the deficiency of 1889 as compared with 1888, both in the world’s wheat supply alone and in that plus the Russian and German rye crop, was mainly due to the short crop of both of these grains in Russia. This will appear from an inspection of the following crop figures: Relation of Russian crop failure of 1889 to world’s bread supply. /p dy ipply Wheat | Crop of European World’s supply eon ce Russian exports. b Year. a wheat |e and j supply. gear , German | wy, pate | Wheat Wheat Wheat rye crop. ae | and rye. * | and rye. Millions | Millions | Millions | Millions | Millions | Millions of bushels.| of bushels. of bushels. of bushels.| of bushels.| of bushels. PRR eee ot ee erwin cinlesn aoa 2 fete nie oias'ase so 'nale qin'da cla(abind ojnln a e(e nas 0isreisuini~ 88.3 95.7 7.4 8.4 Masticnin Monin ste se ssc eck semis -ce as So eda ole sige meee: 91.4 pnb 20.7 22.6 WPI Te Rea VOR kek iid nn acai orarercm espe cine Seema tenon. Soe o 89.4 100.8 11.4 12.8 The extent to which the high average for the year 1890-91 was due to the sharp advance during the last four months of that year (March to June, 1891) is plainly shown by the above figures, and that advance was recognized at the time as an effect of the bad outlook for the harvest then approaching. THREE ANOMALOUS CASES. For the year 1896 (fiscal year 1896-97) the rise in the price formed a percentage more than four times as great as did the deficiency (com- pared with the previous year) in the world’s wheat supply and nearly ten times as great as did the deficiency in that plus the Russian and German rye crop. This is one out of three of the years covered by the table on page 173, in which the export price of wheat seems to conform more closely to the wheat supply alone than to that plus the Russian and German rye crop. It will be seen by referring to the columns of that table giving increase or decrease in the crop that for five years in succession preceding 1895 there had been an increase in the world’s wheat supply and for three years a continuous and much larger increase in wheat and rye together, the latter being chiefly due to three successive increases in the Russian rye crop. It is rea- sonable to suppose that out of these abundant crops Russian farmers had retained a considerable quantity, especially as prices had been 180 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. low, and a recollection of the sufferings which had been endured through the great crop failure of 1891 would suggest the wisdom of being prepared for emergencies. If it be supposed that the stocks carried over by farmers in Russia and other parts of the world were as much as 70 million bushels.in excess of the amount carried over in ordinary times (a supposition by no means extravagant) the figures on supply (inciuding the Russian and German rye crop) for 1895 will be raised from 38,654 to 38,724 million bushels, the percentage of decrease in supply of the two grains being thus reduced from 4.8 to 3 for 1895 and raised from 1.6 to 3.5 for 1896. On comparing these two tentative percentages of decrease in the supply of wheat and rye with the percentages of increase in the export price of wheat for the same two years, they are found to be somewhat smaller than might have been,expected; but they, nevertheless, show on the whole a much more reasonable relation between decrease of sup- ply and increase of price than is exhibited by the figures for those years given in the table. It may be noted, too, that with the adjustment suggested the price for 1896 conforms more closely to the supply of wheat and rye than to that of wheat alone, just as it has been seen that it does in most other years. Of course, no claim to statistical exactness can be made on behalf of the adjustment in question, but that the rye crop in 1895 was supple- mented to an unusual extent by stocks held over from the large crops of the preceding years, admits of no reasonable doubt; and though rye itself was exported from Russia in very moderate amounts, either during 1895-96 or the two more abundant years preceding it, the abundance of the rye crop was an essential condition to the heavy exports of wheat which Russia was able to make during 1893-94 and 1894-95, and which, in spite of diminished crops of both grains in 1895, she was able (out of her accumulated stocks) to maintain with a comparatively small diminution through 1895-96. Large as was the fall of price in 1898 (fiscal year 1898-99), it seems hardly proportioned to the enormous increase in the supply for that year; but it must be remembered that a considerable percentage of this large increase was needed to restore reserved stocks to something like their normal proportions after the extreme depletion due to the short crop of 1897. For the year 1899 (fiscal year 1899-1900) the movement in the average export price is in the opposite direction to that which the figures on supply would indicate. It amounts, however, toa decrease of only 4 per cent; and while that would seem hard to reconcile with a decrease of 7.4 per cent in the world’s wheat supply, the anomaly becomes much less marked if the decrease of 4 per cent in the price be considered in connection with the small decrease of 1.7 per cent in the world’s wheat supply plus the Russian and German rye crops, a decrease which would INFLUENCE OF RYE ON THE PRICE OF WHEAT. 181 retain about the same proportion if the figures on the world’s rye crop, so far as known, should be substituted for those on the rye crops of Russia and Germany. In short, 1899, in spite of the anomaly pre- sented by the price movement, is one of the years in which the influ- ence of the rye crop on the price of wheat is quite distinctly traceable. Moreover, the anomaly in question might entirely disappear if the extent to which the crop of 1898 was drawn upon to replenish depleted stocks could be fully shown. The draft upon that crop for the pur- pose just specified has already been mentioned as a reason why the fall in the average export price of wheat in the fiscal year 1898-99 was not in fair proportion to the increase in the figures on supply. It is equally valid as a reason why the price movement of the following fiscal year does not correspond with the change in the figures on sup- ply, for it really means that the effective supply for consumption in 1898-99 out of the crop of 1898 was not so large as the figures in the table on page 173 would make it appear. In so far as this was the case, the effective supply increased less as between 1897 and 1898 and decreased less as between 1898 and 1899 than the figures in the table indicate, if taken as they stand. It is, in fact, altogether probable that instead of the decrease of 70,000,000 bushels shown by a com- parison of the figures for 1899 on the world’s wheat supply plus the Russian and German rye crop, with the figures for 1898 on the same subject, there was actually some increase; and a very small increase would suffice to explain the fall of 4 per cent in the average export price of wheat. That the crop of 1898 was in fact largely drawn upon to replenish depleted stocks is shown by a comparison of the figures on stocks of wheat for corresponding dates in the years 1897-98 and 1898-99. On July 1, 1898, after the short crop of 1897, the available stock of Europe and America amounted in round numbers to only 80,000,000 bushels, whereas a year later it had risen to 119,000,000 bushels—an increase of 39,000,000 bushels. A much larger increase must, how- ever, have occurred in the amount in the hands of farmers, for in the United States alone this part of the reserve stock rose from 18,000,000 to 64,000,000 bushels. This is an increase of 46,000,000 bushels, which added to the increase of 39,000,000 bushels in the stocks known technically as ‘‘available,” gives a total increase of 85,000,000 bushels, or enough to convert the apparent decrease of 70,000,000 bushels in the supply of wheat and rye for 1899-1900 into an actual increase of 15,000,000 bushels. If to this were added the increase in the stocks in farmers’ hands outside of the United States, there would remain no reason to doubt that the effective supply available for 1899-1900, instead of being smaller than that of the previous fiscal year, was really enough larger to account satisfactorily for the decrease of 4 per cent in the average export price of wheat. 182 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. OBSTACLES TO EXHAUSTIVE TREATMENT. To treat the subject thoroughly would doubtless require that some allowance should be made for the annual increase of population, and that the relations between price and supply should be more closely followed from year to year, reasons being sought for any apparent disproportions between the changes in supply and the converse changes in the price, or at least for any irregularities in the extent of such dis- proportions. It would also be interesting to consider not only the world’s wheat crop and that portion of the world’s rye crop actually included in the table on page 173, but the whole of the world’s crop of rye and also of other products serving to any considerable extent as substitutes for wheat when relatively more abundant and hence cheaper than that grain. The statistics necessary to an exhaustive treatment of the subject are, however, not easily obtainable. Statistics of wheat have been more fully and carefully compiled than those of any other widely cultivated food crop, but even these are composed to a consid- erable extent of unofficial estimates of the production of countries in which no official statistics are collected, and, taken as a whole, the annual estimates of the world’s wheat crop can be regarded only as rough approximations to the truth—approximations, too, which vary from year to year in the nearness of their approach to accuracy, thus pro- ducing irregularities which alone would forbid the expectation of any very exact quantitative relation between the variations in Tepe supply and the variations in price. The most that could reasonably be attempted with the eR is data at command was the detection of some of the more prominent relations between causes and effects, and this purpose is fairly well served even by the limited data herein used. The broad general cor- respondence between the movement of the average export price and the changes in production, the modifying influence of the rye crop and to some extent that of other grain crops and of potatoes, and the vari- ation in the influence of deficits and surpluses according as the locali- ties in which they occur are well or ill provided with transportation facilities, or according to other local circumstances, might perhaps all be anticipated upon a priori grounds; but some of them have hitherto been largely overlooked, and the indications of their presence and effective operation afforded by the figures above presented are certainly worthy of attention. MOUNTAIN ROADS. By James W. Apsort, Special Agent in Office of Public Road Inquiries for Western Division. INTRODUCTION. It may be stated as a general proposition that practically every mountain road west of the Missouri River has been built to meet a need arising in some way from the existence of mineral deposits. The prospector, with his crude tools, blankets, and simple food packed upon his faithful burro, goes ahead. In his business neither roads nor trails are necessary or specially desirable. He finds the mineral; the news gets abroad, and others flock in to try their luck in the newly explored region. Then comes the trader with supplies, men to buy, and miners to work the new finds. The freighter with his mule teams furnishes transportation, and for his use are built the first mountain roads. The motto is, ‘‘ Get there and get there quickly.” The first desideratum seems to be a route over which vehicles on four wheels can travel with- out tipping over. It is often so steep in places that wagons can only be pulled up with blocks and tackle, and descend with wheels rough locked and dragging a heavy log behind. Next come roads to particular mines, toll roads, county and State roads, each case usually affording ample latitude and scope to the actual ignorance or bad judgment of men of all grades of supposed road cunning. There is not a mining county or a mountain county (the terms may be considered synonymous) from the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific coast where the money squandered in traveling over bad roads would not in five years build new ones intelligently located and properly constructed. But the saving to existing enterprises would be only a small part of the advantage to accrue to.any region from such a betterment of its road system. The expansion of the mining industry everywhere is due principally to the development of ore bodies of low grade but abundant quantity, where processes involving the strictest economy and most careful saving at every step yield in the aggregate a slight margin of profit. Hundreds of thousands of tons of ore are mined and treated where this margin is less than $1aton. The saving of a few cents a ton on ore down to the miils and a corresponding saving in freight charges on fuel, lumber, provisions, and other supplies up to the mines means in the freight item alone a very considerable percentage on a large capital to companies producing hundreds of tons a day. Throughout this great region thousands of deposits now lie idle, . 183 184 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. which, with roads properly constructed, will become available, furnish- ing a new, vast market for labor, mining machinery, and farm prod- ucts, and benefiting directly or indirectly every industrial and financial enterprise in the United States. (Pl. XVIII, ‘fig. 1.) But mountain roads must not be considered alone from industrial or utilitarian standpoints. The inspiring, health-giving effects of moun- tain air and mountain scenery are universally conceded. For those living in them, and for those who come to them for business, pleasure, or health, the need for roads which can be traveled in safety and com- fort is just as imperative as it is elsewhere. In all the older-settled regions of the country the sentiment which demands good roads is increasing with marvelous rapidity. This should not and will not halt at the foot of the mountains. The conclusions as to practice presented in this paper, formed by the writer during twenty-five years largely spent in building and operating mountain roads, have been modified or confirmed by much conference with men of large experience and well-digested views on the subject. They are offeréd in the modest hope that in the criticism which may be elicited, the records of experience which may be pre- sented by others, and the careful study of the subject which is now going on better methods in mountain road building will result. The suggestions are intended to meet the conditions existing in Western mountain counties, where population and means are usually quite limited. They relate to a standard for road building which, while not elaborate or expensive, is certainly attainable and would be far in advance of prevailing average practice. GRADE, THE KEY TO CORRECT METHODS. The key to all correct methods of mountain road building is grade. It is generally expressed by percentage. A 1 per cent grade means a rise of 1 foot for each 100 feet of horizontal distance traveled. There are 5,280 feet in amile. Hence, a 1 per cent grade means a rise of 52.8 feet in that distance, a 2 per cent grade a rise of 105.6 feet, and a 10 per cent grade a rise of 528 feet. The proper grade in each case must be determined by the conditions and requirements. For bicycle travel a 2 per cent grade can be ascended with comparative ease and descended with little effort. Heavier grades, up to 5 per cent, are practicable for this purpose when unavoidable. They can be ascended by the average bicycle rider with- out extremely arduous effort and descended without serious danger. Grades above 5 per cent are too steep for ascent with comfort or descent with assured safety. For pleasure driving the grade, where practicable, should not exceed 4 per cent. A good horse with a light buggy and two persons will trot easily up a 4 per cent grade and as easily down without a brake. MOUNTAIN ROADS. ° 185 With a higher gradient the strain in either direction becomes increas- ingly apparent. For freight traffic the maximum grade admissible is 12 per cent. Four animals, together with the one or two wagons used on a mountain road, are all that one driver can safely and properly handle on steep grades. When he uses two wagons, lead and trail, at every stop ascending he must hold both wagons by the brakes on the lead. In descending with heavy loads, excepting when the roads are icy, he must control his wagons with brakes on both—the lead by the lever beside his seat, the trail by a strap leading to the brake lever. When the road is icy he must control the descent by rough locking one or more of his rear wheels. To rough lock, he attaches some rough device, like a piece of chain, or a short steel runner, grooved on the upper side to fit the tire and with projecting prongs on the lower, to the felly of a rear wheel, just in front of the point where it rests upon the ground. A chain attached firmly to the center of the forward axle is then tightly fastened to this rough lock. Thus secured, as the wagon descends the hill, the wheel remains rigid and the rough lock plows into the surface of the road. Experience in heavy freighting has shown that wagons can be actually and satisfactorily controlled in all weathers on 12 per cent grades, but that they can not be thus controlled on steeper grades, and that where much heavy freighting has been attempted on steeper grades it has almost invariably been attended with terrible accidents. In freighting on any grade the weight and number of wagons will depend upon the proportion petween material to be hauled up and freight back. On a properly constructed dry road four animals, averaging 1,300 pounds each in weight, will haul 6,500 pounds, total weight, distributed between wagons and contents, up a 12 per cent grade at the rate of about 14 miles per hour. Descending, the four animals will haul all that a wagon can hold up, but in practice this amount rarely exceeds 16,000 pounds on:a single wagon or 20,000 pounds on a lead and trail, and the average is probably not much in excess of 10,000 pounds on one wagon or 14,060 pounds on lead and trail. When roads are icy heavy wagons tear up a roadbed badly. But while a 12 per cent grade is admissible as a maximum, roads of lighter grade are so much more eflicient and satisfactory in every way that only the gravest necessity should ever determine the maximum at 12 per cent. Mountain roads are routes of travel between points of different altitudes. The most common, as well as the most serious, mistake made in their location is the attempt to cover this distance by too short aline. Ona 12 per cent grade every pound of freight going up is elevated 12 feet for each 100 feet of horizontal distance traveled. On an 8 per cent grade it is elevated 12 feet in 150 feet of horizontal 4 41900-——13 186 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. distance traveled, while on a 6 per cent grade it is elevated the same amount in 200 feet of horizontal distance; or, in other words, the dis- tance required to get a 12 per cent grade must be increased one-half for an 8 per cent grade and doubled for a 6 per cent grade. Tables have been published giving the comparative weights which a horse can pull on different gradients; but, so far as the writer knows, no actual statistics have ever been compiled which show what would be the difference in performance in actual freighting between good roads of different gradients. The limit of load which a team can pull on any road is determined by the steepest place in that road. It is rare ‘that a mountain road is built on which the maximum gradient is less than 12 per cent. It is also true that there are very few places where mountain roads have been constructed that it was not feasible to secure &@ maximum under 12 per cent. The extra length that would be required is generally much less than one would at first suppose. Roads built on a continuous uniform grade are very rare. Many seem to go up steep places just for the sake of going down again, thus giving a grade adverse to the heaviest traffic, which ought never to be compelled to climb a foot in descending a mountain. So far as the writer’s study and observation have extended, 99 per cent of all roads built for heavy mountain traffic might have had a maximum under 12 per cent. It is putting it very moderately to say that a team will haul up 50 per cent more load in the same time between two given points on a road with an 8 per cent maximum than it could haul on one of similar surface with a 12 per cent maximum. Besides the advantage in upfreighting, the 8 per cent road possesses many favorable points which are liable to be lost sight of. It is vastly safer for both light driving and freighting; on passenger vehicles brakes, while desirable, are not essential to safety; with heavy loads, if the brake fails, there is a fair chance of escape for driver, team, and wagon. Such a road is not seriously damaged by rain and melt- ing snows, which work much injury on steeper grades; damage from rough locking is enormously reduced, and as such practice can be to a great extent avoided the time thus consumed is saved. Repair bills on wagons and harness are lessened, and the life of wagons is greatly prolonged. It is a pleasure to drive down an 8 per cent grade, as it produces a sense of exhilaration which most people find agreeable. As gradients become steeper the sense of danger grows more and more keen. The writer believes that 8 per cent is the gradient to be aimed at where important differences in elevation are to be overcome, and that such gradient can generally be secured. Asa rule, in such cases a lower gradient means too long a route without commensurate advan- tage, while a higher means an unnecessary loss in the very purpose for which a road is required. The maximum adopted in the old Goy- ernment pike crossing the Alleghenies was 7 per cent. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. PLATE XVIII. FiG. 1.—MARSHALL BASIN ROAD, COLORADO. Fic. 2.—MEARS TOLL ROAD, NEAR IMOGENE PEAK, COLORADO. PLATE XIX. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. a a, i NSE Fic. 2.—UTE Pass, COLORADO. Fic. 1.—OURAY AND SILVERTON TOLL ROAD, COLORADO. MOUNTAIN ROADS. 187 IMPORTANCE OF LOCATION. Next in importance to grade is location. The worst obstacle encountered on mountain roads is snow. The snow slide, or avalanche, comes sweeping down the mountain side, carrying along everything it meets and depositing its accumulations when the momentum is exhausted. The customary routes of these slides are generally quite apparent to the practiced eye of the mountaineer. In laying out a mountain road, one can sometimes avoid a snow-slide track by cross- ing to the farther side of the gulch. Sometimes it is possible to put the line so high that the snow slide will always stop beneath it. If a snow slide covers a road it is rarely practicable to clear it for heavy trafic for months. The accumulation of ice, snow, rocks, trees, and débris of all kinds is so enormous, and the cost of removing it during the cold, short days of winter so excessive, that a snow slide generally remains where it falls until nature lends the chief aid in its removal. In roads designed for heavy traflic, it is the wisest economy to avoid snow slides at almost any cost. Next to snow slides in obstructive effect are snowdrifts, due to aireurrents. These act with remarkable uniformity from year to year. The places where these drifts accumulate in excessive amount can generally be located and avoided by careful attention. Deep ravines almost always catch snow. In a snow region it always pays to go around a point by a sidehill grade in preference to cutting through it. The track of a waterspout must be carefully noted and an ample waterway provided. These result from currents of air due to physical outlines, and generally recur in the same places. They always leave abundant evidence by which their courses may be located. Always locate roads on slopes facing south and east in preference to slopes facing north and west: These afford the sun greater power to settle and melt the snow. A sidehill gives a better road than a creek bottom. (Pl. XIX, fig. 2.) It is always better drained and generally has a more solid foundation. The matter of crossing streams should receive the most careful study. Bridges are costly to build and expensive to maintain. The writer recalls a mountain road that originally crossed the same stream sixteen times in the first 2 miles. This number has been reduced from time to time until now only two crossings remain. Very steep sidehill slopes and hard rock increase the cost of road building. It is often possible by study to avoid them to a greater or less extent. It was a favorite expression with a very successful man that ‘‘ Nothing pays like first cost in road building,” meaning that money expended in intelligent study of a location was the most eco- vomical item of all the cost. Most problems in road location that at 188 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. first seem impossible of practicable solution can be solved. Thousands of miles of mountain railroad have been replaced at enormous cost because of mistakes in original location, which more intelligent study would have avoided. ‘The same principle applies in road building. OBJECT OF DRAINAGE, In level regions we drain roads to protect their foundations; in the mountains we drain them principally to protect the surface. Water naturally runs off from a slope, and in doing so it must always leave more or less effect Every mountain road must run through a valley or along a hillside. If in a valley, the surface should have a crown of at least 6 inches, with gutters and ditches and drains just as in prop- erly constructed roads in a level region. In mountain roads on hill- sides, on the other hand, a very different practice must be adopted. The outside of the road must be the highest, with the view of conduct- ing the water as quickly as possible toward the inside bank, where it should find a gutter to carry it to the nearest drain. This prevents the water from spilling over and washing away the outside bank, and also has a tendency to keep it from running down in the ruts and enlarging them. ‘There isa vital reason for keeping the outside of the road on hillside grades higher than the inside. There is always a tendency for the wheels of a heavily loaded wagon to slew toward the lower side. This becomes very serious when the road surface is slip- pery, and terrible accidents have resulted. Rain or melting snow always wears down some of the material from the inside bank. If the road surface slopes outward, this débris follows the drainage across the road, continually increasing the slope, sometimes very rapidly in cold weather; hence, the roadbed, for the protection both of the bed and the traffic, should be constructed and maintained with an inward slope of at least one-half inch to the foot. The inside gutter should empty into drains crossing the roadbed diagonally at suitable intervals, determined by the amount of drainage. NECESSITY FOR PROPER BATTER.’ The importance of batter in mountain road building seems to be little understood, and correct practice is almost universally ignored. It is very common to see hillside grades constructed as follows: Insecure cribbing with a vertical face, constituting the outside of the roadbed; the inside bank cut as nearly vertical as possible, and three-quarters of the entire width of the road perhaps built of material filled in, the filling generally including all the trash available (boughs, sticks, boulders, etc.), with a covering of such material as the bank affords; width, in such cases, barely sufficient to hold a wagon when the road 1 The side slope of a cut, embankment, or wall. MOUNTAIN ROADS. 189 is first built. The destructive forces of nature act vigorously on such a roadbed from the start. Ice and water rapidly wear down the inside bank, and the débris falls upon the roadbed. The trash foundation settles and the road sinks, sloping outward. Water finds its way through this loose material and undermines the roadbed, making holes, or invis- ible death traps. The cribbing settles, rots, and soon disappears alto- gether. Unless sucha road is practically rebuilt ina few years it grows more and more dangerous, and finally becomes absolutely impassable. The above is no fanciful sketch, but an accurate description of practices and conditions to be found almost everywhere in mountain regions. Cribbing (Pl. XIX, fig. 1) is temporary in character, its use costly, and always to be avoided wherever practicable; when indispensable, it should have a batter not steeper than one horizontal to four vertical. Roads excayated in solid rock should have an inside batter of one hor- izontal to four vertical. This affords some latitude for projecting loads, which might otherwise be crowded off the road. Roads excavated in plowing or picking ground should have a batter of one horizontal to one vertical—in other words, the inside bank should have a 45-degree slope; where steeper, there is too great injury from ice and water. This batter can always be secured without ex- cessive cost. On sidehill grades made for wagon roads an outside bank made of loose material can generally be depended on to stand permanently at an angle of 40 degrees with the horizon. If made of rock, it will sometimes stand at a steeper angle and sometimes not, depending upon the tendency of the rock to disintegrate, so that it is best to adopt a 40-degree slope as a basis for estimates. Dry-stone retaining walls should be used only where indispensable, and should never be steeper than one horizontal to two vertical. WIDTH. Cost, amount of traffic, safety, and comfort are the factors which must determine the width of a wagonroad. Comfortand convenience are of course promoted by a double track. Extensive traffic demands it. Safety requires so much of it that teams can pass and never be caught unawares on a single track. The proper width for double track and heavy teams is 16 feet, while it is possible for them to pass with extra caution ona 14-foot track on a straight road. For single track and greatest safety a desirable width is 12 feet, while 10 feet is generally safe, and an 8-foot roadbed can be driven over if the inside bank has sufficient batter, so that vehicles will not be crowded off. Double tracks for turnouts should never be less than 75 feet long. These should be- visible from each other and from every foot of the intervening distance. Before laying outa road, the maximum distance 190 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. between turnouts should be determined from all the conditions, especial consideration being given to the amount of travel likely to occur at night, and this maximum should never be exceeded. Where the con- ditions make it imperative to establish this maximum at over 100 feet for turnouts adapted to heavy traffic, it is well to widen the road for shert distances at intervening intervals for light vehicles. A width of 12 feet will allow light vehicles to pass each other in emergency. Where the utmost economy must be observed, this extra width for a short turnout can be secured by cutting into the bank previously con- structed with proper batter. Of course, it makes the inside bank too steep at these places, but it is a choice of evils in the interest of greater convenience and safety to light traffic. (Pl XX, fig. 1.) It is obvious that in sidehill grades excavated in picking or plowing ground, that portion of the road that is formed from the original ma- terial in place must for a time be more solid than the portion built out. It is consequently desirable on roads designed for very heavy trafic that all the wheels of heavily loaded wagons should rest upon the original solid formation. Standard vehicles are either 4 feet 6 inches or 5 feet between the centers of the tires. A very heavily loaded wagon can not be restricted to the same width of roadbed as light vehicles, but should be allowed a latitude of 8 feet for varying conditions of draft, road surface, ete. A hillside composed of picking or plowing ground is rarely ever steeper than 35 degrees. A hillside grade formed by cutting 8 feet into such material makes an excellent road. The inside 8 feet of it is solid from the first and adapted to the heaviest traffic, and the balance, made by the fill, is sufficiently wide to allow lighter wagons to pass. The following table shows the total width of such a roadbed for vari- ous sidehill slopes and the amount of material which must be excavated for each 100 feet of roadbed: Widths of roadbed for various sidehill slopes, with amount of material excavated per 100 feet. EIGHT-FOOT CUT INTO PLOWING OR PICKING GROUND. Excava- Width) | Tiaras Maope. -@2dePy| iain, | tion per Degrees. Feet. Feet. |Cubicyds. 5 7.89 15. 89 11. 26 10 7. 83 15. 83 25. 33 15 7.02 15. 72 43. 41 20 7. 52 15. 52 67.41 25 7.29 15. 29 103. 41 6, 87 14. 87 161. 78 5. 94 13. 94 276. 59 Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900 PLATE XX. Fic. 1.—TOLLGATE ON PIKES PEAK ROAD, COLORADO. Fig. 2.—SILVERTON TOLL ROAD, COLORADO. MOUNTAIN ROADS. 191 The following diagram and mathematical discussion are given to show the method by which the results presented in the table on page 190 were obtained: Diagram and equation for obtaining results in preceding table. A=cad=sidehill slope. a=bd=cd=vertical depth of cut. 8 tan A 1: tan 4::8+a:2. = ee tae A 2=ea=width of road made by fill. z+8 ft.=total width of road. y=gf=vertical depth of fill. me pk Ob yz=8x. faa z=y [tan (90°—A)—tan 50°]. 8r=y"[tan (90°—A)—tan 50°]. v=a/ 8x — tan (90°—A)—tan 50°. x 8a z=[tam (90°—A)—tam 50°],/—_____. 8& Pere oa Wie (90°—A)—tan 50°, 2=V 8x [tan (90°— A) —tan 50°). In the above the inside bank is calculated with a batter of 45 degrees (one to one) and the outside with a batter of 40 degrees. The results of any other depth of cut may be quickly obtained from the table by simple proportion. For instance, for a cut of 7 feet into the bank the total width of roadbed would be seven-eighths of the figures in the table; for a cut of 9 feet the total width would be nine-eighths; for a cut of 10 feet, ten-eighths, etc. Applying this to a 25-degree slope, we find that a 10-foot cut into the bank gives a total width of 19.11; a cut of 9 feet gives 17.20; one of 7 feet, 13.38; one of 6 feet, 11.47, and one of 4 feet, 7.64. Amounts of material which must be excavated increase or decrease as the squares of the depth. To illustrate: For a cut of 7 feet the amount of excavation would be #¢ of the amount given in the table; - for a cut of 6 feet, #4; for a cut of 5 feet, 24, and for acut of 4 feet, #4. 192 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The following tables show the total widths of roadbed and amounts of excavation for a cut of 6 feet and for a cut of 5 feet: Total widths of roadbed and amounts of excavation for cuts of 6 feet and & feet. SIX-FOOT CUT INTO PLOWING OR PICKING FIVE-FOOT CUT INTO PLOWING OR PICKING GROUND. GROUND. Sidehill | Total | Excava- Sidehi! Total | Excava- slope. width. poe slope. | width. | core 2 | eet. Degrees. Feet. Cubic yds. Degrees. | Feet. |Cubie yds. 5 11. 92 6. 33 5 | — 9.98 4. 40 10 11.87 14. 25 10 | ° 9.89 9.97 15 11.79 24. 41 15 | 9.83 | 16.96 20 | 11.64 37. 89 20 | 9.70 | 26.33 95 | 11.47 58. 15 2 | 9.56 | 140.41 30.) 11.15 | 91 30 9.30 63.19 35 | 10. 45 | 155. 59 | 35 8.71 108. 06 In the above tables no account is taken of either increase or shrink- age in bulk of such material. On shallow fills of this nature the first effect would be a slight increase in bulk, which would tend to make the road a trifle wider, but the ultimate result would be practically what the figures in the tables indicate. That tendency always acting for the outside of the road to become lower and the inside higher must be overcome by repairs. We see from the tables that while we should cut 8 feet into the bank for a double-track road a cut of 5 feet will give a practical single-track road with only ?$ as much excavation, or that the double-track road requires more than two and one-half times as much excavation as a single track. In sidehill grades in rock the conditions are very different. Rock excavations are made by blasting, which throws a large proportion of the rock down the hill, and consequently the material thus broken out can not be depended on with any certainty for fill. That which does remain available increases in bulk about 50 per cent. On rock slopes up to 20 degrees, unless very smooth and slippery, a fill will stand, the natural friction of the surface being sufficient to hold it firmly. Above 20 degrees this can not be relied upon, and any rock fills made on such slopes must be very carefully secured at the bottom to prevent sliding. As stated above, while a bank made of broken rock will often stand with a steeper batter, it is not safe to figure on more than 40 degrees. When the natural surface of the rock is too steep to hold a fill it is often the better practice to cut the entire roadbed out of the solid rock. A roadbed on a solid rock shelf is absolutely secure and in no danger of giving way without warning, because cribbing becomes rot- ten or retaining walls fail. Such a roadbed for single track should be 10 feet wide, carefully protected on the outside by a guard log not less than a foot in diameter at the small end, firmly bolted to the MOUNTAIN ROADS. 193 rock. The amount of excavation in solid rock on different hillside slopes to obtain such a roadbed is shown in the following table, accom. panied by diagram and mathematical discussion illustrating how the results were obtained: Amount of excavation in 10-foot cut into solid rock. ! * +77 | Excava- Side ie Sidehill | tion per Slope. | 100 feet. Degrees. | Cubic yds. 5 16. ¢ 10 34. 15 53. 3¢ 20 74. 25 97. 30 125. A=bad=sidehill slope. 35 157.04 x=cd=horizontal depth of cut. 4x=bd=vertical depth of cut. 1:tan A::10+2:Aa. 4z=% tan A+10 tan A. _ 10 tan A. a te .toan A ie 40 196. 30 Z | The above table can be used for deeper cuts by remembering that the amount of material varies as the square of the depth of the cut. For instance, an 11-foot cut will require +3} the excavation shown in the table; a 12-foot cut, 444, etc. A preliminary survey of a contemplated line with some simple clinometer, determining the sidehill slopes for each 100 feet, and noting whether in solid rock or otherwise, will furnish the basis for an approximate estimate of the cutting, which is always by far the largest item of cost in a mountain road. THE BEST PRACTICE IN CURVES. The minimum curve allowable on mountain roads has the are of a circle with a 30-feot radius for its outer edge. Al! sharp curves and their approaches from each direction should be level. This principle, of such great importance to the efficiency of mountain roads, is gen- erally either not understood or ignored. A moment’s reflection will convince anyone that safety demands it, and that on such sharp curves a four-horse or six-horse team, to pull its maximum load, must not have any impediment from grade, as the wheel horses do most of the pulling. All curves on steep grades should be equated (the grade lightened) and the roadbed widened. No universal rule for this can be laid down, but the best practice demands it and good judgment in locating always considers it. Where a road winds backward and forward up a hill in approxi- mately parallel lines the turns are called switchbacks. They are expensive and very undesirable. Where possible, they should be 194 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. _ avoided, but when indispensable they come under the rule above laid down for minimum curvature and freedom from grade. Wherever a bridge is approached by a curve its end should be flar- ing and the roadbed made wide and level. Curved approaches to bridges are of course very undesirable, and should be avoided if prac- ticable. STAKING OUT THE ROAD LINE. Staking out the road line must be done by a surveyor with a transit and target rod, set each time at the height of the instrument (horizon- tal axis of telescope). All grades can be determined with sufficient accuracy for wagon roads by angles of elevation from the horizontal. These angles are obtained from any table of tangents. An angle of elevation of 1 degree and 9 minutes gives a 2 per cent slope; an angle of 2 degrees 52 minutes a 5 per, cent slope; an angle of 4 degrees 35 minutes an 8 per cent slope; an angle of 5 degrees 43 minutes a 10 per cent slope, and an angle of, 6 degrees 51 minutes a 12 per cent slope. An Abney level (also called a pocket altimeter) is a very valuable instrument in laying out a road line. With it one can make a pre- liminary reconnoissance without being burdened with a transit. On sidehill grades we stake the outside of the cut at grade. Slope stakes must be set to determine where the inside line of the cut begins. These can be set with sufficient accuracy with a 12-foot straightedge, a clinometer, and a tapeline. An Abney level and a tapeline are better still. The surveyor can make himself a little table, which will show the distance from his eye to the foot of the slope stake for each five minutes difference in elevation registered by his Abney level for the various widths of cut to be used—one. table for rock cuts and one for picking or plowing ground. Se DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION. In constructing mountain roads a sidehill plow with reversible share isa sine qua non. The writer has seen six strong mules and four men working hard to run a furrow uphill, when two animals, attached tandem to a sidehill plow, and two men could have done more work and with much greater ease. It is surprising how rapidly a sidehill grade can be constructed with such a plow and a scraper. When the two lines of stakes are in (grade and slope stakes), you start right and you come out right. Your inside bank has the right batter and your road the full width you meant it should have. It is very common toe see a contractor on a mountain road, who attempts.to grade without slope stakes, find his roadbed too narrow. It is too late for him te use his plow, and he must widen out with pick and shovel, the last operation costing perhaps as much as the entire grading should haye cost if done rightly from the start. (Pl. XX, fig. 2.) Lak ie, MOUNTAIN ROADS, 195 SLIDE ROCK. In the mountains we often find the hillside slopes covered with broken stone of various sizes. This we call slide rock. This slide rock may be very coarse and the surface extremely ragged, when it is called ‘‘heayy slide.” It may be fine and bound together by soil, in which case it can be plowed. It may be fine and dry and run just like dry sand when one attempts to walk on it or otherwise disturb it; this is ealled ‘fine slide rock.” To construct a road in coarse slide we build a.retaining wall on the outside of the grade of large rocks weigh- ing not less than 75 pounds each. We then shape our roadbed, making it as smooth as possible with the material at hand, and cover this sur- face with fine slide. All rock retaining walls for mountain roads when aid up dry should have a batter of one horizontal to two vertical. They should only be used where the filling behind them is coarse rock. If used to hold lcose material with a batter of one to two, they may be eradually crowded out and the bank give away. If made less steep than one horizontal to two vertical to hold loose material, the method is too expensive to be ordinarily practicable. Coarse and rough and discouraging as heavy slide may look, the very best results may be obtained in it if the entire process is- accomplished carefully and con- scientiously. It furnishes an absolutely solid, perfectly drained road foundation, is unaffected by the elements, and requires less outlay for repairs than any other variety of mountain road. Probably the most perplexing material which the inexperienced road builder encounters in building a road is fine slide rock. It appears to be so utterly unstable in every way that he does not know how to attack it, and it seems impossible to obtain either definite or satisfac- tory results. He can not plow or scrape it. ~Neither he nor his ani- mals ean keep their footing in it. Fortunately, patches of slide rock are never very long, and while the process of making a road across it is tedious and somewhat expensive, it can always be successfully accomplished. The following instructions carefully observed will always yield sat- isfactory and gratifying results: Stake out the grade line, setting the stakes about 25 feet apart and driving them down as firmly as possible. They will stay in place for a time if put in deeply enough. Slope stakes in fine slide rock are useless. As it always stands at about the same slope (35 degrees), the process is very uniform. For a single track, put up another row of stakes vertically 7 feet below the grade stakes; for a double track, 10 feet vertically below. ‘These lower stakes determine the foot of the cribbing which must hold the road. It is thus constructed: The logs should never be less than 10 inches in diameter at the small end, and the larger the better. The crosspieces should be uniformly 8 inches in diameter. That kind of 196 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. available wood should be selected which experience has shown will rot most slowly, and all bark must be carefully removed. The logs need not be of any definite length, but the courses should always break joints. Now, beginning at the lower row of -stakes with pick and shovel, make a bench, and on its outside edge carefully bed the bottom log. Then dig into the bank and bed each crosspiece. These should be 5 feet apart from center to center, with cross notches to fit triangu- lar edges in the logs, just as house logs are fitted together. This notching should be done with much care to permit the logs to just touch, so that the crosspieces may be weakened as little as possible. The proper length for these crosspieces is 8 feet. They should never be bedded level, but always with a downward slope into the bank. With time and patience the lower row can be properly bedded and a good foundation for the cribbing secured. A dozen pointed inch steel bars driven in a row 3 inches apart, sloping into the bank, will help materially to hold back the slide while digging to bed crosspieces. Proceed to build up the cribbing, filling in with slide as the work progresses, remembering that the batter of the structure should be one to four. When grade line is reached, there will be a 10-foot roadbed for sin- gle track and 16 for double track, fairly solid on the start and rapidly compacting with travel. Consolidation will be effected by a light dressing of some fine clayey material, if accessible, but this is not indis- pensable. Every road across fine slide must have careful attention. For all time fine slide will run down onto the roadbed, and it must be shoveled out occasionally, but this will not be a serious item of cost; in other ways the roadbed will be very satisfactory. It has natural drainage, the best of material is always at hand to fill ruts and chuck holes, and a hard, even surface can be maintained. The road grows a little wider each year. Cribbing thus constructed will last many years, and when it does finally give out, it will be found that a substantial foundation for the new road can be obtained without going nearly as deep as at first. CORDUROY. Tn laying out mountain roads we often encounter a spongy soil filled with water, especially above timber line. This almost invariably proves to be shallow with a substratum of good road material. This surface soil must be removed and a system of drainage adopted to keep surface water from running onto the roadbed. Occasionally corduroy is economical to meet such conditions, but it is a very unde- sirable expedient, and should be adopted only in extreme cases. As in cribbing, all corduroy material should be the most durable to be obtained and the bark removed. The stringers should be not less than 10 inches in diameter, 30 inches apart from center to center, carefully bedded to an approximate level, and their tops adjusted for MOUNTAIN ROADS. 197 uniform contact with the covering by the use of a long straightedge and adz. A row of 2-inch planking on each side, thoroughly secured by long spikes to each crosspiece, will prevent its rolling. If a cross- piece is occasionally bolted to its outside stringers, there will be no creeping. Lines should be carefully hewed for wheel and horse tracks. This is often overlooked, and corduroy then becomes an unbearable nuisance. Another mistake often made with corduroy is getting it too narrow. It ought never to be less than 12 feet wide for single track and 18 feet for double track. A thorough system of both cross and longitudinal drainage must be adopted to protect the corduroy from quickly rotting and to keep its foundation from settling unevenly. Rollers can rarely be used to advantage on ordinary mountain-road grades, which, if properly constructed, will soon pack hard under the wheels of heavy teams. If wide tires were required by law, roads would be protected, heavier loads could be hauled, and expenses of maintenance and operation much reduced. DRESSING. All mountains are made of rock, the soil with which they are in places covered being merely a product of rock decomposition and water concentration. We can generally find a rock dressing prepared by nature within convenient distance of a mountain road. We some- times find a complete material in one place and sometimes get better results by mixing two kinds. A hard rock in angular fragments makes an excellent road covering if we put some suitable fine material on top of it. Two inches is the maximum diameter allowable for any piece of road-covering material. Where the fragments are larger, it should be screened. Sometimes it is best to mix two kinds of rock, one hard and durable and the other disintegrating more rapidly through wear and chemical decomposition. Nothing ever takes the place of a rock covering for roads. It can always be cheaply obtained in a-‘mountain country. If nature does not furnish a suitable prepara- tion of it within economical distance, it can be cheaply prepared. Nearly any mountain county can secure a portable crushing outfit for not to exceed $500, and can find material to use it on within convenient hauling distance of any road. Most mountain roads at first require dressing only in stretches, and later for repairing holes and ruts and for maintaining a suitable inward slope. ae ge 4 2.78 236 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Haubner mentions a case in which fourteen months elapsed after the bite before the disease developed. - It is plain, therefore, that the rabies virus may retain its vitality and activity for a long time after it is deposited in the flesh of the animal body. How it can remain in the animal this length of time before it causes the disease is probably explained by the fact that it must reach the brain and spinal cord and multiply there before the disease develops. Now, the rabies virus is not able to penetrate through the body with the facility of many other forms of contagion; on the contrary, it appears necessary for it to be lodged in the circulating blood through a wounded vessel or to be deposited within the sheath of a nerve. If placed in the connective tissue beneath the skin in such manner as to avoid blood vessels and nerves it does not cause disease. In the cases of long incubation the virus has had difficulty in reaching the central organs of the nervous system. Admitting, as we must, that a year may elapse between inoculation and the appearance of the disease, we must also accept the still rarer cases of fourteen months’ incubation as not improbable. How absurd it is, therefore, to consider a bitten dog as safe after it has been quar- antined for three or four weeks, as is the usual custom. Of the 144 cases carefully observed and brought together in the above table, 82, or 57 per cent, failed to develop the disease until after thirty days. A period of more than five weeks was required by 39.5 per cent of the animals, and 21.5 per cent showed no symptoms for seven weeks after being bitten. How long, then, should a dog that has been bitten by a rabid animal be quarantined before it is safe to mingle with the family and with other persons and animals? Is three months sufficient? Evi- dently not, for 3.47 per cent of this lot of dogs developed the disease after more than ninety days had passed. For absolute safety, every dog bitten by a rabid animal should be destroyed. For comparative safety a quarantine of one year is required. DOES RABIES ORIGINATE SPONTANEOUSLY ? Most of the older writers on rabies, those whose writings appeared before 1865, admitted that the disease might develop spontaneously in the bodies of certain animals as a result of certain conditions of life and atmospheric influences. These same writers believed that most other contagious diseases frequently originated in the same manner. It was a time when the spontaneous generation of many living things was freely admitted, and when the ignorance of the nature of all kinds of contagion, with the exception of the larger animal parasites, was complete and impenetrable. Science had not yet definitely passed upon the doctrine of the spontaneous and continuous generation of living matter. It was not a very long time before this when it was believed that the RABIES: ITS CAUSE, FREQUENCY, AND TREATMENT. 93'C mite which causes scabies or itch was continuously developed sponta- neously, and that it was folly for people to try to protect themselves from this disease. About the same time, or possibly a little earlier, it was thought that lice were spontaneously developed, and that both the domesticated animals and mankind were doomed to suffer from them for all time. Still earlier there was a common belief that crocodiles and other animal life developed spontaneously from the mud of the rivers and lakes in which they were found. The study of natural history and the progress of science disproved one by one these ancient beliefs, and made it clear that all animals developed from preexisting animals of the same kind. Even lice and the mites of scabies were found to be subject to this invariable law of nature, and the eradication of such pests was taken up with energy and perseverance. The rarity with which these parasitic pests are encoun- tered among civilized people of the present day proves the value of correct views upon such questions. The last point to be yielded by the believers in spontaneous genera- tion was the origin of the protozoa and bacteria, microscopic animals and plants so small that their life history could be studied only with great difficulty. It was finally shown, however, that even these infi- nitely small organisms obeyed the general law of nature and propagated and developed from ancestors, each species after its kind, and that in the absence of ancestors not even these low forms of life could appear. About this time it began to be suspected that the cause of the con- tagious fevers was microscopic organisms, which were able to live a parasitic life in the bodies of men and the largeranimals. After many observations pointing in that direction it was finally demonstrated in 1876 that the cause of anthrax was a bacillus, and shortly afterwards that fowl cholera, septicemia, hog cholera, tetanus, blackleg, tuber- culosis, and various other diseases were due to similar microscopic vegetable organisms, each disease being caused by its own distinct species of germs. It was also shown that malaria, Texas fever, and some other diseases were caused by microscopic animal organisms belonging to the protozoa, and that here again each disease had its own definite and distinct species. In every case the minute plant or animal parasite had its own definite form and certain biological characters by which it might be distinguished from all other living things. Each species multiplies and propagates its kind, and there is no more eyvi- dence here than elsewhere in nature to sustain the doctrine of the spontaneous appearance of living things. The first effect of these scientific demonstrations was to clear away a vast amount of rubbish which had accumulated in the standard teach- ings as to the cause of contagious diseases. If, for example, anthrax is caused by the Bacillus anthracis gaining entrance to the interior of the body and multiplying there, and if the disease can not be produced 238 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in the absence of this bacillus, then it becomes plain that the disease is not caused by electrical disturbances of the atmosphere, by too much food or too little food, by forage containing too much water or that which is too dry, by intense heat of summers or extreme cold of win- ters, or indeed by any of the other influences to which the develop- ment of the disease had been usually attributed. It was contact with substances containing the bacillus which produced the disease, and when this bacillus gained access to the animal body the disease devel- oped without reference to the atmospheric conditions, the food, or the other elements of the environment. The comprehension of this fact led Bouley and other great patholo- gists to revise their opinions regarding the origin of many contagious diseases. It had been held that glanders originated spontaneously from overwork and insufficient food; that bovine pleuropneumonia developed as a result of exposure of cattle in the mountains of Europe to extremely low temperatures; that cattle plague arose spontaneously in eastern Europe, and particularly on the steppes of Russia, and that rabies in the dog resulted from unfavorable conditions of life. The demonstration of the germ theory of contagion, which was quite unex- pected by the majority of medical men, completely overturned these old views, based upon an entirely different hypothesis. The idea of spontaneous development, of origin de novo, was generally abandoned, and the further scientific researches have been pushed, the more incon- testible does it appear that the one and only factor of consequence in the production of these diseases is the entrance of the disease germ into the interior of the animal body, where it can multiply and dis- seminate itself. If proper measures are taken to protect animals from the bacilli of anthrax, of glanders, of pleuropneumonia, they do not contract these diseases. Investigation of cattle plague in central Europe indicated that the disease always came from the East. Investigations on the steppes of Russia showed that it did not originate there, but came from the plains of Asia. Investigations in Asia indicate that even there the disease is always the result of contagion from some other affected animal. In the same manner, investigations of rabies failed to bring out any evidence to indicate that the disease might originate in any way except by contagion, that is, by inoculation from an affected animal. It may, therefore, be accepted as practically certain that rabies does not develop spontaneously in any animal, but that it is always the result of inoculation from some other affected animal. If the doctrine of spontaneous generation, or abiogenesis, has been abandoned by scientific men, it has by no means lost caste with many persons who consider themselves philosophers; and these persons hesi- tate to accept or indeed bitterly contest the conclusion of science, which has been outlined above. If, they ask, every dog with rabies RABIES: ITS CAUSE, FREQUENCY, AND TREATMENT. 239 contracted the disease from some other dog affected with it, how did the first dog get it? This is a question as to the origin of things, which we may with equal reason ask in regard to all living organisms. If every dog is brought into the world by the sexual union of two other dogs, where did the first dog come from? This question is just as dif- ficult, but no more difficult than the other. Because we have in our question implied the philosophical absurdity of a series of dogs with- out a beginning, we have not convinced anyone that dogs can originate in any manner except by ancestors of their own species; nor is the similar question as to the origin of the first case of rabies any better reason for accepting the theory of the spontaneous origin at the pres- sent day of this disease. There are many diseases of which it may be said that in our time and in our country they arise only by contagion. Prominent among these are smallpox, scarlet fever, measles,; cholera, tuberculosis, glanders, bovine pleuropneumonia, foot-and-mouth disease, and rabies. Recorded history does not tell us where and under what circum- stances the first case of any of these diseases appeared, any more than it tells us where and under what circumstances the first dog appeared. We know by observation, and by observation alone, how dogs are propagated at the present day, and we accept observation as conclusive upon this point. Why should we not accept observation and experimentation as conclusive in regard to the propagation of a contagious disease ? While we can not reasonably expect at this late day to decide the cause of contagious diseases by speculation as to the first appearance among animals of such diseases, it is legitimate to make such an inquiry in order to obtain a better understanding of these plagues. Science has made great progress in explaining the origin of species, and even in tracing in general terms the development of life upon earth; and while it can not say definitely where, when, and how the dog originated, it has been made plain that in some prehistoric age the dog developed from some earlier and related animal form, not by a sudden transformation, but by gradual transition. And in the same manner this early ancestor of the dog developed from a still earlier ancestor, doubtless quite different from the dog as he is to-day. To be brief, in tracing the development of the dog, we should be obliged to go back, step by step, toward the dawn of creation, toward simpler and simpler forms of life, until the primordial germ is reached. Just where in this long series of succeeding forms or just when in the countless ages that have elapsed since the beginning of the series the disease known as rabies appeared it is impossible to say. It may have been in comparatively recent times, and when the dog had arrived at substantially its present form and development, or it may have been in some previous geologic age, when the conditions of environment, 240 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. upon all parts of the earth were far different from what they are at the present day. It is not to be supposed that the strange animals whose fossil remains prove their existence many thousands of years ago were free from contagious diseases any more than are the animals which live to-day; but whether the diseases of the prehistoric animal species were propa- gated from animal to animal until our time, or whether they disappeared and were replaced by more recent plagues, it is now impossible to say. A study of the communicable diseases indicates that most if not all of them are caused by parasitic organisms. Indeed, the animal body has become the host of a multitude of parasites, most astonishing because of the number of species and the great variety of forms. All of these parasites probably at one time in the existence of their species, or of the ancestors of their species, lived elsewhere in nature. Under certain conditions they were attracted to certain kinds of animals; they found they could live upon or within them; they adapted them- selves to these new conditions; their form and their physiological requirements were gradually changed, until finally in the course of time they could not exist elsewhere. They were then strictly parasitic. So far has this development and adaptation to the conditions of environment gone that we find different species and varieties of lice, of mites, and of worms living upon each different species of animals, and in most cases these parasites perish if transferred from one species of animals to another species. If, therefore, these parasites can not exist when transferred toa different species of animals from that upon which they have developed and to which they have become adapted, there is all the more reason why they can not exist in nature else- where than upon or within the animal body. Hence, we find animal species living as parasites upon other animals, and having no individ- uals of their species living a nonparasitic existence. They have devel- oped and have been modified since they began their existence as parasites, just as the species of animals living free in nature have been modified. Consequently, if an animal becomes infected with lice or mites at the present day it must get them from some other animal which bears them. The adaptation and modification of the bacteria and protozoa which cause the contagious diseases has probably occurred in much the same manner as that of the larger animal parasites which we have been con- sidering. The glanders bacillus has lived a parasitic existence in the bodies of animals of the horse kind for many thousands of years. It is no longer able to multiply or live for any considerable time in nature outside of the animal body. It is therefore a strictly parasitic organ- ism. The bacillus of tuberculosis is even further developed as a par- asite than the bacillus of glanders, as it is much more difficult to culti- vate in the laboratory even under the most carefully adjusted conditions. RABIES: ITS CAUSE, FREQUENCY, AND TREATMENT. 241 There is no reason to suppose that any bacilli exist in nature having the same biolovical characteristics as have the glanders and tubercu- losis bacilli. The exact form of the rabies virus has never been satisfactorily determined, but what we know of it leads to the conclusion that it is a parasitic organism of some kind, which has been modified by thou- sands of years of existence within the animal body, and which has no counterpart elsewhere in nature. Inoculation with it is easy; it has specialized as to the conditions of life to such an extent that it multiplies only in the brain, spinal cord, nerve trunks, and a few glands; it can not be made to grow outside of the body by any methods now known. All of these facts indicate an obligatory parasitic existence. When or under what conditions in the prehistoric ages of the past it first became parasitic can never be known, nor can we determine at this late day how long a time was required to transform it from an organism which was only occasionally or accidentally parasitic into one which could live no other than a parasitic life. What appears certain is that for more than two thousand years rabies has been the same disease it is to-day; that it has been propagated by the same species of animals, manifested itself by the same symptoms, and produced the same fatal results. It is not unlikely that other microscopic organisms will from time to time take up their habitat in the animal body and become obligatory parasites. There are a number of different bacilli now known which are capable of living in the flesh and causing fatal disease, but which only do this under accidental conditions. Among these are the anthrax bacillus, the bacillus of blackleg, the bacillus of malignant cedema, and the bacillus of tetanus, all of which are deadly in their effects on ani- mals inoculated with them, but all of which lack some quality required for their rapid dissemination or for the ready infection of susceptible animals. Consequently, they do not usually spread from animal to animal. With slight modification the anthrax bacillus might become the most terrible of the known disease germs. But that such modifi- cations require time and conditions not often found, is proved by the fact that though this disease has been known since the beginning of medical knowledge, the bacillus has in the memory of man made no progress as a disease-producing organism, but on the contrary appears less capable to-day of gaining entrance to the tissues than it was two or three centuries ago. THE PREVENTION OF RABIES. It is unfortunate and inconsistent that those who pretend to love dogs most and to be most anxious for their welfare should be the ones who place the greatest obstacles in the way of attempts to control this disease. Of all animals, the dog is most often the victim of rabies, 249 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and he suffers not only from the disease, but from the reputation of propagating it. And to make the matter worse, he is still falsely accused of being a party to the spontaneous generation of the con- tagion. His true friends should come to the rescue and relieve him of this incubus, which he has borne so long. There is no contagious disease more easily eradicated than rabies. As the disease can only arise from contagion, and as the contagion is practically always transferred by a bite, and as the animals which do the biting are almost always dogs, it suffices to stop the dogs from biting for a period sufficient to cover the incubatory stage of the dis- ease, that is, for about a year, in order to stamp out the malady. As a scientific problem, therefore, the eradication of rabies is a very sim- ple matter, but as a practical question it is one of the most difficult which confronts the sanitarian. And this difficulty arises not from anything inherent in the work to be accomplished, but in the opposi- tion of those who own and keep dogs. The measures necessary for the eradication of rabies are two in number: (1) Destruction of worth- less, ownerless, and vagrant dogs; (2) efficient muzzling of all dogs which appear upon the streets or in public places. The dog tax and license are efficient means of securing the destruc- tion of worthless dogs, and if these are combined with the require- ment that every licensed dog shall wear a metal tag of special form, the ownerless and vagrant dogs may be at once recognized and cap- tured. As more than half of the dogs in the country are worthless or ownerless, this measure at once reduces very largely the canine population, and correspondingly lessens the material upon which the disease can work, as well as the chances of infection. An efficient muzzle prevents dogs from biting, and, therefore, pre- vents the propagation of rabies. Muzzling is for this reason the most effective measure with which to combat the disease. Public sentiment in this country is generally against muzzling, and this measure is either not adopted or it is so imperfectly enforced as to have no other effect than to irritate the supersensitive dog owners. In Germany and Great Britain muzzling has had an immediate and most marked effect in eradicating the contagion. . The effect of these measures depends entirely upon the energy and thoroughness with which they are enforced. There should be a dog- catching force adequate to the work, whose duty it should be to seize all dogs found in public places without tags and all dogs wearing inefli- cient muzzles, and if these animals are not redeemed within a specified time to destroy them. Usually the requirements for tags and muzzles are evaded by a large number of dog owners, and it is common to see on the streets of cities, where they are supposed to be in force, numerous dogs without tags, and even a greater number with muzzles that are of no value as a means of preventing the animal from biting. This is RABIES: ITS CAUSE, FREQUENCY, AND TREATMENT. 243 due to the fact that there is seldom a sufficient force of dog catchers, and that the sympathy of the community is with those who violate the law rather than with those who endeavor to enforce it. When there is an unusual prevalence of rabies among dogs, or when, unfortunately, some person contracts the disease, particularly if that person happens to be well known or prominent in the community, there may be a temporary exhibition of strict and energetic enforce- ment of the regulations. But as soon as the public alarm subsides the efforts are relaxed, the dog catcher disappears, the dogs are seen upon the streets with or without tags and muzzles, and all things go on as before the panic occurred. While the number of dogs is thus period- jcally reduced somewhat, it is seldom that this reduction is suflicient to have much effect upon the propagation of the disease. It is prob- able that the tendency at such times to keep dogs confined in order to prevent them from being seized has more influence in arresting the propagation of rabies than has the mere reduction in numbers. In nearly all cases when reliance has been placed upon the one measure of reducing the canine population the result has been unsatis- factory. What other disease would we attempt to stamp out by simply killing off one-fourth or one-third of the animals of the species affected ? And if this measure is not efficient with other diseases, why should we expect it to be with rabies? It appears self-evident from a sanitary point of view that there should be some direct measures instituted to prevent the propagation of the contagion. Such a measure would be the quarantine and confinement of all dogs fora sufficient time to cover the ordinary incubation period of rabies. As the enforced and con- tinuous confinement of dogs without open-air exercise for a prolonged period may be detrimental to the animals, they may be allowed in public places under such conditions as will absolutely prevent them from biting, that is, the animals should wear an efficient muzzle, or they should be es and led in leash. As rabies is only propa- gated in nature by biting, such a regulation, if thoroughly enforced, would at once stop the transmission of the disease and soon lead to its disappearance. When this measure is inaugurated, however, it is at once opposed by a large class of citizens who hold it to be cruel and unnecessary. Some muzzles are unquestionably cruel, but a properly made muzzle is not cruel, nor does it greatly inconvenience the dog after he becomes accustomed to it. The authorities should, therefore, prescribe the kind of muzzle to be used, and should select one which covers the mouth with a wire cage soas to prevent biting without interfering with the movements of the jaw and the ingestion of liquids. There have been many who have denied the utility of the muzzle, the strongest argument being that dogs do not wear it at home, and when they develop rabies and escape it is always when they are unmuzzled. Admitting the force of this argument, it is nevertheless 944 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. a fact that if all dogs were required to be muzzled when in public places, the appearance of a dog without a muzzle would at once attract attention, leading persons to avoid it and causing its early seizure by the authorities. Children might be instructed that an unmuzzled dog was dangerous and that they should keep at a distance from it, and especially that they should never touch or fondle such an animal. The results which have been obtained by muzzling justify its enforcement wherever there is an outbreak of rabies. Most of us have heard of the experience of Berlin with this measure about the middle of the century. From 1845 to 1853 there were received at the Berlin Veterinary School 278 rabid animals. This is an average of 85 a year. From March, 1852, to the same month in 1853 the number was 82, and from March, 1853, to the end of July there were 37 more. On July 20 it was ordered that the use of the muzzle should become general. From July to the close of the year but 6 cases were admit- ted. Only 4 cases were observed in the whole city during 1854, and but a single case in 1855. For the seven years following there was not a single case recorded.’ While some have attributed the disappearance of rabies from Berlin at the time mentioned to other causes, muzzling has been adopted in Germany as the principal reliance in repressing this disease. It appears that the number of cases of rabies in Berlin increased pro- gressively after 1863, until in 1868 it reached 66, declining again to 7 in 1870, only to increase in 1872 to 69. In 1875 a law was passed, extending to the whole of Prussia, which provides that all dogs sus- pected of rabies shall be immediately killed, as also all animals which it is evident have been bitten by rabid animals, and that all dogs in a district which has been infected by an outbreak of rabies shall be con- fined, or, when abroad, both muzzled and led. The technical section of the veterinary board in Berlin are of the opinion that the passing of this law, and not alone the existence of the muzzling order in that city, is the cause of the extinction of rabies in Berlin. No case has occurred there since 1883.” Consul-General Mason reports from Berlin to the State Department that ‘tin Berlin, Frankfort, and, so far as I know or can ascertain, in all cities and large towns in Germany, dogs are required to be muz- zled whenever they are on the street or public place, and this regula- tion is enforced in cities even when the dog is led or held in leash by the owner, or is harnessed for working purposes to a cart or other vehicle.” * . ‘Renault, cited by Bouley, in Rapport sur la Rage, Bul. de Acad. de Med., Paris, 1863, p. 725. Fleming: Rabies and Hydrophobia, p. 365. * Fleming: Paper read before the Seventh International Congress of Hygiene and Demography, London, 1891. ’ Consular Reports, June 19, 1900. RABIES: ITS CAUSE, FREQUENCY, AND TREATMENT. 245 Fleming states that ‘‘in Vienna rabies was entirely suppressed by eighteen months of stringent muzzling, but that in 1886 the muzzling order was rescinded and badges had to be worn on dog collars instead; in the following half year there was only one case of the disease, but in the next half year rabies became epidemic, and the muzzle had again to be worn, with the result that the malady soon subsided and disap- peared.” In Holland, before 1875, rabies was prevalent to a very serious extent, but in June of that year the use of the muzzle was ordered, with the result that in the autumn the number of cases fell to 41; in the next whole year there were 55 cases; in 1877 there were 14; in 1878 there were 4, and in 1879 there were 3. These, and the cases which have since been reported, occurred only on or near the frontier of Belgium, in which country the muzzle is not in use, though rabies is always prevalent. 1 In the Grand Duchy of Baden during the years 1871, 1872, 1873, 1874, and 1875 the number of cases of rabies was, respectively, 18, 37, 37, 50, and 43. Then the muzzle was rigorously applied, and in 1876 there were 28 cases; in 1877, 3; in 1878, 4; in 1879, 2; in 1880, 2; in 1881, 2; in 1882, 3; in 1883, 2; in 1884, 2. Since that year only 1 case has been observed, and that was a dog from Metz contaminated before its arrival in Baden. In Sweden rabies was at one time a somewhat common disease, and from 8 to 10 people died annually of hydrophobia; but, muzzling being enforced, and the importation of dogs prevented, rabies has been unknown for many years, and no deaths from hydrophobia have occurred since-1870. , The value of the muzzle in suppressing rabies has been perhaps best demonstrated in London on several occasions, and specially in 1885. In the previous years hydrophobia had increased to a very alarming extent in England, and no steps worthy of note had been taken to check the mortality. For London alone in that year no fewer than 27 deaths were reported as due to the bites of rabid dogs. A muzzling order was then enforced, and at the end of 1886 not a death was recorded. Unfortunately, the order prescribing the use of the muzzle was then rescinded, and in a few months a case of hydrophobia occurred in the south of London, soon to be followed by others, and in 1889, 10 deaths were registered. In July of that year the muzzling order was again issued and stringently carried out, and rabies and hydrophobia once more disappeared.’ In the whole of Great Britain the results from enforcing the muz- zling order have been phenomenal, both in the opposition encountered 'Fleming: Paper before Seventh International Congress of Hygiene and Demogra- phy, 1891, quoted by committee on public health of the Medical Society of the Dis- trict of Columbia, Bul. No. 25, Bureau Animal Industry. 246 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. by the authorities and in the successful eradication of the disease. The number of rabid dogs officially reported was, in 1887, 217; 1888, 160; 1889, 312. In the last-mentioned year muzzling was adopted, and the number of cases fell to 129 in 1890, 79 in 1891, and 38 in 1892. Then, owing to persistent opposition, muzzling was stopped, and the effect of withdrawing this measure was at once seen in the increase of rabies. In 1893 there were 93 cases; in 1894, 248, and in 1895, 672. At this point, owing te public alarm, muzzling was again enforced, reducing the number of cases in 1896 to 438, in 1897 to 151, in 1898 to 17, in 1899 to 9. As no case was discovered from November, 1899, to March, 1900, it was believed by the veterinary officer that the dis- ease had been extinguished from Great Britain. These examples are certainly sufficient to demonstrate the value of muzzling as a means of repressing rabies, and it may be added that in countries like France and Belgium, where muzzling has not been adopted, the disease continues to prevail to a very serious degree. THE SCALE INSECT AND MITE ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES.'* By C. L. Maruart, First Assistant, Division of Entomology. INTRODUCTION. Any consideration of the insect enemies of citrus plants must give large importance to the scale insects, or bark lice, which are not only very destructive on the orange and lemon and other citrus fruits, but are also the chief insect enemies of most other tropical and subtropical plants. Seale insects are, as a rule, small and inconspicuous singly, but they multiply so rapidly that very soon an entire plant becomes infested— trunk, limbs, leaves, and fruit. The infested tree is rarely killed out- right, but its growth may be almost completely checked and its fruit products rendered valueless. Next in importance to the scale insects are the mite enemies of the orange and lemon, as represented by the mite which causes the rusting of the orange in Florida and the silvering of the lemon in California, and also the leaf mite, known from its coloring as the six-spotted mite of the orange. These mites, occurring along with the scale insects and being subject to similar remedies, may properly be considered in the same connection. Of very great importance to the Florida grower of citrus fruits is the so-called white fly, the latter not representing a scale insect in its 1No one can discuss the insect enemies of citrus plants without acknowledging indebtedness, as the writer now does most heartily, to the very comprehensive and valuable work on this subject prepared by the late H. G. Hubbard and published by this Department in 1885, and which for many years has been the chief authority on the subject covered. One is struck to-day, fifteen years after its publication, with the sound, practical ideas contained in it, particularly on the subject of the control of the scale and other insects treated. Mr. Hubbard was a successful orange grower in Florida, as well as a thoroughly trained scientific man, and one of the closest observers of insects this country has produced. The practical side of Mr. Hubbard’s work is especially to be remembered also, because he was the deviser of the kero- sene-soap emulsion, which, with allied washes, has for many years been the lead- ing means of controlling scale insects. His work, entitled ‘‘Insects affecting the orange,’’ but really covering the whole subject of citrus insects, having long been out of print, Mr. Hubbard was, just prior to his unfortunate illness and death, col- lecting data for a new edition, to be published by the Department. It will be a source of lasting regret that he was not able to accomplish this undertaking. 247 248 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ordinary acceptation, but in the practical features of life history and habits coming in the same category, and hence properly considered with the true scale insects. There are a great many insect enemies of citrus plants other than the scale insects and mites, but; for this country, at least, these others, in the main, have no great economic importance, or are only very occasionally abundant enough to be especially destructive. In this category are the various leaf-feeding insects and some wood-boring species. At rare intervals some of these leaf-feeding species appear in numbers sufficient to defoliate trees more or less completely, or wood-borers may attack and hasten the death of frost-injured or other- wise weakened trees; but none of these insects calls for the constant attention and treatment which is necessary to prevent annual loss from scale insects. Occurring about the orange and other citrus trees will be seen also a great many other insects which play a beneficial réle, preying upon or parasitizing the scale insects living on these trees. It is very important to make the acquaintance of these beneficial species, more particularly to avoid, whenever possible, killing them in the warfare waged against the injurious ones. SomME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS BEARING ON Cirrus INSECTS. Before taking up the consideration of the several species to be treated in this paper some general topics may be discussed, such as the influences which determine the destructiveness of these insects, the species characteristic of different regions, and the nature of the injury occasioned by them, natural enemies, remedies, and means of control. INFLUENCE OF CULTIVATION, PRUNING, AND CLIMATE. It is just as true in the case of the orange and lemon as it is with other plants that negligent cultivation and improper care, or any unfavorable conditions of climate which weaken the vitality and vigor of the tree, encourage the presence and multiplication of the insect enemies. On the other hand, there is something in the vigor of growth and condition of the sap of a healthy tree, living under the best con- ditions, which is repellant to insect attack; and it will be almost inva- riably found that the unhealthy tree is the one first severely infested with scale insects or mites. This does not mean that vigorous, healthy trees will not be attacked, but on such trees insects seem to be less apt to multiply abundantly and effect the complete investment that is often noted in the case of a weak or improperly nourished plant. Therefore, as a means of protection against scale insects, a proper system of cultivation and pruning is highly important. The value of pruning as a means of preventing scale-insect injury can not be too strongly urged. Scale insects thrive best where they SCALE INSECT AND MITE ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES. 249 are protected from direct sunlight and free movement of the air, hence trees of dense growth, unpruned, are almost certain to have their cen- ters, at least, scaly. A well-opened and pruned tree, in which free access is given to light and air, is much less apt to be badly attacked than a dense, thick-headed tree, the interior of which is entirely shaded and protected and the moisture held, thus furnishing the conditions most favorable for the well-being of scale insects. Asa general propo- sition, therefore, light, air, and dryness are inimical to scale insects, and, conversely, shade and dense habit of growth, protecting from air currents and holding moisture, are favorable. The truth of this is often exhibited in the citrus districts of the Pacific coast. Very frequently the high temperature and dryness of the long summers, if allowed to have full action on well-opened and pruned trees, is as destructive to scale insects as would be a thor- ough treatment with an insecticide, in some cases killing the scales out almost completely. Similarly, scale insects are’more apt to be abun- dant and troublesome in moist, warm regions than in regions with even higher temperature, but with a very much lower rate of humidity. In general, therefore, the citrus orchards in Florida, Jamaica, and the West Indies suffer more than do those in California. On the Pacitic coast, also, the orchards in moist ocean districts are much more apt to be infested than those farther inland with greater elevation and enjoying a lower degree of humidity, with occasional much higher summer temperatures. The black scale in California has, in places, been almost entirely exterminated by the temperature holding for several days above 100° F., and a similar effect is noted with other species also. PERIODICITY IN SCALE INSECTS. With most insects injurious to cultivated plants a periodicity is noted in their occurrence in injurious numbers. In the case of subtropical species like the scale insects affecting citrus plants, this periodicity is ot always as marked as it is with insects affecting deciduous plants ‘nd field crops in temperate latitudes. While it is true that scale insects have always occurred more or less on citrus trees in the Old ‘World and wherever these plants are cultivated, investigation will un- doubtedly show that there have been more or less well-marked periods of destructive abundance separated by periods of comparative scarcity. In illustration of this may be noted the epidemic referred to by Hub- bard as prevailing throughout the entire orange, lemon, and olive dis- tricts along the shores of the Mediterranean from Italy to Spain dur- ing the first decade of the present century, to the consternation of the inhabitants, who were dependent upon these fruits. This unusual scale epidemic subsided, however, and very largely of itself, efficient remedies at that date being practically unknown. 4 41900——17 250 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In the same way in this country, scale infestation varies consider- ably from year to year. The fluted scale, in California, increased enormously during the first ten or fifteen years and threatened the very existence of the citrus cultures. Thanks, however, to the Aus- tralian ladybird, and, doubtless also, to the fact that many native pre- daceous and parasitic insects became acquainted with it, it is no longer feared in California. The long scale in Florida, also, was much more injurious in the first years of its activity than it has been since. In 1896 the black scale was very abundant and destructive in the orange districts about Riverside. Partly owing to adverse climatic conditions and partly owing also to natural enemies, this insect has almost dis- appeared from this district, which is new one of the least affected by scale insects. These facts are merely cited to give the citrus grower whatever en- couragement they may offer, but not in the least witli the idea of belit- tling for an instant the aah of remedial operations for the prompt and immediate control of scale insects whenever and wherever they appear. While, therefore, we may reasonably anticipate the necessity of yearly control of one sort or another, we may yet hope that any unusual abundance, perhaps exceeding our efforts at control, may not necessarily represent a permanent, but rather a temporary condition. SPECIES CHARACTERISTIC OF FLORIDA AND THE PACIFIC COAST, RESPECTIVELY. The culture of citrus fruits in this country, limited as it is in the main to two widely separated localities, Florida and the Gulf region on the one hand,and the Pacific coast region on the other, has presented in the past, perhaps more than at present, a distinct variation for the two regions in the character of the scale and other insect enemies. This is very naturally to be expected in view of the difference in cli- matic conditions exhibited by these two regions, one having practically a desert climate with scant rains in winter, depending almost entirely on irrigation, and the other a very moist climate with frequent rain- falls and a very high rate of humidity. Until recent years, the scale insect enemies of distinct importance in California have been limited to very few species, notably the black scale and the California red scale, together with the so-called ‘‘ yellow” variety of the latter, and, prior to the introduction of the Australian ladybird, the fluted scale. In Florida and the Gulf districts the species of greatest importance are the long and purple scales, the Florida red scale, the chaff scale, and the white fly, the latter, as already explained, closely resembling but not representing a true scale insect. The rust mite and the six- spotted mite, long known in Florida only, have in recent years been SCALE INSECT AND MITE ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES. 251 carried to California, and are slowly invading the southern citrus dis- tricts of that State. The other insect enemies of the orange and lemon, also formerly characteristic of one or the other of these two regions, are rapidly becoming common to both, although in point of injurious abundance the distinction between the two regions still, in the main, holds. The black scale occurs in Florida but is not troublesome at all, and the California red scale has not, apparently, been able to establish itself in Florida, but is very troublesome on some of the West Indian islands. . The fluted scale, introduced in one locality in Florida in 1893, has spread locally very slowly, not appearing elsewhere so far as known. On the other hand, the distinctive Florida scales have all been taken to California and are slowly establishing themselves, but so far have not assumed the injurious réle in California which they play in Florida. NATURE OF THE INJURY OCCASIONED BY SCALE INSECTS. The damage occasioned by scale insects is of two kinds. The first and principal injury is the extraction of the juices of the plant, the scale insect in its relation to its food plant being a mere pumping machine, which is continually absorbing the sap from its host. Ina general way the scale insect isa mere sack with sucking mouth parts, the latter consisting of a long, slender proboscis, or beak, which is thrust deeply into whatever portion of the plant the insect may be resting upon—bark, leaf, or fruit. While the amount of sap extracted by a single insect is very small, when multiplied by millions it greatly depletes the juices of the plant. Very often the amount taken up by the scale insect is ereatly in excess of its own needs, and is excreted in the form of the so-called ‘‘ honeydew,” which accumulates in drops and spreads out over the bark or Jeaf in the form of a sticky liquid. This liquid attracts ants in great numbers, which very often gives rise to the belief that the ants are depredating on the plant, instead of, as the fact is, merely being attracted by the honeydew, which they are actively collecting. — The second form of injury caused by scale insects results largely from this honeydew exeretion, which not only spreads over the leaves and fruit and prevents the normal respiration of the leaves and the development of the plant, but a black fungus develops in the sweetish liquid and ultimately thickly covers the leaves, twigs, and fruit, still further stifling the plant and reducing the marketable value of its products. It very often happens, therefore, that the grower is more anxious to avoid the presence of this fungus which follows the scale insect attack than the injury by the scale insect itself. Associated with the damage due to the absorption of the juices of the plant by the scale insect is very often a poisoning of the plant itself caused by the irritation excited by the beak of the insect or by DHE. YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. some liquid injected by the beak. In the case of the orange, lemon, and other citrus fruits, this injury is not so apparent as it is with the scale insects attacking deciduous plants, but it undoubtedly occurs with citrus plants, to some extent, at least. Another reason for the extreme injury wrought by the scale insects arises from the fact that they are active the whole year round in climates where citrus trees can be grown. Their greatest activity and most rapid breeding period is during the summer months, and espe- cially from May to August, or with very little check until October or November. In the winter season, or rainy season, they are more dormant and, while breeding continues to a greater or less extent, it is at a very much lessened rate. THE NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE CITRUS SCALE INSECTS. Attention has already been drawn to the great desirability of pro- tecting and encouraging the natural enemies of scale insects. The natural predaceous enemies of scale insects of greatest importance are various species of ladybirds, as illustrated by the Australian ladybirds, imported to control the fluted and black scales, and a great many native species, which are very effective agents in the control of these and other scale insects. The work of ladybirds is especially impor- tant against the young of the armored scale and against the softer and freely-moving scale insects which secrete no protective covering. Whenever, therefore, ladybirds of any species are found to be abun- dant on any scale-covered tree, they may be safely recognized as friends and working in the interest of the grower. If they are very abundant, indeed, it may be even unwise to fumigate or spray. The black scale has been completely controlled on certain ranches in Cali- fornia by its imported ladybird enemy, and this control has been brought about by the entire cessation of all insecticide operations. Most of our ladybirds, however, will probably stand a spraying with- out being killed, and, as a rule, it is hardly worth while to take the chance of loss to the fruit while waiting for the ladybird enemies to do their work. The experience, however, on the Cooper ranch and at other localities in California has certainly demonstrated the advantage of giving the ladybird enemies a fair chance. Those interested in this subject should consult the article on ‘* Insect control in California,” by the writer, published in the Yearbook of this Department for 1896, and also the portions of the present paper relating to the black and the fiuted scale. : The other important class of enemies of scale insects are the hymen- opterous parasites. The recognition of these friends is not so easy as that of the ladybirds, and, as a rule, they will probably escape detec- tion. If one finds that the black scale or the armored scales are ‘pierced with minute round holes, it is a safe indication that they have SCALE INSECT AND MITE ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES. 253 been parasitized, and that the parasites have escaped and are multiply- ing in the younger scale insects on the trees, and here again if the parasitism is found to be general, it may be inadvisable to spray or fumigate. The other natural enemies of scale insects are not so important as those mentioned; still they are of service, and should be recognized. These include the larve of the lace-winged flies (CArysopa spp.), which feed on the young of both the armored and the unarmored scales. There are also a few dipterous, or fly, parasites of scale insects, and the larve of several species of Lepidoptera are carnivorous and feed on the larger species of scale insects, such as the Lecaniums and scales. The latter are sometimes abundant enough to afford a very considerable check on the multiplication of the species of scale insects attacked. The various species of ants which are usually abundantly associated with scale insects on trees, and which are very often sup- posed to be preying upon the scale insects, have no beneficial action in this direction whatever. They are attracted to the trees, as already noted, by the honeydew secreted by the scale insects, and their réle, if worth considering at all, is an unffiendly one, since they are a means of conveying the young scales which may ech to their legs or bodies from one plant to another. A most desirable outcome would be to secure a complete and prac- tical control of scale insects by their natural enemies, and the immense benefit which would accrue to the people of this country if it were possible to control all scale insects as the fluted scale has been con- trolled, will be at once apparent. The conditions, however, in the case of the fluted scale were exceptional, and have not been duplicated in the case of any other scale insect; even in the case of the black scale the control has been complete only in a few instances, although its imported ladybird enemy has been distributed in enormous numbers throughout southern California. Spraying and fumigation, therefore, must be relied upon for some time to come, or at least until the natural enemies have been more fully studied, and better means of success- fully colonizing them devised. Climatic conditions also affect the activity of these natural enemies to such an extent that the same results can never be counted on in different localities. In considering the agency of control afforded by the natural enemies of scale insects, the fact must not be lost sight of that these preda- ceous and parasitic enemies are dependent on the scale insects for their existence, and that therefore a fairly complete extermination of the host insects means a like extermination of its parasitic or predaceous enemies. There is, therefore, a natural alternation or periodicity in the abundance of the scale insect and its parasites. An almost com- plete extermination of the scale by the parasite means, ultimately, a very great scarcity of the parasite, which gives the scale insect a chance 954 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to slowly reappear in increasing numbers. This is followed again by the recurrence of the parasite in great numbers, and the host insect in — turn disappears once more. If reliance be made solely on the preda- ceous and parasitic insects, therefore, this periodicity in the occur- renee of the scale must be counted on. Theoretically, it is true that such recurrences of the scale enemy may be controlled to a certain extent by an intreduction of the parasitic insect the moment the scale has begun to be abundant, in this manner assisting the early multipli- cation of the natural enemy. This is practically accomplished now in the case of the black scale on the Cooper ranch and a few other locali- ties in California, and in the case of the fluted scale in California, South Africa, and Portugal. To succeed in such efforts, it is necessary to haye an efficient parasite or predaceous insect, and also regular breed- ing places where these may be secured when wanted. These conditions may be naturally supplied when a whole district, such as California, is under constant observation and the localities where the parasite and seale are occurring together are known. From such points the ladybirds or other enemies may be collected and shipped to the dis- tricts needing them. By such constant transportation and recoloniza- tion the parasite is kept from nearly complete extermination, and is available when needed. THE DIRECT MEANS OF CONTROLLING CITRUS SCALE INSECTS. Seale insect enemies of citrus trees are controlled in two ways: either by spraying the infested plants with some liquid insecticide or by subjecting them to the fumes of hydrocyanic-acid gas, commonly designated as ‘‘ gassing.” Each of these methods of control has its place. The gassing method (illustrated in Pls. XXVI and XXVIJ) is undoubtedly the most effective means known of destroying scale insects. It has been in general use in California for fifteen years, and to a less extent elsewhere on citrus trees, and the methods are now thoroughly perfected and highly satisfactory. Gassing should un- doubtedly be employed wherever the expense of the treatment, which is the one objection to it, is not an object as measured by the value of crop protected. For most species of scale insects, one good gassing is worth as much or more than two or three sprayings, and when done at the right season and properly it very frequently will almost, if not quite, exterminate the scale insects from the treated trees, giving them comparative immunity often for two or more years. This is especially true of the black scale and the California red scale. The use of hydrocyanic-acid gas is, therefore, strongly urged wherever the conditions warrant it. Gassing is especially desirable for trees that have a dense habit of growth, such as the orange, which develops Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900, PLATE XXVI. Fic. 1.—METHOD OF HOISTING TENT OVER ORANGE TREE. FALLING OF PULLEYS. Fic. 3.—TENT IN POSITION FOR FUMIGATION. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. PLATE XXVII Fig. 2.—TENTS, TACKLE, AND CHEMICALS LOADED FOR TRANSPORTATION. Fic. 3.—A SAN DIEGO FUMIGATING OUTFIT. SCALE INSECT AND MITE ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES. 255 a large, thick head, the spraying of which thoroughly and completely is almost an impossibility, especially after the trees have attained any size. The more straggling growth of the lemon makes gassing less necessary, notably where the open system of pruning is adopted. It may often happen that gassing is impracticable or that the expense of the treatment, in view of the conditions, is not warranted. This last may be the case where the rancher has not sufiicient capital to keep up the heavy outlay necessitated by the gassing of young stock which yields no revenue. Gassing is also difficult and less desirable where, as for the lemon in southern California, the low, open-center pruning is adopted, the trees under this system of pruning often having an expanse of 20 feet, with a height of scarcely more than 6 feet. (See Pl. XXVIII, fig. 1.) This open system of pruning and more straggling form of growth, on the other hand, makes the lemon easier to treat with liquid sprays, and under such conditions spraying will probably prove more practicable and profitable than gassing, particularly in view of the comparatively inconsiderable cost of the former. Nevertheless, where lemon trees are of a form and size to admit of it, and the crop warrants the expense, gassing is always to be recommended for the two- scale insects mentioned, and others for which it is equally effective. With the orange, except for young trees, spraying is hardly to be advised, especially in view of the general custom of pruning this tree but little, if at ali, and allow- ing it to form oval dense tops. The expense of spraying is not heavy, compared with gassing. In most of the citrus districts of California where spraying is practiced to any extent there are individuals who make a business of treating orchards at a charge of a cent a gallon for the liquid applied, or about double when they furnish as well as apply the insecticide. This work is now commonly done with a power apparatus, and usually in a fairly satisfactory manner. (See Pl. X XIX, figs. 2and 3 and Pl. XXX, figs. land 2.*) The difficulty in depending on the public sprayer is that it is very often not available when much needed. For a Jarge ranch, the possession of a power spraying outfit will probably prove economical in the long run, and anyone contemplating securing one is referred to the general article on such machines, by Dr. L. O. Howard, in the Yearbook of this Department for 1896. For the small rancher, having from 10 to 80 acres of orchard, it is not necessary to go to the expense of a steam ora gasoline spraying apparatus. There are a great many excellent force pumps on the market which may be easily equipped with suitable hose and nozzles, and which will do the work of spraying very satisfactorily. A hand force pump with suitable connections, which may be equipped for work ? Figs. 2 and 3, Pl. XXIX, from photographs furnished by G. P. Hall, and figs. 1 and 2, Pl. XXX, by F. G. Havens and F. Kahles. 256 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. at a cost of from $25 to $30, will meet all requirements. The spray- ing outfit of this sort which the writer had put together for use on his ranch in southern California, and which is illustrated on Pl. XXVIII, figs. 2 and 3, proved to be most efficient. Another effective hand outfit employed on the ranch of Mr. J. E. Thoustrup, at La Mesa, Cal., is illustrated on Pl. XXX, fig. 1. The pump for such an outfit should be capable of easily producing a pressure of 100 pounds, which will supply four cyclone nozzles attached to two lines of hose. With such an apparatus, the writer was able to apply easily 50 gallons an hour, or 500 gallons a day, working with three men, and this covers also the time lost in mixing the insecticide and refilling. The cost of applying the same amount of liquid by a contract sprayer would repre- sent as much as the cost of the labor of the three men, one to pump and one for each line of hose; furthermore, the work being under per- sonal supervision will be undoubtedly better done and with less waste of material, and, of more importance still, at the time when most needed and when the greatest advantage will result. Trees under seven years old will probably not require more than a gallon of spray—ranging from half a gallon toa gallon. An orchard of 10 acres of trees, planted on the hexagonal system, 24 feet apart, gives 86 trees to the acre, or 860 trees for 10 acres, and would repre- sent a cost of spraying of about $8 for the spray and as much more for the labor. In other words, spraying with the insecticides commonly employed, such as-*‘ distillate,” kerosene emulsion, and resin wash, may be safely estimated to cost about 2 cents a gallon for the amount of liquid used, or not exceeding 2 cents per individual tree under seven years of age. On the other hand gassing a tree of seven years of age will cost from 12 to 15 cents per tree, or the equivalent of from five to seven sprayings. The advantage, therefore, of spraying, for the small owner, and for trees especially suited by form of growth or pruning to such treatment, is evident. Successful as gassing is, it is not effective in the same degree against all the scale insect enemies of citrus plants. For example, some of the armored scales require two or three gassings to effect anything like extermination, rendering the treatment almost prohibitive. Gassing is also not effective against the rust mite. It is especially valuable against the black scale and the red scale of California. With such of the armored scales as are oviparous, or deposit beneath the old scales eggs which undergo a certain amount of incubation before hatching, gassing is not always effective. Under such circumstances it will only kill the young and developing insects, but often many of the eggs and, in some instances, even the old females are not destroyed, rendering it necessary to make additional treatments after a sufficient period has elapsed to allow all the eggs to hatch and the young to escape. For all these insects, spraying is, as a rule, more desirable than gassing, Yearbook U, S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. PLATE XXVIII. Fic. 1.—BARONIO TRAINING OF THE LEMON, ADAPTING THE TREE FOR SPRAYING RATHER THAN GASSING. Fic. 3.—CLOSER VIEW OF HAND-SPRAYING APPARATUS OF FIG. 2, SHOWING CONSTRUCTION. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture , 1900. PLATE XXX. Fic. 1.—STEAM SPRAYER, USED AT RIVERSIDE, CAL. Fic. 3.—OLD-TIME FLORIDA HAND-SPRAYING OUTFIT. yes aay i OR Re aly SCALE INSECT AND. MITE ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES. 257 because the expense of treatment is much less and there is more like- lihood of its being repeated with sufficient frequency to accomplish the desired result. The gas treatment for the black scale, however, is often most strik- ing in its results. Applied late in October or early in November after all the young scales have hatched, as noted by the writer, badly infested orchards have been completely cleaned in a single gassing. The black scale is especially adapted to control by gassing on account of its being, in the main, single brooded, practically all of the scales being in a young or partly grown condition at the period designated. Gassing in midsummer for this insect will be ineffective, because a large per- centage of the old females at this period cover and protect unhatched eggs. Meruop or GaAssinG TREES. The details of the use of hydrocyanic-acid gas as a fumigant for scale insects on growing trees are so well known in the citrus districts, at least in California, that a minute description of the process is unnecessary. Briefly, the treatment consists in inclosing a tree at night with a tent and filling the latter with the poisonous fumes gen- erated by treating refined potassium cyanide (98 per cent strength) with commercial sulphuric acid (66 per cent) and water. The proportions of the chemicals as now employed in California are considerably in excess of the amounts recommended a few years since, or as recently as 1898. The gas treatment was first chiefly used against the black scale, and at a season of the year when these scales were all in a young stage and easily killed. The effort is now made not only to kill the black scale but also the red scale, and to do more effective work even than formerly with both of these scale insects. The proportion of chemicals ordinarily advised and commonly em- ployed in Los Angeles, Orange, and some other counties in southera California are indicated in the following table, published by the horti- cultural commissioners of Riverside County, Cal.: Proportions of chemicals ordinarily used in gassing. ae | Cyanide | Sulphuric eo of | Cotas | Water. | C. P. (98 acid (66 5 mae | percent). per cent). aT | Feet. Feet. Ounces. Ounces. | Ounces. 6 t 2 1 1 8 6 3 12 12 10 8 5 25 P| 12 14 11 awe 53 16 16 17 ava 9 20 16-20 22 10 12 20-24 18-22 30 14 16 24-30 20-28 34 16 18 258 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The amounts here recommended are thoroughly effective for the black scale at the proper season, and generally effective also for the California red scale and other armored scales. Where the treatment is designed to be absolutely one of extermination, and the expense is not consider ed, from one-third to one-half more of cyanide and acid is employed, as indicated in the table following, furnished by Mr. Felix G. Havens, of Riverside. The amounts here recommended may be employed also for compact trees with dense foliage. Excessive amounts used for extermination.' | Time t Diameter | 4 BEY Height) ce: *, Sulphuric F leave ntiEroo! Prue foli-| Water. Sait | Cyanide. oe a | - | | tree. | Feet. | Feet. Fluid ounces.| Fluid ounces.| Ounces. Minutes. lo eal 3to 4 3 | t | - gto 4 20 8 | Sto 6 Gear] 23 | 2 30 LO} 7 to 10 yy | Sto 6 4 to 5 35 | ‘ | | >) 9 to 12 20 to 30 7to 9 5ito 7} 40 14 | 12to14 30 to 55 9to12 8 to10 40 16 12to15 35 to 40 12to14 10 to12 40 18 | 14 to 16 45 to 55 15 to18 12 told 49 to 50 20 | 16 to18 | 60 to 70 20 to 22 16 to20 45 to 50 ° 220 |) 16to18 | 70 to 75 22 to 25 20 50 24 18 to 20 73 to 80 25 to 30 22 to 26 50 yah | 20 to 24 85 to 100 30 to 36 28 to 32 60 20: [es otras 100 to 110 36 to 44 32 to 38 60 The table on page 257 indicates for the smaller trees twice as much’ cyanide and acid as was formerly advised, and for the larger trees three times the former amounts. The above table indicates a consider- able increase over the first, and three or four times as much of the chemicals as was generally recommended as late as 1898. The greater expense entailed by this larger quantity of chemicals is offset by the more effective results and the consequently longer intervals between treatments. Mr. Havens suggests, in connection with his table, that for small trees ordinary earthenware vessels may be used to generate the gas. For large trees requiring heavy doses tall wooden pails have pr oved more pra scticable, two generators being employed for the very largest trees. Itis important that the water be put in the vessel first, 14 fumigation of the orangery of the Department of Agriculture, December 3, 1900, demonstrated that 0.15 of a gram of cyanide to the cubic foot, or a little more than half an ounce to the hundred cubic feet, is completely exterminative of scale insects, effectually killing the eggs, even of the black, purple, and other scales. The strength mentioned is that ordinarily recommended for violet houses, and the results are scarcely comparable to the proportions recommended in tables on pages 257 and 258, for the reason that in these tables the amount of cyanide is greatly lessened with larger trees, and furthermore, that the orangery probably retained the gas more effectually than would be the case with cloth tents. Nevertheless, it is interesting to know that a comparatively inconsiderable strength of cyanide, when applied under the best conditions, will prove thoroughly effective against the eggs as well as the insects. ~ | . SCALE INSECT AND MITE ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES. 259 and then the acid, and lastly the cyanide. If the water and cyanide are put in the vessel first and the acid poured in afterwards there is danger of an explosion, which will scatter the acid and burn the tents and the operator. In the spring, when the trees are tender with new erowth, and in early fall, when the oranges are nearly grown and the skins are liable to be easily marred, and also with young trees, it is advisable to add one-third more water than ordinarily used, or the cyanide in larger lumps. This causes the gas to generate more slowly and with less heat, and if the tents are left over the trees a third longer the effectiveness of the treatment will not be lessened. The extremely dangerous nature of the gas must be constantly borne in mind and the greatest caution should be taken to avoid inhaling it. The treatment is made at night, and the person handling the chemicals should always have an attendant with a lantern to hold up the tent and enable the cyanide to be quickly dropped into. the generator and to facilitate the prompt exit of the operator. As with spraying, the gassing is often done (and this is very desira- ble also) by individuals or companies who make a regular business of it, charging a fixed rate per tree, depending on size—ifrom 10 cents to a dollar or more. Much of this work is also done under the direct supervision of the county horticultural commissioners, which gives a greater assurance of efliciency. Practically the only tent now used is the so-called ‘‘ sheet tent,’ which is drawn up over the tree by means of pulleys, as indicated on Pls. XXVI and XXVIII. For very large trees, ee 30 feet in height, it is sometimes necessary to employ two sheets to effect a com- plete covering. Some of the tents employed are of great size, the one illustrated in the plates, from photographs secured for us by Mr. Havens, having a diameter of 76 feet. As described by Mr. Havens, it is constructed of a central piece 50 feet square, of 10-ounce army duck. Four tri- angular sidepieces, or flaps, of 8-ounce duck, 10 feet wide in the aiddle, are strongly sewed to each side of the central sheet, forming an_ octagonal sheet 70 feet in diameter. About the whole sheet is then sewed a strip of 6-ounce duck 1 yard wide. The tent is handled by means of ropes and pulleys. A 1$-inch manila rope is sewed about the border of the central piece in an octagonal pattern. Rings are attached to this rope at each of the eight corners thus formed, and also on either side of the tent. To these rings the pulley ropes are fastened and the tent is elevated over the tree and handled as indicated in the plates. The treatment is made altogether at night, although it would be possible to treat trees also on a very dark or cloudy day. In Cali- fornia, however, at the time the gas treatment is made, such days are infrequent. About 50 trees of the largest size, 30 feet high or ’ - 260 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. thereabouts, can be treated in a night with an equipment of twelve or fifteen tents. With smaller trees, the number which can be treated in a single night is very considerable, it being possible to gas from 800 to 500 trees, averaging 10 feet in height, in eleven or twelve hours, employing thirty-five to forty ring tents, Sprays ror Crrrus TreRs. The oily washes are by far the best for use on citrus trees against scale insects. ‘The attempt has been made in various places to substi- tute lye washes for the old standard kerosene washes, but the effect has, as a rule, been disastrous. Lye applied to a tree strong enough to kill scale insects, as demonstrated by Hubbard fifteen years ago, is very destructive to the tender growth of the tree, and the damage from the wash is often greater than that occasioned by the insects themselves. The kerosene and resin washes formerly used in California have now given place, to a considerable extent, to a modification of kerosene emulsion known as ‘ distillate.” As now employed, the washes in the order of their popularity are: (1) Distillate; (2) resin wash; (8) kero- sene emulsion. ‘The probability is that distillate will ultimately sup- plant the other two on account of its equal, if not greater, efficiency and smaller cost. DistTiLLATe.—This wash was originated by Mr. F. Kahles, the very efficient superintendent of Las Fuentes Rancho, belonging to Messrs, Crocker & Sperry, Santa Barbara, Cal. It has been recommended by Professor Lelong, of the State board of horticulture, and has found very general use in the Santa Barbara region, and also in the lemon districts adjacent to San Diego, as well as in other citrus districts in California. It is substantially an emulsion of crude kerosene, made in the same way as kerosene emulsion, except that a greater amount of soap and only half as much oil are used. Its cheapness arises from the fact that it requires only half the quantity of oil, and in spite of this lessening of oil it seems to be, if anything, stronger than kerosene emulsion, judging from the writer’s experiences with it in southern California. It is termed distillate spray, because the oil used is a crude distillate of the heavy California petroleum. The product used for spraying purposes should have a gravity of about 28° Baumé, and is the crude oil minus the lighter oils, or what distills over ata temperature between 250° and 850° C. It is similar to the lubricating oils in charac- teristics. The emulsion or, as it is generally known, ‘‘ cream” is prepared as follows: Five gallons, **28° gravity,” untreated distillate; 5 gallons water, boiling; 14 pound whale-oil soap. ‘The soap is dissolved in the hot water, the distillate added, and the whole thoroughly emulsi- fied by means of a power pump until a rather heavy, yellowish, creamy SCALE INSECT AND MITE ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES. 961 emulsion is produced. This emulsion is very similar to the product obtained with refined kerosene, following the old kerosene emulsion formula, except that it is slightly darker in color. For use on citrus trees it is diluted with from 12 to 15 parts of water. The former dilu- tion is the greatest strength advisable, and is for the lemon. It should be diluted with 15 parts of water for applications to the orange, the lemon standing readily the stronger mixture. The “ distillate cream” is prepared and sold by oil companies and private individuals at from 10 to 12 cents a gallon, making the dilute mixture, as applied to the trees, cost in the neighborhood of a cent a gallon. The writer found kero- sene emulsion, made by the same companies, to cost from 12 to 15 cents a gallon, the item of cost, therefore, being in favor of the dis- tillate. Either of these emulsions can be made at home at a consid- erable saving over these prices if one is provided with the necessary equipment. In using these oil emulsions, it is advisable to first breals the water by the addition of a little lye, a fourth of a pound of lye being ample for 50 gallons of water. KEROSENE EMULSION.—This wash, made according to the old formula (kerosene, 2 gallons; whale-oil soap, one-half pound; water, 1 gallon), is prepared in the same way as the distillate and used at the same strength. It does no harm to use double the quantity of soap indi- cated, securing in this manner a rather more stable emulsion and one not so easily affected by hard water. It is always advisable, however, to break the water with lye, as indicated above. This emulsion, while perhaps somewhat less efficient than the distillate emulsion, differs from the latter in effectiveness very slightly at the most, and is always available where the latter may not be in reach. It may be prepared on a small scale with an ordinary hand pump, but is best prepared in large quantities with a gasoline or steam-power pump to mix and emulsify it after the soap has been dissolved in the water by boiling. THE RESIN wasH.—This wash is especially valuable against the Cali- fornia red scale. It may be also used against any other scale insect, including the black scale and the various armored scales affecting citrus trees. ‘The wash is made as follows: Resin, 20 pounds; caustic soda (78 per cent), 5 pounds; fish oil, 24 pints; water to make 100 gallons. Ordinary commercial resin is used and the caustic soda is that put up for soap establishments in 200-pound drums. Smaller quantities may be obtained at soap factories, or the granulated caustic soda may be used, 34 pounds of the latter being the equivalent of 5 pounds of the former. Place these substances with the oil in a kettle with water to cover them to a depth of 3 or 4 inches. Boil about two hours, mak- ing occasional additions of water, or until the compound resembles very strong, black coffee. Dilute to three times the final bulk with hot water, or with cold water added slowly over the fire, making a stock mixture to be diluted to the full amount as used. When sprayed, the 262 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. mixture should be perfectly fluid, without sediment, and should any appear the stock mixture should be reheated; in fact, the wash is preferably applied hot. This wash is much more difficult to prepare than the kerosene emulsions referred to above, and, while it is an excellent wash, it probably will be ultimately largely supplanted by the emulsions of kerosene. A CONSIDERATION OF THE ImporTANT Insects AFFECTING CITRUS FRuITts. CITRUS SCALE INSECTS: CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTERISTICS. A marked diversity in the life history and habits of the seale insects divides them into distinct groups or subfamilies. For the purpose of this paper, however, a very simple classification may be adopted, namely: (1) The armored scales, or those forming a protective cov- ering scale and losing their limbs and the power of changing their situation as soon as they settle down to feed as newly hatched larve; (2) those species which secrete no covering shell or scale and retain their limbs and the power of moving about during most of their lives. The species belonging to both groups are commonly called scale insects, although the term might seem properly to apply only to the first group; nevertheless, the old insects in the second group, when they become hardened, and, in fact, the younger stages also, have very” much a resemblance to scales; hence, the name may properly apply to them as well. These insects all belong to the family Coccide of the order Hemip- tera, or true bugs, being allied to plant lice and other suctorial insects of this order. In the larval stage, the scale insects, except in point of size, closely resemble the larve of the higher forms of Hemip- tera, and are active and can run about on plants or may be carried from one pJant to another by the agency of winds or by birds or by other insects, to which they may attach themselves. Tn the case of the armored scales, as soon as the young have under- gone their first molt they appear as a mere sack, provided with a long sucking beak, but without legs or eyes, and are very much degraded structurally from the larval condition. The unarmored scales, while retaining their limbs throughout life, are not apt to move very much after they have once settled and begun to feed, except in the case of one or two species. The power of locomotion, however, is retained, and in the case of the fluted scale and mealy bug is often actively brought into play; the Lecaniums and wax scales are apt to migrate late in their lives from the leaves to the twigs. The female insects of both groups remain on the plants and never advance to a winged stage. The males of both groups, however, while paral- leling the development of the females in the early stages, in the later SCALE INSECT AND MITE ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES. 263 stages transform to pup or chrysalids, and eventually emerge as minute, two-winged gnats. The life of the winged male is very short, and its sole function is to fertilize the eggs of the female. It isa very delicate creature, having no mouth parts, but in place of them a second pair of prominent eyes. Group 1, comprising the armored scales, will first be considered. Group 1. Tur ARMORED SCALES. The majority of the important scale-insect enemies of the orange belong to the group of scales known as armored scales, from the cir- cumstance already described of the insects’ beginning to secrete, as soon as they thrust their beaks into the tissues of the plant, a waxy scale covering, which protects the growing insect and forms a definite seale-like shield entirely independent of the insect itself. This group includes the long scale, purple scale, the red. scale of California, and the ved scale of Florida (an entirely distinct imsect), the oleander scale, the chaff scale, and other less important species. In general habits these armored scales are very similar. The eggs, which are developed in enormous numbers, may be extruded under the covering scale of the mother insect and experience a longer or shorter period of incubation before hatching, or the young may be partly or fully developed within the body of the mother and emerge as active insects, or more properly shake off the egg envelope at the moment of birth, so that certain species appear to yield living young. The young of these different species of armored-scale insects very closely resemble each other, and could not be distinguished without careful microscop- ical study. While very minute, the young are yet visible to the naked eye, and during the breeding season may be seen, by sharp inspection, running about on the leaves, twigs, and fruit. In color they are usually light lemon-yellow. They have six well-developed legs, also antenne and eyes, and are highly organized in comparison with the degraded condition soon to be assumed. After finding a suitable sit- uation, often within a few minutes from the time of their emergence from beneath the old scale, though sometimes not for an hour or two, they settle down, thrust their long, slender, hair-like beaks into the plant, and immediately begin growth, the first evidence of which is the secretion of waxy filaments from the upper surface of the body, which mat down and form the beginning of the scale covering. (See fig. 12.) This waxy secretion continues during the life of the insect, the cover- ing scale being enlarged as the insect increases in size. The females undergo two molts, and the skins thrown off in these molts attach to the scale and form a definite part of it, being cemented to it closely with the wax. The female insect, after the second molt, soon reaches full size, and when fertilized by the male begins to develop her numer- ous progeny of eggs or young. 264 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The preliminary stages of the male scale insect exactly correspond with those of the female. After the first molt, however, the male assumes a slightly different appearance, being more elongate than the female at this stage. With the second molt the male diverges entirely from the female; the old skin is thrust out from beneath the covering scale and does not become a part of it, as with the female, so that in the case of the male insect the first shed skin only is associated with the scale, which never becomes more than one-half the size of that of the female. With this second molt, the male insect transforms to a pre- liminary pupal stage, in which the antenne, legs, and wings are par- tially developed. A third molt occurs with the male insect, resulting in the final pupal stage, which exhibits more fully formed legs and wings than the last stage and also the so-called terminal stile. A fourth and last molt of the male produces the perfect insect, which escapes from beneath the covering scale and can fly about. (See fig. 11.) The periods between the moltings vary with different species and with weather conditions. Most of the species, however, reach full growth in from four to six weeks in summer; development is slower in winter. The female insect, having once thrust her beak into the tissues of the plant as a larva and begun the secretion of a covering scale, never moves from her position; and, in fact, if she be removed by force is never again able to penetrate the bark with her sucking beak, and soon perishes. The opportunity for the local spread, therefore, of these insects is limited absolutely to the larval stage, differing in this respect from the Lecaniums and mealy bugs, which have the power to move and change their position until nearly the end of their growing period. The number of eggs deposited by a single female armored-scale insect varies somewhat with the species, but may be from 100 to 500 individuals, and is more apt to approach or exceed the latter figures. The number of young produced varies with the season, a less number being generated in unfavorable than in favorable seasons of the year. The progeny from a single parent insect in a year, on the supposition that they should all survive, would represent almost inconceivable numbers, running into the billions. It is not to be wondered at, therefore, that plants become thoroughly infested with these insects in a very short period of time, especially in climates where the breed- ing is but little checked by the winter season. The waxy covering of these insects makes it necessary to use rather strong washes to penetrate the scale and destroy the protected insect beneath. The difficulty increases when the old scale protects a mass of eggs, as is usually the case with the species of Mytilaspis, repre- sented by the long and purple scales; and it is not always possible with the best washes to kill all the eggs of these species, hence the necessity of spraying repeatedly to overtake and destroy the young as they SCALE INSECT AND MITE ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES. 265 emerge. The older the scale the more difficult it is to destroy it with insecticides, and, conversely, it is easier to destroy young scales or immature ones. Remedial operations, therefore, should be instituted as far as possible when the greatest percentage of the scales are ina young or partly mature condition. A consideration of the important citrus species belonging to this group follows. THE LONG SCALE. ( Mytilaspis glover’: Packard.) The long scale (fig. 9) is supposed to have originated in China, from whence it was carried to the citrus regions of southern Europe. It made its appearance in Florida in 1838, or perhaps earlier, and very soon became a very serious pest throughout the groves in that State and elsewhere in the Gulf region. At its first appearance it was vastly more destructive than it became later on, the parasitic and natural enemies having in later years kept it decidedly in check. At the present day it is everywhere dis- tributed throughout Florida and Louisiana in the orange and lemon groves, and also on wild orange. Strangely enough, it was a long while getting into California. About 1889 or 1890, however, in company with the purple scale and rust mite, it was carried into Cali- fornia on a lot of stock from Fie. 9.—Long scale (Mytilaspis gloveri): Group Florida, but it has not developed figure, showing eluster of male and. female : - pee scales on fruit of orange—enlarged 7 diameters as a very serious pest inthe Pacific (original). coast region. This insect, in common with most of the other species discussed, has a world-wide distribution, being represented in practically every important citrus region, including Mexico, South America, Japan, China, Australia, the East Indies, Ceylon, Hawaii, etc. As its name indicates, it is characterized by its very elongate form. In other respects it closely resembles Mytilaspis citricola, and also the common oyster-shell scale of the apple and other deciduous fruits. In color it is a rather rich reddish, often obscured by extraneous matter taken from the surface of the leaves or bark. It apparently requires a great deal of moisture to thrive well, and hence is especially apt to be abundant on oranges or other plants grown in conservatories, and this also accounts, doubtless, for its greater multiplication and injury in Florida than on the Pacific coast. It has from three to four indistinctly 4 1900 18 266 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. defined generations in a year. Breeding continues practically throughout the season, the periods of growth being somewhat slower in the cooler rainy season of winter than in the summer, According Frc.10.—Purple scale (Mytilaspis citricola), showing different stages of female: a, newly-hatched larva; 6,same with first waxy secretion: ¢ to jf, different stages of growth; g, mature scale; h,same inverted, showing eggs; iand j, half-grown and full-grown female insects removed from scale—all much enlarged (original). to Hubbard, there are three periods in Florida when the young are especially abundant, marking in a rough way the appearance of the main broods, namely, in March and April, in June and July, and in September and October; the fourth, irregular brood, occurring in January or February. This seale insect is kept in check to a considerable extent, as already indicated, by various parasitic flies, and also by the attacks of different ladybirds. The treat- ment for this scale is in the use of Fic. 11.—Purple scale ( Mytilaspis citricola), show- the oily washes and fumigating ng dnerent stogsaof mule: «lv deveined with hydrocyanic-acid gas. ‘The pupa within; ec, propupa; d, final pupal stage; oviparous habit of the species e, mature winged insect; /, foot of same much renders all of these treatments enlarged—all greatly enlarged (original). somewhat ineffective unless thor- oughly and strongly applied, the destruction of all the eggs neces- sitating, as a rule, more than one application to effect a riddance. It is much more easily controlled, however, than the purple scale. THE PURPLE SCALE. (Mytilaspis citricola Packard.) The original home of the purple scale is unknown, but it now occurs practically wherever the orange or lemon is grown. It was probably SCALE INSECT AND MITE ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES. 267 introduced into this country at an early date, but when and where has never been determined. It is frequently associated with the long scale, and is one of the most troublesome scale insects affecting the orange and lemon, because, like the long scale, the female insect deposits her eggs beneath the covering scale, which with this species is so tough and dense that it is very difficult to get an application on the trees strong enough to kill all of the eggs with one treatment. For many years the purple scale was limited in this country to Florida and the Gulf region, but some years since, in company with the long scale and the orange rust mite, it was carried on Florida stock into southern California, where its action has been very mischievous, but where, fortunately, it has not yet become widely distributed. This scale insect (figs. 10, 11, and 12), in common with the long scale, infests the leaves, bark, and fruit. In general color it is a brownish purple, and in shape exactly duplicates the oyster-shell scale of the apple, being shorter and consider- ably broader than the long scale and somewhat curved, or horn shaped. The life history and habits exactly duplicate those of the long scale. The purple scale is not limited to citrus fruits, but occurs also on many other plants. Neither the gas treatment nor any of the washes is a certain Fig. 12.—Purple scale (Mytilaspis citricola), illus- remedy for this scale, except in trating the formation of the scale covering: a, the immature stages. Oveasion- Revi 2atenel song, wi enlarge antenna ally a very strong treatment with c, same from aboye—all greatly enlarged (origi- gas or wash will kill the eggs, as has been demonstrated in the orangery of the Department, but this can not be relied upon, and it is usually necessary to repeat the application once or twice at intervals of two or three weeks to effect anything like extermination. — Say "") MY) Yipayy: THE RED SCALE OF FLORIDA, (Aspidiotus ficus Ashmead.) This is another scale insect cf world-wide distribution. Asan orange scale it is not a very serious pest on trees grown out of doors. Ontrees, however, grown in conservatories or under glass it is very apt to thickly infest the leaves and fruit. It has a very wide range of food plants other than the orange and lemon, and is one of the commonest of scale insects. This and the following species differ from the Mytilaspis scales in being more nearly circular in general outline, with the cast or molted skins in the center of the scale instead of at the smallend. (See fig. 13.) . 268 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The color of this scale is a rich reddish brown, almost black. The central portion, however, represented chiefly by the cast skins, is much lighter, giving the appearance of a dark ring with a light center. The number of generations of this insect can not be accurately given, breeding going on throughout the year, but undoubtedly in greenhouses and tropical regions six or seven generations are not unusual, and in subtropical regions five generations may be safely counted. This scale infests indiscriminately leaves, fruit, and limbs. It seems never to ; have attracted any atten- tion as an enemy in the orange and lemon groves ot California, the dry cli- mate evidently not suit- ing it. The moist climate of Florida and the Gulf region seems more fayor- able to it. THE RED SCALE OF CALIFORNIA. (Aspidiotus aurantii Maskell.) This species (fig. 14) is entirely distinct from the red scale of Florida. Its name comes not from the Fie. 13.—Florida red scale (Aspidiotus ficus): a, leaves covered : : with the maleand femalescales—natural size; bsnewly hatched covering scale, as with insect with enlargements ofantenne and leg; e, d, e, f, different i : stages in the development of the female scale, drawn to the the Flor ida species, but same scale; g, adult male scale—similarly enlarged (original). from the fact that the body of the mature fe- male turns a reddish brown and shows through the thin transparent waxy scale. This insect, although for years very common and destruc- tive in the groves of southern California, and enjoying also a cos- mopolitan distribution, has, curiously enough, never appeared in a destructive way elsewhere in this country. The origin of this scale is a matter of some uncertainty. It was early a very common pest in the Levant and in China and Australia. It very likely has been a scale pest on trees in Oriental countries for centuries. It does not limit its work to citrus plants, but may occur on almost any plant growing in tropical or subtropical regions. It is the most destruc- tive and injurious of all the scale insects affecting the orange in California, being especially troublesome in the districts about Los Angeles. It attacks the trunk, branches, leaves, and fruit, and, so far, no effective parasites or predaceous insects have been found to combat it. It is controlled by the oily washes and also by the gas treatment. The young are born free, or, in other words, the insect is SCALE INSECT AND MITE ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES. 269 semioviparous, as already explained, and therefore any wash which will kill the old scale will destroy the young also. This insect has, in California, a rather well-marked variety, which is known as the yellow scale (Aspidiotus citrinus Coq.). This variety does not differ in any structural feature from the red scale, but the mature insect does not turn a reddish brown; it remains yellowish in color, and showing through the scale gives it the color noted in its common name. This vari- ety, curiously enough, is attacked by quite a number of parasitic flies, which keep it more or less in check, so that it is not, as a rule, so abundant as the red variety. THE OLEANDER SCALE. ( Aspidiotus hederx Val. ) This species is not distine- tively an orange pest. It Fie. 14.—California red scale ( Aspidiotus aurantii) , ilustrat- oceurs On a great variety ot ing agroup-of the female and male scales as they occur plants, and has a world-wide on an orange leaf—enlarged about 7 diameters (original). distribution, having been redescribed as a new species twenty-five or thirty times on different food plants. It occasionally occurs on the lemon and orange, especially in California, not apparently being so apt to attack this plant in Florida. It is a very delicate scale, with a very thin waxy covering, and yields readily to treatment. It is very apt to occur on the oleander, and is commonly known as the oleander scale: As its common name indi- cates, this scale, which, as a rule, thickly covers the portion of the plant attacked, gives a general ap- pearance of a white film. (See fig. 15.) This is due largely to the enor- mous number of white male scales, which very greatly exceed the fe- Fie. 15.—Oleander scale (Aspidiotus hedere), male scales in abundance (much eames utes Liat cakes cnet More-so than ‘indicated in the illus- 7 diameters (original). tration), and are thickly placed. The female scales are light buff in color with a faint purple tinge, rather than white, and are two or three times the size of the male scales, and rather larger also than the scales of the species already described. The fruit of the lemon and orange is often invaded by the female scales, especially, of this insect, as exhibited by examples recently sent to this office from California. 270 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE CHAFF SCALE. (Parlatoria pergandei Comstock. ) This is a scale insect which, in general appearance, lies half way between the Aspidiotus scales and the Mytilaspis scales. In other words, the molted skins are at one end of the scale, as in the case of Mytilaspis, and the scale is oval or nearly circular, as in the case of Aspi- diotus. It is very apt to be clustered thickly, often overlapping on leaves or twigs and fruit, giving the surface a rough appearance, as though covered with a loose scale or chaff, hence its common name. (See fig. 16.) In color the female scale is light straw-yellow, the female insect showing through, usually with a greenish tinge. The number of generations and life history illustrating a group of the female and correspond MeTaY; closely with the fale Beales an Uiey occur On ale species already: described. Vache) uulles arged about 7 diameters (original) the chaff scale by preference remains on the trunk and branches, covering these portions of the plant densely before going on the leaves and fruit. This fact renders it somewhat less noticeable than the other species, and its presence may, for a time, be overlooked. The chaff scale has been destructive, so far, only in Florida and the Gulf region, having apparently been introduced from the Ber- muda Islands or some of the West Indies. It was at one time con- sidered as a native insect, but there is no ground for this belief, and it is undoubtedly an intro- duced species. It is closely allied to certain scale insects occurring in the Old World, and probably came to this country from Europe aes or Asia, It is kept somewhat in ™2-1/-Orwnwe Chios (Chonan) Hs check by pa -asitic attacks, and they occur on a leaf—enlarged about 7 diameters It (original). also by predaceous insects. yields to the same treatments which are advised for the other armored scales. THE ORANGE CHIONASPIS. ( Chionaspis citri Comstock. ) This species occurs in the orange groves of the Eastern United States, and is also especially troublesome in Louisiana, as first shown by the SCALE INSECT AND MITE ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES. 74 observations of Dr. Howard, and, later, of Professor Morgan. The latter reports it as being very prevalent from New Orleans to the Gulf, and that its presence on the trees causes a bursting of the bark and very ugly wounds. In very many cases the rotting of the trunks of the older trees follows, and is believed to be due to, the attacks of this insect. The orange Chionaspis is found also in several of the West Indian islands, Mexico, and in most foreign countries where citrus fruits are grown. Fig. 17 illustrates the characteristic appearance of the male and female scales. The former are striking objects on account of their white color, and the latter are readily distinguished from the other armored scales of similar general shape by the distinctly roofed or ridged appearance of the waxy portion. The orange Chionaspis is readily controlled by the same treatments advised for the other armored scales. Grour 2. Ture NAKED OR UNARMORED SCALES. The grouping of several species of citrus-scale insects under this head is for convenience only, and does not necessarily represent a close relationship other than in general habits. The species to be considered include three Lecaniums, the mealy bug of the orange and lemon, two wax scales, and the fluted scale. Strictly speaking, the Lecaniums are the only ones which are unarmored, or secrete no covering. The mealy bug secretes a waxy or mealy powder, which covers its body, and a similar secretion in less amount is made by the fluted scale. Both of these species secrete very abundant quantities of wax for the protection of their eggs. The wax scales cover themselves with copious waxy secretion, which, however, attaches firmly to the body, and can not be considered as a separate covering in the sense of the scale of the armored species. The development of the different species in this group is very similar, in that they all retain the power of changing their position, or locomotion, until nearly the end of their lives, and do not exhibit the loss of limbs and the marked retrograde develop- ment already described in the case of the armored scales. They all excrete liberally the honeydew, which is followed by the smut fun- gus. In this group are included some of the worst scale pests of the orange and lemon, notably the black scale, the fluted scale, and the mealy bug. Not being so firmly attached nor so protected by a covering shell or scale, they are as a rule more easily destroyed by fumigation or insecticide sprays, or fall a more ready prey to attacks of predaceous or parasitic insects. All of the species are egg laying. The Lecaniums and wax scales deposit their eggs in cavities under their bodies formed by the contraction of the female insects, so that ulti- mately the mothers form merely shells over vast numbers of eggs and hatching young. The mealy bugs and fiuted scale excrete a quan- tity of cottony fibers which are stocked with eggs. After a certain 272 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. amount of incubation the young hatch and escape from beneath the old parent scales or burrow out of their cottony nests. In transfor- mations and general life history, except in the points noted, these scale insects closely duplicate the habits of the armored scaies. A consideration of the important cit rus species belonging to this group follows. THE BLACK SCALE. (Lecanium olex Bernard. ) As its scientific name indicates, He: eS scale (Lecanium ica Group of this seale insect (figs. 18, 19, 20) scales, showing natural position and appear- , = ‘ ance—enlarged 4 diameters (original). is properly an olive scale; but it also attacks citrus fruits, and is perhaps even more destructive to the latter than to the olive. It is an insect of world-wide distribution, having been an important enemy of the olive and citrus fruits in the Old World as far back as we have any records. It also affects a great variety of other fruits and plants, very few sub- tropical plants being free from its attacks. It occurs more or less in greenhouses, and has undoubtedly been transported to various parts of the world upon greenhouse plants as well as upon the various — sub- tropical species. In the United States, curiously enough, it is especially destructive only on the Pacific coast, and while it oc- curs generally in Florida, it has never there assumed any great importance as an enemy of the orange or lemon. The damage occasioned by this species is not only the serious sapping of the Fic. 19.—Black scale (Lecaniwm olex): a, greatly en- = i larged drawing of newly hatched larva, viewed vitality of the plants by the ex- from beneath, with enlargements of anal extremity viewed from above; b, showing anal segment ex- traction of their juices by the truded; c, same retracted (original). young and growing insects, but also by the abundant secretion of honeydew, which results in a badly attacked plant becoming thoroughly coated and blackened with the characteristic sooty fungus which always accompanies this SCALE INSECT AND MITE ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES. 273 scale insect, rendering the fruit unsalable or greatly depreciating its value. As its common name indicates, the adult insect is dark brown, nearly black, in color, and even the young insect begins to turn brown almost as soon as it has planted itself and hegun to feed. The characteristic features of this scale are the one longitudinal and the two transverse ridges, which become the prominent exterior structural characters in the later stages of the insect. Very often the portion of the longi- tudinal ridge between the two transverse ridges is more prominent than elsewhere, giving a resemblance in these ridges to a capital letter H. The general surface of the body of this scale insect is shagreened or roughened, which will distinguish 1t readily, under a hand lens, from the allied species, even before the ridges have become prominent. Very fortunately for the citrus grower the development of this insect is slow, and it has but one brood annually. The young, Fic. 20.—Black scale (Lecanium olex). male series. a, fully developed male scale, b, pupa: c, winged adult—natural size indicated by hair lines (orginal). however, appear over a very wide interval of time, and this gives the appearance of more than one brood. On reaching full growth, early in the summer, the female insect deposits her eggs beneath her already much-hardened parchment-like skin, the lower surface of the body gradually contracting until there is nothing left but the shell, covering a mass of hundreds of eggs. The eges froma single female will hatch in a comparatively short time, but as the females come to maturity at different dates, the young from this species are constantly appearing and spreading over the infested plants between June and the end of October. The growth, however, is very slow, and even those earliest hatched do not reach maturity until late in autumn, the latest maturing in June and July of the following year. While retaining the power of movement practically throughout its development, this scale insect is very little apt to change its position after it is once settled, or, at least, after it is half grown. There isa O74 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. general migration from leaf to twig, but the scale often develops on the leaf if the latter remains vigorous and supplies 1t sufficient nourishment. In view of the extraordinary abundance of the black scale it 1s sur- prising that until very recently the male insect had not been discovered, in spite of the most careful search for it. Thanks to the enthusiastic study of Dr. B. W. Griffith, a microscopist of Los Angeles, Cal., a good deal has been recently learned concerning the male of this species His observations were published m the Los Angeles Times of July 2, 18938, and later, with illustrations, by Mr. Alexander Craw in a bulletin of the California State Board of Horticulture. He informs the writer in a recent letter that he has found the male scales on oleander, orange, lemon, pepper. and ivy leaves between the months of November and April, but has never been able to find it outside of Los An- geles County, although he has carefully looked for it on several occasions elsewhere. Some slide mounts and a number of photomicrographs fur- nished by Dr. Griffith have been used as a basis for the illustration of the different stages of this sex (fig. 20). The black scale is kept in check by natural enemies to a very considerable extent. These in- clude both the parasitic flies and various species of ladybirds. The ladybird enemy of special importance 1s the Rhezobius ventralis, imported by Mr. Koebele. This ladybird (fig. 21) has been colonized 1n various parts of the State, and in districts where the cli- ' matic conditions proved favorable its work has Fic. 21—Imported lady. been most satisfactory, notably on the ranch of Hind eat Hie Hon. Ellwood Cooper, at Santa Barbara. Hun- mature beetle: b. larva. dreds of thousands of these beetles have been dis- both greatly enlarged tyjbuted in southern California and have accom- (author’s illustration), = ‘ Soe plished in some localities a very great deal of good in keeping the black scale in check. Away from the moist coast regions, however, it is less effective, and experience has shown that this lady- bird can not be completely relied upon to control the black scale. Another parasite of the black scale, which promises to be a most effective means of controlling this pest, was introduced into California during the summer of 1900. It is the very odd-shaped little chaleidid fly (fig. 22) known as Seutellista cyanea Motsch., and was first described ‘from specimens bred from Lecaniwm coffee in Ceylon. It was later found by Dr. Berlese attacking a wax scale, Ceroplastes rusci, in Italy. Subsequent to its discovery in Italy, various efforts were made by Dr. Howard, with the assistance of Dr. Berlese and the latter’s colleague, SCALE INSECT AND MITE ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES. 5 Dr. Leonardi, to introduce it into Florida and the Gulf districts, par- ticularly as a means of controlling the wax scales. The most promis- ing of these importations was the one of 1898, which was colonized at Baton Rouge, La., through the courtesy of Prof. H. A. Morgan. The outcome of the Louisiana experiment is not known; nothing, at least, has since been seen of the insect where it was liberated. In the meanwhile this parasite was found attacking the black scale in Cape Colony by Mr. Lounsbury, who, at Dr. Howard’s suggestion and with his assistance and the cooperation of different persons in California, notably Mr. Ehrhorn, succeeded in getting the parasite into Cali- fornia, where it has been in- stalled under conditions which promise a successful introduc- tion of the species. As re- ported by Mr. Lounsbury, the black scale in South Africa very rarely is abundant enough to be considered at all injurious, and this is apparently due to its parasitism by this little insect. Tf the latter can be successfully established in the orange and lemon groves of southern Cali- fornia, and if it maintains there the successful réle that it does in South Africa, the saving in California will be second only to that accomplished by the Vedalia. An account of the introduc- tion of this species is given by Dr. Howard in Bulletins Nos. 17 and 26, new series, of the Fie. 22.—Imported chalcidid parasite of black scale Division of Entomology. Fig. See We a eae ee ay 22 is taken from a careful re- description of the parasite, published by Dr. Howard in ** Rivista di Patologia Vegetale,” in 1896. The remedial treatments for the black scale are the oily emulsions and the gas treatment, discussed in the section on remedies. THE SOFT SCALE. ; ( Lecanium hesperidum L. ) This scale insect (fig. 23), also known as the turtle-back scale or brown scale, is closely related to the black scale just considered. It is, as its common name indicates, a much softer and more delicate insect than the black scale. It changes in color with age from a transparent 276 YEARBOOK OF THE DEFARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. yellow in the young to deepening shades of brown in the adult. The adult scale has a length of 3 or + millimeters, and is dark brown, turtle- shaped, and very much swollen, the body of the mother in the last stages becoming a mere cap filled with young. In the early stages the in- sect is thin and flat and semitrans- parent, almost, so that it is scarcely noticeable on the surface of the leaf or twig. The soft scale is very commonly found on various green- house plants, and has been carried to all parts of the world on such material, being now thoroughly cosmopolitan. Inclimates suitable for the growth of the orange and lemon it occasionally gains a foot- hold on outdoor plants. It has a gregarious habit, and commonly lives in colonies and frequently fairly plasters the young limbs and the midribs of the leaves. These colonies are usually not of long du- ration, being soon attacked and Fie. 23.—Softscale (Lecaniumhesperidum): Orange exterminated by parasitic and pre- twig showing characteristic massing of the daceous enemies, the soft texture of scales—natural size (after Comstock). ‘ : Keres h the insect not furnishing much, if any, protection. The transformation and habits are very similar to those of the black scale. It, however, is much more rapid in growth, and where the climate is favorable, as in greenhouses, goes through a continu- ous series of generations, or broods, throughout the season. It is infested by a very large number of parasitic flies and falls a ready prey to various pre- daceous insects, especially the different species of ladybirds. It readily yields to oily washes or to the gas treatment. Fic. 24.—Hemispherieal scale (Lecaniwm THE HEMISPHERICAL SCALE. hemisphericum): a, characterisic group of adult scales on olive—natural size; 6, three female scales—considerably en- a ce hs fe On ey os " larged; c, scale lifted from leaf, shawing This scale (fig. 24) is also distinctively hase of eggs (original). a greenhouse pest, and it can hardly be considered as especially injurious to citrus trees in orchards. It occurs all over the world, and occasionaily will multiply to a slight (Lecanium hemisphericum Targ. ) SCALE INSECT AND MITE ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES. Z extent on orchard-growing trees. It is about the same size as the last two species. In color, it ranges from light brown in the young to dark brown, changing to reddish in the old scale. The adult scale is hemi- spherical in shape, perfectly smooth and shiny, and this, with its color, readily distinguishes it from the other two species. The same rem- edies apply to it that are used against the black scale. THE FLORIDA WAX SCALE, (Ceroplastes floridensis Comstock. ) This is a very curious and striking scale insect, which secretes a white waxy covering, arranged in a very regular geometrical pattern, as indicated in fig. 25. It was long known only from the peninsula of Florida, where it is undoubtedly native, its principal food plant being the gall berry, which grows abundantly in the ‘* flat woods” and in the low ground about ponds. It has now been carried, however, to other parts of the world, notably some of the ad- jacent West Indian islands, and also to the Old World. It was imported into Cali- fornia on stock from Florida in 1889, and possibly earlier also, but has never gained any foothold on the Pacific coast. The in- sect thrives on various plants, including deciduous species, and often occurs on cit- > rus plants, though rarely in sufficient mum- ",3>Flrituwax sate (Gao bers to be of very great importance. The _ trating different stages of growth— white color and striking appearance of Sete oe ee these scales cause them often to be noted, and very natural fears of damage are excited, but as a rule the natural enemies and other causes result in very few of the young reaching the idult stage. This, as shown by Mr Hubbard, not only follows the action of parasites, but also is due to the fact that the scale lice as they become old and gravid can not mamtain their hold on the smooth sur- face of the lemon or orange leaf and fall to the ground and perish. The citrus plants, therefore, are not especially, adapted to this insect and very rarely suffer long or seriously from it. The Florida wax scale is three-brooded, development not being very rapid and extending over three or four months. The adult female insect, covered as it is with its waxy secretion, measures from 2 to 3 millimeters in length, is oval in form, and is characterized by a large central waxy prominence surrounded by six or eight smaller prom1- nences, all, owing to the melting and cooling of the wax, much less distinctly limited than with the species to be next considered. The waxy secretions give an appearance to the young insect of an oval stellate object. 278 YEARBOOK OF-THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE BARNACLE SCALE. ( Ceroplastes cirripediformis Comstock. ) As given by Professor Comstock, this insect (fig. 26), which is closely allied to the last, has been found at two or three localities in Florida, notably at Jacksonville and in Volusia County, on orange and quince, and also on a species of Eupatorium. It is frequently associated on citrus plants with the Florida wax scale. It has since been found on the same and other food plants on some of the West Indian islands, notably Antigua and Ja- maica, and in Louisiana and California. The barnacle scale is much larger than the Florida wax scale, having an average length of 5 millimeters and a width of 4 mil- limeters. The waxy covering is a dirty white, mottled with several shades of grayish or light brown, and the division of the waxy excretion into plates is distinct, even to a late age, there being visible a large convex o dorsal plate and six lateral plates, as indicated in fig. 26. Fic. 26.—Barnacle The development of the insect and secretion of the ae waxy scale covering is very similar to that of the last Group of scales Species described. The barnacle scale is of very little Se ee economic importance, and is mentioned merely because stages of growth ifs presence might arouse suspicions of probable injury. eran ae The attacks of this and the preceding species in Florida, (oremmniy: when at all severe, are apt to be followed by an inya- sion of the sooty fungus resulting from the secretion of honeydew. The sooty fungus, however, resulting from these insects is insignificant as compared with that following the white fly. THE FLUTED SCALE. (Icerya purchasi: Maskell. ) Of all the scale insects attacking citrus plants, this species (figs. 27 and 28) is perhaps the most notable, not so much from the damage now occasioned by it as from the problems of control which it has brought to the front and the international character of the work which it has occasioned. The history of this very interesting species has been fully detailed in publications of this Department and elsewhere. The facts indicate that Australia 1s undoubtedly its original home, from whence it was introduced on Australian plants into New Zealand, Cape Town, South Africa, and California at about the same time. The evidence points to its introduction into California about the year 1868 by the late George Gordon, of Mento Park, on Acacia latifolia. It spread rather rapidly throughout California, and by 1886 had become the most destructive of orange scale pests. The damage oceasioned by it at that time and the years immediately following was of such a serious character as to threaten the entire citrus industry of SCALE INSECT AND MITE ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES. 273 the Pacific coast. The nature and habits of this insect made it almost impervious to any insecticide washes, and the citrus growers of Cali- fornia were rapidly losing heart. In 1889, however, through the agency of Mr. Albert Koebele, a field assistant of the Division of Entomology, the natural ladybird enemy of the fluted scale in Australia was imported into California. This ladybird, Movius ( Vedalia) cardinalis (fig. 29), multiplied prodigiously, and in a very short time practically exterminated the fluted scale, saved the State of California annual damage amounting to hundreds of thousands of dollars, and removed this scale insect from the roll of dreaded injurious species, no appreciable damage from it having been ths Fic. 27.—Fluted scale (Icerya purchasi), female series, illustrating the development of the female insect from young larva toadult gravid stage: a, newly hatched larva; b, second stage; ¢, third stage; d, full-grown female; e and /, same after secretion of egg sac—(original and after Riley). suffered in that State forthe last decade. All that is now necessary in California is to colonize a few of these ladybirds in any district where the fluted scale has gained a temporary foothold. The beneficial results derived from this ladybird have not been con- fined to California. Through the agency of this Department and in cooperation with the California State authorities, this ladybird has been sent to South Africa, Egypt. and Portugal, and in each of these countries its introduction has been followed by similar beneficial results in the control of the fluted scale. While the fluted scale, at the time or soon after its injurious record in California, gained access to several additional foreign countries, very fortunately Florida and the Gulf districts remained long free 280 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. from it. A constant lookout was kept, however, and very often one or the other of the wax scales was sent to this office for the fluted scale, The first and presumably only introduction of this insect into Florida was brought to our notice in June, 1894. This was not a chance introduction, but, though not malicious, 2n intentional one, and illustrates the risk run in im- portations of beneficial insects un- dertaken by persons unfamiliar with the subject. A nurseryman at Keene, Hills- boro County, Fla., having become acquainted with the wonderful work of the imported Australian ladybird against the fluted scale in California, became ambitious to Fic. 28.—Fluted scale (Icerya purchasi), male have the same benefit duplicated series: a, male insect with greater enlargements against the common Florida scale of bse of wing and ut wt Pant dsseomd incoctss and, ignorant of the fact 7 diameters (reengraved from Riley). that the ladybird in question did not feed on any of the armored scales which he especially wished to have controlled by it, he got one of the county horticultural commissioners of California to ship him a lot of these ladybirds, together with some of the fluted scale as food. The whole lot was liber- ated on his premises and re- sulted, naturally enough, in stocking some of his trees very thoroughly with the fluted scale. The infestation coming to his attention, he sent specimens to the Division of Entomology and they were promptly determined as the dreaded California scale pest. Fortunately, the nursery- man in question realized the pS . : Fia. 29.—Australian ladybird enemy of the whitescale enormity of his offense and (Novius cardinalis): a, ladybird larve feeding on took, at Dr. Howard’s earnest adult female and egg sac; b, pupa; c, adult lady- suggestion, immediate and ac- itt ornge uvig.showingstnteanl dyes tive measures to exterminate the fluted scale on his premises. Very fortunately also, the winter following proved to be a severe one and, as he informed us subse- quently, the cold resulted in the killing down of all the plants growing SCALE INSECT AND MITE ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES. 281 about where the scale was located, and the whole lot was taken out and burned. Nothing more was heard from this scale for nearly four years, and it was a reasonable conclusion that its complete extermina- tion had been accomplished. On December 3, 1898, specimens of the fluted scale were sent to the Division from the same general locality in Florida, with the statement that they occurred in several yards, mostly on rosebushes and cape jasmine, and in one or two orange groves in the neighborhood. It is evident, therefore, in spite of our hopes to the contrary, that the fluted scale has maintained itself in Florida during the intervening four years, although not multiplying very rapidly. In view of the quite general spread of this species in this region it seemed improb- able that it could be easily exterminated, especially in the face of the failure of the previous attempt, and the immediate introduction of the Australian ladybird as a means of control was most urgently advised by Dr. Howard. ‘This was undertaken by thé newly appointed State entomologist of Florida, Mr. H. A. Gossard, working in conjunction with Mr. Alexander Craw, quarantine officer and entomologist of the California State Board of Horticulture, and during the spring of 1899 the ladybird in question was successfully colonized in two of the in- fested orchards, and, as reported by Mr. Gossard, by the midsummer of 1900 had become pretty thoroughly established and had already been distributed in some dozen infested localities. The fluted scale in Florida evidently does not multiply as rapidly as itdoes in California, judging from its rather slow progress since its introduction in 1894. Furthermore, as shown by Mr. Gossard, it is attacked by a fungous disease which appears suddenly in July, and results in the death of from 25 to 70 per cent of the partly grown scales. We may hope that with the aid of this disease and by means of the prompt introduction of its natural enemy, the fluted scale will never play the réle in Florida which it originally did in California. The habits and transformations of the fluted scale illustrated in figs. 27 and 28 closely parallel those of the species of Lecanium already described. The general appearance of the insect, however, is strik- ingly dissimilar, owing to the waxy excretions from the ventral plate of the adult female insect. These are ribbed, or fluted, from whence the insect takes its name, and become the receptacle of a vast number of eggs,a single female being the possible parent of more than a thousand young. The fluted scale is extremely hardy, will live for some time without food, and can multiply and thrive on a vast number of food plants in addition to the various citrus varieties. The eggs are deposited by the female insect in the cottony egg sac already referred to, which begins developing when the gravid condition is assumed. The waxy material constituting this sac issues from count- less pores on the under side of the body, especially along the posterior 4 A1900 19 282 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARYMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and lateral edges. As this secretion accumulates the body is lifted, so that ultimately the insect appears to be standing almost on its head, or nearly at right angles to the bark. The eggs are laid in the waxy secretion as it 1s formed, the waxy fluted mass often becoming from two to two and one-half times as long as the insect itself. The young are of reddish color, very active, and spread naturally by their own efforts and by the agency of the winds, birds, and other insects. The partly grown and adult female insect is, for the most part, a reddish orange, more or less spotted with white or lemon, sometimes a dirty white or pea greenish, the coloration being partly due to waxy excre- tionsand to the extraneous matter taken up from the surface of the plant. The early stages of the male are similar to the corresponding stages of the female. Before appearing as an adult, the male insect secretes itself in some crack in the bark, or in the ground, leaving the tree, and exudes a waxy covering, which forms a sort of cocoon, m which the transformations are undergone, first into the pupa and then into the adult or perfect insect. The winged male msect 1s rather large for a Coccid, and has a reddish body with smoky wings and the gen- eral structural features indicated im fig 28. The rate of growth of the fluted scale ts comparatively slow, and it does not normally have more than three generations annually. This insect is much more active than most other species which have the power of motion throughout hfe, and the female travels and moves about very freely nearly up to the time when she finally settles for oviposition and the development of her egg sac. The male 1s active up to the time when it settles down to make its cocoon. The fluted scale exudes a great quantity of honeydew, and trees badly attacked by it are covered with the sooty fungus, characteristic of the black scale and the white fly. The remedy for this scale insect is always and emphatically to secure at once its natural and efficient enemy, the Wowius cardinalis. Where this insect can not readily be secured, the scale may be kept in check by frequent sprayings with the kerosene or resin washes. Fumigation is comparatively ineffective against it, because the eggs are not destroyed by this treatment. Spraying is, for the same reason, effective only when it is repeated sufficiently often to destroy the young as they hatch. THE COMMON MEALY BUG. (Dactylopius citri Risso. ) The common mealy bug of the orange and other citrus plants is especially destructive in Florida and the West Indies. It is not of much importance in California. This species (fig. 30) is more com- monly known, perhaps, as the destructive mealy bug, from the name ee SCALE INSECT AND MITE ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES. 283 given to it by Professor Comstock of Dactylopius destructor, descrip- tive of its abundance and destructiveness in orange groves in Florida. It occurs very commonly in greenhouses, and has been carried to every quarter of the globe, both on greenhouse plants and on various subtropical plants grown out of doors. The insect is mealy white in color, the female at- taining a length of nearly a quarter of an inch when fully adult. The edge of the body is surrounded by a large number of short waxy filaments, as indicated in fig. 30. The habits of this species closely resemble those of the white or fluted scale, in that it is active at practically all stages and that the eggs are laid in and protected by a cottony or waxy secre- tion, the female insect as this is developed being gradually forced from the bark and '!9.30—Mealy bug (Dactylopius . ° 4 * citri): Mass of insects at fork of standing almost on her head, as in the case of — jeaf, showing different stages the former species. The adult winged male . 24 cottony excretion cover- 7 ‘ 3 ing eggs—enlarged 4 diameters is light olive brown. (original). This species is somewhat gregarious, and occurs in masses in the angles of the branches and leaf petioles and about the stem of the fruit. The remedies are the emulsions and oily washes, repeating them as often as necessary to reach the young as they hatch. IMPORTANT CITRUS PESTS OTHER THAN SCALE INSECTS. THE WHITE FLY. (Aleyrodes citri Riley and Howard. ) The white fly of Florida and the Gulf region (figs. 31 and 32) is, strictly, not a scale in- sect, but belongs to a closely Fic. 31.—White fly ( Aleyrodes citri): a,orange }eaf, show- e ‘ ing infestation on under surface—natural size; b, egg; allied family. In general ap- c, same, with young insect emerging; d, larval insect; pearance and habits however e, foot of same; J, larval antenn; g, scale-like pupa; rf F 7 : p % h, pupa about to disclose adult insect; 7, insect escaping at least in its economic fea- from pupal shell; j, leg of newly emerged insect, not tyres. it exactly duplicates the yet straightened and hardened—all figures except a 4 Siete greatly enlarged (reengraved from Rileyand Howard), true scale insects, and would be classed with them by every nontechnical observer. For many years this very interesting insect has been known to infest the orange trees of Florida and Louisiana, and also to be a common pest on the orange in greenhouses. It has been found also on a number of plants other than orange, such as 284 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. viburnum, cape jasmine, and the aquatic oak of the South. These other food plants are of significance only in indicating that it may be harbored in situations near orchards in which efforts have been made to exterminate it. The first careful description of this insect and gen- eral account of its habits was given by Riley and Howard in 1898, and from their article the data following are largely derived. The white fly is limited, economically, to the citrus plantings of Florida and the Gulf region. It is widely distributed in greenhouses, as already noted, and has undoubtedly been carried to California on many occasions, but has never assumed any importance on the Pacific coast. _Itsorigin is unknown. It first came into prominence about 1885, but probably had been present in greater or less numbers for a much longer period, and perhaps is na- tive to Florida, nominally sub- sisting on some wild food plant. While closely resembling a scale insect in its early stages,the white fly in the adult stage emerges, in both sexes, as a mi- nute white gnat, having four chalky wings of a fine glandular texture, from which fact it is fre- Fic.32.—White fly (Aleyrodes citri): a, winged male quently called the *““‘mealy wing.” insect, with enlarged view of terminal segments This active adult condition gives ae a ae ees Se Aaa nia withenlaree- the white fly a distinct advantage positor, head, antenna, wing margin, and leg at d, e, f, g, h, i (reduced from Rileyand over scale insects in means of Howard). spread. The damage occasioned by it is due, perhaps only secondarily, to the sapping of the vital juices of the plant, which, however, must be considerable, since it multiplies enormously and often covers the under surface, especially of the leaves, so that the insects fairly overlap. The main injury, however, is due to the secretion by this insect, in the larval and pupal stages, of a honeydew similar to that secreted by the true scale insects. This secretion is in enormous amount, and the sooty mold which develops in it frequently covers the entire upper surface of the leaves and produces very serious effects on the vitality of the plant. Frequently the assimilation by the plant of nourish- ment through the leaves is almost entirely stopped. The growth of the plant becomes greatly checked, the fruit does not ripen properly, and is deficient in quality and size and keeps poorly, involving in addi- ‘Recent press reports (February, 1901) indicate that the white fly has been found in various citrus districts about Los Angeles. If this be true, this insect in favorable seasons may prove in the future a serious pest in southern California, but in the main it will probably not be able to withstand the dry climate, and will probably never be as troublesome in California as it is in Florida and Louisiana. SCALE INSECT AND MITE ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES. 285 tion the expense of washing before it can be marketed. In Florida the sooty mold is produced almost altogether by this insect, although following to a certain extent the attacks of some species of scale insects, as already noted, the damage being quite as great in Florida from the white fly as in California from the black scale. The general character of the egg, larval, and adult stages are clearly shown in figs. 31 and 32. The life round of the insect, briefly, is as follows: The winter is passed in the mature larval stage as a thin, elliptical, scale-like object on the under sides of the leaves. Early in the spring the transformation to the pupal stage occurs, this stage differing but slightly from the larval in appearance. The adults begin to appear by the middle of March and continue to emerge into April. The eggs deposited by this brood require about three weeks for devel- opment, hatching into larve from the middle of April to the first of May. The adults of the second brood begin'to emerge by the middle of June and continue to appear until the middle of July. Between the middle of July and the middle of September a third brood is developed, the larvee of which, hatching about. the last of October, carry the insect through the winter. The number of eggs laid by a single female is in the neighborhood of twenty-five, and they are placed, by preference, upon new leaves, but all of the plant is taken when the multiplication of the insect makes it necessary. The young larva is active, resembling closely the larva of a true scale insect. The life of the adult ranges from ten to twenty days. The most satisfactory remedies for this insect, as demonstrated by the experiments of Messrs. Swingle and Webber, are the kerosene and resin washes. ‘The treatments may best be made during the winter, between December and March, and again, if necessary, in May, and also in August or early in September. Two or three applications may be made in the winter. The application in August is made if the sooty mold is found to be spreading to the fruit. Since the insect lives on the under sides of the leaves almost exclusively, it is of prime importance to see that the under surface is thoroughly wetted with the spray, and to be at all effective it is necessary that the tree be opened up by pruning. Fumigation with hydrocyanic-acid gas is also a ready means of destroying this insect. It is undoubtedly kept more or less in check by parasitic and predaceous enemies, and is subject to attack by several fungous diseases, which may be of occasional value in pre- venting its undue multiplication. THE RUST MITE OF THE ORANGE AND THE SILVER MITE OF THE LEMON. (Phytoptus oleivorus Ashmead. ) As indicated by the common names applied to this insect, it is an enemy of both the orange and lemon, affecting these fruits in a some- what different way. It attacks, also, the other members of the citrus 286 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. family, but has never been observed on other plants. For many years this mite (Pl. XX -XJ) was known only in Florida, and its injuries were notable only in the case of the orange. The fact that it was not originally found on the wild orange, would seem to indicate that it may have been an introduced species, but there is no evidence of its having come to Florida from any foreign country, and it seems reasonable to believe that it is probably native to the Florida peninsula, possibly having originally some food plant other than the orange. The lemon and orange groves of California were for a long time entirely free from the attacks of this mite, but about 1889 some car- loads of citrus trees were taken into California from Florida and planted, without careful inspection, in the Rivera and San Diego Bay districts. This shipment of trees brought with it, unfortunately, two or three of the Florida scale insects, and also this rust mite, which has gained a foothold in the important lemon districts about San Diego, and is now one of the worst pests the lemon grower has to deal with. For a number of years the effect of its attacks on the fruit of the lemon in California was ascribed to a fungous disease, and it was not until the writer visited the lemon districts about San Diego Bay in 1896, and identified the injury as due to the Fiorida rust mite, that its true nature was known. This mite develops on both the leaves and fruit, although its presence on the former is often overlooked. On the foliage the presence of the mite causes the leaves to lose their gloss and become somewhat curled, as though by drought. The leaves are never killed, however, and their functions are not entirely impaired, the attack resulting merely in the considerable checking of the vigor of the plant. The results of the presence of this mite on the fruit of the lemon are slightly different from its effect on the fruit of the orange. The ripening fruit of the orange after having been attacked by the mite becomes more or less rusted or brownish, and the rind is hardened and toughened. The result is that, while the orange loses its brilliant fresh color and gloss, the toughening and hardening of the rind enables the fruit to stand long shipment, and protects it very materially from decay. It was further found that the quality of the juice was rather improved by the mite than otherwise, the mite-attacked oranges being more juicy and sweeter flavored than those free from it. Asa result of this, a demand grew up inthe Northern markets for the rusty fruit, and good prices were obtained for it. In the case of the lemon, however, an injury to the rind is an impor- tant consideration, a perfect rind being a requisite of the fruit on account of the numerous uses to which the rind is put and the valua- ble products obtained from it. The effect on the lemon is also some- what different from that on the orange. The rind of both fruits, when attacked by this mite in the green stage, becomes somewhat pallid or PLATE XXxI Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. me t ieee bo ae rem = Fig. 1. 2am ~ bE Rae — = =~ ASS” = d wy , / / b — THE SILVER MITE OF THE LEMON. (PHYTOPTUS OLEIVORUS ASHM.) SCALE INSECT AND MITE ENEMIES OF OITRUS TREES. 287 -“silWred,” due to the extraction of the oils and the drying up and itdhing of the outer layer of the skin. In the case of the lemon, iovger, this whitening is much more marked than in the case of the », and, since the lemon is often picked while green, the subse- le} rusting is not nearly so notable; hence, in California this mite is tio} chiefly. as the silver mite. If the lemon is allowed to fully tip on the tree, however, it becomes bronzed or rusted, similar to tle pst of the orange, but rather lighter in shade. (See Pl. XXX.) in the case of the orange, the rind of the lemon is hardened and tufened, but the juicy contents are not affected materially; further- lo}, & silvered lemon will keep very much longer than a perfect bnjn, and will bear distant shipment without risk of much loss. Up to fe present year the rusted lemon in southern California has found arket whatever, and has been a total loss to the grower. The ciness of the crop of lemons in 1900 resulted, however, in such fined. Should the manufacture of citric acid assume very much ortance in southern California, the mite-injured lemons could be | for this purpose. Nevertheless, considering the ease with which mite may be controlled, one has no excuse for allowing it to main- itself in injurious numbers in a lemon grove, since, irrespective of appearance and value of the fruit, its work on the foliage materi- al checks the healthfulness and vigor of the plant. ‘he rust mite avoids exposure to sunlight, and hence the lower half ojche fruit is nearly always first invaded, and only gradually does the e work its way around to the upper surface, very frequently a sjall portion exposed to the direct rays of the sun remaining unat- ked. This gives the appearance, most prominently shown in the ‘ce of the orange, of a discolored band extending about the fruit, iegularly limiting the area over which the mites have worked. The iltiplication of this mite goes on at all seasons of the year in the ange and lemon districts, being merely less prolific and active in inter than in summer. It has been supposed in Florida that dry eather is inimical to it, but the fact that it thrives in southern lifornia would seem to throw doubt on this belief. The rust mite itself is very minute, practically invisible to the naked ve, except to the very sharpest vision. It is honey-yellow in color, ad about three times as long as broad. It is provided with four ninute legs at its head extremity, by means of which it drags its worm- ke body slowly after it when it moves from one spot to another. The eneral features and structure of the mite are shown on Pl. XXXI. “he eggs are circular and are deposited singly or in little clusters on ‘he surface of the leaf or fruit. They are about half the diameter of he mother and nearly transparent in color, having, however, a slight U U 7 -— \) 288 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. yellowish tinge. They hatch in four or five days in hot weather, but in cold weather the development of the embryo may be delayed for one or two weeks. The newly hatched mite is very similar to the adult. About a week after hatching it undergoes a transformation, or moult, requiring a period of about forty-eight hours, after which the regen- erated mite escapes from the old skin, which remains adhering to the leaf or fruit for some little time. This moult brings the mite to its adult stage, in which it is somewhat darker in color than the young, and becomes opaque as soon as it reaches full maturity. No sexual differences have been discovered, and the number of eggs deposited by a single mite is not known. ‘The entire development of the mite is short, probably not much exceeding, in warm weather, two weeks. The food of the mite seems to be the essential oil which is abundant in all the succulent parts of citrus plants, and which is obtained by the mites by piercing the oil-cells with their beaks, resulting, as noted, in the hardening and death of the outer epidermis and the accompanying changes in color. These mites, while excessively minute, are capable of very active locomotion, and, as estimated by Hubbard, their rate of progress over a smooth surface, if continuous, would amount to 10 or 12 feet per hour. They are, at any rate, able to change their location with appar- ent rapidity, moving from one part of the leaf to another, as the con- ditions of light and food necessitate. Some very interesting calculations were made by Mr. Hubbard as to the number of these mites which might occur on a single leaf. His counts were made in the autumn, when the mites are much less numer- ous than in the summer. His estimate, made from actual count, indi- cates that the number of mites and eggs on a single leaf in midwinter may reach the enormous sum of 75,000. This indicates for trees in the active breeding season of summer billions of mites. The mite is very readily distributed by means of insects and birds. As shown by very careful experiments conducted by Mr. Hubbard, the rust mite is readily destroyed by various insecticides. The eggs, however, are much more difficult to kill, and practically no wash which will not greatly injure the tree can be relied upon to destroy all the eggs of this mite. Experience in California indicates that gassing is also ineffective against the eggs. The sovereign remedy for the rust mite is sulphur, this substance destroying adults with great readiness. It may be applied as a powder on trees, and, moistened by rain or dew, will adhere to the leaves for quite a long period, not being readily washed off even by a hard rain. When spraying is done for scale insects the flowers of sulphur can be mixed up and applied with the spray at the same time, accomplishing both purposes at once. In Cal- ifornia the writer in this manner combined the distillate spray and also the kerosene-emulsion spray with sulphur dissolved with lye. The SCALE INSEOT AND MITE ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREFS. 289 flowers of sulphur can be used in the same way without any attempt at dissolving it. Almost any insecticide will kill the adult mite, such as kerosene emulsion, resin wash, or even a simple soap wash, but unless the eggs are killed the trees will be reinvaded about as thickly as ever in the course of a week or ten days. The advantage of the sulphur treatment arises from the fact that the sulphur adheres to the leaves and the young mites are killed as soon as they come in contact with it. THE SIX-SPOTTED MITE. ( Tetranychus sexmaculatus Riley. ) The leaf mite or spider of the orange and lemon (fig. 33) is very closely allied to the common red spider of greenhouses. — It first made its appearance as an important orange pest in Florida in 1886. Following the severe freeze of the winter of 1885-86 in Florida, the weakened trees seemed to be especially favorable for the multipli- cation of this mite; it increased suddenly in enormous numbers during the dry weather of the early summer of 1886 and was responsible for very considerable damage to the foliage of the orange. The original food plant of this mite is unknown. It was first noted on wild, or sour, orange, from which it spread to other citrus trees. There is no reason for believing it not to be a native of Florida, and it is not improbable that it may have several wild food plants. Like its allies, it is greatly influenced 2 > aye Fie. 33.—Six-spotted mite of the orange by climatic conditions, and needs for ( Tetranychus sexmaculatus): a, dorsal its) excessive multiplication dry, hot ~viewofadult mite—vastly enlarged; 6, P greater enlargement of foot; c,d, mouth weather. Therefore, in rainy seasons parts (from ‘Insect Life”). it is not especially troublesome, and it usually promptly disappears almost completely as soon as rainy weather sets in. In Florida, this means a disappearance during the rainy season, which usually comes in June or July, its period of greatest destructiveness falling between February and the middle of May. This mite was carried to California a decade or more ago with Florida stock, doubtless at the same time that the other Florida citrus insects were transported to the Pacific coast. It has since been recognized as an injurious species in the lemon and orange districts of south- ern California, occasionally multiplying in sufficient numbers to be troublesome. The attacks of this mite are confined largely to the under sides of 290 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the leaves, which are covered with a fine web, beneath which the mite feeds. The first indication of its presence is usually a yellowing in streaks and spots of the upper surface of the leaves. The under sur- face becomes soiled by the accumulated excrements in the form of minute black spots and by the web of the mite. In the case of badly attacked trees the foliage curls and shrivels and finally may even fall, the trees losing half or more of their leaves, and similarly also a large percentage of the half-formed fruit. Being an accompaniment of drought in Florida, part of the damage may undoubtedly be ascribed to the effect of the dry weather. This mite is apt to be injurious in the case of weakened trees, as already noted, but with vigorous growing plants is rarely very harmful. The remedies for this mite are the same as for the rust or silver mite. Flowers of sulphur, either as a dry powder or in the form of a spray, is a most effective remedy. ‘The bisulphide of lime is also an effective wash against this mite. It can be made very cheaply by boiling together in a small quantity of water equal parts of lime and sulphur. Five pounds of lime and 5 pounds of sulphur, dissolved by boiling, should be diluted to make 100 gallons of spray. HOW BIRDS AFFECT THE ORCHARD. By F. E. L. Brat, B. S8., Assistant Biologist, Biological Survey. INTRODUCTION. That birds sometimes inflict injuries upon orchard trees and their products is a fact with which every fruit grower is familiar; but it is not so well known that they are frequently of great service in destroying enemies of the orchard, and yet the-aid they render in this subtler way far more than offsets the harm that is so apparent. The enemies with which the fruit grower has to contend, aside from the elements and the birds themselves, may be divided into three cat- egories: Vegetable parasites, such as fungi and bacteria; certain mam- mals, such as rabbits and mice; and insects of various kinds. Against vegetable foes birds afford little, if any, protection. Their efficiency is shown in the destruction of noxious mammals and insects. The value of their work in dollars and cents is difficult of determination, but careful study has brought out much of practical importance in ascertaining approximately to what degree each species is harmful or helpful in its relation to the orchard. SOME BIRDS IMPORTANT TO THE FRUIT GROWER. WOODPECKERS. Among birds which most directly affect the interests of the fruit grower may be mentioned woodpeckers, of which about 45 species and subspecies are found within the limits of the United States, all of decided economic importance. Their subsistence is obtained for the most part upon trees, a mode of life for which they are specially adapted. The character of the feet and tail enables them to cling easily to upright trunks, and the structure of the bill and tongue gives them the power to cut into solid wood and withdraw the insects lodged inside. The toes are in pairs, one pair projecting forward and the other backward, and are furnished with very strong, sharp claws, an arrangement which insures a firm hold upon the bark. ‘The tail is composed of very stiff feathers pointed at the end, that can be pressed against the tree trunk, and thus made to support and steady the bird. The beak is rather long, but stout, and furnished with a chisel-shaped point, which is hardened and sharpened so as to render it a most effective wood-cutting instrument. The tongue, the most peculiar portion of the anatomy of these birds, is extended backward by two 291 292 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. slender, flexible filaments of the hyoid bone, each incased in a muscular sheath (fig. 34, a). These filaments, instead of ending at the back of the mouth, curve up over the back of the skull, across the top of the head, and down on the forehead, and in some species enter the opening of the right nostril, and extend forward to the end of the beak (fig. 35). In the last case the tongue is practically twice the length of the head. By means of its surrounding muscular sheath, the tongue can be pro- truded from the bird’s mouth a considerable portion of its length, and can thus be inserted into the burrows of wood-boring larve. In order to secure grubs or other insects, it is usually furnished with a sharp point and is barbed on the sides (fig. 34, 4). It is evident that a bird possessing such an apparatus must be capable of doing work which less advantageously endowed species can not accomplish. Hence, while most birds content themselves with eating such insects as they find upon the surface, wood- peckers seek those larvee or grubs which are beneath the bark, or even in the very heart of the tree. To render more effective the mechanism here described, these birds are gifted with a remarkably acute sense of hearing by which to locate their prey within the wood. That they do so with great accu- racy, is disclosed by examination of their work, which shows that they cut small holes directly to the burrows of the grubs. Downy woopreckEerR.—Of the various species of woodpeckers in the Eastern pias: ge Gated DET aebuecaceres States, the two most important are the so- a, hyoid of flicker (Colaptes aura- called downy and hairy woodpeckers. These Le ee Spare Petes: birds are especially given to foraging in orchards, more particularly in winter; for, unlike most species,they do not migrate, but remain on their range the year round. A study of the contents of the stomachs of many specimens of the downy woodpecker (Dryobates pubescens) shows that nearly one-fourth of the yearly food consists of ants. A celebrated French writer upon popular natural history has spoken of the ant as ‘‘the little black milkmaid, who pastures her green cows in the meadow of a rose leaf.” This is a graphic, if somewhat fanciful, picture of the relations of ants and plant lice (Aphid); but unfortunately the black milkmaid does not limit her pastures to the rose-leaf meadows. There are compara- tively few plants which do not suffer to some extent by the ravages of plant lice, and fruit trees and ornamental shrubs seem to be more HOW BIRDS AFFECT THE ORCHARD. 293 especially subject to their attacks. Ants protect these plant lice from harm, and, when the plant on which they are feeding is exhausted, carry them to fresh pastures, and in some cases actually build shelters over them. Besides destroying the ants, the downy woodpecker eats many of the plant lice. Again, when the woodpecker has, by its keen sense of hearing, located the larva of a wood-boring beetle in a tree, and dislodged it with the aid of the sharp-edged chisel and probe, there is much likeli- hood that the next time it visits the tree it will find a colony of ants snugly estab- = — lished in the burrow oo Sa ee of the defunct grub, Sia eS RET whose somewhat lim- ited quarters they are extending in every direction. It now brings to bear upon the ants the same ap- paratus it used in the ‘ase of the grub, and they are soon drawn Fia. 35.—Special development of tongues of woodpeckers: a, skull of out and devoured. flicker (Colaptes auratus), showing root of tongue extending to tip From thes e two of bill (after Lindahl); b, head of hairy woodpecker (Dryobates villosus), showing root of tongue curving around eye (after Audu- sources are obtained __ bon). the ants that are found in the food of this bird, and that constitute 23 per cent of that food. In both cases the insects are harmful, and the woodpecker stops the injury and benefits the tree. Of the food of the downy woodpecker, 13 per cent consists of wood- boring coleopterous larvee, insects that do an immense amount of dam- age to fruit and forest trees, and are, as stated, protected from the attacks of ordinary birds by their habit of burrowing in trees. Besides the grubs taken from -within the wood, the woodpecker eats many of the parent insects from whose eggs these grubs are hatched. It also destroys numerous other species that live upon the foliage and bark. Caterpillars, both those that. bore into the tree and those that live upon the leaves, constitute 16 per cent of its food, and bugs that live on berries and give to them such a disagreeable taste form a considerable portion of its diet. Bark lice or scale insects (Coccidee), pests of the worst description, are also eaten by this bird, and to an extent that is surprising when their minute size is considered. Harry woopprecKkEerR.—The hairy woodpecker (Dryobates villosus, fig. 36) subsists on food that is similar in general to that of the downy; and although it does not eat quite so many ants, it destroys more 294 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. beetle larvee and more caterpillars, and thus renders quite as good service in the orchard. In winter, birds of both these species are more pressed for food than in summer, and may be seen busily searching the crevices in the bark, where they find hibernating insects and insects’ eggs. By devouring these they destroy many enemies that would have attacked the trees at the approach of warm weather. Friicker.—tThe flicker ( Colaptes auratus, fig. 37), another member of the woodpecker family, is well known to most orchardists and farmers. It is larger than either the \ : Ai Fig. 36.—Hairy woodpecker (Dryo- downy or the hairy woodpecker, and differs bates villosus). 4 ote a . somewhat from them in its food habits. It eats fewer beetles and caterpillars, but devours an enormous number of ants. ‘Two stomachs were examined, each of which contained more than 3,000 ants, and ina third were 5,000, of a very minute species. Not all of these ants, however, are obtained from trees; many are species that burrow in the earth, for the flicker is more terrestrial than most of the other woodpeckers, and takes much of its food from the ground. YELLOW-BELLIED WOODPECKER. —On the other hand, some harm to fruit trees is to be charged against this family, though there is much popular misapprehension in this regard. The smaller species have been called sapsuckers, from the supposition that they puncture holes in the bark of trees in order to get the sap and soft inner bark. The charge is well grounded, but only one species, so far as known, causes any appreciable harm through the practice. This is the yellow-bellied wood- pecker (Sphyrapicus varius, fig. 38), whose summer range is confined to Canada, the northern portions of the United States, and the Allegheny Mountains, and whose winter residence is in the Southern States. This bird is injurious to certain trees, at times removing the outer bark over a considerable area, and Fic. 38.—Yellow -bellied wood- at others pecking numerous holes very close pecker (Sphyrapicus varius). 5 ° . . together, in each case practically girdling the tree. As the sap collects in the pits thus formed, the bird drinks it, and also catches the insects that are attracted to the pits by the sweetness Fic. 37.—Flicker (Colaptes auratus). HOW BIRDS AFFECT THE ORCHARD. 295 of their contents. The trees attacked, mostly birches, mountain ashes, maples, and apple trees, often die the first or second year after the girdling is done. Fruit trees, however, are not very frequently attacked by this bird, and the species is not numerous enough to cause any perceptible harm to the forest. Examination of the stomachs of yellow-bellied woodpeckers shows that alburnum, or the soft tissue lying between the inner layer of bark and the hard wood of the tree, constitutes quite an important item of the diet, 23 per cent of the food of the year. Other woodpeckers also eat sparingly of the same substance, but the little they take is of no practical importance. RED-BELLIED WOODPECKER.—The red-bellied woodpecker (J/elan- erpes carolinus), Which is not common in the East north of Pennsyl- vania, has fallen into disrepute among the orange growers of Florida by its attacks on oranges. It does considerable damage by pecking holes in the ripe fruit, and sometimes causes serious loss. It 1s to be hoped that experience will show some way to prevent: these ravages without destroying the bird, for its harmfulness is confined to the orange groves of Florida, and it is of much value elsewhere. OTHER woopPEcKERS.—The other woodpeckers, both eastern and western, are all more or less useful to fruit raisers. In the West and South, besides several subspecies of the hairy and downy woodpeckers, are other members of the same genus (Dryobates), which have food habits, as shown by stomach examination, that closely approximate those of the hairy and downy. These include the red-cockaded (VD. borealis), Texan (D. scalaris bairdi), St. Lucas (PD. scalaris lucasanus), Nuttall’s (D. nuttalli), and Arizona (PD. arizona). Several woodpeck- ers belonging to the genus P/coides, that inhabit the northern part of the country and beyond, are equally useful. The genus J/elanerpes, with its half dozen species, covers practically the whole United States, and, like the genus Dryobates, is a group of useful insectivorous birds, with the possible exception noted above. In the West three species of flickers are found whose food is practically the same as that of the eastern species. TITMICE. BLACK-CAPPED CHICKADEE.—The well-known titmice, or chickadees, though small in size and unobtrusive in habits, do much good in both orchard and forest. So far as known, the food habits of all are bene- ficial. The winter food of the familiar black-capped chickadee (Parus atricapillus), which has been investigated by Prof. Clarence M. Weed," of New Hampshire, and by the Biological Survey, consists of noxious insects, and more especially of insects’ eggs. The eggs of plant lice (Aphidze) were found in a large proportion of the stomachs examined, and constituted an important percentage of the food. Besides these, 1 Bulletin 54, N. H. College Agr. Exp. Sta., June, 1898. 296 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the eggs of such pests as the common tent caterpillar (Cliscocampa americana), the forest tent caterpillar (C. desstria), and the fall canker- worm (Anisopteryx pometaria) are eaten. In winter chickadees spend most of the daylight hours in searching trunks and branches of trees, inspecting every crevice in the bark and examining every bud for the insects’ eggs and hibernating insects, which constitute so large a part of their food. Mr. E. H. Forbush, ornithologist to the Massachusetts State board of agriculture, has shown how these birds may be attracted to the orchard in winter by hanging up pieces of suet, or bones with a little meat still attached to them.’ In this way they are induced to leave the woods and live in the orchard during the winter, and finally to build their nests and rear their young there. CALIFORNIA BUSH-TIT.—Other species of titmice are quite as useful as the black-cap. Examination of the stomachs of a number of Cali- fornia bush-tits (Psaltriparus minimus) revealed the presence in con- siderable number of the black scale (Lecanium olew), which infests the olive. This insect has been a serious pest to the olive trees on the Pacific coast, and any bird that will destroy it should certainly be encouraged by Western fruit growers. The usefulness of titmice de- pends largely upon the small size of the birds. In dealing with pests of any kind, the more minute they are the less the probability that man can by his own unaided efforts succeed in exterminating them. Plant lice and bark lice are, on this account, difficult of destruction by human agency, and are too small to attract the attention of many of our ordinary birds; but to the chickadees they must appear of considerable size, and so are easily found and eaten. The eggs of insects, especially those of such small species as plant lice, are often so minute as to escape the closest search by man; but the more microscopic eyes of these small birds detect them even in crevices of buds or bark. NUTHATCHES AND CREEPER, Frequent associates of the chickadees, and doing practically the same work, are the nuthatches and the brown creeper. The nuthatches are of about the same size as the chickadees, but are more agile tree climbers, in this respect excelling all other North American birds. While woodpeckers and titmice usually run up the trunks, nuthatches run up or down, or along the underside of a horizontal branch, with equal facility, and do not depend upon the tail for support. The brown creeper, like the chickadee, is constantly engaged during the day in searching for insects’ eggs and small insects in the crevices of the bark. It is an active, nervous little creature, which flits rapidly from one tree to another, generally alighting upon the trunk near the 1 Mass. Crop Reports, p. 349, 1894, HOW BIRDS AFFECT THE ORCHARD. 297 base, then running spirally upward, and, after a hurried inspection, winging its way to the next tree. These three birds perform a service which it is difficult for man to do for himself, and they should be protected and encouraged. CUCKOOS. Probably no group of insects contains a greater number of orchard pests than the order Lepidoptera, which comprises butterflies and moths, with their larve, or caterpillars. Tent caterpillars, cankerworms, fall webworms, tussock moths, codling moths, and a host of others are among the worst enemies of the fruit grower. It is, therefore, fortu- nate that there are in the United States two birds that subsist, to a great extent, upon caterpillars, apparently preferring them to any other food. These are the cuckoos, the yellow-billed ( Coccyzus americanus) and the black-billed (C. erythrophthalmus). For years it has been a matter of common observation that these birds feed largely on caterpillars, but, until a number of stomachs had been examined, it was not known how great a proportion of their food is made up of these harmful insects. The examinations indicated that caterpillars of various species, includ- ing some of the most destructive, constitute more than 48 per cent of their food. One stomach contained at least 250 tent caterpillars, probably a whole colony, in the young stage. In another 217 heads of the fall webworm (/Zyphantria cunea) were counted, and this prob- ably fell far short of the real number, as these larve are very smail, and in many instances nothing but jaws remained undigested. In the stomachs of 155 cuckoos taken in various parts of the country were found 2,771 caterpillars of various species, or an average of 18 to each stomach. When we consider that a caterpillar is so soft and easily digested that soon after being swallowed it has entirely passed from the stomach, it is evident that in one day far more than this number (18) must have been eaten by the average bird. Many caterpillars are protected from the attacks of birds and parasitic insects by a covering of hair, and hairy caterpillars are only rarely eaten by most birds. Cuckoos, however, seem to prefer them to the smooth kind, and apparently eat them whenever they can be found. Caterpillar hairs are often stiff, bristly, and sharp at the end, like minute thorns, and it frequently happens that when a cuckoo’s stomach is opened and emptied it is found to be completely furred on the inside by hairs which have pierced the inner lining and become fast. Cuckoos eat many noxious insects besides caterpillars, such as beetles, bugs, and grasshoppers. Unfortunately, they are naturally rather shy birds, preferring the edges of woodland and groves to the more open cul- tivated grounds and orchards. If, however, they are unmolested, they soon gain confidence, and in many cases frequent shade trees. about houses and lawns, or even in the very heart of the city. 4 41900 ——20 298 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BALTIMORE ORIOLE. The Baltimore oriole or golden robin (/eterus galbula) also feeds largely on caterpillars, which amount to 34 per cent of its summer food. When nesting, the oriole may be seen searching among the outer twigs of trees, examining every leaf in quest of its favorite food. In addition to caterpillars, it destroys many noxious beetles and plant and bark lice. Butits reputation is not unblemished. Some complaint has been made against it by fruit growers, and John Burroughs accuses it of destroying grapes. However, its peculations of this character are probably not very great, for in an examination of more than 100 stomachs very little fruit was found, and that chiefly of wild varieties, while there was an entire absence of any remains indicating grapes. WARBLERS. The family of warblers is of wide distribution and comprises species that are usually small and brilliantly colored. These differ greatly among themselves in habits, some remaining in the deepest shades of the forest, while others frequent groves, orchards, shrubbery, and gardens. Some seek their food by running over the bark of trees like woodpeckers or chickadees; others are terrestrial; but the great majority live on the insects which they find upon the leaves of trees. While definite data are wanting as to the food of these birds, field observation indicates that it consists largely of small caterpillars and other insects that feed on the leaves of fruitand forest trees. Although warblers are, individually, small, their numbers are great, and the quantity of insects they destroy in the aggregate must be large. A single observation will illustrate the character of their work. Inthe month of May, 1900, when the apple trees bad just expanded rosettes of small leaves and flower buds, a multitude of warblers of several species were seen going through an orchard examining these rosettes, and apparently pecking something from each. An investigation of the trees not yet reached by the warblers showed that each rosette contained from one to a dozen large plant lice, while a similar investi- gation of the trees explored by the birds revealed few of these insects, VIREOS. The vireos are similar to the warblers in habits. Several species commonly nest in the orchards and about the buildings, obtain their food from foliage, and so destroy many insects harmful to fruit trees. FOOD OF THE YOUNG BIRDS. All these species do good service to the orchard when rearing their young. Our small birds, even those that, when adult, feed on fruit or seeds, rear their young on insects. Nestlings can not digest hard sub- stances, such as beetles or hard seeds, so their parents select for them HOW BIRDS AFFECT THE ORCHARD. 299 soft-bodied insects like caterpillars and other Jarve, young grasshop- pers, and spiders. Stomach examination shows that they are fed on caterpillars or spiders almost exclusively during the first week of their existence, after which the diet is gradually changed and becomes more varied. BIRDS OF PREY. When fruit trees are young, and more especially when they are in the nursery rows, they are subject in winter to attacks from various species of mice and rabbits, which gnaw the bark from the trunks, completely girdling the trees, and thus ruining them. As a case in point, may be mentioned a single small nursery a few acres in extent in Iowa, in which more than 3,000 trees had been girdled by rabbits ina single winter—one of several instances of equal damage that occurred in the same town. Ina nursery of less than 5 acres, situated in Mary- land, only a few miles from Washington, 2,000 out of about 4,000 appie trees were girdled and ruined by rabbits within two months. It is very significant that the nursery was near farm buildings where the wild enemies of the rabbits did not dare to come, while a newly set orchard at a distant part of the farm, and close by woods and taickets, was hardly touched. Field mice and other small rodents are represented in the United States by numerous species, all of which may do mischief to young trees in winter, and most of which are doing some mischief at all sea- sons. Rabbits, as a rule, are not so numerous, but their larger size and fondness for young leat trees makes their destructiveness fully as great as that of the smaller rodents, and, in fact, much greater in some sections where they are particularly a isthnicbant: But there isa group of birds which seems to be especially adapted to prey on these harmful rodents and hold their numbers within reasonable bounds; although it often happens that through the shortsightedness of man this wise arrangement is disturbed. This group comprises the hawks and owls, of sick about 73 important species and subspecies are found in the United States. Dr. A. K. Fisher has investigated the diet of these birds, and has shown that the great bulk of their food consists‘of injurious rodents. After an examination of some 2,700 stomachs, only 6 of the 73 species and | subspecies are classed as in the main harmful; the testimony of stom- ach examination is overwhelmingly in favor of the majority of the species. Mice, rats, rabbits, gophers, and ground squirrels constitute the chief food of most of the larger species, while many harmful insects are destroyed by the smaller ones. These birds at times feed on smaller insectivorous birds and poultry, but mice and other rodents are by far the commonest food of most species. ’ Bulletin 3, Div. Ornith. and Mamm., Dept. Agr., 1893. 300 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Hawks and owls hold the same relation to rabbits and mice that the smaller birds hold to the insect enemies of the orchard. For years they have been looked upon as harmful, but investigation has dissipated much of this error. While, as is the case with most birds, nearly all of them do some harm, the great majority are preeminently useful. Mice, rabbits, and other rodents are a constant menace to the interests of the fruit grower, and sometimes when through some combination of circumstances their numbers become superabundant, as has frequently happened in the case of field mice in Europe, their ravages are enor- mous. Indiscriminate slaughter of hawks and owls has often been followed by great ravages by voles and other mice. This should be sufficient to demonstrate the great utility of these birds as a check upon the undue increase of such pests. GREAT HORNED OWL.—The great horned owl (Bubo virginianus), a bird well known in most parts of the country—though not often seen, owing to its retiring habits—is probably one of the most potent factors in holding in check that troublesome pest of the orchard and nursery, the common cottontail rabbit. Several years ago in a locality in eastern Massachusetts, through some unknown cause, rabbits became wonderfully abundant, and the following winter woodchoppers and others who visited the woods were surprised to see many great horned owls where in former years not more than two or three were annually observed. The presence of these birds so soon after the increase of the rabbits shows how quickly they avail themselves of an unusual sup- ply of food, and thus restore the disturbed equilibrium. Unfortunately, it happened that at this time stuffed owls were fashionable as parlor ornaments, and taxidermists were therefore willing to pay a good price for them; so when it became known that the woods were full of owls, the natives did their best to reduce the number, and so perpetu- ated the rabbit scourge. In a number of the Eastern States the rabbit is protected by law, and can be killed only during a small part of the year; but the animal is as much of a nuisance as are the various species of field mice, and the accident of its larger size only renders it capable of more mischief. To offer bounties for the destruction of hawks and owls and simulta- neously protect rabbits is an anomaly of legislation which will probably puzzle and amuse future and wiser generations. The food value of the rabbit is insignificant compared with its capacity for mischief when it becomes overabundant. In the West the larger species, or jack rabbits, haye many times become excessive in numbers, and ‘‘rabbit drives,” in which the animals are surrounded and driven into a small inclosure, where they are killed, have grown to be of frequent occurrence. In Australia the European rabbit some years ago became so abundant as to threaten the very existence of the sheep industry over a wide expanse of territory. The common cottontail rabbit is already much HOW BIRDS AFFECT THE ORCHARD. 301 too numerous for the best economic results In many States of the Mississippi Valley, and is likely to become so in the East if the protection of the law is not removed. Marsu HAWK.—An idea of the good work done by hawks and owls in the destruction of smaller mammals may be obtained by watching a marsh hawk (Circus hudsonius) foraging for its dinner. This hawk preys extensively on the mice and other small mammals that live on the ground near fences and hedgerows. It may be seen skimming along close to the surface, following a fence up one side and down the other, stopping now and then to circle around a particularly prom- ising spot, and examining every rubbish heap or stone pile, till a chance movement in the grass catches its eye, when, in an instant, it throws up its wings, suddenly checking its flight in mid-air, and drops with outstretched talons upon its unfortunate prey. Mouse after mouse will be taken in this way, each of which is capable of doing much mischief to trees or grain. The extent of the benefit of this work and full corroboration of its character is shown by stomach examination. Thus, in the stomachs of 45 rough-legged hawks (Archibuteo lagopus sancti-johannis), taken in several different States, were found 128 harmful rodents, 1 weasel, 1 shrew, 1 lizard, and 70 insects. The rodents, besides 19 which could not be determined specifically from the remains, consisted of 1 gopher, 2 rabbits, 4 house mice, 4 white-footed mice, and 98 meadow mice. No traces of birds or poultry were found in any one of the 45 stomachs. Barn owL.— When hawks or owls devour their prey they usually bolt it whole or in large fragments, with the bones, hair, and many of the unremoved feathers. By the action of the stomach the indiges- tible portions, such as bones and hair, are soon separated from the flesh and rolled up in a neat pellet, which is then disgorged. In the Vicinity of their nests many such pellets are to be found; and when these are dissected the bones, and still more the teeth, show what animals the bird has been eating. Ina tower of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington a pair of barn owls (Striz pratincola) have had their nest for several years. Dr. Fisher visited this eyrie on several occa- sions, and collected 675 pellets, of which he made a careful study, with the result that he identified the remains of 1,787 small mammals, mostly rodents, 36 birds, and 2 frogs. Of the mammals, there were 1,119 common meadow mice, one of the worst enemies to young fruit trees as well as to farm crops in general. ; SHRIEES. BurcHER Birp.—Besides hawks and owls, certain other native birds demand passing notice on account of the services they render by destroy- ing mice. These are the shrikes, birds with many peculiar character- istics, whose food habits have been investigated by Dr. Sylvester D. 302 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Judd.t One species, commonly known as the butcher bird (Lanzus borealis), nests far to the north, but winters in the United States. It is a frequenter of orchards and open lands, where it constantly watches for its prey—mice, an occasional small bird, and what few insects it can obtain in winter. It is an inveterate enemy of the English sparrow, which it finds in parks and suburbs of cities and towns. A peculiar habit largely increases its usefulness. Its instinct for hunting is so keen that it can not refrain from taking its game whenever and wherever it can find it, and as the bird frequently is not hungry at the time of capture, it spits the prey on a convenient thorn, sharp twig, or barb of a wire fence. It was formerly supposed that the provisions thus saved were for future use; but although some may be subsequently eaten, most of them are left to dry up or decay. LOGGERHEAD SHRIKE.—The loggerhead shrike (Lanius ludovictanus) is more southern In distribution. Its habits are similar to those of the butcher bird, but as it is with us during the summer, it captures more insects and fewer birds and mice. As it rears its young here, however, and so has occasion to use more food, it is probably fully as beneficial as the other species. Shrikes kill small birds, and to that extent do harm, but they seem to prefer mice when these can be obtained. BIRDS HARMFUL TO ORCHARDS. The other side of the subject under consideration remains to be shown. The injurious habits of a few birds have already been men- tioned. In the case of the shrikes, the destruction of small birds is likely to be detrimental, as small birds are generally valuable aids to the cultivator; but the injury done in this indirect way is more than counterbalanced by the destruction of mice and insects, which form the great bulk of the shrike’s food. Sometimes the damage is more direct. A few birds feed in winter and spring on buds of trees, both in forest and orchard. Birds of this habit will be briefly considered. PURPLE FINCH AND HOUSE FINCH. The so-called purple finch (Carpodacus purpureus) breeds in the northern tier of States and to the northward, west to the Dakotas, and south in the Allegheny Mountains as far as North Carolina, and win- ters from the southern part of its breeding range south to the Gulf States. When migrating in spring it subsists somewhat on buds of fruit and other trees, and later occasionally destroys the blossoms. The actual damage done by the Eastern purple finch seems trifling, but in the case of its Western relative, the house finch, or linnet (C. mezi- canus frontalisy, the matter is much more serious. This closely related bird does much harm, especially in California, by destroying the flower buds of peach, apricot, almond, and other trees. In many cases serious —— 1 Bulletin 9, Biol. Surv., Dept. Agr., 1898. HOW BIRDS AFFECT THE ORCHARD. 303 injury has been done in this way, and much expense entailed, as the birds are wonderfully abundant in that section of the country. ROBIN. The robin (Mlerula migratoria) has often brought itself into unenyi- able notoriety by its depredations upon small fruits. Many complaints have been received from growers of fruit, especially those who raise but a small amount. Sometimes people who grow a few choice cher- ries do not get even a sample of the fruit, and those who raise fine strawberries for family use sometimes secure only afew boxes, while the robins take most of the crop. On the other hand, thousands of fruit raisers in various parts of the country are never troubled by robins, although these birds may be just as abundant in their vicinity as elsewhere. The probable explanation of this is not far to seek. An examination of the stomachs of 500 robins, collected in various parts of the country, shows that cultivated fruit forms but a moderate percentage (less than 8 per cent) of their diet; and that practically all of this is eaten in June and July; while wild fruits, of which 42 vari- eties have been identified, constitute more than 43 per cent of the year’s food. Investigation shows that complaints have come chiefly from two principal sources, the suburbs of large towns in the East and the prairie region of the West. Such localities lack those wild fruits which robins evidently prefer. Near cities such fruits have been destroyed, and in the prairie region they rarely grow. As soon as the prairies were settled many small fruits were planted, thus affording a supply of food to the birds, while the larger fruit trees furnished sites for their nests. As none or but few of the wild fruits were accessible, it follows naturally that the birds resorted to the available supply, that is, to the cultivated varieties. Much the same condition has been created about large cities by the substitution of cultivated for wild fruit. CATBIRD. In parts of the Mississippi Valley the catbird ( Galcoscoptes caroli- nensis) also has become one of the pests of the small-fruit orehard. East of the Appalachian range there are so many varieties of wild fruits in forests and swamps that, as a rule, the bird confines itself to these localities and does not disturb orchard products. In the prairie region, however, it is different. Before that part of the country was settled the bird was confined to the narrow belts of woods and shrubs along streams, where it found agreeable nesting sites and suitable food. When civilization transformed the prairies into farms, gardens, orchards, and vineyards, a new field was opened to the catbird as well as toother species. The fruit trees and vines not only furnished secure nesting places, but also afforded a new and abundant source of food. It is probable that this resulted in a decided increase in the numbers of the birds, which, depending largely on domestic fruit for their food, 304 YEARBOOK UF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. soon became a nuisance. These conclusions, as has been suggested in several recent considerations of this subject, point to the planting of wild fruit about gardens and lawns as a protection to the cultivated varieties. Many of the wild fruit shrubs are ornamental, either in flower, as the shadbush (Amelanchzer), or in fruit, as the mountain ash (Sorbus). CEDAR WAXWING. The cherry bird or cedar waxwing (Ampelis cedrorum) occurs over the greater part of the United States and is known everywhere by its fondness for cherries and other small fruits. Like the robin and cat- bird, however, it eats far more wild than cultivated fruit. Complaints against it have been chiefiy on account of cherry eating, but its depre- dations are mostly confined to the early ripening varieties of cherries. By the time the later kinds ripen other fruits have also become abun- dant, and the bird’s attention is probably diverted. Besides eating fruit, the robin, catbird, and waxwing destroy many harmful insects, and, where not too numerous, probably do much more good than harm. All three species are very abundant in New England, but are seldom molested. The cherry bird is the only one of which serious complaint is made, and that simply on the score of stealing early cherries, while the robin is regarded almost as sacred. CAUSE OF HARM BY BIRDS. A careful examination of the circumstances in which birds have done harm leads to the belief that the damage is usually caused by an abnor- mal abundance of a species within a limited territory. In such cases so great is the demand for food that the natural supply is exhausted and the birds attack some of the products of garden or orchard. Economically considered, birds are simply natural forces, and it should be our purpose to ascertain how they may be turned to our greatest advantage. The best economic conditions are probably ful- filled when birds are numerous as species and moderately abundant as individuals. Under such conditions there will be a demand for food of many kinds, without excessive demand for any one kind. The most desirable status would seem to be such a relation of numbers and spe- cies between birds and insects that the birds would find pienty of food without preying on useful products, while the insects would be held in such check that they would neither increase to a harmful extent nor be completely exterminated. The proper course to pursue, apparently, is to study the food habits of both birds and insects, to favor the increase of species which seem best adapted to preserve the proper balance, and to reduce the numbers of those that prey too greatly on the products of orchard or farm. SOME POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE NORTHERN STOCK RANGES. By VY. K. CHEsNvrT, In Charge of Poisonous Plant Investigations, Division of Botany. INTRODUCTION. The territory regarded in this paper as belonging to the northern stock ranges includes the greater portion of the seven States extend- ing from the Dakotas and Wyoming westward to the Pacific. With the exception of the highest mountains, the more densely forested coast area, and occasional stretches of unusually arid or alkaline land, it is all rich in nutritious grasses and forage plants, and has long borne an excellent reputation as a hunting and grazing country. Just as in the earlier part of the nineteenth century hunters and traders repaired thither with their outfits and gained good livelihoods by killing buffalo, bear, elk, deer, and other animals for their flesh, hides, and fur, so now, within the last two or three decades, many persons have gone there to take advantage of the free pasturage and to seek their fortunes in pro- ducing flesh, hides, and wool from the immense numbers of stock which the country is so abundantly able to support. One drawback to the industry consists in the presence of several poisonous plants, which are sometimes extensively eaten by different kinds of stock, occasioning serious losses. An investigation has been undertaken with the purpose of finding out how to reduce this evil, and this paper presents a part of the results. The plants considered here include only those native species which are the best known, and which have most frequently been reported as having caused serious cases of acute poisoning in stock throughout the whole of the territory. The rapidly growing importance of the stock industry in the terri- tory described above is most emphatically shown in the case of the sheep industry in Montana. In January, 1900, this State ranked first in wealth of sheep and second in the number of sheep which it pos- sessed.* At as recent a date as 1870, however, there were but 4,212 sheep in the State. The number has increased with remarkable steadi- ness. In 1880 there were 249,978; in 1890 the number had increased to over 1,500,000, and now it has about 4,000,000." The rate of growth has not been so aceunetely worked out for the whole region, but an 1 Yearbook of the egerrnea Be Agriculture for 1899, p. 821. ? Third Annual Report of Board of Sheep Commissioners of Montana for 1899, 305 3806 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. examination of the statistics for January, 1900, shows that it held approximately 31.9 per cent of tbe total number of sheep in the United States and 32.5 per cent of the total value of $122,665,913."| When it is considered that in 1880 the approximate percentage to total of all sheep held on stock ranges in the United States was but 16 per cent,” the rapidity of growth will become evident. The growth of the other stock industries has been rapid also; but since, as will be shown, sheep are more frequently poisoned by plants than other stock, it will not be necessary to consider the latter in detail. The whole area is now very heavily stocked, but it can not be said to be overstocked. It is certain that alfalfa, red clover, or alsike can be as successfully raised under irrigation in many places throughout the range area as they have been in Montana, and consequently a much larger number of stock can be raised there and carried in good condition over winter. Thus, greater profits would be realized and a healthier stimulus given to the improvement of breeds. The loss from poisoning by plants would be materially reduced by feeding the animals instead of allowing them to graze in early spring, when poisonous plants cause the greatest damage. GENERAL CONDITIONS LEADING TO THE KILLING OF STOCK BY PLANTS. About a third of the stock produced in the United States is raised . in comparatively small flocks on farms in agricultural regions where, with plenty of leisure, the animals can get an abundance of pure food and fresh water, and where, especially in winter, they can be well fed and sheltered. The full domestication which is thus brought about very naturally reduces the mortality due to the poisonous flowering plants toa minimum. Even in the well-tilled State of Indiana, how- ever, where there are no extensive public ranges, the loss of stock from plant poisoning has been estimated to be several thousand dol- larsa year. But much of the loss in this and other agricultural regions is due to the eating of corn or other staple fodders which are poison- ous by having become moldy in consequence of improper handling, or which have been contaminated, in course of trade, with poisonous weed seeds, such as cockle (Agrostemma githago), or blighted by fun- gous diseases, such as ergot and oat smut. Some of these agents show their effects only after long-continued use, when they finally produce symptoms of chronic poisoning which so closely simulate disease that the real cause may frequently be overlooked. Cockleand also the spring cockle ( Vaccaria vaccaria) are widely disseminated in various parts of the Northwest, and their seeds are not infrequently found in wheat and other grain. The use of improved machinery has enabled the miller to eliminate the seeds from grain used for human 1 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 1899, p. 821. *Scribner’s Statistical Atlas (1883). Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. PLATE XXXII. Fig. 1.—A WOUNTAIN STOCK RANGE (BRIDGER PEAK, MONTANA; May, 1900; ALTI- TUDE, 9,106 FEET). DEATH CAMAS AND PURPLE LARKSPUR ABUNDANT JUST BELOW THE SNOW LINE. Fic. 2.—-CLOSELY-CROPPED RANGE, WITH TEMPORARY SHEEP CAMP AND THE SKINS OF SHEEP WHICH HAVE BEEN POISONED. SOME POISONOUS PLANTS OF NORTHERN STOCK RANGES. 307 food, but the screenings therefrom, especially those containing cockle, are often fed to stock in considerable quantity. These seeds contain a poisonous sapotoxine-like substance, and are regarded in Europe as the cause of the chronic poisoning or disease of man and animals which is known as githagism. To what extent stock are thus affected in the United States is unknown. Some farmers regard cockle seeds as good food. The cornstalk disease, which extends northward into a few localities in the northern stock ranges, especially in South Dakota, is a strange, little-understood malady of cattle, due to the eating of dry cornstalks in the field after harvest. As corn of itself is not poisonous, the real cause of the malady has been variously attributed to bacteria, to par- asitic fungi, and to saltpeter, which may, under different conditions, be present on the corn, or simply to malnutrition or impaction of the alimentary canal. In one instance of poisoning, by corn, reported by Prof. D. A. Saunders,' a peculiar bug, known as Uhler’s green plant bug, seems to have been the cause. This bug, which passes the win- ter under clods and in the rolled-up leaves of cornstalks, some of which were eaten with fatal results by several cows, was found in very sarge quantity (over a quart) in the stomach of one of the dead cows. The fatal effects of green sorghum, a plant somewhat closely related to corn, which is cultivated to a limited extent in the Northern stock ranges, must be due to an entirely different cause, but this is ikewise very little understood. It may be brought about, as explained by Wyatt Thompson,’ in a purely mechanical way by the leaf, on account of its sticking to the walls of the throat and covering the glottis so as to cause suffocation. Similar fatal results attend the use in China of old foil, which is occasionally taken by wealthy Chinamen for the ‘rpose of suicide.* Another interesting theory which has recently veen advanced is that it is only the blossoms of sorghum that are poisonous, as is the case with Guinea corn in the Barbados Islands, north of South America. The general conditions on the great stock ranges are very different from those existing in farming regions. Although the pasture areas are often of very superior merit and are far more extensive than in the farming regions (Pl. XX X11), the stock have not invariably a sufficient amount of food. Nature is expected to supply both forage and fod- der to the semidomesticated animals. New sheep, which are totally unfamiliar with the wild plants on the ranges, are constantly being brought in from farms, and these animals are expected at once to seek out a proper subsistence. The drinking water is usually more or less alkaline, and, especially when the alkaline salts contained in it are 1South Dakota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 57, p. 45, 1898. ? The Southern Farmer, Vol. X, No. 6, pp. 2, 3, August 11, 1900. *Matignon (J. J.), Arch. d’Anthrop. Crim., Vol. XII, pp. 365-417, 1897. 308 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. permitted to serve as a substitute for common salt, the tendency undoubtedly is to foster an unnatural appetite in the stock. Weather conditions, especially untimely snow falls, not only cause great fatality by freezing, but also render the food supply very uncertain, and last, but not least, the danger of loss from straying away and from coyotes and wolves renders it sometimes advisable to herd the sheep too closely together to permit them to graze with leisure. The danger from moldy food is naturally reduced to a minimum. The diseases resulting from plant poisoning known as locoism and crotalism, which prevail in some parts of the West and Northwest, are caused, respec- tively, by the continued eating in the field of some one of the several locoweeds (Astragalus and Aragallus species) and by the eating of the rattleweed or rattlebox (Crotalaria sagittalis) either in the field or in hay. The evil effects of the almost exclusive feeding of millet hay (Che- tochloa italica) in North Dakota has been pointed out by Prof. E. F. Ladd,’ but the chemical substance which he isolated is hardly suffi- ciently active to render the hay poisonous. From these general considerations it is evident that a larger number of the more purely accidental cases of stock poisoning should be expected on the ranges than on farms in the nonrange States. Asa matter of fact, the vast majority of fatal cases reported to the Division of Botany of the Department have occurred on ranges, and most largely on those of the Northwest. Most of the American literature on the subject has likewise emanated from these same regions, the agricultural experiment stations of Oregon, Washington, Montana, North Dakota, and South Dakota having each issued cone or more bul- letins on the subject. SPECIAL RANGE CONDITIONS. The chief circumstance leading to death from poisonous plants on the great ranges is, as hasalready been seen, the irregularity of the food supply, as determined by the more or less unusual conditions under which stock is sometimes placed in these regions. It can hardly be pre- sumed that the buffaloes and other ruminants which formerly ranged over these areas in countless numbers were very frequently, if ever, killed by eating poisonous plants, for, in the first place, being bred there under perfectly natural conditions, and being abundantly able to roam over long distances in search of food and water, they naturally rejected all but the best and most wholesome diet. Then in the winter they migrated to the south, where the conditions for their existence were more favorable. They grazed in immense herds, but spread themselves out over a large area and ate with leisure. Besides, it 1 North Dakota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 35, pp. 323-325, 1899. SOME POISONOUS PLANTS OF NORTHERN STOCK RANGES. 3809 would require a large quantity of any of the common poisonous plants to kill an animal of such size. Cows, and especially horses, will likewise endure a comparatively large quantity of the commoner deleterious plants, and they, especially the horses, are likewise able to travel over long distances to secure food. It is little wonder, therefore, that but few of these animals are poisoned while out at pasture, even though they are sometimes left to take care of themselves throughout the entire winter. They are poisoned chiefly by being forced to eat certain plants when the shorter herbage is covered with snow, by pull- ing up and eating the poisonous roots of another class of plants when the ground has been softened by long-continued rain, or by eating hay cut from native meadows which is either partly poisonous of itself, as is lupine hay under certain conditions, or has an admixture of poisonous plants, such as water hemlock (Cicuta species). Sheep are often poisoned by comparatively small quantities of cer- tain poisonous plants, and although (unlike cattle and horses) they are herded constantly when on the range, at times their supply of food is extremely precarious. Most stockmen have their summer and winter pastures. Especially fine areas are also reserved for use during the lambing season. It sometimes happens that these particular pastures, being Government’ property, have been already grazed clean by: bands belonging to unfriendly rivals. When herders are thus forced to select other pastures it is generally impossible to find such good ones, and often no good pasturage is immediately available. In one such instance observed by the writer in Montana in May, 1900, over a hun- dred ewes and lambs perished from eating some poisonous plant. When the summer pasture is far distant from that used in winter, and the intervening country is comparatively barren, the sheep often become so hungry that they will graze ravenously and indiscriminately. A third source of danger lies in the method of herding sheep which is in vogue on the ranges. An individual band often contains as many as 2,500 sheep. It is essential, in order to guard against the attacks of wolves and coyotes and against loss by straying away over the unfenced range, that the sheep be prevented from separating too widely. They are therefore kept in more or less compact bands, shepherd dogs being trained to assist the herder in this work. When such a band of sheep is driven more rapidly than usual, the sheep which are in the center, or near the end, have but little chance to select their food, and become so ravenous that they are careless as to what they eat. Still further, it must be remembered that if the sheep are unaccustomed to the range they are far more apt to eat the injurious plants which sheep native to the range would avoid. Considerable loss is occasionally caused by turning sheep out of freight cars while on their way to dis- tant markets and allowing them to graze on whatever herbage may happen to be found at the various stopping places. 310 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. WATER HEMLOCKS. GENERAL CHARACTERS.—The local species of water hemlock are the plants best known throughout the whole of the Northern stock regions as poisonous to stock. These are members of the genus Cicuta, belong- ing to the carrot family. There are at least three distinct species of this genus in the Northwest, the fleshy roots of which, under the erroneous name of ‘wild parsnip,” are rapidly fatal to man or beast if eaten even in small quantity. All are alike in being smooth, gener- ally erect, perennial herbs, 3 to 8 feet high, with one or more upright hollow stems, numerous branches, mostly bipin- nate leaves with lance-like and serrate- edged leaflets 13 to 4 inches long, and terminal umbels of small white or greenish-white flowers. The seeds, and especially the fleshy roots, together with the geographic distribution of the plants, serve to distinguish the species. PI. XXXII and fig. 39 afford an excellent idea of the general features of the group, and fig. 39 may well serve to indicate, in a general way, the character of the upper part of each species. SPECIES AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION.— The most widely known member of the group in the United States, the Ameri- can water hemlock ( Cicuta maculata), is probably the most deadly plant native to this country. An account of its poison- ous character may be found in the Year- book of the Department for 1896, pp. 142-144. oO] Sook 213: Soro: Srorsq sees 1AGt es) eeING | heopIod Trae tigre CPI SLT 340 Ong) aus an ae aoe 489523. 220/9s| 5a a ieee el meres ro meer es eer nes | Peter stl tery 1806.22) SEL. ts] "0:2 40:9 lect upe=O28 0 ee OES lato hie pedal raed 1807s eel. S07 aed Sao Goo oval rors ot econ sans 1898....| 41.9] +1.9 B's, a ieee ss Re eo betes i) Er dec al) treo 1390-06) 95 ae, 099 (ame a Sees ery mis ofan ee mee ey rer 1800 Ssc2 |e Hele 43229 $2:0'| 487 | oun il 6o5: | F0s0i| 220 |) ea.8 The conclusion then is that these visitations may be expected at irregular intervals, the number and intensity of which vary greatly from year to year. It is also found that the extreme maximum occurs within a day or two after the first 90° is recorded. This extreme temperature in regions north of the thirty-seventh parallel sometimes passes the 100° mark, and almost always approximates that point. The number of successive days of abnormal heat varies, and may range as high as sixteen or seventeen. Again, two or more periods may come in close succession, and in the popular mind these are associated as one long spell, as, for example, the month of August and first part of September, 1900. It is the exceptional summer when at least one of these hot waves does not sweep across the country, but the number to be expected in any one season is uncertain. As before stated, fewer hot waves occur in June than in any other of the summer months. July furnishes the greatest number, while HOT WAVES. 329 August and September are not far behind. In the last two the period covered is likely to be longer than in the earlier part of the season. SECTIONS AFFECTED BY HOT WAVES. At times only one section of the country is affected; on other ocea- sions large areas, covering half the United States, are held in the grasp of the hot wave. No section entirely escapes, although the conditions vary in different portions. In central California, eastern Oregon, and - eastern Washington the local surroundings are favorable for long- continued periods of excessive heat, as ideal ‘‘summer conditions” exist in these places. There is an almost total absence of rain, and the summer drought brings with it temperatures that frequently pass the 100° mark on several consecutive days. On the Great Plains of the Middle West the most severe effects of the hot waveare noticed. Itis in this section that the hot wave frequently has its birth. It is often attended by hot winds, which bear a relation to the hot wave not unlike that of the tornado to the general cyclone. These hot winds are a cons stant menace to the crops of the Western prairies. In many instances fields which promised abundant yields have been injured beyond recoyv- ery ina single day. To the eastward of the Great Plains the hot wave is not so severe with regard to its extreme temperatures, but it is usually of longer duration. The effect on vegetation is less marked, although on account of the higher relative humidity the discomforts to man are much greater. In the South the conditions are of a semi- tropical nature, the changes being less frequent and the diurnal range less. This is partly due to geographical position and partly to the fact that the storm tracks pass far to the north, and their influence is but little felt in thisregion. The South does not entirely escape, however, and at times suffers severely from the abnormal heat. In the Ohio Valley, Tennessee, and the Atlantic coast States the duration of the hot wave reaches a maximum, at times embracing a period of two and even three weeks. The extreme temperature is lower than on the Western prairies, but the mean is higher and the diurnal range much less. During these periods, when the maximum temperature is above 90° daily, the minimum rarely registers lower than 70°, and frequently not that low. To this latter fact may be traced the intense suffering of those who are compelled to live in the large Eastern cities, where the street temperatures are higher than those recorded in the Weather Bureau observatories. On account of the proximity to large bodies of water the region surrounding the Great Lakes, as well as New England, is largely free from severe hot waves. The frequent passage of storm centers over these sections keeps the air in circulation and prevents stagnation, which latter seems to be an essential factor in the evolution of a hot wave. Along the 4 a1900 ——22 330 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. coast line hot waves are practically unknown, due, no doubt, in a large measure to the land and sea breezes which tend to keep the tempera- ture lower than farther inland. METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS PRODUCING HOT WAVES. A study of the meteorological conditions under which hot waves occur reveals a certain type of influences which may be said to be char- acteristic of this phenomenon. This is the so-called ‘‘ summer type,” under ideal surroundings, existing over a series of days, that is, it is the ideal summer conditions in a state of stagnation, and it is only when there is this stagnation that the hot wave manifests itself. When the normal circulation of the atmosphere is resumed the heated term comes to a close. It should be understood, however, that this stagna- tion, while marked, is but relative, as the area of high temperature usually slowly drifts from west to east and is finally driven off to sea by the advent of a marked area of high pressure, causing a complete change in barometric and thermal conditions. WEATHER CONDITIONS DURING A JUNE HOT WAVE. From June 20 to 30, 1890, the Mississippi Valley and the Gulf States were visited by a well-marked hot wave. In fact the entire central portion of the country was within the circle of its influence. During this period a high pressure was constantly present off the north Cali- fornia coast, and during most of the time a second high hung over the South Atlantic and Gulf States. Situated in the Great Plains was an almost stationary trough of low pressure, with an average reading of 29.7. Over the region most affected occurred a series of clear days and cloudless nights, attended by a uniform but light wind from a south- erly direction. In the neighborhood of the Lakes the temperature remained quite moderate, the weather being cloudy, with occasional showers, and the winds generally from a northerly direction. During the continuance of this hot period the 80° isotherm, as shown by the 8 a. m. observation, frequently extended above the Ohio River, and at times as far north as central Iowa. The barometric changes from day to day were inconsequential and the general stagnation of the air was plainly evident. No general storm moved across the coun- try, although several skirted the northern edge and affected somewhat the conditions over the Great Lakes. While thelow pressure remained over the Great Plains and the high was located to the southeast over the South Atlantic States, the hot wave continued. It was only when an area of high pressure appeared in British Columbia and drifted southeastward into the United States that the stagnation was broken up and the temperatures were reduced to their normal stage. Pl. XXXV is a chart of the weather conditions as observed at 8 a.m., dune 25, 1890, which will give an idea of the conditions preva- lent during this period. On the day previous to the one on which PLATE XXXV. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. EXPLANATORY NOTES rations taken at 8 a m., seventy-fifth meridian time sure reduced to sea lore! BARS, Of Continuous lines pass throuch polnts of equal air ure THERMA, OF dotted lines. pass through potnts of equal tem Opec + peratore Sympois indicate state of weather; (_) clear, (p> partly ~ ctoudy; @eloudy, (R)rain: (S) (M) report miseing | Annows By with the wind Sratute Wiles | no (we ” 5O WEATHER Map OF 8 A. M. JUNE 25, 1890. T pire oe i a4 A - yrere ae F ! sith 7 ; Nl ils os bektaa Ca lo OR. es a tp ne arid itty gels i) i, hi | Da ee ry Me "C681 ‘OG HAAW31daS “W ‘V 8 SO dV YSHLVIM Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. *[9A9| Boe 0} PHO! v Dun Bg IB UORW) HUOUWAsaGO ON ANOLYNV1dX Om} U¥pom q7jp-4j00A408 PLATE XXXVI. HOT WAVES. oon these observations were taken the maximum temperature registered 90° or more at almost all of the stations situated in the Ohio, Missis- sippi, and Missouri valleys and the Rocky Mountain plains. This is what might reasonably be expected in view of the season and the distribution of barometric pressure. WEATHER CONDITIONS DURING A SEPTEMBER HOT WAVE. A severe hot wave which occurred late in the season was that of September, 1895, which prevailed over the central and eastern por- tions of the country from the 10th to the 23d of that month. On account of the approaching winter season the gradients were steeper than usual during hot waves and the movements of the atmosphere not so sluggish. For several days prior to the commencement of the excessive temperature a high pressure of moderate intensity was present over the Southeastern States, its stagnated condition indi- cating that it formed a part of the great permanent South Atlantic high. The weather was generally clear over the territory east of the Rocky Mountains and south of parallel 45. The direction of the wind was from the center of the high northward and northwestward. After forty-eight hours’ continuous flow of this warm stream of air from the south a low area began to form near the Canadian line. This increased rapidly in intensity, attaining a pressure of 29.1 at its center, at that time located over the Dakotas. During the ensuing week this depression drifted slowly eastward, followed closely by : high area, which had appeared over the Puget Sound region. In the van of the low, temperatures were from 10° to 20° above normal. The center of extreme heat was first located in the West, but it slowly moved eastward, keeping slightly in advance of the low area. ‘Although the Pacific coast high was well marked and the temperature range sharp, its action was not as vigorous as would be expected. After several days, however, it had reached northern Texas, bringing with it temperatures close to the freezing point, while in the East the thermometer registered well into the nineties. From Texas north- eastward the movement of this anticyclone was greatly retarded, the influence of the high in the Southeast being still strongly felt. The severity of the hot wave was increased by the absence of precipita- tion, the records showing little or no rainfall during this period in the region affected. The absence of this disturbing element permit- ted the heat to accumulate from day to day and made the dissolution of these conditions difficult to accomplish. In Pl. XXXVI, which is the 8 a. m. weather map for September 20, 1895, may be seen characteristic conditions for this period. The offi- cial synopsis for that day contained the following statement: The excessive heat which has prevailed during the past week throughout the cen- tral and western portions of the country continued yesterday, with maximum tem- peratures generally above 90°, although the extremes were slightly lower than on 332 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the preceding days. Heated conditions have extended eastward oyer North Caro- lina, Virginia, and the District of Columbia, maximum temperatures of 96° occurring at Charlotte, N. C., and Washington, D. C.; 98° at Raleigh, N. C., and 100° at Nor- folk and Lynchburg, Va. These temperatures were from 2° to 9° above the record in any previous year for the second ten days of September. WEATHER CONDITIONS DURING THE HOT WAVE OF AUGUST—-SEPTEMBER, 1900. The hot wave of August-September, 1900, will long be remembered on account of its length and intensity. In the East it was especially severe, although its influence extended westward beyond the Missis- sippi River. From the 5th of August until the 10th of September there were but three or four days when the maximum temperature did not equal or exceed 90°, so that this entire period may be regarded as continuous, so far as its effect on mankind is concerned, although in a meteorological sense it was divided into at least two distinct periods. The conditions were not unusual, the lack of movement of the South Atlantic high being the most marked feature. The hot wave had its inception in the wake of a high area, which dropped down from north- ern New York over Virginia and the neighboring States. Here it seemed to join forces with the permanent high over the ocean and remained nearly stationary for a number of days. Its center was further inland than ordinarily, indicating the presence of an unusually large high to the eastward. This oceanic high doubtless acted as an insurmountable barrier to the eastward flow of the atmosphere, thus closing the outlet for the escape of warm continental air, which, thus confined, maintained its high temperature fora long period. The fact that the minimum temperatures were the highest of the year lends color to the theory that the introduction of new and fresh air had almost ceased, thus preventing the cooling of the air at night. The winds blew out radially from the center of the high, their velocity being quite low. In the Upper Mississippi and Missouri val- leys was located a low area into which the hot winds from the high constantly poured. The precipitation was much below the normal during the greater portion of the time, except along the Canadian border from Minnesota eastward, where cloudy weather with heavy showers predominated. In western California and Oregon the oceanic high pressed slightly into the interior. Asthe days passed the energy of the South Atlantic high slightly diminished, a tendency to drift southward being manifest. While the high was passing over Wash- ington, D. C., moderate temperatures prevailed, but as soon as the pres- sure began to fall temperatures began to rise. After the area of high pressure came the period of high temperature from the 6th to the 12th. During this time the skies were mostly free from clouds. A few ragged cumuli formed and hung listlessly around the horizon, disap- pearing by sunset. The barometer rose and fell with the regularity of the tide, its action on this occasion being not unlike that in the calm PLATE XXXVII. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. Srssos Millcaté state > ®)rain; (M) report Statute Miles | wo MN Ansows fiy with the wind d partly missing; \ WEATHER MAP OF 8 A. mM. AUGUST 8, 1900. HOT WAVES. bao and tranquil atmosphere of the Tropics. On the approach of the tropical storm from the West Indies about September 1, the anticy- clone was ‘still of such strength as to act as a barrier to the northward progress of the hurricane, which was deflected into the Gulf of Mexico and finally reached Galveston, bringing with it death to thousands of people and destruction to millions of property. Leaving the Texas coast, the storm passed rapidly northward into Iowa and from thence northeastward over the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence Valley. It carried with it much of the stagnant heated air which had accumulated in the Eastern States and most completely brought to an end the insufferably hot weather of the preceding six weeks. Pl. XX XVII shows the conditions existing at 8a.m. August 8, 1900, and is a typical map for this period. Temperatures ranging from 96° to 100° were recorded the day previous, as well as on that particular day and the several following, in North Carglina, Virginia, District of Columbia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. GENERAL WEATHER CONDITIONS TO BE EXPECTED DURING HOT WAVES. From the above three periods, a general idea of weather conditions to be expected during hot waves can doubtless be obtained. The loca- tion of the center of extreme heat will generally be found on the northern and western outskirts of the high pressure. The distribu- tion of pressure will be about such as has been described. The lon- gevity of the hot wave seems to depend upon a slacking up in the general circulation. Aside from the direct heating from the sun, dynamic heating and lack of radiation have an important influence in maintaining the temperature at an abnormal figure. At such times the atmosphere becomes heated to a much greater altitude than usual, the heat being retained at night by conditions explained further on in this article. The air which flows eastward across the Rocky Moun- tains and into the low has been bereft of its moisture, and on descend- ing into the lowlands gains heat dynamically. The air emanating from the high in the southeast goes through much the same process. The clear days warm up the atmosphere and at night the radiation is greatly impeded. Ferrel and other meteorologists of repute have determined that the increase in heat of descending currents of air is at the rate of 1° C. for each 100 meters, which is equivalent to 1° F. for each 183 feet. When it is considered that there is a steady flow of air outward from the center of the high, the presence of this descend- ing current is clearly demonstrated. In the case of the high over the South Atlantic States, at such a time it forms part of the great sub- tropical high, whic is composed largely of relatively highly heated air which has drifted northward from the equatorial region. As long as this unfailing source of heat supply is uninterrupted, the stream of hot air continues to flow out from the center until the advent of an anticyclone of superior energy sufficient to bring about new conditions. 304 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Professor Bigelow, in Bulletin No. 20 of the Weather Bureau, ‘*Storms, storm tracks, and weather forecasting,” says: The excessively hot spells of weather that cover the Atlantic States during cer- tain intervals are attended by a high area on the South Atlantic coast, being a por- tion of the great subtropical high. Aside from the transportation of warm air from Southern to Northern latitudes, there must. be a downpouring of dry hot air in the high itself, due to the excessive ‘‘ potential’? temperature of the upper strata. Speaking of the hot waves of August, Professor Bigelow says: These come from two sources: They originate in a mass of heated air on the Rocky Mountain plains and gradually move eastward from thence; on the other hand, a high area settling over the South Atlantic and Gulf States has the effect of charging the stagnant air with heat, as if the eastward circulation in the upper air was suspended for quite long intervals of time. One of the peculiar features of the hot-wave period is that, notwith- standing the cloudless nights ordinarily favorable for radiation, the air retains its heat in a manner that seems little short of remarkable. For some reason the normal radiation is greatly impeded and almost totally suspended. The exact cause of this cessation of normal action has not been definitely determined, although the investigations of Professor Very have shed much new light on the subject. In his report on ‘* Atmospheric radiation,” recently published by the Weather Bureau, he states that this condition is brought about by the gradual accumulation of water vapor in the upper air, which, although not sufficient to form clouds, is of such a nature as to transmit the rays of the sun with greater readiness than the reflected rays from the earth. This has the effect of accumulating the heat in the lower strata, caus- ing the night temperature to be unseasonably high. At such times the diminution of the daily range of temperature with a clear sky, as saturation approaches, is probably due to a change in the quality of aqueous absorption, and also to the increase of water vapor and its ascent to exceptional heights in considerable quantity, whereby the escape of radiation is impeded by the strong aqueous absorption of the infra-red rays between 5 and 8 (that is, the invisible heat rays of the spectrum between which the absorption of water vapor is great- est) not far from the point where the maximum energy in the radiation from bodies at ordinary temperature resides. The presence of large masses of water vapor in the upper air may not always be indicated by high relative humidity at the surface any more than by clouds, but it is evidenced by the strengthening of the rain band, as seen in the spectroscope, as well as the diurnal range of temperature. Professor Very states that— The heat entrapped through the differential een Ne Ga solar and terrestrial radiation by aqueous vapor and carbon dioxide is mainly stored in the lower layers of the atmosphere, and because the absorption by air heavily loaded with moisture is nearly complete for its own radiation, this stored-up energy continues for a long time as a controlling balance wheel in the mechanism of the weather. As long as HOT WAVES. 335 the mantle of water vapor remains unbroken thermal fluctuations are kept within narrow limits. Storms may make inroads upon the continuity of this aqueous atmospheric envelope, but evaporation of moisture restores the rents. Rolled up in great bosses covering hundreds of thousands of square miles of territory, the thick- ened mantle of vapor brings hot waves. The gradual accumulation of moisture in higher and higher atmospheric layers during the summer clothes the temperate regions with so deep a protective covering of moist air that summer conditions are prolonged in the autumn to a time which is astronomically the correlative of late winter. The absence of this protective layer, whose formation can only be effected gradually, permits late frosts in the spring, long after the sun has resumed his ascendancy. In the middle of a sunshiny day, by the evaporation of moisture from the earth’s surface and its ascent in convection currents, the vapor of water is car- ried up to high levels, but during the night most of this accession of moisture is dif- fused into colder or drier regions of the upper air, where it is either condensed and no longer exists in the air as vapor or is so diluted and reduced in relative humidity as to be of slight absorptive value when the sun next rises. The kite observations at Pierre, S. Dak., reveal the fact that just. prior to and during periods of hot waves the upper atmosphere in the early morning is several degrees warmer than the layers adjacent to the surface of the earth, showing that the cooling process has extended upward but a short distance. There are a number of facts which seem to warrant the belief that the warm ascending air in the low is carried with but slight loss of heat to the center of the high, whence it descends, its temperature when it reaches the ground being quite high. The presence of a large number of dust particles in the upper air dur- ing such periods, attended by hazy conditions, seems to support this theory, although these phenomena may be due solely to local condi- tions caused by dry, dusty weather. On the other hand, it is held by some meteorologists that there is little actual interchange of air between adjacent highs and lows, that is, that the air which ascends in the low is not the same which later descends in the high, but that this descending air comes from other sources. In the case of the South Atlantic high the source of supply is believed to be from the superheated air of the equator, which, upon being heated, rises and flows down the slope thus created, and is piled up in the region bordering on the thirtieth parallel. When a high drifts across the continent and settles over Virginia or the Carolinas it becomes a part of the greater high just described, and the descend- ing currents of air in it are fed from the accumulated masses of rela- tively warm air in these upper strata. Thus, the great heat of the air blowing out from the high at the surface is satisfactorily accounted for. Whatever may be the cause, it seems certain that the upper air in the high is relatively warm, and that during hot waves radiation is retarded in the high by reason of the descending currents of warm nir, and in the low by reason of the accumulation of water vapor. Thus, the temperature over the affected region is kept at a high point because the conditions which bring about increased heat are at a maxi- mum and those which permit its dissipation are at a minimum. 336 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SUMMARY. To sum up, it may be said that, with the present fragmentary knowl- edge of the basic cause of meteorological changes, we are confined to the statement, that during a hot wave the eastward circulation of the atmosphere, both upper and lower, is for the time being almost totally suspended, and that radiation is at the same time ata minimum. A vareful study of the weather charts covering such periods leads to the belief that it is quite practicable to forecast high temperatures for a period of from four to five days, but predictions for a longer time are, for the present at least, the merest guesswork and not entitled to credence. : THE VALUE OF POTATOES AS FOOD. By C. F. Laneaworrny, Ph. D., Office of Experiment Stations. INTRODUCTION. The potato, called in different regions white potato, Irish potato, English potato, or round potato, was first introduced into Europe between 1580 and 1585 by the Spaniards, and afterwards by the English about the time of Raleigh’s voyages to Virginia. It is commonly believed to be a native of Chile. Wild potato plants closely resem- bling those cultivated to-day are still found there, though it is a fact worthy of mention that, as the potato has been modified by cultivation, it has largely lost the power of producing seeds, and the cultivated potato differs from the wild in seldom producing seed-bearing fruits. When first visited by Europeans, the aborigines in Chile and adjacent regions cultivated the potato for its edible tubers and had apparently long done so. It was probably introduced into the United States, espe- cially into Virginia and North Carolina, toward the end of the sixteenth century. It is not surprising that the new food stuff should have grown rapidly into popular favor when we remember its prolific yield, superior keeping qualities, ease of propagation, and agreeable flavor. STRUCTURE OF THE POTATO. The potato tuber is in reality a modified stem, being shortened and thickened to serve as a storehouse for reserve material for the propa- gation of new plants. The outer skin, which is dry in appearance and usually gray or brown in color, corresponds to the bark of the rest of the plant. The portion underneath the skin when exposed to the sun- light turns green and gives the potato an unpleasant flavor. The outer and inner skin are usually removed when the potato is peeled.. The flesh makes up the bulk of the potato. When a section of the potato is carefully examined, it will be seen that it consists of three more or less well-defined portions, namely, the up of the outer and inner medullary layers. The cortical layer, which is the portion lying immediately beneath the true skin, and which is sometimes designated as the inner skin, is slightly colored, containing practically all the coloring matter normally present in the potato, and, as already stated, is the part which turns green on continued exposure 337 338 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to the sunlight. This portion has some resemblance to the skin in general appearance, and is usually removed with the skin in preparing potatoes for the table. Fig. 43 shows a transverse and a longitudinal section of the potato. Fic. 43.—Transverse and longitudinal sections of the potato: a, skin; }, cortical layer; c, outer medullary layer; d, inner medullary layer. COMPOSITION OF THE POTATO. The valuable qualities of the potato were speedily recognized, and there are early records of attempts to determine its food value by means of chemical analyses. In 1795 Pearson reported ‘‘ Experiments - and observations on the constituent parts of the potato root.” Einhof, in 1805, published analyses of the potato, as did also Vauquelin m 1817. In America, analyses of the potato were reported some fifty years ago by Emmons. These investigations were useful at the time, although they were not made by the methods generally followed to-day. This was necessarily the case, as the subject of the chemistry of nutri- tion is of comparatively recent growth. In later years many studies of the composition and food value of the potato have been made in this and other countries. As shown by recent analyses, the skin of the potato constitutes on an average 2.5 per cent of the whole and the cortical layer 8.5 per cent. It is difficult to peel potatoes so that the skin only is removed. THE VALUE OF POTATOES AS FOOD. 339 Whether both skin and cortical layer or only the former should be called refuse in our current sense of the word is perhaps a question. As potatoes are commonly eaten, a good deal of the flesh or edible portion is rejected with the skins. When they are baked with the skin on, much of the flesh is apt to be thrown away with the skin. When they are boiled with the skin on, the amount of edible portion thus thrown away may be very small. When they are pared for boil- ing, the amount wasted is apt to be much larger. When they are rough from defects in growth, or from shrinking and shriveling after keeping over winter, the amount of flesh cut off in the peeling is larger still. Just how much this loss of the edible portion of potatoes will average in ordinary households no one can say exactly. In the tables of analy- ses published in late bulletins of this Department, the amount of refuse and edible portion rejected with it is estimated at 20 per cent of the whole and the edible portion left as 80 per cent. Doubtless, in many cases the rejected portion is very much larger. The loss of actual Fic. 44—Composition of the potato: a, fat; b, crude fiber and other carbohydrates, exclusive of starch; c, protein; d, ash. nutriment of the potato by the rejection of so much of the edible por- tion with the skin is a much more important matter from the stand- point of nutritive economy than people generally realize. The edible portion is made up of 78.3 per cent water, 2.2 per cent protein (total nitrogenous matter), 0.1 per cent fat, 18.4 per cent car- ‘bohydrates (principally starch), and 1 per cent ash or mineral matter. Of the carbohydrates, 0.4 per cent is made up of crude fiber and mate- rials which in some of their modifications constitute the cell walls of plants and give them a rigid structure. The above figures, like others for composition of food materials, represent general averages, from which there are wide variations in individual specimens. Though the skin, cortical layer, and flesh differ somewhat in composition, they all resemble more or less closely that of the whole tuber. Fig. 44 shows in graphic form the composition of the potato. When potatoes are stored they undergo a shrinkage. According to tests made at the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station, this amounted to 11.5 per cent when they were kept in storage from 3840 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. September 30 to May 1. This shrinkage is probably due to a loss of water by evaporation. The Connecticut State Agricultural Experiment Station has made a special study of the proteids of potatoes as well as of many other vege- table products. According to these investigations, the potato contains two proteids, a globulin, to which the name ‘‘tuberin” is given, and a proteose, the latter occurring only in very small amounts. It will be remembered that food serves the body in two ways: (1) It is used to build and repair body tissue, and (2) it yields energy for internal and external muscular work and for maintaining the body temperature. Carbohydrates and fat are sources of energy and can not serve for the building and repairing of the body tissue. Protein is necessary for this purpose since it alone of the nutrients contains nitrogen, the characteristic element of the body tissue. In addition to this, protein also serves as a source of energy, and thus while the body could not be nourished on fat or carbohydrates alone, it could be, theoretically at least, on protein, since this nutrient combines the two functions of food. The potato contains some protein, but as the prin- cipal nutrient in it is starch, it may be fairly classed as a carbohydrate food. As 1s the ease with all carbohydrate foods, it is chiefly valuable in the diet to supply the body with energy. The potato has a fuel value of 385 calories to the pound, that is, when burned in the body (as all foods must be when utilized), it yields energy equal to the amount named. Of the total nitrogenous matter present in the potato, that is, the so-called protein, only a little over half, on the average, perhaps about 60 per cent, consists of true proteid, the portion of the protein group which actually builds the body tissues and helps to keep them in repair. The remainder consists of amids and other compounds of inferior food value. Thus, if 100 pounds of the edible portion of the potato contain 2.2 pounds of total protein, the amount of true proteid will be only 1.3 pounds. This deficiency of proteids in the potato is another mat- ter which people generally do not appreciate. It helps to explain why large numbers of the country population of Ireland and Germany, whose food consists largely of potatoes, are so poorly fed. It is not so much the insufficiency as the one-sidedness of the diet. This is an illustration of the fact that no single article of diet is fitted properly to nourish adult man in health. As appears from the figures quoted above, potatces contain a large anount of water. It is largely present in the juice, which consists of water holding various salts and other bodies in solution. In their high water content potatoes resemble turnips and cabbages, which, on an average, contain, respectively, 89.6 and 91.1 per cent water. Ordinary roller process flour contains only about 12 per cent water and a much larger proportion of protein, fat, and carbohydrates than potatoes. oh THE VALUE OF POTATOES AS FOOD. S41 Rice also contains about 12 per cent water. Although the protein con- tent of rice is much higher than that of potatoes (being on an average 8 per cent), carbohydrates make up the bulk of the total nutritive material, and, like potatoes, rice is properly classed as a carbohydrate food. If the value of a food is judged solely by its chemical composi- tion, a wrong impression may be obtained. For instance, potatoes as purchased consist of one-fifth and rice of seven-eighths nutritive mate- rial. The first inference is that rice is more than four times as nutri- tious as potatoes. In one sense this is true, that is to say, a pound of uncooked rice contains more than four times as much nutritive material as a pound of raw potatoes. But if we take about 4 pounds of pota- toes, that is, the amount necessary to furnish as much nutritive material as the pound of rice, the composition and nutritive value of the two quantities will be just about the same, while from a pecuniary stand- point the advantage would be on the side of the potatoes. The chief difference in the two foods before cooking is that one is juicy and bulky while the other is dry, and therefore more concentrated. In cooking rice we mix water with it, and may thus make a material not very different in composition from potatoes. By drying potatoes they can be made very similar in composition and food value to rice. Con- sidering the two articles as ordinarily purchased, 4; pounds of raw potatoes and a pound of uncooked rice contain nearly equal weights of each class of nutrients and have about the same nutritive value. If a potato is grated and inclosed in a linen cloth and pressed, a large amount of juice will be obtained. The juice thus prepared is a dark- colored liquid which has an acid character, commonly said to be due to citric acid with more or less tartaric and succinic acids. The min- eral matter present is very largely in the form of potash salts. The juice also contains some albuminoids (that portion of the total protein of most value as food), asparagin, and other organic compounds. If the grated potato is mixed with water, starch falls out from the broken cells and settles to the bottom of the vessel, and may be removed in the form of a white deposit. Starch is manufactured to a large extent from potatoes by methods which are similar to the above in principle.! THE COOKING OF POTATOES. Although the potato owes its nutritive value principally to carbo- hydrates, it will be remembered that it contains some nitrogenous matter also. According to the investigations of Lawes and Gilbert, the juice of the potato contains more proteid or albuminoid nitrogen than the flesh. This is an important matter, since albuminoid nitroger is more valuable for the body than nonalbuminoid nitrogen. In gen- No. 58, Division of Chemistry, U. 8S. Department of Agriculture. 842 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE. in the potato (the latter being valuable for dietetic reasons, though not a nutrient) is in the juice. More or less of the juice of any food may be accidentally lost when it is prepared for the table; and the possibility of loss in cooking, due to this and other factors, is a matter of importance. Any sugar or other soluble carbohydrates might be removed if potatoes were cooked by boiling. No considerable loss of starch as such is to be expected, since starch is insoluble in water. Some starch is changed to a soluble body, dextrin, a sort of sugar, by the action of dry heat, possibly also when water is present. The principal ways of cooking potatoes are baking, boiling, and fry- ing, or some modifications of these processes. The objects sought are principally to soften the tissues and render them more susceptible to the action of the digestive juices and to improve the flavor. Just why cooking changes the flavor as it does has apparently never been made the subject of investigation. In potatoes, as in other foods, the cooked starch is more agreeable to the taste than the raw. Possibly also there Fic. 45.—Changes of starch cells in cooking: a, cells of a raw potato with starch grains in natural condition; b, cells of a partially cooked potato; c, cells of a thoroughly boiled potato. are volatile bodies of more or less pronounced flavor, which are removed or produced by the heat of cooking. The physical condition of the potato is much affected by heat. In the raw potato the separate starch grains are inclosed in cells with walls composed of crude fiber, a mate- rial resistant to digestive juices. If potatoes were eaten raw, the digestive juices would not reach the starch as easily unless the cell walls happened to be ruptured mechanically, as in mastication. Heat, however, expands the water present, ruptures the cells, and breaks up the starch, expanding the granules, which, when raw, consist of tightly-packed concentric layers, toa mass of much less solid structure. These changes are shown in fig. 45. The albuminoids in foods are coagulated by heat, and so are ren- dered insoluble in water in which food is cooked. This explains why foods, meat especially, should be plunged into boiling water if it is desired to retain the albuminoids. The heat at once coagulates the albumen on the surface, thus preventing more or less completely the extraction of materials in the inner portion. It seems probable that THE VALUE OF POTATOES AS FOOD. 343 this reasoning would apply to potatoes as well as to meat, although they contain much less albumen. ‘The effects of cooking potatoes by boiling in different ways were tested not long ago at the Minnesota and the Connecticut (Storrs) Agricultural Experiment stations. The pota- toes were boiled in distilled water, limewater, and alkaline water; part were boiled in water hot at the start and part in water cold at the start. In some cases the potatoes were peeled before boiling and in some cases this was not done. In two tests the peeled potatoes were soaked before boiling. The total loss of material (dry matter) ranged from 6.5 per cent of the total amount present in the case of the peeled potatoes soaked before boiling to 0.2 or 0.3 per cent in the case of the potatoes boiled with the skins on. The greatest loss of total nitrogen and ash was also found when the peeled potatoes were soaked before boiling; least when this was not done. Whatever the method of boiling, little of the carbohydrates was lost. From the experiments as a whole, it may be said that’ when potatoes are boiled with the skins removed there is a very considerable loss, not only of organic nutrients, but also of mineral salts. To obtain the highest food value, potatoes should not be peeled before cooking. When potatoes are peeled before cooking and placed directly in hot water and boiled rapidly, less loss of materials is sustained than when they are cooked in water cold at the start. If potatoes are peeled and soaked in cold water before boiling the loss of nutrients is quite considerable; in the case of proteids, being equal to one-fourth of the amount present. The loss ina bushel of potatoes thus cooked would be equivalent to the albumen in a pound of sirloin steak. When potatoes are boiled with the skins removed the greatest actual loss of nutrients seems to be due to the mechanical abrasion of some of the soft outer portions while cooking. In the experiments at the Connecticut (Storrs) Agricultural Experiment Station it was found that nearly 3 per cent of the carbo- hydrates and 4 per cent of the albuminoid material were lost when potatoes were thus cooked. When the potatoes were boiled with the skins on the loss of nutrients was very slight, consisting chiefly of nonalbumincid nitrogenous substances and mineral matter. It is therefore evident, if it is desired to boil potatoes with as little loss as possible, that the skins should be left on. Comparatively speaking, there are probably few cases in which it is necessary to take account of the losses due to different methods of boiling potatoes and where the possibility of loss would outweigh the liking for them prepared in some particular way, but in institutions where a large number must be provided for, and, in fact, under any condition where rigid economy is necessary, the matter may assume considerable importance. . An extended study of the relative composition of large, medium, and small potatoes, and of the different parts of the tubers and of the 344 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. taste and culinary properties, was recently reported by Coudon and Boussard, two French scientists. The authors believe that the culi- nary value of potatoes is directly proportional to their nitrogen content and inversely proportional to their starch content. The different varieties of potatoes were found to vary greatly in their resistance to boiling, some retaining their form completely, while others were almost wholly disintegrated. The opinion was advanced that resistance to boiling depends principally upon the relative amount of albuminoids present. No definite relation was observed between chemical composition and early maturity. Generally speak- ing, the early varieties contained more water and nitrogenous materials and less starch than the late varieties tested. As regards chemical composition, it may be said in general that boiled potatoes contain a little less water than raw potatoes, and except as this changes somewhat the proportion of nutrients, they differ little in composition from the raw. Mashed potatoes, if they are not seasoned, must necessarily have the composition of the unmashed boiled potato, making allowance for the small proportion of water which would probably be lost by evaporation in mashing. When milk, cream, or butter is added to mashed potatoes in prepar- ing them for the table the nutritive value is increased, though the chief reason for adding such materials is doubtless to improve the flavor. This is also the reason why salt and pepper are added. Baked potatoes have practically the same composition as the uncooked, some water being lost by evaporation. When potatoes are fried, as in mak- ing potato chips, they lose by evaporation much of the water present and absorb more or less fat. They therefore have a higher nutritive value, pound for pound, than raw potatoes. Potato chips have been found by analysis to contain 2 per cent water and 39.8 per cent fat, as compared with 78 per cent water and 0.1 per cent fat when raw. The many ways of cooking potatoes, with or without the addition of other materials, which are described in books devoted to cookery, are in principle modifications cf those already alluded to. The wholesome- ness of potatoes cooked in different ways is largely a matter which each must decide for himself, the general experience being that for men in health most of the methods followed are satisfactory. Evaporated potatoes are now on the market, being especially recom- mended for provisioning camps and expeditions. As compared with fresh, the evaporated potatoes have a high nutritive value in propor- tion to their bulk. This is the case with all evaporated foods, such material having been concentrated by the removal of a large propor- tion of the water originally present. DIGESTIBILITY OF POTATOES. In considering the nutritive value of any food, the digestibility must be taken into account, for it is what the body can absorb from any given THE VALUE OF POTATOES AS FOOD. 345 material as it passes through the digestive tract, rather than chemical composition, which determines food value. The digestibility of potatoes has been frequently studied. Some years ago Rubner kept a Bavarian soldier who was used to eating large quantities of potatoes on a potato diet for twodays. The potatoes were boiled and eaten with salt or with vinegar and oil as a salad. The carbohydrates, the principal nutritive material in the potatoes, were quite thoroughly assimilated. As is usu- ally the case, the digestibility was determined by deducting from the total nutrients present in the food the quantities excreted in the feces. The protein was not welldigested. Similar results were obtained by a later German investigator, though in this case the protein was somewhat more thoroughly digested. In this experiment about three-fourths of the crude fiber present was found to be digestible. A number of experi- ments on the digestibility of potatoes were also made in St. Petersburg by a Russian investigator with three healthy men. Each test was divided into two periods. In one a simple mixed ration was eaten; in the other the food consisted of cooked potatoes only—baked, boiled, or fried in oil. It was found that 93 per cent of the total dry matter (which in the potato consists largely of starch) was digestible; of the total nitrogen present, 59 per cent; and of the albuminoid nitrogen, 41 per cent. In experiments on the digestibility of potatoes by man, recently made at the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, it was found that 71.9 per cent of the protein and 93 per cent of the carbohydrates were digested or assimilated. In this experiment the potatoes were eaten with some eggs, milk, and cream, so the conditions may be assumed to be about normal. How far the digestibility of any food is influenced by the foods eaten with it is a matter on which little reliable information is available. The experiments cited above show little, if anything, regarding the ease or rapidity of digestion, and, indeed, trustworthy data of this sort regarding any food are not abundant. According to some inves- tigations made a number of years ago by Beaumont, and which have been frequently quoted, roasted or baked potatoes require somewhat less time than bread for digestion in the stomach (conversion into chyme); boiled potatoes require the same time as bread, namely, three and one-half hours. Too much importance should not be attached to these differences, as no account was taken of digestion in the intestines. As the digestion of starch takes place in the intestinal tract after the food has left the stomach, this is a matter of great importance in the case of starchy foods like the potato. The total length of time the potato remains in the body probably does not vary much with the different methods of cooking. Furthermore, if a person is in health it does not necessarily follow that there is any advantage in digesting one food more rapidly than another. 4 41800——23 346 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FLAVOR OF POTATOES. The flavor of potatoes depends chiefly on the substances which are dissolved in the juice. These include various mineral matters, citric acid, and other organic bodies in different combinations. It seems probable that the character of the soil and the amount of moisture it contains exert an influence upon the flavor, as the same varieties of potatoes grown under different conditions vary more or less in this respect. It has been found, for instance, that potatoes manured with muriate of potash yield watery tubers. That such causes may have a marked effect, is shown by the extreme case in which potatoes grown in very wet soil sometimes have small tubers above ground in the axils of the leaves instead of under the surface. Such tubers have an unpleasant flavor, and for this reason, if for no other, are unfit for food. The strong, unpleasant flavor of potatoes which have grown at the surface of the ground, and more or less exposed to the influence of light, is familiar. The green color of such potatoes is due to the chlorophyll formed under the influence of light. The unpleasant fia- vor is attributed to solanin. Potatoes which have been touched by the frost possess a sweetish flavor. According to analyses of normal and frozen potatoes, this is due to the conversion of some starch into sugar. Normal potatoes were found to contain from 13 to 16 per cent soluble material and from 84 to 87 per cent insoluble material, while the percentage of the former in the frozen potatoes ranged from 14 to 20 and of the latter from 80 to 86 per cent. In the normal potatoes starch constituted 67 to 76 per cent of the total insoluble material and sugar 0.3 to 0.7 per cent of the total soluble material. In the frozen potatoes only 58 to 72 per cent of the total insoluble material was starch, while the sugar amounted to from 0.4 to 1.7 per cent of the totai soluble material. This change of starch into sugar is attributed to the action of a ferment present in potatoes. The explanation seems reasonable, since it is known that ferments play an important part in the chemical processes which take place in plants. It is undoubtedly true that many persons select fruits and vegetables on the basis of size and appearance, large.fruit or vegetables of fine color being given the preference without regard to their flavor. There are, however, many who realize that different varieties vary greatly in flavor, and are governed by this fact in their selections. Such dis- crimination has developed, for instance, a special market for certain finely flavored varieties of fruits. It is undoubtedly much less com- mon for the purchaser of potatoes to be governed by fiavor in his selection of them, and yet the different varieties, or the same variety erown under different conditions, vary greatly in this respect. A smooth potato of good form and size does not necessarily possess a flavor superior to one in which these characteristics are less marked, yet it would perhaps almost always be given the preference by most THE VALUE OF POTATOES AS FOOD. 347 purchasers. Good flavor in potatoes is a matter worth attention. If purchasers demanded this quality as well as attractive appearance and size, growers would without doubt meet the demand. PLACE OF POTATOES IN THE DIET. According to statistics obtained in the large number of dietary studies made in this country, potatoes constitute about 15.7 per cent of the total food consumed by the average American family, and fur- nish not far from 3.9 per cent of the total protein and 10 per cent of the total carbohydrates. The potato is a staple article of diet in almost every household. The universality and extent of its consumption would seem sufficient to prove it to be a wholesome and nutritious food. The statement, how- ever, is frequently met with in popular articles that potatoes are not wholesome. So far as can be learned this ‘is purely a gratuitous assumption. While it is possible that there are persons with whom they do not agree, or who for some reason are compelled to forego starchy foods, there is no reason to suppose that potatoes are not as a rule a useful and wholesome article of diet. The potato is essentially a starchy food, and eaten alone it would furnish a very one-sided, badly balanced diet, which would probably prove unwholesome to most people, as it has been estimated that man in health, performing a moderate amount of muscular work, is best maintained by a diet furnishing daily 0.25 pound protein in addition to fat and carbohydrates enough to make the total fuel value 3,500 calories, while a man without active physical labor might be well nour- ished with 0.20 pound of protein and 3,000 calories of energy. When the potato is eaten with meat, eggs, fish, etc., which are essentially nitrogenous foods, a well-balanced diet, which is most conducive to health and vigor, is secured. Scientific investigation shows that the practice, which has become so general, of serving potatoes with meat and other similar foods which contain liberal amounts of protein is based upon correct principles, one food supplying the deficiencies of the other. Potatoes and other foods containing carbohydrates are sometimes objected to on the ground that they are starchy foods and do not sup- ply much nitrogenous material. It should be remembered, however, that the potato does contain a by no means inconsiderable amount of protein, and further that carbohydrates are an essential part of a well- regulated diet. The digestion experiments referred to above show that potatoes properly cooked furnish such material in a digestible form. ‘They have been a staple article of diet for many years without harmful results, and therefore the conclusion that under ordinary circumstances they are other than a useful and wholesome food seems unwarranted. 348 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. POSSIBLE DANGERS FROM EATING POTATOES. Although under ordinary circumstances potatoes are unquestionably a wholesome food for most persons, illness is sometimes caused by eating them. There are undoubtedly some persons in health with whom potatoes do not agree, just as there are those who can not eat strawberries without distress. This is due to personal idiosyncrasy and not to the harmful character of the food. Reference can not be made here to the conditions of iil health in which potatoes or other starchy foods are forbidden, since this is a subject which pertains to the practice of medicine rather than the subject of dietetics. Cases of actual poisoning by potatoes are by no means unknown. So faras can be learned the abnormal symptoms in such cases were caused by the pres- ence of solanin in the potatoes. Several years ago 357 soldiers in a battalion of the Austrian army showed symptoms of solanin poisoning. The potatoes used for food were examined. Those which were fresh contained a small amount of solanin, while those which had sprouted contained much more, still larger amounts being found in the sprouts than in the tubers themselves. The potatoes undoubtedly caused the poisoning in this case. Potatoes a year old which have lain in a cellar and shriveled and small potatoes which have sprouted without being planted are considered especially dangerous, and should not be eaten. If perfectly fresh potatoes contain any solanin, the amount is so small that it does not cause harm. THE SELECTION OF MATERIALS FOR MACADAM ROADS. By LoGan WaALiLer PGs, Expert in Charge of Road Material Laboratory, Division of Chemistry. INTRODUCTION. No one rock can be said to be a universally excellent road material. The climatie conditions vary so much in different localities, and the volume and character of traffic vary so much on different roads, that the properties necessary to meet all the requirements can be found in no one rock. If the best macadam road be desired, that material should be selected which best meets the conditions of the particular road for which it is intended. The movement for better country roads which has received such an impetus from the bicycle organizations is still felt, and is gaining force from the rapid introduction of horseless vehicles. To this demand, which comes in a large measure from the urban population, is to be added that of the farmer, who is wakening to the fact that good roads greatly increase the profits from his farm produce, and thus materially better his condition; and to the farmer, indeed, we must look for any real improvement in our country roads. In considering the comparative values of different rocks for road building, it must be taken for granted in all cases that the road is properly laid out, constructed, and maintained. For if this is not the case, only inferior results can be expected, no matter how good the material may be. In most cases the selection of a material for road making is deter- mined more by its cheapness and convenience of location than by any properties it may possess. But when we consider the number of roads all over our country which are bad from neglect and from obsolete methods of maintenance that would be much improved by the use of any rock, this regard for economy is not to be entirely deprecated. At the same time, as a careless selection leads to costly and inferior results, too much care can not be used in selecting the proper material when good roads are desired at the lowest cost. When macadam roads are first introduced into a district they are at worst so far superior to the old earth roads that the question is rarely asked, whether, if another material had been used, better roads would not have been obtained, and this at a smaller cost. When mistakes are made they are not generally discovered until much.time and money have been expended on inferior 349 350 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. roads. Such errors can in a great measure be avoided if reasonable care is taken in the selection of a suitable material. To select a mate- rial in a haphazard way, without considering the needs of the particu- lar road on which it is to be used, is not unlike an ill person taking the nearest medicine at hand without reference to the nature of the malady or the properties of the drug. If a road is bad, the exact trouble must first be ascertained before the proper remedy can be applied. If the surface of a macadam road continues to be too muddy or dusty after the necessary drainage precautions have been followed, then the rock of which it is constructed lacks sufficient hardness or toughness to meet the traffic to which it is subjected. If, on the con- rary, the fine binding material of the surface is carried off by wind and rain and is not replaced by the wear of the coarser fragments, the surface stones will soon loosen and allow water to make its way freely to the foundation and bring about the destruction of the road. Such conditions are brought about by an excess of hardness or toughness of the rock for the traffic. Under all conditions a rock of high cement- ing value is desirable; for, other things being equal, such a rock better resists the wear of traffic and the action of wind and rain. This sub- ject, however, will be referred to again. Until comparatively recent years but little was known of the relative values of the different varieties of rock as road material, and good results were obtained more by chance and general observation than through any special knowledge of the subject. These conditions, how- ever, do not obtain at present, for the subject has received a great deal of careful study, and a fairly accurate estimate can be made of the fitness of a rock for any conditions of climate and traffic. In road building the attempt should be made to get a perfectly smooth surface, not too hard, too slippery, or too noisy, and as free as possible from mud and dust, and these results are to be attained and maintained as cheaply as possible. Such results, however, can only be had by selecting the material and methods of construction best suited to the conditions. In selecting a road material it is well to consider the agencies of destruction to roads that have to be met. Among the most important are the wearing action of wheels and horses’ feet, frost, rain, and wind. To find materials that can best withstand these agencies under all con- ditions is the great problem that confronts the road builder. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCK IMPORTANT IN ROAD BUILDING. Before going further, it will be well to consider some of the phys- ical properties of rock which are important in road building, for the value of a road material is dependent in a large measure on the degree to which it possesses these properties. There are many such proper- SELECTION OF MATERIALS FOR MACADAM ROADS. 851 ties that affect road building, but only three need be mentioned here. They are hardness, toughness, and cementing or binding power. By hardness is meant the power possessed by a rock to resist the wearing action caused by the abrasion of wheels and horses’ feet. Toughness, as understood by road builders, is the adhesion between the crystal and fine particles of a rock, which gives it power to resist fracture when subjected to the blows of traffic. This important prop- erty, while distinct from hardness, is yet intimately associated with it, and can ina measure make up for a deficiency in hardness. Hardness, for instance, would be the resistance offered by a rock to the grinding of an emery wheel; toughness, the resistance to fracture when struck with a hammer. Cementing or binding power, is the property pos- sessed by the dust of a rock to act after wetting as a cement to the coarser fragments composing the road, binding them together and forming a smooth, impervious shell over the surface. Such a shell, formed by a rock of high cementing value, protects the underlying material from wear and acts asa cushion to the blows from horses’ feet, and at the same time resists the waste of material caused by wind and rain, and preserves the foundation by shedding the surface water. Binding power is thus, probably, the most important property to be sought for in a road-building rock, as its presence is always neces- sary for the best results. The Task: and toughness of the binder surface more than of the rock itself represents the hardness and tough- ness of the road, for if the weight of traffic is sufficient to dostrdy the bond of cementation of the surface, the stones below are soon loosened and forced out of place. When there is an absence of bind- ing material, which often occurs when the rock is too hard for the trafic to which it is subjected, the road soon loosens or ravels. Experience shows that a rock possessing all three of the properties mentioned in a high degree does not under all conditions make a good road material; on the contrary, under certain conditions it may be altogether unsuitable. As an illustration of this, if a country road or city park way, where only a light traflic prevails, were built of a very hard and tough rock with a high cementing value, neither the best, nor, if a softer rock were available, would the cheapest results be obtained. Such a rock would so effectively resist the wear of a light traflic that the amount of fine dust worn off would be carried away by wind and rain faster than it would be supplied by wear. Conse- quently, the binder supplied by wear would be insuflicient, and if not supplied from some other source the road would soon go to pieces. The first cost of such a rock would in most instances be greater than that of a softer one, and the necessary repairs resulting from its use would also be very expensive. A very good illustration of this point is the first road built by the Massachusetts Highway Commission. This road is on the island of 352 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Nantucket, and was subjected to a very light traffic. The commission desired to build the best possible road, and consequently ordered a very hard and tough trap rock from Salem, considered then to be the best macadam rock in the State. Delivered on the road this rock cost $3.50 per ton, the excessive price being due to the cost of transporta- tion. The road was in every way properly constructed, and thoroughly rolled with a steam roller; but in spite of every precaution it soon began to ravel, and repeated rolling was only of temporary benefit, for the rock was too hard and tough for the traffic. Subsequently, when the road was resurfaced with limestone, which was much softer than the trap, it became excellent. Since then all roads built on the island have been constructed of native granite bowlders with good results, and at a much lower cost. If, however, this hard and tough rock, which gave such poor results at Nantucket, were used on a road where the traffic was sufficient to wear off an ample supply of binder, very much better results would be obtained than if a rock lacking both hardness and toughness were used; for, in the latter case, the wear would be so great that ruts would be formed which would prevent rain water draining from the surface. The water thus collecting on the surface would soon make its way to the foundation and destroy the road. The dust in dry weather would also be excessive. “ Only two examples of the misuse of a road material have been given, but, as they represent extreme conditions, it is easy to see the large number of intermediate mistakes that can be made, for there are few rocks even of the same variety that possess the same physical properties in a like degree. The climatic and physical conditions to which roads are subjected are equally varied. The excellence of a road material may, therefore, be said to depend entirely on the condi- tions which it is intended to meet. : It may be well to mention a few other properties of rock that bear on road building, though they will not be discussed here. There are some rocks, such as limestones, that are hygroscopic, or possess the power of absorbing moisture from the air, and in dry climates such rocks are distinctly valuable, as the cementation of rock dust is ina large measure dependent for its full development on the presence of water. The degree to which a rock absorbs water may also be impor- tant, for in cold climates this to some extent determines the lability of a rock to fracture by freezing. It is not so important, however, as the absorptive power of the road itself, for if a road holds much water the destruction wrought by frost is very great. This trouble is generally due to faulty construction rather than to the material. The density or weight of a rock is also considered of importance, as the heavier the rock the better it stays in place and the better it resists the action of wind and rain. SELECTION OF MATERIALS FOR MACADAM ROADS. 350 Only a few of the properties of rock important to road builders have been considered, but if these are borne in mind when a material is to be selected better results are sure to be obtained. In selecting a road material the conditions to which it is to be subjected should first be considered. These are principally the annual rainfall, the average winter temperature, the character of prevailing winds, the grades, and the volume and character of the traffic that is to pass over the road. The climatic conditions are readily obtained from the Weather Bureau, and a satisfactory record of the volume and character of the traffic can be made by any competent person living in view of the road. FRENCH METHOD OF MEASURING TRAFFIC, In France the measuring of traffic has received a great deal of atten- tion, and a census is kept for all the national highways. The traffic there is rated and reduced to units in the following manner: A horse hauling a public vehicle or cart loaded with produce or merchandise is considered as the unit of traffic. Each horse hauling an empty cart or private carriage counts as one-half unit; each horse, cow, or ox, unharnessed, and each saddle horse, one-fifth unit; each small animal (sheep, goat, or hog), one-thirtieth unit. A record is made of the traffic every thirteenth day throughout the year, and an average taken to determine its mean amount. Some such general method of classifying traffic in units is desirable, as it permits the traffic of a road to be expressed in one number. IMPORTANCE OF RECORD OF TRAFFIC FOR PROPOSED ROADS. Before this French method can be applied to the traffic of our coun- try it will be necessary to modify considerably the mode of rating, This, however, is a matter which can be studied and properly adjusted by the Office of Public Road Inquiries. It is most important to obtain a record of the average number of horses and vehicles and kind of vehicles that pass over an earth road in a day before the macadam road is built. The small cost of such a record is trifling when com- pared with the cost of a macadam road (from $4,000 to $10,000 per mile for a 15-foot road), in view of the fact that an error in the selec- tion of material may cost a much larger sum of money. After a record of the traffic is obtained, if the road is to be built of crushed rock for the first time, an allowance for an immediate increase in traffic amounting at least to 10 or 15 per cent had best be made, for the improved road generally brings traffic from adjoining roads. GROUPS OF TRAFFIC AND MATERIAL SUITED TO THEIR ACCOMMODATION. To simplify the matter somewhat, the different classes of traffic to which roads are subjected may be divided into five groups, which may a4 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. be called city, urban, suburban, highway, and country road traffic, respectively. City traffic is a traflie so great that no macadam road can withstand it, and is such as exists on the business streets of large cities. For such a traffic stone and wood blocks, asphalt, brick, or some such materials are necessary. Urban traffic is such as exists on city streets which are not subjected to continuous heavy teaming, but which have to withstand very heavy wear, and need the hardest and toughest macadam reck. Suburban traffic is such as is common in the suburbs of a city and the main streets of country towns. Highway traffic is a traffic equal to that of the main country roads. Country- road traffic is a traffic equal to that of the less frequented country roads. The city traffic will not be considered here. For an urban traffic, the hardest and toughest rock, or in other words, a rock of the highest vearing quality that can be found is best. For a suburban trafic the best rock would be one of high toughness but of less hardness than one for urban traffic. For highway traflic a rock of medium hardness and toughness is best. For country road traffic it is best to use a com- paratively soft rock of medium toughness. In all cases high cement- ing value should be sought, and especially if the locality is very wet or windy. Rocks belonging to the same species and having the same name, such as traps, granites, quartzites, etc., vary almost as much in different localities in their physical road-building properties as they do from rocks of distinct species. This variation is also true of the mineral composition of rocks of the same species, as well as in the size and arrangement of their crystals. It is impossible, therefore, to classify rocks for road building by simply giving their specific names. It can be said, however, that certain species of rock possess in common some road-building properties. For instance, the trap’ rocks as a class are hard and tough and usually have binding power, and consequently stand heavy traffic well; and for this reason they are frequently spoken of as the best rocks for road building. This, however, is not always true, for numerous examples can be shown where trap rock having the above properties in the highest degree has failed to give good results on light traffic roads. The reason trap rock has gained so much favor with road builders is because a large majority of macadam roads in our country are built to stand an urban traffic, and the traps stand sucha trafic better than any other single class of rocks. Thereare, however, other rocks that will stand an urban traffic perfectly well, and there are traps that are not sufficiently hard and tough for a 1This term is derived from the Swedish word trappa, meaning steps, and was originally applied to the crystallized basalts of the coast of Sweden, which much resemble steps in appearance. As now used by road builders, it embraces a large variety of igneous rocks, chiefly those of fine crystalline structure and of dark-blue, gray, and green colors. They are generally diabases, diorites, trachytes, and basalts. SELECTION OF MATERIALS FOR MACADAM ROADS. 855 suburban or highway traffic. The granites are generally brittle, and many of them do not bind well, but there are a great many which when used under proper conditions make excellent roads. The felsites are usually very hard and brittle, and many have excellent binding power, some varieties being suitable for the heaviest macadam traffic. Limestones generally bind well, are soft, and frequently hygroscopic. Quartzites are almost always very hard, brittle, and have very low binding power. The slates are usually soft, brittle, and lack binding power. METHODS OF DETERMINING VALUE OF ROCKS. The above generalizations are of necessity vague, and for practical purposes are of little value, since rocks of the same variety occurring in different localities have very wide ranges of character. It conse- quently happens in many cases, particularly where there are a number of rocks to choose from, that the difficulty of making the best selection is great, and this difficulty is constantly increasing with the rapidly growing facilities of transportation and the increased range of choice which this permits. On account of their desirable road properties some rocks are now shipped several hundred miles for use. There are but two ways in which the value of a rock as a road material can be accurately determined. One way, and beyond all doubt the surest, is to build sample roads of all the rocks available in a locality, to measure the traffic and wear to which they are subjected, and keep an accurate account of the cost both of construction and annual repairs for each. By this method actual results are obtained, but it has grave and obvious disadvantages. It is very costly (espe- cially so when the results are negative), and it requires so great a lapse of time before results are obtained that it can not be considered a prac- tical method when macadam roads are first being built in a locality. Further than this, results thus obtained are not applicable to other roads and materials. Suchamethod, while excellent in its results, can only be adopted by communities which can afford the necessary time and money, and is entirely inadequate for general use. The other method is to make laboratory tests of the physical proper- ties of available rocks in a locality, study the conditions obtaining on the particular road that is to be built, and then select the material that best suits the conditions. This method has the advantages of giving speedy results and of being inexpensive, and as far as the results of laboratory tests have been compared with the results of actual prac- tice they have been found to agree. LABORATORY TESTS OF ROAD MATERIALS. Laboratory tests on road materials were first adopted in France about thirty years ago, and their usefulness has been thoroughly estab- lished. The tests for rock there are to determine its degree of hard- 356 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ness, resistance to abrasion, and resistance to compression. In 1893 the Massachusetts Highway Commission established a laboratory at Harvard University for testing road materials. The French abrasion test was adopted, and tests for determining the cementing power and toughness of rock were added. Since then similar laboratories have been established at Johns Hopkins University, Columbia University, Wisconsin Geological Survey, Cornell University, and the University of California. The Department of Agriculture has now established a road-material laboratory in the Division of Chemistry, where any person residing in the United States may haye road materials tested free by applying for instructions to the Office of Public Road Inquiries. The Jabora- tory is equipped with the apparatus necessary for carrying on such work, and the Department intends to carry on general investigations on roads. Part of the general plan will be to make tests on actual roads for the purpose of comparing the results with those obtained in the laboratory. Besides testing road materials for the public, blank forms for record- ing traffic will be supplied by the Department to any one intending to build a road. When these forms are filled and returned to the labora- tory, together with the samples of materials available for building the road, the traflic of the road will be rated in its proper group, as described above; each property of the materials will be tested and similarly rated according to its degree, the climatic conditions will be considered, and expert advice given as to the proper choice to be made. PRACTICAL FORESTRY IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. By Overton W. Price, Superintendent of Working Plans, Division of Forestry. INTRODUCTION. The Southern Appalachians offer an excellent field for practical forestry. The need of systematic and conservative forest manage- ment is beginning to be keenly felt, both for the timber tract and the wood lot. The present desultory form of lumbering, which dates from the settlement of the region, has resulted in a serious reduction of the existing supply of timber. The unnecessary damage which has accompanied this lumbering, together with the repeated fires and excessive grazing to which the forest has been largely subjected, has greatly retarded the production of a second crop. Although there is still enough wood to fill the wants of the settlers, the cost of obtain- ing it is constantly increasing with the growing distance between the supply and the market. Around the towns and villages the belt of woodlands from which all merchantable timber has been culled widens every year, while fire and grazing often prevent young trees from springing up on the cut-over area. The rapid increase now going on in the values of timber and in the cost of firewood is premature in so densely forested a country, and is the direct result of wasteful methods in the utilization of its resources. A continuance of these methods will necessarily result in a serious check to the general prosperity of western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee, where the inhabitants have already to contend with the remoteness and ruggedness of the region, and with an exceedingly low percentage of arable land. These methods will, moreover, not only render it costly to obtain wood for home consumption, but will entirely destroy what is still the most important source of revenue in the Southern Appalachians—the lumbering of its valuable hardwoods to supply a steady and increasing demand in distant markets. It is intended in this paper merely to outline the nature of the problem at hand and to suggest certain general lines of treatment that might be followed. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE REGION. The mountain region of western North Carolina and eastern Tennes- see comprises an area of 15,000 square miles. It includes the Blue 307 3858 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Ridge on the east and the Smoky Mountains on the west, with the high and broken plateau which lies between them. Many spurs and ridges run off at right angles from these two ranges, upon the plateau, and make of it the loftiest and most rugged section east of the Rocky Mountains. The more important of these cross chains are the Black Mountains, a spur of the Blue Ridge, which contain Mitchell Peak, 6,711 feet high; the Balsam Mountains, with a mean elevation of over 5,000 feet; and the Cowee Mountains, one of the longest of the cross ranges. Beginning on the east with the spurs of the Blue Ridge, which lose themselves in the Piedmont district, the elevation increases and the character of the mountain region grows more rugged westward toward the Smokies, in which the Appalachian system culminates. The slates, granite, and gneiss, with their intermediate forms, are the chief underlying rocks. Of these, the gneiss is most common. It is usually soft, and disintegrates rapidly, forming a sandy loam which, although not particularly rich, is loose, fresh, and of great depth, except where the grade is such as to cause excessive erosion. Where gneiss is the surface formation the slopes are generally smooth and rounded as a result of its rapid weathering. Where the slowly disintegrating granite forms the outcrop the topography is rugged and the slopes steep and bowlder-strewn, and sometimes craggy and precipitous, particularly those which face toward the south. With the exception of the natural meadows which occupy the sum- mits of some of the higher peaks, the mountains are covered with forest growth. ‘The valleys are almost entirely under cultivation. Upland farming is carried on upon the foothills, and occasionally, for lack of better ground, upon mountain slopes so steep that their thorough cultivation is impossible. THE FOREST. It has often been said that it is in this region that the forest trees of the North mingle with those of the South, and the statement gives but an, incomplete idea of the great variety of trees which is here the result of wide local differences in soil and climate. Western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee contain over one hundred kinds of native trees. Of these, some, such as the Black Spruce and Balsam, which find in the Smokies at an elevation of 4,000 feet and over conditions similar to those of their northern habitat, are either too rare or too difficult of access to be often of commercial importance. Others, such as the Black Gum, Sourwood, Dogwood, Buckeye, and Aspen, are valueless for timber, and are used for firewood only when no better kinds are to be had. (PI. XXXVI.) Others again, among which are the Striped Maple, the Haw, and the Silverbell Tree, have as yet no merchantable value. Among the commercial trees the more important hardwoods are the Yellow Poplar, the Oaks, Hickories, Chestnut, Birch, Ash, Cherry, Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. PLATE XXXVIII. DOGWOOD IN FLOWER. PLATE XXXIX. of Agticulture, 1900. Dept Ss Yearbook U ul a [e} =I ep) Pi = oc e} Za ZZ oO Dd (2) ° Sil = uu sls a) z = - y H. B. Ayres [Photograph b PRACTICAL FORESTRY IN SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. 359 Basswood, Black Walnut, and Maple. The merchantable softwoods, of which there are comparatively few, are chiefly Shortleaf Pine, White Pine, and Hemlock. They seldom predominate in the mixture, but oecur by groups and single trees, the Shortleaf Pine in the larger val- leys and on the foothills, the White Pine confined chiefly to coves and intermediate low ridges in the Blue Ridge, and the Hemlock along the streams and on the lower slopes of the mountain valleys. The latter, although much less common than farther north in the mountains of Virginia and West Virginia, on account of the increased number of faster-growing trees with which it has to contend, probably reaches in this region a larger size than anywhere else within its habitat. FOREST TYPES. The many kinds of trees native to this portion of the Southern Appalachians, and the fact that most of them have a wide local range, renders the forest exceedingly varied and makes it difficult to classify it into types except in a very broad and general way. The Oaks, among which the White Oak is most frequent, form the chief part of the forest growth up to an elevation of about 2,500 feet. With them are mixed the Shortleaf Pine, the Hickories, and a host of subordinate kinds, among which the Black Gum and Red Maple are most common in moist situations, the Basswood, Birches, Ashes, Yellow Poplar, and Cucumber Tree on fresh soils, and the Chestnut, Locust, Dogwood, and Sourwood on south slopes and in dry localities generally. At an elevation of 2,500 to 3,500 feet the number of the Oaks decreases and Yellow Poplar, Hemlock, Birch, Beech, Ash, Black Walnut, and Cherry reach their best development and predominate especially in coves and hollows with a northerly aspect. (Pl. XX XIX.) Above 3,500 feet the forest falls off both in the number of different kinds of trees and in their size and quality. The Chestnut, Chestnut Oak, and Red Oak are the characteristic trees of this belt and occur almost pure on dry, steep slopes and ridges. Finally, at about 4,000 feet, dense woods of Black Spruce and Balsam Fir cover the ground to the exclusion of all other trees and reach to the mountain tops, except on the ‘*balds,” the local term for those mountains, the crests of which are occupied by natural meadows. The general type of these forests, except where modified by lum- bering or fire, or by both, is that of the virgin forest, exceedingly irregular in age and density. On the lower slopes, where the Oak prevails and where logging for timber and firewood has long been carried on, and which also have suffered from excessive grazing and repeated fires, the forest consists largely of second growth, seldom over forty years old. Above this second growth, in which a constant struggle goes on between the Oaks and the Shortleaf Pine, the latter holding its own almost everywhere and having the upper hand on the 360 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. poor soils, stand mostly old oak and pine, which generally owe their presence to the fact that they are unfit for lumber. The result is a very irregular two-storied forest, the old oak and pine forming the upper story and the second growth the lower, the latter varying greatly in age in different localities, according to the dates of the lumbering, and often in the same locality, where there have been repeated cut- tings, each one of which has induced a new growth of seedlings and stump shoots. Higher up in the mountains, where there has been less fire and lumbering, is perhaps the most perfect form of the mixed virgin forest to be found in this country. Trees of all ages occur together, and there is seldom, except where a space has been laid bare by wind and seeded up, any approach to an even-aged growth. It is here that the struggle for existence has been carried on without intervention and that trees of each kind have held their own in the mixture through the characteristics which have been given them for that purpose—one by plentiful crops of seed, another by capacity to endure great shade, another by its rapid growth or its adaptability to many different soils and situations. The result has been a forest containing a wonderful variety of types and forms of mixture. Some of the trees, particu- larly the Yellow Poplar and Hemlock, show a marked tendency to distribution by groups and patches. The Ash, Basswood, Beech, and most of the others, however, are distributed evenly throughout those localities which are favorable to them. This region shows a variety in the undergrowth which corresponds to the richness of its silva. Among the most characteristic shrubs and those which influence chiefly the reproduction of the forest are the Rhododendron and Kaimia, or Mountain Laurel, which in the higher mountains not infrequently form a distinct and almost impenetrable second story under the forest trees. After these the more important of the shrubs and shrub-like trees are the Serviceberry, Sumach, Magnolia, Holly, Sassafras, Haw, Stagbush, and Hazel. LUMBERING. There are two distinct types of lumbering in the Southern Appala- chians, similar in the extent of the harm done to the forest, but differ- ing widely in the manner in which they are carried out. The one is the slipshod, desultory form which has been practiced by the farmers of this region since its settlement in order to eke out the generally scanty profits from their farms. Although their output is small individually, their combined efforts, extending over many years, haye resulted in the culling of the best timber over a large portion of the more accessible forests. The scattered distribution of the mer- chantable trees, however, has rendered the lumbering comparatively light except where firewood has been cut as well as saw logs. PRACTICAL FORESTRY IN SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. 361 The other dates from the time when, some fifteen years ago, with the failing supply of timber in Maine, Michigan, and the north woods generally, began the exodus of many Northern lumbermen to the hardwood forests of the Virginias, Georgia, and Tennessee, and to the pineries and cypress swamps in the far South. With their arrival began lumbering on a large scale in the Southern Appalachians, together with the investment of commensurate capital in logging out- fits, the thorough repair and extension of logging roads, and the appli- cation of those skillful and businesslike methods which constitute clean lumbering. The active and systematic manner in which these men conducted a lumber job and the margin of profit which they wrung from it were a revelation to the natives, but have not yet resulted in any appreciable improvement in their methods. It is nevertheless to be remembered that several factors have tended to make a poor lumberman of the farmer of western North Carolina or eastern Tennessee. He is often hampered by lack of the capital nec- essary to make the most of lumbering in this region, and he is gener- ally wanting in the knowledge requisite to the best use of it. He has had always to contend with the difficulty of obtaining expert loggers to carry out the work, and is generally obliged, through the scarcity of available white men, to employ negroes, who seldom do well in the lumber woods, for the reason that they are usually strongly averse to the mode of life required of them. Nevertheless, the nearness of large bodies of merchantable timber, among which are valuable kinds, such as the Cherry, Black Walnut, Hickory, and Yellow Poplar, has usually made a fair profit possible under even the most thriftless log- ging methods. The unnecessary damage to the forest and the total lack of provision for a future crop, characteristic of lumbering generally in the South- ern Appalachians, is deplorable. tis a form of waste, however, which can not be eliminated by criticism, but can best be checked by proof of the advantages of more conservative methods, through their appli- cation to a portion of these forests, either by the Government upon its own lands or in cooperation with private owners. There is, however, much immediate loss incurred by a species of slovenliness which is as foreign to clean lumbering as it is to practical forestry, and is entirely without excuse. Entire trees found to be unsound at the base are often left upon the ground to rot, rather than butt off the decayed portion. Not infrequently sound trees of a mer- chantable diameter are carelessly left uncut upon the lumbered area. There is great waste in high stumps and in lack of judgment in sawing up the trees, while careless felling leaves many a lodged tree in the woods or smashes the more brittle kinds, particularly the Yellow Poplar. 4 ,a1900——24 362 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE LOCAL SYSTEM. The local system of lumbering is exceedingly simple. The trees are felled and sawn into logs where they lie, and these are snaked, or skidded, by horses, or, more often, by cattle, to the roadside or the river bank. Logging streams are rare, however, in the Southern Appalachians, and the customary way of getting the logs to the mill or to the railroad is by wagon over the rough mountain roads. (Pls. XLand XLI.) It is a somewhat primitive system throughout, but it is the one most generally suited to the nature of the country and to the distribution of the merchantable timber, which does not often favor the employment of those labor-saving devices which have been found profitable in logging elsewhere. The lack of sufficient snow usually prevents the use of sleds instead of logging wagons. The topography is often better adapted to timber slides or to donkey engines and wire cables for bringing the logs to the roads than to snaking with teams. The merchantable timber, however, is generally so scattered that the amount which could be transported by one slide or from one spot by an engine and cable is seldom sufficient to render them profitable. These and similar appliances suitable to a rough mountain country, but to the success of which a dense mer- chantable stand, or, in other words, a large amount of timber upon a small area, is necessary, have here usually been found impracticable. DAMAGE TO THE FOREST. The harm done to the forest is very great in proportion to the quantity of timber cut. This is due largely to the size of the trees and to the fact that little care is taken in the fellings. The damage to young growth is aggravated by the absence of snow and by the fact that the fellings are not infrequently made when the trees are in full leaf. The breaking down and wounding of seedlings and young trees by the snaking of the logs to the roadside or the river is in large part unavoidable. There are often, however, many more snakeways, or skidways, than are necessary, and the application of a little system in laying them out would save time and young growth on a lumber job. On the higher and steeper slopes it is often the habit, and one which can not be criticised too strongly, except in those rare cases where it is absolutely necessary on account of the gradient, to roll the logs from top to bottom, merely starting them with the cant hook. IRRIGATION WATERS. The soluble salt content of a soil is a chemical rather than a physical property of soils, but since a physical method of determining the salt content is also employed in the Division of Soils, a consideration of this method will be in place. The importance of investigations on the soluble salt content of soils and irrigation waters needs no emphasis with those who are familiar with conditions in the western part of the United States. The abun- dance of soluble material in the soil in many Western areas demands the greatest care in the use of water, otherwise the soluble constitu- ents of the soil will collect in the lower lands through the seepage waters or else move upward into the surface soil through excessive evaporation, in either case injuring or even entirely preventing plant development. Timely examinations have frequently resulted in the preservation of valuable tracts of irrigated land which would otherwise have inevita- bly been ruined by the methods of irrigation in vogue. Many cases of this kind could be cited, and they are indeed striking illustrations of the great economic importance of soil investigations. The remedial measures employed depend, of course, upon the existing conditions, but the solution of the problem in general is. the use of underdrainage to prevent the water table from coming too near the surface, and the avoidance of irrigation water containing a dangerous amount of solu- ble salts. It is highly important, therefore, to determine in such cases the amount and location of soluble material present in the soil, whether these soluble salts are being transported to or from any other soil, and whether the irrigation water applied carries sufficient material in solution to prevent ultimately the growth of economic plants. 'This instrament will be found fully described in Bulletin No. 15, Division of Soils, 1899, entitled ‘‘ Electrical instruments for determining the moisture, tempera- ture, and soluble salt content of soils.’’ OBJECTS AND METHODS OF INVESTIGATING SOILS. 407 These questions may all be answered by the determination of the soluble salt content of properly chosen samples from different por- tions of the area and at various depths below the surface. This deter- mination may of course be made by chemical methods, but a much more rapid method is available when the total amount of salts only is required. We have seen in the discussion of the electrical method of moisture determination that the electrical resistance of the soil depends: principally upon three things—moisture, salt content, and temperature. It is therefore evident that, if we can keep constant the moisture content and the temperature of a series of soil samples, we can determine their relative salt contents from their electrical resistances. _CURVES FOR CRUSTS eageee a ana 5 cer eo | oc aa eo ee ls eee @ (25 15 75 20 225 25° 275 80+ S25» 35 375 40 425 §45 OHMS RESISTANCE Fic. 47.—Resistance-concentration curves used in determining the amount of salt in soils and irri- gation waters. This constitutes the basis of the electrical method of determining the salt content. It is more convenient in actual field work to determine the variation in moisture and temperature than to attempt to maintain them constant. In actual practice therefore the temperature and moisture content are noted, and the observed electrical resistance is afterwards reduced to uniform moisture and temperature conditions from data obtained by laboratory determinations. The resistance of the sample is measured in the field by means of the apparatus shown in Pl. XLYII, 2. Distilled water is slowly added to the sample under investigation until it is saturated, that is, 408 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. until free water begins to appear. The saturated soil is then packed with a spatula into the small cell supported at the end of the instru- ment, the soil being struck off level with the top. This cell is made of hard rubber with two metal sides, and the instrument measures the resistance offered to the current in passing through the saturated soil from one metal plate to the other. To interpret the field results an interpolation concentration-resistance curve is prepared in the following way: A quantity of soil or soil crusts, representative of the soils under examination as far as the com- position of the soluble salts is concerned, is leached with water and the seepage solution evaporated to dryness. From the solid salts thus obtained a series of solutions of different known concentrations is pre- pared. The resistance of each solution is determined, and from these data a resistance-concentration curve is made. In fig. 47 are shown two curves obtained as described, the ordinates being the resistance of the solution in ohms, measured in the cell actually used in the field, while the abscisse give the total solids in 100 parts of water. These curves were prepared in the field by Mr. F. D. Gardner, of the Divi- sion of Soils, for the purpose of reducing his field observations in the two regions indicated in the diagram. The difference in the position of the two curves in the diagram shows the necessity for determining the curve for each region investigated. In reducing the observed resistances obtained in the field we compute what the resistance would be if the cell were completely filled with the soil solution alone, the soil grains being removed. This can be readily determined if we know the weight of dry soil contained in the cell and the amount of water required to saturate it, both being definite labo- ratory determinations which have already been made for different soil types, and which apply to all the salt determinations in soils of any one type. We now trace along on the diagram the vertical line corresponding to this resistance until it intersects the curve; and then tracing the horizontal line passing through the point of intersection until it meets the axis we can at once read off the concentration of the solution. Ibid, p. 391, 1899. 434 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tridactyla pollicaris) and the short-billed gull (Larus brachyrhynchus) varrying fish to their nestlings; and in Mexico Mr. E. A. Goldman has made similar observations in the case of the laughing gull (Zarus atricilla). According to Mr. William Paimer, the fishermen of New- foundland capture young downy herring gulls (Larus argentatus smith- sonianus, Pl. LIM, fig. 2), rear them in pens on fish offal, and utilize them for food later, when fresh meat is scarce.’ An inland colony of Franklin gulls ( Larus franklin?) was found in Minnesota by Dr. T. 8S. Roberts. The parent birds were feeding their young by regurgitating into them the nymphs of dragon flies.” The feeding habits of terns are similar to those of gulls. Mr. KE. W. Nelson states that in Alaska he saw the Arctic tern (Sterna paradiswa) feeding its young on sticklebacks. Mr. KE. A. Goldman has observed breeding terns on the Arcas Keys in Mexico under most favorable circumstances. In one instance he found from 200 to 800 young royal and sooty terns (Sterna maxima and Sterna fuliginosa) running along the beach, and often herding together like a flock of sheep. Every few moments from 1 to 3 old terns would sail in gracefully, carrying fish in their beaks. Very often a parent on alighting failed to find its own young in the struggling, pushing flock of little ones. Instead of feeding the young of another, it usually picked up the fish which it had laid down, described one or two circles, and then descended to the beach again, perhaps to find its own young far enough isolated from the flock, and to feed it as it came up with fluttering wings and open mouth. Adult cormorants are largely piscivorous. On some of the rivers in China the native fishermen employ tame cormorants in their fish- ing. A band is ingeniously placed round each bird’s throat to pre- vent it from swallowing its prey, which it catches by diving over the gunwale of the boat. Every now and then it is rewarded with the smaller and less valuable fish. In writing of.the feeding habits of the red-faced cormorant (Phalacrocorax urile), Mr. E. W. Nelson, says: ‘“The young appear after three weeks’ incubation, and are without feathers and almost bare even of down. They grow rapidly and are fed by the old birds ejecting the contents of their stomachs [eullets]; composed of small fish, crabs, and shrimps, over and around the | nest.”° On St. Matthew and St. Lawrence islands, Alaska, cormorants are the only fresh meat obtainable by the natives in winter. Pelicans, as might be expected, appear to be entirely piscivorous. Of the feeding habits of the brown pelican (Pelecanus fuscus), Mr. Frank M. Chapman says: ‘‘ Immediately after the parent returns from | its fishing expedition the young cluster about it and the outery begins. 3ut the old one takes it very patiently, sitting quite still until ready to open its creel, as it were. Then he takes a stand a little above the SProcsWcssa Nal Mus., Vol. XIII, p. 254, 1890. 3 7 Auk, Volo Se VIL p: 280;,1900: 3’ Nat. Hist. Alaska, pp. 65, 66, 1887. Yearbook U, S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900 PLATE LIII. Fic. 1.—NESTLING MOURNING Doves. [From photograph by Rev. P. B. Peabody.] FiG. 2.—NESTLING HERRING GULLS. [From photograph by Mr. William Dutcher.] THE FOOD OF NESTLING BIRDS. 435 young, drops his lower bill with its pouch, when at once the young thrust in their heads to secure their morning’s catch.” ' The data at hand relating to the food of young ducks are limited, but a few facts have been collected. A mallard (Anas boschas) duck- ling in the down, collected and examined by Dr. A. K. Fisher, had its stomach distended with grasshoppers.” Domesticated ducklings of this species were noticed feeding by the writer, but these were stuff- ing themselves with May-flies. Newly hatched wood ducks (Azz sponsa) have been seen by Prof. F. E. L. Beal picking from the surface of pools May-flies, locusts (Acridide and Locustide), and other insects. A third-grown wood duck was observed by Mr. George Marshall, of the U. 8. National Museum, with the legs of a small frog sticking out of its bill. It is probable that young ducks are fed to some extent on frogs, as well as on tadpoles, mollusks, crustaceans, and small fish. , More definite knowledge is at hand concerning the food of young herons, especially green herons (Ardea virescens), and black-crowned night herons (Vycticorax nycticorax nevius). Dr. B. H. Warren, in a letter to the Department, states that he visited a heronry of black- crowned night herons and examined the stomachs of 10 adults and 10 nestlings, all of which had fed exclusively on fish. In another heronry of this species Mr. W. E. Endicott discovered that the young were provided with pout, pickerel, and herring.’ our nestling green herons dissected by Dr. Warren had also fed exclusively on fish. Sey- eral adult birds examined by the Biological Survey had eaten fish and also crayfish and aquatic insects. Herons may in certain sections prove injurious to pisciculture, but a number of species have some beneficial habits, such as feeding on injurious insects and mice, and in Louisiana the white herons (Ardea candidissima and the young of Ardea coerulea) are, according to Mr. Lester F. Dewey, assistant bot- anist of the Department of Agriculture, known as ‘* crawfish birds,” and are most rigorously protected because of their feeding on crayfish, which tunnel through the levees and at times causes great disasters. CONCLUSION. It will be observed that whatever the character of the food of the adult birds, the young, excepting those of doves and pigeons, are at first fed on an animal diet, and that this diet is gradually changed, where change is necessary, to conform to that of the mature bird. This is probably due to the fact that animal food has a higher nutri- tive value and is more easily digested than the available vegetable food. As the nestlings increase in weight from one-fifth to one-half 1 Bird Studies with a Camera, p. 210, 1900. * North American Fauna No. 7, p. 15, 1893. 3Am. Nat., Vol. I, p. 344, 1867. 436 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. daily, and at certain stages of growth require daily more than their own weight in insects, it is essential that their food should be capable of the most rapid digestion; it must also be readily obtainable. Spiders, grasshoppers, caterpillars, and crickets answer these requirements very well and are a favorite nestling food with many species of passerine, or perching, birds. Birds that are largely vegetarian, such as the crow, erow blackbird, catbird, robin, cedar waxwing, and English sparrow, mingle fruit or grain in constantly increasing quantities with the insects fed to their young, though insects usually remain the chief component of the food until maturity is nearly reached. But these birds generally substitute such insects as hard beetles—carabids, dung- beetles, May-beetles, and weevils—for the softer food of other perch- ing birds. Thecaterpillars selected are generally such hairless kinds as canker worms, cutworms, and army worms, all of which are serious pests. But hairy caterpillars are eaten toa certain extent. Mr. E. H. Forbush has noted 13 different species of birds giving tent caterpillars and the caterpillars of the brown-tailed and gipsy moths to their young.’ The amount of food required by the nestling and the unremitting real and attention demanded of the parent are astonishing, and result in the destruction of great quantities of injurious insects. Two or three examples of this have been given. Another may be added, with an estimate of the saving effected through the removal of pests: Dur- ing the outbreak of Rocky Mountain locusts in Nebraska in 1874-1877, Prof. Samuel Aughey saw a long-billed marsh wren carry 30 locusts to her young inan hour.” At this rate, for seven hours a day, a brood would consume 210 locusts per day, and the passerine birds of the eastern haif of Nebraska, allowing only 20 broods to the square mile, would destroy daily 162,771,000 of the pests. The average locust weighs about 15 grains, and is capable each day of consuming its own weight of standing forage crops, corn and wheat.’ The locusts eaten by the nestlings would therefore be able to destroy in one day 174.397 tons of crops, which at $10 per ton would be worth $1,743.97. This case may serve as an illustration of the vast good that is done every year by the destruction of insect pests fed to nestling birds. And it should be remembered that the nesting season is also that when the destruction of injurious insects is most needed, that is, at the period of greatest agricultural activity and before the parasitic insects can be depended on to reduce the pests. The encouragement of birds to nest on the farm and the discouragement of nest robbing are therefore more than mere matters of sentiment; they return an actual cash equivalent, and have a definite bearing on the success or failure of the crops. 1Mass. Crop Rept., pp. 32, 33, September, 1899. *Rept. U.S. Entom. Comm., Appendix II, p. 18, 1878. *Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agriculture, for 1894, p. 222. DEVELOPMENT OF THE TRUCKING INTERESTS. By F.S. EaR eg, Horticulturist and Mycologist of the Alabama Experiment Station. TRUCK FARMING IN GENERAL. Truck farming may be defined for the purposes of this paper as differing from market gardening in that the produce is grown for ship- ment to a distant market, not to be sold from the wagon in the home market; and from general farming, in the usually perishable nature of the product. The term as defined by others means the raising of truck, or garden produce, on a large scale, whether for near-by or distant markets. According to this view it is simply market gardening on a large seale. : It is hard to decide just what should be considered as constituting the truck crops. Thus, in the North, potatoes, onions, and, in some sections, cabbage take rank among the staple farm crops, along with wheat and corn. They may be stored and kept for many weeks or months, and are handled by the ordinary channels of trade like other staple farm products. As grown in the South, these crops are much more perishable, and from the way in which they are sold and handled they take their place among the leading truck crops. Again, straw- berries and other small fruits, especially those occupying the land for a comparatively short time, may properly be classed as truck, while orchard fruits would not be so considered. It has only been attempted here to sketch in a general way the development of the trucking interests of the United States. The lines on which progress has been made are indicated, and incidentally some improvements in methods are suggested. The scope of the treatment forbids any attempt at a separate discussion of the princi- pal truck crops. An ample fund of information along this line may be found in the bulletins and reports of the Department of Agricul- ture and of the various State experiment stations. The trucking business, which is now a very important one in many parts of the United States, is a modern outgrowth, due to the improve- ment in facilities for rapid transportation, from the older occupation of market gardening. Before the advent of steam navigation and of rail- roads each town and city was dependent for its supply of perishable vegetable products on the immediately surrounding country, and the markets were only supplied during the brief period when each of these o”% vod 438 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. products was locally in season, except as small quantities were produced under glass. Now the cities, and even the smaller towns, in all parts of the country are abundantly supplied with fresh fruits and vegetables during the entire year. The volume of this business is still inereas- ing much more rapidly than the increase in population, owing to improved methods of distribution and to the consequently increased consumption per capita due to the abundant and cheap supply. The business is thus a benefit to the consuming classes by furnishing abundantly and cheaply many healthful and palatable articles of food. It has grown to be of such commercial importance that in many of the larger cities entire streets are devoted wholly to the produce business.’ It furnishes many railroad and steamship com- panies with one of their most profitable classes of freight, and to the farmer engaged in truck raising it furnishes a great variety of money crops. It also serves to educate him in business usages and in better methods of fertilizing and cultivating the soil. The modern improved methods in agriculture, known collectively as intensive farming, have nearly all had their origin in the hands of truck farmers and market gardeners. No other class of the rural population is more alert in utilizing the newest researches and discoveries in all lines of agricul- tural science, and none keeps in closer touch with the agricultural colleges and experiment stations. The manufacture of ‘‘ packages” for the transporting of truck crops to market has in itself grown to be a large business in many parts of the country, and the fertilizer mer- chants and manufacturers find in the truck farmer a customer for their highest grade of goods. Since the benefits of this industry are enjoyed by so many classes of people, it is unfortunate that the losses which are inevitable in handling such perishable products have so far fallen almost exclu- sively on the producer. By the system of shipping on commission which still prevails and was once well-nigh universal, the grower must take not only his legitimate risks of loss from unfavorable seasons, insects, and diseases, but also the risks of damage during transporta- tion, and of overcrowded markets that belong more naturally to the commercial side of the business. The produce merchant is better able than the average grower to keep posted on the probable require- ments of the different markets, and in those localities where the custom has become established of selling to buyers at the shipping point better average prices have been realized by the growers, the element of risk that has always militated against their full success having been in some measure eliminated. Notwithstanding the fact that truck farming has more risks than ordinary farming, or perhaps partly on account of these risks and the consequent chances for greater profits, the business has proved an attractive one to many people, and instances are rare where communities having once embarked in it give it up for other lines of production. DEVELOPMENT OF THE TRUCKING INTERESTS. 439 HISTORICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW OF TRUCK FARMING. One of the earliest centers for the development of truck farming in its present sense was along the shores of Chesapeake Bay, where fast- sailing oyster boats were employed for sending the produce to the neighboring markets of Baltimore and Philadelphia. In a similar way the gardeners about New York early began pushing out along Long Island, using the waters of the Sound for transporting their produee.. The trucking region on the eastern shore of Lake Michigan is another example of the effect of convenient water transportation in causing an early development of this industry. The building of the Illinois Central Railroad opened up a region in southern Illinois that was supposed to be particularly adapted to fruit growing. In the early sixties a considerable number of people moved into southern Illinois, mostly in the neighborhood of Cobden, Union County, for the purpose of planting orchards, being attracted by the high prices obtained in the Chicago market for early fruits. While waiting for orchards to come-into bearing they naturally tried experiments with vegetables and small fruits. Meeting with success, especially with strawberries, tomatoes, and sweet potatoes, the business gradually assumed considerable proportions. With the close of the civil war and the subsequent opening up of direct north and south lines of rail- road, the business has gradually extended from this center to various parts of Tennessee, Mississippi, Arkansas, and Texas. Mobile and New Orleans were early noted for their market gardens, and with the advent of rapid transportation they soon became important shipping centers. In the East-the business gradually extended down the coast from the Peninsula to Norfolk, and then to Charleston, Savannah, and Florida. FACTORS IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE TRUCK-FARMING BUSINESS. This steady progress from the North southward has been largely due to the effort to produce earlier and earlier crops, so as to take advantage of the high prices prevailing at the first of the season. The cheapness of Southern lands as compared with those of the Northern trucking regions has been another factor in promoting this southward movement. These advantages of the far South have been to some extent offset by higher transportation charges, and, with the more perishable products, by the greater danger of loss in transit, and the greater difficulty of placing them on the market in a fresh, attractive condition. It is now recognized that the far South can not compete with more northern localities at the same season with most erops. For instance, when Mississippi tomatoes begin moving freely they take the market from the Florida shippers. In turn, Mississippi is forced out by Tennessee and southern Illinois, the latter holding the Northern markets till the home-grown supplies come in. Another 440 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. reason that would seem to set a limit to the indefinite expansion of the business at the far South is the more limited consumption of most truck products during the winter months. | It is true that a small quantity of any fruit or vegetable out of season always commands a faney price, but a much less quantity can be sold even at a small price than in the summer, when the human system seems to impera- tively demand these more succulent foods. Notwithstanding these evident limitations, the greatest expansion of the business during the last decade has been in the far South, Florida and southern Texas. The great bulk of all truck shipments are from south to north in order to supply the great Northern cities with these goods before they ean be produced by local gardeners. The business is, however, by no means confined to this northward movement. Vast quantities of northern-grown potatoes, cabbage, onions, and celery are sold in the Southern States every winter. The Illinois Central long ago earned the sobriquet of ‘‘The cabbage route,” from the fact that it was moving train loads of cabbages north daily during spring and early summer, and equally large quantities south during fall and winter. Some of the principal centers for the trucking business have been. mentioned, but they may be recapitulated as follows: Beginning at the north and east, we have first Long Island and then the Peninsula, including Delaware, parts of New Jersey, and the portions of Mary- land and Virginia lying east of the Chesapeake Bay. Following down the Atlantic coast, we find Norfolk, Charleston, and Savannah, each the center of an important trucking district. For the purposes of this paper, the entire State of Florida may be considered as constituting another district, though this might well be further subdivided. Extend- ing from north Florida up through middle Georgia is the great water- melon region. Then comes Mobile and the adjoining territory in south Alabama, and New Orleans, with the delta region of Louisiana. The great extension of the business during the past few years along the Texas coast entitles this district to special mention. Passing north from Mobile and New Orleans along the Mobile and Ohio and the Illinois Central railroads, the business is established at various points in Mississippi, the most notable being Crystal Springs, which has long been the greatest tomato-shipping point in the world. Far- ther north is the west Tennessee district, the melon region in southeast Missouri, and the long-established center in southern Illinois. Still farther north is the rather important district about Muscatine, Iowa, and the famous Benton Harbor region of western Michigan. California is mostly known as a fruit-growing State, but she, too, ships large quantities of products that can properly be classed as truck. The business is by no means confined to the areas mentioned, as there are many other points with almost equal claims for recognition. Most of these districts grow a great variety of produce, but there are points that have become famous for the production of some specialty, like DEVELOPMENT OF THE TRUCKING INTERESTS. 44} Kalamazoo, Mich., for celery; Crystal Springs, Miss., for tomatoes, and Rocky Ford, Colo., for cantaloupes. Just what causes have led to the present distribution of the business it is not in all cases easy to determine. Of course, convenient and rapid transportation has always been one of the controlling factors. Without this the business is impossible. The suitability of soil and climate has obviously been another important clement. The soil con- ditions of the various trueking centers are very diverse, and make it difficult to decide just what kinds of soil will and what will not admit of the building up of a successful trucking business. Twelve of the localities mentioned above have a more or less sandy soil, but it varies from the almost pure white sands of some parts of Florida and the southern part of the Peninsula to the rich black sandy loams of the Texas coast and of southeast Missouri. Of the other localities, New Orleans has a deep black alluvial soil; Crystal Springs, Miss., a light clay loam with some admixture of sand; west Tennessee and southern Illinois a stiff yellow clay with a thin covering of loam. There are other vast areas with equally suitable soils and equally well situated as to transportation where the business has never gained a foothold. The industry is confined somewhat strictly to well-defined centers, where advantage can be taken of carload freight rates. The isolated shipper who can not fill cars is always placed at a disadvantage, owing to the higher proportionai freight charges on small lots. The particular location of the present shipping centers seems often to have been due to the fact that some pioneer in the business chanced to settle there and to succeed so well as to be copied by his neighbors. TRANSPORTATION OF TRUCK PRODUCTS. EVOLUTION OF TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES. The transportation question is always one of prime importance te the trucker. As has been stated, the business first originated at points where water transportation was available, and these points still have a decided advantage over those dependent entirely on rail shipments, especially for the handling of the bulkier and heavier products. Water freight rates are usuaily lower than rail rates, the produce is less liable to injury from jolting and bruising, and itis not so much exposed to dust, cinders, and heat. Water transportation has played an important part in building up the business at all points. on the Atlantic seaboard. It is slower than rail transportation, and for the more perishable products this becomes an insuperable objec- tion where the distance is great. Such products formerly all went by express, and this method is still employed for small lots, especially early in the season, when prices are high. The objections to express shipments are twofold— first, the very high charges, which, when low prices prevail, are 4 al900 29 449 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. prohibitive for most crops, and, second, the frequent damage result- ing from the necessarily hasty and often careless handling in loading and the consequent lack of proper spacing in the ear to insure good ventilation. The day has long passed when the trucker can expect to ship more than a very small part of his goods by express. Of course, the heavier, bulkier products, like potatoes, cabbage, and watermelons, have always gone by freight where water transportation is not available. At first shippers were obliged to use either common box ears or the rough open cattle cars, neither being suited to the pur- pose. The box cars were too tight and excluded the air so completely as to induce heating, while the stock cars were too open and exposed the goods to the weather; they were not provided with springs, and the constant pounding and jarring injured the contents. As the busi- ness grew in volume and importance, better and better facilities were afforded by the roads, finally resulting in the modern ventilated fruit ear, with springs and air brakes like a passenger coach, and with its many barred openings for ventilation, covered with wire netting to keep out cinders and prevent thieving. With the advent of these better cars it was found possible to ship by freight even the more del- icate products, such as strawberries, for considerable distances, pro- vided care was taken in loading to properly space the packages so as to secure thorough ventilation. In fact, where the time was no greater such freight shipments uniformly arrived in better condition than express shipments. Of course, the cost was much less than by express. This led to strenuous efforts to have these ventilated freight cars attached to passenger trains and run through on express time. Often this has been done, of course for an added charge, but on many roads contracts with the express companies prevented this. The roads handling a large produce business soon yielded to the continued pres- sure from the shippers and put on special fast fruit and produce rains, run as nearly as possible on passenger time, whenever the quantity of shipments offered justified it. This was a distinct advance in the evolution of transportation methods, and it is still the method in vogue for handling all perishable crops for near markets and the more resistant ones for all parts of the country. METHOD OF LOADING TRUCK PRODUCE, Where produce was marketed in boxes or crates much had to be learned as to the best methods of loading in the car to secure the best results from the ventilation and to prevent damage by the shifting of the load. The plan now quite uniformly adopted is to begin the load in either end by laying down a row of packages with their ends snug against the end of the ear, but with 3 to 6 inches space between the packages. Two half-inch strips, as long as the ear is wide, are laid down on the row of packages, one at the front and one at the back, and these DEVELOPMENT OF THE TRUCKING INTERESTS. 443 are nailed down by a small nail driven into the ends or heads of the erates or boxes. Another layer of packages is placed on these strips, taking care to place each box directly over the one below it, so as to preserve the air spaces from bottom to top of car. Strips are nailed on these as before, and other layers of packages added until the desired height is reached. Another tier is then started in the same way, tak- ing care to jam the ends of the packages squarely against those of the first tier, so as to preserve the air spaces intact, not only from bottom to top, but from end to end of the car. When the ear is in motion a eurrent of air comes in at the front-end ventilators and passes through between the tiers of packages without interruption and escapes at the rear ventilators. Side ventilation is usually also provided, but it is much tess important than that from end toend. When the middle of the car is reached it becomes necessary, unless the packages chance to closely fill the space, to brace the piles ‘solidly to prevent their shifting by the bumping of the cars in switching, or in starting and stopping. This is done by placing pieces of 6-inch fence board upright against each tier of packages on either side and reaching from the floor to the top of the ear. Stout cross strips are nailed to these uprights a foot or so from the floor and from the top. Braces are sawed about an inch longer than the measured distance between these opposing sets of crossbars. The brace pieces are put in place and are forcibly driven home. This settles the load together very solidly. The braces are toe-nailed in place to prevent the possibility of their becoming loosened and dropping down. When thus loaded, nothing short of a collision can cause the load to shift; and yet no two pack- ages are in contact except at the ends, each being surrounded by a rapidly moving current of air as long as the ear is in motion. When open baskets are used for shipping, as is done so commonly in the East, it is necessary to put temporary shelving in the cars, and the baskets are jammed tightly on the shelves to prevent them from falling over. This, too, secures good ventilation. In some sections covered baskets are used that can be piled one on top of another in the car, and these can be loaded in much the same way as the boxes or crates. The style of cars and of loading here described, when the cars are carried on a fast schedule, represents probably the highest attainable development for open or ventilator transportation, and indeed it is sufficiently satisfactory for a large class of goods. For the more deli- cate products it has two drawbacks: (1) The packages are not pro- tected from dust, the contents, especially near the ventilators, being often much injured by it and by the constant draft of warm air, which often wilts tender vegetables, so that they reach market in a flabby, unattractive condition; (2) the time limit for the successful shipment under ventilation of such delicate crops as strawberries is so short that it restricts the business to comparatively narrow bounds. Forty- 444 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. eight hours may be considered as the limit of safety with products of this class, even with favorable weather conditions. When it is either very hot or very rainy, serious losses may occur on even a twenty- four-hour run. REFRIGERATOR TRANSPORTATION! OF TRUCK PRODUCE. The possibility of using ice for preserving the freshness of fruits and vegetables in transit seems to have early suggested itself. So far as known to the writer, Mr. Parker Earle, then residing at Cobden, Ill., was the first to experiment in this direction. In a recent letter he describes his early attempts and final success with refrigeration, as follows: 227 I think it was in 1856 that I built the first twelve big refrigerator chests fur ship- ping strawberries. I sent them to Chicago, Pittsburg, New York, Memphis, and New Orleans, all by express. Where the express company followed instructions and re-iced the berries, they carried quite well. They heid 200 quart baskets of berries each and 100 pounds cf ice. The express rates were so high and the neglect to re-ice was so frequent that I had to give it up. Similar chests to these, only larger, were used from Charleston to New York by steamship lines at about the same time. It was later that the small ‘‘ pony” refrigerator boxes began to be used from Florida. My boxes weighed 600 pounds each when loaded. These pony boxes weighed about 100 pounds. The first attempt at carrying carloads of strawberries under refrigeration was made by Mr. Davis, of Detroit, about 1868. He came to Cobden with a car that was made for refrigerating beef and fish. It contained a vertical cylinder in each corner of the car about 15 inches in diameter, and was iced from the top of the car, using salt with the ice. The consequence was the freezing of a part of the berries, while the balance of the load was very unequally cooled. The result was a loss, which did not invite a repetition of the venture. The experiment interested me greatly, and I thought I saw why it failed—that the refrigeration was very unequal and in part very excessive. The following year I got acar from the Michigan Central Railway Company that was built to carry dairy products. It was loaded with berries by an association of growers at Cobden. It held about a ton of ice in eachend. I went ahead to Detroit to make sure of a market and the car was loaded by the growers. With this half charge of ice the load of berries might have gone through in fair condition but for the misfortune that some wise railroad man took out the plugs from the ice boxes in the roof to give the berries “‘a chance for a littie air” and left them out. Of course the ice was melted in a day and the bulk of the cargo was ruined. This discour- aged community efforts in this line at that time. I, however, began experiment- ing with our own berries by building a cooling box in our packing shed at Anna, Til., and holding the berries in it twenty-four hours to cool off and then sending them by express. It was found that those so cooled went into Chicago in better condition than those freshly picked from the field, although they were one day older. Repeated experiments served to establish this fact. This decided my plans. I went to Chicago and engaged the best refrigerator car then made—the old Tiffany patent—with ice box, V-shaped, suspended from the roof and running the full length of the car. The utmost capacity of this ice pan was 1itons. I knew well 'Much additional information regarding refrigerator transportation will be found in aseparate paper in this Yearbook, entitled ‘‘ The influence of refrigera- tion on the fruit industry.”—Ep. DEVELOPMENT OF THE TRUCKING INTERESTS. 445 ' that this quantity would not both cool off a load of berries and keep it cool for two or three days, so I built a cooling house at Anna large enough to hold 10 tons of strawberries and I cooled the load down for a day in that house and then trans- ferred it to the Tiffany car. The berries went into the cars at about 50° F. The result was a complete success from the start. No such solid, good-keeping berries had ever been seen in Chicago. [enlarged this cooling house at Anna, built one at Villa Ridge, and another at Cobden. For soveral years we handled our own berries and other fruits and much that we bought with very good success. I Qeo think this first successful car was sent in 1872. But I was never satisfied with these cars built for the dairy-product industry, which only carried about 1} tons of ice. I wanted a car that could hold 5d tons of ice in its boxes (a cooling house on wheels), in which the fruit could be placed as packed, with the certainty that it would cool in transit and be safe for at least a three-day trip. After much canvassing among car builders, I finally secured a well-built, well-insulated car with this ice capacity. From this time forward the revolution in transportation methods wasaccomplished. Wedemonstrated by many shipments from Mississippi, Florida, and Georgia the complete adaptability and success of this system. Then we went to California ahd proved our ability to pick fully ripe and mellowing peaches in California orchards and lay them down in Chicago in perfect condition. This was done daily for a month, to the complete surprise of all the people in the trade and to the growers in California. The result has been a tenfold multiplication of crops of perishable fruits and vegetables, with their safe delivery in cool, sound condition to markets hundreds and thousands of miles distant. The introduction of refrigerator transportation, as outlined in the above letter, was accomplished in the face of much skepticism and opposition. The early failures had made the trade skeptical, and the poor results obtained when overripe stock on the market was placed on ice to hold it over night or for a better price had given rise to a widespread belief that refrigerated goods, even if looking well on arrival, would not keep, but would melt down rapidly when taken off the ice. While this is unquestionably true of goods that are overripe before being placed on ice, it is not true of goods that are properly handled and are placed on ice while still fresh; but it required many eonclusive demonstrations to convince the trade of this fact and to induce the average grower to risk his products in refrigerator cars. A Chicago firm, associated with Mr. Earle in his later refrigerator experiments, organized, with others, a fruit transportation company, with the control of a sufficient number of the above improved cars, with large ice capacity, to operate, not only from California, but from the more important of the Southern fruit and truck regions. This company was soon followed by others in the same field, and at the present day there are a number of responsible refrigerator transpor- tation companies competing for the fruit and vegetable carrying trade. By making arrangements in advance, any community or indi- vidual can be sure of securing good, efficient refrigerator service. These companies usually send their own poy mes agents to super- intend the loading and icing of their cars. Besides these Ww. estern experiments, refrigeration was slowly making 446 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. its way in the East. The early use of ice boxes from Charleston and Florida has been mentioned. Later, in the early eighties, according to the Jacksonville (Fla.) Times-Union, a New York commission merchant leased some cars that he fitted up as refrigerators and ran in the Florida strawberry trade. In 1884, Mr. E. Bean, of Jackson- ville, indueed a Texas company to put their cars in the Florida trade. POINTS TO BE OBSERVED IN REFRIGERATOR SHIPMENTS OF TRUCK PRODUCE, Te secure the best results from refrigerator shipments it is neces- sary to carefully observe the following points: First, the goods must be handled and assorted with unusual care to see that no injured or overripe specimens are left with the sound ones. It isa great mistake to suppose that refrigeration will make good fruit or vegetables out of poor ones. ‘True, it is possible to ship overripe fruits farther on ice than in an open car, but though they may look fairly well on arrival, such goods will soon go down when taken from the car, and will not prove satisfactory. It is high time for shippers of truck crops to understand that it is only the satisfied buyer who makes a permanent and profitable customer. The effect of refrigeration is simply to retard the natural processes of ripening and decay. If goods are on the point of decay it may temporarily arrest it, but it can not make the goods sound again. On the contrary, if the goods go into the car fresh from the field and in good condition, the changes that take place will be very slow, and they will come out at the end of three or four days, or even a week, in practically the same condi- tion in which they went into the car. The second condition to secure success is, therefore, to get the goods into the car as quickly as possi- blesafter picking. A delay of even a few hours in hot weather may make a great difference in the condition on arrival. This is a vital point and one that is often overlooked by shippers. Third, the car selected must have good insulation to keep out the heat. The doors must fit tightly and manholes and ventilators of all kinds must be kept closed. The car should be made as nearly air-tight as possible. The ice boxes must have a capacity of at least 5 tons of ice, and they must be well filled before loading the car. The position of the ice boxes, whether at the ends or overhead, is of minor importance. Fourth, the load must be stowed as previously described for ventilated cars, so that there are continuous air passages both from bottom to top and from end to end. It is even more important in air-tight cars than in ventilated cars to have this free circulation of air, and the circulation in a properly loaded car is very active. The air that is warmed by coming in con- tact with the hot goods at once rises to the top of the car, while that which has been cooled by contact with the ice flows in below to take its place. ‘The hot air when it comes in contact with the ice is DEVELOPMENT OF THE TRUCKING INTERESTS. 447 suddenly cooled, and in consequence loses much of its moisture, which is deposited on the ice. The load is therefore being constantly sub- jected to a current of cool, dry air. Refrigeration is thus essentially a drying process. The walls of the car are always dry enough to strike a match on them, since all surplus moisture is taken up and deposited on the ice. The hot load, as it goes into the car, melts out the ice very quickly. With the thermometer at 90° F. or above, the hot load will melt from 3 to 4 tons of ice during the first five or six hours. After that it melts much more slowly if the car is well insu- lated. This brings us to the fifth necessity, which is for frequent re-icing stations, so that the ears can be examined at least once in twenty-four or thirty-six hours and more ice added as needed. The first re-icing station should be not more than twelve hours from the ship- ping point. When this is not possible the car should, when loaded, be held a few hours at the shipping point and be re-iced before starting. This is important, even if it delays the shipment for twelve or even twenty-four hours. j P Ventilated cars only are used for watermelons, as they do not ship well under refrigeration, but turn yellow more quickly than when in open cars. Ventilated cars are also used in shipping Southern pota- toes. Strawberries may be safely shipped in open cars or by express to all points that can be reached the first morning after shipment. With entirely favorable conditions of weather and of the fruit, straw- berries may be risked in this way to the second morning, but always with some risk of loss. In all cases it is safer to use refrigeration, if properly handled, when the fruit is to be out over twenty-four hours. To recapitulate, then, the conditions for suecess with refrigerator cars are: First, good products carefully selected and packed; second, as little delay as possible in getting them from the field to the ear; third, the car must have good insulation and a capacity for at least 5 tons of ice; fourth, the load must be so stowed as to secure a free cir- culation of air and prevent shifting of packages; fifth, re-icing stations must be provided at suitable intervals. MARKETING TRUCK PRODUCE. THE COMMISSION AND THE BUYING SYSTEMS, t requires business ability of a high order to market truck crops successfully. Itis by far the most important part of the business, for it is useless to grow good crops unless they ean be sold at a profit; yet it is safe to say that there are ten men who grow good truck crops where there is one who markets them to the best possible advantage. In the early days of the business nearly all such crops were shipped on commission, and at the present time many of the more perishable crops are still mostly sold in this way. It has the advantage of 448 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. giving the producer the full benefit of the market; but, onthe other hand, he must assume all the risks of loss in transit and of temporary gluts, besides the very considerable risk of loss through dishonest agents, since by this system the commission merchant has things practically in his own hands. If he is disposed to pocket the greater part of the proceeds and report the goods as arriving in ‘‘bad order,” there is small chance for the shipper to prove the fraud. On the other hand, it is hard for the shipper to understand that the goods that left him in perfectly good order may have arrived in such a condition as to be almost worthless, and in very many cases dealers are accused of fraud when they have really sold the consignment to the best possible advantage and have remitted full value for it. Another drawback to commission ship- ments is that by this system it is almost impossible to get an even distribution of the goods to the different markets. If prices are high at one place to-day and low at another, the fact is telegraphed to all shipping centers, with the result that so many shipments are turned in the direction of the high prices that a glut ensues, while other points may be left with an insufficient supply. For the less perish- able and somewhat standard goods, like potatoes and cabbage, the custom is getting to be more and more for the dealers to buy from the growers at the shipping point. The dealer thus assumes all risks of transportation and marketing, which is the more natural arrange- ment, and is on the whole much more satisfactory to both parties. True, the grower never gets quite such high prices as he occasionally secures by the other system, but he is protected from such frequent losses, and his average results are better. In some sections this sys- tem is being rapidly adopted for all kinds of products. This buying at the shipping point should always be encouraged by growers, for it insures them in the long run a more prosperous business. In only too many cases growers will refuse a good cash offer for their produee, and will take the risk of shipping. This has done much to discourage buying, for it has often been impossible for buyers to depend on get- ting a regular supply. Again, when a man is buying goods to be shipped to a certain market, some growers seem to think that it must be an unusually good one, and so will rush in large consigned ship- ments to compete with the purchased goods. The grower should ree- ognize the fact that if the dealer comes to his town to buy his goods and assumes all chances of loss on them he must have a fair business chance and a margin of profit in order to afford the risks. AUCTION-SALE AND SHIPPING-ASSOCIATION SYSTEMS, The California fruit shippers, realizing the drawbacks to selling on commission, some -years ago inaugurated a system of auction sales in many of the large cities. This has been so successful that the great DEVELOPMENT OF THE TRUCKING INTERESTS. 449 bulk of the fresh-fruit shipments from that State are now sold in this way. Cargoes of foreign fruits are also often disposed of at auction, but for some reason the system has been little taken up by the east- ern produce shippers, though it has been much discussed, and seems to have some advantages. The shippers of eastern produce are so widely seattered that it has been impossible to unite them in giving this, or any other system requiring concerted action, a fair trial. In a previous paragraph reference was made to the difficulty that confronted the isolated grower in loading cars and thus securing the lowest freight rates and the promptest service. The same difficulty confronted the smaller growers at large shipping centers, and to obviate it a form of shipping association was early devised by which all or a number of the shippers at any given point combine in loading ears. A loading and an unloading agent are appointed. Theformer receives the goods as they come from the farms, sees that they are properly loaded, makes out a manifest for each car, showing the num- ber of packages from each shipper to each consignee, and bills the car to the unloading agent. Theentire load thus goesasasingle shipment to one consignee, though it may contain goods from a hundred shippers marked to one-fourth as many commission merchants. On the arri- val of the ear the unloading agent pays the freight and promptly unloads it, delivering the goods to the various commission houses, from whom he collects pro rata for the freight and the loading and unloading charges. The same unloading agent usually acts for a number of shipping associations, so that the charges are reduced to the minimum. This system has proved of great benefit to the smaller growers. It originated in southern Illinois and has extended to Ten- nessee, Mississippi, Arkansas, and Texas, and in a more or less modi- fied form to other of the trucking centers. A still further development of the shipping association idea has been attempted at some points. The growers have pooled their inter- ests and load solid cars, which their shipping agent is empowered to either sell on track or consign as a whole to any market that from latest advices seems most desirable. In the hands of an efficient, well-posted agent this plan has many advantages. Such associations can secure rebates on commissions, and can afford to keep better posted on the markets than is possible for the small individual ship- per. Such associations also have a distinct advantage in the matter of making direct sales. There is sometimes difficulty in securing suita- ble agents, and the plan has the further disadvantage that some grow- ers are always more careless than others in packing and assorting their produce, while under this system it is impossible to distinguish between the careful and the careless in the returns, all having to share alike. - This is an obvious injustice to the careful shipper and tends to put a premium on careless or dishonest packing. 450 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. EFFORTS TO SECURE A JUDICIOUS DISTRIBUTION OF TRUCK PRODUCE. Many devices have been tried for so controlling shipments as to secure a judicious distribution of perishable goods, thus avoiding the disastrous glutting of one market ae perhaps some other one has an inadequate supply. Loeal, district, and even State associations have been formed with agencies for securing market reports, for superintending the distribution, and for diverting shipments from point to point as indicated by the latest telegraphic advices. Even when in competent hands and honestly administered these associa- tions have not always been successful, since products are going for- ward at the same time from so many different competing sections that it has not been possible for them to keep posted as to the movement from the different points, especially as an unusually high price from any market generally attracts shipments from many quarters. Any plan that would really accomplish the result of avoiding gluts would be of untold good to the entire trucking interest, benefiting equally both growers and dealers. During the last few years an extensive experiment has been tried in the direction of a national organization for this purpose by the formation of the American Fruit Growers’ Union. This is a regularly chartered company, of which any bona fide fruit grower may become a member by paying $1 as a 10 per cent payment on one share of the stock, the shares having a face value of $10 and being nonassessable. The members are required to pledge themselves to ship no fruit or produce on commission, but either to sell at the shipping point, which is always advised when such sale is possible, or through the regular accredited agents of the union. The central office is to be immediately informed by wire of the nature and destination of all shipments, and these are lable to be diverted to any other market than the one indicated by the shipper at the discretion of the central office. As the union is operating in all the principal shipping districts, it is able to keep thoroughly posted as to ship- ments, and thus divert its goods from points that are threatened with an oversupply. Theoretically, this is an almost perfect system of distribution; but if the union ever succeeds to such an extent as to be required to handle any very considerable percentage of the total produce shipments of the country, its central office will be confronted with a business so complicated and with responsibilities so ee as to be fairly appalling. So far, the friends of the union claim for it a very flattering measure of success, and it seems to be rapidly gaining in popularity. Its con- tinued success will depend almost wholly on the ability of the central management. As the business increases, it will require alertness and business ability of the very highest order to avoid occasional mistakes that would give widespread dissatisfaction. It is proverbially hard to get produce shippers to combine, even when most obviously for their DEVELOPMENT OF THE TRUCKING INTERESTS. 451 good, and they are always jealous of granting such absolute powers. The final result of this experiment will be watched with much interest, but those who have had iaost experience in similar attempts will understand best the difficulties in the way of achieving a lasting success. PACKING AND GRADING TRUCK PRODUCE. The kind of packages used in handling the different truck crops varies greatly in the different trucking regions, and they are now in many cases very different from those that were used in the early days of the business. Thus, berries of all kinds were formerly marketed in heavy, shallow drawers, put up four or five togetherin stands. The berries were scooped up with a quart measure when sold at retail, and the empty packages were returned to the grower, to be used over and over. This answered fairly well for near-by markets, but the bulk of fruit massed together was too great for distant shipment, and the rehandling when sold caused it to reach the consumer in a bruised and bleeding condition. In the West the greater average distance for shipments early necessitated the adoption of some more suitable pack- age. After many trials the cheap gift package made of thin veneer was devised which, in some of its forms, is now so universally used. In the East the inconvenience of return packages was endured much longer, but they have now almost or entirely disappeared. In fact, it would be utterly impossible to handle the present volume of business in any but gift packages. For berries, a quart, or sometimes a pint, box or basket is used, and these are packed in crates for shipment. In the West the popular package for most tree fruits, tomatoes, and many other vegetables was for many years a rectangular box, hold- ing one-third of a bushel, with sawn ends or heads, a middle piece 5 by 8 inches, and veneer sides 22 inches long. -This package finally beeame discredited through the pernicious practice of placing the best specimens at the cracks and filling the middle of the box with culls. It is now comparatively but little used. There has been no greater drawback to the trucking industry than the various forms of dishonest or false packing, and it is indeed remarkable that growers will still be so shortsighted as to continue the practice when its evil effects are so well understood. In the East, par- ticularly in the Peninsula region, an open slat basket holding about five-eighths of a bushel, has long been a popular package for tree fruits and many vegetables. It is a cheap package, and one in which the labor of packing is reduced toa minimum. In many ways it is very satisfactory, but for long shipments of the more delicate products it would be better if made broader and shallower. These open baskets require the cars to be shelved. In Michigan some form of flat, handled basket is largely used. In the South a light, 6-quart veneer basket packed in 4-basket or 6-basket crates is most used for 452 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tomatoes, peaches, ete. Beans, peas, cucumbers, and many other vegetables are packed in bushel erates. In adopting a package it is always best to study the taste of the market it is proposed to supply and to conform to the prevailing usage. Buyers always prefer the package to which they are accus- tomed, and in most cases they will pay more for goods in what is con- sidered a standard package than in one that is unusual. Whatever the package, the greatest care should always be used in selecting and packing to make the goods as neat and attractive as possible and at the same time of uniform quality throughout the package. Only good, sound, honestly packed goods should be sent to market, and all culls should be rigorously thrown out and kept at home for stock feed. The average prices realized for truck products would thus be greatly improved, and one of the most annoying fea- tures of the business would be eliminated. A reputation for good packing is an asset of the greatest value to the truck shipper. When a brand is known to be reliable, the goods can often be sold in advanee of arrival, and they will always sell quicker and for better prices upon reaching the market than unknown stock, the difference fre- quently being that between a good profit and an absolute loss. THE DATE PALM AND ITS CULTURE. By Wa ter T. SwWINGLe, Agricultural Explorer, Section of Seed and Plant Introduction. INTRODUCTION. The date palm was one of the first plants to be cultivated, it having been grown for four thousand years along the Euphrates River. It has been for ages and is still the most important food plant of the great deserts, and many regions in Arabia and in the Sahara would not be habitable were it not for this plant. Not only does it yield a delicious fruit of great food value, but it also furnishes in many regions the only timber suitable for use in the construction of houses and for making a thousand and one necessary objects. Its leaves furnish a partial shade, under which it is possible to cultivate other fruit trees which could not exist were they exposed to the direct rays of the sun and the burning winds in the desert; thousands of fig, almond, pome- granate, and peach trees and grapevines, forming veritable orchards, are cultivated in the palm-covered oasés, especially in the northern Sahara. For centuries the transport of dates has been the chief motive for the formation of the great caravan routes which run in every direction through the deserts in Africaand Arabia. The export of dates to Europe and to America has been and is still an important industry both in north Africa and in the countries bordering the Per- sian Gulf. The value of the dates imported into the United States alone averaged for the ten years ending June 30, 1900, $402,762 per annum, as appraised at the exporting point. The real value when received at the American port was doubtless 50 per cent greater, or $600,000 a year, an amount now exceeded only by the imports of two other dried fruits—Zante currants and Smyrna figs. WHAT IS THE DATE PALM? The date palm, as its name indicates, belongs to the great family of palms. Like the majority of its relatives, it has but a single bud at the top of the trunk, and if this bud be destroyed the tree frequently dies. The date palm, however, unlike the cocoanut palm and unlike the majority of palms, produces offshoots, or ‘‘ suckers,” at the base of the stem (see fig. 58 and Pl. LIX, fig. 4), at least during the first decade of its existence. Old date palms which are in full bearing do not produce such offshoots, and if the terminal bud be destroyed the whole plant will die, since offshoots are never produced at the top of the trunk. The date palm, like most other members of this family, has a trunk which remains of the same diameter, no matter how old it 455 454 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. may be, there being no secondary increase in diameter with increasing age such as occurs in ordinary fruit and forest trees. In consequence, the age of a palm tree can be roughly estimated from its height, but never from the diameter, nor, as is customary among woodsmen, by counting the rings of annual growth, for the simple reason that the date palm has no such rings. The leaves of the date palm (fig. 57 and Pl. LIV) are feather-shaped and very large, frequently from 10 to 15 feet long. The ancient Egyp- tians had a tradition, held also by some tribes of modern Arabs, that the date palm produces twelve leaves ina year. It is an interesting fact that the earliest Egyptian hieroglyphic which signified a month repre- sented a single leaf of the date palm, and the sign for year pictured a crown of leaves of the date palm. Of course, there is no such fixed senda of time between the unfolding of successive leaves, but it is rue that the date palm usually produces from 12 to 20 leay a in a year. pee leaves remain alive and green for several years, but finally lose their color and bend downward toward the trunk. (See the lower leaves on the tallest palm in Pl. LIV.) Travelers who have seen date palms growing remote from human habitations in the Sahara Desert report that under such conditions the old leaves remain attached to the trunk permanently, the palm being crowned with living green leaves and the trunk clothed clear to the ground by the reflexed dead leaves. Furthermore, in such conditions, where the date palm is left to grow uncontrolled by man, the offshoots produced by the young paims grow unhindered and often rival in size the parent trunk, and they in turn give rise to other offshoots, even after the parent stem has passed the age when it would pr ee offshoots. The result of this is that instead of a single palm tree, the traveler sees a great thicket com- posed of a few tall trunks (the original palm and the oldest offshoots), surrounded at the base by a tangled mass of younger offshoots, strug- cling upward and cutward. All of these trunks retain their dead leaves permanently, so that such a clump of palm shoots is well nigh impenetrable. Some suggestion of this manner of growth may be obtained from Pl. LIX, fie. 4, which shows a neglected palm tree. This tree, however, had been caeea for previously, and does not give an adequate idea of the appearance of an entirely uncultivated date palm. To those who have traveled in countries where the date palm is the commonest cultivated tree, the description given above will seem very strange. In all such countries the date palm is well cared for and the dead leaves removed, leaving a clean trunk, crowned with a tuft of living leaves. (Pls. LIV, LV, and LX.) Besides this, the Arab chltivators are cae to remove the offshoots as soon as they are large enough to plant, or to destroy them when young in case they do not desire to propagate the variety. Such offshoots, ready to remove Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1go00. PLATE LIV. Original Negative. OLD DATE PALMS AT HERMOSILLO, NORTHERN MEXICO. ORANGE TREES AND ALFALFA IN THE FOREGROUND. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. PLATE LV. be site a Fic. 1.—FiG TREES GROWING BENEATH DATE PALMS FIG. 2.—FIG TREES GROWING BE- AT CHETMA, NEAR BISKRA, ALGERIA. NEATH DATE PALMS IN BISKRA, ALGERIA. [Negative by Naudin, Paris.] Fic. 3.—IRRIGATION OF DATE PALMS AT BISKRA, ALGERIA, SHOWING THREE EXCAVATIONS, THROUGH WHICH WATER IS FLOWING. THE DATE PALM AND ITS CULTURE. 455 and plant, are shown by ta 58 and offshoots remoy ed and ready to transplant on Pl. LVI, fig. Unlike most of the or ae fruit trees, the date palm has the male and female flower on separate individuals. If grown from seed, about half of the resulting palms are male and about half female. If such trees be allowed to grow to maturity in this proportion enough pollen is blown by the wind to fertilize all the flowers properly. It would be, however, a very expensive method of culture to irrigate and culti- vate such a large proportion of male trees. The Arabs—and before them the Assyr ians—learned to pollinate the palm artificially, and from a small proportion of male trees to fertilize the flowers of a very great number of female trees. At the present time the proportion followed in planting is that of about one male tree to a hundred female trees. The date paim flowers in the early spring, producing from six to twenty flower clusters, according to the age and vigor of the tree. Each flower cluster on the female tree produces a bunch of dates, con- sisting of numerous fruits, borne on slender twigs, which branch from a main stalk (Pls. LVI, LVI, and LX). Such a bunch may bear from 15 to 30 pounds of dates when ripe, and a vigorous tree is com- monly allowed to produce from eight to twelve such bunches. The date itself is, of course, familiar to everyone; it is an oval fruit from 1 to 24 inches long by half that width, containing a single seed sur- rounded by a half dry, and very sweet pulp, usually amber-colored. There are very many varieties of dates, differing widely as to character and quality, as will be explained more in detail further on. OUTLINE OF CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS OF THE DATE PALM. The date palm, although grown profitably only in arid and semiarid regions, is not in the proper sense of the word a desert plant, as are, for example, the cacti, or the creosote bushes, of the Southwest. It is entirely incapable of living on dry hillsides or arid mesas, which, nevertheless, support in Arizona and California a fairly abundant erowth of shrubs, and even trees. The date palm demands a fairly abundant and, above all, a constant supply of water at the roots; at the same time, it delights in a perfectly dry and very hot climate. - A well-known Arab proverb runs, ‘‘The date palm, the queen of trees, must have her feet in running water and her head in the burning sky.” It is essential in order to avoid disappointment that these factors be kept in mind by all who attempt to cultivate date palms: First, the roots must have water; second, the leaves require a hot, dry atmos- phere with abundant sunlight, if the plant is to mature dates of good quality. Another essential requirement of the tree is that the winters be not too cold. The date palm is able to stand much more cold than an orange tree, for example, but not so much as a peach tree, and 456 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. probaby not even so much as a fig tree, which can sprout up from the roots if the twigs be killed by an unusually cold snap, whereas the date palm is usually killed if the terminal bud be frozen. Great confusion exists in the minds of many in regard to the climatic requirements of the date palm, because the tree itself grows luxuriantly in many regions where it is useless to expect it to produce edible fruit. The tree thrives, for example, in Florida and in the West Indies, where the summer heat is too low and the humidity of the air too high to allow the fruit to ripen properly; in fact, in most humid regions the fruit would never ripen at all, but would spoil as it matured. In the Sahara no misfortune is more feared by the inhabitants than a heavy rain just as the fruit is ripening. Such a disaster may entail the loss of the entire crop if the rain be followed by a few days of cloudy and humid weather. It is, however, not enough that a region be destitute of rainfall to render it suitable for producing dates; there are many parts of the coast of California, especially in the southern part of the State, where the rainfall is very slight, or in some vears almost entirely ranting, yet the date palm produces no fruit at all, or sets fruit irregu- larly and yields a very mediocre quality. This is doubtless due to two causes: First, the summer temperature is very much lower than ‘it would be in a desert region remote from the cold sea breezes which here sweep over the coast lands nearly all the time when the sun is shining; second, these same sea breezes come laden with humidity, a - condition distinctly unfavorable to the ripening of dates of a good quality. It is, then, essential that no one make the erroneous infer- ence that because the date palm grows well in a region it may be culti- vated there profitably as a fruit tree. As will be explained later on, the conditions under which the date palm bears good fruit, although highly peculiar, are now well known, and it is possible to predict in advance almost with certainty in what parts of the United States dates can be produced with a reasonable hope of profitable returns. DATE CULTURE BY THE ANCIENTS. The date palm is one of the oldest cultivated plants. It is fully described on the clay tablets and carefully figured on the wall sculptures of the ancient Assyrians. It was undoubtedly one of their most important food plants, and every detail of its culture, the operation of pollinating the flowers, and even the serving of the fruit at the tables of the wealthy, was delineated with great accuracy on their monuments and wall sculptures. It is probable that the date palm was first extensively grown in the valley of the Euphrates. It was apparently little known and but slightly esteemed in ancient Egypt before 3000 B. C., although as early as 2000 B. C. it had already become a well-known fruit tree. Not much is known as to the origin of the date palm, although everything points to its being native in THE DATE PALM AND ITS CULTURE. 457 some of the canyons bordering the deserts of northern Africa or Arabia. It is probable that it was first cultivated by the Assyrians, afterwards by the Egyptians, and that very early its culture became almost a national industry with the Arabs. It is true that the date palm existed in ancient Africa before the arrival of the Arabs. It was, however, comparatively unimportant, and the varieties were probably inferior. When the Arabs invaded the western Sahara and the Barbary States during the seventh century, and at various intervals Fic. 57.—Young Deglet noor palm, showing a fruit cluster still bound by the fiber used to attach male flowers in pollinating; also (to the left) a younger fruit cluster and a flower cluster just pollinated. until the twelfth century, they introduced the use of the camel, and thereby rendered it possible for the inhabitants of the oases to satisfy ali their wants, simply by growing an abundance of dates, since the camels could carry the dates to the more fertile regions bordering the Mediterranean, where they could be exchanged for the wheat and barley needed in the Sahara for making bread. In consequence of this economic revolution, the culture of the date palm speedily became, and is still, the most important interest throughout the Sahara Desert. The Moors undoubtedly introduced the date palm into Spain, and 4 ,41900——30 458 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. indirectly brought about its introduction into the New World, since the first dates in America were grown from seeds brought by the missionaries who accompanied the Spaniards on their voyages of dis- covery and conquest. The date palm does not succeed well in Spain, but during the Moorish occupation of the country it was nevertheless Fic. 58.—Offshoots in place at base of palm: An Arab gardener is digging the semicircular ditches at the sides of the tree to hold water when irrigation is practiced. extensively planted, and is still to be seen in many places, thougn it is now grown commercially only in a single oasis, Elche, in south- eastern Spain, where the conditions of climate resemble very much those of the northern Sahara. HISTORY OF THE DATE PALM IN THE UNITED STATES. The history of the introduction of the date palm into Southwestern United States may be summarized as follows: First. The era of the Mission Fathers (eighteenth and early nine- teenth centuries). Second. The era of the American pioneers (1848-1880). Third. The first trials of imported suckers (1876-1890). Fourth. The importation of a representative collection of Saharan suckers (1899-1901). THE FOUR PERIODS OF DATE PALM INTRODUCTION. The first planting of the date in California was probably by the friars (mostly Franciscan and Jesuit) by means of seeds doubtless obtained from the older missions in Mexico, which, when the missions THE DATE PALM AND ITS CULTURE. 459 were founded in the eighteenth and early in the nineteenth centuries, was controlled by Spain, and included all the Southwest. These date palms, now striking landmarks in southern California, are doubt- less descendants of the older trees of Sonora (see Pl. LIV) and Lower California, and these in turn very probably sprang from the dates grown in Spain and brought out to the fields of their missionary labors by the far-sighted friars and padres. Unfortunately, all these dates—the Spanish, the Mexican, and the Californian—are of only mediocre quality, and are not to he compared to the choice sorts of the Sahara or Arabia, which are never propagated from seed, as those of Spanish origin always have been. The second era in the introduction of the date palm was a result of the settlement of the Southwest by the Americans and its annexa- tion after the Mexican war. The early American settlers planted the seeds of the dates they purchased, mostly from sutlers or purveyors of San Francisco, dates presumably imported from Busra (Bussorah) or Maskat on the Persian Gulf and of a quality much superior to those of Mexico. Splendid palms have grown from seeds planted in Cali- fornia and in Arizona in the sixties and seventies. These seedling dates grown by the American settlers are on the whole of better quality than those planted by the friars, probably because the seeds were obtained from a superior quality of fruit. In both of these epochs of introduction only seeds were planted, and in consequence, a large proportion (nearly half) of the resulting trees are male, and the remain- der, though female, produce for the most part inferior dates, largely dry when ripe. Probably not more than one-eighth of the trees which issue from seeds produce soft dates of a flavor and texture suited to American tastes. Nevertheless, some few of these seedling dates are of excellent quality and represent the best dates as yet matured in the United States. (See Pl. LXI, fig. 1, and Pl. LXII, fig. 2.) Unfortunately, some of the best seedling date palms planted by the American pioneers were allowed to reach maturity before their value was appreciated, and then it was too late to obtain offshoots by which alone it is possible to propagate a variety true to type. The third epoch in the introduction of the date was inaugurated by the bringing in of a few rooted suckers from Egypt, Algeria, and Maskat. This was first attempted by Gen. Charles P. Stone in the sev- enties. He was then in the Khedivial army, and sent a few small offshoots of Egyptian sorts to southern California. These lived and grew, but unfortunately were afterwards allowed to die through the neglect of the property owners. A much larger importation was made by the Department of Agriculture through the Division of Pomology in 1889. Nine rooted suckers in tubs were imported from the Algerian Sahara, fifty-nine from Egypt, and six from Maskat. These offshoots were sent to New Mexico, Arizona, and California, 460 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. but suffered many misfortunes. The most complete collection com- prising sorts from all three regions was sent to Yuma, Ariz., only to be washed away and completely lost during the unprecedented flood of the Colorado River in 1891. Those sent to New Mexico were una- ble to stand the cold winters, and those sent to California suffered much from cold at the substations of the State experiment stations, while others sent to warmer regions were neglected by private grow- ers to whom they were intrusted. (Pl. LXI, fig. 2.) However, one lot of thése palms, comprising the Egyptian sorts, sent to the State experiment station at Phoenix, Ariz., grew well and fruited at an early age. (Pl. LXII, fig. 1.) It was, however, found that many of the offshoots from Egypt had been falsely named; many bearing the names of valued sorts proved to be ordinary males of no value. Some few female palms of fair quality were included in the shipment, however, and the successful fruiting of these proved the Arizona cli- mate and soil to be suited to the culture of at least the Egyptian sorts. Prof. James W. Toumey first directed attention to the success of the date palm in central Arizona, as evidenced by the production of an abundance of fully matured dates by both the seedlings planted by American settlers and by offshoots imported by the Department of Agriculture. It was the success of these early importations of off- shoots which rendered it desirable and feasible to undertake the recent large importations of offshoots made in 1899-1900. The fourth epoch began with the organization of the Section of Seed and Plant Introduction in the Department of Agriculture in July, 1898. Attention was soon directed to the desirability of securing a large assortment of correctly named offshoots, particularly from the Algerian Sahara, whence are exported the best dates which reach Europe and America. The University of Arizona and the Arizona Agricultural Experi- ment Station meanwhile offered to provide a special date garden, and to set out, irrigate, and cultivate the palms, if the Department of Agriculture would furnish a collection of offshoots of the best sorts of dates grown in the Old World. This offer was accepted, and in the winter and early spring of 1899 the writer visited, under instructions from the Secretary of Agriculture, the only successful date orchard near the Algerian coast (at Orléansville), and also the oases in the Sahara Desert about Biskra. A few offshoots were secured and for- warded as a trial shipment and a large number contracted for, to be delivered the following spring. PURCHASE OF DATE OFFSHOOTS IN THE SAHARA. In May and June, 1900, the writer again visited Algeria for the pur- pose of shipping to Arizona the date offshoots previously contracted for and to purchase such additional plants of good sorts as could be Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. PLATE LVI. FiG. 1.—NATIVE GARDENERS (ROUARA) AT OURLANA, Fig. 2.—OFFSHOOTS BEING ALGERIA, PREPARING OFFSHOOTS FOR SHIPMENT TO PLACED IN SACKS PREPARA- ARIZONA. TORY TO SHIPMENT. Fig. 3.—A CAMEL LOADED WITH TWO SACKS CONTAINING OFFSHOOTS. [Negative by Charles Trabut.] FiG. 4.—CARAVAN LOADED WITH DATE PALM OFFSHOOTS STARTING FROM OURLANA NORTHWARD TOWARD BISKRA, ALGERIA. [Negative by Charles Trabut.] THE DATE PALM AND ITS CULTURE. 461 had. In the latter part of May he arrived at Biskra, the present ter- minus of the East Algerian railroads, on the northern margin of the Sahara Desert, and just south of the foothills of the Atlas Mountains, which form the northern boundary of the Sahara. Here date culture is the principal industry; the oasis which contains the thrifty little city of Biskra has some 160,000 date palms (Pl. LX and Pl. LXI, fig. 5), and around this central oasis cluster a dozen smaller ones, all planted to the same palms. Altogether there are probably some 500,000 date palins in the group of oases surrounding Biskra. (See Pl. LIX, fig. § which shows a part of the palm forest of Chetma, one of the oases near Biskra.) Fortunately, it was also possible to visit some of the large plantations made by the French colonists in the Oued Rirh country, some 90 miles south of Biskra, situated at the margin of the great depression known as the Chott Melrirh, 30 to 75 feet below sea level. Here the summer heat is intense, and the famous Deglet noor, or ‘date of the light,” comes to complete maturity. Tens of thousands of date palms have been planted in regular rows and irrigated system- atically from the flowing artesian wells, which have enabled the French to reclaim hundreds of square miles of what was an absolute desert before their advent. Here at last were conditions approaching those obtaining in our own Southwest, inasmuch as the land was largely unoccupied when put under irrigation and the planting and irrigation was carried out by Europeans in accordance with modern horticultural methods. Thanks to the courtesy of the president of one of the largest French companies interested in date culture and of the resident managers at Biskra every facility was afforded the writer, and he was enabled to study freely all the details of their methods of growing and marketir ¢ dates, especially about Chegga, M’raier, and Ourlana. Some suckers of the Deglet noor, which are rare at Biskra, and of some other: sorts entirely unknown farther north, were purchased at Ourlana. These offshoots were prepared for shipment by being wrapped in the fibrous material which is found between the bases of the leaf stalks and the trunk of the date palm, and which is called ‘‘leef” by the Arabs (PI. LVI, fig. 1). This leef is porous and holds moisture fairly well. It was held in position at the base of the offshoots by stout cord. The offshoots were then placed by threes in bags, as shown in Pl. LVI, fig. 2, and then these bags were slung in pairs across the saddles of ve camels (Pl. LVI, fig. 3). Finally, on May 1 9, 1900, the car. van (PI. LVJ, fig. 4) started on its journey to Biskra, some 90 mile northward, Which was reached after two and one-half days. At Biskra many Ba choots of the Khars, probably the best early variety, and some few more of the Deglet noor were added to those obtained at Ourlana. Finally, after all the offshoots from the various oases had been collected together, labeled, and given a final soaking in water, 462 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. they were piled into a specially chartered freight car and sent to Algiers, some 390 miles distant, where they arrived the first week in June. The offshoots were unloaded as soon as they arrived, and either placed in a tank of water, where they were allowed to remain a few hours, or else watered copiously. Meanwhile several other collections of date palms had been brought to Algiers for shipment. A valuable lot of Deglet noor palms, which had been grown a year in tubs, was donated by Prof. L. Trabut, Government Botanist of Algeria, and delivered free of all charges at the packing house at Algiers. Another collection consisted of offshoots which the writer had brought from the Sahara in the spring of 1899, and which had been planted in tubs at Algiers. A third and most important collection was that obtained from M. Yahia ben Kassem, a Mozabite proprietor, who, some years before had been decorated by the French Government for his services in introducing into the valley of the Chélitf River, in northern Algeria, a variety of date sufficiently early to mature its fruit during the rather short and relatively cool summer of the coastal region. This celebrated variety. the Tedalla, was obtained for trial in the interior valley region of California, where the earlier sorts are needed, and at the same time M. Yahia ben Kassem was requested to secure the other sorts grown in the M’Zab, the seat of the Mozabite civilization, located some 800 miles due south of Algiers and 200 miles southwest of Biskra. Although the oases in the M’Zab country are situated in the midst of a stony and unusually inhospitable desert, date culture has nevertheless been brought to a high degree of perfection, and the varieties obtained from this country, though little known even in other parts of the Sahara may prove to be of great value. PACKING THE OFFSHOOTS FOR SHIPMENT TO NEW YORK. A trial shipment of date offshoots in tubs, made in the spring of 1899, showed this to be a most expensive and at the same time unsatisfactory method, and in 1900 the writer concluded to abandon all attempts to ship the offshoots in this manner, even where they had grown a year in the tubs and had become well rooted. Of course, the offshoots recently cut from the parent trees were entirely without roots, and it would have been useless to put these in tubs in order to shipthem. It was difficult to decide how best to pack the offshoots for shipment, since there was no experience available as a guide except as to ship- ments in tubs, which method had been followed by the French and British Governments in shipping Algerian palms to South Australia, in spite of the very great expense involved. It was finally decided to pack all offshoots in wooden boxes, which could be shipped at ordinary rates, avoiding the exorbitant charges demanded for tubs containing living plants. The offshoots were trimmed as much as possible, and the envelope of palm fiber wrapped around those brought from Ourlana was removed. Then a covering was made of long grass or strips of THE DATE PALM AND ITS CULTURE. 463 banana leafstalks, and in the center of this was placed a double handful of moist moss, or sphagnum, mixed with coir powder (a by-product obtained in preparing coir fiber from cocoanut husks). The moss was packed well about the base of the offshoots where roots would sprout, or, in case of offshoots grown a year in tubs, about the roots themselves, which had been freed from the earth; then the envelope of grass, or banana leaves, was drawn up and tied securely around the offshoots in oraer to hold the moss in place. After this the offshoots were packed in wooden boxes some 4 to 6 feet long by from 2 to 3 feet square. In all there were some 23 cases, weighing 8 tons, and measuring 21 cubic yards. They were shipped from Algeria on June 13, and reached New York July 3, where the boxes were examined Fic. 59.—View of palm garden at Tempe, Ariz., showing plants imported from the Algerian Sahara in 1900. A workmanis just planting anoffshoot. (From negative by Prof. R. H. Forbes, August, 1900.) and found to be in good order, and were at once forwarded to Arizona via New Orleans. The Southern Pacific Railway Company and the Morgan Steamship Line had generously offered free transportation for the entire shipment, and thanks to special orders given to expedite transit, the freight car containing the boxes reached Arizona about three days after the steamer delivered the freight in New Orleans, an exceptionally rapid journey. On July 17 the palms reached the siding adjoining the palm garden at Tempe, in the Salt River Valley, and were unloaded at once by Prof. R. H. Forbes, director of the Arizona experiment station, who superintended the entire unpacking, disinfection, planting, and irrigation of the palms in accordance with the agreement made between the Department of Agriculture and the University of Arizona. By July 20 all were unpacked. On the 20th 464 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and 21st all the offshoots were fumigated with hydrocyanic-acid gas to destroy any insect pests that might have been brought with the palms from Algeria. On July 21 the offshoots were soaked in water flowing through the irrigating ditches and were kept moist afterward until the planting was finished on July 25. The offshoots were then planted, some 20 and others 30 feet apart (see fig. 59). Professor Forbes reports that ‘‘an inspection October 2 showed 93 per cent of the plants to be apparently safe, and some of them were beginning to grow.” Two ¢ wa are _* {us Seen ee Lin 0 enn) ‘ un Fic. 60.—Arabs demonstrating method of pollinating date Howers. The cluster f female flowers has been removed from the sheath and a twig of male flowers inserted, which will be tied in place with the fiber held by one of the Arabs in his mouth. cases, containing 35 offshoots of the Rhars variety, after being fumi- gated, were sent to California to be distributed in cooperation with the University of California. This shipment, which was the largest ever sent from North Africa, included altogether 447 offshoots, comprising some 27 varieties. Of these, 391 were planted in the cooperative garden at Tempe, together with 6 offshoots sent in the spring of 1899. Fig. 59 shows a part of the date garden where the offshoots were being planted. ‘Twenty-one were planted at the Arizona experiment station farm at Phoenix, like- wise in the Salt River Valley, along with the 9 Egyptian date palms received in 1890, and, as before mentioned, 35 were sent to California, part to Pomona and part to Berkeley. THE DATE PALM AND ITS CULTURE. 465 WHAT THE DATE PALM REQUIRES IN ORDER TO GROW AND TO FRUIT SUCCESSFULLY. HEAT. As has been stated, the date palm differs widely from ordinary fruit trees in its requirements as to its climate and water supply. In this, indeed, it is almost unique, there being even in the Sahara and Arabian deserts, which have been cultivated for thousands of years, no other fruit trees whose requirements are like those of the date palm. The most necessary condition for the growth and fruiting of the date palm is that it receive an abundant supply of heat. It is able to endure a considerable amount of cold in winter, much more than the orange, for example, but requires a very hot summer in order to mature its fruit. From a study of the climatic conditions in the various regions where the date is grown, as well as in regions where its culture has not proved successful, one can deduce with a fair degree of certainty the temperature at which the date palm is injured in winter and also the degree of heat which is necessary for it in summer. It is prob- able that in a dormant condition it is seldom injured by temperatures above 20° F., and is able to live through winter in regions where the temperature occasionally falls as low as 15° F. Commonly, however, date palms are severely injured by temperatures as low as this, fre- quently losing most of their leaves. The amount of injury they suffer is partly dependent upon their condition at the time when they are exposed to the cold. If entirely dormant they are much less injured than if some of the leaves have only recently unfolded or are still growing. It should further be noted that young date palms are much more likely to be injured by cold than are old ones. This, no doubt, is in part because the young plants are more sensitive to cold, but doubt- less largely because the growing leaves, with their inclosed bud, are much nearer the ground than on an old tree, and would therefore be exposed to lower temperatures than the buds of old palms growing far above the surface. Old and vigorous trees might perhaps occasionally weather cold snaps where the temperature fell below 15° F., provided such were exceptional and occurred only at intervals of many years. We might then set practically four different limits below which palms would be injured by cold: (1) Young palms in active growth would be liable to injury if the temperature fell below freezing; (2) young plants not in active growth and old palms if nearly dormant would be severely injured only by temperatures falling below 20° F.; (8) old and dormant trees would be severely injured only by temperatures below 15° F.; (4) most date palms would be killed and all would be seriously injured by the temperature falling below 10°, and date cul- ture would be impossible in regions where such temperatures occurred more than once in a decade. These considerations show that the date 466 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. palm has about as much resistance to cold as the fig tree, for example, with this important difference—that a fig tree is able to recover and grow again the next year, even if it be frozen to the ground by severe cold in winter. With the date palm this is not possible, since, if the growing bud of an old tree be killed, it is impossible for the trunk to sprout out again. The date palm requires an enormous amount of heat in order to ripen its fruit properly. The tree itself is able to grow fairly well in many regions en- tirely too cold to allow the fruit to ma- ture. This has been the cause of many misunderstandings as to the climatic requirements of the date palm, and it has often been proposed, and in some countries it has been attempted, to grow the date palm in regions where the amount of heat was totally inadequate to ripen fruit. It becomes, then, a matter of some import- ance to determine how much heat is required for dates to mature. From a comparative study of the records of many regions where the date palm has been grown, it is pretty clear that unless the summer climate is what would be commonly termed extremely hot, there is little or no chance of fruiting the date palm successfully. There is little hope of growing even early sorts unless the mean temperature in the shade goes above 80° F. for at least one month in summer, and the mean temperature of the fruiting season, from May to October, is above T0O° F. It is further fairly certain that during the months when the fruit is developing, viz, May to October, inclusive, the mean tem- perature must be about 75° F., and during June, July, and August above 80°, if moderately late varieties of dates are to be brought to maturity. In regions where late varieties of dates come to maturity the mean tem- perature for June, July, and August must be 90°, or thereabouts. As a matter of fact, temperatures very much higher than 90° are necessary in order that the date may properly mature; but, of course, the leaves of the date palm are exposed to the rays of the sun and become much hotter than thermometers kept in the shade. Temperature records would have to be made sye, 62—A Ben- from thermometers exposed to the sun in order to — net date, from - Phoenix, Ariz. determine accurately the temperatures necessary for the maturation of the fruit. It has been found, for example, that the sum of the daily maximum temperatures during the growing season gives a better idea of the adaptability of the climate for the date than does the sum of the mean temperatures, which latter is commonly used by Fic. 61.—Wolfskill dates grown at Win- ters, Cal. THE DATE PALM AND ITS OULTURE. 467 climatologists and botanists in determining the amount of heat required by plants. It is pretty clear that the date palm is unaffected, so far as flowering and fruiting is concerned, by temperatures below 64.4° F. (18° C.). Taking this as the zero point, the sum of the daily maximum temperatures for the months from May to October, inclusive, is found to amount to above 3,500° for stations like Fresno, where the early varieties of the date palm are just able to mature, and amounts to about 5,500° at Phoenix, Ariz., and Biskra, Algeria, where ordinary varieties ripen well and even late varieties usually reach maturity. At Tougourt, in the interior of the Sahara Desert, where the Deglet Fic. 63.—Deglet noor dates from the Algerian Sahara, showing methods of packing fer retail trade. noor date reaches full perfection, the sum of the daily maximum temperatures for the same period amounts to over 6,500° TI. No records are as yet available from which the sum of the maximum temperatures occurring in the hottest parts of the Colorado Desert could be calculated, but it is probable that places like Salton and Vol- cano Springs would show a sum of heat comparable to that recorded at Tougourt. A peculiarity of climate, which is of considerable importance in deciding which are the best localities for planting date palms, is the remarkable inversion of temperature which occurs in many parts of 468 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Arizona and California, more especially in the arid hot regions, where the date palm thrives best. For example, in Arizona the winters are mild enough to permit date palms to be grown at an altitude of nearly 5,000 feet and even as high as 6,942 feet at Supai. It is, however, noticeable that points very much lower frequently show tempera- tures suffici ‘efits low to injure severely or kill date palms. For instance, at San Carlos, which, at an altitude of 2,456 feet, and at Tuc- son, at the university weather station, at an altitude of 2,230 feet, the temperature fell to 11° F. in 1891, while at Dragoon Summit, at about 4,611 feet altitude, some 60 miles to the east of Tucson and 80 miles southwest of San Carlos, the temperature is not recorded even as low as 15° F.* In January, 1891, the temperature did not fall below 32° F. at Dragoon Summit, while at Wilcox, only 20 miles northeast, and nearly 500 feet lower, the temperature fell to 9° F. A still more striking example is shown by a comparison of the temperatures at Parker, on the Colorado River, at an altitude of about 500 feet, and at Supai, nearly 7,000 feet above sea level, some 120 miles to the northeast. In the winter of 1899 and 1900 the temperature did not fall below 26° F. at Supai, while the imperfect record at Parker shows a minimum of 23° I’., that-is to say, that although Supai is nearly 6,500 feet higher than Parker, and is shit 65 miles farther north, the minimum tem- perature was actually higher at Supai in winter. Numerous similar instances could be cited in California and in the ‘‘thermal belt” along the foothills of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, adjoining the interior valley region, where occur some of the most striking instances of temperature inversion known. All these anomalies can be explained by means of the principle of the inversion of temperature, a phenomenon which occurs especially in arid regions. During the night, when the air next the ground is cooled rapidly by radiation unhindered by clouds, this cold air flows from the higher points just as water would, and drains down into the valleys. As the cold air flows into the plains it doubtless tends to flow under and to lift up the warm air, and finally, as a result, all elevated points where there is a good drainage of air show relatively high temperatures during the night, while points located in the valley floor frequently show very low temperatures, constituting an exception to the general rule that the lower the altitude is the higher is the temperature. It will frequently be possible to grow date palms along the foothills where it would be impossible for them to succeed in the plains a few hundred feet below. However, high summer temperatures are essential to the proper fruiting of the date palm, and the oEE limit in altitude of its culture ' All the data as to temperature a aa acacia esas at the various points named in the United States are from the reports of the Weather Bureau and of the State weather services of California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas. THE DATE PALM AND ITS CULTURE. 469 is likely to be set by the insufficient heat of summer rather than because of the severity of cold in winter. At points situated at high altitudes, whence there is a good drainage of air, the fluctuations of tempera- ture are less than in the plains below, and consequently the winters are warmer and the summers are cooler. In order to grow date palms at high altitudes, it will usually be necessary to search for canyons or ravines with a southern exposure, where the air is heated by reflection from mountain cliffs as well as by direct insolation. RELATION OF HUMIDITY TO THE FRUITING OF THE DATE PALM. The leaves of the date palm show very important adaptations in their structure to prevent their being injured by the hot and dry winds of the desert, so there can be little doubt that the plant is especially fitted for growth in arid regions. It grows fairly well in humid regions, but does not mature its fruit properly unless the air be very dry. It is not sufficient that a region have no considerable rainfall in summer if it be exposed to the moisture of the winds from the ocean, as is, for example, the coast of southern California. Here the effect is doubtless not due wholly to the humidity of these winds, as they are also cold and may prevent dates from ripening by keeping the tem- perature too low. There is, however, abundant evidence for believing that a very dry atmosphere distinctly favors the production of dates of a high quality, and the best dates are grown in the hottest and driest regions, located at some distance from the sea or from any other con- siderable body of water. The ripening dates are very likely to be injured by a heavy fall of rain, especially if it be followed by a few days of cloudy and humid weather. Such rains have been known to ruin almost entire crops of dates in the western Sahara. The abundant rains which occur in Jate summer and in autumn in regions such as Florida, for example, preclude the possibility of successful date cul- ture there, even if the amount of heat received in summer were sufticient to mature the fruit, which it probably is not. WATER SUPPLY REQUISITE FOR DATE CULTURE. The date palm, as has been stated, is not a desert plant in the ordi- nary sense of the term, that is, it is not able to grow in very arid climates where the soil also is very dry. Its leaves are adapted to withstand the driest climates, but the roots must have a constant sup- ply of moisture, or else the tree will die. It is probable that the date palm was native in the beds of ravines or canyons which drain into the sterile plains of the Saharan or Arabian deserts. Streams doubt- less flowed down these ravines after the rare downpours of rain, and there was a continuous supply of water not very far below the surface, even during the driest seasons. Certain it is, that the date palm is entirely incapable of growing in situations where cacti, yuccas, and 470 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. many other desert plants thrive. It is a very interesting fact that the date seed is adapted to germinate in very moist situations, and the young seedlings even show adaptations for getting rid of superfluous moisture taken up by the roots. These interesting peculiarities are another proof that the date palm could never establish itself except in locations where the soil occasionally gets very wet and remains moist even on the surface for some weeks at least. The amount of water required by the date palm will be treated more in detail under the topic of irrigation. It may be noted here that it does not demand a large amount of water, but rather a constant supply. RESISTANCE OF THE DATE PALM TO UNFAVORABLE CLIMATIC AND SOIL CONDITIONS. As has already been brought out, the date palm requires certain unusual climatic and soil conditions in order to thrive, and in conse- quence of these prerequisites its culture can be profitably engaged in only in a very few regions within the limits of the United States. On the other hand, it has wonderful powers of resistance to certain climatic and soil conditions which are distinctly injurious to most forms of useful vegetation. In the first place, the date palm is not only unin- jured by excessive dryness of the air, such as would preclude the growth of many plants having more succulent leaves, but is distinctly favored by intense sunshine, and does not endure being shaded; the hot- ter the air the better the quality of dates produced. In fact, a long and excessively hot summer is necessary to produce the best quality of dates. Climates so hot and dry as to be unsuited to ordinary fruit trees are admirably adapted to this plant. It is furthermore able to endure without injury the enormous fluctuations of temperature which occur in hot arid regions. The date palm is able to endure a considerable amount of cold, and when in a dormant condition is entirely uninjured by temperatures 10° to 12° below the freezing point. Most important of all, the date palm is able to thrive on soils so alkaline as to be useless for the culture of all ordinary trees and crops. It is this remarkable ability to resist alkali and to thrive when irri- gated with brackish water which constitutes one of its greatest advan- tages over other kinds of fruit trees for culture in arid regions. Were it not for the fact that the date palm requires so much heat in summer, and is injured by temperatures below 20° in winter, it would doubtless soon be planted on all the alkali lands throughout the United States. Even now it is one of the most promising plants for culture on alkali lands in Arizona and California. It has been claimed by some that the date palm is actually favored by the presence of alkali in the soil or in the water used in irrigation. There is, however, but little evidence for this view, and it is probable that the tree not only grows better, but is more fruitful if grown on good land and irrigated with fresh water. Its powers of resistance, however, are so enormous that it flourishes THE DATE PALM AND ITS CULTURE. 471 in lands covered with a crust of alkali, even when it is watered by brine so strong as to kill most cultivated plants. IRRIGATION OF THE DATE PALM. As before noted, the date palm requires that the earth be kept con- stantly moist about the roots, and therefore needs a continuous sup- ply of water. It does not, however, need as much water as ordinary fruit trees growing in the same situations. M. Jus, the celebrated French engineer, who has done so much to reclaim the northern Sahara by a study of the artesian water supply there, considers that each palm tree requires one-third of a liter (0.35 quart) per minute at the flowing well or main irrigating canal, and palms which receive from 0.4 to 0.5 of a liter (0.42 to 0.53 quart) per minute are more vigorous and yield more fruit even if crops are grown underneath. If each tree receives 0.35 quart per minute this would amount to 126 gallons per day, or about 17 cubic feet. At one pint per minute the daily consumption would be 180 gallons, or a little more than 24 cubic feet. These data are not for the amount of water actually furnished: the trees, but for the amount which must be allowed for each tree at the head of the principal irrigating canals. Of course, some of the water is lost by evaporation and seepage before it reaches the palms. Another recent statement as to the amount of water considered neces- sary for a date palm in the Algerian Sahara gives the requirement as 72 cubic meters (19,021 gallons) in twenty-four irrigations of 3 cubic meters (792.5 gallons) each. Of these irrigations, seventeen irrigations, or, in all, 13,473 gallons, are given during the hot season from June to September, inclusive (122 days), two irrigations during autumn and winter, and five in spring. In order to calculate how many palms can be irrigated by a given flow of artesian water, it is necessary to con- sider primarily the amount the trees will need during the hot season, when the quantity of water demanded is much greater than in winter. As just stated, this amounts to 13,473 gallons for four months, or about 110 gallons per day, which is a little less than the amount con- sidered necessary by M. Jus. It must be remembered that the figures given above are for ‘the western Sahara, a region noted for its extreme dryness, where the evaporation from a free surface of water often averages more than one-half inch per day during the four summer months. It is probable that a smaller amount of water would suffice in regions where the air is not so dry and consequently where the evaporation is less. Where no crops are grown under the date palms it is customary to irrigate them by means of trenches excavated alongside of the trees, which are occasionally filled with water (see fig. 58 and Pl. LY, fig. 2). Where such crops as barley or alfalfa are grown under the trees, it is customary to divide the land up into small beds from 10 to 30 feet in 472 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. diameter, which are surrounded by a raised rim. When irrigated the whole bed is flooded, the water being retained by the surrounding ridge. A larger amount of water is required when applied in this manner than would be if poured into a trench at the side of the palm. It has been found important to provide good drainage, especially when the date palms are planted where the soil and water is alkaline. The French colonists have usually accomplished this by digging open trenches between every two rows of date palms, that is, running par- allel at distances of about 50 feet apart. Doubtless, underdrainage by means of tile would prove to be still better. It isan interesting fact that the drainage water, even from the very alkaline lands, can, nevertheless, be used again for irrigating date palms, rendering it probable that the beneficial effect observed after drainage is due, in part at least, to the aeration of the subsoil. The palm tree will grow in regions where there is standing water a few feet below the surface without requiring to be irrigated by sur- face-flowing water. Such unirrigated palms are shown on PI. LIX, fig. 7, but even in such regions it is customary to water the palms occasionally by means of water raised from shallow wells with sweeps. (Pl. LXI, fig. 6.) There are in the Salt River Valley and elsewhere in the Southwest considerable areas underlaid with water which drains from the irrigated lands situated higher up. Such areas commonly hecome impregnated with alkali and are known as alkali spots. The date palm is more likely to succeed on such lands than is any other fruit tree, but it is not probable that it will succeed as well as when planted where it is possible to aerate the subsoil by means of irrigation with water that flows in open ditches and where there is a good underdrainage. At the San Joaquin Valley substation of the California experiment station at Tulare it has been found that if the palms are irrigated in the late summer they are forced into growth and are likely to be injured by cold during the following winter. It is recommended at Tulare that no irrigation be practiced later than June. This recommendation deserves attention wherever it is attempted to grow date palms where they are exposed to severe cold in winter. PLANTING, CULTIVATING, AND FERTILIZING DATE PALMS. PLANTING AND CULTIVATING. The Arabs almost invariably plant the date palm without any attempt at placing the young offshoots in any definite order. The result is, it is almost impossible for them to be sure of planting the trees at any constant distance from each other, some being close together, others wide apart, as can be seen in Pl. LV, figs, 1 and 2, and Pl. LXI, fig. 4. The unsystematic and frequently careless methods employed by the THE DATE PALM AND ITS CULTURE. 473 Arabs in the culture of the date palm can not be taken as models to be followed in introducing the date industry into the Southwest; we should rather follow the example of the French colonists who plant the date palm in regular rows, and have, as a rule, definitely planned and carefully executed systems of irrigation and drainage. Although the Arabs plant the date palms very close together, the French have found it advisable to place the trees wide apart, and many of the French colonists regret having placed the trees only 20 or 25 feet apart, their opinion now being that date palms should be planted at least 30 feet from each other. When planted so wide apart there are, of course, large strips which lie unused between the palm trees for the first ten or twelve years after planting. It has become a common practice, copying to some extent after the Arabs, to plant garden or field crops between the trees until the palm trees become large enough to shade the ground. In case the soil is alkaline, it is frequently impossible to grow any crop until two or three years of abundant irrigations, coupled with a good system of drainage, have washed the alkali out of at least the top Jayers of the soil. Barley is usually the first crop grown on alkaline soil. After barley has been grown a year or two, the abundant irrigation being, of course, kept up, the land usually becomes freed from alkali sufficiently to permit horse beans, cowpeas, beets, and other garden crops, and, what is of more importance, alfalfa to be grown. This oasis alfalfa, although refusing to grow on soil which produces a fair crop of barley is, nevertheless, able to support without injury a percentage of alkali in the soil which would prevent the growth of ordinary alfalfa. PROPORTION OF MALE TREES THAT SHOULD BE PLANTED. It has been found in the date plantations of the Sahara that for every hundred date palms there should be one male tree to furnish pollen for use in fertilizing the flower clusters in spring. There are already a large number of male date palms in Arizona and California, so that it has not been thought necessary to introduce more than a very few male palms from the Old World. The ratid of one male palm for every hundred female applies only in the Sahara where it is possible to secure male palms known to flower at the right time to be used in pol- linating. It often happens that many of the male plants flower too late to be of any use. It does not interfere with the usefulness of a male date palm to have it bloom too early, since the bunch of male flowers can be preserved for some weeks without serious deterioration. Out of six date palms which had bloomed up to 1898 at the San Joaquin Valley substation of the California experiment station, three were female and three male, but two of the three male palms did not flower until the female trees had ceased blooming. In view of these facts it will be advisable in starting any plantations to put out at least one 4 al900——31 474 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. male palm for every fifty females, or better, one male for every twenty- five females. It will be desirable also to secure offshoots from differ- ent male trees in order to avoid getting male trees all of one kind, which might be found to bloom at the wrong season. When the trees begin to flower it will be possible to see readily which male trees bloom at the right season; the others can be destroyed and offshoots from female trees planted in their places. FERTILIZING. The leguminous plants, such as the*alfalfa, horse bean, cowpea, and others, are undoubtedly of great importance in attempting to carry on extensive date culture, since these plants are able to fix the free nitrogen of the air and to store it up in their root systems as well as in the leaves and seeds, so that even where the crops are not plowed under it is nevertheless probable that the growth of such plants actually increases the fertility of the soil through the decay of their root systems, which is followed by a setting free of the nitrogen com- pounds that have been stored up during growth. This question of how best to fertilize the soil on which the date palms grow is one of great importance, and has not yet been adequately worked out, even in the Algerian Sahara. As long as the Arabs had merely small gar- dens, in which, as a rule, they lived and quartered their goats and camels, it was possible to fertilize the palm trees with stable manure and night soil, or to purchase enough manure from the owners of large herds of camels. In the large French plantations, which often cover a hundred acres or more, and where very few domestic animals are employed, it has been found impossible to secure an adequate sup- ply of manure, and in order to keep the trees in a condition permitting abundant and continued fruit bearing it is probable that recourse must be had to commercial fertilizers, or, better still, to some proper system of culture whereby soiling crops, and especially leguminous plants, are plowed under and thereby fertilize the soil. It is true that it is commonly asserted that the date palm does not require a fertile soil, and in one sense this statement is correct; but it will soon be found that unless the soil is fairly fertile the yield of fruit is both uncertain and small in amount. It is unquestionably true that dates produced on trees grown in a well-fertilized soil are of superior qual- ity to those produced by neglected trees growing in sterile sand. THE DATE PALM AS A SHELTER FOR FRUIT TREES. In many parts of the northern Sahara the date palm is almost as important as a shelter and partial shade for fruit trees as it is for its own fruit. At the time of the Roman occupation of Africa these oases were largely planted to olive trees, some of which, indeed, still remain—giant stems 1,500 or 2,000 years old. It happens that the olive is about the only other fruit tree which is able to stand without Be: ty? 7 ’ % oo tas ») <0 aS: ih THE DATE PALM AND ITS CULTURE. 475 injury the fierce heat, intense light, and the driving sand storms of the Sahara, and even the olive itself grows better and yields more fruit if planted under the protecting shelter of the date palm. Most other fruit trees, such as the apricot, peach, almond, pomegranate, fig, and jujube, can be grown successfully in the Sahara only in the shade of other trees, and do best where grown under the date palm. In the northernmost oases of the Sahara the dates are frequently of infe- rior quality, whereas the fruit trees do better than in the hotter and dryer regions farther south. Many of these northern oases have veri- table orchards growing under the half shade furnished by the crown of slender leaves of the date palms far above. This is well shown in Pl. LV, figs. 1 and 2, which represent fig orchards growing under date palms at Chetma and Biskra. It sometimes happens that vegetables are grown under the fruit trees, in which case it is possible to see three crops occupying the soil—first, the date palm, towering far above; then the fruit trees, and under ile the more delicate and shade-loving gar- den vegetables. It is not at all impossible that in some parts of our own Southwest the date palm may prove very useful in the manner above described, serving as a shelter and partial shade to more delicate fruit trees which thrive perfectly in regions too cold to allow of the culture of the best sorts of dates. THE AGE AT WHICH DATE PALMS BEAR. The age at which palms come into bearing depends much upon the climate and soil; where planted in rich soil, watered abundantly, and where the summer heat is intense and long-continued, the date may begin to fruit when very young. Trees have been known to bear in Arizona within four years after the seed was planted; however, such palm trees are too small to bear more than a very few fruits, and seedling trees are generally considered not to yield paying quantities of fruit until they are at least 6 or 8 years old. When date cul- ture is practiced scientifically, practically no seedlings are grown, but instead orchards are started by planting fairly large offshoots, which soon strike root, and which often bear abundantly four or five years after being transplanted. However, in the large plantations made in Algeria by the French it is not considered advisable to allow the palms grown from offshoots to bear fruit until six years after they are transplanted, and the trees are not in full bearing until ten or eleven years after they are planted. They continue bearing from this age if well cared for until they are a hundred years or more old, a good tree producing an average of from 100 to 200 pounds of fruit a year, although some trees have been known to produce as much as 400 or 600 pounds when grown in rich soil and abundantly irrigated. The tree shown in P]. LVH, fig. 1, is a demonstration of the capabilities of Arizona as a date-producing country. It is only eight years old 476 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. from the seed, and yet bears some 400 pounds of dates. Again, the Amreeyah palm, shown in PI. LXII, fig. 1, grown from an offshoot imported by the Department of Agriculture from Egypt in 1889, yielded last year (1900) over 300 pounds of dates. The little palm shown in Pl. LVII, fig. 2, grows on the grounds of the University of Arizona, at Tucson, where the winters are rather cold; nevertheless, this tree, which had been transplanted only five years when photo- graphed, bore two bunches of fruit weighing altogether some 30 pounds. POLLINATION OF THE DATE PALM. In a wild state the date palm is undoubtedly pollinated by the wind, and about one-half of the trees are male. It is probable that pollina- tion would be incomplete unless the proportion of male trees was something like one-half, for, although enormous quantities of pollen are produced by the male trees, only a very small part ever reaches the female flowers if the pollen is carried by the wind. The artificial pol- lination of the date palm was doubtless discovered by the ancient Assyrians, and has been practiced probably for three or four thousand years at least. Because of the great economy of pollen, brought about by artificial pollination, one male tree suffices to pollinate a hundred females. i The male flower cluster of the date consists of a stalk bearing a con- siderable number of short twigs to which the flowers are attached, the whole contained in a sheath at first entirely closed, but which finally ruptures, disclosing the flowers (Pl. LVIII, figs. 1 and 3). The Arabs cut the male flower clusters from the trees shortly before the flowers have fully opened, at a somewhat earlier stage than shown in Pl. LVI, fig. 1. The separate twigs to which are attached the male flowers (Pl. LVI, fig. 3, twig to the right) are from 4 to 6 inches long, and bear probably from twenty to fifty male flowers, each containing six anthers full of pollen. One of such twigs suffices to pollinate a whole female flower cluster, and to bring about the development of a bunch of dates. The female flowers, like the male, are borne inside of sheaths, which are at first entirely closed. Finally the sheath is split open by the growth of the flowers within (Pl. LVI, fig. 2, twig to left), and at this stage pollination is accomplished. The two tips of the cracked- open sheath are separated and the cluster of female flowers pulled out (fig. 60). A twig of male flowers is then inserted into the cluster of female flowers and tied in place with a bit of palm leaf or witha string (Pl. LVIII, fig. 2, twig in middle). This completes the operation of pollination. The fruit cluster soon begins to grow rapidly, and in a few weeks the piece of palm fiber or thread with which the male flowers are held in place is broken by the pressure of the growing fruit clus- ter. Such a fruit cluster, still confined, but which will shortly break the fiber, is shown in fig. 57. PLATE LVIII. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. MALE AND FEMALE FLOWERS AND YOUNG FRUIT OF THE DATE PALM AND ARTIFICIAL POLLINATION. [Fig. 1.—Flower cluster of the male date palm, just emerged from the split-open sheath; flowers just opened, letting the pollen escape (one-fourth natural size). flower clusters of female date palm: To left, a flower cluster with sheath split open, in proper stage to be pollinated; in middle, such a flower cluster after artif tion, with twig of male flowers tied in place by piece of palm leaf; to right, young fruits a week or ten days after pollination (one-fourth natural size). female flowers of date palm magnified: To right, male flowers just shedding pollen; in middle, female flow week or so after pollination (four times natural size).] I =3 x, 2.—Three al pollina- Fig. 3.—Male and s ready to be pollinated; to left, young fruits turning green a THE DATE PALM AND ITS CULTURE. ATT In the Algerian Sahara the date begins to flower in April, and some- times produces flower clusters as late as June 1. The female flower clusters, which may be from five to twenty in number on a single tree, are not all produced at the same time; it is necessary in consequence to pollinate each flower cluster as it appears, and sometimes an inter- ral of several weeks elapses between the appearance of the first and last flower clusters, so the trees must be ascended several times. The Arabs are very expert in doing this work, and seldom overlook a tree, even where the palms are planted without any order; they rarely miss even a single flower cluster. It requires some skill to climb a tall palm tree, as the trunk below is very smooth and it is difficult to pass between the stalks of the lower leaves in order to get at the flowers, since these leafstalks are armed with sharp rigid thorns (Pl. LVI, figs. land 2). The Arabs use no rope or other apparatus to ascend the trees, but climb up with their bare hands and feet (Pl. LEX, figs. 1, 2, and 8). If date culture should become an important industry in Southwest- ern United States it is probable that American ingenuity would devise methods of simplifying the work of pollination; for example, it would be easy to devise means of marking the trees, and also the flower clus- ters, to show which have been pollinated. It might be possible, for example, to tie the male flowers in place with a bright-colored strip of cloth, which would make it easy to see whether all the flower clusters had been pollinated or not. It is possible that Indians will be able to take the place of the Arabs and do this work eflicientiy. It is abso- lutely necessary to pollinate all the flowers in order to secure dates of a good quality, although, as mentioned on page 478, the dates do not fall off even if the flowers are not pollinated. It sometimes happens that some of the female flowers appear in spring before any of the male trees have blossomed. To provide a supply of pollen for such flowers, the Arabs make a practice of keeping a few bunches of male flowers from the previous year. These are placed in tight paper bags and hung up in a cool dry place. The pollen is said to keep without deterioration for at least two years. The importance of securing male trees which flower at the right time is noted on page 473. By an inspection of Pl. LVII, fig. 3, it will be easy for those who possess seedling date palms to determine the sex of the plant as soon as any flowers are formed. Superfluous male trees can then be destroyed and replaced by female trees before they have reached a large size. In case of gardens where there are a few female date palms and no males available to furnish pollen, it will be necessary to secure pollen from a distance, not a difficult matter, since male flowers can be shipped anywhere without deterioration if protected against loss of pollen. A478 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. After irrigation the labor of artificial pollination is the most impor- tant required in a date orchard. The irrigating, however, is very nearly such as would be given to any fruit trees, whereas the process of pollination is one that is not required by any other commonly cul- tivated tree. It should, however, be remembered that for the first ten or fifteen years after date palms are planted the flowers are so near to the ground that artificial pollination is performed very easily. The operation becomes expensive and difficult only when the palms are old and very tall. THE GROWTH OF THE YOUNG DATES. The flowers of the date palm are perfectly white (Pl. LVIL, fic. 3, twig in middle), as are the young fruits for a few days after pollina- tion, but within a week they become green (Pl. LVIII, fig. 3, twig to the left) and begin to grow rapidly. About the end of June, by which time the fruits are of some size, three fruits will have developed from each flower. Then occurs a remarkable phenomenon. If the flowers have been pollinated, two of the three fruits fall, leaving a single date for each flower. If, on the contrary, the flowers have not been pol- linated, all three dates remain attached and continue to grow, becom- ing closely crowded together and somewhat deformed. Such dates never properly mature, are without seeds, and entirely valueless. This peculiar behavior of the date palm enables the cultivator to tell by inspection which bunches have been pollinated and which have escaped attention, and the cutting away of the excess of bunches from too heavily laden trees should be postponed until this time, when it is possible to tell which bunches will mature perfect fruit. Asa rule, only one or two clusters should be left on the young date palms which have just begun to bear, and only eight or ten even on old trees. Some varieties do not require much thinning, as they do not produce more bunches than they can nourish properly, whereas other sorts produce twice as many as the tree can support. RIPENING OF DATES. Toward the end of summer the dates, which have been green up to this time, begin to change color, becoming either reddish or yellowish. Later on they frequently become bright red or bright yellow. The attainment of this color is then followed by the slow ripening of the date, which begins at the end of the fruit and slowly advances toward the base. This process of ripening is attended by a complete change of color, the previously yellow dates changing to a clear amber color, while the bright red dates become reddish brown or black as they ripen. Most dates when ripe are more or less translucent, whereas they are perfectly opaque during the red or yellow stage. This final ripening of the date is accompanied by great changes in the texture THE DATE PALM AND ITS CULTURE. 479 and composition of the flesh. The unripe dates are usually very astringent and entirely unfit to eat. Even when full grown, and after they have acquired the red or yellow color, they are still unpleasant to the taste. As the dates go through the final stage of ripening, however, the tannin disappears, and in its place the fruit becomes impregnated with sugar, which may amount to as much as 60 per cent of the weight of the dry fully ripe dates. After the dates have become fully matured they begin to dry on the trees, becoming somewhat shrunken (figs. 61 and 62), and within a few weeks are ready to be packed and shipped. THE THREE TYPES OF DATES. Of the three principal types of dates cultivated by the Arabs, only one is exported to Europe and America. This comprises the dates, so familiar to us, called by the Arabs soft dates. They contain some- times as much as 60 per cent of their weight of sugar, and are, in fact, candied on the tree, being preserved from decay by the enormous amount of sugar they contain. They contain more or less sirupy juice, which is in some varieties so abundant that it must be allowed to drain off before they can be packed. A second category of dates comprise sorts very like these just men- tioned, but containing a much lower percentage of sugar. They do not dry readily, and are usually eaten fresh from the tree. They are to be compared to table grapes rather than to ordinary dates. The third category embraces what are known to the Arabs as dry dates. These are almost entirely unknown to Americans or Europeans, but are very much esteemed by the Arabs, who consider them to be better for everyday consumption than are the soft dates, which they consider rather a luxury than a staple food. These dry dates are not at all inclined to be soft or sticky when ripe, and are frequently so hard as to be difficult to eat. They are said to drop to the ground as they ripen, and are gathered by simply picking them up from beneath the palms as they fall. If stored in a dry place and protected from weevils they may be kept for years without deteriorating. Dates of this category will probably never come into favor in our markets, since they are entirely unlike any fruit to which we are accustomed. VARIETIES OF DATES SUITABLE FOR CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. It is a matter of much importance to secure very early varieties of dates for culture in the interior valley region of California where the summer heat is insufficient to ripen late sorts. Many of the dates belonging to the second category mentioned above, which are suitable for eating fresh from the tree, are very early, and consequently likely to succeed in the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys. The Wolfskill date, grown at Winters, Cal., on Col. Sam Taylor’s ranch, produces 480 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. every year an abundance of delicious fruit of this type (fig. 61 and Pl. LXII, fig. 2). The Amaree (said to be the earliest date in the Sahara) and possibly the Tedmama, are Algerian varieties similar in character. These have been secured and will be tested in California as soon as possible. There are at least two varieties of the first category, that is, dates that can be dried without difficulty, which are very early and which may succeed toward the northern limits of date culture. Of these, the most important is the Rhars, which is extensively cultivated both by the Arabs and by the French colonists in the Arabian Sahara. It is a date of good quality, but is so full of sirupy juice that it is difficult to cure, and is usually packed closely in skins or boxes for shipment. It is not improbable, however, that a good system of curing and pack- ing would get rid of this sirup and leave the date in a condition like the dates from the Persian Gulf, which are the sorts commonly sold in America. The palm of the Rhars variety grows rapidly and fruits when young. It is said to be easily propagated by offshoots, a large number of which were obtained in 1900, part being sent to California and a part to Arizona. Another early date which can be dried with- out difficulty is the Tedalla. This variety was brought into notice by M. Yahia ben Kassem. It is a very large date, often 3 inches long, and ripens about the same time as the Rhars. It is as yet but little known, even in North Africa, but is a very promising sort. The palm is exceedingly vigorous and bears large crops of fruit. The medium and late varieties are usually better adapted for drying, and should be grown wherever the climate permits. There are several seedling dates that have originated in the Salt River Valley in Arizona which promise to be valuable. One of the best of these grew from seeds planted by Mrs. S. B. Lount (her No. 6, shown in Pl. LXI, fie. 1); it is small, being rather smaller than the Wolfskill date, but of very good texture, of clear amber color when dried, and of fairly good flavor. The Kales date and the Bennet date (fig. 62) are seed- lings of considerable merit, also growing near Phoenix, Ariz. In addition, there are several other seedling varieties of considerable merit which have already fruited in central Arizona, some of which may prove adapted to culture on a large scale. Two of the varieties introduced from Egypt by the Department of Agriculture in 1890 have been fruiting for some time at Phoenix, Ariz. This year (1900) one of the sorts, the Amreeyeh, bore over 300 pounds (see Pl. LXII, fig. 1), while another, the Seewah, bore over 200 pounds. These dates were packed in half-pound boxes, and Prof. A. J. McClatchie writes that they sold readily for 20 cents a box wholesale and 25 cents retail, and there was a demand in the local market for ten times the amount that could be furnished. Undoubtedly, the most valuable variety which has yet been sent into Yearbook U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. PLATE LX. DATE PALMS LOADED WITH RIPE FRUIT, BISKRA, ALGERIA. [Negative by Naudin, Paris.] THE DATE PALM AND ITS CULTURE. 481 the European and American markets is the Deglet noor, or ‘‘ date of the light,” as the name signifies. This sort is cultivated throughout the western Sahara wherever the season is long enough to enable it to mature, it being one of the later varieties, and requiring much more heat to ripen than does, for example, the Rhars, which it somewhat resembles. It is a medium-sized date (fig. 63), amber-colored, and translucent when ripe, with a soft flesh of the highest flavor. A very important property of these dates is that they do not become sticky, as do most of the soft dates. In consequence of this they may be served as a dessert along with other fruits and eaten without soil- ing the fingers. It is practically the only variety of date which is regularly so served in the best hotels and at the tables of well-to-do families in France. Some few of these dates reach the United States, where they sell at retail for from 25 to 40 cents. for a box containing about three-quarters of a pound. It is hoped that this valuable sort will ripen properly in the Salt River Valley and in other parts of Arizona. In California it will almost certainly succeed in the Col- orado Desert, but is likely to fail in other parts of the State. Unfor- tunately, it is not a very vigorous variety, and does not fruit well unless well fertilized and irrigated. A considerable number of off- shoots of the Deglet noor date palm obtained in northern Africa are now growing at Tempe, and within a few years it will be possible to know definitely what regions in the Southwest are adapted to the culture of this superb sort. There are in ail some thousands of named varieties of dates growing in the oases, scattered in the deserts from Morocco to India. Many of these sorts are of superior quality, and should be obtained and tested in the United States as soon as possible. About twenty-five of the best known varieties which grow in the western Sahara are now grown in the date garden at Tempe, Ariz. GATHERING, CURING, AND PACKING OF DATES. Some varieties of dates require practically no curing, being ready to pack and ship as soon as they have ripened. Other varieties, however, require some preparatory treatment. Dates are borne in bunches, which have a single stem with numerous slender twigs to which the fruit is attached (PI. LVIfand Pl. LX). A bunch carries-from 10 to 30 pounds. It is very rare that all the dates on a bunch ripen at once, and in the ease of choice varieties, those which first ripen are frequently handpicked and shipped at once in order to get the high prices paid for the earliest shipments. It isalso claimed that picking the outer dates of the bunch, which usually ripen first, permits the inner fruit to ripen better. Fre- quently, when most of these dates are ripe and the remainder beginning to ripen, the whole bunch is cut off and hung up ina dry and shady place. It has been found necessary to remove any dates which have 489 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. begun to spoil before the bunches are hung up, for if such dates are left the whole bunch soon spoils. Usually within a few weeks all of the dates ripen, and the bunch is ready for shipment. The choice varieties of dates are shipped from the Sahara either in bags or more often in long wooden boxes. They are afterwards repacked in smaller boxes, holding from 1 to 10 pounds (fig. 63). The methods above outlined apply to the Deglet noor, which is the variety chiefly exported from Algiers to Europe. Other varieties, such as the Rhars, which are full of sugary juice when ripe, are not so easily handled. The Arabs usually hang up the bunches and allow the juice to drain off inte jars. This juice, which they call date honey, is preserved and used, and the fruit, which has become somewhat dry, is then packed in boxes, or more often in skins. Dates of this class are usually packed tightly, and may keep for many years without deteriorating. Somewhat the same style of packing is practiced in the Persian Gulf region, whence come most of the dates received in American markets. There the dates are packed tightly in layers in wooden boxes for export to America and Europe. The dates containing an abundance of sugary juice have the disadvantage of being sticky when unpacked, and are not suitable to serve as a dessert fruit. As before mentioned, the Deglet noor does not have this drawback if properly handled. It has, however, the defect of drying rather rapidly, and from the very fact that it is not tightly packed in boxes it doubtless dries all the quicker. With reasonable care, however, it can be kept for some months in a dry, well-ventilated storeroom, and probably no other dried fruit having a value comparable to the Deglet noor date can be put on the market with so little labor or at so little risk of loss. Practically the only hand labor required is that of arranging the dates in layers in the smaller boxes in which they are sent to the retail trade. DATH CULTURE IN MEXICO. As was mentioned above, the date palm was introduced into Mexico soon after the conquest, probably by means of seeds brought from Spain by the missionaries. Some of the. palms, especially in Sonora and Lower California, are very old and have reached a great height. A group of such old date palms is shown on Pl. LIV; these were grow- ing surrounded by orange trees at Hermosillo, which is only 150 miles south of the United States boundary, and has a climate similar to that of the warmer parts of Arizona. There are said, indeed, to be large date palms bearing fruit of good quality in the valley of the Altar River, only 50 miles below the southern boundary of Arizona. Seventy-five years hence the date palms now growing in Arizona will doubtless resemble very closely those of Hermosillo, shown on Pi, LIV. There is some export of Mexican dates into Arizona and California, THE DATE PALM AND ITS CULTURE. 483 and of course still more local commerce in Mexico. According to the statistics published by the Mexican Government, Lower California produced 137,300 kilograms (about 300,000 pounds) in 1897, worth 10,845 Mexican dollars. In 1898 the production amounted only to 32,485 kilograms. Northwestern Mexico, where the climatic condi- tions much resemble those existing across the American boundary, doubtless produces nine-tenths of the dates grown in Mexico. So far, apparently, no effort has been made to introduce offshoots of the good varieties of dates from the Old World into Mexico, although some of the better seedlings may have been propagated by means of offshoots. In view of the enormous numbers of seedling date palms which occur there, it is probable that some valuable sorts could be discovered by a careful search. These should be found and introduced into the United States. DATE CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. TEXAS, NEW MEXICO, AND NEVADA. But very few regions in Texas are adapted to the culture of dates. Throughout the eastern half of the State, and in a stripalong the Gulf coast, down to the Mexican boundary, the climate is too humid and the summers are too cold to ripen the fruit properly, while in all the northern part of the State, above San Antonio (latitude 30° north), the winters are too cold to permit the date palm to grow out of doors without protection. There is a region lying south and west of San Antonio, between the humid Gulf coast and the Rio Grande, where it is possible that the date may succeed. The summers are hot enough to mature even the medium or late varieties. Fort McIntosh, in Webb County, at 460 feet altitude, has a summer temperature some- what higher for the months from May to September, inclusive, than at Phoenix, Ariz. The rainfall averages in this region only about 10 inches, and the late summer is usually dry enough to permit dates to ripen; irrigation, of course, would be necessary. Ordinarily the win- ters are not severe enough to injure the date palm if protected when young, though this part of the State is occassionally exposed to ‘‘northers,” during which the temperature sometimes falls very low. In February, 1899, for example, it fell to 7° F. or below, all over the region where the date could be grown, and this temperature would doubtless kill or injure even old date palms. Such low temperatures are, however, very exceptional, and the date should be tested in this part of Texas wherever water can be obtained for irrigation. All of New Mexico is over 2,500 feet in altitude, and nine-tenths of the area is over 4,000 feet; in consequence the winters are almost everywhere too cold to permit the culture of the date palm, and the summer heat is inadequate to ripen any but the very earliest sorts. The winters are too cold to allow dates to be grown in the Pecos and 484 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Rio Grande valleys. The most promising locality in which to attempt date culture is at La Luz, at 4,836 feet altitude, in south-central New Mexico, near the Sacramento Mountains. The next most promising . region is in the valley of the upper Gila and of the Rio Mimbres, in southwestern New Mexico. This latter region is of considerable extent, but unfortunately the winters are usually so cold that young palms would be injured if not protected; during the cold wave of 1899, the temperature fell below 7° IF. at all the stations where records are kept, except at Gage, altitude 4,480 feet, where the record shows a minimum temperature of only 16° F. It is not impossible that the date may succeed in some protected val- leys in southern Nevada. It is almost certain to succeed in the valley of the Colorado River wherever there is any land that can be planted and irrigated. The summers are very hot, and probably even late varieties will succeed wherever it is not too cold in winter. At St. Thomas, at an altitude of 1,600 feet, in the valley of the Virgin River, it is hotter in summer than at Phoenix, Ariz. (altitude 1,100 feet), and even late varieties would ripen. Unfortunately, the winters are occasionally too cold, and in January, 1899, the thermometer fell to11° F. It is not impossible that there may be a few warm spots in the Pahrump Valley and in Ash Meadows, but no meteorological rec- ords are obtainable for these regions, and it is highly probable that the winters are too cold there to permit the culture of the date palm. CALIFORNIA. In California there are two great regions where the climatic condi- tions permit the culture of the date palm and several smaller areas where it may succeed. The two great regions referred to are: (1) The central valley, comprising the San Joaquin and Sacramento River vyal- leys; (2) the Colorado Desert, in the extreme southeastern part of the State. These two regions differ entirely in climate, and will be found adapted to quite different varieties of dates. The minor regions in California where the date may possibly be grown are the Mohave Desert, or central plateau region; the coast region of southern California; Death Valley, and the Colorado River Valley. CENTRAL VALLEY REGION.—In the central valley region there is in many places enough rainfall to allow the date palm to grow with- out irrigation, and, at the same time, no rain falls in late summer or early autumn, when it would prevent the fruit from ripening properly. The winters are sometimes rather cold for the date palm, but if protected when young it succeeds in most parts of this region, and is seldom, if ever, injured when old. The summer heat through- out this entire central valley region is, however, insufficient to ripen any but the earliest sorts of dates, and although it is certain that very palatable dates, suitable for home consumption, can be raised in this Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. PLATE LXI. DATE PALMS IN ARIZONA AND CALIFORNIA AND VIEWS IN THE ALGERIAN SAHARA. [Fig. 1.—The Lount date, Phoenix, Ariz. Fig. 2.—A neglected Egyptian date palm growing with- out irrigation in Colorado Desert, near Indio, Cal. Fig. 3.—Southern limit of Biskra, Algeria; donkeys loaded with hay in the foreground. Fig. 4.—Date palms grown without surface irriga- tion at margin of Fougala, Algeria. Fig. 5.—A road in Biskra, Algeria; the date gardens are sur- sede] by mud walls. Fig. 6.—A well-sweep used for lifting water from shallow wells, Fougala, Algeria. ‘ey = * tm Se) t ® ~ d a + aa - ¢ é _ - a ee ed 4 oe . “ » oe a : ‘ a ~~ = ’ - 7 - - PLATE LXIil. ok U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. Yearb« Fig. 1.—AMREEYAH DATE PALM AT EXPERIMENT STATION Fic. 2.—WOLEFSKILL DATE PALM AT WINTERS, CAL.; A LARGER MALE DATE FARM, PHOENIX, ARIZ. PALM IS SEEN IN THE BACKGROUND. [Negative by J W. Toumey.] THE DATE PALM AND ITS CULTURE. 485 region, it is not settled as yet that dates suitable for drying and exporting can be produced. It will, however, be possible for settlers all through this region to produce fresh dates for their own tables, and quite probable that these fresh dates can be shipped to the principal Pacific coast cities without spoiling. All parts of the San Joaquin and Sacramento River valleys offer about equal advantages for date culture, except in the region where the two rivers unite. This lies directly east and northeast of San Pablo and Suisan bays, and the cold winds which blow in from the Pacific at San Francisco Bay find their way eastward through this break in the coast range, and thus lower the summer temperature; it is unlikely that any dates can be ripened in this area, which extends from Stockton to Sacramento and across the valley to the foothills. It is interesting to note that the Wolfskill date (fig. 61 and Pl. LXII, fig. 2), which grows at Winters (latitude 38° 32’ north), about in the latitude of W aaimeioe Lisbon, Athens, and Pekin, is the north- ernmost date palm in the world which ripens fully its fruit, with the exception of one tree at Nice, France (latitude 43° 45’ cree which is probably not a true date palm, but a hybrid between the date palm and the Canary Island palm. It is, however, probable that in California dates can be grown far to the north of Winters. In fact, the summer climate at Orland, Corning, Tehema, and Vina, in latitude 40°, seems to be as good as at Winters, and to be only slightly less suitable at Red Bluff or even at Redding, latitude 40° 30’, almost under Mount Shasta. Nowhere else in the world are there any such extensive regions north of latitude 35° where dates can be grown successfully. On page 479, under the head ‘* Varieties,” some account is given of the sorts most likely to succeed in this part of California. Cotorapo Drsert.—The best regien for the culture of the date palm in Califernia, and probably the best date region in the New World, is without doubt the Colorado Desert, which occupies an area of some thousand or more square miles in the southeastern corner of California. A large part of the surface of this desert is below the level of the sea, and at Salton it is some 266 feet below sea level, while Salton Lake is considerably lower. The summer temperatures in this desert, especially in the parts lying far below the level of the sea, are very high, as high, in fact, as they are in the interior of the Sahara Desert, reaching at Salton a maximum of 120° to 125°, and having for the month of July an average temperature as high as 107° to 109°. The winter temperatures are rarely low enough to injure the date palms; only once during the last ten years is there a record of tem- perature below 20°, and sometimes, in the lower parts of the desert, the thermometer does not fall below 30° during the whole winter. The air is extremely dry in this desert, and this, together with the intense heat, 486 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. renders the climate peculiarly adapted to the culture of the best varie- ties of dates. Unfortunately, there is very little water in this desert, and it will be a very expensive, though probably a very profitable operation, to conduct water from the Colorado River, which furnishes a bountiful supply at all seasons of the year, and which, at Yuma, lies some 400 to 600 feet above the lower portions of the Colorado Desert. There are some flowing artesian wells in the northern part of the desert, especially near Indio, and it may be possible to inaugurate here date cul- ture on a small scale. If adequately supplied with water the lower and hotter parts of the Colorado Desert would be one of the finest date regions in the world, and beyond question the best within the limits of the United States. It must be remembered that its aridity, the extreme heat in summer, and the unusual dryness of the air, all conditions dis- tinctly favoring the production of the best quality of dates, prohibit the culture of many other kinds of fruit trees. Then, too, the lower part of the desert has a very alkaline soil, so that there are without doubt many portions of the Colorado Desert where the growing of dates is the only profitable culture that could be inaugurated. PLATEAU REGION.—This table-land, comprising the Mohave Desert, separating northern from southern California, would be fairly well adapted for date culture were it not for the fact that the winters are commonly too cold. However, in canyons or ravines facing southward, and where there isa good drainage of cold air, the hardier varieties may pass the winter uninjured. From the weather records at Keeler and Barstow it would seem probable that the date might succeed in the vicinity of these towns. If any attempt is made to grow date palms in this part of the State, and for that matter in the colder portions of the interior valley region, attention should be given to the experiments made by the California experiment station at Tulare, where it was found that irrigation in late summer is very disastrous to the date palm, because it forces a late growth, which is injured during the following winter. By selecting hardy varieties, and being careful not to irrigate late in the season, the palms will be able to endure considerable cold in winter. However, all through the plateau region the summer heat is insufficient to ripen any but early sorts, and it is very unlikely that date culture will prove a profitable industry in this part of California. COAST REGION OF SOUTHERN CALIFOoRNIA.—Although the winters are never severe enough to injure the date palm, and almost no rain falls during summer and early autumn, it is nevertheless improbable that dates can be grown with profit in this part of California, for the simple reason that the winds which blow off the ocean are cold and humid and prevent the summer heat from being sufficient to ripen dates for 25 miles or more from the coast. It has been found that the date palm does occasionally ripen fruit at San Diego, but the plant THE DATE PALM AND ITS CULTURE. 487 is forced entirely out of its normal habits by the extremely low spring and summer temperatures which prevail there, and instead of flower- ing in April, as it does in Sahara, it often does not bloom until August, in which event the half-grown dates hang on the trees in a green con- dition all through the winter and ripen during the following summer. The date palm which ripens fruit at Nice, referred to on page 485, may be found adapted to the California coast region. Unfortunately, this tree has not yet produced any vigorous offshoots, but seedlings have been obtained and will be tested in California. Drath VALLEY REGION.—In the Death Valley, which is a depres- sion in some places 320 feet below sea level, situated in east-central California, near the boundary of Nevada, the summers are hot enough to ripen even the late varieties of dates, and it is probable that in some protected localities the winters are mild enough to allow the date palm to grow without protection. Here the great difficulty is to find water for irrigation, since the Death Valley is entirely devoid of large streams, and it is still doubtful whether any artesian water can be found there. If an adequate water supply could be found it would be very desirable to make a thorough test of the date palm in this region, since in sum- mer the temperature reaches a point exceeded only by some stations in the Colorado district, and it onght to be possible for late varieties to ripen completely. There is practically no rainfall, and the crop could ripen without danger from late summer or early autumn showers. Cororapo RivER VALLEY REGION.—KEarly varieties are likely to succeed without artificial irrigation in the flood plain of the Colorado’ River, where they are abundantly watered and fertilized by the annual overflow. In regions lying a few hundred feet above the river it is probable that even late varieties would mature their fruit if, by any means, water could be obtained with which to irrigate them. This will be explained more in detail in considering the prospects for date culture in Arizona. ARIZONA. As has been explained in the paragraph on the requirements of the date palm as to heat, the earlier varieties will probably succeed in some parts of Arizona lying as high as 5,000 feet above sea level, and medium or late sorts in most parts below the altitude of 2,000 feet, except where there is a marked drainage of cold air from some higher level. This would include the whole of southwestern Arizona, with an arm running up the Gila River, and up the Salt and Verde rivers, and another extending along the Colorado River northward, passing around the tributary which is called the Bill Williams River, and reaching as far north in the Grand Canyon as the Hualapai Indian reservations. This portion of Arizona, lying below the 2,000-foot contour line, forms on the map the shape of a capital L with a very 488 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. thick horizontal piece. The date palm can probably be grown with suc- cess in some regions above the 2,000-foot line, especially in protected valleys which face toward the south. Jt must not be supposed, however, that any large part of the 20,000 or more square miles included in the area above limited will ever be planted to date palms or toany other fruit trees, since most of this area is without ade- quate water to carry on agriculture. ‘The irrigable areas along the Gila River and its tributaries, especially the Salt River Valley, and the Upper Gila Valley from Florence westward to the Estrella Moun- tains, and finally the valley of the lower Gila, especially about Gila Bend, are the localities best adapted to the culture of the date palm. The whole of the valley of the Colorado, so far as it is irrigable, is also adapted to the culture of the date palm, but probably only the earlier varieties will succeed. Of the regions just mentioned, only one is now furnished with a sufficient supply of water to render date culture possible on any large scale. This is the Salt River Valley from Mesa westward to Peoria. Wherever small amounts of water are available in the other valleys it could be utilized for irrigating date palms, which would undoubtedly succeed, and it is probable that in the future, with increased facilities for irrigation, the upper and lower valleys of the Gila will prove especially adapted to this culture. The valley of the Colorado River will support date palms in many places without irrigation, as is proved by the luxuriant growth of the seedlings planted by Mr. Hall Hanlon, on the California side, a few miles west of Yuma. These dates, however, do not ripen in ordinary seasons, and it is probable that only earlier varieties will succeed on lands subject to overflow by the Colorado River. Not only is the tem- perature low because of the drainage of cold air into the flood plain of the river, but also because in summer, usually during June or July, the Colorado overflows its banks, and for some weeks the ground is covered with the cold water which flows from the melting snows on the mountains of Colorado. The culture of earlier varieties of dates, however, is exceedingly promising here, and should be carefully tested, since it is probable that thousands of acres of the flood plain of the Colorado will support date palms without irrigation other than that furnished by the annual overflow. On the higher land near the Colo- rado not subject to overflow, and consequently warmer, it is probable that even late varieties will come to perfect maturity. The weather records kept at Yuma and at Needles would indicate conditions favor- able for the culture of all ordinary varieties in case water can be obtained for irrigation. There is a region in south-central Arizona lying to the south of the Casa Grande ruins where there are said to be thousands of acres cov- ered with a heavy growth of mesquite timber and where there is underground water at the depth of from 20 to 30 feet. It is not THE DATE PALM AND ITS CULTURE. 489 impossible that, if date palms were irrigated in this region when young, they might be able to grow without irrigation after the roots reached moisture. At any rate, both here and elsewhere, where a heavy growth of mesquite occurs, and where there are indications of under- ground water near the surface, it would be desirable to make triak plantations of the date palm. Sart River Vatiey.—This fertile region, which is one of the largest of the irrigated valleys in the Southwest, is situated in centrak Arizona (latitude 83° 25’). Its principal. towns are Phoenix, Tempe,. and Mesa. As has already been mentioned, the date palms planted by the earlier settlers have been strikingly successful; in fact, if is no exaggeration to say that there are more bearing date palms, producing fruit of good quality, in the Salt River Valley than in all the rest of the United States. Prof. James W. Toumey, while connected with the University of Arizona, investigated the whole subject of the culture of the date palm in the United States, and brought out very clearly,. in a bulletin' published in June, 1898, the fact that in these regions- only had the plants imported by the Department of Agriculture in 1889 and 1890 grown rapidly and produced good fruit abundantly. This bulletin was the most important study of the date palm ever published in America, and it did much to attract attention to the pos- sibility of establishing date culture as a profitable industry in the Southwest. Although there are many regions in California, and some in Arizona, where the summer temperatures are higher than they are in the Salt River Valley, there is no considerable area of land under irrigation where the climate is so favorable to the date palm, and unless the Colorado Desert be some day irrigated, either by artesian wells or by conducting water from the Colorado River, it is not unlikely that the: Salt River Valley will retain its preeminence in date culture. Itmay,,. in fact, be stated that date culture is no longer an experiment in the Salt River Valley. It is, however, not yet certain that the Deglet noor variety, which is now the one most desired in the markets, wilk come to full maturity here. It isto be hoped thatit will, and the out- look is certainly promising. If this variety does ripen properly, there: ean be but little question that it will be profitable to plant it on the very best lands in the valley and to irrigate if abundantly. The ques- tion as to whether the Deglet noor can mature its fruits in centrak Arizona will be settled within a very few years by the experiments. now in progress at Tempe, in this valley (fig. 59). If it should be found that this variety does not succeed, it will still be possible to grow the other varieties, certainly as good as the Persian dates, which now — 1“The date palm,’’ by J. W. Toumey, University of Arizona, Arizona Agricul- tural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 29, Tucson, Ariz., June, 1898, pp. 50, figs. 13. 4 s1900——32 490) YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. constitute 99 per cent of the total supply imported into America. In this event, however, the price received per pound would be much less than what is paid for the Deglet noor dates, and it is probable that it would not be profitable to plant the date palms on land that is well adapted to other fruit trees. There are, however, lands which are too alkaline to be well adapted to other crops where the date palm would thrive very well. Some of these lands have water rising to within a few feet of the surface, and it is probable that the date palm would grow in such situations without any irrigation at all, though it would probably grow better and yield more fruit if occasionally irrigated with pure water, such as is supplied by the irrigating canals. CONCLUSION. It has been shown that there is good ground for the hope that enough dates to supply our markets may be produced within our boundaries, thus retaining in this country nearly half a million dollars now paid annually for foreign dates. It is even possible that a still larger trade may be built up by producing the choicer varieties suitable for serv- ing as table fruit, such as the Deglet noor, now so rare on our markets and so costly as to preclude its being sold in any large quantities. The date palm has been shown to be adapted to special climatic and soil conditions, occurring only in a few areas of limited extent in the Southwest. It requires a long, extremely hot and dry summer in order to mature its fruits properly, yet the roots demand a constant supply of water. It is unable to endure severe cold in winter, although more hardy than the orange tree. It is preeminently suited for cul- ture in irrigated areas in desert regions, and fortunately is able to endure without injury large quantities of alkali in the soil and in the water used for irrigating, conditions often occurring in desert regions, and which prevent the growth of most cultivated plants. There are many places in Arizona and California where the culture of the date can be undertaken with good hope of success. Marketable dates of good quality have already been produced in considerable quantities in the Salt River Valley, Arizona, and excellent fresh dates ripen every year at Winters, in northern California. The Department of Agriculture and the University of Arizona have undertaken in cooperation the establishment and maintenance of a special date garden at Tempe, in the Salt River Valley, Arizona, and in 1899-1900 about 420 young palms, comprising about 27 of the. best- known varieties, including the famous Deglet noor, were imported by the Department from the best date regions of the western Sahara and sent to this garden, where they are now growing. Some three dozen plants of the Rhars, one of the best early dates for drying, were dis- tributed at the same time in California in cooperation with the Univer- sity of California. PRACTICAL IRRIGATION. By C. T. Jonnsron, C. E.,and J. D. Srannarp, Assistants in Irrigation Investigations, Office of Experiment Stations. INTRODUCTION. When a farmer enters a new country where’irrigation is necessary he must determine (1) how he may best deliver water to his land, and (2) what crops are adapted to the soil and for local uses. Everything with him is tentative. Unless he is fortified by an income outside of that obtained from his farm, the first few years he has a struggle for existence. That the pioneer is often overcome in this unequal fight is evidenced by many deserted homes and unfinished irrigation works. Owing to his inexperience in irrigation, he may lose his crops by not using the proper volume of water or by using it at the wrong time. One failure often means the abandonment of everything and a retreat to a region where conditions seem more favorable. In a new country where the rainfall is ample for the growth of crops serious obstacles must be overcome before returns are received for the labor expended. If, in addition to these difficulties, water must be brought to the land for irrigation and domestic purposes, the problems become much more complicated, and correspondingly greater credit is due when success rewards the attempt. To the Eastern farmer, whose cultivated lands are rolling and broken, the problem of spreading water over the surface of the ground from ditches has some serious phases. Often the stream passing his farm is bordered by steep bluffs, and its fall seldom exceeds 3 or 4 feet per mile. In his judgment the cost of raising water from such a source in sufficient quantities for irrigation would not be justified by the slight increase in yields or the saving of an occasional crop. The Western irrigator would arrive at the same conclusion if he had to deal with similar conditions. His agricultural land is nearly always smooth, and usually has a gentle slope with and toward some natural drainage channel, and would bear no crops without irrigation. The stream from which he proposes to draw his supply of water has a large fall, so that a ditch taken from it with a moderate grade can recede 491 492 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. rapidly, and hence cover a large area in a short distance. A combina- tion of these features makes it possible for individuals to construct irrigation works on the smaller streams. This paper will deal with the kind of ditch a settler of limited means could build in a region of abundant water supply. SMALL DITCHES WITH VARYING GRADES AND CROSS-SECTIONAL AREAS. The pioneer irrigator knew but little regarding the measurement of water, the carrying capacity of ditches, or the volume demanded by various crops. The experience of the first few years often convinced him that his ditch was too small, and he was compelled to enlarge it to provide an ample supply of water. The volume one man could handle he called an ‘‘irrigating head.” This was his first unit of measure- ment, and his ditch carried one, two, or three irrigating heads, accord- ing to his estimate. Crude measurements were afterwards adopted to aid his judgment. He found it comparatively easy to measure the cross-sectional area of a stream. His first gaugings were made in this manner, usually disregarding the velocity of the current. Experience in building ditches taught him in a few years how to adjust the size and grade of his ditch so as to furnish an adequate supply of water for the area to be irrigated. Some of the following considerations have been suggested by his experience. Many things affect the ease with which ditches can be built and water distributed from them. The length of ditch necessary to cover any piece of land depends on its fall compared with that of the stream and upon the elevation of the land to be irrigated. The smaller the grade of the ditch and the greater the fall of the stream, other things being equal, the shorter the ditch. However, the grade of the ditch should not be too light; otherwise its section must be greatly increased to deliver the desired volume of water. The grade must not be excessive or the increased velocity of the current will result in the erosion of the ditch banks. Therefore the range of grade which a ditch may have is limited, and its length largely depends on the fall of the stream. On the quality of the soil through which the ditch must be con- structed depend the permanency of its channel, the rate of velocity at which water can safely be carried, the cost of first construction, and the economic value of the ditch as a water carrier. As cheapness 1s a requisite for the construction of the class of ditches to be dealt with in this paper, rockwork or expensive flumes and other structures will not be considered. In order to more clearly show the difficulties to be met and over- come, a practical case will be considered. Assume that it is desired to irrigate an area of 40 acres lying near a creek furnishing a sufficient supply of water; assume, also, that the creek has a fall of 20 feet per mile, and that the highest point of the land to be irrigated 1s 15 feet PRACTICAL IRRIGATION. 493 above the bottom of the creek at the nearest point. It will be seen that a point on the creek three-quarters of a mile above is on the same level with the highest point of the 40 acres. It is evident that the headgate of the ditch must be above this point if we expect the water of the creek to flow to the farm, unless a dam be built in the creek to raise the water higher than its usual level. It may be interesting, as well as profitable, to compare a few of the possible lines upon which the ditch might be built. That water tends to seek its own level is a principle that needs no demonstration, and it might be supposed that the least grade would cause the water to flow through the ditch. While this is true, it does not entirely answer the purpose, for the ditch must not only be one in which water will flow, but it must allow the water to run fast enough to deliver at the place where used a definite volume in a given time, The accompanying diagram (fig. 64) shows’the relation between the grades of the ditches and the fall of the stream. The line 03 repre- o a! 2 3 Fic. 64.—Diagram showing lengths of ditches with different grades. sents a level line through the bottom of the creek at the farm and running upstream from the farm. A/5 is a level line through the highest point of the farm. The line 0Z’is the grade of the stream, 20 feet per mile. The numbers 0, 7, 2, and 3 at the bottom of the dia- gram indicate miles upstream from the farm, and the numbers 15, 20, 30, 40, and 60, at the right, show elevation, in feet, above the bottom of the creek at the farm. AB, AC, AD,and AF are the lines of ditches built on grades of one-half, 5, 10, and 15 feet per mile, respec- tively. The distances from the point 0 to the perpendiculars dropped from the points 2, C, ), and /, measure the approximate lengths of the ditches built on the corresponding grades. As above stated, the grade of the stream is 20 feet per mile. If the grade of the ditch is 15 feet per mile the two lines would approach each other at the rate of 5 feet per mile, and would come together at the point /, 3 miles above the farm. Following the line #3 to the base of the diagram, it is seen that the length of the ditch is 3 miles. If the minimum 494 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. grade is taken at one-half foot per mile, the length is about three- quarters of a mile. The corresponding lengths of the ditches having grades of 5 and 10 feet per mile are 1 and 13 miles, respectively. To illustrate how the length of the ditch depends upon the fall of the stream, let the line 0-30 represent the grade line of a stream hav- ing a fall of 10 feet per mile. -4C produced to 30 shows that a ditch having a fall of 5 feet per mile is 3 miles long. The following table gives dimensions of a number of small ditches, with the corresponding velocities and discharges for different grades; also the volume of material, in cubic yards, to be removed per mile: Velocities and discharges of ditches with different grades. Dinicastondof ditch,” / Sl¢ Fig. 65.—Triangle with plumb bob. which must be allowed in the length of the triangle. These are cor- rect to the nearest one-sixteenth of an inch, which is as close as the instrument can be read. The table shows that if the triangle be 12 feet long and a fall of three-sixteenths of an inch be allowed, the grade of the ditch will vary between 5.5 and 8.5 feet per mile. Fig. 65 shows a triangle with a base of 11 feet. Its construction 498 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. requires a 6-inch board, AC, 11 feet long, for the base; for the other long side, BC, a 4-inch board 11 feet long, and for the short side, AB, a 4-inch board 64 feet long. The 4-inch board, BD, along whic. the plumb line hangs, is 5 feet and 3 inches long. Two or three wide staples should be driven into this board over the plumb line to limit its swing. The plumb line is of such length that the point of the plumb bob just clears the upper edge of the base 4C. The plumb bob for this device should have a long, slender point, so that its posi- tion can be more easily seen. A mark may be made on BD just above the plumb bob to indicate the center of its swing. The line is then read instead of the point of the plumb bob. The adjustment of the triangle consists in locating and marking the place where the point of the bob or line comes when the base is level. This is done in the following manner: Drive two stakes in the ground, making the distance between them equal to the length of the base of the triangle. The stakes should be driven so their tops will be as nearly level as can be estimated. Place the triangle with the ends of its base resting on the stakes; hold the triangle in a vertical plane and notice if the plumb swings clear of the staples; if it does not, drive the higher stake until it does. The plumb bob is allowed to settle, and a mark is made on the base directly under its point or back of the line on LY. The triangle is then reversed upon the stakes and another mark is made on the base or on the upright BD. A perma-— nent line is then drawn across the top of the base midway between the two marks already made or between those on BD. When the triangle is held in such a position that the point of the plumb bob or the line comes to the last marks made, the base of the triangle is level. RGR SRA . i Bs AWN [Se E. > H WO *\ SS pe —F, yy, WU Tan Ww Ve ay. \\ SN E, See SSS ” ZN - Call te - WIZZ ZAG sigh Za eee / xs! VS mS wai! \ : SS YES \\ S " ni RSS = a\ * — \ULG © —— ———_—— lt Fic. 67.—Sketeh showing location of farm and possible ditch lines. line run directly from the headgate to the farm has a grade of about 7 feet per mile. However, if this country is more broken than that along the preliminary line, the upper ditch will be crooked, and hence be longer than it has been estimated. This increased length will reduce the grade. Suppose in this case that, after examining the country along the upper line, it is found that a large quantity of rock would be encountered in the construction of the ditch. It is necessary then to go back to the headgate and examine the country between that point and the preliminary line. It is found that a short ditch, DCL, run- ning from the headgate to connect with the preliminary line can be built. A uniform grade can be maintained by constructing a drop, located as shown in fig. 67. This compromise between the two lines is PRACTICAL IRRIGATION. 503 therefore decided upon. The fall of water over the drop is 3} feet, thus allowing a grade of 6 feet per mile in the short ditch. If this precaution were not taken, its channel would be worn away in a short time, and the material thus washed out would be deposited in the lower ditch, from which place it would have to be removed. The drop (fig. 68) consists of a short flume, ), with a flaring approach and submerged platform, A. The floor C, on the grade of the ditch below the drop, breaks the force of the falling water. The flaring wings and submerged ‘ DDT QO ECK Cen ¥ . e9o-3 FT.. 6IN-- =" DROP Fie. 68.—Details of timber drop in ditch. platform at B protect the ditch at that point. The dimensions are also shown in fig. 68. : To mark the line of the ditch with a furrow after it has been prop- erly located, let one man guide the team, walking between the heads of the horses and holding a bit in each hand, while another holds the plow. If the surface of the ground will permit a wagon to be driven over the line, the plow may be attached to the rear axle, the driver directing the team from the seat of the wagon. The team is driven in such a direction as to turn the furrow to the lower side of the ditch. If the surface of the ground is comparatively level across 504 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the line of the ditch, it is not necessary to follow the stakes closely in the bends. The ditch will be better for being straightened a little, which may be done by going above the stakes that locate the bends nearest the creek and a little below the stakes that locate the bends farthest away. If the ground slopes very much across the ditch line the stakes must be followed closely. After the line is marked, two or three furrows are plowed, turning them to the lower side. A ditch of this size may be built almost wholly with an ordinary plow, by going over the line a number of times. The loose earth in the bottom of the ditch may be removed with a plank scraper, shown in fig. 69. The tongue should be long enough to allow the team to work below the bank. Thescraper is lifted over the loose earth as the team Fic. 69.—Plank seraper. backs, and the load is dragged out as the team moves forward. A ditch of the size contemplated is rather too small to admit of using the ordinary scraper to advantage. HEADGATE. A small ditch of the kind described might be used for years without a headgate. It will, however, be much better to have one, so the water can be shut off when it is not needed for irrigation. Fig. 70 shows a common type of small headgate. It consists of a box, or flume, 6 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 3 feet deep, with a gate, DP, at the end nearest the creek. At both ends the sides flare at an angle of about 30°. Under them, 1} feet below the floor of the struc- ture C, platforms A and B are built. Both of these platforms are covered with earth to the level of the floor (. Earth is also carefully tamped around the outside of the headgate. PRACTICAL IRRIGATION. 505 All precautions should be taken to prevent water from working along: the outside of the headgate. The structure may be undermined in a short time if only a small stream finds its way between the planks and the earth. The flaring wings and submerged platform are built to prevent this action, and also to make the structure secure in case of high water. Fic. 70—Details of headgate. LAYING OUT FIELD LATERALS. The location of the laterals furnishes an opportunity for the irri- gator to show his skill. While the land is new, spreading water over it will be a difficult matter. It may be impossible to properly locate the main laterals at first, and supplemental laterals and dikes may have to be constructed. Before the crops can be harvested these temporary channels must be filled in and the ground leveled. Theo- retically, they should be given such a grade as will result in a moder- ate velocity for the water, but not sufficient to wash the earth along the sides and bottom of the ditch. One irrigator of considerable experience recommends that field laterals should have a fall of at least 10 feet per mile. The laterals should be located nearly at right angles with the direction of the greatest slope of the land, so that water will 4 sl1900——33 506 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. flow from rather than along them. Mistakes have been made in con- structing them parallel with the steepest slope. When the water is turned from these it tends to follow rather than to flow away from them, thus adding greatly to the work of the irrigator. If the sur- face of the ground is somewhat uneven the problem of locating the permanent laterals becomes correspondingly more difficult, often ren- dering the use of the engineer’s level necessary. It may be possible to cover all the ground by locating the laterals along the ridges, or there may be high points entirely surrounded by lower ground, making it necessary to build ditches on artificial ridges, or dikes, to carry the water tothem. The inexperienced irrigator often considers that the Potatoes 5 Acres Grain 10 Acres Garden 5 Acres Small Fruit 5 Acres 4 —— Fic. 71.—Plat of farm, showing laterals. ground occupied by the laterals is waste land, because it bears no crop. Accordingly, he makes them far apart, so that the water must flow a long distance to cover the surface between any two. This usually results in the overirrigation of that portion of the crop near the lateral in use, as the water must be kept flowing there until the entire surface to the next lateral is irrigated. It will usually pay to do some work in smoothing off the little irregu- larities in the surface of the farm. This may be done with a plank scraper, or drag, after the ground has been plowed. The drag cuts away the higher points and leaves the dirt in the hollows. This prep- aration of the surface is quite important, as it reduces the time and labor required in irrigating. A more uniform distribution of water is PRACTICAL IRRIGATION. 507 also obtained, which increases its efficiency. Theoretically, the sur- face of the ground should be a plane surface, with just slope enough to allow the water, when delivered at the highest point, to flow ina thin, uniform sheet. . We will assume that the farm is planted to such crops as are ordi- narily found in the arid region, say 10 acres of alfalfa, 10 acres of grain, 5 acres of potatoes, 5 acres of garden, 5 acres of small fruits, and 5 acres of orchard, as shown on the plat of the farm. (Fig. 71.) If it be assumed that there is a fall of 4 feet across the farm from north to south and 2 feet from east to west, the water can be made to flow either west or south from any point. The greatest slope of the land is a little south of southwest, and this is the direction the water takes if left to itself. If the laterals are run south from the main ditch they will make an angle of about 70° with this line. Such an arrangement permits the water to flow away from rather than along the laterals. The main ditch divides at A, as shown in fig. 71; one branch runs south to Z, while a second runs west to )), the middle 6f the north line of the farm, where it turns and flows south to J/. The field laterals receive their supply of water directly from these ditches. METHODS OF APPLYING WATER TO CROPS. Alfalfa is irrigated by the method known as flooding, which may be described as follows: Nearly parallel ditches, BC, Z’F, etc., are made 100 to 150 feet apart through the field. In the present case six ditches are made, 110 feet apart, dividing the field into six strips. As these laterals will remain as long as the field is in alfalfa, we may put divi- sion boxes (see fig. 72) at B, #, G, ete., where the laterals are taken from the main ditch. This will avoid cutting through the ditch bank and refilling with earth when the water is changed from one lateral to another. The division box is simply a short flume placed in the ditch with a channel leading away, usually at right angles. Vertical cleats are provided for holding flashboards in place for checking the water. These boards may be placed either in the branch or the main ditch as desired. The division box at A (fig. 71) is set so the water will flow to B. At this point the division box is so adjusted that water runs into the lat- eral (BC), and the lower bank of the lateral is cut a few feet from 2. Just below the cut a canvas dam is thrown across the ditch to force the water over the surface of the ground. The canvas dam is a piece of heavy cloth, 5 or 6 feet long and 3 or 4 feet wide, one edge of which is tacked to a pole long enough to rest on the banks as it is thrown across the ditch. The cloth rests against the bottom and sides of the ditch above the pole, where two or three shovelfuls of dirt are placed to hold it in position. When the water from lateral BC flowing over the surface reaches the lateral #'F, entirely covering the intermediate 508 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. area, another cut ismade in LC, 100 to 150 feet farther from LB. The canyas dam is again used to check the water, which is allowed to flow out as before. This operation is repeated till the entire surface of the first strip has been covered. |The division box at B is then set to shut the water from the lateral BC and allow it to flow to /, where it runs into the lateral “’/, and from it over the surface of the next strip. In this manner strip after strip is irrigated, till the entire field is coy- ered. The field laterals are not as large as the main ditch, and it may be necessary to divide the water between two or more of them. Assuming that it will require a quantity of water sufficient to cover the field to a depth of 6 inches, in order to give it a thorough irrigation, Fig. 72.—Details of division box. it will take about twenty-four hours to irrigate the entire field. The ditch must carry 23 cubic feet of water per second to accomplish this. The grain crop is irrigated inthe same manner. The laterals in the grain field may be made about the same distance apart as those in the alfalfa field. They may be built with an ordinary plow by turning two furrows away from each other, or they may be made with a special plow having two moldboards. This tool throws the dirt out of the ditch on both sides and completes the lateral in one operation. These laterals are used only for the one crop, and are filled with the plow just before harvest, so that the binder may cross them in cutting the grain. If the grain is sown with a drill running east and west the small furrows made by it form miniature ditches, which the water follows. PRACTICAL IRRIGATION. 509 The irrigator must see that the water reaches those places where, on account of elevations or obstructions, it does not run readily. For the irrigation of the crops on the south half of the farm, furrow irrigation is employed. The potatoes are planted in rows and are ‘‘furrowed out” before being irrigated. This is done by running a shovel plow between the rows, making small ditches, into which the water is turned and allowed to flow until it has reached the other end of the field. The water is ‘‘set” on a certain number of rows, allowing only a small stream to flow in each. The surface is not flooded, but the water is confined to the furrows and percolates laterally into the soil. The water is taken out of the permanent lateral DJ at the corner of the field and carried along ina temporary ditch parallel to it. After a strip 100 to 150 feet wide, containing 40 or 50 rows, has been irrigated from the first opening, the main lateral is cut farther down, and the process is repeated. The garden may be irrigated in a manner similar to that described for the potatoes. The small fruits and the orchard are crops of a more permanent character, and will occupy the same ground for a number of years. For these reasons division boxes are placed in the main lateral where it is desired to take out water. Ordinarily, small fruits are irrigated by the furrow method. It is thought better practice by many irriga- tors to allow a small stream of water to flow between the rows for a considerable time than to allow a large stream to run for a short period. This gives more opportunity for the water to soak into the soil, leaving it in the same condition as does a heavy rain. The orchard is irrigated either by flooding or by furrows. Of the two, the furrow system is perhaps more often used. Parallel furrows 3 to 6 feet apart are made and small streams of water are allowed to flow in them until the ground is thoroughly saturated. In some localities the best results are obtained from the orchards when the entire surface of the ground is flooded. Care is taken, how- ever, to keep the water away from the trees, as it is found that they thrive better when the water does not touch them, but percolates into the soil and reaches the roots. When all of the ground between the trees is moistened the roots spread uniformly. Where furrows are used for irrigating orchards they are often plowed under after water has been applied. The ground is then leveled and the surface finely pulverized. As long as the surface of the ground remains in this condition evaporation is greatly reduced. This method requires con- siderable work, as the laterals have to be made some time prior to the irrigation of the orchard. There are other methods for applying water to crops, but all of them require a more elaborate preparation of the surface of the ground, and need not be described here. When it is possible, cultivation should follow each irrigation as 510 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. soon as the ground is dry enough to be worked. If all crops could be cultivated in this way the amount of water which would have to be applied would be greatly reduced. The duty of water is uniformly small for corn, potatoes, orchards, and other crops which can be easily cultivated. If the ground can not be cultivated after it has been irri- gated, the surface will often bake. This is injurious to some kinds of plant growth, and evaporation is thereby greatly increased, making another irrigation necessary much sooner than it would otherwise be. WHEN TO IRRIGATE. In order to determine just when crops need water and when to apply itso that they will not suffer from drought, nor be injured by too fre- quent or too generous applications, requires a knowledge and experi- ence that can be gained only by practice and a close observation of various crops under irrigation. It is the experience of many practical irrigators that, if an unlimited supply of water is available, crops more frequently suffer from overirrigation than from drought. It is diffi- eult to determine when the development of the crop is first arrested on account of a lack of moisture in the soil. Some experimenters main- tain that this point can be more definitely decided by an examination of the soil than by the appearance of the plant, as the latter shows evidence of the check in its growth some days after it has occurred. Usually it is then too late to prevent serious loss, as the crop rarely recovers from such treatment and seldom reaches the development it would have attained if it had been irrigated at the proper time. Plants will usually indicate by a change in color or by their general appearance whether they need water or when they have been over- irrigated. Most field crops turn toa darker green when in need of water, and the leaves and stems show a tendency to droop or curl. The lower leaves assume a pale yellow. A crisp or dead appearance in the lower leaves is one of the best indications that a plant needs water. Grain which has suffered from drought may mature, but the straw will be small and short and the kernels will be shrunken and inferior in quality. Alfalfa and similar crops have the appearance of cured hay. Where field crops are overirrigated the color of the foliage becomes a yellowish green and the plants have a sickly appearance, These indications vary with the quality of the soil, so that it is impos- sible to lay down fixed rules to govern the number or frequency of irrigations. Only close observation for a number of years on the same farm will enable a person to tell by the appearance of the plants whether they need water or not. The amount of moisture in the soil may be determined with sufficient accuracy for the needs of the plant by examining a sample taken a few inches from the surface of the ground. If it clings together when al PRACTICAL IRRIGATION. 512 molded in a ball and shows the print of the fingers, there is moisture enough present. If the earth falls apart when the hand is opened, irrigation is needed. As stated above, this point is passed some days before the plant shows indications of suffering. COST OF BUILDING AND MAINTAINING A DITCH. The cost of a small system of irrigation similar to that already described may properly be considered here. The ditch is 14 miles long, and the main laterals on the farm are of the same cross-sectional dimen- sions, and are five-eighths of a mile long. The laterals in the alfalfa and grain fields have a total length of 14 miles, and are slightly smaller. A short calculation shows that nearly 1,250 cubic yards will have to be moved in the construction of these ditches. This volume at 5 cents per cubic yard makes the cost of the work $62.50. The headgate requires 360 feet B. M. of 2-inch planks and 2 by 4 inch scantling, at a cost of $15 to $18 per thousand. The 30 division boxes are made of 2-inch lumber and require nearly 4,000 feet B. M. The headgate, drop, and division boxes will cost, in place, not far from $125. This will make an investment of about $200 in the completed ditches. It has been demonstrated by experiment that it requires a volume of water sufficient to cover the area to a depth of 2 or 3 feet to mature ordinary field crops. Basing the calculation on these figures, and assuming that there is no rainfall during the irrigation season, it will require an aggregate of from sixteen to twenty-four days to complete the work of irrigation if the ditch delivers 25 cubic feet of water per second and the work is carried on day and night. Assume that twenty days isa mean period for this work, the cost of irrigation therefore approximates $1 per acre. Since some crops require that the water be watched continually during irrigation, the cost per acre is increased somewhat owing to the necessity of employing a man to work at night. The average cost probably does not exceed $1.20 per acre. After the first year the cost of repairs will amount to something like 10 per cent of the original outlay in building the ditch, or about 520. The following summarizes the original cost of the ditch and laterals and the yearly outlay for repairs and labor: Cost of ditch and laterals. . Makin= lever amdrmmmine line 2c) boos 2 oe Fae i See Se $12. 00 Gostonexcavationval:ditehxandslateralsmeas °s2 224 3 ek oe bes ogc sek 62.50 Cost. of headeate drop.civision poses ete: So 2 ol eke ee 125. 00 110) Cee ene ne EE Orn See a Sees 199. 50 512 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ‘early cost of irrigation and maint ce of ditches. Yearl t of irrigation and maintenance litche Labor in‘irrigatine = S622 eS ate eee cee ie ee eee eon $48. 00 Repairs to ditches 4222 5": t eae eee ae ee os 2 ane ato eee 20800) Mota: CSE facts ce ererin SR A i age Se eee 68. 00 In the above estimate the labor has been included at average prices for such work. If the farmer has time to do the work himself, his only cash outlay will be for lumber. FREE DELIVERY OF RURAL MAILS. By Cuarues H. Greatuouse, M. A., Editorial Clerk, Division of Publications. RAPID GROWTH OF RURAL FREE DELIVERY. The system of free delivery of mail at the farm homestead is developing in the United States by great strides. It is commonly known as ‘‘Rural free delivery.” .The first routes bearing this name were established on October 1, 1896, at Halltown, Uvilla, and Charlestown, W. Va. Others followed at oneé, and by the close of the fiscal year the experiment showed satisfactory results. There were 44 routes in the fall of 1897; this number increased to 128 in 1898, and on November 1, 1899, had jumped to 634. These radiated from 383 distributing points and served a population of 452,735 persons. On June 30, 1900, a little more than six months later, the number of routes had grown to 1,214 for a population of 879,127, and in the next four months the system again more than doubled its proportions, showing on November 1, 1900, 2,551 routes for 1,801,524 persons; and there were also at that date 2,158 applications for the establishment of new routes. The whole of the United States is now laid out in four divisions for the inauguration and maintenance of this service, and the work is going forward with steadily increasing volume. (See fios. 73 and 74.) President McKinley in his message to Congress of December 3, 1900, states that ‘‘the number of applications now pending and awaiting action nearly equals all those granted up to the present time, and by the close of the current fiscal year about 4,000 routes will have beew established, providing for the daily delivery of mails at the scattered homes of about three and a half million of rural population.” The President describes this as the most striking new development of the postal service, which ‘‘ ameliorates the isolation of farm life, conduces to good roads, and quickens and extends the dissemination of general information.” He adds that ‘‘ experience thus far has tended to allay the apprehension that it would be so expensive as to forbid its general adoption or make it a serious burden; its actual application has shown that it increases postal receipts, and can be accomplished by reductions in other branches of the service, so that the augmented revenues and 1 The applications for new routes on March 1, 1901, numbered 4,517. The figures, by States, are given in the Appendix to this Yearbook. 513 THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Or YEARBOOK 514 *TIOATS OI ADTAIOS OT] JO TOMITSITYRISD JO So]Vp {OG8T TO snst99 am) 1o aonetndod !poysrrqeise ysry oni ‘1687 ‘TE [tady somnor {19 Atlap-aery [RANY—'ey “OL 515 FREE DELIVERY OF RURAL MAILS. pias vs Fic. 74.—Rural free-delivery routes November 1, 1899, indicate qd Daa aa ace aot PRL EN ELTON by crosses (+); large numerals give nu mbers as” ERE a TT ae EL LT of rou tes in each State on June 30, 1900. 516 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the accomplished savings together materially reduce the net cost.” All these results, the President says, ‘* have come almost wholly within the last year.” The first appropriations for the service, $10,000 forghe fiscal year 1894, $20,000 for 1895, and $30,000 for 1896, were not used. Subse- quent appropriations have been as follows: For 1897, $40,000; for 1898, 50,000; for 1899, $150,000; for 1900, $450,000; for 1901, $1,750,000. The Post-Office appropriation bill approved March 4, 1901, carries 3,500,000 for this use in the fiscal year 1902. HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF RURAL FREE DELIVERY.’ Undoubtedly the evolution of the rural free-delivery service as it now exists dates back to ‘‘ village delivery ” which Postmaster-General Wanamaker recommended in 1890. The service he inaugurated, how- ever, was not a ‘“‘rural” delivery, but an extension of the city delivery system by carriers on foot in towns with a less population than 10,000, or less gross postal receipts than $10,000, the limit at which city delivery stops under existing law. The broad recommendations included in Mr. Wanamaker’s report for an abandonment of the old colonial postal system (recently most aptly described by Postmaster- General Charles Emory Smith as a plan which ‘required the man to go for the mails, instead of the mails going to the man”), aroused public attention, and started an agitation in Congress and by the people for an extension of the free-delivery system into hitherto untried fields. When, on a change of Administration, the village- delivery experiment inaugurated on Postmaster-General Wanamaker’s recommendation was ordered by Congress to be discontinued, after a brief experimental existence of little more than two years, the move- ment for free delivery on a broader basis was not suspended, but grew in intensity. The new agitation took the form, not of a request for free delivery in villages where none of the patrons lived more than a mile or so from their village post office, but of a movement to give country delivery to farmers who lived from 2.to 12 miles from any post office, and who in consequence had to waste the best part of a day whenever they wished to mail a letter or expected to receive one, or desired to obtain a newspaper or magazine for which they had subscribed. The State granges of Patrons of Husbandry took up the subject and brought strong pressure to bear upon Representatives in Congress from agricultural communities. Under these incentives a number of small appropriations were passed, but, as already stated, were not used. The prevailing sentiment, both in Congress and among the 1 All data relating to the early history and development of the rural free delivery were supplied and revised by the Post-Oflfice Department, to whose courtesy this acknowledgment is due. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900 PLATE LXIII. Fic. 1.—RuURAL DELIVERY IN SUMMER, NEAR JAMESTOWN, KANS. Fig. 2.—RURAL DELIVERY IN WINTER, NEAR CONCORD, N. H. FREE DELIVERY OF RURAL MAILS. a ld ~ executive officers of the Post-Office Department, as then constituted, was that the plan of rural free delivery was impossible of general adoption, and that it would cost at least $20,000,000 a year to establish and maintain it. CONGRESSIONAL ACTION, Postmaster-General Wilson S. Bissell declined to make any use of the small appropriation of $10,000 for experimental rural free delivery in 1894. His antagonistic views were concurred in by the Committee on the Post-Office and Post-Roads of the Fifty-third Congress, Hon. John §. Henderson, of North Carolina, being chairman. But many Representatives had become strongly interested in the project, and in spite of the committee’s adverse report, the appropriation was doubled. Mr. Bissell, however, again refused to act, and it was not until after Hon. William L. Wilson became Postmaster-General that anything was done to comply with the directions of Congress. Mr. Wilson was appointed in the spring of 1895. In his first report he said that he had taken charge too late in the fiscal year to undertake the work. He agreed with his predecessor, Mr. Bissell, that the proposal was impracticable, but he added that if Congress chose to make the money available for the fiscal year 1897 he would inaugurate the experiment by the best methods he could devise. The response by Congress was a second doubling of the appropriation, putting $40,000 at his disposal. HE FIRST ROUTES ESTABLISHED. Under this authorization, 44 routes were selected in widely differ- ing localities in 29 States. The purpose was to make the experiment as general as possible, and to have the result represent the working of the system under as diverse conditions as possible. Fifteen routes were set going in October, 1896, 15 in November, 8 in December, 3 in January, and 1 each in February and April following. Some of these routes were in the foothills of the Alleghenies about Charlestown, W.Va., others on the prairies of Kansas and Nebraska (Pl. LXIII, fig. 1); some among the sugar plantations of Louisiana, others among the snow and ice of Grand Isle in Lake Champlain and on the wind-swept plains of Minnesota; some were in the populous old communities of northern Massachusetts and southwestern Maine, others among the fruit orchards of Arizona and the grass lands of southern Washington. The other States represented were Indiana, Ohio, Maryland, Missouri, Arkansas, Virginia, North Carolina, Colorado, Iowa, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Alabama, Georgia, Kentucky, Illinois, Tennessee, and California. UNFAVORABLE CONDITIONS. It was dead of winter before the work got fairly under way, so that the difficulties were practically at a maximum, except that of muddy roads, which would become more and more impassable as spring came on. 518 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. © The officials who were intrusted with the inauguration of the service were often dissatisfied and unfavorably disposed toward the work, because they had to be detailed from their regular work in such a way as to hinder their probable promotion. Accordingly some of the first reports were quite discouraging. The inspector who laid out the route at Hartsville, Ind., wrote that the people who were reached were not asking for delivery of their mails at their homes. Their correspondence was mainly social, not demanding promptness of delivery, and only farmers living near the post office took daily papers. ‘‘The importance of the average farmer’s mail,” he said, ‘tis not such as to make rural free delivery essential.” The fact that the farmers near the post office took daily papers seemed’ to give no intimation to this inspector that free deliy- ery would cause farmers all along the route to do the same thing. ADOPTION BY THE EXECUTIVE OF VIEWS FAVORABLE TO THE SYSTEM. In consequence of the discouragements just referred to, the new service was so little known when Hon. Perry 8S. Heath became First Assistant Postmaster-General in March, 1897, that he learned with some surprise that a trial was actually being made of rural free delivery. He took charge of the administrative division to which the experi- ment belonged, and determined to go info the matter exhaustively. In contradiction of the unfavorable reports from some of the agents in charge of the work came good news from other agents, and the sentiment of farmers everywhere seemed favorable to a thorough test of the system. Congress was so well satisfied with the success so far attained that the appropriation for 1898 was made $50,000. Mr. Heath said in his second report to the Postmaster-General: An examination of the reports on file led to the conclusion that great possibilities of social, industrial, and educational development lay behind the projected exten- sion ef postal facilities in rural communities, and that with proper care in the selec- tion of localities, the service could be extended far and wide, with great benefit to the people and without any serious tax upon the revenues of the Government, inas- much as the increase of postal business which had hitherto followed the granting of additional postal facilities in every well-selected rural route would go far toward the payment of the extra expense incurred, while the discontinuance of unnecessary po:t offices and star routes would in many cases make the improved service a source of saving instead of added outlay. It was, of course, apparent that no accurate balance sheet of profit and loss could immediately be struck, inasmuch as no account could be kept of the saving effected by dispensing with the offices of postmasters of the fourth class, who are authorized by law to retain all their receipts up to the limit of $1,000. Their receipts do not appear in the post-office returns. They are perquisites of the postmasters, to which they cling with natural tenacity. When, under the operations of rural free delivery, their cancellations are turned into the general postal revenues, the service thus rendered becomes an item of cost charged against the rural free delivery appropyia- tion, but the saving effected can not be credited to that account. In like manner star-route service dispensed with makes a net saving to the Government, but goes to FREE DELIVERY OF RURAL MAILS. 519 the credit of another branch of the service, as star-route contractors are paid under an appropriation not supervised by the First Assistant Postmaster-General. Petitions from every section of country where the service had been given a fair trial began to pour in upon the Department. Special agents were appointed to look into the claims presented and to lay out services wherever the conditions seemed favorable to an economical and successful administration. Such good results were obtained that Congress, responding to the demand of the people, appropriated $150,000 for rural free delivery for the fiscal year 1897-98 [1898-99], and gave $300,000 for the same purpose for the current fiscal year {1900]. The requests for the service multi- plied like an endless chain, every new rural delivery route established bringing in three or more applications from contiguous territory for like privileges, and before four months of the present fiscal year had expired the appropriation was found to have been practically apportioned out, that is to say, the existing service, if continued to the close of the fiscal year, would require the disbursement of the whole amount appropriated by Congress. As I did not deem myself authorized to create a defi- ciency, even in so popular and important a work of postal development, a halt was reluctantly called in the installation of new rural free delivery service to await the further directions of the Congress. 5 OPPOSITION OF POSTMASTERS AND STAR-ROUTE CONTRACTORS. It must not be supposed, however, that all opposition to rural free delivery ceased with the change of attitude on the part of the Post- Office Department. It was found by the special agents in charge of the establishment of new routes that considerable sentiment against the change of method was manifested in some communities where it was about to be made. In several cases petitions were sent to Congress making protest, but upon investigation it was found in most cases that this adverse feeling had been worked up in the interest of a fourth-class postmaster or a star-route contractor who was likely to be displaced by the new routes. Im some cases the fear of the postmaster was supplemented by apprehension among his village neigh- bors that trade would go elsewhere. In many instances signers of petitions, when called upon, repudiated the views they had been induced to indorse. They had signed out of good will to their neigh- bors and with little attention to the meaning of the petition. When the question of free delivery was brought before them on its merits they had little to say in opposition, and when it was presented as ¢ direct benefit to themselves they were active in preventing the choice of some other section than their own for the location of the next new route. THE SYSTEM PUT TO A TEST. Congress without hesitation supplied the additional funds called for by the unexpectedly rapid growth of the service, and the installation of new routes went speedily forward. Up to this point the service had been fragmentary and detached. It was Postmaster-General Smith who developed the idea of putting the service to a test of practicability by extending rural delivery over 520 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. an entire county, superseding all other service, and then striking a balance sheet of profit and loss. : Four lines of investigation were laid down: (1) To what extent can rural free delivery supersede fourth-class post offices and star routes. (2) To what extent can it be used as a channel through which to extend to the farmer all other postal facilities, as money orders, ete. (3) What will be the effect on the postal revenues. (4) What.the net cost to the Government as compared with that of the old system. It seemed essential that such an experiment should be made in a strictly farming community, presenting many of the topographical. and other physical conditions and obstacles likely to be encountered in a general introduction of the service elsewhere, so that its successful operation under such circumstances might be looked upon as a guar- anty of its success in any other average rural locality in which it might be established. THE CARROLL COUNTY SERVICE. Carroll County, Md., was selected, with the third-class posu office of Westminster as the distributing point. The results of the experiment are thus described in official reports of the Post-Office Department: On December 20, 1899, when winter weather and snowstorms had put the roads in their worst condition, the practicability of establishing rural free delivery to extend over a wide area to the exclusion of all other service, was put to a test in Carroll County, Md. By order of the Postmaster-General, 63 minor post offices and 35 services by star-route contractors and mail messengers were discontinued, all in one day, and rural free delivery substituted in their place. The Westminster service started with four 2-horse postal wagons, each equipped with all the appliances of a traveling post office, each accompanied by a postal clerk empowered to issue money orders, register letters, and deliver letters, and cancel stamps on letters collected. These wagons supplied mail at designated points to twenty rural carriers, for whom cross routes were laid out, so as to bring all the territory embodied in the order within easy reach of the mails. The initial service in Carroll County covered 387 square miles of the 453 square miles within the county limits. It has since been extended so as to cover the whole county and about 200 square miles of adjacent territory in Baltimore, Howard, Frederick, and Montgomery counties, Md., and York and Adams counties, Pa., this additional service being equivalent to ten ordinary rural free-delivery routes. The total number of carriers employed is 45, and they, with the four wagon services, give a daily dispatch, as well as delivery, on every route except four, which are too far removed from railroads to be able to make connections the same day; but all letters from these points are dispatched early the following morning. A detailed report of this service from the Superintendent of the Free Delivery System, under whose direct supervision the experiment was started, was laid before Congress on the 23d of April, 1900. It was shown by this report that during the first three months the cost of the service was $4,543; the saving by service superseded was $2,805; the increase of postal receipts directly resulting from the increased accommodation was $1,501.75, thus leaving the net cost of carrying the postal service practically to, or near to, the homes of all the people in Carroll County for one-quarter of a year only $263. Yearbook U S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900 PLATE LXIV. ~ (7 : a ee eS, FiG. 1.—RURAL-DELIVERY CARRIER AT MINING CAMP ON MOUNTAIN ROUTE, BINGHAM CANYON, UTAH. | - | rs : ; Pa : i 5 | . ie rt. OH dy ate oe a “y ometioee ; ' : or Pe ges : a: 9 gebee ; 4 we. ee OS. sg ; Fic. 2.—MaiL WAGON AND FARM MaiL Boxes aT DUNKARD CHURCH, NEAR DEFIANCE, OHIO. bo i FREE DELIVERY OF RURAL MAILS. 5 OTHER COUNTY SERVICES. County services on an almost equally broad scale have since been successfully inaugurated in Washington County, Tenn., Washington County, Pa., Fairfield County, Conn., and are in process of installation in other States. IMPROVEMENTS, PHASES, AND INCIDENTS. The practical test of rural free delivery gave rise to many problems, and some of these are even now only in process of settlement. MAILS FOR MINING CAMPS. Among others, was the question what could be done for mining camps and similar customers of the post office. When the service was started only the farming population was considered, but it was soon evident that in several Western States settlers on mineral lands ought not to be left out of the account. What has been actually done is to estab- lish routes for such communities the same as in agricultural sections. (Pl. LXIV, fig. 1.) This service is maintained under a ruling of the Post-Office Department that the term ‘‘rural” means ‘* communities not included in cities or incorporated villages, and does not necessarily imply that persons so situated should be engaged in farming in order to obtain the benefits of rural free delivery.” PROTECTION OF MAIL BOXES. Another difficulty lay in the danger of loss of mail from boxes not directly owned by the Government and therefore completely under the protection of the statutes. It is not easy even under the most favor- able conditions, to fecure convictions of offenders against the Govern- ment; the lawyers for the defense in such prosecutions are prone to make use of any technicality and as a result, guilty persons often go clear. It was decided by the Department that boxes set up for farm delivery and accepted by the postal authorities as ‘‘secure and appro- priate” should be regarded as within the application of the law for- bidding any tampering with mails. There have been several cases of meddling with the free-delivery boxes, and one man has been held for trial in the United States courts. Further legislation has been asked of Congress so as to supply more convenient boxes to be owned by the Government and thus protected more certainly. In comparing rural free delivery with the old system as regards safety of the mails, it must not be forgotten that abuses and careless- ness are not infrequent at fourth-class post offices. At some places the mail sack is simply emptied on a table and each person hunts through it for his own mail. REGISTERED MAIL, MONEY ORDERS, AND DROP LETTERS. On April 12, 1900, an important advance took place. Rural car- riers were authorized to receive and deliver registered mail. As the 4 1900 34 - 592 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. law requires such matter to be delivered personally, the carriers are obliged to go to the houses instead of dropping the letters or packages in the farm box. Rural carriers are also authorized to receipt for applications for money orders, and while they can not yet issue the orders, they can save the farmer the trip to the office by acting as his agent. Another most satisfactory change was made on July 26, 1900, when an order was made under which postage on drop letters on rural free-_ delivery routes was fixed at 2 cents per ounce and carriers were required to cancel stamps on all letters collected by them. This order carried with it authority to deliver drop letters without passing them through the hands of a postmaster. ADAPTABILITY OF THE SERVICE. The effort in the incipiency of the institution of rural free delivery to put the matter to the test under as diverse conditions as possible resulted early in showing that the new way could be adapted to any section not altogether too sparsely settled. It was found possible to deliver the mails in the coldest winter of any part of this country and in the driest and hottest summer with very little interruption, scarcely more than occurs in cities by reason of snowdrifts and washouts on railways. When a heavy snow (PI. LXIII, fig. 2) blocks the way of the rural carrier it is customary for the farmers to turn out and break the roads, and this is done several days earlier than would be the ease ordinarily. In this way communication throughout neighbor- hoods and with the outside world is opened up promptly. In conse- quence the farmer is able to take advantage of#¢ood markets and the townspeople are not cut off from the supply of fresh country produce, as often has happened in severe storms. Also cases of dis- tress in isolated farm homes are sooner reached and relieved. The carrier’s outfit is modified to suit the conditions under which his work is done, a light vehicle (Pl LXV, fig. 1) being used in one section while a heavier wagon is preferred in another. The Washing- ton officials have been surprised at the rapidity of the growth of the system in remote and comparatively sparsely settled regions in the West and South (Pl. LXVI). ADVANTAGES OF RURAL FREE DELIVERY. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS. Rural free delivery of mails is scientific. On purely theoretical grounds the post office ought always to deliver the matter intrusted to it at the door of the addressee. The distance to be traveled from sender to receiver of mail is precisely the same whether the whole trip be made by the postal employee or he be met part way by the person for whom it is intended. Furthermore, the cost of making the trip is Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. PLATE LXV. ‘ 4 Fic. 2.—A CROWD OF FARMERS DEPARTING WITH THEIR BGXES FOR RURAL ROUTE AT ATTICA, IND. FREE DELIVERY OF RURAL MAILS. 523 always paid out of ‘the sum total of the nation’s capacity to do work. It makes little difference ultimately whether the labor is paid for from Government funds collected by the sale of stamps or otherwise, or is done by each man directly without intervention of the United States Treasury at all; it all comes from the people anyhow. The only question that need be asked is whether there will be more waste of time, a larger number of empty trips by the farmer, who never knows when there is mail for him, or by the postman, who always knows whether there is something to deliver; and to this there seems to be but one answer. The number of times the farmer would be going to the post town for other reasons and the times when sev- eral families would send for mail by the same messenger enter into the calculation, of course, but in general this would not change the answer. And whether the addressee may be a farmer or townsman really is of consequence, if free delivery involves.only a short trip for the post- in in the city, it also involves only a short trip for the citizen, and the corresponding relation between length of trips exists for the farm delivery. THE OPINIONS OF FARMERS. The views of farmers as to rural free delivery are strikingly illus- tr.ted by the reception of the opening of anew route at Attica, Ind., on May 12, 1900. (Pl. LXV, fiz. 2.) It was the busiest season of the year, but.a large number of farmers came in, some of them 10 to 15 miles to get farm boxes at $2.60 apiece, so as to be ready for the ce vier. ‘urther evidence of the general favor in which the system is held by farmers is found in hundreds of letters in answer to inquiries sent out by this Department. Only one in ten had any objection to offer, and frequently the objection was that the expense would be too great. In answer to this may be offered the demonstration on theoretical grounds that the real expense is much less under the new system. And more directly convincing is the demonstration by figures in the post-office reports that the cash outlay by the Government for rural free delivery is smaller than for a less desirable service through country post office and star route. The loss of work to the farming community in going to the post office for mail is shown to be absolute and total waste. Of the letters from farmers, a few are here presented. They are selected so as to show as fully as practicable opinions of all kinds: Jason Woodman, Paw Paw, Mich.: The daily delivery at his ‘‘place of business”’ of the farmer’s letters, market reports, and daily paper are as essential to him as such things are to any business man. In my own case it saves hundreds of miles driving and days of time each year. W. S. Jordan, North Manchester, Ind.: * * * After a trial of nearly a year we feel as though it would take away part of life to give it up. 594 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. E. D. Nauman, Thornburg, Iowa.: * * * Tt will greatly assist the farmer in a material and practical way by giving him the markets and United States weather forecasts daily. Of the two, I regard the weather forecasts fully as important as the markets. Under the old system the farmers, for whom to a large extent the weather bulletins are intended, do not see them with sufficient regularity to be of much value to them. And at that season of the year when the weather forecasts are of most value to the farmer (harvest time) he is too busy to visit the post office to either see the bulletin there displayed or to get his daily paper. Jonathan B. Allen, Delavan, Ill.: * * * In November I sold 3,000 bushels of corn; there was a difference of 3 cents a bushel between the highest and lowest bid of six elevators that are located within 5 miles of me. I consider a farm on rural mail route worth 5 per cent more than a farm that is not. W. D. H. Johnson, Holton, Ga.: * * * I would suggest that the carrier be required to carry the weather flags on his conveyance where the Weather Bureau has a signal station, as is the case at our starting point. T. C. Badger, Smith Center, Kans.: * * * Perhaps the greatest advantage is in knowing the market prices each day. The buyers here use Kansas City markets as a basis for buying, and the farmers can be, and some of them are, just as well informed as anyone. I know of two that made the price of their daily paper on one load of hogs each. It is the forerunner of other deliveries [of grocers and the like] along the route. W. M. Hilleary, Turner, Oreg.: * * * We have had the benefits of free rural mail delivery at Turner for more than three years. The farmers are well pleased with its benefits and pleasures. * * * Before free delivery was started there were 13 daily papers taken at Turner post office. To-day there are 113. This shows that the farmers are getting in touch with the world and are quick to avail them- selves of all educational facilities. With the general extension of rural free mail delivery there will be less talk about the monotony of farm life and less desire of the boys and girls to get away from the farm. The only objectors are small retailers of merchandise and dealers in liquors and tobacco. It may injure the business of the latter, since many farmers do not drink or smoke, only when they go to the village; and their families get the benefit in more reading matter. O. N. Cadwell, Carpinteria, Cal.: * * * It brings our daily papers promptly, so that saves us time and anxiety. The weather report is dropped in our box, and that is the first thing I look at, to see what it says about the weather to-morrow. C. P. Waugh, Wellsburg, W. Va.: * * * We have three routes in this county that have been in operation for 18 months and are delivering mail every day to 1,275 persons. In the 18 months the increase in the amount of mail deliy- ered and collected amounted to a little over 57 per cent. These 1,275 people live on an average about 2 miles from the office,and before the R. F. D. started only went for theirmail about twice per week, and it required about one hour each week for each person to go for his mail; 1,275 hours per week, 66,300 hours per year, or 6,630 days of 10 hours each lost every year going for mail twice per week, and then not receiving half the benefits we do at the present time. * % * By having plenty of good and cheap reading delivered at our doors every day free of charge it not only makes the farmers and their families read more, but it makes them think more. J. S. Hollingsworth, Snacks, Ind.: * * * Here is a sample of the benefits: I get two dailies every morning. * * * On November 16, 1900, I saw a big jump in potato market. Next day I left a postal card in a United States box at the cross- roads for a farmer 3 miles distant to ‘‘hold your big potato crop; a jump is on the market; don’t sell tco soon.’”’ In two weeks from that date he sold 1,000 bushels at 20 cents above the October market. FREE DELIVERY OF RURAL MAILS. 595 Matthew Williams, Verndale, Minn.: As the whole world has been drawn closer together by the inventions and uses of steam and electricity, so farmers may be drawn closer together by the universal practice of free delivery. State Senator Thomas J. Lindley, Ind.: * * * T can say with confidence that there is no other way in which the expenditure of a like sum of money brings as great good to so large a number of the people. The farmer on a rural route is in close and constant touch with the world. He no longer feels the isolation of country life. I think the system will contribute largely to prevent the threatened congestion of population in our cities and towns. I speak after two years’ experience on a rural route 7 miles from town. Frank L. Gerrish, Boscawen, N. H.:' * * * Some of the farmers got their eyes opened on the apple crop by taking papers they had not before, and made a nice thing by holding. These routes are not all they might be, but constant improve- ments will do much to help these back farms and keep them in touch with the near markets. Postmaster Henry Robinson, Concord, N. H.: [At the request of Mr. Gerrish, Mr. Robinson sent letters praising the new system from 32 farmers, all living along routes ? radiating from that office. ] . * * * Tf this State gets a fair allotment of the Congressional appropriation for rural free mail delivery during the fiscal year beginning July 1 next, the whole State of New Hampshire will be substantially covered, especially the principal high- ways, by the rural carrier service. The grangers in New Hampshire have made themselves its especial champions. * * * The local system of rural free delivery centering at the Concord post office already comprises 26 contiguous routes. These routes, on an average, include 600 people each, which, together with the people of the city of Concord, who enjoy city and rural free delivery, include substantially 35,000 people, or more than one- half of the population of Merrimack County. These routes cover substantially 1,000 miles of highways. The rural carrier service in central. New Hampshire now covers a tract of territory from the city of Franklin and the town of Salisbury, the birth- place of Daniel Webster, on the north, to the village of Litchfield, on the south, a distance of 50 miles, and from Pittsfield on the east to Henniker on the west, a distance of 34 miles. * * * ‘The impetus to the good-roads movement is very great, and the value of real estate generally throughout the delivery territory is increased. G. L. Webster, Opelika, Ala: * * * ‘There are three routes out from this place. The first has been in operation for four years, the other two one year, and they have all proved eminently successful. * * * The amount of mail matter carried out on this route has more than doubled since their establishment, and many farmers are taking papers and getting daily crop reports that formerly only got this information once a week. Z. Taylor Chrisman, Warwick, Pa.: * * * Tf rural free delivery must close our local post office and give us but one delivery a day and remove the ‘post office so far from us that we can’t go to it no matter how urgent, or should we receive a letter that required an immediate answer, it could not be answered until the next day, I can’t see that it will benefit us. Could not the Department with equal economy have a carrier from each local office distribute the mail daily, and we would still have our office, so that we could send or receive any additional mail? John M. True, secretary State board of agriculture, Madison, Wis.: I am of the opin- ion that the most sanguine expectations of the friends of rural free delivery are to be more than realized. Iam informed that upon lines established in my vicinity four months since the amount of mail handled has already largely increased, showing 526 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. a prompt disposition on the part of farmers to avail themselves of increased facilities for general reading, which means more intelligent ideas of business, periodicals, and social questions. It measurably removes the feeling of og that has been one of the great drawbacks to rural life. The whole tendency of the system is to elevate the farmer, making him a broader, more refined, happier, and more useful citizen. S. C. McDowell, Fox Lake, Wis.: * * * WBural free delivery will encourage the eople to make better roads. It has already had an influence on the price of land, which has increased $5 per acre already. F. D. T. Hall, Lamberton, N. Y.: * * * Farmers who have ali their lives been content with one or two mails a week declare they could not go back to the old way, but if the rural free delivery were to be taken away they would combine and employ a carrier at their own expense. J. B. Cain, Aurora, Nebr.: * * * Living 9 miles from the post office, only get- ting our mail once or twice a week, then to have a mail route so we can take a daily, is a blessing that a few years ago was not dreamed of. Other cattle feeders as well as myself have driven hundreds of miles for reports of stock market that we now get daily. William Schafer, Northcreek, Ohio: * * * J don’t believe it will ever be a com- plete success. I have watched the working of it near us in Defiance County, Ohio. [Pl. LXIV, fig. 2.] It works all right along the routes where there are good roads, but those goods roads are only a few, and I notice that the majority of citizens living at remote points have no accommodation; and again I see where parties go to town and right past the post office and could get their mail just the same. * * * If the Government isinclined to do a good act for the mail service, let them extend the distance of special delivery. Ifa person in the country receives a letter of importance with a special-delivery stamp, if it is beyond the limit directed by law he doesn’t get his letter. ~ REPORTS OF SPECIAL AGENTS OF THE POST OFFICE. The opinions of special agents engaged in introducing free rural delivery in all parts of the United States, as shown in their reports in 1899 and 1900, are invariably favorable to the success of the system. All agree that the opposition comes only from persons interested in the mail service who think they are likely to lose by the change, and from small storekeepers and saloon keepers at fourth-class post offices. Some of them mention also as difficulties to be overcome the fact that the work has been generally spoken of as experimental, and the impos- sibility of serving all persons precisely alike. The following expres- sions fairly represent the views of the special agents. The first two are reports for 1899, the others for 1900: A. B. Smith, Eastern Division: More letters are written and received; more news- papers and magazines read; more intelligence diffused; modern methods are employed on the farm, and better crops are harvested; rural life loses its loneliness and isolation dreaded by all; lands appreciate in value; abandoned farms are again occupied; congested centers find an outlet; inducements to peculation in the postal service are diminished; the service is placed abreast of the times and in accord with the business sentiment of the age. Thomas Howard, St. Paul, Minn.: The free delivery service offers a solution of the very serious sociological and economic problem presented by the tendency of young FREE DELIVERY OF RURAL MAILS. 527 men and women residing in rural districts to gravitate toward the cities. I have noticed a distinct improvement in the habits and general moral tone of communities supplied with the service. FP. M. Dice, Middle Division: A great many of the localities have provided uniforms for the carriers by private donations, and have aided carriers to secure special wagons for the delivery of the mails, and are active in their efforts to obtain the best mail boxes for use on their routes. William E. Annin, Western Division: In Iowa forty routes have been laid out in three Congressional districts during the last two months, all equipped with lock signal boxes erected on posts which are dressed, painted, and numbered. The influence of rural free delivery in stimulating the work for good roads has been powerful in not a few instances in securing appropriations for the bettering of roads, the build- ing of bridges, the repair of culverts, and the maintenance of way. Mr. A. W. Machen, Superintendent of the Free Delivery System, and Mr. H. Conquest Clarke, of the Southern Division, with general supervision at Washington of the rural service, concur in these views. , METHOD OF PROCEDURE IN STARTING NEW ROUTES. In order to introduce rural free delivery on a new route, a petition must be circulated and signed showing the desire of the persons along the line for the new service. This paper is then forwarded to the Representative in Congress from the dtstrict in which the route will be located, or to one of the Senators from the State, for his recom- mendation. If it is deemed practicable to start the service as desired, a special agent of the Post-Office Department is sent to lay out a route and muke a map of it. His report and map must show that at least 100 families can be made accessible to the delivery. It also shows the character of the roads, and the agent impresses upon the persons interested that the roads must be made passable summer and winter. A full route is considered 25 miles, but according to the country traversed may vary from 17 to 35 miles. It does not take the carrier over the same ground twice in the same day. Carriers were paid at first only $150 a year. They now receive $500 for an ordinary route and for special short routes $100 a year for each 5 miles traveled. They are bonded, and each carrier has a bonded substitute, so that the mails may never lack a responsible carrier. The civil-service regulations have never been applied to this service, but good character and temperate habits are required. Women are accept- able, and a few are in the ranks, some of them considered very efficient. Reports to the Post-Office Department of dereliction of duty on the part of rural carriers are very few. SUMMARY OF ADVANTAGES AND OBJECTIONS. Postmaster-General Charles Emory Smith in his last report sum- marizes the results attained as follows: Rural delivery has now been sufficiently tried to measure its effects. The imme- diate and direct resulis are clearly apparent. It stimulates social and business 528 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. correspondence, and so swells the postal receipts. Its introduction is invariably fol- lowed by a large increase in the circulation of the press and of periodical literature. The farm is thus brought into direct daily contact with the currents and movements of the business world. A more accurate knowledge of ruling markets and varying prices is diffused, and the producer, with his quicker communication and larger information, is placed on a surer footing. The value of farms, as has been shown in many cases, is enhanced. Good roads become indispensable, and their improvement is the essential condition of the service. The material and measurable benefits are signal and unmistakable. But the movement exercises a wider and deeper influence. It becomes a factor in the social and economic tendencies of American life. The disposition to leave the farm for the town is a familiar effect of our past conditions. But this tendency is checked, and may be materially changed by an advance which conveys many of the advantages of the town to the farm. Rural free delivery brings the farm within the daily range of the intellectual and commercial activities of the world, and the isola- tion and monotony which have been the bane of agricultural life are sensibly miti- gated. It proves to be one of the most effective and powerful of educational agencies. Wherever it is extended the schools improve and the civic spirit of the community feels a new pulsation; the standard of intelligence is raised, enlightened interest in public affairs is quickened, and better citizenship follows. With all these results clearly indicated by the experiment as thus far tried, rural free delivery is plainly here to stay. It can not be abandoned where it has been established, and it can not be maintained without being extended. The objections are: Fourth-class postmasters and star-route con- tractors are thrown out of some work, and the custom of large num- bers of farmers is diverted from its former channels, a disturbance of business of indefinite proportions but of real consequence, yet soon remedied by a readjustment of relations; delay of mails of persons who have lived near enough to the country offices to send for mail early, but who are reached by the rural carrier only as he returns late in the day at the end of his route; and the impossibility of reaching very remote homesteads with rural carriers. The balance in favor of rural free delivery is so great, the reception by farmers so enthusiastic, and the demands for its extension so wide- spread and urgent that the Post-Office Department now makes an esti- mate for it as no longer an experiment, and Congress in its liberal appropriations appears to have accepted this view, although the word ‘‘experimental” is still retained in the postal appropriation bill. The growth of the administrative work at Washington has been so great that additional room is now being provided for the force of employees. The conditions shown justify the opinion more than once expressed by the Post-Office Department, that the United States must follow the lead of France, England, Germany, Austria, and other countries, whose closely settled lands sooner suggested it, and establish a free delivery service everywhere. It is already manifest that the service is in some respects superior to that of the older countries, and when it is fully developed and running smoothly Americans and foreigners will alike be surprised if it is not clearly superior in all its details. SUCCESSFUL WHEAT GROWING IN SEMIARID DISTRICTS. By Mark ALFreD CARLETON, Cerealist, Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology. INTRODUCTION. There has been much discussion in recent years of the question of the future wheat supply of the world, and in some quarters fears have been expressed that by the end of the next thirty years we may experience a universal wheat famine, provided that the present rate of increase of the bread-eating population and the present yield of wheat per acre shall continue. It is not the purpose to enter into this dis- cussion here, except to say that the-subject is at any rate one which deserves serious consideration, and is of interest from the standpoint of the agricultural scientist, as well as from that of the statistician. Whether such a failure in the wheat supply shall come sooner or later, there is no question as to the need of giving attention to all possible means of increasing the product of the lands that are already farmed. By this means there may be accomplished the double purpose of increasing not only the general supply of wheat, but also the profits derived by the individual farmer from a given amount of Iand. At present a very good opportunity of making improvements which shall be productive of immediate returns is to be found in the development of the semiarid districts. There is no general agreement among agriculturists as to what part of the country may be properly called semiarid and what part should be considered completely arid. Ideas concerning the line that should separate the semiarid from the humid region are equally indefinite. In fact, there is possible need of a fourth term—semihumid—to desig- nate a region lying between these last two. In this paper the term semiarid may be understood to refer, approximately, to that portion 1Sir William Crookes’s presidential address before the British Association for the Advancement of Science, at Bristol, September 7, 1898; The World’s Wheat Supply, by Sirs Lawes and Gilbert, London, 1898 (reprint of letter in London Times, Decem- ber 2, 1898); Edward Atkinson, Popular Science Monthly, Vol. LIV, pp. 145-162 and 759-772, December, 1898, and April, 1899; John Hyde, North American Review, Vol. CLXVIII, pp. 191-205, February, 1899; C. D. Roper, Popular Science Monthly, Vol. LXV, pp. 766 and 777, October, 1899; The Wheat Problem, by Sir William Crookes, London, 1899. 529 530 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of the Great Plains lying between the ninety-ninth and one hundred and second meridians, to portions of eastern Washington and Oregon, and to those small portions of the Rocky Mountain and basin States where crops are grown without irrigation. The conditions in these semiarid districts are at times very discouraging. They are character- ized by great extremes, occasional abundant harvests and partial or entire failures following each other at intervals of two to five years. These occurrences are closely associated with corresponding periods of extremes in temperature and rainfall. Such extremes also occur often during the same season, so that the weather may in a single season be so favorable for one crop as to secure an excellent harvest, and yet be exceedingly unfavorable for some other crop. For example, in the middle States of the Plains it is seldom that large harvests of both wheat and corn are obtained in the same year. As the wheat harvests in this region are, with a good rainfall, always excellent compared with those of other districts, any improvements that would insure conditions favorable to a good average harvest in all seasons are of the greatest importance. There will soon be no more new lands to be opened to settlement that are suitable for wheat culture, consequently an increase in the average yield of such lands as these is one of the means which must be depended upon in order to increase the general supply of wheat. Moreover, it is a matter worthy of note that the wheats usually grown in semiarid districts possess a very high quality of grain. They are always bard-grained, and furnish a large amount of gluten of the best quality. The same climatic features that cause aridity—namely, extreme heat and drought—are fortunately those which also produce an excellent quality of grain when acting in con- junction with a soil rich in nitrogen. IS A YEARLY CROP OF WHEAT POSSIBLE IN SEMIARID DISTRICTS WITH- OUT IRRIGATION 2? It is only in exceedingly small portions of the wheat-growing area, especially in Utah, Idaho, and Colorado, that wheat has yet been grown by irrigation. In all other portions where irrigation is at all desirable, it is the testimony of irrigation engineers, and is at least the general belief of cultivators, that only a very small percentage of the lands can be irrigated—perhaps no more than 10 per cent at most. But even where irrigation can be carried on the cost may be so great that the additional yield obtained thereby will not justify the practice, especially if a fair average crop be produced every year in semiarid districts without it. It is the belief of the writer that this is possible, at least, over very large areas. It may be noted by any careful observer that occasionally there are farmers in these districts who seem always to have a good crop of wheat whatever the season, even when there may be failures of the crop all about them. As other farmers in the vicinity have the same SUCCESSFUL WHEAT GROWING IN SEMIARID DISTRICTS. 531 climate, and approximately the same kind of soil, such differences in results can not be due to differences in these conditions. They are simply due to certain methods of agriculture adopted by these farmers by which they are able to overcome unfavorable conditions of the weather. The Russian farmers who settled years ago in various portions of the Great Plains region have been especially successful in wheat growing in those localities. Coming originally from regions of constantly recur- ring droughts and cold winters, they have long ago learned how best to combat such adverse conditions. Many of these farmers, including a large number of the Mennonites, from the government of Taurida, who settled in McPherson, Harvey, Ellis, Graham, and other counties of Kansas, have always grown wheat quite extensively and with com- paratively few failures. During the years 1895 and 1896, when the wheat crop was almost an entire failure in large portions of the Great Plains, these farmers continued to have good harvests. In the autumn of 1896 the writer visited a number of these farms in McPherson County, when most of the thrashing had been done and much of the wheat was being hauled to the markets. ‘The usual average yield was 22 to 25 bushels per acre, and occasionally there were yields of 30 and 35 bushels. The grain generally overweighed, reaching often 62 pounds per bushel. In south and east Russia fair average yields of wheat of superior quality are obtained where the climate is characterized by greatextremes of heat and cold and the rainfall is considerably less than on our Great Plains near the one hundredth meridian. The larger part of the most valuable Russian macaroni wheat and much of the red-grained Russian and Ghirka spring wheats, in quality equaling our Dakota Fifes and Blue Stems, are produced east of the Volga, with an average rainfall of 15 inches or less; while the excellent hard winter wheats of the Crimea, Don territory, Kharkov, and north Caucasus endure the most rigorous winters and are grown with a rainfall and summer tem- perature similar to that near the one hundredth meridian, from Kansas to South Dakota. _ The average yearly production of wheat in Kharkoy government during the four years 1896-1899 was 11,438,850 bushels, with an average yield of 7.7 bushels per acre.!| Almost one-fifth of this pro- duction is winter wheat, although the climate is apparently parallel with that of the Nebraska and South Dakota border. The normal rainfall at the city of Kharkov is 19.4 inches per annum, 2 inches less than at Huron, 8. Dak.* Statistics, however, do not reveal the fact, known 1Calculated as accurately as possible from the reports of the central committee of statistics of the ministry of the interior of Russia for the years 1896-1899. * All figures concerning rainfall are averages taken from ‘‘ Die Regenverhiltnisse des Russischen Reiches’” (Wild), S. 12-28, Kaiserl. Akad. der Wissensch., St. Petersburg, 1881 and 1887; also ‘‘ Report of the Chief of the Weather Bureau’’ (Har- rington), 1891-92, U. S. Dept. Agr., Washington, 1893. 532 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to the writer, that a large part of the fall-sown crop of the most excellent quality is grown east of the city of Kharkov, where the climate is much more severe, characterized especially by dry, cold winter winds. In the government of Stavropol, in north Caucasus, the average yearly production is 12,249,210 bushels, of which nearly four-fifths is winter wheat. The average yield per acre is 6.8 bushels for the years 1896-1899, including one extremely bad season. Here the temperature is milder than in Kharkoy, but the rainfall is very light and particularly uncertain. In the larger part of the govern- ment, where most of the wheat is grown, no meteorological records are kept, but the rainfall probably averages under 18 inches. On the other hand, in Kansas the average yield per acre for the part of the State lying west of the ninety-ninth meridian for the years of 1895-1899 was 6.7 bushels,’ 1 bushel less than in Kharkov, where the climate, in both winter and summer, is much more severe. A still better example for comparison is to be found in the wheat production of the lower Volga region of east Russia. In this region are comprised the three governments of Samara, Orenburg, and Astrakhan. The climate is characterized by the greatest extremes of ‘heat, cold, and drought. An average of the normal yearly rainfall of six points, scattered pretty well over the entire territory, is 12.7 inches—a precipitation approaching that of regions practically arid. Yet, this is one of the principal wheat regions of Russia. The average yearly production for 1896-1899 was 44,980,050 bushels, and the aver- age yield per acre 6.6 bushels. For Turkestan, which in a broad sense may be considered to include Ferghana, Syr-Darya, Samarcand, and Transcaspia, no satisfactory statistics have yet been reported, but rough estimates made in the year 1892 for the report on agricultural industries of Russia, prepared for the World’s Columbian Exposition, made the annual production of wheat at that time about 15,000,000 bushels, and that of all other grains about 16,000,000 bushels. The average yearly rainfall is 6 to 10 inches, or even less, and the summers are characterized by intense heat. Nevertheless, a large part of the wheat crop is grown without irrigation, though all winter wheat is irrigated. The yields per acre are not reported, but are said to be very fair, even on unwatered (bogarny) lands. That the yield of wheat does not depend upon the absolute amount of rainfall is established by facts well known in our own country. In the Palouse region of Washington and Idaho 12 inches yearly rainfall is usually considered. to be sufficient for a good crop of wheat, while in the plains States 21 inches is not supposed to be sufficient, the con- ditions of culture being approximately the same in the two regions. 1Calculated from reports of the secretary of the Kansas State board of agriculture for the years 1895-1899. SUCCESSFUL WHEAT GROWING IN SEMIARID DISTRICTS. 533 In the former region the nature of the soil makes it much better able to conserve the moisture that does fall. In that part of Oregon near The Dalles the average yield of wheat without irrigation during the last three years, according to the vice-director of the Oregon Agri- cultural Experiment Station, was 23 bushels per acre on summer- fallowed land. In 1900 it was 25 to 44 bushels peracre. Yet, the climatic conditions there are such as prevail in regions practically arid instead of semiarid. The rainfall at Moro, in that district, during the year November 1, 1897, to November 1, 1898, was 8.64 inches, esti- mating the amount for September (for which there is no record) as a mean between August and October, which, according to experience, is approximately correct. The facts furnished by the foregoing comparisons, and many others, which lack of space precludes mentioning here, are, it seems to the writer, sufficient proof that a constant yearly crop of good average yield may be depended upon over far the larger area of the semiarid districts. The importance of such a proposition, if true, must be gen- erally acknowledged. The question then naturally arises, how is this constant yearly crop to be secured. If we exclude such examples as those of eastern Oregon and the Palouse region, where the natural condition of the soil is uausually favorable for great conservation of moisture, it will be found that any marked increase in average yields in the semiarid districts may be secured in two ways: (1) By a proper selection of hardy varieties, and (2) by proper methods of culture. VARIETIES BEST FOR SEMIARID DISTRICTS. As already stated, the conditions of soil and climate of the semiarid districts are usually such as are adapted for the growth of the gluti- nous, hard-grained wheats. This is a matter so important that only such varieties are to be considered, as a rule, although in districts like the Palouse region the composition of the soil is such as to permit a deterioration in the gluten content of the grain. There are three general classes of wheats from which we may select varieties that are in various degrees more resistant to the adverse conditions of these districts than those now grown and therefore able to produce -larger average yields. These are (1) the red spring wheats; (2) the hardy winter wheats; (3) the macaroni wheats. RED SPRING VARIETIES. It would hardly be supposed that any varieties of red spring wheats could be obtained better fitted for cultivation in the Dakotas than the well-known Fifes and Blue Stems now grown in those States. There are seasons, however, when even these excellent varieties are seriously damaged by drought in a large portion of this region; while there are 5384 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. several varieties of the very best milling quality in extreme east Rus- sivand western Siberia, which in such seasons would probably be better able to withstand the drought, as they are grown in ‘the lower Volga region, already mentioned as a region of the severest extremes of climate. These varieties are both bearded and beardless, the best sorts, however, bemg bearded. ‘Probably the best one of -all is the variety called simply Russian,’ a bearded sort, very hard, red-grained, and extremely resistant to drought. It produces fatr ‘crops under conditions.as arid as those of ‘the Ural and Turghai territories, just across ‘the Ural River in‘Siberia. The next best sort-of this class is the variety Sprmg Ghirka, so commonly grown as to have become the chief export variety of the Volga region. It is without beards and possesses 2 erain with a thin bran and a very large percentage of gluten of excellent quality. It is rather similar to the Fife wheats of ‘this country. Judging from many series of analyses made of various wheats, it is probable that these varieties possess the highest oluten content known among bread wheats. HARDY WINTER VARIETIES. The establishment of winter varieties is the most dificult problem in the entire work of securing wheats adapted to semiarid conditions. The difficulties in the way are double those encountered in.connection with spring wheats, since the winter sorts have ‘to withstand both drought and cold. The effect of the cold is also all the more severe because of the accompanying drought. Nevertheless, if once such varieties are successfully established -and the winter-wheat area in these districts thereby widely extended, the importance of the accom- plishment will probably be admitted by all wheat growers. In addi- tion to the well-known general truth that the same variety sown in the autumn, if able to withstand the winter, will usually give a larger yield of better grain than if sown in the spring, it is also true that winter varieties are able in particular imstances to overcome the effects of spring drought better than spring-sown grain, because of their great reserve force in the amount of root growth attained the previous autumn. Besides, winter sorts are often more likely to escape certain diseases on account of their earlier maturity. To show the value of the use of these hardy varieties of the Russian type one needs only to call to mind the Crimean wheat, known under the misleading name of Turkey, which has been grown for twenty- five years or more in Kansas, and is now also grown extensively in Nebraska, Iowa, and Oklahoma, and toa lesser extent in other parts of the country. By its hardiness it has entirely revolutionized the winter-wheat industry of the middle Plains States. Fresh importa- tions of seed from the Crimea or other parts of the government of TNo. 2955 of the Section of Seed and Plant Introduction of this Department. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. PLATE LXVII A.MOEN & CO. LITHOCAUSTIC, BALTIMORE DROUGHT-RESISTANT WHEATS —HARD WINTER VARIETIES. 4, TURKEY (CRIMEAN); 2, ODESSA WHITE CHAFF; 3, ODESSA RED CHAFF ; 4, ROUMANIAN WHITE CHAFF ; 5, KHARKOV; 6, ULTA. OD. G. Passmore. SUCCESSFUL WHEAT GROWING IN SEMIARID DISTRICTS. 535 Taurida have been made at different times, until now the variety is universally recognized as an indispensable component of the agricul- ture of these States. By means of this single variety alone the winter-wheat flour of these States has risen in reputation to be a well- recognized rival in foreign markets of the output from Minneapolis and Budapest. Its cultivation has at the same time caused a very marked extension of the winter-wheat area, which was not before possible because of the severity of the winters. Even this variety, however, occasionally succumbs to the winters in parts of Iowa and Nebraska, and fails entirely in South Dakota, Minnesota, and Wisconsin, where winter wheat ought to be-and prob- ably can be grown. It is therefore very desirable to secure varieties still hardier than the Turkey. That it is possible to do so appears now almost certain from investigations made by the writer during the past two years In east and south Russia. The region of Russia from which, at pre esent, the hardiest winter wheats originate includes the following governments: Southern Kher- son, Taurida (including the Crimea), Ekaterinoslav, Kharkov, Don territory, Voronezh, the southern portions of Tambov and Saratov, the northern portion of Kuban territory, and the northern and eastern portions of Stavropol. The region corresponds very fairly with that portion of our Great Plains, Gnclading Kansas, eastern Colorado, Nebraska, Iowa, South Dakota, and portions of Me aeeote and North Dakota. It test in the middle of the black soil (chernozem) belt, and therefore includes the very richest lands, and has a climate marked by great extremes of temperature and severe droughts. One of the best of the winter varieties to be obtained from this region is the Kharkoy Winter wheat from the eastern part of Kharkov government, near Starobelsk. This district possesses a climate nearly or quite as severe as that of South Dakota. Summer droughts are common, and in winter the effect of the cold is much increased by the dry, piercing winds and absence of snow. This wheat is therefore probably one of the hardiest of all known winter varieties, and ought to be able to withstand the winters of South Dakota and Minnesota. It is bearded, and has a white chaff and very hard red grain. At this point it may be noted that all the most hardy winter wheats are bearded, and usually have a white chaff, though the grain is red. The Turkey or Crimean is of this kind. It is probable that all these Rus- sian hardy winter varieties are of one common general type, but pos- sess different degrees of hardiness depending upon the climate of the locality in which they are grown. (Pl. LXVII.) The variety Beloglino, grown in the extreme northern portion of Stavropol, north Caucasus, is rather similar in hardiness to the Kharkov wheat, but is probably a little more drought resistant and perhaps a little less resistant to cold. It will therefore be adapted to districts 536 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. considerably west of the one hundredth meridian of our Great Plains, perhaps as far as extreme western Nebraska and eastern Colorado. In 1900 this variety apparently possessed the hardest, most glutinous erain of all the Russian winter wheats. The varieties Ulta and Buivola, from central and eastern Stavropol, near the Kuma River, are also very resistant to drought and of excellent quality. There is much alkali in this district, and the rainfall diminishes rapidly toward the Caspian Sea. Ata distance of 150 miles east of the city of Stavropol it is probably less than 15 inches per annum. Here there are also severe dry winds, and in the driest periods the air is filled with dust. Several other Russian varieties and certain Roumanian sorts are also quite drought resistant, and possess a good, hard red grain, but are not so resistant to cold as those just mentioned, though some of them com. pare very well with the Turkey in this regard. Two of the best of these are the Odessa White Chaff and the Odessa Red Chaff, grown in the district near Odessa. The grain is very hard, apparently of excel- lent quality, and the yield good. The best variety of Roumania, which approaches very closely in quality of grain and resistance to drought to those of extreme southwest Russia, is the Roumanian White Chaff. All of these three varieties ought to give excellent results in Oklahoma, northern Texas, and a large part of Kansas. MACARONI VARIETIES. The greatest endurance of drought is exhibited by wheats of the durum group, commonly called macaroni wheats. In eastern Russia, Turkestan, and Algeria these wheats flourish under climatic conditions so extremeas to be perhaps properly called arid, rather than semiarid. In these regions very fair crops are produced with 10 to 12 inches or less of rainfall per year. Experiments made by this Department with these varieties have already given sufliciently favorable results to show without question that they are admirably adapted to the driest por- tions of our Great Plains, and will probably prove successful also in Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, and the drier portions of Oregon and Washington. In a number of instances these varieties, when grown in the same locality with the ordinary bread wheats in the States of the Great Plains, have given, in seasons of unusual drought, a yield two to four times as great as that of the ordinary wheats. In addition to drought resistance, these varieties have also the advantage of being resistant to the attacks of leaf rust and other parasitic fungi. On the other hand, they are very liable to injury in severe winters, and must be used as spring varieties north of the thirty-fifth parallel. South of that latitude they may be sown in October or November, and become practically winter wheats. By gradual adaptation through selection they may be made later to endure the winter farther north. As winter varieties they furnish abundant fall pasturage. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. PLATE LXVIII. Fic. 2.—PLOWING THE “BLACK FALLOW”’ ON A LARGE ESTATE IN NORTHERN TAURIDA, RUSSIA. aad Ns P. SEY eaten a PLATE LXIX SS eee oo Le Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. Proctor. DROUGHT-RESISTANT WHEATS — MACARONI! VARIETIES. 1, KUBANKA; 2, NICARAGUA; 3, VELVET DON; 4, BLACK DON; WILD GOOSE. 5, Be SUCCESSFUL WHEAT GROWING IN SEMIARID DISTRICTS. 587 Apparently the only obstacle in the way of complete success with macaroni wheats is the present uncertainty of the market—an obstacle, however, which will no doubt very soon disappear. As these wheats are employed almost solely for making macaroni and similar pastes, a market will have to be found cither for export to southern France and Italy, or by stimulating sufficient demand among our own macaroni factories to establish a home market. At present our own factories make their macaroni from the common bread wheats, using, especially, flour from the Minneapolis and Kansas mills. Already some of these factories would be glad to use the true macaroni wheats if they could readily obtain the flour. As the factories do not grind their own flour, the one thing remaining is to create a sufficient interest among the flour mills to induce them to provide the proper machinery for grinding these wheats. They are so much harder than even the hardest of our bread wheats that certain changes in milling machinery are apparently needed in order to be able to grind them. When macaroni wheat is mixed with 20 or 25 per cent of red wheat in grinding, it also makes what is considered in eastern Russia an excellent quality of flour for bread. -In fact Kubanka, the chief mac- aroni variety, is the most popular for making bread in that region. All the mills along the Volga grind this wheat in large quantities. The three principal varieties of macaroni wheats imported on a large . seale by the factories of France and Italy are Gharnovka, or Arnautka, from the Azoy Sea region, and Kubanka and Beloturka from eastern Russia. (Pl. LXVIII, fig. 1.) These are all white chaff sorts, with yellowish white grains, appearing vitreous in fracture, and are of the highest grade among macaroni varieties. A black-bearded variety with velvet chaff and dark-colored grains, and a black chaff variety are also grown in the Azov and lower Volga regions. (Pl. LXIX.) All these varieties have been introduced by the Department of Agri- culture and distributed through the State experiment stations. The variety Sarui-bugda is an excellent white-chaff sort, grown mostly in Turkestan. A number of valuable varieties of macaroni wheats are also grown in Algeria, of which Medeah, Pellissier, and El Safra are among the best known. These Algerian sorts are probably best adapted in this country to districts south of the thirty-fifth parallel. Polish wheat is also sometimes used for making macaroni and other pastes. It is grown principally in south and east Russia, Turkestan, and the Mediterranean region. In the Palouse region and similar districts, the natural conditions being rather exceptional, there is also a special demand for wheats of the club, or square-head, group, or sorts of a similar nature, which are good yielders, ripen early, do not shatter, and though drought resist- ant are at the same time soft wheats. Such varieties are found in Turkestan, and several of them have been introduced by the Department. 4 a1900 a) 538 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. METHODS OF CULTURE. The selection of hardy varieties is an especially favorable means of extending the wheat area or the area for a certain class of wheats. To aid in making a good yearly crop within this area constant and certain it is necessary, in addition, to practice proper methods of culture. Even with an excellent variety in use, there are localities where the majority of the farmers have concluded that it is impossible to produce a pay- ing crop each year, and that occasionally an entire failure is inevitable on account of drought or the severity of the winter. But, as already mentioned, there are often other farmers in the same localities who continue to have good harvests year after year, with the same natural conditions of climate and soil. By proper treatment of the soil these farmers have simply conserved moisture that the others have lost, and which was necessary to mature the crop. It is not simply the amount of moisture that falls, but the amount that is retained in the soil that is of chief importance. Half the average rainfall of places near the one hundredth meridian would be plenty for a crop of wheat if it could all be utilized and at the right time. In the Palouse region the soil is naturally in condition to hold much moisture. In the region of the Great Plains the farmer must aid nature by proper tillage to accom- plish the same end. TIME AND MANNER OF PLOWING. The importance of very early plowing for wheat can not be too strongly urged. In recent years early plowing has apparently become more common than formerly, but it is not yet so universally practiced as it should be. If wheat is to follow wheat on the same land, the present crop should be removed at the earliest date possible, if for no other reason than to permit immediate plowing. For spring wheat, plowing should by all means be done the previous autumn or summer, however dry the ground may be. By alternate freezing and thawing during the winter the ground will be brought into good condition for further tillage the following spring. Let the first plowing be com- paratively deep; afterwards all further cultivation should be near the surface, and should include discing or harrowing, or both, every four or five weeks (preferably after a rain) until seeding time. This process not only prevents evaporation, but keeps the land constantly and thor- oughly clean of weeds. Careful investigations will show that summer fallowing is in most instances unprofitable. In some portions of the country the practice is attended with much actual loss, which is apparently not fully real- ized. The object of summer fallowing is to conserve moisture and to give the soil an opportunity to accumulate a supply of certain available constituents by means of a year’s rest, during which time the land is cultivated, but no crop is sown upon it. There is no doubt that much SUCCESSFUL WHEAT GROWING IN SEMIARID DISTRICTS. 539 moisture is conserved in this way, but that purpose may be largely accomplished by early plowing, and in case of spring wheat by plowing the previousautumn. Of the solid plant foods, potash, phosphates, and nitrogen are among the most important for wheat, and are usually pres- ent in great abundance in prairie regions. - In the semiarid and arid dis- tricts the greater the degree of drought the less the amount of nitrog- enous food there is present in proportion to mineral salts, and hence anything that will increase the supply of nitrogenous matter becomes of chief importance. It is well known that this increase is readily accomplished by the growth of leguminous crops. In the States west of the one hundredth meridian, where there is great lack of nitrogen, leguminous cropping is especially needful. In the drier portions of the Pacific coast States summer fallowing is commonly practiced every second year. It is evident that in such cases this practice can not be regarded as immediately profitable unless the value of a crop thus obtained be equal to that of the combined crops of two years without summer fallow, deducting from the latter the expense of one year’s seed, harvesting, and thrashing. It is doubtful, however, if anyone ever expects such an increase of yield by this practice. Moreover, in many instances, as observed by the writer, the fallow is allowed to become covered with weeds, which exhaust the soil as much as a cul- tivated crop and give no returns. On the other hand, a leguminous crop will accomplish the threefold end of (1) giving an immediate profitable return from the soil; (2) of increasing the yield of the fol- lowing crop of wheat; and, (3) in extreme cases, of helping to produce a more or less permanent amelioration of the soil by neutralizing the bad effects of the presence of an excessive amount of alkali.* LESSONS FROM RUSSIAN METHODS. Mention has been niade of the success that has attended the practices of the Russian settlers in various localities of the Great Plains. These people have simply followed the methods they learned in their native country. In the southern and eastern wheat districts of Russia the people have contended with extremes of climate even more severe than ours for long periods of time. It should not be surprising, therefore, if they have learned to get the best results possible under adverse con- ditions. Even the peasants, crude as are their methods and ignorant as they would doubtless seem to us, have Jong been familiar with certain principles of agriculture not yet fully recognized in our own country. ‘There are many systems of crop rotation followed in the semiarid districts of Russia, some of them having been practiced for a long time. *See Bulletin No. 24, Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, U. S. Department of Agriculture, ‘‘The basis for the improvement of American wheats,”’ pp. 20-25. 540 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. One system consists in planting melons as the first crop (baksha) on new ground, followed by Kubanka or Gharnovka wheat (macaroni varieties), then a hard red wheat, then a softer wheat or pasture crop. The land is then allowed to rest one or two years and a similar series of crops is afterwards repeated. There are also the three, five, and seven field systems, in which by the use of several fields it is possible to grow several different crops each year without growing the same crop twice in succession on the same field, while a period of rest can be given regularly to each field also if deere In any system it is always the aim to grow melons or macaroni wheat on new land. Summer fallowing is practiced considerably, but by no means in all cases. On the other hand, wheat is sometimes grown several years in succession on the same land, as is too often done inthis country. But whatever the system of cropping and whether summer fallowing is practiced or not, early deep plowing at first and thorough tillage thereafter until seeding time are never neglected. THE BLACK FALLOW. Tillage among the peasants is usually with crude instruments. The plow (sokha) is a light machine of very primitive appearance, often drawn by one horse. After the first plowing, which is always as deep as the nature of their implements will allow, instead of using a harrow, the land is lightly cross plowed every month, or after every good rain, until seeding time. The wheat is sown by hand just before the last plowing. In some cases the seed is. covered by a sort of harrow instead of the plow. On the lands of the more intelligent farmers and on all the large estates a much more modern machine is used in plowing. Large plows, rather similar to ours, are used in the first plowing, which is usually very deep, apparently considerably deeper than plowing is done in this country. The plows are usually ganged, two to one frame, and are drawn by three to five yoke of oxen. ‘The driver never rides, and there is no provision for doing so. ‘The sub- sequent tillage is performed by various machines, but usually by much lighter plows, five or six hung to a single frame, carried on three wheels, and drawn by two yoke of oxen. It is a common and inter- esting sight to see eight to twelve of these teams ina train plowing on the large estates. (Pl. LXVIII, fig. 2.) The writer has counted fifty plows of a dozen different patterns on one estate. In Pl. LXXis shown a modern method of thrashing, which is also commonly prac- ticed on these large estates. At seeding time the harrow is used and the wheat is then drilled in. In these districts the fallowed land every- where is so very dark in color that it is commonly called the ‘‘ black fallow” (chernui par). The term seems not to be restricted, however, to fallow land, but is apparently often applied also to early “alin in preparation Be fall or spring sowing. In the spring-wheat districts PLATE LXX. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. THRASHING WHEAT ON THE ESTATE OF MR. GINTER AT YOSHAN-LEI, IN NORTHERN TAURIDA, RUSSIA. SUCCESSFUL WHEAT GROWING IN SEMIARID DISTRICTS. 541 it is the universal practice, with no exceptions known to the writer, to plow early in autumn, and very deep, in preparation for the following spring crop. METHODS OF SEEDING. The first thing of prime importance at seeding time is a fine seed bed. If the previous cultivation has been properly performed, how- ever, this will be a condition easily attained. It should be kept in mind that after the first plowing the entire subsequent tillage of the seed bed is a life-and-death struggle, with possible drought, for the retention of moisture about the roots of the future wheat plant. If this fact were properly appreciated and heeded and the wheat sown early, there would seldom be a failure of the crop in semiarid districts in spite of the severest drought. Thorough cultivation should extend just a little way below the surface, while farther down the soil should be allowed to become packed, so that there may be the very least possible evaporation of moisture. It is a pretty safe rule to follow the practice of sowing always at a date which is considered to be early in that locality. At the proper time the seeding should be done at once, without regard to weather conditions. ‘Too many cases of partial or entire failures of crops have been the result of delay in seeding on account of waiting for rain or for some other cause. Ifa rain is expected the crop should by all means be in before it comes. The crop that is sown in good time comes up at once after the first rain, if not before, and is put far ahead of those sown just after a rain, much farther than would be caused by the dif- ference in time alone. Ifa winter crop, it will have time to make a much stronger growth in preparation for the winter than the crops sown later, while in the case of spring wheats the early-sown crop, by ripening early, will be better able to escape certain diseases. Of course, wheat seeding should always be done with the drill. The direction and depth of the drill rows are matters of the greatest impor- tance in semiarid districts, particularly in seeding winter wheats. The drill rows of winter wheat should by all means run east and west, for the manifest reason that the rows will then be able to catch the snows if any fall, and the winds instead of driving the fine dirt out of the rows will rather drive it into the rows and around the plants. We never fully realize what measure of success of the winter-wheat crop is dependent upon proper methods of drilling. The drill rows need especially to be made deep; but the form of the rows is alsoa matter of importance. The evolution of methods of seeding is about in the following order: (1) Sowing by hand; (2) the use of the seeder, ‘simply a machine taking the place of the hand, with no force feed and not sowing the wheat in rows; (3) the ordinary drill with a force feed putting the grain in evenly in rows and deeper; (4) the press drill, which is probably the most perfect machine we have at present. We 542 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. probably do not yet have exactly the ideal drill for winter-wheat sowing in districts of extreme drought. The proper kind of machine when made will possess a combination of features found in both the press drill and what is known as the lister drill. Each hoe of such a drill should operate somewhat similarly to a corn lister, but on a smaller seale, having a broad shovel-like construction above and a short-pointed portion below and a little behind, which would be the hoe proper. The shovels should go in about as deep as in ordinary corn cultivation and the hoe proper still 13 or 2 inches deeper, with a packer of some kind following behind. When so planted, the wheat is put so far down that the growing roots are surrounded with the abundant moisture of the packed portion of the soil, and the fine surface dirt falls in around the plant from above, filling up the row to such an extent that it will require a severe winter indeed to kill out the plant to the roots. in case of spring wheats on land plowed the previous autumn, by using the same method the moisture gathered during the winter will be so conserved about the roots that little more rainfall will be needed to mature a crop. MAINTAINING AND IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF THE WHEAT. The practice of the best methods of culture, with varieties most resistant to drought and cold, should still be supplemented by constant selection of the best grain each year for seeding the next crop. Havy- ing once secured avarietyas nearly as possible ideal for the locality, it is then necessary to maintain the standard of the variety. But it is possible to do more than that; the variety may be so improved that it will become much hardier and more prolific than the crop produced by the original seed. The Turkey wheat, even with the crudest sort of seed selection, has shown much improvement in hardiness in recent years, and is now grown much farther norththan formerly. In some instances it seems also to have improved in drought resistance. If we select the hardiest varieties at present at our command and practice the most rigid selection of seed froin the hardiest plants each year, a still hardier crop will soon result, which can:be successfully established in a new locality with a climate still more severe, and the same process of selection can then be repeated. It is the belief of the writer that in this way the winter-wheat area may be extended northward almost indefinitely. There is an especially good opportunity for making improvements in this way in seasons of unusually severe winters, like the year 1898-99 in Nebraska, or in seasons of unusually severe drought, if one is particular in such cases to select seed from the sur- viving portions of the crop in fields most exposed to the weather. Spring wheats may of course be improved in a similar way with respect to drought resistance, yield, and early maturity. TESTING COMMERCIAL VARIETIES OF VEGETABLES. By W. W.-tkacy, Jr’, Assistant, Division of Botany. INAUGURATION OF TESTS BY THE DEPARTMENT. About two years ago it was determined by the Department of Agri- culture to inaugurate, under the direction of the Botanist, a series of thorough tests and accurate descriptions of trade varieties of vege- tables. In pursuance of this end, preliminary tests were conducted during the seasons of 1899 and 1900 at Kensington, Md., and it is proposed to continue the work on experiment grounds now occupied by the Department on the Potomac Flats within easy reach of the Department buildiags. While no reports of the tests hitherto made have yet been published, it seems desirable that public attention should be called to the reasons for this undertaking and the aims and meth- ods with which it is to be conducted. American seedsmen catalogued last year 685 real or nominal varie- ties of cabbage, 320 of table beets, 340 of sweet corn, 560 of bush beans, 255 of pole beans, 320 of cucumber, 530 of lettuce, and an equally large number of varieties of other vegetables. Such a long list would be sufficiently confusing, especially to gardeners and farm- ers, even if they all represented distinct varieties. As a matter of fact, however, many of them stand only for improved stocks of an old variety, or even merely for the particular seedsman’s stock of a known variety which is neither better nor worse than other stocks. At the same time the current method of forming new names by attach- ing a seedsman’s name or a descriptive term to an old one leaves it . frequently impossible to say whether the variety is really new, or only an improved stock, or without any characteristic of novelty whatever. We have, for instance, in beans, Keeney’s Rust Proof Golden’ Wax, Currie’s Rust Proof Golden Wax, Grenell’s Golden Wax, Ferry’s Golden Wax, all of which are meant to be and are distinct from one another; while on the other hand we have Salzer’s Golden Wax, Young’s Golden Wax, Ferry’s Golden Wax, Buckbee’s Rust Proof Golden, Alneer’s Rust Proof Golden Wax, and others which are meant to be and are names of the same variety. These figures include all names, even though they diifer but slightly from others, for instance by the addition of a descriptive word. Thus, all the varieties of Golden Wax bean mentioned were counted. 543 544 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A minor difficulty consists in names being duplicated unconsciously, the person giving the name not being aware that it has been given to some other sort. We have a good instance of this in the World’s Fair tomato, from H. W. Buckbee, and a variety of the same name from Griffith & Turner, the former a yellow tomato of dwarf habit of growth and the latter a red-tomato of large habit." A source of further confusion consists in long and descriptive names, such as Improved Round-podded Extra Early Red Valentine bean and Cali- fornia Mammoth Solid Golden Self-blanching celery. Other names are too catchy and inappropriate to be taken seriously by the shrewd and intelligent buyer, as O! My! watermelon, and Cut and Come Again lettuce. INSUFFICIENCY OF THE TESTING HITHERTO CARRIED ON. Reports of variety tests are frequently incomplete, inaccurate, and misleading. Unless carefully done, variety testing is often useless, or worse than useless, because misleading. It is stated on good authority that two differently named varieties from different seedsmen, which were reported and described by an agricultural experimenter as dis- tinct varieties in a report of three years ago, were grown from the same stock of seed, in the same field, and by the same grower, and all harvested together. Possibly in this case the supposed difference of the two varieties may have been due to some uneven conditions of soil or culture, but it goes to show how carefully this work must be done, and how sure the experimenter should make himself of all his statements. Variety names are often reported to be synonymous when seed of a wrong variety has been supplied or stock has been used which does not represent the generally accepted ideal of the sort. Naturally, different seedsmen and seed growers, selecting and improving their own stocks and having no standard of excellence for varieties upon which all agree, will differ as to the correct and best type of the sey- eral varieties, and thus their stocks will come to be quite different in type. A good illustration of inaccurate and misleading reports of variety tests is found in the case of Black-seeded Tennis Ball lettuce. Of this name, there have been gathered from experiment station reports and seedsmen’s catalogues 34 alleged synonyms, then of these 34 names numerous alleged synonyms, then synonyms of these, until altogether 151 names were collected, which either directly or by impli- cation are referred to Black-seeded Tennis BaJl as synonyms. The unreliability of these reports is shown by the fact that the list contains such names as Tom Thumb, Perfection White Forcing, New York, Per- pignan, Silver Ball, Hubbard’s Market, Golden Queen, Golden Heart, 1Tt might be stated here that the Department of Agriculture is preparing this year a list of all American varieties of vegetables, which will be kept up to date by new entries every year, and later, it is expected, will be published for general distribution. TESTING COMMERCIAL VARIETIES OF VEGETABLES. 545 Deacon, Champion, Iceberg, Crisp as Ice, Ice Drumhead, Hanson, and Blonde Beauty, all of which well-informed seedsmen recognize to be entirely distinct from Black-seeded Tennis Ball. With such a long list of ostensible varieties and such inaccurate and misleading statements before him, the American gardener con- cludes that there is but little real difference in varieties, and chooses them thereafter without much thought or study. Seedsmen, although they carry on large and expensive trials and are at present better informed on the subject of varieties and ina better position to know them than anyone else, can not attempt to test all varieties. Seeds- men conduct their variety tests for business considerations and are in no way bound to make their results public. The element of profit enters so largely into their calculations that they do not always give in their catalogues impartial descriptions of varieties. A true state- ment of the faults or deficiencies of a good variety might injure its sale. Some good varieties are not catalogued because they are shy seeders and the extra cost of raising the seed is too great to make their sale profitable, or the expense attached to the introduction and long- continued advertising of some peculiar and misunderstood but valuable variety is so great as to be prohibitive. The reason also for a number of our synonyms arises from the renaming of the same variety in dif- ferent localities, which forces seedsmen to catalogue the varieties under these local names in order to maintain their trade in these localities. ADVANTAGES OF VARIETY TESTS BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A great deal of variety testing is done every year, but it is not per- formed on a sufficiently comprehensive scale. Only a small part of our long list of varieties is tested, and generally with too few plants to make a fair sample. For this reason nothing has been written which is recognized as an authority, or even occasionally appealed to. With the large resources at their command, the State experiment sta- tions and the Department of Agriculture can, by thorough and accu- rate trials in different soils, climates, and conditions, and by close com- parison of results, make authoritative reports and furnish reliable information regarding our American varieties of vegetables. True and standard descriptions should be made of every variety, nontypical stocks properly described, synonyms and similar varieties classified, and our present long list of varieties thus shortened and the distinc- tions of new varieties promptly and accurately given. With new trial grounds on the Potomac Flats at its disposal, the Department of Agri- culture will this year be able to make a definite beginning in this work, commencing first with the lettuce and gradually including all vege- tables. Foreign varieties of vegetables, especially new and rare kinds collected in various parts of the world by the Department agents, will also be tested and compared with our American varieties. 546 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. OBJECTIONS TO VARIETY TESTING. Variety testing is often said to be unprofitable because it has only local application, or it is said that the work is farfetched, or that there are not enough important differences among varieties to justify care- ful and expensive trials. Variety testing, however, is only local in the same sense that all kinds of horticultural operations are local. Whether variety tests made in one locality have as much application in another locality as an experiment in plant growth—for instance, a cultural experiment—would have, it is immaterial to discuss here. A little calculation will show the importance of even little differences among varieties. For example, a difference in weight of fruit of 1 ounce to a plant of tomatoes would make a difference of 2,719 ounces to the acre, or nearly 3 bushels, which early in the season when toma- toes are selling for several dollars a bushel would be a considerable item. REQUISITES OF ADEQUATE TESTING. To make a fair and full report of varieties and bring out all their differences, variety tests should be made in as many soils and climates and under as various conditions as possible. It is sometimes necessary to make a second test of certain classes of plants by themselves; for instance, early varieties generally require to be planted on early soil to show their real merits. Especially is this true with tomatoes, for on heavy, cold soils the early varieties sometimes show no more earli- ness than the later varieties. Tests of greenhouse varieties of lettuce out of doors are of little value. It is sometimes best to make separate tests in different seasons of early and late varieties, especially with cabbage and radishes. The Black-seeded Tennis Ball, Salamander, and Mammoth Black-seeded Butter varieties will in most seasons show themselves to be distinct varieties, as they unquestionably are, while in other seasons samples of the same stocks and same seed, planted in the same locality, will all look alike. The same is also true of Early Jersey Wakefield, Express, and Etampes varieties of cabbage and many other varieties of vegetables. As large a number of plants as possible should be grown of a variety, never less than 25. Most varieties, if they show a mixture of 1 plant in 50, would be considered poor stocks; thus it can be seen upon what a close margin we have to work in variety tests to estimate the per- centage of purity. With those varieties in which each fully developed plant occupies a large area very little can be done to obtain even a fairly exact percentage of purity by variety tests, for if enough indi- viduals are reared to assure a fair average and if all the varieties of the particular vegetable are planted, an enormous space of ground would be required, which one man could not well cover. ‘The main object of testing this class of plants would be to determine varietal TESTING COMMERCIAL VARIETIES OF VEGETABLES. 547 differences. Then again, there are often differences in individual plants of the same variety, which make a large number of plants neces- sary to attain an average and fair result. There may sometimes be a greater difference between some individuals of the same variety than between some individuals of this variety and some of another, though the analysis of the results from the two varieties may prove them entirely distinct. The soil, drainage, situation, and everything connected with the growth of the plant should, as far as possible, be uniform throughout the whole field, and likewise the work of planting, cultivating, and caring for the plants should be performed on the same days and in the same way through the whole season. tone ec eee eee Agricultural experiment stations of the United States...........-......=.--- State olicialgan charge of dericultures: 4-208. oe Boece oo eee eee Seeretaries of State-acricultural societies _ 2... .. 252. ..5 2502 ose eee Oficialsin:charge of farmers’ institutes) 4. - 2252-22552 22 a eee Darysolicisla. iG Jc oR Sere eee eee th eee Protection against contagion from foreign cattle _.......-.---.---------:---- @attle breeders’ associations e-... coos eee oe eee ee on eee Horse breeders’ associations +. 225222 /he. eae Ss 5 Re ee Sheep breeders’ Associations. 44.202 5eeene se eck eee en ee ee Swine breeders: associations: 40 sss. 2 5.85 oe ee ee Pouliity: ASSOCIATIONS vate metic save See Soe eo ie te ae ee 8 See ey een ee piate associations of breeders... 3° 22 seek Cee ee ete Cee ee State veterinarians and secretaries of sanitary boards. .-.--.-.--------------- States having olticers for forest work: oo.352.02 ssn Soe 2 eee ee Horestry-aSsOCia tions: <5... 5 = sce sce aoa Ot ea = oe eee ee eee Nchools oftorestry <5 io 2 5b ens Sat ee 2 ee See eee Officers of horticultural and ‘kindred isocieties-c295- sono. see oseee oe eee National, sectional, and State bee keepers’ associations.....--..-.----------- Miscellaneous State orpamizations 5245. 29s e2 ans oe ae ee ee ee The-National.Good-Roads Association ==. 525250 5-.s02-5 222 en eee ee he protection of birdsandi same. ns. 2- 4505s see ee ee eee ee Farmers’ National Coneressixccacc2.8 455 sen See ee eee Eatronsot Husbandry .2 520.025. eet oe eee ee Officials charged with agricultural interests in several countries......-.------ Requirements for admission to the agricultural colleges -...-......-------- us Notes recarding Department publications .-< 22 — 222.2. 5- ose - se ee ee ee Publications issued January 1, 1900, to December 31, 1900.......------------ Review of weather and crop conditions, season of 1900 .-..-.---------------- Lhe principal injurious insects of te year (O00. = 25.2522 55 o 2 . eeee es Plant diseases in the United Sratesam £9002 4.0 See eee eee eee Progress in Trait growing 1900 ca: 3 dee eae eee Progress Imforestry aml 90 0).\ee ches oe ee ee ea eer Dairy awards for United States at Paris Exposition ........-.--------------- Scale of points for judging a dairy cow, regardless of breeds -.......--------- State.standards for. dairy productess uw. eset aoe aos eee oe See Ages'and periods Important In breedings..- 20 2 an. eee eee Temperature, pulse, and respiration of domestic animals --.-....--..-------- Imports and’ exporis.of acricultural products -22--a esse eee ee Average prices for imports andexporis 352. f2e2e nee eee eeRe eee eee Sources of sugaramports 2.5.25 2. en ee eee pes= so = a eee oe ee eee 632 APPENDIX. ORGANIZATION OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, DECEMBER 31, 1900. SecrETARY OF AGRICULTURE, James Wilson. The Secretary of Agriculture is charged with the supervision of all public business relating to the agricultural industry. He appoints all the officers and employees of the Department, with the exception of the Assistant Secretary and the Chief of the Weather Bureau, who are appointed by the President, and directs the management of all the divisions, offices, and bureaus embraced in the Department. He exercises advisory supervision over the agricultural experiment stations deriving support from the National Treasury, and has control of the quarantine stations for imported cattle, and of interstate quarantine rendered necessary by contagious cattle diseases. Assistant SrecrETARY OF AGRICULTURE, Joseph H. Brigham. The Assistant Secretary performs such duties as may be required by law or pre- scribed by the Secretary. He also becomes Acting Secretary of Agriculture in the absence of the Secretary. Cuier CLerx, Andrew Geddes. The Chief Clerk has the general supervision of the clerks and employees; of the order ef business, records, and correspondence of the Secretary’s office; of all expendi- tures from appropriations for contingent expenses, stationery, etc.; of the enforce- ment of the general regulations of the Department; and of the buildings occupied by the Department of Agriculture. APPOINTMENT CLERK, Joseph B. Bennett. The Appointment Clerk is charged by the Secretary with the preparation of all papers involved in making appointments, transfers, promotions, reductions, fur- loughs, or dismissals, and has charge of all correspondence of the Department with the United States Civil Service Commission. He deals with all questions as to posi- tions in the Department which are under civil-service rules. Caer or Suppity Diviston, Cyrus B. Lower. _ The Supply Division has charge of purchases of supplics and materials paid for from the general funds of the Department. BUREAUS, DIVISIONS, AND OFFICES. WeatHer Bureau (corner Twenty-fourth and M streets NW.).—Chief, Willis L. Moore; Chief Clerk, Henry E. Williams; Professors of Meteorology, Cleveland Abbe, F. H. Bigelow, Alfred J. Henry, Charles F. Marvin, Edward B. Garriott. The Weather Bureau has charge of the forecasting of weather; the issue of storm warnings; the display of weather and flood signals for the benefit of agriculture, com- merce, and navigation; the gauging and reporting of rivers; the maintenance and operation of seacoast telegraph lines, and the collection and transmission of marine intelligence for the benefit of commerce and navigation; the reporting of temperature and rainfall conditions for the cotton, rice, sugar, and other interests; the display of frost and cold-wave signals; the distribution of meteorological information in the interests of agriculture and commerce; and the taking cf such meteorological observa- tions as may be necessary to establish and record the climatic conditions of the United States, or as are essential for the proper execution of the foregoing dnties. 4 a1900 41 633 634 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Bureau or AnrmMAL ENpustry.—Chief, D. E. Salmon; Assistant Chief, A. D. Melvin; Chief Clerk, 8. R. Burch; Chief of Inspection Division, A. M. Farrington; Chief of Miscellaneous Division, Richard W. Hickman; Chief of Pathological Division, Victor A. Norgaard; Chief of Biochemic Division, E. A. de Schweinitz; Chief of Dairy Divi- sion, Henry E. Alvord; Zoologist, Ch, Wardell Stiles; In charge of Experiment Station, E. C. Schroeder. ; The Bureau of Animal Industry makes investigations as to the existence of conta- gious pleuro-pneumonia and other dangerous communicable diseases of live stock, superintends the measures for their extirpation, makes original investigations as to the nature and prevention of such diseases, and reports on the condition and means of improving the animal industries of the country. It also has charge of the inspec- tion of import and export animals, of the inspection of vessels for the transportation of export cattle, and of the quarantine stations for imported neat cattle; supervises the interstate movement of cattle, and inspects live stock and their products slaugh- tered for food consumption. Division or Srarisrics.—Statistician and Chief, John Hyde; Assistant Statistician, George K. Holmes. The Division of Statistics collects information as to the condition, prospects, and harvests of the principal crops, and of the numbers, condition, and values of farm animals, through separate corps of county, township, and cotton correspondents, and individual farmers; and through State agents, each of whom is assisted by a corps of local reporters throughout the State. It obtains similar information from Euro- pean countries monthly through consular, agricultural, and commercial authorities. t collects, tabulates, and publishes statistics of agricultural production, distribution, and consumption, the authorized data of governments, institutes, societies, boards of trade, and individual experts. It issues a monthly crop report and occasional bul- letins for the information of the producers and consumers, and for their protection against combination and extortion in the handling of the products of agriculture. Section oF ForricGN Marxers.—Chief, Frank H. Hitchcock. “= The Section of Foreign Markets makes investigations and disseminates information ‘“eoncerning the feasibility of extending the demands of foreign markets for the agri- cultural products of the United States.”’ Orrice or ExprerIMENT Srations.—Director, A. C. True; Assistant Director, . W. Allen. The Office of Experiment Stations represents the Department in its relations to the experiment stations which are now in operation in all the States and Territories. It seeks to promote the interests of agricultural education and investigation through- out the United States. It collects and disseminates general information regarding the colleges and stations, and publishes accounts of agricultural investigations.at home and abroad. It also indicates lines of inquiry of the stations, aids in the conduct of cooperative experiments, reports upon their expenditures and work, and in general furnishes them with such advice and assistance as will best promote the purposes for which they were established. It is also charged with investigations on the nutritive value and economy of human foods. The collection of valuable matter on irrigation from agricultural colleges and other sources, as provided in the appropriation bill, is conducted by this office. Division or CuEemistry.—Chemist and Chief, Harvey W. Wiley; Assistant Chemist, Ervin E. Ewell. The Division of Chemistry makes investigations of the methods proposed for the analyses of soils, fertilizers, and agricultural products, and such analyses as pertain in general to the interests of agriculture. It can not undertake the analyses of sam- ples of the above articles of a miscellaneous nature, but application for such analyses should be made to the directors of the agricultural experiment stations of the differ- ent States. The division does not make assays of ores nor analyses of minerals, except when related to general agricultural interests, nor analyses of water. Division of EntomoLoay.—Entomologist and Chief, L. O. Howard; Assistant Ento- mologist, C. L. Marlatt. The Division of Entomology obtains and disseminates information regarding injuri- ous insects, investigates insects sent to the division in order to suggest appropriate remedies, conducts investigations in economic entomology in different parts of the country, and mounts and arranges specimens for illustrative and museum purposes. ORGANIZATION OF THE DEPARTMENT. 635 Division or BroLtoeica, Survey.—Biologist and Chief, C. Hart Merriam; Assistant Chief, T. 8. Palmer. The Division of Biological Survey studies the geographic distribution of animals and plants, and maps the natural life zones of the country; it also investigates the economic relations of birds and mammals, and recommends measures for the pres- eryation of beneficial and the destruction of injurious species. Division or Forestry.—VForester and Chief, Gifford Pinchot; Superintendent of Work- ing Plans, Overton W. Price. The Division of Forestry investigates methods and trees for planting in the tree- less West, gives practical assistance to tree planters, and also to farmers, lumbermen, and others, in handling forest lands. It studies commercial trees to determine their special values in forestry, and also studies forest fires and other forest problems. Division or Botany.—Botanist and Chief, Frederick V. Coville; Assistant Chief, Lyster H. Dewey; Special Agent in Charge of Section of Seed and Plant Introduction, Jared G. Smith. The Division of Botany investigates botanical agricultural problems, including the purity and value of agricultural seeds; methods of controlling the spread of weeds or preventing their introduction into this country; the dangers, effects, and antidotes for poisonous plants, the native plant resources of the country, and other subjects of economic botany. It introduces, tests, and distributes: valuable seeds and plants from foreign countries. A Division oF VEGETABLE PHystoLoGy AND PatHotocy.—Pathologist and Chief, Albert F. Woods; Assistant Pathologist, Merton B. Waite. ‘ The Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology has for its object a study of the normal and abnormal life processes of plants. It seeks by investigations in the field and experiments in the laboratory to determine the causes of disease and the best means of preventing the same. It studies plant physiology in its bearing on pathology. Division or AGRostoLocy.—Agrostologist and Chief, F. Lamson-Scribner; Assistant Chief, Albert 8. Hitcheock. The Division of Agrostology is charged with the investigation of the natural his- tory, geographical distribution, and uses of grasses and forage plants, their adaptation to special soils and climates, the introduction into cultivation of promising native and foreign kinds, and the preparation of publications and correspondence relative to these plants. Division or PomoLtogy.—Pomologist and Chief, Gustavus B. Brackett; Assistant Pomologist, W. A. Taylor. The Division of Pomology collects and distributes information in regard to the fruit interests of the United States; investigates the habits and peculiar qualities of fruits, their adaptability to various soils and climates, and conditions of culture; and intro- duces new and untried fruits from foreign countries. ~ Division or Sorts.—Chief, Milton Whitney; Assistant Chief, Lyman J. Briggs. The Division of Soils is intrusted with the investigation, survey, and mapping of soils; the investigation of the cause and prevention of the rise of alkali in the soil, and the drainage of soils; and the investigation of the methods of curing and fermen- tation of tobacco in the different tobacco districts. Orrice or Pustic Roap Inquiries.—Director, Martin Dodge; Assistant Director, Maurice O. Eldridge. ; The Office of Public Road Inquiries collects information concerning the systems of road management throughout the United States, conducts investigations and experi- ments regarding the best method of road making, and prepares publications on this subject. EXPERIMENTAL GARDENS AND GRouNDS.—Director of the Office of Plant Industry and Superintendent of Gardens and Grounds, Beverly T. Galloway. The Division of Gardens and Grounds is charged with the care and ornamentation of the park surrounding the Department buildings, and with the duties connected with the conservatories and gardens for testing and propagating economic plants. Division or Pusrications.—Editor and Chief, Geo. Wm. Hill; Assistant Chief, Joseph A. Arnold; Assistant in Charge of Document Section, R. B. Handy. _ The Division of Publications exercises general supervision of the Department print- ing and illustrations, edits all publications of the Department (with the exception of 636 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. those of the Weather Bureau), has charge of the printing and Farmers’ Bulletin funds, and distributes all Department publications with the exception of those turned over by law to the Superintendent of Documents for sale at the price affixed by him; it issues, in the form of press notices, official information of interest to agriculturists, and distributes, to agricultural publications and writers notices and synopses of Department publications. Drviston or Accounts AND DispurRsEMENTS.—Chief and Disbursing Clerk, Frank L. Evans; Assistant Chief (in charge of Weather Bureau disbursements‘, A. Zappone; Cashier, Everett D. Yerby. The Division of Accounts and Disbursements is charged with the adjustment of all claims against the Department; decides questions involving the expenditure ef public funds; prepares estimates of appropriations needed; contracts for annual supplies, leases, and agreements; issues requisitions for the purchase of supplies, requests for passenger and freight transportations; and attends to all business relating to the financia! interests of the Department, including payments of cvery description. Division or Seeps.—Chief, Robert J. Whittleton. The Division of Seeds is charged with the purchase and distribution of valuable seeds. They are distributed in allotments to Senators, Representatives, Delegates in Congress, agricultural experiment stations, and by the Secretary of Agriculture, as provided by law. Lrsrary.—Librarian, W. P. Cutter.! The Librarian has charge of the Library and supervises the arrangement and cataloguing of books, the preparation cf bibliographies and similar publications, and the purchases of new books. APPROPRIATIONS FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE FOR THE FICCAL YEARS ENDING JUNE 30, 1899, 1900, AND 1961. Object cf appropriation. 1899. 1900. 1901. Salaries, Department of Apriculture: --oo-eni-0 16 8 Massachusetts, Amherst: Se SUC Lo (07s 1 | ee eS 20 8 Michigan, Agricultural College: Caicrnthte soo cease ok ecaec- ee 16 7 Principal lines of work. Food and nutrition of man and animals; bacte riology of dairy products; field experiments; dairying. Chemistry; bacteriology; field experiments; hor- ticulture; diseases of plants; feeding experi- ments; diseases of animals; entomology; dairy- ing. Chemistry; field experiments; horticulture; ento- mology. Field experiments; horticulture; entomology; mycology; pig feeding; dairying. Physics; botany; field experiment; horticulture; entomology; feeding experiments. _ Chemistry; bacteriology; field experiments; hor- ticulture; forestry; diseases of plants; feeding experiments; entomology; dairying. | Chemistry; pot and field experiments; horticul- ture; feeding experiments; diseases of plants and animals. “ Chemistry; bacteriology; field experiments; hor- ticulture; diseases of plants; feeding experi- ments; entomology; dairying. Soils; horticulture; seed breeding; field experi- ments; feeding and digestion experiments; diseases of animals; entomology. ‘ Chemistry; soils; fertilizer analysis; field experi- ments; horticulture; diseases of plants; ento- mology; dairying. Chemistry; bacteriology; soils and soil physics; field experiments; horticulture; sugar making; drainage; irrigation. Chemistry; geology; botany; bacteriology; soils; inspection of fertilizers and paris green; field experiments; horticulture; diseases of animals; entomology. Chemistry; soils; fertilizers; field experiments; horticulture; feeding experiments; stock rais- ing; dairying. Chemistry; botany; analysis and inspection of fertilizers and concentrated commercial feed- ing stuffs; inspection of creamery glassware; horticulture; diseases of plants; seed tests; food and nutrition of man and animals; poul- try raising; diseases of animals; entomology; dairying. Chemistry; soils; field experiments; horticulture; diseases of plants; feeding experiments; ento- mology. Chemistry; meteorology: analysisand inspection of fertilizers and concentrated commercial feeding stuffs; field experiments; horticulture; electro-germination; diseases of plants; diges- tion and feeding experiments; diseases of ani- mals; entomology. Bacteriology; soils; field experiments; horticul- ture; forestry; diseases of plants; féeding ex- periments; diseases of animals; entomology; apicuiture; stable hygiene. 640 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES, THEIR LOCATIONS, ETC.—Continued. Num- Stations, locations, and directors. | ber on staff. Minnesota, St. Anthony Park, St. Paul: ; WM isgettc.. oo centee ns seme 15 Mississippi, Agricultural College: Wilts Eh tehinsOn ce. ciaece mesce 11 Missouri, Columbia: EU VV bEES cles c eirisieinisisiniee === 14 Montana, Bozeman: SE ORTL OL as ereiaote atetlstete sacs i= di Nebraska, Lincoln: Hy BVANGTeWStacccc ces wsesecces 17 Nevada, Reno: Jb StUDDSr. 52's >» ? ; , = > » s Se = , 4 3 a by ? “ ’ a ; >. ’ Chemistry; botany; meteorology; soils; field ex- periments; horticulture; ferestry; feeding and breeding experiments; diseases of animals; entomology; irrigation. Chemistry; botany; scils; field experiments; horticulture; forestry; feeding experiments; animal diseases; entomology; irrigation, Chemistry; bacteriology; soil physics; field ex- periments; herticulture; diseases of *plants; feeding experiments; cntomology. Chemistry; biology; botany; analysis of fertili- zers and foods; pot end field experiments; horticulture; diseases of plants; foed and nu- trition of man; diseases ofanimals; entomology; dairy husbandry; bacteria cf milk; irrigation. Chemistry; soil physics; field experiments; horti- culture; ‘entomology; irrigation. Chemistry; bacteriology; meteorology; fertilizers; analysis and control of fertilizers; inspection of creamery glassware; field experiments; horti- culture; diseases of plants; feeding experi- ments; pouliry experiments; entomology; dairying. Chemistry of soils; feeding stufis and dairy prod- ucts; soils; fertilizers; field experiments; horticulture; diseases of piants; feeding sheep andswine; diseases of animals; poultry experi- ments; entomology; dairying. Chemistry; field experiments; horticulture; analysis of feeding stuffs; ‘digestion experi- ments; poultry experiments. Field experiments; horticulture; diseases of plants; feeding experiments; diseases of ani-. mals; dairying. é Soils; field experiments; horticulture; diseases of plants; breeding and feeding experiments; diseases of animals; entomology. Field experiments: horticulture; forestry; dis- eases of plants; digestion and feeding experi- ments; animal husbandry; diseases of animals; entomology. Chemistry; soils; field crops; horticulture; dis- eases of ‘plants; digestion and feeding experi- ments; entomology; dairying. Chemistry: meteorology; fertilizer analysis; field experiments; feeding experiments; Cairying. STATE AGRICULTURAL OFFICIALS. 641 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES, THEIR LOCATIONS, ETC.—Continued. Num- Num- | ber of Stations, locations, and directors. | ber on | teach- Principal lines of work. staff. | ers on staff. Rhode Island, Kingston: Ved LoS ted ob 0 te a eee 15 4 | Chemistry; meteorology; soils; analysis and in- spection of fertilizers and feeding stuffs; field and pot experiments; horticulture; poultry experiments. South Carolina, Clemson College: BS Ss Harizor ys See en cance 14 9 | Soils; analysis and control of fertilizers; fieid ex- periments; horticulture; piant breeding; dis- eases of plants; feeding experiments; veterinary science; entomology; dairying. South Dakota, Brookings: Wels SHEparGi ce s> ho. xcs ae cee 12 5 | Bacteriology; chemistry of soils and soil physics; field experiments; forestry; diseases of plants; feeding experiments; entomology; irrigation. Tennessee, Knoxville: WiGe-GITeECtOLe eset ee en cs coe 12 4 | Chemisiry; soils; fertilizers; field experiments; horticulture, seeds; weeds; diseases of plants; feeding experiments; entomology; dairying. Texas, College Station: Ji HeConnellose ssc. ode eke 14 7 | Chemistry; soils; fertilizers; field experiments; horticulture; feeding dairy cows; sheep hus- bandry; diseases of animals; irrigation. Utah, Logan: SepAt. WAGISOG Recs. ete cc owes d 10 7 | Chemistry of soils and feeding stufis; alkali soil _ investigations; meteorology; field experiments; horticulture; forestry; diseases of plants; ecat- tle and sheep breeding; feeding experiments; dairying; poultry experiments; irrigation. Vermont, Burlington: Velie AUS 5a oe cae rercnce wsleis ean 13 5 | Chemistry; analysis and control of fertilizers and feeding stuffs; inspection of creamery glass- ware; field experiments; horticulture; diseases of plants; feeding experiments; -diseases of an- imals; dairying. Virginia, Blacksburg: Do iMGBryCeler see ss odcee 10. 6 | Field crops; horticulture; cider and vinegar mak- ing; feeding experiments; veterinary science; entomology. Washington, Pullman: PMA -BEYAT Eee ceases ewes 12 7 | Chemistry; botany; soils; bacteriology; field ex- periments; horticulture; diseases of piants; feeding and breeding experiments; oyster cul- ture; diseases of animals; entomology; dairy- ing; irrigation. West Virginia, Morgantown: ELS OLEWARL | once cca Since 12 4]! Chemistry; analysis and control of fertilize.s; field experiments; horticulture; feeding ex- periments; poultry experiments; entomology. Wisconsin, Madison: WrAsHentys oc ccmecees cous 21 16 | Chemistry; soils; field experiments; horticulture; feeding experiments; dairying; drainage and irrigation. Wyoming, Laramie: Hie, SMTEY, ccosmae eb Se cee 8 6 | Geology; botany; meteorology; waters; soils; fertilizers; field experiments; food analysis; feeding experiments; entomology. STATE OFFICIALS IN CHARGE OF AGRICULTURE. Secretary of Agriculture. Pennsyl wae es oe ee John@ilamuiltonss-=s-2 820 54— Harrisburg. Commissioners of Agriculture. VAN a osinm sid ae reg eh ne Roberti Ri Poole. se2s55he226 Montgomery. Arkansagin.: aoa s oe eten oe aetceees Miranilewe ee wae eo eke se Little Rock. Gover tare mes eet UES RT ee eh Os ae et ee See Tallahassee. Se ee, 1In several States the duties of the Commissioner of Agriculture are joined with the care of other interests also, as of mining and labor. 642 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Gedrels: -s 2 eee eee O:-BiStevenssss2-2ssecrinsee es Atlanta. Kentucky. 2s) 22 sae Albany. North Carolinas s24. 325 sees De MP AtlCTSONLe sierscree ee Raleigh. North Da kotic © ee oes eee J See Foe Riva (ey eee eee S a Bismarck. South Caroling = ==5 = ses AU SES IGLE Tee aa! 2 Sede Rien Columbia. Dennessee: = 25 casero ee eee TOSS Eee ain Crs ee ea Nashville. Rexage 2) 5 Ska eee Jenerson DOhnSOM, 2. esssaa Austin. WEE ON ee ene Ae eee eee GEO AS ON eT 2a). setae ee Richmond. Washington=22420 13 2a eke aN); Es; Adami: <5 2b ai ease Olympia. State Engineer. Poa Oren sae eee er ee Fed: Mills... hee eee Boise. Secretaries of State Boards of Agriculture. Bahitemmn' 2 s24 0022 oe se Peter Wy. Sieldss a... oe ee see Sacramento. ColoTade eee TRG MB RUE Ctr ees ee Raleigh. OO) oe ee page ee WS We: Miller 2 ee a ae Columbus. QOrevon seashore SS NMED SaWiisd Ono aes re Portland. Ilvode distamd 2s 2 as Soe ses George A. Stockwell ---....... Providence. South, Dakotas: 4: -25-—4— 555" Walter Be Dean==- 2s *2 5.2225 Yankton. | 5 ee 5 a Soe eo Fava a a ioe 2 ERD PaWolsom: 222. 2 seas Salt Lake. eerinete oO See se ee (S80 fey 27.) | Seer Poe ee ee East Hardwick. WHESE VET ROE pes ee Die GAVene a eee ees ee Charleston. Wiiseonsim:. sa-3 ets dohn JM, rue 2322.26 acc ee Madison. IER awa eras See eee reece Winey, fevy lorries aoe are Honolulu. SECRETARIES OF STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES. Wonneticnties 4 san eee B.-W Collins: 245, .aidae acess Meriden. Georges ios Sa ee NEW "Cabyin) e052 955 sess Augusta. LOW ees ere cha eee ee Gp be Wanouten sesec ccc oe Des Moines. guises sos aoe = oe ee W. H. Dalaym pleco uo ko te Baton Rouge. Massachusetts. £ a.- =. 222-6 see Leander F. Herrick........-.- Worcester. Maines ote 225 2 on ae Geo. JH sClarken =. oe ees North Anson. Minnesotaco=..- cSc0> cee ee IBY Wc En GL eee eta ee Hamline. Momtanaioen = S552 eee Francis Pope nat. oe Helena. Nevada. sns4-ata se nce ke Wim. Eby Doarneis eo: tes ea Reno. ING Wis On Pe Edw. A. Callahan: 2. -2=3= eee Albany. Blorbh: Caress. Se Josepbul, Pogue: . 25s ees Raleigh. Pennsylvania. ...22- eee dl... MiSsheWs 3.2 oa kn oe ae flummelstown. Route Garonne. > L205 nce ae DW .. SAO Ree aa he poe Pomaria. Vermont. 22 oe es GMM: Wanslowi2.2 sossecuseee Brandon. FARMERS’ INSTITUTE AND OTHER OFFICIALS. 643 OFFICIALS IN CHARGE OF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES. State. Name of official. Post-office. AISDRING. qn c << = Robert R. Poole, Commissioner of Agriculture..........-- Montgomery. C. A. Cary, Alabama Polytechnic Institute...............- Auburn. ATR AISA ===> oS W.G. Vincenheller, Agricultural Experiment Station ....| Fayetteville. California:.....-... E. J. Wickson, University of Califormia.....-..........---- Berkeley. D. T. Fowler, for Central and Northern California.......- Do. ‘A.J. Cook, for, Southern Calitormia@-=. >. ..2—- 252-052 -5<< Claremont. Colormdo <2 2.2.2 22 B. O. Aylesworth, President State Agricultural College ...| Fort Collins. Connecticut .....-. T.S. Gold, Secretary State Board of Agriculture .......... West Cornwall. George E. Manchester, Secretary Connecticut Dairymen’s | Winsted. Association. H.C. C. Miles, Secretary Connecticut Pomological Society .| Milford, Delaware........-- Wesley Webb, Superintendent Farmers’ Institute for | Dover. Kent County. ' -| A. T, Neale, Superintendent for Newcastle County........ Newark. S. H. Messick, Secretary for Sussex County......-......--- Bridgeville. IBlorida ss-242 55232 H. E. Stockbridge, Agricultural College.-..........-.-.---- Lake City. Georgia... -...-.<2.5- H.C. White, President State College of Agriculture and | Athens. Mechanie Arts. HIpMOids ese es ce ee A.B. Hostetter, Secretary and Superintendent of Farm- | Springfield. ers’ Institutes. 7 E. Davenport, Dean College of Agriculture, University | Urbana. of Illinois. d Imciima = ..s.|.235 22. W.C. Latta, Agricultural Experiment Station .........-.- Lafayette. TOW ONS ce cou? ose take Geo. Van Houten, Secretary State Board of Agriculture..| Des Moines. W. M. Beardshear, President State College of Agriculture | Ames. and Mechanie Arts. MemrIsass Soe See ee J.T. Willard, Director Agricultural Experiment Station..; Manhattan. Kentucky <.2.s20 I. B..Nall, Commissioner of Agriculture...........22.:.-.- Frankfort. M. A.Scovell, Director Agricultural Experiment Station.| Lexington. OUIIATIA 22S. L. Jastremski, Commissioner of Agriculture ......--...--- Baton Rouge. Maxime ps2 os iss 2 B. W. McKeen, Secretary State Board of Agriculture...-.. Augusta. PUES eo ene W.L. Amoss, Director Farmers’ Institutes ............---- Benson. Massachusetts ..... J. W. Stockwell, Secretary State Board of Agriculture ....| Boston. MichiesinS: 5<...c.- C.D. Smith, Director Agricultural Experiment Station...| Agricultural College. Minnesota.......-- O.C. Gregg, Superintendent Farmers’ Institutes.......-... Lynd. Mississippi s.s=c2—2- W.L. Hutchinson, Director Agricultural Experiment Sta- | Agricultural College tion. NISSEN PY setae ee oe Geo. B. Ellis, Secretary State Board of Agriculture.....-.. Columbia. Montamarctoss 2325 J. Reid, President College of Agriculture and Mechanie | Bozeman. Arts. Nebraska .........- EA. Burnett, University of Nebraska). ....<....-22..-.-.-< Lincoln. New Hampshire...| N.J. Bachelder, Secretary State Board of Agriculture---.- Concord. New Jersey.:..222. F. Dye, Seeretary State Board of Agriculture...... eee Trenton. New: Mork 22-202. ¥. E. Dawley, Director of Institutes ....--.............:--- Fayetteville. North Carolina ....| S. L. Patterson, Commissioner of Agriculture -.......-----. | Raleigh. North Dakota ..... E. E. Kaufman, Assistant Dairy Commissioner.....-.----- Fargo. Ohio oooh oe oe W. W. Miller, Secretary State Board of Agriculture ....... Columbus. Oreron os sass sss. ae Vice-director Agricultural Experiment | Corvallis. tation. ‘ Pennsylvania ....- A. L. Martin, Deputy Secretary cf Agriculture ....-....-..- Harrisburg. Rhode Island...... G. A. Stockwell, Secretary State Board of Agriculture..... Providence. South Carolina ....| H.S. Hartzog, President Clemson Agricultural College....| Clemson College. South Dakota ....- S. A. Cochrane, Director Farmers’ Institute .......:.-.-..- Brookings. Tennessee... 5- T. H. Paine, Commissioner of Agriculture..............--- Nashville. Andrew M. Soule, Vice-director Agricultural Experiment | Knoxville. Station. TexOS) sos. hoe Se J.H. Connell, Director Agricultural Experiment Station..| College Station. 10,7 a ae eS W.J. Kerr, President Agricultural College........-...---- Logan. Yermont <---22--.- C.J. Bell, Secretary State Board of Agriculture -........-- East Hardwick. Wan yembenye oS ose G. W. Koiner, Commissioner of Agriculture ...-..----.---- Richmond. Washington ....... E. A. Bryan, Director Agricultural Experiment Station...) Pullman. West Virginia ..... DML Silliman, bastitute Director . ..-- 22.20 -----------=-- | Charieston. Wasconsin-- =. 29505 G. McKerrow, Superintendent Farmers’ Institutes........ | Madison. ALLIED NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES OF AMERICA. President, J. C. Hanley, 400 Baltimore Block, St. Paul, Minn. NATIONAL LIVE STOCK ASSOCIATION. ? President, John W. Springer, Denver; secretary, Charles F. Martin, Denver, AMERICAN RICE ASSOCIATION. President, S. A. Knapp, Lake Charles, La.; secretary, Oswald Wilson, Houston, Tex. 644 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DAIRY OFFICIALS. Nationa: National Association of State Dairy and Food Departments.—Secretary, J. B. Noble, Hartford, Conn. National Dairy Union.—Secretary Charles Y. Knight, 1S8 South Water street, Chicago, Ill. National Creamery Buttermakers’ Association.—Secretary, E. Sudendorf, Eigin, Ill. New England Milk Producers’ Union.—Secretary, L. 8. Hayward, Pomfret Center, Conn. Five States Milk Producers’ Association.—Secretary, H. T. Coon, Little York, N. Y. Columbia River Dairy Association.—Secretary, D.C. Dilworth, Spokane, Was ALABAMA: Alabama Dairymen’s Association.—Secretary, F. H. Bates, Hamburg. CALirornNia: State Dairy Bureau.—Secretary and agent, William Vanderbilt, 114 California street, San Francisco. California Dairy Association.—Secretary, Samuel E. Watson, 421 Market street, San Francisco. Dairymen’s Association of Southern California.—Secretary, Horace G. Hamilton, 1069 Temple street, Los Angeles. CoLorano: Dairy Commission.—Commissioner, T. L. Monson, Denver. ConNECTICUT: Dairy Commission.—Commissioner, John B. Noble, Hartford. Connecticut Dairymen’s Association.—Secretary, George E. Manchester, Station A, Winsted. Connecticut Creamery Association.—Secretary, Frank Avery, Manchester. GEORGIA: Georgia Dairymen’s Association.—Secretary, M. L. Duggan, Sparta. Iniinors: : Food Commissioner.—Commissioner, Alfred H. Jones, room 1623 Manhattan Building, Chicago. Illinois State Dairymen’s Association.—Secretary, George Caven, 188 South Water street, Chicago. Chicago Milk Shippers’ Union.—Secreiary, 8. Hill, 94 Lasalle street, Chicago. INDIANA: State Dairy Association.—Secretary, H. E. Van Norman, Lafayette. Iowa: = Dairy Commission.—Commissioner, B. P. Norton, Des Moines. Iowa State Dairy Association.—Secretary, J. C. Daly, Charles City. Kansas: Kansas State Dairy Association.—Secretary, T. A. Borman, White City. Maine: Maine Dairymen’s Association.—Secretary, L. W. Dyer, Cumberland Center. MassACHUSETTS: Dairy Bureau.—General Agent State Dairy Bureau, George M. Whitaker, box 1332, Boston. Massachusetts Creamery Association.—Secretary, A. W. Morse, Belchertown. MIcHIGAN: Dairy and Food Commission.—Commissioner,; W. B. Snow, Lansing. Michigan Dairymen’s Association.—Secretary, 8. J. Wilson, Flint. MINNESOTA: Dairy and Food Commission.—Commissioner, W. W. P. McConnell, St. Paul. Minnesota State Dairymen’s Association.—Secretary, Robert Crickmore, Pratt. Minnesota State Butter and Cheese Makers’ Association.—Secretary, J. K. Ben- nett, Clinton Falls. Missouri: Missouri Dairymen’s scee Dayton, Ohio. Tri-State eouliry ASsOCIRGION Se. 2. eee nee Je A NECIUELOS HE. eye (odes East Liverpool, Ohio, PittispuTe san ClersaClupl. +-smaeesceee eee eee aces ADP ROPINSON: se snsseeee eee 110 Second avenue, Pittsburg, Pa. Piedmont Poultry Association..................- BWW GEIS Pen == aos J ae Spartanburg, S.C. Nashville Poultry Association ..-.--..-.--.------ JE Hopkins: ./. 3 sas2-2>- Nashville, Tenn. Tacoma Poultry Association...............----.- (en O Ri folel us sei eHodacas 402 Berlin Building, Tacoma, Wash. Western Bantam Breeders’ Association.........- AL EERE DONO ate snes ese ace Morgan Park, Ill. Secretaries of State poultry associations. State. Secretary. Post-office. Colorado. 2. 2-2-6 aoe eee Brank Eom bale 2p aera as tina nee Denver. District of Columbia .......- Geo: EAMOWALO rest no coen Sete eal aeae ctor aes Washington. Min OIS 2 aatesccese eee. Paward Craig. 20. ..oe Se se eetee ee eee tee eee Albion. MQ): pees Se ae use cee George! Hi: Gillies... 25. tosdt eee careers create Topeka. Em GiGley er tee Ane oe Charles Hesse aio matic ci teee oe aces Aan aera Louisville. MICHIP Sys cccmccen eo cees eee JONM CAs GLOVER occ os ten nee hee secs anes interes Concord. MASSOUN 32 oe oe eo vaca ree Mrs, BA Creal-.2.. 2.25. ee ees cee eae: oe Carrollton. Webraskae2:2esfe... 26 2 TW: Garowttes 2222 ac cek peewee ees J. AL NC WROD iss ces Connecticut ...--- BoCxPattersoncew-cee DAkKOtnasc cheno aaoscesacaseast ae secesae Delaware...-.-.-..- Sub Derbyiacc=-—ese = Mis OSs 2.0. sors Oliver Wilson .......- Indiana 222525... Aaron Jones ..-------- WOWSSs ess 20 see A Beye OSOM eae aeeoeee Kansas, including| E. W. Westgate .....-- Oklahoma. Kentucky ....-.--- Jay Clandyian2 2286 ess-2 MAING =o s.0252c2 Obadiah Gardner....-. Maryland]. = 5.22 Joseph B. Ager... -2:--- Massachusetts ....| W.C. Jewett -...--...- Michivansss-ssse5 Geo. B. Horton........ Minnesota .....-.-- MarssSiGs Bards 22-2. Mississippi--..-...-- Sa WialsOMeaacensceae MissOUTISA=—22-555¢ ClO: Raine: -5-%2<--2-= Nebraska......5-=- J.M. Williams ...-...- New Hampshire..| N.J.Bachelder .....-. New Jersey .....-- Geo. W. I. Gaunt ..... New -Vorke-.5-665 HPiiSt BB Norris\s22s-2- Ohio ss etaeina ee FLA. Derthiek. - 5. ..22 Oregon, ineluding| B.G. Leedy ..........- Idaho. Pennsylvania, £2s- |W. sells. oaaees se Rhode Island..... TAUCAS SILUN Nae oteeecee South Carolina...) W.K.Thompson....-. Tennessee ..-...-- W.L. Richardson ....-. WORGS ais cess soe Rie. MeGeerc.2 252-2 Vermont. -.2..22: CHAU eBell dts seeeene Washington ...... Augustus High ....... West Virginia ....) T.C. Atkeson ......... Wisconsin ........ Ee Uusle yee om ons Post-office. Lecturer. Post-office. Hawkinsyille ..| Rev. A. Daugherty..-.| Dothen ......... San Jose ........ John S. Beecher, jr....| Stockton ....... Golden’... 5... J.B Whites. e-.sso ce ‘ATrVvadeeeoos cone Torrington ..... Trank §. Hopson....-.- Station 3, Bridge- port. “Woodside.......| A. T. Neale............| Newark ........ Maenoliamees-a- ID) SA Glarkeneeese esac Dunlap s2ec2-4 South Bend ..../ W. W.Stevens .......-. Salemre sooo sc Silver City......| Geo. Van Houden..... Denomenn eee. = Manhattan -...- PAG Er vCAnU OI se yeate one Mehouth? e225. Newstead!.:----.|) W. G. Myers-=.--=-222- Wineo. seer oe Rockland....... W.J.Thompson .....-. South China....} Hyattsville ..... J. EMOSs Rayasr geen eeee Chillumy. Sse: Worcester ...... George S. Ladd ....... Sturbridge...... Fruitridge ...... Mrs. F. D. Saunders ...| Edgerton ..:.... Edina Mills..... GeorC eile ee Blk River -222-- Okolona........ IERa de Sree bb eae Glass(i22 eeeeeer Benjamini.--- TB. Dunhameness- ss New Cambria... Culbertson ..... IAG MVBOVGelo.seanseeae Vacoma 22252222 Concordlcsse-=s Henry H. Meicalf..... Concorde eaeee Mullica Hill....| Geo. L. Gillingham ...| Moorestown .... Sodus: 25-5 1S Lett ee ee sue ce Bee 5, 000 Cooperative Grass and Forage Plant Investigations with State Experiment’ Gel sities erent Nee re Ne Soe See Sg oe he eS oe 2, 500 CONGRESSIONAL PUBLICATIONS. Annual Reports of the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal year ended ayes SES 2 St SEAS Ns “Sys 2 es Spd ea FS a OY a 6, 000 Operations of the Bureau of Animal Industry for the Fiscal Year ended June Sects ne ree ee Se 2! SE AR Sori det eck hens bowen 50 Letter from the Acting Secretary of Agriculture presenting a detailed state- ment of the expenditures of all appropriations for the fiscal year ending AUT e al Sas [a ok iy Ap GEE Sipe ce ae ae ee Sa I, 722 Third Report on the Investigations of the Agricultural Capabilities of god oT 2 See ae Oe a a 1, 722 Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture, 1899. 75 cents.. 500,000 — Special edition for distribution at Paris Exposition .............-.------ 5, 000 688 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Field Operations of the Division of Soils, with accompanying papers. Report Novéd: | 95 cents: .... 252225 2e ee eee = eee Report onthe Big ‘Trees of -Califomiia:- <= 3250). 2 5 See eee Progress of the Beet- Sugar Industry in the United States in 1899, with sup- plementary y report on . Cane-Sugar Industry of Hawaiian Islands.......-- A Primer of Forestry. Part I. “Phe Forest. Bul. 24, Division of Forestry. Second ‘edition. “35 cents. a2 Susy totes ee ee ee Peach Leaf Curl: Its Nature and Treatment. Bul. 20, Division of Vegetable Physiology ‘and-Pathology:. s0icents 4.22 Seu 2tet Fe eee DIVISION OF ACCOUNTS AND DISBURSEMENTS. Report of the Chief of the Division of Accounts and Disbursements for 1899. DIVISION OF AGROSTOLOGY. New. or Little Known,Mexican,Grasses= (Cin 192. 52252 2topes eae ee ee Experiments with Forage Plants in Ontario. Cir. 20. With reprint......- Cae aise Range Grass and Forage Plant Experiments at Highmore, 8S. Dak ih Ds hs 2b eos peed fs eet ie es gee ae ee Grass and Forage Plant Investigations on the Pacific Coast. Cir. 22....-... Salibushes... Rarm. Bol) 1082... She gems a ee ee ae eee ee See vege Benes of theAcrostologist forme9Oes 82 5 ne eee ee ee ee eee The Soy Bean as a Forage Crop. With an Appendix on Soy Beans as Food for Man. Farm. Bul. 58. Rev ised-edition: WRepriat=+ 25! st. 5 ese Studies on American Grasses. The North American Species of Cheetcchloa. Bul, il ntreents. ..i2228 92225 -bs- Sc) See ees Se Bee ee eee Oowpess: > Farm. Buld'89. > Twoweprintsx< 252). see eee Cooperative Experiments with Grasses and Forage Plants. Bul. 22. 15 cents seis Bose ae eee 2 ee eee ee eae ee Progress of Experiments in Forage Crops and Range Improvement at Abi- lene, exe OiOiwi 232 SUE Ss A Set As Re es a ee pee Cowpeas and Corn for Silage and Fodder. Cir. 24. ......--.-----+-------- Alfalfa, or Lucern. Harm: Bulasits SReprimt a2 fs a> eee oe ee eee Meadows and Pastures. Formation and Cultivation in the Middle Eastern States. Farm. Bul.66. Revised edition. Reprint .-..-.-.-.-.-----1--- Economic Grasses. Bul.14. Revised edition. 10 cents...._..-....------ The Structure of the Caryopsis of Grasses with Reference to Their Morphol- ogy and Classification. Bul.19. Revised edition. 10 cents -...-...-..- American Grasses—IIf. (Illustrated.) Descriptions of the Tribes and Genera. . Bul. 20. With. revised edition. 15 cents 22224... se 22sec ee eee Turkestan’ Alfalfa. Cir; 25. OWithiveprintess2es:-. s2eeccee eee Sere mescuesorans.. Cir 26... 825s. see eee ee eee ee Cattle Ranges of the Southwest: A History of the Exhaustion of the Pas- turage and Suggestions for Its Restoration. Farm. Bul.72. Reprint..--- Fodder and Forage Plants Exclusive of the Grasses. Bul.2. Revised edi- tion, “Sicenis-s22ut fee eee oe eee ae eae eee ee eee eee ee American Grasses—I. (Illustrated.) Descriptions of the Species. Bul. 7 Third"edition:— .s0icents 62 osc oe eee ee eee eee ee Studies on American Grasses. A Revision of the North American Species of Bromus Occurring North of Mexico. Bul.23. 5 cents...........-.-- Grasses as Sand and Soil Binders. Reprint from Yearbook, 1894. Reprint- Progress of Economic and Scientific Agrostology. Repr int from Y earbook, Succulent Forage for the Farm and Dairy. Reprint from Yearbook, 1899-- Southern Forage Plants. Farm. Bul.102.. Reprint................-.----- Millets. “Farm: Bult l0le Reprint feces Sao eee on ee eee ere Sorghum as a Forage Crop. Farm. Bul.50. Reprint --...............-:.. Agrostological Notes. YOu 27 ce a ee ee Fe tote teen eee BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. Scales of Points in Use in the United States for Judging the Dairy Breeds of Cattle.» Cirs27.. Revised:edition =: 2222224" 25 -6e see ee See eee eee Breeds of Dairy Cattle. Farm. Bul.106. Three reprints........--.......- The Dairy Herd: Its Formation and Management. Farm. Bul.55. Two NEVINS... Jose ccatiewseaee s oSnlew bo ceeen Steet een Neeae Sete eee eee eee Copies. 14, 722 500 8, 000 35, 000 20, 000 DEPARTMENT PUBLICATIONS ISSUED IN 1900. Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Indusiry for 1899 -........... Letters Relating to the Distribution of Vaccine. Cir. 28 ........-.-------- Officials, Associations, and Educational Institutions Connected with the Dairy Interests of the United States for the Year 1900. Cir. 29........-- Hog Cholera and Swine Plague. Farm. Bul. 24. Three reprints ......-..-- Some Essentials in Beef Production. Farm. Bul. 71. Two reprints.....--- Butter Substitutes. Reprint from the Yearbook for 1895. Reprint..---.---. Raising Sheep for Mutton. Farm. Bul.96. Two reprints.........--.----- Directions for the Use of Blackleg Vaccine. Cir. 23. Second revision, with PRC EE po Ses Se eens on oe ween ne ae Ae Re atm oo woe Rabies in the District of Columbia. Cir. 30. Revised edition.....-.-..--- Sheep Scab: Its Natureand Treatment. Bul. 21. Revisededition. 15 cents- Blackleg: Its Nature, Cause, and Prevention. Cir. 31, with revised edition. Some Examples of the Development of Knowledge Concerning Animal Dis- eases. Reprint from Yearbook, 1899 ...---..-..- fo ISVs SRN ve ae Administrative Work of the Federal Government in Relation to the Animal Rudesing neprie mony Vearpook, (8905 2 22.222 cs ose ae Dairy Development in the United States. Reprint from Yearbook, 1899--- Pacis about Milk: * Rarm. Bul. 42." Two veprints 2222 ¢ 2264-6 2-5. 2 Stee e-S- Rabies. Report of the Committee on Public Health of the Medical Society Siine isirichor Columbia.) Bull 20. 2-5 cents 29" 6523.2! coe eke Standard Varieties of Chickens. Farm. Bul.51. Two reprints......-.---- Care of Milk on the Farm. Farm. Bul. 63. Two reprints --.......-..-.-.--- Report upon Experimental Exports of Butter, 1898-99. Keprint from Six- Reverand toa Oo 1 RL a? 2) 00 4 Fema nie a gpa Sent ko ee eR Statistics of Oleomargarine, Oleo Oil, and Filled Cheese. Reprint from Six- [Poel Nea GEbereh wl eve} e1OY nh) sakes Bie emmepe ee eee on SEL EUE pnp bg epee ee Seem Le A Report upon the Examination of Milk and Other Articles. Reprint from Ric ortCen ines DITA RE BORG tse) nin ps wees A ee es - = eters memes Experiments with Texas Fever and Southern Cattle Ticks. Reprint from Bi icone anmeaiseD ots - mee! 2) 5 8s Std See ose Lace tet oe Foreign’ Markets for Eggs and Poultry. Reprint from Sixteenth Annual REET Re i en Sm et Ie ats 2 ee ee Wafional and State Dairy Laws. Bul. 26. 10°cents. 2. -....22.-----2--.-2. Our Present Knowledge of the Kidney Worm of Swine. Reprint from Six. Teenbn Armd Le perk oo) ae eR Se ete ot See ate ok oc bese es DIVISION OF BICLOGICAL SURVEY. ares toe ROMULUS ons Sars eae See cee ate os aearinla cles an soe Report of the Acting Chief of the Division of Biological Survey for 1899... -. North American Fauna, No. 17. Revision of Amervican Voles of the Genus Maero Fuse cemids soe se ee oe es a es sh er aS Legislation for the Protection of Birds Other than Game Birds. Bul. 12. Mate Reyringe Me Cemie= S286 oe 2. . bea SRE oh Le a Directory of State Officials and Organizations Concerned with the Protection oF Birdgiane Game, « Gi) 28; e With reprints hse: tag sts ens 3-2 Se Protection and Importation of Birds under Act of Congress Approved May Do GOO te Cire eo ees WG reprint i =e See ee ey see 2 ee Seeks A Review of Economic Ornithology in the United States. Reprint from Aer irae Wee eine oe ae A Be he MES tb ets esa ie ask Feod of the Bobolink, Blackbirds, and Grackles. Bul. 13. 5 cents...-..-- Wild Animals and Birds which may be Imported without Permits. Cir. 30- North American Fauna, No. 18. Revision of the Pocket Mice of the Genus Perounamher:, 210 Cenig ee SS sys ae Ee tee ash Seas ees Hawks and Owls from the Standpoint of the Farmer. Reprint from Year- ogee Parra ne arti ee eee eee ee es Sele Sich Sct ss Sl 2cc = North American Fauna, No. 19. Results of a Biological Reconnoissance o ecoaierert ver aectOney HM) COlid=s— fees ers 2 ace as cand 2 o-e Information Concerning Game: Seasons, Shipment, and Sale. Cir. 31. DN a Rint ypen Tee ne ee nn SS eG ona so tec cede ecews-= <> == 689 Copies. 50, 000 300 3, 000 5, 000 6, 000 6, 000 3, 000 4, 000 2,000 3, 000 5, 000 3, 000 690 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Copies. Birds of the Yukon Region, with Notes on Other Species. Reprint from North. Anreriean ‘Pauna,. 09. so ae ge 150 Laws Regulating the Transportation and Saleof Game. Bul 14. 10cents. 5,000 DIVISION OF BOTANY. Horse-Radish Culture in Bohemia. Cir. 20. With reprint..-.-.--..-.--- 4,500 Yams in the West Indies. Cir. 2-9-2 -2-.. 2525 oats Se eae 5, 000 Repatt of the Botanist-for 1890... 5 20S 525 SS ee eee 500 Russian Cereals Adapted for Cultivation in the United States. Bul. 23. 5 Cents 2232 £...288 JeUS Ses sR ee a ee eee a al eee eee 5, 000 Bur: or GlobeiArtichokes. . \@iri:22 572-2 2s jacaneneasese os ooo 5, 000- Weeds, and How to Killthem. Farm. Bul. 28. Two reprints........-... 45, 060 Rice Culture in the United States. Farm. Bul. 110_--.-------...-...--..- 20, 000 Inventory No. 5 of Foreign Seeds and Plants Imported by the Department of Agriculture and for Distribution through the Section of Seed and Plant Entroduction.. Neos. 1901-2700)... . 22a tectheccsanse cee sens an eee eee 1, 500 Phe, Lebbelz.or Siris Tree: | Cini 28) 2222. Ae. onc tee soe tae eee eee 5, 000 Ried’ @lover Seed. | Oirl 24a" Saat 2 ec ee ee ee ee #2, Inventory No. 6. Foreign Seeds and Plants Collected in Austria, Italy, and EKeypt by the Hon. Barbour Lathrop and Mr. David G. Fairchild for the Section of Seed and Plant Introduction —..--.5.--2-..-.2-- 22222 ss. 1, 500 The Germination of Seeds’ as Affected by Certain Chemical Fertilizers. Bali2e “beeenten. 2.552 -4: sees ee ee ee ee 4, 006 The Seed. of Beardless Brome Grass. ° Cir. 25... 2 0.5.22. cee ne ee 10, 000 Egyptian Cotton.in the United States: Cir. 26_..-.. .. 22.222 2222-2 3-e 5, 060 Thirty Poisonous Plants of the United States. Farm. Bul. 86. Reprint... 30,000 The Farmers’ Interest in Good Seed. Farm. Bul. 111. With reprint ..-.- 35, 000 Notes on Useful Plants of Mexico. Reprint from Contributions from the UU: S. National Herbarnim, Volk! Wi INo.4c 222222 2 ae ee ee ees 3, 000 Hop Culture im California: Farm. Bul: $15. 522022235 2 ee te a 30, 660 WildiGaslies— Cn 9. Revised edition". 2.2 aoe es nee ee ee 5, 000 Canada Phistle: ” Girne 2h... | SoS Us Ree eee ee er ene ae ee eee eee 5, GOO Contributions from the U.S. National Herbarium. Vol. V, No.5. The Plant Covering of Ocracoke Island EN. C.]. so cents oe 722 as ee ee 5, 000 Crimson Clover Seed. Cir. 18. Revised edition, with repring...25.. 2.1525. 46, 500 Rubber Culture‘for Porte Rico. “Cir. 2825222. 4 Se SS eee 8, 000 The Present Status of Rice Culture in the United States. Bul. 22. Reprint. NO cements fe Aes ic ecru oe ee Smt are re ay Se 2, 000 Seed Selling, Seed Growing, and Seed Testing. Reprint from Yearbook, 1899 2, 000 Inventory No. 7. Foreign Seeds and Plants Imported for Distribution... - 1, 500 Chicory Growing. Cir. [PCM LAM ote EG ek os 5, 600 Contributions from the U.S. National Herbarium. Vol. VII, No.1. Mono- graph of the North American Umbelliferee. 20 cents .............------ 1, cco DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY. The Sugar Beet Culture, Seed Development, Manufacture, and Siatisties. Farm. Bulo2: Revised.edition. “Reprmtt- 222-2. 2225-522 ae ea eee 20, 600 Proceedings of the Sixteenth Annual Convention of the Association of Offi- cial Agricultural Chemists, held at San Francisco, Cal., July 5, 6, and 7, 1899, with reprint. Bul. 57.. -LOreenta 2.932 2454... . Poses see ee 1, 500 Report ofthe @hemist for 1699222 ss eee ee ee 800 Rapport sur l’ Usage et les Possibilités de Extension du Mais (Blé d’ Inde) en Europe. Reprint a NR RE gy US a Se AL ES Deh eae 5, 000 Composition Chimige du Mais et de Ses Produits. Cir. 6........----- ---- 5, 000 Mineral Phosphates as Fertilizers. Reprintfrom Yearbook, 1894. Reprint. 500 The Relation of Chemistry to the Progress of Agriculture. Reprint from Vearbook,. 18902525 sg: Sat ee ee ee ee eee 3, 060 The Manufacture of Sorghum Sirup. Farm. Bul. 90. Reprint......------- 15, 000 The Manufacture of Starch from Potatoes and Cassava. Bul.58. 10 cents. 3,000 The Composition of American Wines. Bul.59. 5 cents..........--......- 2, 000. DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY. Report of the Entomologist for 1999~ s22... -2 Ss haaseee ana Ge ae ee ee 300 Bee Keeping. Farm. Bul. 59. Reprints, oo agi 5.51 eee eee ee 30, 000 Some gia Fhe Results of the Work of the Division of Entomology. Bul. 22, n. LO cents tocceccctcecce sen st eee eee ee eee 4,000 DEPARTMENT PUBLIOATIONS ISSUED IN 1900. How to Distinguish the Different Mosquitoes of North America. Cir. 40, BOSON O. pORIDE, WIL WONEMIG. ton wh esate Dwoweprinisias =a aeeeee coon eeenee Sheep Feeding. Farm: Bul. .49. Reprint-.-..----- suc ee Experiment Station Work—X. Farm. Bul. 97. Reprint.......-..-.....- The Feeding of Farm Animals. Farm. Bul. 22. Three reprints --..-...-- Foods: Nutritive Value and Cost. Farm. Bul. 23. Reprint..............- Artificial Changes of Physical Properties of Soils. Reprint from Experiment Station Record, Vok XX, Wo: 725.22 2222 2 ae eee eee List of Publications of the Office of Experiment Stations on the Food and Nutrition of Man-> INo./238.: . Revised \=_ - 22.----)-5-5 2-26 e- eae Methods and Results of Investigations on the Chemistry and Economy of Rood. | Bul: 21°) Reprint., -l5icents.24) see. oe ee eee Organization Lists of the Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations in the United States, with a List of Agricultural Experiment Stations in For- elon Countries: .Bull-74. -10\cents). =: =. sss-ece=e eee eee eee Dietary Studies of University Boat Crews. Bul. 75. 5 cents......-...---- Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual Convention of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations held at San Fran- cisco; Cal. July 5-72 1899, -BulliZGs) LOlcentss == ea eee Statistics ef the Land-Grant Colleges and Agricultural Experiment Stations in the United States for the Year Ended June 30,1899. Bul.78. 5 cents. Peanuts: Culture and Uses. Farm. Bul.25. Reprint. 1900.........----.- Souring of Milk and Other Changes in Milk Products. Farm. Bul. 29. PREPFI Go. a ons ae eed see ee See ee a ee Potato Cultures ~RarmoBul 35. Rhreemeprintsgas--]- =e e- se ee Sucar ss Food, Barm. Bul. 93.° Reprint... 24 322222 ee eee Bread and the Principles of Bread Making. Farm. Bul.112. With reprint-- Experiment Station Work—XIV. Farm. Bul. 1145-20. 2.2 -2-- 22-3 eee Annual Address of the President of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, 1899. Reprint from Bul. 76.........- Memorial Address on Hon. Justin 8. Morrill. Reprint from Bul. 76....-.-- Agricultural Education—Practical and Scientific. Reprint from Bul. 76...-. Methods of Seed Testing and Their Relation to the Farm and Garden. Re- print from: Bul. 7G -<22522 -2ad.20 eee a eee te ee ee eee The Principles Underlying the Formation of an Agricultural Course in the Souths. Reprinteirom Bull (Gas2o22c5s. 26 aoe ee eee eee Cee The Inspection of Nursery Stock and Orchards. Reprint from Bul. 76...-- Making a Garden Herbarium and Its Uses. The Making of a Horticultural Herbarium. Laboratory Work for Winter Instruction in Horticulture. Reprint from: (Bualey76.. 525 -+ 2. 2s... See ee ee ee ee The Practical Importance of Industrials. Reprint from Bul. 76.......--..- The Electrical Engineering Laboratory in Its Relations to Local Engineering Work. “Reprint from (Bul Gy 2-2 S222) oes one nee cere a ene Some Objections to Early Differentiation of Engineering Courses. Reprint fromeBuls 762 22 255 foes See eek ee a eee ere ee ee oe eer he Digestibility of American Feeding Stuffs. Bul.77. 10 cents.......-.- Farmers’ Institutes: History and Status in the United States and Canada. Brak: FOF AO Cem ts ye ee BARON Ee nee oe ee aes ee ee Meats: Composition and Cooking. Farm. Bul. 34. Reprint..-.......----- Irrigation in: Fruit: Growing.” Farm, Bull TGs." 22222 222. 0S 2s 2 eee The Agricultural Experiment Stations in the United States. The Paris Dz postsos 1900." ml: 80) OSL one son cee eee a oe ae ee The Use of Water in Irrigation in Wyoming and Its Relation to the Owner- ship and Distribution of the Natural Supply. Bul.81. 10 cents.....-..- Third Report of Committee on Methods of ‘Teaching Agriculture. Cir. 39. Reprint 26 ot soe ty et Bee SSeS See ee oe ee Ue nee se eee ee Agricultural Experiment Stations in the United States. Cir. 44..........-- - Milosiand |Silage. “Farm: Bul. 32; "Reprint ooo we eee eee The Liming of Seils) arm Buls/7. -Reprigtce:- ee eee ee Adaptation of Methods of Cultivation and Manuring to the Physical Prop- erties of Soils. Reprint from Experiment Station Record. -.--.....------ Land Grant and Other Colleges and the National Defense. Cir. 40. Reprint- Food Nutrients, Food Economy. Cir.41. Reprint........-...-----.----- Agricultural Education in the United States. Reprint from Yearbook, 1899- Development of the Nutrition Investigations of the Department of Agricul- ture. Reprint form Yearbook, 1899 <2 oe ee eweeeees BASE Copies. 30, 000 55, 600 30, 600 10, 000 200 2, G80 5, 680 1, 000 1, 000 DEPARTMENT PUBLICATIONS ISSUED IN 1900. Rise and Future of Irrigation in the United States. Reprint from Year- TO ae eae ce ae ee ee ee te inl Wa lca in Mine so Saa cn ae eeea A Report on the Work and Expenditures of the Agricultural Experiment Stations for the Year Ended June 30, 1899. Bul. 83. 10 cents........-- Corn Culture in the South. Farm. Bul.81._ Tworeprints.......-....-.-.- Agricultural Experiment Stations in the United States. Reprint from Year- DOGE CGO 0 = ete ae ee ee Se Rn eee eee noose See es ele aie Seed Selling, Seed Growing, and Seed Testing. Reprint from Yearbook, 1899- Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual Convention of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations held at San Francisco, Gal., July 5-7, 1899. Bul-76. ° 1:cents... .. 2-2: -2-2 22-225 Bxperiment Station Work—XV. Farm. Bul: 119.. 2-2... -2.2.22.5--2------ Experiment Station Work—II. Farm. Bul. 65. Reprint.............---- Report on Agricultural Investigation in Alaska in 1899. Bul. §2 .......... Nutrition Investigations at the California Agricultural Experiment Station, Leh =898" bw S41 ro CCDS. peer en eres tt AR oe a ee Aes te ae A Report of Investigations on the Digestibility and Nutritive Value of Bread. scien odes POONER She sal ee Aerie acai Met Sete oe faim ere See ic Barmyard’ Manure:' Farm. Bul. Zl. Two reprints... --. 2. = -- fe eek. Sweet Potatoes: Culture and Uses. Farm. Bul. 26.: Revised edition .----- Broom Corn. (Andropogon sorghum vulgaris.) Cir.28. Revyised.-...-.-- Leguminous Plants for Green Manuring and for Feeding. Bul.16. Reprint- Irrigation in New Jersey. Bul. 85. With reprint. 5 cents ............-- Experiment Station Work—III. Farm. Bul. 69. Reprint...........---.. Experiment Station Work—XI. Farm. Bul. 103. Reprint..........----- Experiment Station Work—XIII. Farm. Bul. 107. Reprint...........-- Beans, Peas, and Other Legumes as Food. Farm. Bul. 121-........-..---- Experiment Station Work—XVI. Farm. Bul. 121 .............----.-.--- Some Essentials of Beef Production. Farm. Bul. 71-.........--...------- Experiments on the Metabolism of Matterand Energy in the Human Body. ul G9ls Revised edition. . TOcentss=— see oe oo = oe ee The Use of Water. Report of Investigations Made in 1899. Bul. 86. 30 OES ee er ESAS SEs A get be RES 8) SSS at I a Se ee Seer Duty of Water in the Gallatin Valley. Reprint from Bul. 86.............- SECTION OF FOREIGN MARKETS. Section of Foreign Markets. Reprint from Yearbook, 1897. Reprint..---- Report of the Chief of the Section of Foreign Markets for 1899 -.........- Distribution of the Agricultural Exports of the United States, 1894-1898. ao.) 2 Wibhareiint.” “1.0 Cemtse nen ne oe ee rh ee ales ad ale S wi <9 ™ = ( = —————— a aes f y — ee 4 —— "4 K rd S i a | i ts . om ae. 7 Se I 1 = ——F 2 A)? UL Ppt : SEE OY SS = =< . = eee <= = —— ETT =. i : ora Tt frirereyt? ri 2 ai (tt Ke SY ra — pa} a et Ve ee, ~ Ey - TE ee SOP 1 ars a te ay ee | ee Saat f—— = a) re 5 = ses ey = == ane eS ee ae 2 2 —— F ana > ——————— tt em 7 = Aa: ial Ld ug =a 74 = 2 e Pp PZ, BS ne a a ott a 7 = ary rr AY { of = — — =i =a 2 v b 2 se Pasa st , ~ ety ae) J ei »* : “ wa ce y . if ¢ oo 29,08 S " PLATE LXXXVI. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. Scale of Shades [_|eess than OC inches —— ae CLL LALA w A & | TOTAL PRECIPITATION FOR THE PERIOD Stenite Miles 4 FROM MARCH 1 TO OCTOBER 8, 1900. 929 nays 2 | , 4 ar a ' “ ! u ‘let 4s i ' 1 e i . ri \ ie Y ja y ‘ eo) BL me t ‘ 7 i a rs } x] 1 1 Ta - ms = Ae 4 7 fi f ’ > ’ * : t = * i ‘ o » + a has t ot sry! 7) ae Sc) ‘ j poy sw 4 wil Sai! er, : yee Eee oem ¥ Nae vv >in feeesoeg Zam! Al 5 Pate idl Wesabe Se rely ePaaly bb eb mtn hares rm | 7 ne = * Pete 5 ‘ 7 ) : pre \ a4 PLATE LXXXVII. Yearbook U. S, Dept. of Agriculture, 1900. Ld fae i ciency (—) of rainfall. } y DEPARTURES Figures show mean yexcess (+) or deficiency (—) FROM of rainfall over areas bounded by light lines. | Stitoty Miles 1 FORTHE ohana x rd hy CROP SEASON OF 1300, he FROM MARCH 1 TO OCTOBER 8, 222 Days WEATHER AND -CROP CONDITIONS. 697 crop was unusually promising. Some plowing was done in West Virginia, Illinois, Kansas, and Oklahoma during the mild weather of this month. Over the western portions of the plateau region, the Pacific coast districts, and south- ern New England February averaged milder than usual, the temperature excess being very slight except over the western portions of the central and northern plateau region and southern California, where it ranged from 3° to 5° per day. Over por- tions of the southeastern Rocky Mountain slope and in eastern South Dakota nearly normal temperature conditions prevailed, but generally throughout the central val- leys, Lake region, Middle and South Atlantic and Gulf States the month was colder than usual, the average daily deficiency in temperature being greatest in the Lower Missouri, Central Mississippi, and Ohio valleys, Tennessee, and over the interior por- tions of the South Atlantic and East Gulf States, where it generally ranged from 6° to 8° per day. Except along the immediate South Atlantic coast there was more than the usual amount of precipitation from the Gulf coast northeastward to the St. Lawrence Valley, also in the Lake region, Central Mississippi and Lower Mis- souri valleys, and over the middle Rocky Mountain slope. The precipitation amounted to from 6 to more than 12 inches over portions of the East Gulf and South Atlantic States, and from 6 to 10 inches over the greater part of New England. Gen- erally throughout the Pacific coast and plateau regions, the Upper Missouri Valley, including Minnesota and northern Wisconsin, and over an area extending from the Rio Grande Valley northeastward to the Central Ohio Valley, the precipitation was below the average. Along the immediate north Pacific coast, although the precipi- tation ranged from 4 to 10 inches, it was decidedly below the average, except near the mouth of the Columbia River, where it was excessive. Throughout California the precipitation was much below the average, more than half the State receiving less than 0.50 inch, and a large area over the southern portion no appreciable amount. At the close of this month the ground was covered with snow from the middle Rocky Mountain slope eastward over the Lower Missouri and Central Mississippi valleys, the southern limit extending from northern Arkansas northeastward over the Ohio Valley to the New England coast, the depths ranging from 3 to 18 inches from the Lower Missouri Valley northeastward over the Central Mississippi Valley and greater part of the Lake region and New England. The absence of snow protection over the principal winter wheat States during the greater part of February, with alternate freezing and thawing, left wheat as a whole at the close of the month in much less favorable condition than at the end of the preceding month. The reported condition of the crop at the end of February was, however, generally satisfactory in most sec- tions outside of the Middle States, Ohio, Michigan, and portions of Indiana, Missouri, and Kansas. In Michigan and Ohio many reports of winterkilling were received, indicating a more unfavorable condition than at any time during the winter. On the North Pacific coast favorable reports were received from Washington, Oregon, and northern and central California, although the crop in eastern Washington sus- tained some injury as a result of the cold at the close of the month. In southern California, where there had been an almost total absence of rain, the crop, especially the éarly sown, was suffering seriously from drought. The temperature during March averaged nearly normal in the Central and East Gulf States, but elsewhere east of the Mississippi the month was colder than usual, the temperature deficiency ranging from 3° to 6° in the Lake region, New England, and Ohio and Upper Mississippi valleys. Throughout the Pacific coast and plateau region and over the States of the eastern Rocky Mountain slope the month was much milder than usual, especially over the central and northern plateau regions, where the temperature excess ranged from 3° to 8° per day. A marked feature of March was the continued prevalence throughout the month of mild temperature conditions in the Rocky Mountain plateau and Pacific coast districts, while abnormally low temperatures were equally persistent from the Upper Mississippi Valley eastward to the Atlantic coast. Over much the greater part of the country the precipitation during March was below the average. There was, however, more than the average amount in Florida, central and southern Texas, over an area extending from northern Alabama to central Virginia, in northern New England, New York, and over a nar- row area extending from the Upper Mississippi Valley to the North Pacific coast. Over portions of Texas, Florida, and Alabama, Georgia, and New England the pre- cipitation ranged from 6 to more than 8 inches. Throughout the central valleys the total precipitation was for the most part less than 2 inches, although limited areas received more. The month was characterized by unusually light precipitation throughout the central and southern plateau regions, and in Oregon and California, where it was also generally deficient in January and February. East of the Missis- sippi River, except in the Southern States, the season was generally backward and unfavorable for farm work, with excessive rains in portions of the Gulf States, and heavy snow in portions of the Lake region and New England. On the Pacific slope 4 1900 45 698 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Z corermben Oct. 125] 2 19 W/o 12513016 [7312027 aie IS HTT HL po Middle ® Sour Aale STAVES =] = = | Seely Aud J O re 2012713 ol /7i24l ¢ | 8 es Te) ae Pe De Be ee Gulf States. 4p? 9 176 |23)001 7 A224 11/8 meee, a ATRL Hes B i : it i Banna % : ne : IR “ S SS 8 BS) << S et i H ope Oe /0| WAEA a ee 70 Sean ee x aay SS : ne : Lake (region. Fic. 86.—Temperature (degrees Fahr.) and precipitation (inches) departures for the season of 1900 frem the normal of many years for the Middle and South Atlantic States, the Guli States, the Ohio Valley and Tennessee, and the Lake region. 699 WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS. NBD MISSY, “UObEB solssySsipy.dady engy yous Seer Pee eNLOjE> aaa W171, GEGIees. artures for the season of u % \ OUT SAT HHH DSeatt HIT See Se ee a Se SUT [Sits Ml TTT a HIT Httt SHI Me Hl I Hh Ht HU att Te eC Mista Hs NUTT Wk iii iM at HANNA a il AL i Hit a ht HET Hite SUT HUT STRUTT SS Ht TEE ETSI ACT a HH HS STE CIT une, CoN co Sos eanentaneananeeat iss) A i N whelahs N RUT TT ie ai UT s “ i i nny inal i ATOR (Sud OL nea | 4 af i Hs SHTTMIATTTTTT 218 CSET RCCL He WMT “HH TS SIT a HITT i TTT SS SHER UNI AESAHANU ETD SUUERE PEATE SHHUC ANG in ut Sn TTT LAK AL SUTTUTTTNTTTTT ISSUE) TSH Hy WY PSHTTNY so i Ml it a HTT x EMI HIT RUT 18 t HPT oH HT BSE il PULLS | S ETT STAT ns + i i il AY ist AIA IS | 4 it spite {HH we TTTTN Wt HL dss CTT hes Ht vii US TT LN ” i TUTE SUL | aM ar Hill LS SS HIMMIE Al NES Tr eS i HHH Hh ala He HT Ie SSHTTETIN ITT SSI ATES (CR Mh UT in HAT LTT i il H NII HTT Stl Hl Mat Ht UU UTTU Sli ah iil th ah Y nc CT SSSI SETHI He TTT SSID HA tt SULGTHNALHUUL Sl Hat | S S HTT Seana HTT UT tit it N PTET IST Mt CET a i UT Th Sil tii CTA Santi POLTAVOA ANON AO ECAC at Hin SESH TT x L TTS STE aariil i TTT SESH ies ie] Ht utp Pealiics TTT Ts SESHATANVOTECSHATIVATAGNOONONVOUINOHNTN ii tH sain st Hii iy ii ETT Sol HY Nate SL iin EL HET NC Say f Sea INNIS Heal ai nt ul | l i it ii lleys, the Rocky issouri va California, , and lof many years for the Upper Mississippi and M Coast, the erature (degrees Fahr.) and precipitation (inches) dep North Pacific Dp 1900 irom the norma Mountain region, Fic. 87.—Tem 700 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and in the Rocky Mountain districts exceptionally favorable conditions prevailed, and farming operations progressed rapidly. tthe close of March unfavorable reports regarding winter wheat were received from Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsyl- vania, New Jersey, and portions of Missouri, Illinois, Kentucky, and Maryland; else- where the crop was in promising condition. Outside of a limited area in southern California, winter wheat on the Pacific coast was well advanced and very promising. Some spring wheat had been sown over the southern portions of the spring-wheat region, and also in Montana, where the season was unusually advanced. Corn was being planted in the Southern States, some as farnorth as North Carolina. In south- ern Texas the bulk of the crop had been planted. Oats were being sown in Kansas, Missouri, Ohio, and Kentucky, and were coming up to good stands in Oklahoma, Texas, Arkansas, Tennessee, and Mississippi. Reports of winterkilling of the fall crop were received from Virginiaand Georgia. Cotton planting had begun over the southern portion of the cotton region. The soil was in good condition, and consid- erable plowing had been done except in the more northerly sections, where frost still remained in the ground, and in portions of New Jersey, Maryland, West Vir- ginia, Virginia, Tennessee, and North Carolina, where this work had been delayed by wet weather. SUMMARY OF THE SEASON BY WEEKS, By weeks ending with Monday from April 9 to October 1 the crop conditions may be summarized as follows: April 9.—The general absence of rain with mild temperature conditions over the northern districts from Montana and Wyoming eastward to the Atlantic coast, inelud- ing the lower Missouri and central Mississippi valleys, was favorable for farming operations. The season, however, continued late in the lower lake region, Middle Atlantic States, and New England, the northern portion of the last-named district being still covered with unusual depths of snow. The weather was too cool for best results in the South Atlantic and Gulf States, and heavy rains proved destructive in Texas. The week was also abnormally cool in the southern plateau region and Cali- fornia, where more or iess damaging frosts occurred. Frostsalso occurred as far south as the Carolinas, Georgia, and the central Gulf States, causing no material damage, however, except in the Carolinas. From Kansas and Missouri southward corn plant- ing was unusually well advanced and progressing rapidly, planting being nearly fin- ished in Oklahoma and southern Kansas, the early planting being up as far north as the southern portions of Missouri and Kansas. Some corn had been planted in southern Illinois and Tennessee and North Carolina, but none had been planted far- ther northward in the districts east of the Mississippi. Poor stands were reported from portions of Georgia and Mississippi, but good stands were reported from Ala- bama and Texas. In the last-named States, however, much damage had been done by washing rains. Very unfavorable reports as to winter wheat were received from Michigan, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York. In eastern Kansas and Illinois it was suffering for rain. In Nebraska, Kansas, and Missouri, and from Oklahoma eastward over the Mississippi Valley to the Atlantic coast the condition of winter wheat was very promising. On the Pacific coast the winter wheat was gen- erally excellent, except in southern California. Cotton planting was general over he southern portion of the cotton belt, and some had been planted in Oklahoma and Arkansas. Planting was well advanced in southern Texas, and extensive prepa- rations for planting had been made throughout the cotton region. April 16.—This week was much too cold and farm work was generally retarded. Temperatures below freezing occurred in nearly all sections north of the northern boundaries of North Carolina, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Oklahoma, the lowest rang- ing from 10° to 25° below freezing over the northern portion of the lake region and States of the middle and northern Rocky Mountain slope. These unusually low tem- perature conditions were accompanied by excessive precipitation, much in the form of snow, over the lower Missouri Valley and middle Rocky Mountain slope, and frosts were quite general as far south as the interior portions of the Gulf and South Atlantic States. In Florida and on the Pacific coast the weather conditions were more fayorable. Corn planting continued in the Southern States, but farther north little progress was made, although preparations for planting were active. A small acreage of corn was planted in Tennessee and some as far north as Virginia. The condition of winter wheat was about as reported in the previous week. Over the southern portion of the winter-wheat belt it was very promising, while in the more northerly sections the previously reported unfavorable conditions were practically unchanged, except further deterioration in Illinois and Ohio. On the Pacific coast winter wheat continued very promising, except in southern California. Spring- wheat seeding was nearing completion and the early sown was coming up over the southern portion of the spring-wheat region. Most of the oat crop had been seeded WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS. 701 in the States of the central valleys, and seeding was in progress in the Middle Atlantic States, Minnesota, and South Dakota. In the more southerly sections good stands were reported. Slow progress was made with cotton planting during this week, but preparations were extensive. Some cotton was planted in the Carolinas, but none in Tennessee. Moisture was needed in Georgia, while portions of Texas suffered from overflows. In the last-named State poor stands of the early planting were reported. Warm sunshine was generally needed for cotton, especially in the central and western portions of the cotton belt. April 23.—The temperature conditions of this week were generally highly favora- ble, but excessive rains in the Southern States greatly interfered with farm work and caused destructive floods. Farm work was also retarded as a result of heavy rains in the eastern portions of Kansas and Nebraska and southern Missouri. | Rain was much needed in Montana, North Dakota, and over the northern portion of Minnesota. While freezing temperatures occurred in the upper Missouri Valley and middle and northern Rocky Mountain regions, no serious damage was done. ‘The week was not favorable for the rapid progress of corn planting, but preparations for this work were very active in the more northerly sections. Planting was generally retarded where not completed in the Southern States, and also from Kansas and Oklahoma eastward over the central Mississippi Valley, being later than for many years in Tennessee. An improvement in the condition of winter wheat was gener- ally reported, except in Michigan and Wisconsin, where plowing up for other crops continued. With ample moisture and favorable temperature, wheat made rapid growth in the central valleys and Southern States. It was heading in Texas and its condition in Kentucky and Tennessee was exceptionally fine. The favorable out- look on the Pacific coast, except in southern California, continued. Early sown spring wheat was coming up to good stands over the southern portion of the spring- wheat region, and seeding had been nearly completed, except in North Dakota and Montana, where from one-quarter to one-half of the crop was yet to be sown. Rain was quite generally needed for germination over the northern portion of the spring- wheat region. All reports respecting the oat crop were encouraging, seeding being well advanced in the northern sections. The continuous excessive rains over the central and eastern portions of the cotton belt had retarded cotton planting and washed out much of the acreage previously planted. In southern Texas planting was well advanced and it was progressing rapidly in the northern portion of the State. Planting over the northern portion of the eastern part of the cotton belt was unusually delayed. April 80.—The most unfavorable features of this week were the excessive rains in the Southern States and the unseasonably low temperatures over the central and southern plateau and Pacific coast regions. A large part of Texas, including the region of the great flood of June-July, 1899, received from 2 to more than 7 inches of rain, washing out and inundating crops to a great extent over the central and southern portions of the State. Too much rain had generally retarded farm work in the States of the Missouri Valley and middle Rocky Mountain slope, but with gen- eral absence of rain and highly favorable temperature from the Missouri Valley east- ward to the Atlantic coast, farm work and crops made decided progress, although rain was needed in the Middle Atlantie States and lake region. It was too cool for best results on the Pacific coast, but very beneficial showers occurred in southern California. Eastward of the Mississippi River corn planting and preparations there- for progressed rapidly, planting being in progress as far north as the central portions of Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio, and in West Virginia and Maryland. Some corn was planted in southern Iowa. On account of the wet weather but little corn was planted in Nebraska, and planting was retarded in Missouri and Kansas. In Kansas and Texas and portions of Mississippi, Arkansas, and Alabama much replanting was nec- essary asa result of overflows. Improvement was generally reported in the condi- tion of winter wheat, except in Michigan and Wisconsin, where farmers continued to plow up wheat fields for other crops. The crop was heading as far north as Ten- nessee, Arkansas, and Oklahoma. In central and northern California high winds were unfavorable, but the crop was improved by rains in the southern part of the State. All reports indicated that spring wheat was coming up finely and making excellent growth. Seeding was now practically completed except in North Dakota. Except where damaged by heavy rains in Texas, the general outlook for oats was excellent. Seeding was nearing completion in the northern sections and the crop was heading in the Southern States, while some of the early sowing had been harvested in Florida. In the central and eastern portions of the cotton belt cotton planting progressed under more favorable conditions than in the previous week and good stands were quite generally reported. Planting was well advanced over the north- ern portion of the cotton belt, and the early planting was being cultivated over the southern portions. Great damage had been caused by the rains in central and south- 702 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ern Texas, where much replanting was necessary. In many portions of Texas the bulk of the crop was yet to be planted and seed was reported scarce.. Transplanting of tobacco was in progress as far north as North Carolina, and an abundant supply of vigorous plants was generally reported. The reports concerning fruit continued gen- erally favorable, except on the North Pacific coast and in the central and southern plateau regions, where damaging frosts had occurred. May 7.—Rain was now very generally needed northward of the Missouri and Ohio rivers, including Kentucky and portions of the Middle Atlantic States, the lack of moisture being most seriously felt in Michigan and portions of Wisconsin and North Dakota, while a large part of Texas continued to suffer from the effects of the exces- sive rains of che two preceding weeks. Phenomenally heavy rains for the season oecurred in California, especially on the southern coast, causing some damage, but on the whole they were greatly beneficial. The temperature conditions over the southern and central districts west of the Mississippi were highiy favorable, but it was much too cool in the lake region, Ohio Valley, the Middle Atlantic States, and New England, where frequent frosts were more or less destructive. The cool, dry weather retarded corn planting in the States of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys and lake region, but very favorable progress was made in the Middle Atlantic States. In the States of the Missouri Valley the conditions were also generally favorable for planting, except in Iowa and Nebraska, where, however, a good start had been made. Some corn had been planted in the Dakotas, but in Minnesota farmers were waiting for warmer weather and rain. In the Southern States the reports concerning corn were generally favorable, except in Florida and portions cf Texas. Owing to low temperatures and absence of rain winter wheat made slow progress in the States of the Ohio Valley, and complaints of serious injury by the Hessian fly in Tennessee and South Carolina and Georgia were reported. In the Middle Atlantic States and generally west of the Mississippi wheat made good progress, the reports from the Pacific coast being especially favorable. Some slight damage to spring wheat from frost and high winds was reported from North Dakota, and late sowings in Wisconsin needed rain, but generally throughout the spring-wheat region the crop was doing well. The previously reported favorable outlook for oats continued unimpaired, except slight deterioration in portions of the Ohio and Mississippi vaileys, where growth had been checked by cool, dry weather. Cool nights were unfavorable to cotton over the northern portion of the eastern half of the cotton belt, and the heavy rains of the previous weeks in Florida and Texas necessitated extensive replanting. Generally, however, the crop did well, good stands being reported, except in the flooded portions of Florida and Texas; in the last-named State planting had been vigorously pushed where practicable, and was well advanced in the northern portion, but was much behind in the middle and southern portions, where in places the third planting had been rendered necessary by floods. ‘Tobacco plants continued plentiful and were large enough for transplanting in Virginia and Tennessee, the bulk of the crop in South Carolina having been planted. Most of the reports respecting fruit con- tinued encouraging, although portions of the lake region, Ohio Valley, and northern New England experienced very trying temperature conditions. May 14.—Much-needed rains fell in this week over a large part of the area north- ward of the Ohio and Missouri rivers that suffered for lack of moisture in the previous week. Continued absence of rain, however, intensified the droughty conditions in eastern Montana and North Dakota, and while showers afforded temporary relief in Minnesota more rain was needed there and in portions of Wisconsin. Drought con- ditions also increased over a large part of the Middle Atlantic States and portions of Tennessee. There was too much rain in Oregon and western Washington, where warm sunshine was needed, especially in the first-named State. The temperature conditions were generally very favorable except in New England, where it was much too cool, and although the temperatures averaged nearly normal in the Gulf States, complaints of the unfavorable effects of cool nights on germination and growth were received from the central and eastern portions. The week was marked by exces- sively high temperatures for the season in the region between the Upper Missouri River and the Great Lakes, while the lowest temperatures yet recorded in the second decade of May were reported from New England. Frosts, more or less injurious, were very general east of the Mississippi as far south as Tennessee and western North Carolina on the 10th and 11th. Upon the whole, the week was exceptionally favor- able to corn. Planting had progressed rapidly in the central and northern districts, and was nearing completion in some of the important corn States of the central val- leys; planting in Minnesota and North Dakota was general and had begun in the southern portions of Wisconsin and Michigan. Cool nights checked the growth of corn in the Lower Ohio and Lower Mississippi valleys and portions of the South Atlan- tic States. Complaints of injury to winter wheat by the Hessian fly continued, and in some sections, namely, Tennessee and Missouri, were more numerous than in the WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS. 703 preceding week, but on the whole the crop made favorable progress; it was heading as far north ag the Ohio Valley. Excellent reports continued from the Pacific coast, where harvesting and thrashing had begun in the San Joaquin Valley, the earliest in many years. Early-sown spring wheat was generally doing well, but the late sown over the northern portion of the spring-wheat region was suffering much from drought. Reports respecting oats were not so generally favorable, the least favorable reports being from Minnesota and North Dakota and portions of the Middle Atlantic States and Ohio Valley, where the crop was needing rain. Complaints of unfavorable effects of cool nights upon cotton continued from the central and eastern portions of the cotton belt, where planting was nearing completion, but, as a rule, the crop made favorable progress. Over much of the flooded districts of Texas there was an absence of rain, or only light showers, a condition needed for planting and replanting, which work was vigorously crrried on. Much planting remained to be done in the central and southern portions of Texas, and generally the crop in that State was late and irregular. Tobacco plants were reported backward in Kentucky, although plentiful, as elsewhere. Transplanting was finished in South Carolina and some transplanting had been done in Virginia, but none farther northward. May 21.—Abundant rains relieved drought conditions in the Middle Atlantic States, but drought continued in the Upper Missouri Valley, in Minnesota and northern Wisconsin, and the need of rain began to be felt in portions of the East Gulf States and Florida. The temperature conditions on the Pacific coast, in the Upper Missouri Valley, and over the greater part of the country east of the Mississippi River were favorable for rapid growth, especially in the Ohjo Valley and Middle and South Atlantic States, although complaints of cool nights were received from Tennessee and the Central Gulf States. From Nebraska and Wyoming southward to the Rio Grande the week was abnormally cool and unfavorable for the advancement of crops. On the Pacific coast crops made satisfactory growth, although drying winds proved detrimental to late grain in portions of California. In the States of the Lower Mis- souri and Upper Mississippi valleys corn experienced less favorable conditions than in the previous week, owing to the prevalence of low temperatures and excessive moisture, butin the Ohio Valley and Middle Atlantic States the conditions were highly favorable for germination and growth, as well as for planting. In Minnesota and the Dakotas planting was nearly finished, and in Wisconsin and Michigan it was well advanced. More numerous reports of injury to winter wheat by the Hessian fly were received than in the previous week, especially in the States of the Ohio and Central Mississippi valleys, but otherwise the crop made satisfactory advancement, although too rank growth was reported from portions of Nebraska and Texas. Over the northern portions of the spring-wheat region rain was generally needed, espe- cially for late-sown spring wheat, but over the southern portion the crop was doing well. Oats made slow growth in the valleys of the Upper Missouri and the Red - River of the North, and although rains improved the condition of the crop in the Ohio Valley and Middle Atlantic States, unfavorable reports continued from these districts. Generally throughout the Gulf States, Lower Missouri, and Central Missis- sippi valleys the outlook continued satisfactory. Cotton made slow growth, espe- cially over the central and western portions of the cotton belt, the nights being too cool. In Oklahoma and Texas there had been too much rain, while rain was needed for late-planted cotton in portions of Alabama and Georgia. In Texas fields were grassy, but elsewhere cultivation made favorable progress. Transplanting of tobacco was begun in Kentucky, Ohio, and Maryland, conditions being very favorable for this work in Virginia and North Carolina. The supply of plants continued abundant. May 28.—With general absence of rain, or only light showers, in the Dakotas and Minnesota, the previously existing drought conditions in these States became more serious. Rain was also needed over a large part of the lake region, Ohio Valley, and portions of the Middle Atlantic and Central Gulf States. The temperature con- ditions in the districts east of the Rocky Mountains were generally favorable, although complaints of cool nights continued from the East Gulf and South Atlantic States. On the North Pacific coast the week was abnormally cool and unfavorable. The general condition of corn in the principal corn States was rather better than in the previous week, although it was somewhat backward in Missouri, Kansas, and Arkansas. The late planted over the northern portion of the lake region and in Minnesota and South Dakota germinated poorly on account of lack of moisture. Cut worms were reported as damaging corn in the Middle and South Atlantic and Central Gulf States and in Kansas. In Texas the condition of the crop was irregular and below the average, but was improving. Winter wheat was ripening as far north as North Carolina, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Oklahoma, and harvesting was begun in the southern portions of the Gulf States. In Missouri, Kansas, and Kentucky the outlook continued promising, notwithstanding injury by fly. Wheat was heading short in the Middle Atlantic States. In Indiana, Ohio, Michigan, and Wisconsin, 704. YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. where wheat was very poor, there was no material change in its condition, except further deterioration in Ohio. Harvesting under favorable conditions continued in California. In Washington and Oregon rust was reported in some localities. The northern and western portions of the spring-wheat region experienced very unfavor- able conditions, the abnormally high temperatures with absence of rain proving very detrimental to spring wheat, but over the southeastern portion the crop made satis- factory progress. Oat harvest was general in the Southern States and was yielding well. In the Middle Atlantic States, Ohio Valley, and Tennessee the crop suffered much from drought, and the outlook was not favorable. From the Upper Mississippi and Lower Missouri valleys more favorable reports were received. While cotton con- tinued backward, there was quite a general improvement in its condition, especially over the eastern and western portions of the cotton belt, the least favorable reports coming from the central portion. All sections, however, continued to report the unfavorable effects of cool nights. June 4.—The drought conditions existing at the close of the previous week over a large part of the lake region and Ohio Valley and portions of the Middle Atlantic and Central Gulf States were generally relieved by abundant rains, and the severe drought in the Dakotas and Minnesota was partially broken, but the northern and western portions of Wisconsin and Minnesota continued to suffer seriously, and more rain was needed over portions of the Middle and South Atlantic States. Unusually heavy rains fell over a large part of the Central and West Gulf States, in the Lower Ohio Valley, portions of Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas receiving from 2 to 14 inches. These excessive rains retarded farm work and caused damage by washing out crops. The temperature conditions of the week, as a whole, were favor- able. Generally the reports indicated that corn had made satisfactory advancement, but the crop continued somewhat late in some sections, and cutworms were causing damage in Indiana, South Dakota, Kansas, Texas, South Carolina, and Maryland. In the States of the central valleys, excepting Ohio, the crop was generally well cul- tivated. Winter-wheat harvest was begun as far north as southern Kansas, and wheat was ripening in the southern portions of Missouri and Illinois. The heavy rains in Texas seriously interfered with harvesting and injured wheat in shock. The crop made satisfactory progress in the States of the Central Mississippi and Lower Missouri valleys, but reports of injury by fly continued from the Ohio Valley, and while short straw was generally reported from the Middie Atlantic States, the heads were filling well, except in Pennsylvania. In California harvesting continued with large yields, and the crop had made favorable progress in Washington and Oregon, although rust was reported from portions of Washington. Rains improved the con- dition of spring wheat in the Dakotas and Minnesota, but the general condition of the crop in these States was unpromising, some fields in North Dakota being plowed up for other crops. More rain was needed in portions of Minnesota and South Dakota. Very favorable reports respecting spring wheat were received from Wash- ington and Oregon. In South Dakota, Minnesota, and southwestern Missouri oats suffered from drought, while too rank growth was reported from Iowa and Nebraska. The reports respecting oats, however, were more favorable than in the previous week. Harvesting continued in the Southern States and as far north as North Carolina. Rains of this week somewhat improved the outlook for hay in the Ohio Valley, but the crop in these States, as well as in the Middle Atlantic coast districts, Wisconsin, Minnesota, northern Iowa, South Dakota, and southern Missouri, promised to be short. In Nebraska, Kansas, and Colorado, and on the Pacific coast haying was progressing under favorable conditions. Over the central and eastern portions of the cotton belt there was a general improvement in cotton, although slow growth was reported from Georgia and South Carolina, where rain was needed. In Texas where planting was not yet completed the crop suffered much from excessive rains, was much in need of cultivation, and was being damaged by insects. The week was exceptionally favorable for transplanting tobacco in the Ohio Valley and Middle Atlantic States, the bulk of the crop in Kentucky having been set. The general fruit outlook, except for apples, which were dropping extensively, continued promising. June 11.—Heavy rains in the central and east Gulf States, including portions of Kentucky, Tennessee, and southern Illinois, and central and northern Indiana, retarded cultivation, and in some sections caused injury to crops, while drought con- ditions continued in the Dakotas, northern Minnesota, eastern Montana, and gener- ally throughout the central and northern Rocky Mountain districts. Rain was much needed over a large part of the Middle Atlantic States. In the States of the central valleys the conditions were generally very favorable to the advancement of crops, except where excessive rains had delayed cultivation. The general absence of rain, or only light showers, in Texas proved especially beneficial and afforded much needed WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS. 705 opportunity for cultivation. On the Pacific coast the weather conditions were gen- erally favorable, except in portions of Washington and Oregon, where rain was needed. The high average temperature, with generally suflicient moisture, in the great corn States of the central valleys was decidedly fayorable to corn, which made rapid growth, although it needed cultivation in some sections. In Maryland, Virginia, and portions of North Carolina and Texas corn needed rain, while it suf- fered from excessive rains in the central Gulf States. In the Dakotas, Minnesota, and Wisconsin the outlook was unfavorable as a result of the protracted drought, although encouraging reports were received from portions of South Dakota and Wis- consin. Winter-wheat harvest was now in progress in central Kansas, southern Mis- souri, and Virginia. Except some lodging in Kentucky and Tennessee, and injury from rain in Arkansas, the reports generally indicated that the crop had made satis- factory advancement during the week, although further deterioration was reported from Michigan. On the Pacific coast the reports respecting wheat were generally favorable, but some fears were entertained that the frost of the 9th had caused injury in portions of Washington. Harvesting continued in California and had begun in Oregon. The northern portion of the spring-wheat region received only scattered light showers during the week, and wheat in that section was in very poor condition. In North Dakota the crop was thin and very weedy and a considerable portion in that State and also in Minnesota was being plowed up for other crops. In South Dakota and southern Minnesota the outlook was less discouraging, although a poor crop was promised. The prospect for a good oat crop continued flattering except in the drought area of the Northwest. Short straw, however, was reported from the Middle Atlantic States, and local storms caused injury to oats of rank growth in Iowa. The hay crop was further improved in the principal hay States, but the yield as a whole promised to be light. Asa result of fair weather in Texas, much of the State receiving no precipitation, cultivation was vigorously pushed and there was a decided improvement in the condition of cotton. Several days of fair weather were still needed, however, to put the crop in a proper state of cultivation in some parts of Texas. While there was a general complaint of lice in cotton in the central and eastern portions of the cotton belt, the crop made substantial progress, although in quite general need of cultivation. The least favorable reports were received from Louisiana, where cotton had made but slow growth and was turning yellow. The bulk of the tobacco crop had been transplanted in the Ohio Valley and Middle Atlantic States, and a large part of the crop in New England had been set, an excel- lent stand being reported from the States of the Ohio Valley. June 18.—The protracted drought over the northern portion of the spring-wheat region continued, and rain was needed in portions of New England and Texas, and generally throughout the Rocky Mountain districts. Abundant rains thoroughly relieved the drought conditions in the Middle Atlantic States, while excessively heavy precipitation interrupted farm work and caused damage to cropsin the South Atlantic and eastern Gulf States, lower Ohio, and central and lower Mississippi valleys. The week was unseasonably cool in the lower Missouri and upper Mississippi valleys and upper lake region, light frosts occurring over the eastern portion of the upper Michigan peninsula. On the Pacific coast the week was gener- ally favorable, although light showers damaged grain and fruit to some extent in northern Ualifornia, and abnormal heat in Washington proved unfavorable. While the week was rather cool in the great corn States of the central valleys, corn made very favorable progress, especially in the States of the Missouri Valley, where the crop was growing rapidly and was well cultivated, except in portions of Missouri. The crop needed cultivation in the lower Ohio Valley, western Tennessee, Arkansas, and generally throughout the east Gulf States. In the Middle and South Atlantic States corn made decided adyancement, but it needed rain in portions of Texas and Louisiana. Heavy rains in the central Mississippi Valley retarded the harvesting of winter wheat, especially in portions of Missouri, Arkansas, and western Tennessee, and in the two last-named States some damage was done to wheat in shock. Har- vesting continued under generally favorable conditions in Oklahoma and Kansas. Very unfavorable reports respecting spring wheat continued from the northern portion of the spring-wheat region, where no rain, or only very light showers, fell during the week. In North Dakota much of the early sowing was damaged beyond recovery, and in Minnesota it was thin and heading short, with small heads. In South Dakota a general improvement was expected as a result of late rains, though to what extent was uncertain, as many fields were weedy and some appeared irrepara- bly damaged. In Washington and Oregon spring wheat experienced improvement. The general condition of oats continued promising, except where shortened by drought in Wisconsin, Minnesota, the Dakotas, and Nebraska. Some damage had been caused to oats in shock by excessive rains in the South Atlantic and east Gulf 706 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. States. Further improvement was reported in hay from some of the principal hay States, especially in late meadows. A fair yield was promised in Indiana and Illinois; haying was now in progress in the more northerly sections. In Arkansas and eastward of the Mississippi River, except in portions of the Carolinas, cotton sui- fered seriously in consequence of excessive rains, lack of cultivation, and lice. In Texas continued dry weather, except scattered showers, were exceptionally favora- ble for cleaning the crop, which, however, was of irregular size over the southern portion of the State, and notwithstanding the favorable weather for cultivation many fields were still foul. In Louisiana the weather conditions were very favorable for cultivating cotton: The week was exceptionally favorable for transplanting tobacco and for that already set. Nearly all reports indicated a promising outlook for this crop, although it was badly in need of cultivation in Tennessee. June 25.—The South Atlantic and the central and eastern portions of the Gulf States, including portions of the central Mississippi and lower Ohio valleys, suffered much from heavy rains, while the severe drought over the northern portion of the spring-wheat region continued unbroken, only light showers having fallen over limited areas. In the States of the lower Missouri Valley and on the Middle Atlan- tic coast the weather conditions were highly favorable, and generally favorable con- ditions prevailed on the Pacific coast, except in the upper Sacramento Vailey, where rains caused some damage. Corn made favorable progress in the great corn States of the central valleys and was in a good state of cultivation, except in portions of the central Mississippi and Ohio valleys, where many fields were weedy. In the south- ern States east of the Mississippi River corn suffered seriously from excessive raing and was badly in need of cultivation. In Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, and por- tions of Missouri winter-wheat harvest continued under favorable conditions, but in the central Mississippi and Ohio valleys it was interrupted by heavy rains, which also caused much damage to wheat inshock. Harvesting made good progress under favorable weather conditions in the Middle Atlantic States. Throughout the South Atlantic and east Gulf States there was also much complaint of injury to wheat in shock. The outlook for wheat on the Pacific coast continued promising, except in the Willamette Valley, where a poor crop was indicated. Spring wheat suffered further deterioration over the northern portion of the spring-wheat region as a result of the continued unfavorable weather conditions, no rain, or only light showers over limited areas, having fallen. In North Dakota the early sown was reported as prac- tically dead. In both North Dakota and Minnesota fields were being plowed up for other crops, and, while the outlook in South Dakota was more promising, not more than half an average crop was expected. In Iowa the crop was doing fairly well. Except in the Dakotas, Minnesota, and northern Wisconsin, the reports respecting oats continued favorable, a decided improvement being reported from the Ohio Val- ley. Further damage was reported to oats in shock in the east Gulf States. A very general improvement in the condition of hay was indicated, except in Wisconsin, Minnesota, North Dakota, New York, and New England, the crop being almost a failure in Minnesota and North Dakota and promising about one-half an average yield in New York. Rains on the North Pacific coast proved very detrimental to the hay crop. Except in Texas and Oklahoma cotton exverienced very unfavorable weather conditions, and was generally very grassy, rust and lice being extensively reported throughout the central and eastern portion of the cotton belt. Too rapid growth was also reported from the central portions of the belt, while growth was checked by low temperatures in North Carolina. Some fields in bottom lands in Mississippi and Tennessee were abandoned. In Texas the bulk of the crop was now clean and a general improvement was reported, except in some portions of the east- ern portions of the State, where fields were abandoned on account of grass. Boll weevil was causing damage in southern Texas. In the uplands of Tennessee and portions of eastern South Carolina cotton was generally in good condition. July 2.—Heavy rains fell over a large part of the South Atlantic, central, and east Gulf States, Tennessee, and the Ohio Valley, which districts suffered much from excessive moisture in the previous week. Very favorable weather conditions pre- vailed in the Middle Atlantic States and generally in New England and the lake region. The severe drought in the valley of the Red River of the North was partially relieved by from 1 to more than 2 inches of rain over northern Minnesota, and light to heavy showers in North Dakota. Rain was much needed throughout the Rocky Mountain region and plateau districts. The week was marked by exceptionally high temperatures over the middle Rocky Mountain slope and upper Missouri Valley. Corn suffered injury from heavy rains in portions of Indiana, Ilinois, Missouri, and Kentucky, and generally in the east Gulf States, but on the whole made very favor- able progress, especially in the great corn States. In Iowa and Nebraska the crop was in fine condition, having received its final cultivation in Iowa. In portions of WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS. TOT Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas corn suffered from drought and was in need of rain over portions of the Middle Atlantic States. In the Ohio and central Mississippi valleys, as in the previous week, winter-wheat harvest had been interfered with by heavy rains and reports of damage to grain in shock continued. In the Middle Atlantic States harvesting continued under favorable conditions and was practically finished as far north as Maryland. In South Dakota the crop was very uneven and continued to suffer for rain. In the Southern States oats in shock sustained much damage as a result of heavy rains which also injured the unharvested crop in the central Mississippi and Ohio valleys; elsewhere, except in the drought region of the Northwest, reports respecting oats were generally favorable. Further improvement in the condition of hay was reported from the Ohio and central Mississippi valleys, where, however, in some sections the weather conditions were unfavorable for haying. Over nearly the whole of the central and eastern portions of the cotton belt the weather was very unfavorable to cotton, which was largely overrun with grass and weeds, some fields in Mississippi and South Carolina having been abandoned. In North Carolina, Florida, and on uplands in Tennessee the condition of the crop was more favorable. In Texas it was generally clean and making good growth, although very irregular, and was needing rain over the central and western part of the State. Tobacco needed rain in Maryland, but the general condition of the crop in the other tobacco States was very promising except in western Kentucky and portions of Ten- nessee, where it was damaged by heavy rains. In New England, New York, Penn- sylvania, Wisconsin, and Minnesota the reports respecting apples were very favorable, but dropping continued to be extensively reported in the States of the central valleys and in portions of the lake region. In Oregon the outlook fora large crop of apples of superior quality was promising, and very favorable reports were received from California, Colorado, and New Mexico. July 9.—As a whole this week was highly favorable in the districts east of the Rocky Mountains. The drought-stricken regions of the Northwest received bounti- ful rain, and the central and east Gulf States, which suffered much from excessive rains of previous weeks, for the most part experienced very favorable weather. Drought continued in the Rocky Mountain regions, and rain would have been bene- ficial in portions of Missouri, Kansas, and Texas, in Florida, and on the Atlantie coast northward of the Carolinas. The week was marked by exceptionally high temperatures in the lower Missouri Valley and on the Atlantic coast from southern New England to Florida. Corn made rapid growth, and generally was in fine con- dition in the States of the central valleys, although suffering for rain in portions of Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. In the east Gulf States and portions of Tennessee much damage was done on lowlands by rains of previous weeks. The weather conditions in the central valleys were more favorable for har- vesting, and winter-wheat harvest was nearing completion in the more northerly districts. Thrashing was in general progress and yields better than expected were reported from Kentucky, Tennessee, and Illinois. The general and abundant rains in the Dakotas and Minnesota improved the outlook for late spring wheat, especially in Minnesota and South Dakota. In North Dakota most of the crop had been too badly damaged to be revived. Except in New England, Minnesota, and the Dakotas reports respecting oats continued favorable and the crop was now ripening in the more northerly districts. In the Dakotas and Minnesota the rains of this week were of much benefit. The weather was generally favorable for securing hay, except over portions of the upper Lake region and upper Mississippi Valley, where rains were detrimental. The week was generally very favorable for giving cotton much needed ’ cultivation, and an improvement in the condition of this crop was reported from the greater part of the cotton belt, being most decided in the eastern portions. Too rapid growth was, however, reported from the central districts, and some lowland fields were abandoned in Tennessee and Louisiana. In Texas the crop made rapid growth, except in the western portion, where rain was needed, and was generally well cultivated, except in some parts of eastern Texas. Thegeneral condition of the tobacco crop was favorable, but rains would have been beneficial in Maryland and portions of Virginia. An improvement was reported from Kentucky where the crop had suffered from excessive rains of previous weeks. Cutting and curing were in progress in the Carolinas. The outlook for applescontinued promising in New York and Pennsylvania, and they were not falling so badly as previously reported in Ohio, but generally throughout the Ohio and Central Mississippi Valleys, embracing an important part of the apple region, complaints of dropping continued a marked fea- ture of the reports. July 16.—Notwithstanding the excessively heavy rains on the west Gulf coast and in portions of the central Missouri Valley, and the prevalence of drought toa greater or less extent in the Middle and South Atlantic States and over portions of Missouri, Kansas, and Oklahoma, the week was generally favorable in the districts east of the 708 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Rocky Mountains. Throughout the Rocky Mountain and plateau regions there was general scarcity of water, especially over the southern districts. The condition of corn in Kansas and Nebraska was less favorable than in the previous week, and the crop was suffering for rain in portions of Missouri, southern Ohio, West Virginia, Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina. In Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa corn made very favorable progress, and was improved in Kentucky, Tennessee, and Pennsylvania. Harvesting of winter wheat was about completed, except in the more northerly dis- tricts, the weather conditions being favorable for this work in the districts east of the Mississippi River, except in portions of New York, where it was interrupted by rains. Harvesting was well advanced on the Pacific coast. Further improvement in the condition of spring wheat was reported from Minnesota and South Dakota, and while no decided improvement was reported from North Dakota, the weather conditions in that State were propitious. In Minnesota the crop suffered some damage from local storms. Fair to good yields were expected in the extreme southeastern counties of South Dakota. Oat harvest was in progress in the States of the central valleys anda very fine crop was being secured in good condition. Wet weather interrupted haying in northern New England, but elsewhere the hay harvest made satisfactory progress and was nearly completed in the States of the central valleys. Rains caused damage to hay in Michigan, Louisiana, and Texas. A general improvement in the condition of cotton was reported, except in Florida and Louisiana, but the plant was small and fruiting slowly in the central and eastern districts of the cotton belt where some fields were still grassy. In Texas the crop made good growth, but was very uneven, and the early planted was fruiting well, except in scattered localities. Im Virginia, Tennessee, and the Carolinas the tobacco was suffering from drought, and was ‘*‘ but- toning’’ low in the two first-named States. In the Ohio Valley, New England, and over the northern portion of the Middle Atlantic States tobacco made favorable prog- ress. The continued dropping of apples in New England, the central valleys, and upper Lake region materially reduced the prospects for this crop in those districts, but the outlook continued encouraging in New York and portions of Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Indiana. July 23.—Rain was very generally needed in the Atlantic coast districts north of Florida, the drought being quite severe in the Carolinas, New Jersey, and portions of New England, while too much rain fell over portions of the central valleys, northern Texas, the central Gulf States, and northern Florida. Very favorable tem- perature conditions prevailed during the week, except in the Middle Atlantic States, upper Missouri Valley, and over portionsof Washington and Oregon, where unusually high temperatures were detrimental to crops. While the condition of corn in Kansas and Nebraska improved, the reports indicated that much of the early crop in por- tions of these States had been seriously injured by drought. Inthe other great corn States of the central valleys the crop made rapid growth under highly favorable con- ditions. Throughout the Atlantic coast districts corn was generally in need of rain. Rains interfered with thrashing and the completion of the winter wheat harvest where unfinished over the more northerly sections of the central valleys, but the con- ditions were highly favorable for harvesting in the Middle Atlantic States and on the north Pacific coast. In the central valleys aud Lake region harvesting and thrashing were not only delayed, but rain caused injury to grain in shock in portions of these districts. Spring-wheat harvest was in general progress in South Dakota and portions of Minnesota and had begun in North Dakota. In South Dakota and Minnesota the crop made advancement although excessive rains and local hail storms caused some damage in southeastern South Dakota. In North Dakotathe high tem- peratures proved injurious, and in South Dakota and Washington the crop suffered trom hot winds. Oat harvest was nearing completion in the central valleys where the crop suffered tosome extent from rain. Haying was interrupted, and the crop damaged to some extent by rains in the central valleys. In New York and New England haying was practically finished, the yield in New York being better than was expected. Generally there had been some further improvement in the condition of cotton, but the crop was suffering from drought in the Carolinas and from too much rain in portions of the central belt andin portionsof Texas. In the last-named State it generally made rapid growth, being excellent in places and poor in others. Shedding was reported from the greater part of the cotton belt and rust from the eastern districts. In the Carolinas and Virginia tobacco suffered for rain, but late rains had improved the crop in Maryland. In the other tobacco sections the condi- tion of the crop was promising. July 80.—The drought prevailing at the close of the previous week in the Atlantic coast districts was wholly relieved by local rains, except in southern Florida, and this week, as a whole, in the districts east of the Rocky Mountains was one of highly WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS. 709 favorable temperature conditions with generally abundant moisture. On the Pacific coast the conditions were also generally favorable, although the eastern portions of Oregon and Washington experienced very high temperatures. The corn crop made splendid progress. All reports from the States of the central valleys indicated that it made rapid growth and that the early planted was nearing maturity over the southern portions of the principal corn States. Some early corn in the Carolinas and Virginia had been permanently injured by drought, but late corn in these States was progressing favorably. Winter-wheat harvest was practically completed, except where delayed by rains in some districts over the northern portion of the winter- wheat region. Thrashing was quite generally delayed in the central valleys as the result of rain, and injury to wheat in shock was quite extensively reported. Har- vesting continued on the Pacifie coast. Spring-wheat harvest was now general in the northern portion of the Red River Valley and was progressing favorably in the southern portion of the spring-wheat region. The dry warm weather rapidly matured the crop in North Dakota, where owing to short straw much had to be mowed. In southern Minnesota a large part of the crop was in shock, and in the northern portion of the State the wheat heads were reported as well filled. In South Dakota fair to good yields were indicated in the extreme southeastern counties, the crop being poor to fair elsewhere but generally of good quality. Rains caused some further delay in oat harvest, which, however, was nearly finished in the more north- erly sections. Some damage to oats in shock was reported from West Virginia, Indiana, and Illinois. Over the eastern and western portion of the cotton region there was a material improvement in the condition of eptton, but in the central dis- tricts it suffered further from continued rains. In Texas the crop had been generally laid by in good condition and was promising in many localities, while complaints of too rank growth, light bolls, weevil, and boll worms were reported. Some early tobacco suffered permanent injury from drought in Virginia and North Carolina, but elsewhere reports indicated that the crop was in promising condition, having been greatly benefited by rains during the preceding week. The outlook for apples in New York and Pennsylvania continued promising, and improved prospects were reported from portions of Illinois, Missouri, and Iowa, while dropping was still quite exten- sively reported from a number of important apple States. August 6.—This week was very hot in the States of the upper Mississippi and Mis- souri valleys, and while there was a general lack of rainfall over a large part of the country east of the Rocky Mountains, excessively heavy rains fell in portions of the Gulf States and over portions of the central Ohio and upper Missouri valleys, and the valley of the Red River of the North. Rain was generally needed inthe central Mississippi and lower Missouri valleys, and in the Atlantic coast States from the Carolinas northward. Corn, more particularly the late planting in the States of the central Mississippi and Missouri valleys, was in need of rain, but the early plantings in these sections was generally beyond serious injury from drought. In the Lake region and Ohio Valley and generally in the Atlantic coast districts the crop made good progress, but was beginning to need rain in the Middle Atlantic States. The general absence of rain was very favorable to thrashing winter wheat, which was nearing completion in nearly all districts. Spring-wheat harvest was nearly finished over the southern portion of the spring-wheat region where some thrashing had been done, and thrashing was well advanced in the northern portion. Portions of the Dakotas and Minnesota received very heavy rains during the week. In South Dakota late spring wheat experienced very trying temperature conditions, and a larger part of the crop than was anticipated was being cut for fodder. The week was favorable for completion of the oat harvest and thrashing. Over the northern portion of the central and western districts of the cotton belt the condition of cotton improved and while an improvement was reported from the Carolinas, its general condition in Georgia, Florida, and Louisiana was less promising, complaints of rust, shedding, and premature opening being numerous. In Texas cotton was from two to three weeks late, its condition in the northern portion being promising, while complaints of rank growth, shedding, and the ravages of insects were received from the southern part of the State. The tobacco crop made favorable advancement and its condition was generally promising, although it needed rain in Virginia. Some cutting was done in Ohio. The persistent dropping of apples materially reduced the prospects of this crop in many important States, although the outlook in Iowa was somewhat improved. Reports continued very favorable, however, from New York and Penn- sylyania, and a good crop was promised in Minnesota. Plowing for fall seeding had made very favorable progress, except in Missouri, where the ground was too dry. August 13.—This week was intensely hot from the Missouri Valley eastward to the Atlantic coast, including the South Atlantic coast States, with practically no rain 710 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. over a large part of this area, although heavy rains occurred over the Missouri and upper Mississippi valleys and the valley of the Red River of the North and the lake region. It was unseasonably cool in the plateau and Pacific coast regions, except on the immediate northern coast, frosts occurring on the 8th and 9th in Nevada. In the west Gulf States the temperature averaged below normal, and very heavy rains fell, more than 18 inches being reported from Beeville, Tex. Owing to the extreme conditions of heat and dryness, and excessive rains in certain districts, the week, as a whole, was unfavorable to agricultural interests in the districts east of the Rocky Mountains, but on the Pacific coast it was very favorable. In portions of Missouri and Kansas corn, more especially the late planted, was materially injured, and the crop sustained damage in Nebraska, Iowa, and Illinois. In Iowa the bulk of the crop was unharmed and well advanced toward maturity, and in Illinois a large yield was still promised. The outlook in Indiana and western Ohio also continued very promising, but in central and southeastern Ohio and throughout the Middle Atlan- tic States corn sustained serious injury as a result of drought and the intense heat. In the principal States of the corn belt the reports indicated that the bulk of the crop would be safe from frost by September 1 to 10, and that the late crop would be matured one to two weeks later. Heavy rains in the principal spring wheat States prevented the completion of the spring wheat harvest and caused injury to the over- ripe standing grain, as well as to that in shock and stack. Over portions of the cen- tral belt cotton improved slightly, although rust and shedding were generally reported, and the crop needed rain in portions of Mississippi, while suffering from excessive moisture and lack of cultivation in parts of Louisiana. In the Carolinas, Georgia, and Arkansas the condition of cotton deteriorated materially, premature opening being extensively reported from the Carolinas. In northern Texas cotton made favorable progress, but elsewhere in that State it needed dry weather and was mak- ing too rank growth. Some picking had been done over the southeastern portion of the cotton belt, and while cotton was opening in southwestern Texas, picking was not general in that State as yet. In the Middle Atlantic States, including North Carolina and Ohio and portions of Kentucky, tobacco suffered much from drought and heat, but in the last-mentioned State the general condition of the crop was prom- ising. Some cutting had been done as far north as Maryland and Ohio. Very little plowing for fall seeding was done during the week. August 20.—This was the third week of excessive heat over the greater part of the country east of the Rocky Mountains, and while intensely warm from the Rocky Mountain slope and upper Missouri Valley eastward to the Atlantic coast, a large part of the central valleys and portions of the Middle Atlantic Statesand New England were favored with abundant rains. Western Nebraska, Kansas, southern Missouri, and an area extending from Oklahoma eastward over Arkansas to central Tennessee, as well as portions of the Middle Atlantic and east Gulf States, suffered more or less seriously from drought. Rain was also needed in Washington and Oregon, and while continued cool weather in California was favorable to crops, it retarded fruit drying. In western Nebraska, Kansas, central and southern Missouri, and southern Illinois corn suffered much from drought and intense heat, but in other portions of the prin- cipal corn belt, although injured to some extent by storms, the crop experienced very favorable conditions and made rapid progress toward maturity. While the bulk of the crop in the Southern States was made, late corn had been greatly shortened over a great part of this section, as well as portions of the Middle Atlantic States, by the intense heat and lack of moisture during the two preceding weeks. Spring wheat harvest was completed in Minnesota, but frequent rains in the Dakotas prevented its completion in those States and caused injury to grain in shock and stack and tke over- ripe, unharvested grain was shelling badly. In Washington and Oregon the weather conditions were favorable for harvesting. Considerable injury to unthrashed oats was reported from the States of the upper Mississippi and upper Missouri valleys as aresult of heavy rains. A slight improvement in the condition of cotton was reported from portions of Mississippi and Louisiana, where, however, complaints of insects, . shedding, and slow growth continued. Over the eastern portions of the cotton belt the reports were generally unfavorable, indicating premature opening, shedding, and prevalence of rust. In Tennessee, Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Missouri the reports were also unfavorable, rust and premature opening being general. In Texas the crop as a whole was improved, but was shedding and had sustained damage from rust and insects in many localities. Tobacco was needing rain in portions of Ken- tucky, Tennessee, and the Middle Atlantic States, but elsewhere the crop made good progress, cutting being general. In New England and New York the prospect for apples continued promising, but in the important apple States of the central valleys the reports generally indicated further deterioration, although the outlook in some WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS. ya ah sections was encouraging. More favorable progress was made with plowing for fall seeding than in the previous week over the northern districts, but this work was but little advanced in portions of the Middle Atlantic States and lower Missouri Valley. August 27.—The week ending August 27 was the fourth week of excessive heat in the districts east of the Rocky Mountains, and while it was dry over the greater part of the Southern States and in portions of New England and the Ohio Valley, there were in these districts good rains over local areas and very general and abundant rains over the northern portions of the central valleys, southern half of the upper lake region, and in the Middle Atlantic States. The temperature conditions of the week, as in the preceding weeks of August, were highly favorable for the rapid development of corn, and a large part of the early crop was now fully matured, some having been cut as far north as Iowa and I)linois. ‘The abundant rains which fell in Nebraska, Kansas, and Missouri improved the condition of corn, but much in the two last-named States had been permanently injured, while the crop in southern Illinois and western Kentucky continued to suffer from drought. As a whole, the week was very favorable for corn over the greater portion of the principal corn States, more particularly the central and northern districts, but over the northern portions of the Gulf and South Atlantic States it was unfavorable. Heavy rains in the spring-wheat region retarded thrashing and prevented the completion of harvest in North Dakota, in which State, as well as in Minnesota and portions of Nebraska, stacked wheat sustained damage. Rains also delayed thrashing in Montana and Washington. Except in Alabama, where an improyement in the condition of cot- ton was reported, the general condition of this crop over the central and eastern por- tions of the cotton belt further deteriorated, rust, shedding, and premature opening being generally reported, while the bollworm proved destructive in the central and western portions. In Texas cotton was generally improved in the southern portion, butin some localities in the northern portion it was injured by hot winds. Picking was in general progress over the central and southern portions of the belt. In western Kentucky, the Carolinas, and portions of Virginia. and Maryland tobacco suffered much from drought, but in the two last-named States rains materially improved its condition. In the other tobacco States the crop made very favorable progress, although sustaining damage from hail in Wisconsin. The reports continued to indi- cate a good apple crop in New England, New York, and portions of Pennsylvania, and while favorable reports were received from localities in the principle apple States of the central valleys, the persistent dropping that had been so prominent a feature in the reports during the early part of the season, with the excessive heat in August, and in some sections high winds, materially reduced the prospects for this crop. Over the central and northern districts the condition of the soil was highly favorable for plowing for fall seeding, which work was unusually well advanced in those sec- tions, but in the Southern States the conditions were not favorable. Seplember 3.—Over the greater portion of the country the weather conditions were highly favorable for maturing crops, although droughty conditions continued in por- tions of the Gulf States, Illinois, and Missouri, in Colorado, and in the arid regions of the Southwest. Rain was also needed in New England and_ the Middle Atlantic States. In California continued cloudy weather was unfavorable for fruit drying. Damaging frosts occurred in the northern plateau region and light frost in New Mexico. Corn was ripening rapidly and cutting was becoming general in all except the more northerly sections. In the principal corn States much of the early crop was now beyond possibleinjury from frost. Late corn showed no improvement in central Kansas, was a failure in portions of Missouri and Arkansas, and was injured by drought in some localities in Kentucky. Elsewhere the reports indicated an excel- lent crop of generally good quality. Thrashing of spring wheat progressed rapidly under favorable conditions. In North Dakota high winds, with absence of rain, dried the grain sufficiently for thrashing, althongh the bulk of it was considerably damaged by having sprouted 2nd become musty and moldy in both shock and stack. The rain-damaged stacks in South Dakota were considerably improved by dry, warm winds. No general improvement in the condition of cotton was reported. Premature opening had been checked in the Carolinas, shedding had ceased in South Carolina, and the late crop in that State was again blooming and fruiting. Com- plaints of rust, shedding, premature opening, and injury from bollworms still con- tinued from the central portions of the cotton belt. In Texas cotton was from two to four weeks late, except in scattered localities of the northeast portion. Reports indicated that in many localities of northern Texas there would be an average crop, but elsewhere it promised to be generally below, especially in the southern portion, where in a few places cotton was almost a failure, while hot winds, Mexican weevil, and bollworms damaged the crop in many localities. Cotton picking was general iaPp YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in all sections, except in Missouri and Tennessee. Tobacco cutting and housing was in full progress, being nearly completed in Ohio and Indiana. The crop suffered from injury from hot weather in the first-named State, and late tobacco, though improving, was damaged by worms in Maryland and was scalded and poor in North Carolina. Elsewhere reports were favorable. While the reports concerning apples indicated a good crop in New England, New York, Minnesota, California, and por- tions of Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Kansas, the prospects were not so favorable in other important apple-growing States, where the fruit was still dropping considerably. Fall plowing was progressing satisfactorily in all sections, except in a few localities . where rain was needed to place the soil in condition. Some seeding was done in Kansas, Nebraska, Missouri, and Michigan. September 10.—Hot and dry weather was a marked feature of the reports from the greater number of the States east of the Rocky Mountain slope, excepting the north- west and the upper peninsula of Michigan, where rains retarded work and caused some damage to outstanding crops. Beneficial rains occurred in Florida, New Mexico, and portions of Alabama, Louisiana, Illinois, Ohio, New York, and Pennsylvania. Droughty conditions, however, prevailed in New England, the Atlantic coast States, the central valleys, northern portion of the Gulf States, and the southern portion of the plateau region. Generally favorable weather conditions prevailed on the Pacific coast, although rains caused some delay to farm work in Oregon and slightly dam- aged late fruit in California. The hot, dry weather rapidly matured corn. Cuttin was in progress in all sections, and an excellent crop was insured in the principa corn-producing States. Late corn was drying in central Kansas, was seriously injured by drought in portions of Kentucky, and was shortin West Virginia, Virginia, por- tions of Pennsylvania, and the South Atlantic States. In the eastern part ef the cotton belt the greater part of the crop was now open, and picking was progressing rapidly, but had been delayed by showers in Florida. Complaints of rust, shedding, and premature opening continued, and some damage from rain resulted to the open staple in Georgia, while the bolls were small and difficult to pick. No serious injury to cotton from the tropical storms of this week was reported from the central section of the cotton belt, but the crop sustained great damage in Texas. In Louisiana the first picking was yielding fairly well, but the prospects for a top crop in that State, as well as in Mississippi and North Carolina, were unfavorable. Slow progress was made in picking in Arkansas and Mississippi, due to hot weather and scarcity of pickers in the first-named State. The greater part of the tobacco crop had been housed, and curing was progressing. Generally good crops were reported from Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York. 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ROM | OGmeict ng Dee ale yee == OD ars Cas aA Ronee lee 2 OO eu al Paletes eceuistl Nae a ll (Get |) GOP 0G Ro! #) “08 “8G OL 6 % 8 au YG “LI “OL ts “13840190 —isqureydog —jsnsny —Arne “‘STOT}BIS —SUIpUs SYOOA IOV] ‘ponuryu0j—suoynjs liq ‘sunah hun sof suoroasasqo uodn pasng JoUdoU UWOLf OOGT Jo UOsDas oY) Lot (SY;paupuNy pun sayour) saungundap WoYyDNdwILT INJURIOUS INSECTS IN 1900. 725 THE PRINCIPAL INJURIOUS INSECTS OF THE YEAR 1900. During the season of 1900 the most troublesome insects were the Hessian fly, green pea louse, apple louse, grain lice, San Jose scale, striped and twelve-spotted cucumber beetles, squash bug, cabbage worms of different species, various cutworms, and particularly the variegated cutworm, the Angoumois grain moth, plum curculio, oblique-banded and strawberry leaf-rollers and related forms, and flea-beetles of various species. The list which is furnished of species noted as injurious during the year is only a partial one, but is a fair indication of the more noteworthy occurrences of the season. Roughly speaking, it may be said that such well-known forms as the fruit-tree bark-beetle, as well as most common species of fruit-tree borers, oyster-shell and other barklice, plum curculio, codling moth, and similar fruit species, the bean weevil, apple-tree tent caterpillar, and pine bark-beetles held their own as pests; while of insects that were noticeably less injurious than in most years may be men- tioned such familiar species as the two tomato worms, the boll worm or corn-ear worm, harlequin cabbage bug, rose chafer, chinch bug, pear-tree psylla, army worm and fall army worm, bill bugs, melon louse, cabbage louse, and horn fly. Tur AMERICAN Ev_m Scae (Chionaspis americana Johns.).—Was received at this office and was complained of as being more or less troublesome from New York, South Carolina, and Iowa. It appears to have attracted most attention in the first- mentioned State. ; Tue ANGoumors Grain Morn (Sitotroga cerealella Ol.).—This destructive granary pest was the cause of much injury to wheat and other grain stacked, mowed, and stored in the States of Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, and Massachusetts. Tue AppLe Louse (Aphis mali Fab.).—This well-known enemy of the apple was one of the worst pests of the year. It was unusually abundant in Maryland and Delaware, a common pest in Montana, and was reported as more or less destructive in the States of North Carolina, Virginia, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Michigan. Tue Bean LEAF-BEETLE (Cerotoma trifurcata Forst.).—Injury by this leaf-beetle was reported by Professor Johnson to wax and Lima beans throughout the trucking area of Maryland, and injury was also noted to beans by Mr. Chittenden and others in Maryland and Virginia, and was reported from North Carolina. Tre Buiack on Brown Apuis oF Viorets (Rhopalosiphum viole Perg.).—Injuries to violets by this aphis were reported in Maryland and Rhode Island. Buster Beeries (Epicauta pennsylvanica, E. cinerea, E. vittata, and Macrobasis uni- color) .—These and some other common species of blister beetles did the usual amount of injury to the potato and tomato crops over a wide extent of country, the first- mentioned being particularly troublesome to asters, zinnias, pinks, and other orna- mental plants. Beets were also much affected by some of these species. Tue Bott Worm or Corn-Ear Worm (Heliothis armiger Hbn.).—This species, after a year of comparative rarity in Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia northward, became quite numerous during the year 1900, doing considerable damage toward the close of the season to late corn, Lima beans, tomatoes, and other crops. Injuries were reported also from Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Rhode Island, and Pennsylvania. Tue Box-Eiprer Piant-Bue (Leptocoris trivittata Say.).—During the season com- plaints were received of this species from North Dakota, where it was particularly troublesome, and from Washington and Wisconsin. Tur Bronze AppLE-TREE WEEvIL (Magdalis xnescens Lec.).—This weevil, which has only recently been detected as an enemy to the fruit industry of the Pacific States, was again destructive as in the preceding years in the State of Washington. Tue CABBAGE Looper (Plusia brassice Riley).—After a year of extreme scarcity the cabbage looper returned to Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia, and was the occasion of considerable injury to late cabbage, turnip, and other cruciferous crops. It was also destructive in Kansas, Texas, and Georgia. THe Cappace Pronea (Pionea rimosalis Guen. ).—This species, like the preceding, returned to Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia, and did considerable damage to cabbage and other cruciferous crops, beginning depredations in May. It was also reported to be destructive in Georgia. In 1899 it was not seen at all about the District of Columbia. Tue CigARretre Beerse (Lasioderma serricorne Fab.).—This troublesome tobacco pest did as much injury during the past season as ever before in its history. Com- plaints were made of damage in different portions of the States of New York, Penn- sylvania, Illinois, Ohio, and Maryland. Tue CLrover Lear Weevit (Phytonomus punctatus Fab.).—Was unusually abun- dant in Maryland, District of Columbia, and Ohio. 726 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tue Cororapo PoratTo BEerte ( Doryphora 10-lineata Say.).—This well-known potato pest was seriously injurious in Maryland and the District of Columbia, and injuries were reported also in Louisianaand New Jersey. Tue Common Asparaccts BErEriLe (Crioceris asparagi Linn.).—Spread continued westward and northward in the States of New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, as well asin Canada. It was quite destructive in portions of Pennsylvania and Ohio. Tue Common Bean Weevit (Bruchus obtectus Say.).—This bean weevil maintained its reputation as a pest during the year, seeming to be particularly destructive in the North. The States from which complaints were received include Vermont, Ohio, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Indiana. Tur Common SquasH Bua (Anasa tristis De G.).—This bug was quite troublesome during the season in the States of Virginia, Maryland, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, Nevada, California, and the District of Columbia. Tue Destructive GREEN Pea Louse (Nectarophora destructor Johns. ).—This per- nicious plant louse, which has only recently come to notice as a pest, attracted much attention, as it did in the preceding year along the Northern Atlantic section of our country, injury extending from North Carolina to Canada and westward in localities not infested previously as far as Wisconsin. Injury was particularly severe in Dela- ware, Virginia, Maryland, Ohio, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Long Island, and elsewhere; in New York, Massachusetts, Illinois, New Jersey, District of Columbia, and Wisconsin, and was reported also in Vermont. Through the employment of remedies, chiefly what is known as the brush and cultivator method, much of the affected crops in Maryland and Delaware were saved. Still the loss along the Atlan- tie coast was estimated by Professor Johnson at $4,000,000. Tue Evropran Orcaarp Scare (Aspidiolus osireexformis Curt.).—This imported scale is now known, from many localitiesin the country, from New York to California. Forses’s Scaue (Aspidiotus forbesi Johns. ).—Received in many instances as injuri- ous to peach and apple in the Eastern States, and caused serious damage also in Georgia, according to the report of Mr. Scott, entomologist of that State. Tue Forest ArMy Worm, oR SO-CALLED Forrst Tent CarerPrLiar (Clisiocampa disstria bn. ).—One of the destructive species of the season, but damage was not so severe asin the previous year. It did more or less injury in the States of Ohio, Texas, and New York, as well as in the District of Columbia, Oklahoma, and New Mexico, but injuries, by what was with little doubt the same species, were reported from a number of other States. Tue Froir-Trer Bark-Beetxe (Scolytus rugulosus Ratz.).—Injuricus as in former years, and complaints were received of ravages from the States of Pennsylvania, New York, Missouri, Georgia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Massachusetts, and Michigan. Tse Frouiv-Tree Lear-Rouier (Cacecia argyrospila Walk. ).—This species was re- ported to have been concerned in injury to the foliage and fruit of apple and to the leaves of strawberry in Missouri and Indiana, and, according to Mr. Gillette, con- tinued troublesome in Colorado, particularly in the vicinity of Denver and Boulder. Fuuier’s Rose BEesrie (Aramigus fullerti Horn).—This rose beetle was reported to be destructive in lemon groves in southern California, as also in Hawaii. THE GARDEN Wesworm ( Lowostege similalis Gn.).—Reported by Professor Morgan as a pest upon cotton and alfalfa in the northern portion of Louisiana and was found in the greatest abundanee in the State of Arkansas. It returned to Maryland, near the District of Columbia, after an absence of a year. THe GoosEBERRY Frurr Worm (Zophodia grossularie Pack.).—Reported by Mr. Cooley to have done much injury in Montana. The previous year it was destructive in Massachusetts. Tue Grain Pusant Lice (Nectarophora granaria Kirby and Cerealis Kalt.) were among the most important economic insects of the season, doing particular damage in Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma, South Dakota, and Illinois. THe GRAPEVINE PuHyLioxeEra ( Phylloxera vasiatri« Planch. ).—The Phylloxera made its first appearance in the San Joaquin Valley, near Fresno, a great grape-growing district, and was reported also from New Jersey and Nebraska. GREEN Frurr-Worms( Aylina antennata et al. ).—Several species of green fruit-worms were reported to be destroying the foliage and fruit of apple, pear, peach, strawberry, and other plants in Missouri, Pennsylvania, and Indiana. Tue GreennousE Lrar-Tyer (Phlyctenia rubigalis Guen.).—This leaf-tyer was reported to be a serious pest in forcing houses in New York and in greenhouses in Canada during the season. Tue Harvequin Cassace Bua (Murgantia histrionica Hahn).—This, one of our most important enemies to cruciferous garden crops, was abundant in certain few localities in Virginia, California, Maryland, and the District of Columbia, but was less injurious during the season in the northern portion of its range, as in the pre-— INJURIOUS INSECTS IN 1900. 727 vious year, than formany years. It was stated to be uncommon in Delaware by Mr. Sanderson. nd Professor Johnson reported that it was not injurious in any locality in Maryland known to him. In the Gulf States it was troublesome in Alabama. Tue Hesstan Fy ( Cecidomyia destructor Say) .—One of the most destructive species of the year. It did great injury to early sown wheat in Maryland and to the wheat crop of Ohio. In the latter State damage was estimated at $16,800,000; over the greater part of the State of West Virginia also to wheat, and was very abundant in New York. Injury was also reported in the States of Indiana, Michigan, Tennessee, Kansas, Illinois, Virginia, North Carolina, and Pennsylvania. Tue Horn Fry (Hematobdia serrata Rob.-Desv. ).—This troublesome cattle pest was noted by Professor Cordley to have spread during the year to Oregon. Tue IwericateD Snour BEEerLe noe imbricatus Say.).—This beetle was destructive to beans and canteloupes in Maryland and to fruit trees in Tennessee and Texas. Tre Imrorrep CasBace Burrerriy (Pieris repxe Linn.).—Moderately destructive in Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia. Complaints were also reeeived from Utah, Illinois, and Georgia, but these reports do not give a fair example of the damage inflicted, as numerous inquiries for remedies for ‘‘cabbage worms,’’ which, in most cases, referred with little doubt to this species, were received during the year, unaccompanied by specimens or descriptions from which the species concerned in the injury could be positively identified. THe ImprorTeD CaBBAGE Wesworm (Hellula undalis Fab.).—This imported web- worm, a new and important insect foe to the cultivation of cruciferous crops, was reported during the year to have done injury in Georgia. THE Imporrep Currant Worm ( Pteronus ribesit Scop. ).—This currant worm was a serious pest in Maryland during the year. It was also complained of in the States of Missouri and Illinois. Tue Mareuerire Fry (Phytomyza chrysanthemi Kowarz).—Responsible for much damage in the North in greenhouses, according to Professor Fernald. THE MEDITERRANEAN Fiour Mots (LEphestia kuehniella Zell.).—This, our most pernicious mill pest, has continued its destructiveness in the State of Minnesota. Injury was reported by Professor Johnson also in the States of New York, Pennsyl- vania, Ohio, Oregon, and Texas, as well as in Canada and Australia. Tae Meton Louse (Aphis gossypii Gloy.).—This plant-louse, which is usually destructive over a wide area, was not reported at this Department as doing much damage during the season, save in one locality in the State of Nebraska, the warm, dry weather during the greater part of the growing season being doubtless account- able for this condition. THe Mexican Bean Wesvit (Spermophagus pectoralis Shp.).—An interesting occur- rence of the year was that of this bean weevil, not known as a pest in the United States and not hitherto known in any of the countries recently coming under our control. It was found to be destroying beans at Havana, Cuba, and is probably well distributed on that island and perhaps in Porto Rico. Tue New Peacu Scar ( Diaspis pentagona Targ.).—This new scale is now known from several localities in Massachusetts, and has been received as injuring the peach in Alabama and Georgia, in the latter S:ate ranking, according to Scott, next in eco- nomic importance to the San Jose scale. Tuer Norrnern Lear-Footep PLant-Bue (Leptoglossus oppositus Say. ).—Injury by this plant bug was noted during the season in Missouri, Arkansas, District of Colum- bia, and Virginia to the fruits of pear and other fruit trees, cantaloupes, and cym- lings, and attack was noticed to ears of corn and the fruit of tomatoes. THE OxsiiquE-Banpep Lear-Rouier (Cacecia rosaceana Harr.).—This leaf roller continued injuries in Maryland, Virginia, and Canada, as reported in 1899, and’ was particularly destructive in the vicinity of Norfolk, Va., where it did great damage to strawberry, some fields being reported completely destroyed. More or less injury was also reported to apple in Missouri and Pennsylvania, in the latter State to foliage as well as to fruit, as also in Maine, Delaware, and the District of Columbia. THe Onton Turres (Thrips tabaci Lind.).—Attack by this thrips was reported in hio and Minnesota. Tae OysterR-SHELL BarK-Louse (Mytilaspis pomorum Bouché).—This scale insect, which is always destructive to apple, peach, and other fruit trees, was reported as causing more or less damage in the States of New York, Maryland, Arkansas, Mis- souri, Tennessee, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Ohio, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Florida, Illinois, and the District of Columbia. Tre Pate-Srripep Frea Brerie (Systena blanda Mels.).—This well-known flea beetle was the occasion of injury to beans in New York and Maryland and to sugar beets in Michigan and Colorado. THE PatmeR Worm (Ypsolophus pometellus Harris)—One of the most striking 728 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. illustrations of the ‘‘ups and downs”’ of an insect’s life occurred during the season in the case of the so-called palmer worm, which was seriously injurious to the foliage and young fruit of apple trees in central and western New York. Tur Peacu AND PLuM ScaLe (Lecanium nigrofasciatum Perg.).—This pest, which has only been recently detected, was received during the year with complaints of more or less damage from Ohio, South Carolina, Texas, Mississippi, and Pennsy1- vania, being particularly numerous in the last-mentioned State. Tue Pea Weevit (Bruchus pisorum Linn. ).—Doubtless owing to the ravages of the pea louse, the pea weevil, which has heretofore held first rank as an enemy to edible legumes, did not attract much attention. Injuries were reported, however, from the States of Virginia and Oregon. Tar Peach Twic Borer (Anarsia lineatella Zell.).—Reported to have done much injury to the new growth of peach trees in Colorado, and also some damage in New Mexico. Tur PerropicaL CrcaDA OR SEVENTEEN- YEAR Locust (Cicada septendecim Linn. ).— Brood XX was reported by Professor Webster to have appeared in abundance in parts of Ohio. From correspondence we learned of the occurrence of this species also in portions of the State of Pennsylvania, where it was quite generally distributed, as well as in New Jersey. Tur Pium Curcurtio (Conotrachelus nenuphar Hbst.).—This well-known enemy of the plum and other fruit trees continued in normal abundance in most States, but was reported to be not quite as bad as usual in Maryland and Delaware. Complaints of injuries were received from Indiana, Virginia, Pennsylvania, New York, and Texas. Tre Porato-STaLK WEEVIL ( Trichobaris trinotata Say. ).—This stalk borer was inju- rious during the season to potato vines in Pennsylvania, and was reported as doing damage by Prof. Slingerland in Illinois and Professor Johnson in Maryland. Tur Raspperry SawFLy (Monophadnus rubi Harr.).—The larva of this sawfly was the occasion of some injury to raspberry in Maryland, Illinois, and New York. Tue Rep-Heapep FiLea-Berrte (Systena frontalis Fab.).—This flea-beetle was destructive to sugar beets in the vicinity of Syracuse, N. Y. Tur Rose Cuarer (Macrodactylus subspinosus Fab.).—This well-known enemy to rose and grape culture was reported as the cause of injuries in Ohio and New Hamp- shire, but was less numerous in Delaware and Maryland than usual. Tur San Jose ScarE (Aspidiotus perniciosus Comst.).—Continued to be the most serious orchard pest in Maryland and New York; was reported as injurious in Rhode Island and Georgia. A list of other States from which injury was reported includes Virginia, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, California, Texas, New Jersey, Alabama, Louisiana, Michigan, North Carolina, Massachusetts, Mississippi, District of Colum- bia. The presence of the species was also noted by Mr. C, W. Mally at Cape Town, South Africa. A Sawrty Enemy or Pium (Lyda sp.).—Reports were received from two localities in Missouri of injury to plums by the larva of a species of Lyda which as yet has not been identified. THe ScutprurepD Corn Brit Bue (Sphenophorussculptilis Uhl. ).—Wasreported to be ruining cornfields in Ohio. It was also destructive in Missouri and_ North Carolina. Tue Scurry Bark Louse (Chionaspis furfurus Fitch. ).—Continued to be one of the most common pests of apple and plum in the Northeastern States. It was found abundant also on plums in Georgia, as reported by Mr. Scott. Tur SeEp-Corn Maccor (Phorbia fusciceps Zett.).—This maggot was the occasion of some trouble to young stalks of beans and peas in the District of Columbia and in Alabama. Tur SpinacH FLEA-BEEtie (Disonycha xanthomelena Dalm.).—Beets growing inthe District of Columbia were more seriously injured than ever noticed before in the his- tory of this insect in the East. THe SMARTWEED FLEA-BEETLE (Systena hudsonias Forst.).—Injury by this flea-beetle to beans was reported in New York. THe Sporrep Curworm (Noctua c-nigrum Linn. ).—This was one of the most destruc- tive cutworms of the year, injuries being noted in Maryland, Virginia, Indiana, Ohio, aa Connecticut. In the last State it assumed what is known as the army-worm abit. Tue Sournern Lear-Footep Piant-Bua (Leptoglossus phyllopus Linn.).—This plant-bug was injurious to Irish potatoes and spring wheat in Texas. Tue Srrawperry Lear Rouiier (Phoxopteris comptana Frohl.).—This common pest was destructive to strawberry, raspberry, and blackberry in the District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia, as well as in portions of Massachusetts, Ilinois, lowa, Michigan, New Jersey, and Missouri. Tur StRAWBERRY Roor-LovuseE (Aphis forbesi Weed. ).—Cause of severe injury in Delaware, where it was given special study by Mr. Sanderson. PLANT DISEASES IN 1900. 729 Tre Strawperry Weevin (Anthonomus signaius Say.).—Destructive to blackberry in Rhode Island, a State where injury has not previously been reported. Tue Srripep CucuMBER BEEt_eE ( Diabrotica vittata Fab. ).—This well-known enemy of cucurbits, a pest at all times, was particularly destructive during the past year in Maryland, District of Columbia, and certain parts of Colorado, as well as in Wiscon- sin, New York, and Iowa. Tomato AnD Tosacco Worms (Phlegethontius celeus Say and P. carolina Linn. ).— These two well-known ‘‘worms”’ did considerable damage to tomatoes in Maryland and Virginia, near the District of Columbia. Complaints were also received of injuries to either tomato or tobacco in the States of Ohio, New York, and New Jersey. Tue ToorHeD FLEA-BEETLE ( Chetocnema denticulata O.).—This insect attracted atten- tion from its attacks upon sweet corn in Maryland, near the District of Columbia. Tue Tuvie Tree Scare (Lecanium tulipiferee Cook).—Numerous complaints were received of this species, especially from the State of Pennsylvania; also from New York, Virginia, Illinois, North Carolina, and Connecticut. Tue TWELVeE-Sporrep CucuMBER BEETLE OR SouTHERN Corn Root-worm (Diabrotica 12-punctata Ol.).—This species is always the occasion of more or less damage, and the present year it was particularly abundant and injurious in Georgia and Alabama. Tue Two-Sporrep Rep Sprp_er ( Tetranychus bimaculatus Harvey ).—This destructive mite is always troublesome, particularly in greenhouses. During the season injuries were noted to be particularly serious in Illinois and the District of Columbia. Tat VARieGaTep Cutworm (Peridroma saucia Hbn.}.—During the season of 1900 this was the most troublesome of all the cutworms; in fact, one of the most destruc- tive insects of the year and over a wide extent of territory, injuries, however, being most conspicuous in the Pacific States. Damage was especially severe in Washington and Oregon, and was reported also from Texas, Missouri, Kansas, Illinois, West Virginia, and California. Tue ‘“Wuire Fiy” or THE Orance (Aleyrodes citri and citrifolii) did considerable damage, the first mentioned making its first appearance in southern California and greatly alarming the growers of citrus fruits. Injury by one or both of these species was noted in Alabama, Florida, North Carolina, as well as in California. Wuire Gruss AnD May Beettes (Lachnosterna spp.).—White grubs and their parents, the May and June beetles, were reported to have done more or less injury to shade, fruit, and nut trees in portions of the States of New York, Virginia, Con- necticut, Kansas, North Carolina, Utah, Michigan, and Alabama. Wireworms.—Various species of wireworms were the cause of injury in different States during the year, but only a few forms were given special study, and the spec- ies in most cases were not identified. Tre Wooty Mapte Louse (Pemphigus acerifolii Riley ).—One of the most interest- ing occurrences of the year was that of this well-known plant-louse, which affects mapletrees. Itattracted specialattention from the masses of downy secretion which envelops a colony of it and which appeared on shade trees in various places. It was the occasion of considerable alarm, which, however, was unfounded, as the species really does very little injury to the trees. Complaints were received from North Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, and Georgia. PLANT DISEASES IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1900. In many parts of the country plant diseases were more than usually destructive in 1900. This was due in the case of some of the diseases of fruit trees to injuries sus- tained by them in the winter of 1898-99, and also to the excessive precipitation in certain parts of the country during the summer of 1900. In the New England States and part of the Middle States, as well as in the Dakotas and Minnesota, the season was drier than normal, and as a result the usual fungous diseases were not very abundant or destructive. On the other hand, throughout Georgia and Alabama and part of the Central States the precipitation was excessive, and as a consequence many diseases were very serious. To the warm winter of 1899-1900 may be attrib- uted the almost total failure of the peach crop in southern California during the past season. It was only through the hearty cooperation of the botanists of the various experi- ment stations with the Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology that it was possible to make the following brief notes. APPLES, PEARS, AND QUINCES. Apples were affected by an unusually severe attack of bitter rot in a belt extending from the middle Atlantic States westward to Missouri and Kansas and thence south- * ward to Texas. In parts of Missouri and Illinois, as well as in limited regions in the 4 41900 47 730 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Virginias, practically the whole crop was destroyed by this disease, either on the trees or in storage after picking. A conservative estimate places the loss caused to the apple industry of the United States by bitter rot at more than $10,000,000 for 1900 alone. Scab was prevalent over a large portion of the apple-growing region, being on the increase west of the Missouri River. It caused considerable damage in the States of Idaho and Washington. Where spraying was used, as recommended by this Department, the loss from scab was very light, the large losses being due to neglect of this important process. Apple rust also was locally destructive. In the north Pacific States black canker of the apple was still very destructive, being only partially under control. Pears and apples and in some places quinces were very badly injured by pear blight in 1900. The disease was very destructive in Washington, Idaho, and Oregon, and in localities in California, States in which it has only been noticed for the past two or three years. It also caused a great deal of damage throughout the pear- growing regions of the South and to some extent in the apple-growing regions of the Central States. In Connecticut, where careful attention has been given to removing the diseased twigs, the disease was successfully checked. Pears and apples were locally affected by several other diseases, but none of enough importance to be mentioned. PEACHES AND PLUMS. The brown rot of peaches and plums was one of the most destructive diseases of these fruits in 1900. The season was unusually humid over a large portion of the peach belt, and this caused the fungus to spread until it brought about nearly a total loss of the fruitin some regions. Most of the injury to the fruit oceurred while it Was still on the trees, but much was also destroyed duringshipment. In Oregon and Washing- ton the disease occurred to some extent, and it appeared for the first time in the San Francisco Bay region in California, but did not cause much injury there. The loss in the country as a whole amounted to several million dollars. Yellows was present in most of the peach regions of the Northern States east of the Mississippi River. It was unusually bad in Michigan and quite destructive in southern Illinois. Peach leaf curl was also of quite general distribution, although it was kept under control by the more thrifty growers, especially in California. The disease known as “‘little peach’’ continued to increase in western Michigan and threatens to prove very seri- ous. It was also reported from western New York. GRAPES, ORANGES, OTHER FRUITS, AND WALNUTS. Black rot and downy mildew were the only grape diseases of general importance in 1900, the latter being injurious to an extent worth mention only in some of the Gulf States. Ontheother hand black rot was very destructive in the lower Hudson River Valley in New York and from Maryland southward to the Gulf States, and also in Missouri and Tennessee. In most localities it was more destructive than in 1899, and in some cases did not yield to the ordinary spraying methods. The raspberry and blackberry were both affected more or less by anthracnose and rust, while a disease of supposed bacterial nature caused considerable damage in Ohio and Illinois. Leaf blight of the strawberry was the cause of considerable complaint from most of the regions where this fruit is grown on a large scale. However, improved meth- ods of culture have reduced the losses from this disease very greatly. In Florida pineapple blight caused about the same amount of injury as is usual every year. Oranges were quite seriously injured by sooty mold, which increased quite rapidly, following the spread of the white fly. Dieback was also quite preva- lent, although it seems to be possible to combat it effectively by spraying with Bor- deaux mixture. The same disease caused considerable loss in certain localities in California. In the latter State the bacterial diseases of walnuts is also on the increase and during the year occasioned very serious losses. POTATOES, SUGAR BEETS, MELONS, AND OTHER VFGETABLES. Among field and garden crops the potato crop was destroyed or very badly injured in many localities in the Pacific coast States by late blight ea ytopthora). This dis- ease was also prevalent to a lesser degree in some of the Atlantic States, and was also reported locally in the Lake region. For the rest of the country scab was the most injurious disease, although early blight (Alternaria) caused considerable loss, mainly in the inland States. These losses could have been very greatly reduced if the proper preventive measures had been taken. Throughout almost the whole of the sugar-beet belt east of the Rocky Mountains, with the exception of a part of Michigan and of a few limited areas elsewhere, the PROGRESS IN FRUIT GROWING IN 1900, 731 crop was very seriously injured by the leaf spot disease. In many places the plants were killed outright, while everywhere the sugar content of the Fett was greatly reduced, making its culture unprofitable in some localities. In California and inland, in the irrigated districts, immense damage was done by a combination of factors not yet well understood, but probably connected with the dry climate and irrigation. Tomato culture was made unprofitable in many parts of the Southern States by the bacterial wilt, while in many of the Northern States the leaf spot disease caused considerable damage. In the irrigated districts, especially in Colorado and Utah, a great deal of complaint was made concerning a disease of tomatoes which seemed to be due to some unfavorable soil conditions. Rust proved very destructive to asparagus in 1900. It appeared for the first time in several States, and now causes loss as far west as South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas. It destroyed nearly the entire asparagus crop on Long Island and was bad in the Atlantic coast States as far south as South Carolina. Melons and cucumbers and other cucurbitaceous plants were badly injured in the North Central States by anthracnose. This disease was also present to a limited extent in Maryland and adjacent States. The downy mildew of muskmelons and cucumbers was pretty generally distributed throughout the eastern third of the coun- try. In many parts of the North the growing of these plants under glass and also outdoors was entirely prevented. In parts of South Carolina and the adjacent States es growing of watermelons had to be abandoned, owing to the spread of the wilt isease. A similar disease has miade the growing of cabbagés impossible in large areas of North and South Carolina, while in a few places in Maryland, New Jersey, and New York it is also found. Another wilt disease has proved destructive to flax in North Dakota, while still another has interfered with the growth of the cowpea in parts of - South Carolina and other States. , COTTON, CEREALS, FLAX, AND COWPEAS. Of all the wilt diseases, that cf cotton was of most importance; for it has been con- stantly spreading, and now occurs in spots over nearly the whole cotton-growing area of the South. _ It has practically prevented the growing of this crop in parts of the sea islands and uplands of South Carolina and alsoto some extent in Alabama. The production of resistant races has been shown by the Department to be possible, and promises to furnish a means of combating the disease. Besides the wilt, anthracnose has been destructive to cotton, especially inthe Mississippi Valley region, while in Texas the root rot has occasioned immense loss. Cotton rust, which is dependent greatly upon weather conditions, was on the whole not more prevalent than usual. The injury to cerea's through rusts and smuts was in general about the same as in previous years. In North Carolina, however, wheat was unusually free from rust, while in Washington, on the other hand, the rusts were unusually severe, being especially destructive to the oat crop. A wilt disease has proved destructive to flax in North Dakota, while still another ae interfered with the growth of the cowpea in parts of South Carolina and other tates. PROGRESS IN FRUIT GROWING IN 1900. __ As in former years, much of the energy of the Division of Pomology has been directed toward the encouraging of the individual fruit grower in his efforts. This is especially true as relates to his ability to supply his own family wants. With this end in view two very important bulletins, one on the apple, the other on the grape, have been prepared and published during the past year. The demand for these, especially that on the apple, has been very great. These demands fairly indicate the growing desire for practical information on these subjects. A largely increased number of new and promising varieties of fruits, especially of the apple, have been received at the Division of Pomology for examination and testing. Among these are some that give special promise. It is a generally estab- lished fact, based on long years of experience and observation, that varieties have their time limit of usefulness, a fact which gives zest to all efforts in the line of pro- duction of new and promising varieties. In addition to this the desire for the new and novel, only limited by skill and ability in production, is constantly leading experimenters onward in this line of work. In the past ‘‘chance’’ has had much to do with the production of varieties. The elements of certainty may ever be want- ing, but the ‘‘chances’’ for definite and desirable results are now greatly increased. These facts are largely, if not wholly, due to the aid of science, which is now our chief reliance in plant breeding. (32 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. What was said last year in favor of thorough culture may be repeated with empha- sis. Successful fruit growing, even in the favored climate of California, is not a matter that takes care of itself. Eternal vigilance is the watchword of all who succeed. The sluggard in Solomon’s day was not known as asuccessful gardener, and conditions are not now greatly changed. This fact fully accounts for the great scarcity of thor- ough cultivators, who are > alw ays found in the ‘‘top story”’ of the business. Washington gene to have shipped 1,000 carloads of apples the past season. On December 1, 1900, there were in the various cold- storage establishments in this country an ageregate of 1,225,000 barrels of apples of the past year’s crop. Montana is rapidly developing into an apple-growing State. ‘Apples grown there, as well as elsewhere in the Rocky Mountain region, are peculiarly bright colored and well developed. A California authority advises local apple growers who pack for the export trade to be more careful in the handling of fruit. Poor prices for their fruit in the English markets prompt the advice. An apple barrel has been invented with an expansive cushioned head which pre- vents bruising and also by its expansion keeps the barrel from becoming slack. The apple succeeds throughout a wider range of territory than any other of the tree fruits. It is estimated that fully two-thirds of the settled area of the United States will produce the apple with varying degrees of success. The true apple belts, however, are becoming more clearly defined. The National Apple Shippers’ Association has recommended the general adoption of uniform packages for apples. This is a very important step in the right direction and will probably do more to hasten the desired result than any thing short of statu- tory enactment. The Georgia peach interest is rapidly growing into immense proportions. It is probable that more trees will be planted the coming spring than in any previous year. Peach production will very surely bé greatly stimulated by the successful efforts of the Department of Agriculture through Special Agent N. B. Pierce, of the Pacific Coast Laboratory, in the treatment of leaf curl. California is said to have shipped about 250 carloads each of almonds and Persian yalnuts last year. Judging from the correspondence in the Division of Pomology there is a rapidly growing interest in nut culture. This is especially true of the pecan in the Gulf sec- tion and of the almond and Persian walnut in California. Notwithstanding the repeated failures of Vinifera grapes within the United States east of the Rocky Mountains, the Division of Pomology is now conducting a series of experiments at Southern Pines, N. C.,and Earleton, Fila. , that promise good results. They are based on the idea that the numerous failures of the past are largely due to the work of phylioxera. Therefore these experiments are with Vinifera vinés grown on resistant roots. During the past season a number of varieties have fruited, and the fruit has been tested at this office. Further time and tests will, however, be required before any definite results can safely be given out. According to the Wisconsin Cranberry Growers’ Association the crop of last year was the smallest since 1884, though yielding very satisfactory financial returns. The crop is set down at 189, 000 barrels, 108,000 of which are credited to New York and New England, 63,000 to New Jersey, and 18,000 to the Western States. Massachusetts Grea in the Cape Cod region), New Jersey, and Wisconsin are the cranberry-growing States of the Union. Many new var ‘jeties and new and improved méthods of culture are being developed, and what was formerly a native wild plant is rapidly yielding to cultivation and domestication. About 90 per cent of the raisins consumed in this country are claimed to be the output of California producers. It is claimed that refrigeration of fresh fruits in storage and transit is slowly lessen- ing the demand for evaporated and canned goods. We are certainly approaching a period of general sanitary and quarantine regula- lations in the interests of fruit growing. Massachusetts has enacted a law, now in effect, regulating the size of berry baskets. Other States (observing a unifor mity in size) should follow. Pacific coast prunes are now sold in large quantities in European markets, while importations from Turkey and other foreign countries that formerly sup plied our markets are almost abandoned. No fruit has yet been reported from the experiments (referred to in the last Year- book) of Pr ofessor Webber, of the Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, in producing hybrids of Citrus trifoliata and thesweet orange. His numerous plants, however, have made satisfactory growth, and are full of promise of good results in the near future. A well-known orange grower in Florida, who has charge of the experiments now being conducted, says, in a recent publicati on: “Out of fifty PROGRESS IN FORESTRY IN 1900. 733 varieties there are several of great promise, although none of them have yet fruited. The inbred hardiness that comes from crossing with Citrus trifoliata is, however, already established.”’ The estimated consumption of oranges in the United States is 10,000,000 boxes. Of these, 6,200,000 are said to be grown in California, 800,000 in Florida, and 3,000,000 are imported. The colony of blastophaga planted at Fresno, Cal., successfully passed the ordeal of their first winter on American soil and have since multiplied in a satisfactory manner. Dr. Howard, of the Division of Entomology, who has the -experiment in charge, reports the production of many tons ot Smyrna figs as the result of their friendly cooperation in the work of pollinizing the flowers of this excellent variety. The highly creditable exhibition of fresh fruits, especially of the apple, made by the Department of Agriculture at the Paris Exposition has directed the attention of foreign markets to our resources in this line of production. This, in connection with the rapid developments in cold storage and refrigeration in transportation, will greatly extend and stimulate the production of market varieties. PROGRESS IN FORESTRY IN 1900. What is conspicuous above all things else in the last year’s developments is the growth and spread of popular interest in the questi6ns which concern the country’s forests and in forestry. This has come out most Clearly in the correspondence of the Division of Forestry and of certain forestry associations, in experiences and’ con- versations which those who are actively interested in forestry have had in all parts of the country, and especially in the public press. In the East and in California the interest has shown itself conspicuously in the activity of forest associations, and other organizations which have allied themselves with their work. Throughout the Rocky Mountain region there are few associations to give expression to this interest, but it has none the less made itself apparent in the tone of the press and in utterances at public meetings of various sorts. In the plains region the increasing interest has been notable. The number of applications for planting plans and for working plans which have been received by the Department of Agriculture indicate the practical way in which the country is taking up forestry. That the interest has everywhere ceased to be chiefly sentimental is further shown by the number of students now registered in the three forest schools. At Cornell there are 24, 4 of them seniors; at Biltmore there are 9; at Yale, where the new forest school was started in October under the most favorable circumstances, with Prof. Henry S. Graves at its head and Prof. J. W. Toumey as assistant professor, there are 7. The year’s advance in forestry has taken place most conspicuously along two distinct lines. The first of these is that of the official work of the National Goyern- ment; the second, that of the different State legislatures and bureaus of forestry. The work of the National Government has consisted mainly of the mapping and care of the national forest reserves and in the application of well-considered methods of forest management to tracts of land held by private owners or State governments. The mapping of the reserves is of the first importance to their proper administration and should be completed as soon as possible. The forest division of the Geological Survey has, during the last year, issued full reports and maps covering the Pikes Peak, Plum Creek, South Platte, Battlement Mesa, and White River Plateau reserves, in Colorado; the San Gabriel, San Bernardino, and San Jacinto reserves, in southern California, and the Flathead and Bitter Root reserves, in Montana and Wyoming. Further statistics of the timber reserves of Washington have also appeared.” Exam- inations and surveys of the forested and burnt-over lands of northern Minnesota have been completed, and reports will be published during the year 1901. The sur- veys of the Olympic Reserve have been finished, and the country between the Wash- ington Reserve and the Mount Rainier Forest Reserve has beeu surveyed. The survey of the Sierra Reserve, in California, has been nearly finished. This year astep in the management of these reserves, which has long been hoped for, has also been taken. Hitherto the control of the national forests has been vested in the General Land Office, while all the trained foresters in the Government’s employ have been in the Division of Forestry of the Department of Agriculture. The Secretary of the Interior has applied to the Department of Agriculture for working plans for the reseryes, and has more lately signified his intention of placing the administration of these plans under the supervision of the Forester. This uniting of the work of the Division of Forestry and of the General Land Office will do much to close the fissure 734 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in the organization of the national forest work, which for two or three years has resulted only in waste of effort and opportunity. The Division of Forestry, to be raised to the rank of a Bureau on July 1, 1901, car- ries on its roll so large a proportion of the men in America who are capable of doing forest work that to speak of what it has done is almost to say what has been done throughout the country. Chief among its undertakings have been the investigation of the grazing question on most of the forest reserves, the preparation of working plans for the Black Hills Forest Reserve, in South Dakota, and, in cooperation with the Forest, Fish, and Game Commission of New York State, for township 40 in the Adirondack Preserve—the tract containing the famous Raquette Lake. The appli- cations for working plans on private holdings have reached a total of over 3,000,000 acres, and on about 175,000 acres working plans have already gone into operation. The advance in the practical application of forestry to American conditions thus indicated is a matter of congratulation for two reasons. It means that object lessons in forest management, which will appeal more strongly than could anything else to lumbermen, owners of wood lots, and State governments, are being established in different parts of the country. It also signifies that forestry is being fitted to Ameri- can conditions, and that those who are practicing it in America are gaining the experience which will enable them to solve more and more of our difficulties and to get down to the terms which appeal to practical landowners. The Division of Forestry has also been carrying on many lines of work which are more in the character of investigation, but of the results of which it will soon be pos- sible to make practical use. Such are the examination of the effects of forest cover on the flow of the streams which was begun on the watershed of the Arrowhead Irrigation Company of southern California, and the investigations of the habits of reproduction and growth of such important lumber trees as the Red Fir of Wash- ington and Oregon and the redwood of California. For the fiscal year beginning July 1, 1901, the appropriation for forest work under the Department of Agriculture will be $187,240 instead of $88,520, as during last year. The fact that the division is being raised to the rank of a bureau is another sign of the increasing public recognition of the importance of its work. In the different States forestry has progressed with varying speed. The excellent work of the forest commission in Michigan has resulted in a strong and interesting report, which will soon, no doubt, be followed by much-needed legislation; Wisconsin is beginning to follow Michigan’s exampie; and in California, especially in the south- ern part of the State, where a steady water supply for purposes of irrigation is of vital importance, the people have been thoroughly stirred up about forest conserva- tion and will no doubt soon formulate a plan for the protection of their forest resources. The appropriation by the State legislature for the purchase of the Redwoods in the Big Basin deserves notice. Forest laws have been passed by the State legislatures of Colorado, Pennsylvania, and some States in the Middle West. The Colorado law is aimed chiefly against fire and the cutting of forests where they are needed for the water supply. The Pennsylvania law establishes a ‘‘State Department of Forestry,”’ and greatly strengthens the hands of the commissioner ana his forest preserve board. Though other States have passed other laws, these are the most striking and worthy of notice. ; To speak of what has been done by State and National Governments without call- ing attention to the rapidly increasing education of public opinion about forestry would be mis:eading. Before there are laws, forest preserves and parks, forest officers, and appropriations for them, there must be a widespread and vigorous public opinion with reference to forestry. Still more is this needed in order that holders of private property may be induced to consider the desirability of adopting consery- ative methods of forest management. In ways in which no Government bureau could do it, this necessary and very important work is carried on by such organizations as forestry associations. This has been notably the case in Minnesota, California, In- diana, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire. In these States there is an active local demand for good forestry. New Hampshire is the last State to have been stirred up, but it is taking hold with enthusiasm enough to make up for lost time. A great increase in the membership of the American Forestry Association is typical of this advance in public interest and in appreciation of forest work. DAIRY AWARDS FOR UNITED STATES AT PARIS EXPOSITION. DIPLOMAS OF THE GRAND PRIZE OF HONOR—6. 1. Borden’s Condensed Milk Company, New York: For the “Eagle,’’ ‘‘Peer- less,’’? and other brands of condensed milk. 2. Sam Haugdahl, New Sweden, Minn.: For creamery butter. DAIRY AWARDS FOR UNITED STATES AT PARIS EXPOSITION. 735 3,4,5,6. The Secretary of the United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Dairy Division, Washington, D. C.: For the collective exhibits of _ dairy products in the permanent exposition (June) and at the temporary dairy shows of May, July, and September. DIPLOMAS OF THE GOLD MEDAL—38. a. For natural milk and eream: 1. Briarcliff Farms, Briarcliff Manor, N. Y. 2. Fairfield Dairy Company, Montclair, N. J. 3. Stephen Francisco, Montclair, N. J. 4. H. B. Gurler, DeKalb, Ill. b. For condensed milk and cream: 5. Pacifie Creamery Company, Los Angeles, Cal. 6. St. Charles Condensing Company, St. Charles, III. c. For butter: 7. Albert Lea Dairy Association, Albert Lea, Minn. 8. Briarcliff Farms, Briarcliff Manor, N. Y. 9, Cornish Creamery Company, Cornish Flat, N. H. 10. Deerfoot Farm Dairy, Southboro, Mass. 11. Hampton Cooperative Creamery Association, Easthampton, Mass. 12. Iowa Agricultural College Creamery, Amgs, Lowa. 13. W.I. Noyes, Moland Cooperative Creamery Association, Moland, Minn. 14. Pine Tree Creamery Company, Sherman Mills, Me. 15. Simpson, McIntire & Co., Boston, Mass. 16. Aage Vind, Litchfield Creamery, Litchfield, Minn. d. For cheese: 17. Ed Bissonette, Shoreham, Vt. 18. Chandler & Rudd Company, Cleveland, Ohio. 19. A. D. De Land, Sheboygan, Wis- 20. J. A. Ennison, Eldorado, Wis. 21. Milton Fassett, Martinsburg, N. Y. 22. W. A. Freeman, Gouverneur, N. Y. 23. J. F. Howard, Haverhill, Mass. 24, La Crosse Cheese Company, La Crosse, Wis. 25, A. F. MacLaren, Imperial Cheese Company, Detroit, Mich. 26. Edward Norton, Goshen, Conn. 27. Ohio State Dairy School, Columbus, Ohio. 28. Alvah L. Reynolds, New York, N. Y. 29. E. S. Rice, Triumph Dairy Company, Triumph, Ohio. 30. N. Simon & Co., Milwaukee, Wis. ; 31. C. E. Udell & Co., Chicago, Ill. 32. S. Underhill, New York, N. Y. 33. John Voght, Orihula, Wis. 34. Wisconsin State Dairy School, Madison, Wis. 35. New York State Paris Commission (collective). e. For by-products of dairying: 36. J. H. Campbell, National Nutrient Company, Jersey City, N. J. 37. Casein Company of America, 74 John street, New York City. f. For collaboratory services: 38. Raymond A. Pearson, assistant chief Dairy Division, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture. : DIPLOMAS OF THE SILVER MEDAL—02. a. For natural and sterilized milk and cream : 1. H. B. Gurler, Clover Farm, DeKalb, Il. 2. Russell Cream Company, San Francisco, Cal. b. For condensed milk and cream : 3. Helvetia Milk Condensing Company, Highland, Ill. 4. Vermont Condensed Milk Company, Richmond, Vt. ce. For butter: 5. Armour & Co., Chicago, Ill. 6. Bark River Cheese Company, Hebron, Wis. 7. J. K. Bennett, Clinton Falls, Minn. &. R. H. Bent, Adams, N. Y. 736 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. e. For butter—Continued. 9. Bridgewater Hills Creamery Company, Bridgewater, Conn. 10. John B. Candon, Pittsford, Vt. It. Chesterfield Creamery Company, Chesterfield, Mich. 12. College Creamery, State Agricultural College, ‘Ames, Towa. 13. Dairymen’s Union of California, San Francisco, Cal. 14. Elgin Creamery Company, Chicago, Tl. 15. Foster’s Creamery Association, Frost, Minn. 16. Hoards’ Creameries, Fort Atkinson, Wis. 17. La Belle Jersey Dairy, St. Charles, Minn. 18. Lagrange Creamery Company, Lagrange, Ga. 19. C.C. Lawless, Shady Rill Cooperative Creamery Company, Montpelier, Vt. 20. H. H. Leach, Upland Farm, North Brookfield, Mass. 21. Meridale Farms, Meredith, N. Y. 22. I. Walter Mitchener, Glen Hall, Pa. 23. Monadnock Farms, Monadnock, N. H. 24. Montague Cooperative Creamery Association, Montague, Mass. 25. Rockdale Creamery, Rockdale, N. Y. 26. Rosemary Creamery, Adams, N. Y. 27. W. D. Saunders, College Creamery, Blacksburg, Va. 28. Benj. Sharpless, West Chester, Pa. 29. Silver Lake Cooperative Creamery, Seandinavia, Wis. 30. Smith Creek Creamery (F.S. Rembe, maker), Vega, 8. Dak. 31. H. T. Sondergaard, Litchfield Creamery, Litchfield, Minn. 32. M. Sondergaard, Casey, Minn. 33. South Platte Creameries, York, Nebr. 34. Wells River Creamery, Wells River, Vt. oo. Vernon Creamery Company, Rockville, Conn. d. For i ee 36. Rhodes Babcock, Chippewa Bay, N. Y. 37. F. X. Baumert, Antwerp, N. Y. 38. Beatrice Creamery Company, Lincoln, Nebr. 39. A. & H. BE. Cook, Denmark, N. Y. 40. Dairymen’s Union of California, San Francisco, Cal. 41. F. EB. Dawley, Fayetteville, N. Y. 42. F. P. Dunaway, East Rodman, N. Y. 43. D. A. Goodrich, South Champion, N. Y. 44, W. W. Hall, Gouverneur, N. Y. 45. Fred Harvey, Gault, Cal. 46. Lewis Ladrach, Ragersville, Ohio. 47. Wm. A. Lawrence & Son, Chester, N. Y. 48. P. McDonough, Hinesburg, Vt. 49. Robert L. Norton & Co., Attica, NES 50. Richardson, Beebe & Co. , East Aurora, N. Y. 51. Jared Van W agenen, jr., Hillside Farm, Lawyersville, INGE e. For by-products of dairying: 52. The National Nutrient Company, 79 Hudson street, Jersey City, N. J. DIPLOMAS OF THE BRONZE MEDAL—28. a. For condensed milk: ; 1. American Condensed Milk Company, San Francisco, Cal. 2. Maine Condensed Milk Company, Whitefield, N. H. 3. Pacific Coast Condensed Milk Company , Seattle, Wash. b. For butter: 4. Wm. V. Beach, Charlotte, Vt. Briarcliff Farms, Briarcliff Manor, N. Y. Henry Eibert, Otisco, N. Y. Elgin Creamery Company, Chicago, Il]. Chas. W. Embic h, Lancaster, Ohio. 9. H. J. Evans, Humboldt, Towa. 10. Farmers’ Cooperative Creamery Association, Collins, Iowa. 11. Franklin County Creamery Association, St. Albans, Vt. 12. Hoards’ Creameries, Fort Atkinson, Wis. 3. Meridale Farms, Meredith, N. Y. 14. Mrs. J. R. Miller, Ryegate, Vt. 15. Monadnock Farms, Monadnock, N. H. POINTS FOR JUDGING DAIRY COW. Va c. For butter—Continued. 16. Montague Cooperative Creamery Association, Montague, Mass. 17. Mrs. Carrie J. Nelson, Hillside Dairy Farm, Ryegate, Vt. 18. Oscar W. Reed, Lebanon Creamery, Lebanon, Ohio. 19. Mrs. C. H. Robbins, St. Charles, Minn. 20. Rosemary Creamery, Adams, N. Y. 21. Sanborn Creamery, Leayitts Hill, Deerfield, N. 1. 22. Benjamin Sharpless, West Chester, Pa. 23. H. N. Slater, Fairmont, Minn. 24. Spring Brook Creamery Company, Chicago, III. 25. Vernon Creamery Company, Rockyille, Conn. c. For cheese: 26. F. X. Baumert, Antwerp, N. Y. 27. Lewis Ladrach, Ragersville, Ohio. 28. Alvah L, Reynolds, New York, N. Y. SCALE OF POINTS FOR JUDGING A DAIRY COW, REGARDLESS OF BREEDS. In the accompanying illustration are indicated the parts of the cow taken into con- sideration in judging her merits as a dairy animal. ; : 14 > 17 es -.-y o> = TaN ¢ Ree My, a hy vA sp ! Peli y \ é —— MMi. \ J Fe 37 \\ 7 “ 7 3 \ = LANA v, WN ie: ihe Hal Ht Cull, = i \ Fig. 88.—Diagram of cow showing points. 1. Head. 12. Withers. 23. Shculder. 34. Fore udder. 2. Muzzle. 13. Back. 24. Elbow. 35. Hind udder. 3. Nostril. 14. Loins. 25. Forearm. 36. Teats. 4. Face. 15. Hip bone. £6. Knee. 37. Upper thigh. 5. Bye. 16. Pelvie arch. 27. Ankle. 38. Stifle. 6. Forehead. 17. Rump. 28. Hoof. 39. Twist. 7. Horn. 18; Tail. 29. Heart girth. 40. Leg, or gaskin. 8. Ear. 19. Switch. 30. Side, or barrel. 41. Hock. 9. Cheek. 20. Ghest. 31. Belly. 42. Shank. 10. Throat. 21. Brisket. 32. Flank. 43. Dew claw. . 11. Neck. 22. Dewlap. 33. Milk vein. In judging dairy stock, 100 is assumed to represent the ideal or perfect dairy cow. The following is a list of the general qualities and particular parts considered, with the figures at the right indicating the ‘‘ weight”’ or importance attached to each in making up the total of 100 points which stands for perfection: GENERAL APPEARANCE: : Constitutional vigor, as shown by size, apparent health, strength, activity, Bite MeIvCeMl a DDCATANCG fe ween ee nw nee a ou Sin es sina nn a= 5 Form, wedge-shaped as viewed from front, side, and top.-..--.--------- 5 Quality, hair fine, soft; skin medium thickness, loose, mellow, and unc- fupus,; with yellow Secretlonyes Sos 9S. < apes et en eee on 2 == 5 Temperament, active and nervous (but not ‘‘wild’’), indicated by move- ments, eyes, and lean appearance.....--.-.-.----------- 2 eee ee eee 5 738 YFARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Heap AND NECK: Forehead: annoad tanga] Sess Se Se ee eee Soe ee eee e men ces 2 Horns, small and fine, not too long, set well apart ......---------------- il Eyes, large, prominent, bright, and yet placid.--..-.------------------- li Face, lean, not too short, straight or slightly dished ......----..-.------ 1 Muzzle, clean and strong, mouth and nostrils large.-..---.----.--------- 1 Ears, medium size, fine in texture, yellow secretion abundant. ..-..------ 1 Neck, rather long and thin, fine; clean throat and light dewlap-...-.------ 1 FoREQUARTERS: Chest and brisket, broad and strong, low, but not too fleshy...........-.- 3 Withers, well defined, firm, and ‘lean..02.2.2..\- 25 <.. 5224222222525 5--25 1 Shoulders, light, not fleshy, and oblique.....--.------------+----------- 1 Legs, straight, rather short, and not too large or coarse.--.-.------------ 2 Bopy: Back, well defined, lean, open-jointed, not too level, and smooth; a good SPLINES ea eee ere eww ate ot a alee a ree ee eee 3 Barrel or body, long and large; ribs broad, well arched, open, and well defined: iavlaree, strong hodiy t2he sa -sceet -- <= ae eos ee eee eee 8 Heart givth, large and deep; abundant room for active heart and lungs. - - 4 Belly, large, broad, and deep, with a large and stiong navel......--.---- 6 Join, broadand'etrong 323.22 ee ee ae ee ee ee eee 3 HINDQUARTERS: Hips wideaparte 2222228 ie hentai S eae tn ees ee oe eee 2 Pelvie arch, prominent and strong -..-...------------------------+---=- 3 Rony, long and wide 5322-0 2222-2 222 222 2 ae =e 2 Tai. Aone. fine qwithvaoodsswitel. 2 see ~~ = eee = ee Sol: Thighs, long and lean, no beefiness; thin flanks -.--.-.--.------.-------- 3 Legs, straight, rather short, wide apart, giving open twist, and not too PARE COE COATS) se 52 acne eke: See lee oe eee ee 3 Fore udder, full, broad, and extending well forward, not fleshy. -..------ 8 Hind udder, broad, full, and attached high, not fleshy -.....-...-------- 8 Teats, of good size and form, evenly placed .....:..----.----------2---: 5 Milk veins, upon the udder and in front of it, prominent, large, and tor- tuous, leading to large; opem* "milk wells”. 252-25 2- = 2 eee eee 5 Norrs.—In scoring or marking, give to each part the number of points which it appears to deserve upon the scale given; use fractions of one-fourth if necessary. Thus if forehead is broad, full, and satisfactory, mark 2; if neck is short, thick 1 Thus if forehead is broad, full, and satisfactory, mark 2; 1f neck is short, thick, anc beefy, mark 4 or }, or perhaps 0; if fore udder is deficient or defective, mark 6, 4, or 2, as the case may be. A good cow closely criticised and scored should have a total of 80 points or more. Numpers oF RecisreRED Dairy CATTLe. The following table shows the number of animals of each breed described in this bulletin which have been registered in the United States, and the estimated number of the same living in 1898: Number of animals registered in the United States, and estimated number of these living in 1898. sae Number Number Breeds. * | registered. living. U.8yi9 6: 120 do SRB EPS anne Someta teen an Seeks tenes noe asen ner ctn ae saancsec 22,000 6, 050 (BROS IRIS WAGES 1m 1 ou.| uaeop ee S s OS'S. See ore | we Perishable goods. A iey Mies a ig = Rd Remarks. Aas) ss | 528] 38. nO Ho Wang Ka, eae © oo ho oO ae) oe 3) oD — — oS ra 2a,8 foe] = AiS qa Mo Rk of < H na a ° ° ° fo] AlGieIN GON ect tee ee eae 30 20 10 see oe AM PIES; WN WARCCIG se coe ee nana = 20 10]. —10 75 | Covered with straw. Apples: JOOSC we..2. secsceeccs2 2s. 28 15 ~—10 jo | Packed in straw. IAPTICOUS! DASKCtS neo ss ccs nae cen 30 24 10 70 Aqua ammonia, barrels ......--- 30 20 —10 Je2..c22- ASPATASUS =: sect < so kcisiseecie se 28 Doh Bare erate, 70 | In boxes covered with moss. IBamMaM ase: cha} = cote cee coe 50 PAN eee ac, 90 | In bulk and in boxes with straw. IBGANS SNAP sseece secs eee ce eee ae 32 26H |e sree 65 | In barrels or crates. IB Bese ean esto actings cH one Le Zero. SU onagone 65 | Shipped loose. Beehemtnactes & oi. sscee Jeo Pibatess, a2) 15 1 ON ea. eee ECW OMAIC RCPS oi ssee sees ee S| 32 20 | Zero. 75 | Packed in manure and shavings. E212) i ee ee ee ene ee 26 DLR ox Sc 70 | In crates. Bin cs oo ern a ee ae 30 20 == 31 Oiy||Ej22 Sees Cabbage, early or late ..-.....--- 25 20} Zero. 75 | Barrels or crates. Gantaloupes:- 22-2 26222 -e ese sce 32 25 10 80 ORELOS Siassena- os niecnneen ase eta 30 25 0 eae Bes (QERISID) se SE a Rien Site is ewe a 25 15 HN) WS. serene CRW OW CIs». tec aon ncn ccas cee ae Lt Bate 70 | In barrels with straw. COIS AE RS oie a teed ete eee 103), -Aero:,|t2-ce-ns 65 | Packed in crates. GHECRO SE ins 55. Fo5cc ses ese 30 25 10 7) (Oils (SDR eS ie ie ee ee ee 22 18 —10 7 Glamvbrothiand! juice... 2 22-22. 30 20 —10 80 @lamswinishell!... 5252. .2-82525 22 20 10 —10 65 | In barrels. MOCOAMWIS 4 -eA Ss Jee ed access 3 20 | Zero. 90 | In barrels or crates. TAD SR ae oe ore siezceoisiaere7e eee ine LOT) LEror || Pesc- 5 65 | In baskets and barrels. @ramDenvies! sa s5 5. se sea eee 28 20") *Zeros |s ss 2-255 CuUcumIDEISe = os. Ser nace eee 32 20 ee cree 65 | In boxes with moss. Cymlings, or squashes........... 32 PN eS Re 75 | In crates. IDCGIs 5 ose mas vain oe eee Zero. Set) eae 65 | Shipped loose. Drugs (nonalcoholic)............ 32 281) “Gero: | soe se4 Eggs, barreled or crated......... 3 20 | Zero. 80 ACY Chet tans Sea eee ae ee NOV ey Aoi eo ee Ses 7 Packed in boxes or crates. Extracts (flavoring)-............. 20 TD LCL Oval = = asere = BiSh teen eee ene eee eee. TONIMZELOS seen 65 | In barrels always iced. MISH Chin OW Saece sate anes ee 18 15 ==1 0) Sas eee MIO WeOPrSisaasee-Gettees 22 scoseet eee 28 20: The sample consisted of salicylic acid. U.S. Satix Company, New Concorn, On1o.—Terra Fusa.? Identical with compound extract of salyx. U.S. Satrx Company, New Concorp, On1o.—‘‘Per Algretia’”’ for preserving eggs.* Identical with compound extract of salyx. U. S. Satix Company, New Concorp, On10.—Hyper-Samphire.* Identical with compound extract of salyx. ALFRED VACANO, ViIENNA.—Konservirungssalz. Sample contained ammonium sili- cofluorid, 85 per cent; ammonium fluorid, 15 per cent. A. Wasmutia & Co., Barmen.—Dr. C. Ruger’s Barmenit.1 and * Consists of equal parts of boric acid and salt. L. Zrerer, Bertixn.— Best Australian and New Zealtnd Meat Preserve.» Percentage composition: Salt, 33.12; sodiym sulphate, 48.62; sodium bisulphite, 16; lime, mag- nesia, and water, 1.70. L. Zirrer, Bertin.—Real Australian Meat Preserve.6 Percentage composition: Sodium sulphite, 19; sodium sulphate, 79; sodium chlorid, 2. L. Zirrer, Beriin.—Best Australian and New Seeland Meat Preserve.6 Solution of calcium sulphite containing 7.7 per cent of sulphurous acid. L. Zirrer, Bertin.—Best Australian and New Seeland Meat Preserve. Sodium sul- phite, 23; sodium sulphate, 37; sodium chlorid, 40. L. Zirrer, Bertix.—Carnat. Percentage composition: Salt, 43; sodium sulphite (dry), 25; sodium sulphate, 27; sugar, 5.1. Second analysis: Sodium sulphate, 18.9; salt, 40.12; sodium sulphite, 30.88; sodium carbonate, 1.60; water, 2.10.° A teaspoon- ful is directed with each 5 kilograms (11 pounds) of meat. L. Zirrer. Bertrs.—Doppelt Konz. Sulphit Natron.6 Solution containing 254 grams crystallized sodium bisulphite and 71 grams crystallized sodium sulphate per liter. L. Zirrer, Bervwn.—Erhaltungspulver. Percentage composition: Salt, 30; borie acid, 68.5; sodium sulphate, 1.5.1 Second analysis: Salt, 28.50; boric acid, 70.10; water, 1.34.° L. Zirrer, Bertin.—Konservesalz.1 Percentage composition: Boric acid, 30; salt- peter, 35; salt, 33; sodium sulphate, 2. L. Zirrer, Bertin.—Monopol.® Percentage composition: Saltpeter, 45.32; potas- sium carbonate, 15; potassium chlorid, 17.25; sodium chlorid, 1.20; sugar, 20; water, 3. It is directed to use 300 grams of Monopol with 500 kilograms of meat (10 grams per 100 pounds). L. Zirrer, Berusy.—Preservaline.t A solution containing 240 grams salt, 300 grams sodium sulphite (cryst), and 130 grams sodium sulphate per liter. L. Zirrer, Bertry.—Preservaline for ham, bacon, etc.® A solution with specific gravity of 1.275 at 15°, and containing 206.7 grams salt, 185 grams sodium sulphite and bisulphite, and 14.2 grams sodium sulphate per liter. Wixiram Zinsser & Co., New YorK.—Compressed Preserving Powders.’. Sample contained 49.01 per cent salicylic acid and some sugar. Directions: One-half ounce for one-half barrel of beer. CHARLES ZOLLER, New Yorx.—A. Boake Roberts & Co.’s K. M.S. in éablet form." Percentage composition: Selphate of potash, 11.34; bisulphite of soda, 1.84; bisul- phite of potash, 84.35. Directions: An eighth to a quarter of an ounce per American barrel. 1K. Polenske, Arb. Kais. Ges. Amt., 1896, 12, 548. 2. Polenske, Arb. Kais. Ges. Amt., 1894, 10, 508. 3 Unpublished results of Chemical Division, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 4E. Polenske, Arb. Kais. Ges. Amt., 1890, 6, 119. 5 FE. Polenske, Arb. Kais. Ges. Amt., 1892, 12, 256. 6 Venzke & Schorer, D. Fleisch-Ztg., 21, Nos. 20, 21, and 24; abs. Chem. C. B., 1893, II, 1020. 7 Jenkins, Mitchell & Ogden, Report Conn. Agl. Expt. Station, 1898, 355. 750 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CHARLES ZOLLER, New Yorx.—Bouake’s Genuine K. M. S. Crystals.1 The sample con- sisted of potassium meta-bisulphite, and contained 57 per cent of sulphurous acid. MANUFACTURER NOY GIVEN.—Antisourine.2. Apparently a solution of borax con- taining 2.54 per cent of total solids. MANUFACTURER NOT GIVEN.—Okrimann’s Real Australian Meat Preserve.* Sample contained 4.01 per cent calcium bisulphite and 3.64 per cent of free sulphurous acid. MANUFACTURER NOT GIVEN.—Koenig’s Technical Antiseptic Salt.t Said by authors to be from America, also known as Koenig’s pure antiseptic salt. Consists of 85 per cent of commercial ammonium silicofluorid and 15 per cent of ammonium fluroid. MANUFACTURER NOP GIVEN.—Konservessenz.> A solution of calcium bisulphite con- taining 6.24 per cent of sulphurous acid. MANUFACTURER NOT GIVEN.—Mannheim Konservesalz.° Salt, 56 per cent; boric acid, 44 per cent. MANUFACTURER NOT GIVEN.—Konservirungsflussigkeit fur Wurstgut.® Slightly opales- cent, odorless liquid, having an acid reaction and specific gravity of 1.0605 at 20°, Percentage composition: Saltpeter, 3.34; boric acid, 2.75; glycerin, 5. MANUFACTURER NOT GIVEN.—Meat Preserve.’ Solution of calcium sulphite contain- ing 6.80 per cent sulphurous acid. MANUFACTURER NOT GIVEN.—The Real American Meat Preserve.6 Saturated solution of calcium sulphite, with specific gravity of 1.0842 at 20°. Contains 2.64 per cent calcium oxid and 8.96 per cent of sulphur dioxid. MANUFACTURER NOT GIVEN.—Preservesalz.2 Represented as the preservative used in the preparation of American hams. Percentage composition: Borax, 83.8; salt, 3.2; water, 13. E MANUFACTURER NOT GIVEN.—Soczlith.> Percentage composition: Sodium sulphite, 20; sodium sulphate, 80. MANUFACTURER NOT GIVEN.— Wickershaimersche Flussigkeit zur Konservirung von Nahrungsmitteln.© A viscous, almost colorless, slightly opalescent liquid with a spe- cific gravity of 1.0995 at 20°. Percentage composition: Boric acid, 5.23; salt, 1.83; sodium salicylate, 30; glycerin, 25. The glycerin is partly present as boroglycerid. THE BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES. The condition of the beet-sugar industry in this country for the manufacturing season of 1899 and 1900, as well as its development, is shown in the following tables. In 1879 there were only four beet-sugar factories in the United States (California, 2; Delaware, 1; Maine, 1), with a total investment of $365,000 and 850 employees. A new impetus was given to the industry by the investigations and the distribution of seed begun by this Department in 1897. Number and nominal daily capacity of establishments in 1900, 1899, and 1898. 1960. 1899. 1898. = | Nominal] . Nominal 5 Nominal bAiah Number | *°™ Number Sais Number ee States and Territories. of es- daily d ne daily _| Capital ofes- |. daily tablish- ee ‘| tablish- pea ea | invested. | tablish- Perec Tens: of beets. ments. of beets. ments. of beets. The United States..... 937 22,310 1031 19,110 $20, 958, 519 15 7,560 Galifownian oo. Suan 3 8| 9,900 78| 9,900 | 10, 139, 780 5 4, 400 VELOUR oe ne ae ee 10 4, 450 9 4,100 4, 018, 748 1 400 CONDE O) cree nee eee emer 3 1, 850 1 S00) fe 98 i (Peace eee |e eee MUA OIS Shere teat eee er 1 700 1 TOON 2) ee ede e aes sees Minnesota: Leecawetiet eee ee 1 400 dis 400 1 400 NGDrAsWa. 6. een cutee 3 1, 260 3 1,260 2 660 ING YW IMCKICO. 22. ons ca cicsiven es 1 200 1 200 1 2 MeWRNGric tt 6 sain eeonin 3| 1,000 2 400 |f & 804, 996 2 400 Ohio“ .te2- Osea whe Safe Tees 1 AOD jercinscinite cit nates crores alll bases 0 “hope Nl bowie eet lhe ieee OVCP OM emt a Pons t = R.C. Grier. ROUsGe png sRarecc--2ess-ecoe- Commercial Exchange ........- Armon D. Acheson. Philadelphia Pe ..c-2-sa----- o> = Produce Exchange ............- Howard Austin. PON OeNG. OTOR. oocsa cn cnes wueme BoardioiWraderscsceccs.scseeen 2 P. L. Willis. Richmond, Va Chamber of Commerce ........- R. A. Dunlop. MULOMUIS LO coo ot os c cee ee een Merchants’ Exchange .......... George H. Morgan. Sanihrancisco, Cals.<..22. 222 an Chamber of Commerce ......... E. Scott. NaH ran Cisco, Obl. .se~ onceccene Produce Exchange ...........-. T.C. Friedlander. Denttle Wash. Sees scart ee. Chamber of Commerce ......... Thomas W. Prosch. MOEA OXOUIO 22 Se. scidds cain Produce BxcChanee. a. fac canncicce Denison B. Smith. Wiishineton DiC ps scens conces on BOArai Of TYAS soe cece. cece tee ee George H. Harries. COTTON EXCHANGES. City and State. Name of organization. Secretary. PAVE UG) Gt Va cataioin tata Soisin’s ones 3 5yaratw Chamber of Commerce .......-.- T. HW. Martin. ATIBUStE MG aroe ceca a coe tzercc ee Exchange and Board of Trade..; W. F. Alexander. IBITMIMe DAMA Bee sake ~ ce Aaa cle,< Commercial|\Clubs. 222 5.5. .se ..| J. B. Gibson. Charleston oxG@l-8-< os seeisen = | Cotton xchange. -2 .22--...c" ¥..| Rene R. Jervey. Colombia Ss Ca. seo ctesaeewaaiss | JBOanGhOt Drader ce sack peer emcee W.E. MeNulty. Golwmpbus Gag. oss 2 a ogee come Boardrok Trad em ssese eee John C. Coart. Da MAS Ox tes Sees e cece eae | Commercial Clube ses tietea. cen Paul Giraud. muteulaeAlat tases eos scena's | Cotton xchanremess-seeeer esse H. Lampley. MOTE OLDUDS UROX ct cotcceniscceec Board of Mrade: se see sak aes Talbot O. Bateman. Galveston, Tex: 2. 2.20c cceccecmsns Cones Exchange and Board of | S.O. Young. Prade. Greenville Miss: << secce enone Cotton Exchange). son. seecae. ae Edward Holland. Greenwood; MISS << <0 2. <2. .so---5 1 Cotton Exchange o-- o-seacces ee C.K. Marshall. FLIGUSUOU LEX eG. nescce se scene Sonen Exchange and Board of | B. R. Warner. Trade. DuntlewROGK, Arkias--ce. acces Board) ob Mradey.s2s-c- secee eee George R. Brown. Mem phiss Meme 13, 287, 608 17, 236, 900 21, 362, 000 16, 330, 000 19, 290, 000 OWA oem ana eels waiemawieens co's 8, 101, 189 13, 025, 000 14, 881, 000 11, 602, 000 13, 239, 000 NIMC eae acne cna aciees soieeaeais 4,843, 503 9, 497, 000 9, 555, 000 12, 629, 000 11, 231, 000 Month. 1896-1897. 1897-1898. 1898-1899. 1899-1900, 1900-1901. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. ANGUS Space aaee ARAM CDOLUOG Jeon 11, 199, 000 21, 501, 000 32, 983, 000 21,551, G00 19, 087, 000 August 13, 246, 000 20,018, 000 25, 430, 000 17, 687, 000 18, 613, 000 September... 18, 608, 000 37, 528, 000 24, 943, 000 11, 070, 000 8, 766, 000 October 17, 800, 000 45, 412, 000 30, 132, 600 16, 662, 000 11, 106, 000 INGWETR DOTS: 7.38 eee aaaa—ae 23, 913, 000 52, 980, 000 33,198, 000 18, 738, 000 11, 061, 000 MeCember = 226 5s55sa5—2 secon 22, 635, 000 49, 559, 000 25, 870, 000 17, 555, 000 12, 791, 000 PURINES: jo sina cones oes om ec eee 26, 457, 000 48, 292, 000 26, 936, 000 19, 024, 009 14, 313, 000 1EUS3 0) 2) 0 0S ie ee eee pe es 29, 725, 000 53, 522, 000 36, 726, 000 20, 110, 000 21, 950, 000 IMEROD eat ata sac eactitcecccae 33, 764, 000 52, 457, 000 44,792, 000 28, 340, 600 27, 538, 000 Eon 2 ee Be See eee ec osmecrre 32, 670, 000 52, 228, 000 43, 618, 000 31, 883, 000 28, 947, 000 URS Pore e aha aitarn a ei aeyar sree 21, 707, 000 34, 734, GOO 34, 236, 000 SOSAIG O00 |aeaeesee cere MPT Creed ca waidispuaiesiaieree'aia a= = 16, 161, 000 28, 288, 000 19, 070, 000 1852895 OOO Ne rae acter Condition of the corn crop of the United States, monthly, 1¢86-1900. Year. | July. Aug, Sept Oct. || Year. }July.| Aug.} Sept.| Oct. | Year. |July.| Aug.| Sept.| Oct. 1886 ....| 95.2 | 80.7 | 76.6 | 80.0 |} 1891 - | 92.8 | 90.8 | 91.1 | 92.5 }) 1896 ..-| 92.4 | 96.0} 91.0} 90.5 1887 ....| 97.7 | 80.5 | 72.3 | 72.8 |} 1892 81.1 | 82.5] 79.6 | 79.8 || 1897 ...| 82.9 | 84.2 | 7923 | 77.1 1888 ...-| 93.0 | 95.5 | 94.2 | 92.0 |} 1893 = 93.2 | 87.0.| 76.7 | 75.1 }} 1898 ...| 90.5 | 87.0 | 84.1 | 82.0 1889 ....| 90.3 | 94.8 | 90.9 | 91.7 |} 1894 95.0 |} 69.1 | 63.4 | 64.2 || 1899...| 86.5 | 89.9 | 85.2 | 82.7 1890 ....| 93.1 | 73.3 | 70.1 | 70.6 || 1895 ...| 99.3 |102.5 | 96.4 | 95.5 || 1900...) 89.5 | 87.5 | 80.6 | 78.2 Wuirr Corn CoMPARED witH COLORED CoRN. From the results of hundreds of tests at experiment stations in all parts of the country it appears that heavier yields can be secured from white than from colored varieties. In 1,267 comparative tests with 490 varieties the average yield of 217 white varieties has been 2.5 hushels per acre in excess of the average yield of the 273 colored varieties grown in the same tests. At only one of the stations from which such tests have beep reported have colored varieties given the heavier yield. = 756 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OCF AGRICULTURE. Acreage, production, value, prices, and exports of corn of the United States, 1866 to 1900, inelusive. Aver- Chicago cash price per | Domestic ecere age bushel, No. 2. exports,! Age ae Farm yal Nee alco nimneal eat Renee eee se set price | Farm value, ay oO cor a Year. | Acreage. Mabe Production. per Dee. i. December. | following fiscal | mee bush- year. years be- : el, = ginning Dec. 1 Low. | High. |Low. |High,| July 1. Acres. Bush. Bushels. _ | Cents.| Dollars. Cts. | Cts. | Cts» | Cts: Bushes. 1866... 34, 306, 538 25:3 867, 946, 295 47.4 | 411, 450, 830 53 62 64 79 16, 025, 947 1867 ....} 32,¢ 520,249 23. 6 768, 320,000 | 57.0 | 437, 769, 763 61 65 6L 71 12, 493, 522 1868 ....| 34, 887,246 | 26.0 906,527,000 | 46.8 | 424,056,649 | 388 538 44 51 8, 286, 665 1869/2 2ee 37, 108, 245 | 23.6 874, 820,000 | 59.8 522, 550, 509 56 67 73 85 2, 140, 487 1870 ....} 38,646,977 | 28.3 | 1,094, 255,000 | 49.4 | 540,520,456 | 41 59 46 2 10, 676, 873 1871 ....| 34,091,137 | 29.1 991,898,000 | 48.4 | 480,355,910 | 36 39 38 43 35, 727, 010 1872 ....| 35,526,836 | 30.8 | 1,092, 719, 000 35.3 | 385,736,210 | 27 28 3k 39 40, 154, 374 1873 ....| 39,197,148 | 23.8 932,274,000 | 44.2 | 411,961,151 40 49 49 59 39, 985, 834 1874 ....| 41,036,918 | 20.7 850, 148,500 | 68.4 | 496,271,255 | 64 76 53 67 30, 025, 036 1875 ....| 44,841,371 | 29.5 | 1, 321,069,000 | 36.7 | 484,674,804 | 40 47 41 45 50, 910, 532 1876 ....| 49,033,364 | 26.2 | 1,283,827,500 | 34.0 | 436,108,521 | 40 43 43 56 72, 652, 611 1877 ....| 50,369,113 | 26.7 | 1,342,558,000 | 34.8 | 467,635,230} 41 49 35 41 87, 192, 110 1878 ....| 51,585,009 | 26.9 | 1,388,218, 750 | 31.7 | 440,280,517 | 3 82 BB} 386 | 87,884,892 1879 ....| 53,085,450 | 29.2 | 1,547,901, 790 | 37.5 | 580,486,217 | 39 43} 322 361 99, 572, 329 1880 ....| 62,317,842 | 27.6 | 1,717,434,543 | 39.6 | 679, 714, 499 39% 42 413 | 45 £3, 648, 147 1881 ....] 64,262,025 | 18.6 | 1,194,916,000 | 68.6 | 759,482,170 | 58% 635 69 765 41, 310, 683 1882 ....| 65,659,545 | 24.6 | 1,617,025,100 | 48.5 | 788,867,175 | 49% G1 632 56} 41, 655, 653 1883 ....| 68,801,889 | 22.7 | 1,551,066,895 | 42.4 | 658,051,485 | 542 632 523 07 46, 258, 606 1884 ....| 69,683,780 | 25.8 | 1,795, 528,000 | 35.7 | 640,735,560 | 343 404 44} 49 52,876, 456 1885 ....| 73,180,150 | 26.5 | 1,986,176,000 | 32.8 | 635,674,630 | 36 42} 34} 35} 64, 829, 617 1886. ....| 75,694,208 | 22.0 | 1, 665,441,000 | 36.6 | 610,311,000 | 353 38 367 393 41, 368, 584 1887 ....| 72,392,720 | 20.1 | 1,456,161,000 | 44.4 | 646,106,770 | 47 512 54 60 25, 360, 869 1888 ----| 75, 672, 763 26.3 | 1,987, 790,000 | 34.1 | 677,561,580 | 333 B02 33% | 353 70, 841, 673 1889 -...| 78,319, 651 27.0 | 2,112, 892,000 | 28.3 | 597,918,829 | 29% 39 32} 35 103, 418, 709 1890 71,970,763 | 20.7 | 1,489,970,000 | 50.6 | 754, 433, 451 472 53 55 694 32, 041, 529 1891 76,204,515 | 27.0 | 2,060,154,000 | 40.6 | 836,439,228 | 303 59 40} |2100 76, 602, 285. 1892 70, 626, 658 23.1 | 1,628, 464, 000 39.4 | 642,146,680 | 40 427 395 443 47,121, 894 1893 ....| 72,036,465 | 22.5 | 1,619,496,131 | 36.5 | 591,625,627 | 342 | 364] 386%] 38] 66,489,529 1894 62, 582, 269 19.4 | 1,212, 770, 052 45.7 | 5d4, 719, 162 443 47% | 47} 554 28, 585, 405 1895 8: 2) 075, 8380 | 26.2 | 2,151,138,580 | 25.3 | 544, 985, 534 25 26} 273 29% | 101,100,375 1896-....| 81, 027, 156 28.2 | 2,283, 875,165 | 21.5 | 491, 006, 967 223 23} 23 254 178, 817, 417 1897 80, 095, 051 23.8 | 1,902, 967,933 | 26.3 | 501,072,952 | 25 274 322 o7 212, 055, 543 IRR Se cl) Cee eul 24.8 | 1,924, 184, 660 28.7 | 552,023,428 | 33% 3 823 842 | 177, 255, 046 1899 . §2 108, 587 25.3 | 2,078, 143, 933 30.3 | 629, 210, 110 30 313 36 40} | 218,128, 401 1900 ....] 83, 320,872.| 25.3 | 2,105, 102, 516 30.7 | 751,220,084 | 35} ClO al emereIBpooonMencccococdosc | 1See footnote, page 753. 2 Coincident with ‘‘ corner.” Acreage, production, value, and distribution of corn of the United States in 1900, by States. ‘rop cf 1900. States and Terri- | a AOD eerie Stock on hand Mar. 1, Od | ¢ OES | Acreage. | Production. | Value. fe | | Acres. Bushels. Dollars. Bushels. Per cent. | MINT Otte cterce scence ei | 1.25229 440, 244 242,134 127, 671 29 New Hampshire ..... | 25, 264 934, 768 523, 470 327, 169 30 MEIMOnE sa scnce ose | 48,477 1, 939, 080 969, 540 678, 678 Bi) Massachusetts ....--- i 49, 667 1, 545, 346 834, 487 432, 697 28 Rhode Island ........ 8,197 262, 304 175, 744 102, 299 39 Connecticut: =: -=. 46, 610 1, 771, 180 974, 149 673, 048 38 NOW, MOD... 2s -ers o55 538, 626 17, 236, 032 8, 109, 935 5, 687, 891 33 New Jersey .........- 257, 364 8, 493, 012 3, 821, 855 3, 482, 135 41 Pennsylvania ........ 1, 308, 316 82, 707, 900 14, 718, 555 10, 466, 528 32 Delaware. -ceasc--.- 208, 763 5, 010, 312 1, 903, 919 2, 304, 744 46 Marylam doe ore c= 585, 877 15, 232, 802 6, 245, 449 5, 483, 809 36 VATCINIG Mosse see 1, 761, 485 28, 188, 760 18, 810, 042 9, 582, 478 bd North Carolina....... 2, 482, 515 29, 790, 180 16, 980, 403 11, 916, 072 40 South Carolina....... 1, 875, 591 13, 129, 137 8, 402, 648 4,070, 932 31 Genrgid coe e2 eee 38, 411, 953 34, 119, 530 19, 448, 132 17, 400, 960 51 PUOTIG a ese ee acres 519, 524 4, 156, 192 2, 493, 715 1, 828, 724 44 Alea as 222. 2, 668, 722 29) 355, 942 17, 026, 446 11, 155, 258 38 MUSSISSIPpl coe eens ere 2, 293, 818 25, 231, 998 14, 634, 559 7, 569, 599 30 VOUNISIANS 2c see cieielal 1, 453, 094 24, 702, 598 12, 351, 299 8, 645, 909 35 RERAS sce weiss sie 4,553, 495 81, 962, 910 38, 522, 568 27,047, 760 33 ATKANSES S22 e2 ee 2, 880, 313 45, 225, 947 19,447,157 | » 17,638,119 39 Tennessee. .....--..-- 2, 849), 894 56, 997, 880 27 998) 961 20, 519, 237 36 West Virginia........ 714, *304 19, 299, 708 “9, 649, 854 6, 754, 898 85 Kentucky. ore as.-se7 664, 124 69, 267, 224 27, 706,890 25, 628, 873 37 OHIO eee ee | 2, g88) 924 | 106, 890, 188 36, 342, 664 40, 618, 271 38 Shipped out of county where grown, DBushels, or to pad coacooe 344, 721 1,019, 161 2,943) 711 1, 803, 712 3, 808, 200 9) 254) 701 1, 489, 509 262) 583 2, 047, 172 207, 810 587,119 504, 640 988, 104 6, 557, 033 3, 165, 816 5, 699, 788 1, 736, 974 6, 926, 722 29) 446, 939 STATISTICS OF CORN FOR 1900. 757 Acreage, production, value, and distribution of corn of the United States in 1900, by States— Continued. Crop of 1900. Shipped out Stock on hand Mar.1, of county States and Terri- i 1901, ptiet | Acreage. | Production.| Value. where grown. Acres. Bushels. Dollars. Bushels. Per cent. Bushels. MUGHIP AN o-oo e = a== 1, 080, 235 38, 588, 460 14, 388, 730 14,777, 615 33 3, 888, 846 Weta as wise amass | 4,031,600 | 153, 200, 800 49, 024, 256 59, 748, 312 39 47, 492, 248 WMinoisss. == 23).2>./-= 7,139,898 | 264,176, 226 $4, 536,392 | 105, 670, 490 40 1138, 595, 777 Wisconsin..... a 1, 238, 681 49, 547, 240 16, 350, 589 18, 332, 479 37 5, 94, 669 Minwesota 5... .2-2--4 963, 476 31, 794, 708 9, 220, 465 1], 128, 148 35 3, 815, 865 WOW oe Ses oe sees asa | 8, 048, 946 | 305, 859, 948 82,582,186 | 119, 285, 380 39 94, 816, 584 MISSOURI 5 suse eee 8 6, 453, 943 | 180, 710, 404 57, 827, 329 68, 669, 954 38 28, 913, 665 JERE es Se ee Be 8,624,770 | 163, 870, 680 52, 458, 602 47, 522, 483 29 32, 774, 126 Nebraska ...:=.-% =< - | 8,093, 464 | 210, 430, 064 65, 233, 320 73, 650, 522 35 69, 441, 921 South Dakota.......-. } 1, 200, 697 32, 418, $19 9, 401, 458 li, 670, 775 36 10, 049, 834 North Dakota....-.-.. 23, 824 381, 184 160, 097 49, 554 13 3, 812 Montang=-...-52----. 1, 598 23, 970 14, 142 2,397 10 0 Wigominen ck 0 scsss 2, 403 81, 702 49, 021 20, 426 25 0 Colorado <5.--.4- 2... 167, 839 3, 188, 941 1, 530, 692 892, 903 28 159, 447 New Mexico ......... 20, 216 504, 752 399, O41 127, 593 23 66, 570 ieahiae ate t= at eae ae 8, 459 169, 180 106, 583 25, 377 15 6, 767 Washington 5, 807 106, 140 62, 625 15, 921 15 0 CEL OM Seer aint peter 13, 789 317, 147 180, 774 |. 41, 229 13 6, 343 California..... S02 54, 079 1, 351, 975 824,705 |, 148, 717 11 94, 638 Oklahoma => <= os a vO | TESS S te: | G22 2) TSS) et BsO LION S50) sO 17.0 SEAS [soe ors ees sie nie an aeinin SO eee ae NG LONOl | 26.4 95. | 18%5: | 20-0 || 18:0 18.0 Arkansas m2) 175) 629) | 19. 2k) | ote5m | 185 b5| 1680) 205079)" 2050 19.0 Tennessee Pad 9) 2073), 2138? fe 2h9\4 125.05 2310" 4) 2400) 2262.0) 12020 20.0 West Virginia yo) 22.) [P20 \GSio: 124.2 130.0 24D. 2950) 126.0 27.0 * Mentucloy: =~ 2: sates ee ROM MeZaec'. Iles: 0 |aeocOu leaty 2: lees. OF 2350 To liOm iain 26.0 ORIG eto c eee een sce 82.0 | 29.4 | 23.8 | 26.3 | 32.6 | 41.0 | 32.5 | 37.0 | 36.0 37.0 Mie bi gamnis: tee See ae .O | 25.0 | 23.7 | 23.2 | 33.8 | 38.0 | 31.5 | 34.0 | 25.0 36.0 Iolite = eee oeee 3.3 | 29.3 | 24.7 | 28.9 | 32.8 | 35.0 | 30.0 | 36.0 | 38.0. 38.0 MUIMOISE Ae. < ee ease cee 3.5 | 26.2 | 25.7 | 28.8 | 87.4 | 40.5 | 32.5 | 30.0 | 36.0 37.0 WiSCGOnSine. ©2252-5422 26es 2s 3.7 | 27.3 | 29.8 | 20.7 | 31.8 | 37.0 | 33.0 | 35.0 | 35.0 40.0 SVU CSG Leto eee earserae 3.5 | 27.0 | 28.3 | 18.4 | 31.2 | 30.5 | 26.0 | 32.0 | 33.0 33.0 UO iiconn SSScehe soBeotcsesedios 5.7 «| 28.3 | 83.9 | 15.0 | 35.1 | 39.0 | 29.0 | 35.0 | 31.0 38.0 IMEI SSO UNE Saran on eles eee ae 9.9 | 27.7 1727.9 |:22.0 | 36.0 | 27.0 | 26:0 | 26.0 | 26.0 28.0 KSA SEs oe mentee eine nia = W267 W2doe He2ies a aeZ) e248. W280) 8 1S O! 1650 27.10 19.0 INEDTaSKGes: qoeqae sass | 80.2 | 28.2 | 25.2 6.0 | 16.1 | 37.5 | 30.0- | 21.0 | 28.0 26.0 South Dakoia 2.0 | 22.3 | 23.7 AP 21 26.0. |24..0, | 28.0) 1.2620 27.0 North Dakota 8207} 2154 2007 1952: e202 3) yfrsa00) | 1750. | 1950" | 23:0 16.0 OIG EE CAE ieee ee eae ee eee 19.4 | 27.5 | 32.7 | 25.0 | 26.0 | 18.0 | 28.0 | 23.0 15.0 Wyoming. =. 2-22. -225s52 522: 2 Seosre 18.5 | 18.5 | 30.0 | 27.5 | 25.0 | 12.0 | 16.0 | 22.0 34.0 Roloradge : 225 ae. c-cseme =e Bied 2253 GID eto, 20:7. 1620. 19.0 | 180° | 720 19.0 NGy2 Mexico seeeeee nesses sone 18.3 .| 20.0 | 25.3 | 19.1 | 27.2 | 16.0 | 27.0 | 21.0 | 20.0 22.0 (WN oe eaceaseconceoossaeaae 19.0 | 18.0 | 21.5 | 24.4 | 20.3 | 25.0 | 22.0 | 21.0 | 20.0 20.0 Washingtonocs- eosescm eso. | ae -os.ce USO RATS 2058 ees | 1408 1820) 1250 )-2370 20.0 CMOS So SE Sting eee 27.0 | 21.5 | 24.7 | 25.4 | 26.4 | 22.0 | 25.0 | 24.0 | 22.0 23.0 Galitomntas-ceacetcass cohen 34.5 | 30.3 | 31.7 | 19.3 | 34.5 | 37.0 | 31.5 | 26.0 | 27.0 25.0 Cla HOw ae tose cece enene Pee oe |ee eel oes Jae e-ne[eeeeene[e eee eee[e eee nee[eneenee 19.0 26.0 25.3 General average ......- 27.03 | 23.06 | 22.48 | 19.38 | 26.21 | 28.19 | 23.76 | 24.76 | 25.31 758 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Average value per acre of corn in the United States, 1891-1900, by States. States and Territories. 1891. | 1892 1893. | 1894. | 1895. 1896. 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. WARING en er cence acct wacker ee $30.00 |$28. 79 |$18.79 |$28. 73 |$22.68 ($17.39 |$17.39 |$19.20 |$18.00 | $19.80 New Hampshire: 02-3. <2 3.5- 27.57 | 24.57 | 18.07 | 26.07 | 20.50 | 18.90 | 15.30 | 18.86 | 19.11 20. 72 MEXMOE 2. stu xecc gigantea cee 28.27 | 24.32 | 19.76 | 28.15}, 21. 89 5.58 | 15.05 | 18.92 | 16.92 20. 00 MaSSACHUSCEIS, .nc 5 5st oc raclons 30.81 | 23.99 | 20.77 | 21.05 | 22.83 | 19.78 | 15.28 | 19.60 | 18.36 | 20.52 Rhode Island 27.26 | 21.04 | 16.84 | 23.55 | 17.30 | 16.66 | 16.74 | 21.76 | 16.43 | 21.44 Connecwent. 2.05225. 22-55. 27.¢ 21.39 | 18.05 | 21.08 | 19.33 | 15.96 | 15.48 | 19.24 | 19.50 20. 90 New York.....-- 19.80 | 16.23 | 17.20 | 16.02 | 12.92 | 12.40 | 14.19 | 13.95 15. 04 New Jersey ....- 22.23 | 18.33 | 13.47 | 17.87 | 13.86 | 11.88 | 11.97 | 14.80 | 15. 60 14. 85 Pennsylvania 5. 9 17.38 | 12.00 | £7.60 | 13.07 | 13.20 | 22.24 | 14.80 | 13.12] 11.25 Delaware: 2.2222) 25- sc Sacxr pap 8.23 | 9.84 | 9.90} 7.14 | 5.50} 8.70} 7.75 | 7.48 cet Maryland |. oo 22 oes a- tee coer 4 3. 5! 9.27 | 10.64 | 11.45 9.92 | 10.24 9.90 | 10.85 | 11.52 10. 66 WAIPONNIA hoo ha ceee ccece ease 3 : 8.11 | 8.69] 8.98] 6.88 | 6.88] 6.84] 7.70] 7.60 7.84 INorsh Carolinas =-2 oa. .s=5= 8.18 5. 51 6.15 6. 30 5. 51 4.44 5. 59 6. 02 6.11 6.84 South, Carolina. =-.s--paccsees 8.12 | 5.99 |- 4.62 | 7.28 | 5.11 | 4.14] 4.41) 4.60] 4.50 4. 48 Georria.s. 223 ee Basse eae 8.42} 6.27 | 6.22) 6.79) 5.33) 4.73] 5.28 | 4.32] 5.00 5.70 Wilorida: 5h22 2 ee shoe 8. 80 5. 40 6. 60 Vealy/ 5. 26 5.3 4.40 | 4.50 5. 30 4.80 Alabang <= Sets «Secs tees 8.00 6.34 6.79 7. 26 5. 88 5. 63 5. 52 6.15 | 5.64 6.38 Mississippi.) -22522--5--6 2095 8.82 | 6.99 | 7.20] 8.43] 5.851] 5.94|] 6.53] 7.02] 7.86 6.38 Pouisiana | 42.5228. 2s sae 10.38 | 7.40} 8.09} 10.04} 7.24] 5.85] 7.65] 7.38] 7.92 8.50 MOK AS eee Sena cm an ee ee 10.73 | 9.63} 9.50] 10.64] 8.18 | 3.90] 7.58] 8.50] 6.48 8.46 IAT KENSAS: 3555 ee ote eee 9.75 | 8.23} 7.29} 9.02] 6.88 | 4.99] 6.40] 5.80} 7.60 8.17 MeNDESSCe 6 Stas ch teem 9.76 | 8.73} 8.31] 8.54] 6.75 | 6.44] 7.56 | 7.54] 7.80 9. 80 WES D Vas PUN oes Ste ee 14.20 | 12.60 | 11.94 | 10.55 | 9.68 | 10.20] 9.80} 10.73 | 11.70 | 18-50 ROCMEUCK Yee acen as Gace aeeae 12:00: | 9532,} LOL 11 |) LOLI2 842) 7.00) | S:0bN| Side | ween eOseo! ORI Ons io ate Sie cian sake ee DOE2 WAZ ESO) Onde) | Sue 8. 80 8. 61 8.12 9.99 | 10.80 12. 58 WMiChigaMticatoek seceece beers 14.16 | 11.50 | 10.66 | 11.60 | 10. 82 9° 12 8.50 | 11.56 9. 00 13.32 Mndiama<]- sho ese eestor 12.65 | 11.72 | 8.89} 10.69 | 7.54] 6.65} 6.30] 9.00 | 10.26} 12.16 MILE GISt yar ahee ters toe at ceee 12.40} 9.69 7.97 | 11.23} 8.23] 7.29) 6.83 | 7.50) 9.36 | 11°84 WASCOnSIN io er eee 11.75 | 10.37 | 10.43 | 9.382} 9.54] 8.14] 8.25} 9.80} 10.50) 13.20 MMMM eSOtA eek ere secs 10533 51 SOE 99s SOU Gla aglalenOs2tal Ong Onl a Oa2ae: ae OSn mae 9.57 FO 8) os Oe ee Se Yee 11.01} 9.06} 9.15] 6.75] 6.32} 5.46] 4.93] 8.05] 7.15 | 10.26 MUISsOUrIMe cowie ase ae oe T3861 (9597 NO SEST It 8:80) | 7220017 6240) 162245) 25020 1780) 8. 96 IRBUSAS* ence eo ccwe see eee 9.08 | 7.60] 6.60] 4.82 | 4.62] 5.04] 3.96] 4.16] 6.75 6. 08 INe@braSKay snc csc fee wiadelecmrece 9.15 | 7.90] 6.80] 3.00} 2.90] 4.88] 5.10} 4.62} 6.44 8.06 South Dakols ha <5 aon. - sce 7.88 | 7.36] 6.93} 1.93} 2.55] 4.68] 6.04] 6.44] 6.76 7.83 North DRkOtaoen: se asces Sea 7.20 | 8.56! 7.87] 8.45! 5.11] 8.751 5.44] 6.84] 7.59 6.72 MONTH a ace steer lan eee 13.30 | 19.25 | 26.81 | 18.75 | 15.60 | 11.70 | 18.48 | 11.96 8. 85 WV VOM OF oUt Se 32 ence |seceeee 11.28 | 11.66 | 19.50 | 15.67 | 19.50 | 6.00] 8.80] 9.46] 20.40 MOlOTRd Ow ate os oko 11.40 8.92 8.42 | 12.02 8.49 | 5.76 7.22 TinZly) etiocl! 9.12 New Mexico). [22822 <0. 5 sane 13.18 | 14.40 | 17.96 | 14.33 | 15.23 | 8.80 | 15.66 | 11.76 | 11.60] 14.08 RGA SES ooo c oe tak tee ee eee 11.40 | 10.44 | 12.47 | 14.15} 9.95 | 12.75 | 12.10 | 12.60 | 11.80 12. 60 WIESHIES TOR a2 one oa ect eeee aaa a 10.80 | 13.21 | 14.35] 6.84] 7.98} 9.90} 5.04) 12.65; 11.80 Oreconieean oeceiee asi osemse 19.17 | 12.04 | 11.61 | 14.22 | 14.52 | 12.32 | 13.25 | 14.40 | 14.08 13: CaNiOrnis ss 2922. Soese <5 24.50 | 16.67 |} 15.85 | 11.00 | 18.29 | 19.61 | 17.64 | 16.12 | 16.20} 15.25 Oklshomia 2a. [shes a058<2lc Ske toe een eae | eons baee anal lauarealeeceeeleees eee aeeeene 3.80 6.76 General average .....-- 10.98 | 9.09} 8.21} 8.86] 6.64] 6.06} 6.26] 7.10) 7.66 9. 02 Average farm price of corn per bushel in the United States December 1, 1891-1900, by States. States and Territories. 1891. | 1892. | 1893. | 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. Cents.| Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents.| Cents. | Cents. | Cents. Maines aes 2. nse cee sacl eciee es 80 67 62 72 54 47 47 48 50 NeW Hampshire®.-.+2.. 24255 77 65 57 76 51 45 45 46 49 Wermonts. 225 s2225-¢ 5-2. 6Sck 76 64 61 69 48 38 43 di 47 Massachusetts ......-...- HS 738 62 62 61 52 46 47 49 51 Rhode ishand: 22-25. 0/ 558 79 63 69 75 56 49 54 64 53 Connecticut: 267 -223.. 22 2 76 62 64 68 51 42 49 52 50 NGw MOL se ose sesce ees 66 60 55 61 45 38 40 43 45 Wey Jersey s... 22.4 252225 255 65 58 52 54 42 36 38 40 49 Pennsylvanian. 322.4. se00ne 57 57 49 55 39 33 34 40 41 Dela wares 545 252 Be 55 44 40 45 34 25 30 31 34 MPR Gls oa ose nee ces 53 45 44 50 37 32 30 35 36 WEPPINIA Sooo sea ss ns Se sees 50 53 46 47 37 32 38 35 38 North Carokms 2.2.5 -fosse: 58 54 50 47 38 37 43 43 47 Bouth Carolina. <2. =... 0525. 70 67 60 65 46 46 49 46 50 Georcia 542-22 ees Sie 69 56 56 58 41 43 48 48 50 PROriGas fos teek Suc ooaeee 80 60 68 au 47 53 55 50 53 ANAD AINE 35220 cope a toeee 63 52 59 53 7 45 46 41 47 METESISSID ples eee ers eee 58 51 55 49 37 44 45 39 46 MOWISIMIA Sos. Ja ce so. ce noes 60 50 57 62 40 45 45 41 44 Memcaginy: tf Nek oho eins ee 55 45 54 56 31 41 41 34 36 Ambaniaay on... bseanct eines 46 47 45 47 32 oF 40 29 38 Pennesseeti a =. 22. See 43 43 39 39 27 28 36 29 39 West Vilsinia. ont 3ss nec, 52 56 55 57 40 34 40 37 45 Memtuckyss so o-ssss ee eee 40 40 43 44 27 25 35 27 37 OHID 25055 ee 41 42 40 23h ne7 21 25 27 30 1900. STATISTICS OF CORN FOR 1900. 759 Average furm price of corn per bushel in the United States December 1, 1891-1900, by States—Continued. States and Territories. | 1891. | 1892. | 1893. | 1894. | 595, 1899. | 1900. Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. Cents. | Cents. GIO RMEE orci ccsciets dant tenets 48 46 45 50}. 32 36 37 1eG Ta eee cease 33 40 36 37 23 27 2 SRRUREN ES IRs ae sae ett ia ee a 37 37 31 39 22 26 32 NOIEUOUSIT eh a se 44 38 35 45 30 30 33 DE PPEROROCI a. 5. = cc ete en oles 39 37 34 43 20 24 29 MOG lo och ste ee emcee 30 32 27 45 18 23 27 MEISSOMTI yc oo ok oe en eee 38 36 30 40 20 30 32 REN GH ee Be en ase 34 31 31 43 19 25 82 INGDPRG Sy Soa ee ob kee 26 28 27 50 18 23 $1 SOURNND AOU .~ 5550 occ n emnia's 35 33 25 46 23 26 | 29 INGEtH OSKOta o.2- <2 -5's-- 220 40 40 38 44 2 33 42 Mioontioniaes= e325 oe eheeoe ae 70 70 $2 75 52 | 59 Wily (0 cS? (5 ie SS nee Peer eee 61 63 65 7 43 60 EO eal a sh oe acm climes 53 40 51 61 41 43 48 NEUF WIGSICOl ccc cocee cine e'sa 72 72 7 75 56 58 64 (Ui Se eee 60 58 58 58 49 59 63 WAS Pps) 2G ee a ee Bee 60 62 69 40 55 59 ORE Sige ee Aaa ee 71 56 47 56 59 64 57 Galitoniine= = cc oeess oe tees 71 55 50 57 53 60 61 OI a RE ee Eee Cena CESS ee emer sere =e |----- = 20 26 General average .....-- | 40.60 | 39.43 | 36.53 45, 74 | 25.33 | 21.50 | 26.33 | 28.69 | 30.28 | 35.7 Savine or SEED CorRN. The best plan for saving corn for seed is to go through the field before the crop is harvested and gather the best ears from the best stalks. The largest yields of grain are usually made from varieties producing two ears on each stalk, and if such a variety is desired then seed should be saved only from stalks bearing two ears. Itis sometimes claimed that the upper one of two ears will produce the earlier maturing crop, but unless early maturity is of considerable importance, if a stalk has two good ears both should be taken; if one ear is good and the other only fair the better one may be taken; while if either ear is very poor in size, shape, or fullness botb should be rejected. Ifa variety bearing only one ear to each stalk is preferred the ears selected for seed should be the largest which can be found, of nearly equal diam- eter throughout, and well filled at each end. It is as important to take seed from the best stalks as from the best ears, and whatever variety may be preferred every ear which is selected for seed should be taken from astalk which in size, habit of growth, and number of ears approaches closely to what is the desired form for that variety. If careful hands are employed in gathering the crop a very good selection of seed may be made by havinz a box in the wagon into which the most desirable ears may be thrown as they are found. In selecting seed from the crib, as is often done, nothing can be known of the character of the stalks upon which the ears were grown, and little or no improvement can be made in a variety by such a selection; while a careful and judicious selection in the field will work a constant and gradual improvement in the crop and will make _ it more nearly uniform with each succeeding year. No one item in the growing of corn is of greater importance than the selection of seed. After the seed has been selected it should be thoroughly dried, treated with bisul- phid of carbon to destroy insects, and then stored where it will be kept dry and secure from rats and mice. It isa somewhat common practice to discard the tips and butts of the ears when shelling the seed for planting, but the practice is of doubtful benefit. A number of the experiment stations in both the North and the South have made repeated tests of the productiveness of seed from different parts of the ear, but these tests have shown no marked or constant differences in yield, even when the selections have been repeated through several generations. For all ordinary purposes the value of a variety depends on the amount of shelled corn which it will produce per acre. This in turn depends fully as much on the growth and productiveness of the individual stalks as upon the size and shape of the separate ears, and for that reason seed should always be selected in the field rather than from the crib. AGRICULTURE. YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF 760 QI'T ¢c0’T #40'T | SO'T ai =| 200 we entGlae LTT OL ME Oy At ior" c0'T TOLL OL'T CLT OLE {LL COL (0) on A TL6° Gs 126" 06° Lae ; aan On iH 4 . Bary: IGE T= |tL0°T Olt COT ae ; 16 |. 06: aa cs } T I$ ; me FL8° TLL" #18" cg" 06° TLS" TL8° rg)" TEL GL° TIS" ke 08° 08° feg° 428" 06° cg" T16° Gg fgg" 168" 8° ae cs ‘og Fes og ‘USI | “MOT *(*4Mo aad) O}IAL ‘TON “OOSTOUBIY UBS 98 #18 8§ ¥E #28 #88 tS teP 98 ag TCS 08 98 #8 §16 LE || #8 68 ae 168 {08 62 1G 08 £82 cg 18 8é $8 S88 36 18% 1c& 0S 166 tg Tg 198 #8 1c8 $s 18G tog a eG 198 8 Ip 68 ge 8 08 9g ae EIS TLS The GP cE #ge Tce 0g 9g EIS 18 98 THE TL £GS 88 ics ae T68 cg tG8 1g Lg TOP £98 rai Fog 1X6 98 18 18% 8s f1¢ GP ¢ OP LLG 19% ae T6G TRG ¥6 #18 eg 18 198 $83 9% Fee 8Z tLG ce T6G 9g (69 tLe £93 £CG Og 186 9% 0g 66 écg 66 ics T9G ts {08 19G c 0g G #c8 tLG in 196 Hixe £92, GZ §Cg ERG 9% ToS g 68 tL G 18 ThG ix g 196 FL8 Te ree 166 % {GS 0g tL $90 108 68 98 tL& FLG c 168 kG 19% 8 E8Z 88 8 ge $6 TL 183 19% OFS 16 tL cg 08 tee 186 rI@ ke PG 186 tL 2% ee 08 08 > > od Q 5 BHO re | toc: «sgt “ez jos |e lite (tse (foe ate 10G Sc {86 ie tC aie Te 19% 108 103 t6L 18 TIG Ia ec Rate 66 9% £63 £03 T6L G TG EI ¥G 406 186 GG £63 tI (46 40 £82 166 iG Ge 186 % a6 ToS ' pre c)e = ag nS ae CETTE SOT = =e ROGUIDAO KE ei eae ap * 19403990 - wees we ee ee eee eee wee sees “s"""* yoquiejdeg tee eee ew eee Bae en isis asin sighs ee soa Ss eae STS Ee FED OmeMOCA MLL ? tg ee. Se eae tally -- BOON HIE ee Sey a wee | oe a ey ae ay ah ch hr ee ee UF S see ae in ea AIBNAGI + see mee wee =. ~AIBnuee “S681 Pete tte e tees reste c eee ee ener esr eeeeeeeeeereeeeeess TVG MTQIOT e/sig= “> TOqMOAON -*"-* 19q0100 -- aqmoaidag soecer=n Sia iyi oa sera NTE BODEN} ona -- ABW “Udy cae ae CL OLB IAN soo" ATIBNIGO AT 7 -AIBNUBL “LOST. ****Joqura00q “** JOG ULOAON, -**"79q0100 “** yaquiajdeg geet sake jah tf SS SATEUE --oune ee “kv Ne Rare: Re AIRC SSS sh TOL seoces AIBNIG,T “ATsNUBe “968T 948 ‘sajgnjy pany ay2 fo sano burpwa) ur jaysng wad usoo fo sanrud ajn8aj0y {4 TOL ain ‘esocrnrs ree) STATISTICS OF CORN FOR 1900. ar Orreo NNN elon elon > Ni toa meee Oo ~~ it dot dow ELE TPP iP SP thp Bonen Seles oe seit Abe sane are eae se conse O moo ot) 18 PP TGP tLP ig oe cine niaiets pie be ers Rig ec hase eee OC UO ONT Se nabs poe =="""* 19q0100 ~* gaquieydag =e = -ASTLA IY; Spc eke em SF oaw.Y Hall cist ihe an ane as ee erate Selene AN “Tad y paar fea, i SOS 0 a) eh AL ipa dare elle ded at eee SOON Ni Fah dalz)is| te ELE §og TOP 268 “— ae eT ae ae aia Bae oe ne into eaee eT CLIT *POXTIL ee S na & x a =e S = = oO oD bo = oR sv Soe A oe I oe oe oe Be Dh oe Bh 1i~ Conn =a nea eee oonar~ans oooceo be A oes Boon Oo ee el nr 0 oS oD ier ~ of = oD — S ~ \t6% fa qIe ise #98 LOP 68 : DEO SOELOS Yoho clal-y a 0g se Te £68 tLe LP 168 ‘ *"*** T9qQUIAAON 'f08 ths PS 168 TLE GP £68 ; ="*== 1940100 0g Tee fee TOP 198 tip gg : “== laquioydeg Ie 88 oe ELS fps lp T98 : pit abies HIRT SIGS) ale. falyir pees Sis oune Pe ie fge te "EP 68 : a anaes -AUIN #cg ioe eh 98 {Gb Ip : eile inipe wa Se din asia od Cerner te ce tee 98 Lop Ip : ot teeeteece eee eesseescoe seer Q BMT fee &8 ar ELE CF Top ; Se OCICS Nii: } (tie (2n I seees* KIBnUBL 4 s1900——49 762 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Transportation rates, average for corn, in cents, St. Louis to New Orleans by river. > : | : i -f : 2 shel, 2 a | . ee | Per bushel. |. o| ; Per bushel. | oy. ate Year. Low | High SS) Low | High per aoe Year. Low | High ee Year. ea water. |water. {water water. | etal water. water. Re =e 1866..-| 9.05 | 10.93 | ASTON) 4st | LONGI See i} 14. 00 i7.--| 11.09 | 14.883 || 1876 02(025)| Ad SOs serene al 15. 00 -» 6.23 | 9.54 || 1877 7.63.| 8.59 | 20.04 | 16. 00 6.32 | 8.42 || 1878 4.96 | 8.93 | 17.36 18. 25 9.23 | 18.66 || 1879..| 5.00 | 11.00 | 18.00 15. 00 6.71 | 16.29 |} 1880..] 7.00] 9.50 | 19.00 17. 93 9.79 | 19.04 |} 1881..} 4.00} 8.00 | 20.00 15. 66 6.15 | 9.67 || 1882... 5.50 | 7.00 | 20.00 16. 07 4.95 | 8.09 || 1883. 5.00 | 7.00 | 17.75 | 16. 87 WHEAT. The wheat crop of the world for 1900 was nearly 167,000,000 bushels, about 6 per cent, short of the preceding crop and about 341,000,000 bushels below the big total of 1898. It exceeded the crops of 1896 and 1897, the latter by 367,000,000 bushels. Of the world’s crop in 1900 the United States supplied 522,230,000 bushels, more than 100,000,000 bushels in excess of the crop of any other single country, but 25,000,000 bushels less than the United States crop of 1899; and 153,000,000 short of the great crop of 1898. The falling off was mainly in the States of Ohio, Indiana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, Michigan, California, and Oregon, running from 4,000,000 bushels in Michigan to 38,500,000 in North Dakota. There were important increases in total yields in Kansas, where there was a jump from 36,400,000 bushels to 82,400,000, in Texas, Tennessee, Kentucky, Maryland, Virginia, Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, and Washington. The decrease of 2,000,000 acres in the total acreage of the country corresponded almost exactly with the decrease in the total crop, the yield per acre being the same for both years, 12.3 bushels. Also the falling off in total yield in the great wheat ~ States mentioned accompanied a lowering of the acreage in every instance, while the increase in Kansas followed an increase of nearly a million acres harvested, and a similar relation was maintained in the other States. There were, however, very notable increases in yield per acre in Nebraska, Kansas, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Kentucky, Virginia, Maryland, Texas, and Oklahoma, while decreases are noted for Minnesota, the Dakotas, Oregon, California, Ohio, and Indiana. The average value per acre for the United States in 1900 was $7.61, against $7.17 in 1899. The variations in value per acre through the States follow very closely the changes in yield per acre. Farm prices varied not very much from 1899. There was a good advance, 5 to 7 cents, in the great wheat States, where a falling off in the crop has been noted, except in California, where the figures went from 62 cents a bushel to 58 cents, and Oregon, where the advance was only 2 cents. There was less change where the increased crops have been noted, but the advance of 3 cents in Kansas on the great crop there nade a large addition to the total value for the State. The wholesale prices in Chicago went from 614 in January to 743 in December, with a maximum of 873 cents in June. After July the price was pretty steadily maintained in the neighborhood of 70 to 74 cents. ; Transportation rates by river, St. Louis to New Orleans, for sacks were practically unchanged. The exports for 1900 amounted to 101,950,389 bushels, worth $73,237,080, against 139,432,815 bushels in 1899, worth $104,269,169. The export price, 71.8 cents per bushel, was 3 cents lower than in 1899. The exports of flour footed up 18,699,194 barrels, an increase of 213,504 barrels over last year, but the price declined from $3.95 a barrel to $3.62, with a consequent decrease in the total return for flour of $5,332,984. _ But in spite of this falling off of $36,365,073 in the income to the United States for wheat and flour in 1900 as compared with 1899, the showing was near the average for the past five years, as appears in the export tables, pages 849. STATISTICS OF WHEAT FOR 1900. 763 Wheat crop of the world, 1896-1900. Countries. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899, | 1900. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Paited States: oc. wea. 2s S=S=BDB™L™UnaSE=EES===S——=S=—MOEIS—_—VV_SVjjqajJjJjJjJJJSSSSSSSSSSqqy Month. 1896-1897. 1897-1898. 1898-1899. 1899-1900. 1900-1901. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. TULYiscame tween ces ses seca ae 1, 927, 000 1, 112, 000 2,935, 000 3, 409, 000 5, 903, 000 Ruasisites- ns ae ss eee: eee 1, 917, 000 2, 247, 000 2, 608, 000 4, 188, 000 5, 770, 000 Septemibier-.. --; .o- ns e : 3, 512, 000 4, 651, 000 3, 005, 000 6, 282, 000 7,483, 000 Octobersst-- 2s -2-522..5¢ us 5, 454, 000 6, 251, 000 4, 671, 000 8, 858, 000 10, 208, 000 INGvembenR = cee. 5 eee eoces 6, 883, 000 7,391, 000 5, 621, 000 11, 085, 000 9, 983, 000 DECEIRDEIIes a oaee ences tee eb ae 6, 548, 000 6, 944, 000 6, 296, 000 10, 678, 000 10, 057, 000 JANUAE Yeo eto ee eenicee 4,189, 000 6, 661, 000 5, 923, 000 10, 022, 000 8, 686, 000 Wepruary 32 - 525232522 cee 8, 005, 000 5, 318, 000 5, 039, 000 8, 923, 000 8,717, 000 © WIC Be eno RO goo soe 1, 857, 000 4, 424, 000 5, 104, 000 7, 814, 000 6, 972, 000 Aprill ]se.se. ees hese sas ods 1, 730, 000 3, 466, 000 4, 321, 000 7, 207, 000 6, 325, 000 May seaeecce secon semen. ance 1, 614, 000 3, 051, 000 4, 455, 000 1000; O00) nS sete 5 JHC eee eee MoenineRee Sessions 1, 221, 000 3, 236, 000 3, 635, 000 6; 866; 000) |. oo. <5 oeemee A 766 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Statement showing the amount of wheat in farmers’ hands, visible supply of the United States and the world, and price, on March 1, 1891-1901. pestenen ‘Visible sup- | Visible sup- Prige'St Year hands in piy of the ply ef the Chi ac United States|United States! world on | 44 sera at Atarch y,| on Marehi.| March 1. aren es Peis he ae Bushels. | Cts.per bu. 2, 000, 2, 401, BAD! |. 05-3256 sasens 94% 171,070,881 | 64,377,444 | 181, 400, 000 872 155, 205, 430 | 109,370,000 | 229, 300, 000 723 114, 060, 440 93,926,000 | 222, 400, 000 582 74,999,790 | 98,745,000 | 212, 400, 000 522 123,045,290 | 94,538,000 | 191, 900, 000 664 88, 149,072 | 61, 624,000 | 155, 500, 000 74 121,320,500 | 46,532,000 | 140, 500, 000 1042 198, 056, 496 51, 085,009 | 151,100, 000 725 158, 700, 000 85,570,000 | 181,500, 000 642 Sao oe DO COTA ane Sen SRO SOP eer 3a anamdA aCe Ana salioessaacesance 805704, COON ee ee eseoe 74 Condition of wheat crop in the United States, monthly, 1885-1900. Winter wheat. Spring wheat. Year. When When April May June. July har- June July. August. har- vested. vested. | | ARGH Sao 76.3 70.0 62.0 65.0 66.0 97.0 96.0 | USGI Ne eae 94.1 94.9 92.7 912 90.8 98.5 83.3 1:0 eee 88.1 85. 8 84.9 83.5 84.0 87.3 79.3 | if 82.0 73.1 73.3 75.6 77.4 92.8 95.9 18955252 94.0 96.0 . 93.1 92. 0 89.4 94.4 83.3 SIO oes 81.0 80.0 78.1 76.2 73.5 91.3 94.4 BGS eee 96.9 97.9 96. 6 96. 2 96.7 92.6 94,1 tare 81.2 84.0 88.3 89.6 87.6 92.3 90. 9 a OOS eee oe 77.4 75.3 75.5 GET 174.0 86. 4 74.1 1894... 2-5 86.7 81.4 83. 2 83.9 183.7 88.0 68. 4 ill ee eer 81.4 82.9 Gileal 65.8 175.4 Giggs 102.2 SOG S26 2 ied 82.7 77.9 75.6 174.6 99.9 93.3 WSs <=> -)s16 81.4 80. 2 78.5 81.2 185.7 89.6 91.2 18985 3-225. 86.7 86.5 90. 8 85.7 186.7 100.9 95.0 SOO Reet pis 77.9 76.2 67.3 65. 6 170.9 91.4 91.7 AIOE esac 82.1 88.9 82.7 80.8 169.6 87.3 55. 2 1 Includes both winter and spring. Acreage, production, value, prices, and exports of wheat of the United States, 1866 to 1900, inclusive. Aver- hicago cash price per ‘ eee cneage ushel. P°" | Domestic Aver- rae ee in- age E ‘ cluding ~ oe ; m fe ms price | Farm value, May of Sear | Acreage. ae Production. | “jer | Décember 1.| December. | following four sied acre. push vent. ginning Ny Pan rere erg a Dec. 1 Low. High. Low. High. Acres. Bush Bushels. Cents. Dollars. Cts.,| Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Bushels: 15, 424; 496 9.9 151, 999, 906 | 152.7 232,109, 630 | 129 145 185 211 12, 646, 941 | 18, 321, 561 11.6 212, 441,400 | 145.2 | 308,387,146 | 126 | 140 184 | 161 25, 284, 803 18, 460, 132 iba 224, 036,600 | 108.5 | 243,032,746 | 80 88 87 96 29,717, 201 | 19,181,004 | 13.6] 260,146,900 | 76.5 | 199,024,995 | 63 | 76 | 79 | 92 -| 53,900,780 18, 992, 591 12.4 235, 884,700 | 94.4 | 222,766,969 | 91 98 | 118 | 120 52, 580, 111 ..-| 19,948,893 :7 11.6 230, 722,400 | 114.5 | 264,075, 851 |} 107 111 120 143 38, 995, 795 ...}| 20,858, 359 11.9 249,997,100 | 111.4 278, 522, 068 97 108 112 122 52, 014, 715 | 22,171,676 Lat f 281, 254, 700 | 106.9 | 300, 669, 533 96 106 105 114 91, 510, 398 24, 967, 027 12.3 308, 102,700 | 86.3 265, 881, 167 78 83 78 94 72, 912, 817 | 26, 381, 512 ‘lati 292,136,000 |} 89.5 | 261,396, 926 82 91 89 100 74, 750, 682 | 27,627,021 10.5 289, 356,500 | 96.3 | 278,697,288 | 104 | 117 130 172 57, 048, 936 26, 277, 546 13.9 364,194,146 | 105.7 | 385, 089, 444 | 103 108 98 113 92, 071, 726 | 32, 108, 560 is eal 420,122,400 | 77.6 325, 814,119 | 81 84 91 102 | 150,502, 506 82, 545, 950 13.8 448, 756,630 | 110.8 | 497,030,142 | 122 1334 | 1123 | 119 180, 304, 180 37, 986, 717 ASLL 498,549,868 | 95.1 474,201,850 | 93% ; 1092 | 101 112 | 186, 321, 514 88 37, 709, 020 10.2 383, 280,090 | 119.2 456, 880, 427 | 1243 | 129 123 140 | 121,892, 389 ee eee 37, 067, 194 13.6 504,185,470 | 88.4 | 445, 602, 125 91; | 943 | 108 1133 | 147, 811, 316 1883 <.... 36, 455, 593, 11.6 421,086,160 | 91.1 383, 649, 272 94 992 | 85 943 | 111, 534, 182 1 39, 475,885 | 13.0] 612/765,000 | 64.5 | 330,862,260 | 69£| 763 | 853 | 90% | 132,570, 6€ STATISTICS OF WHEAT FOR 1900. 767 Acreage, production, value, prices, and exports of wheat in the United States, 1866 to 1900, inelusive—Continued. Year. Acreage, Acres. E885"... <.. 34, 189, 246 1886 < <. BY 1, 769, 639 1, 067, 943 25, 096, 661 12, 799, 297 5, 521, 265 22 20, 077, 829 1, 173,769 16, 198, 012 8, 908, 907 3, 239, 602 20 7,937, 026 2, 771, 226 28, 543, 628 16, 555, 304 4, 566, 980 16 19, 980, 540 981, 967 18, 657, 373 9, 888, 408 3, 358, 327 18 13, 060, 161 42,495,385 | 522,229, 505 | 323, 515, 177 | 128, 098, 074 24.5 281, 372, 432 768 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Average yield per acre of wheat in the United States, 1891-1900, by States. States and Territories. 1891, | 1892. 18938. | 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900, Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush.| Bush. Maines aatens 3 191570) 122040) ike SL: | 20-0) 01 1620) see malitie 16.3 WerINONIG 3) ce eet nce aches oF iSO. EES Wi dGsSraieeee 4 | | LOMO eae nee On Doe Di eon) 2385 COMVCCHCUP sea a eee eee 7 ON a LGA) Set Bao: 8 |e ee ae eee ees eee 20.0 | 20.0 | 18.3 20.8 Newey Orkctsaceaas ona 2 eee 1656. |) 1652) 45S | TAB esa GION OIRAR | SIR Tes, Le ING WJ CISEYuseoo ease eee 1523) |) $453 So) SEA el beSe al bead | LS Send Sob an | lize aes 19.1 Pennsylyanis ooo cassie eee 10:6) || 14.'6)- || 1420) 9/1520) S636 | 14500 Ole liye SenlidosG 13.5 Delaware: ses cscs seeee foes W258) | 13200 a7 a Ss0 eG 80 Ob Ese See os 20.3 Wayland cele, oops = fee. ee 2550) | 28.2) 1350 1) 1553) sO) i L700 a LOSO. ha brSe ita 19.5 A irtoy eae CSS AP ae a en eae 9.0 ef a 1B 9.5 9.3 OS3eu 1220) ela 8.4 11.9 North Garoling. 1252 cs-s acs. 6.8 ail 822 || p40 6.9 We: 8.0 9.2 6.7 9.6 South Caroling = 522" 50-705 0" 5.5 6.5 6230) |) 1ba6 6.4 6.8 837 +106 6.5 9.0 GOOIPIA tee ce ema ee ae 125 6.8 (er 6.9 6.2 8.0 4 9.4 | 10.0 6.8 9.1 PANDA De ae eee eee e 8.0 6.7 S82) Fie Sas 7ED) 8.0 | 10.0 | 12.0 7.6 9.5 IMUISSISSIP DI acs sere neccereeee 7.8 6.8 iO eaEs 8.0 8.5 | 10.0 | 13.9 ol 9.6 GOR RSENS op ee ee ee ERB | abSe rN ate ye algal (> a7 an Wt a U7 Aa fa Uo es a 2 SY a a ab 18.4 IATESNSASS Jo55 coco ee cee eee | 9.6 8.2 8.0 8.8 9.4 S10) HSL056 ett O 8.6 10.1 PMENTIESSEC Ss seco see eaeie Aes 9.7 9.5 9.2 8.1 8.8 Sip) | Ue iietoae 8.7 9.9 WieSh Varennes. 23283255522 HOLS | LONG eso ata! 06) |SL0lS™ Sse IIS 58 9.3 9.8 LGC ELOLR GS an See EEE ae Sees 227) CaS Sie eile sin) ee! Ox et OO, Si) adeno: alone 9.1 13.0 Oita Sa Rs ee Se eae ab file |) USB |e Cie |) whee th abe} 9.0 | 16.9 | 16.9 | 14.2 6.0 MICE AT eae. eee ee L628) =| 14, ahs |b Ss sos s12k8) Vietodon 2058 8.4 7.6 Ba LID Ta eae eae ne eh Siece ee aes We ea ar a ea Wa) aksee 9. ¢ O50) SSO! T0161 9.8 5.3 HIN DISS. Ses ae ee ee ee 1350) F632)" | ESD. SSO SOAS 7, feD) ) GSO L040 13.0 IWASGOLISIN Sy noe Ao) bees 1355) LSBs WSR) GSS deb) IB 53) IS125 Se | 180 alae 15.5 MIMESO tae aoe ae esse cmco sees 6 | eG 9:6 9) elBe6y 2350) (C1452 SO at basil ose 10.5 POWs eee oc nics esa oe LO Se LD RIES a Se Seb eG iO SAO ales Ge vals au 15.6 IMASSO UTILS 25 osehocoae nn ee BRC eas OND) ALD so I Leave Lie 7 9.0 9.8 9.9 f2E5 GT Ch TS ee Spee oe merry Iss, |aee! 8.4 | 10.4 ath LOL6 | osbeiel42 9.8 17.7 INGDraSka eee: soock cease cere THN) t2h5 8.7 Ol 20 || SLA ON ETS bes et G te ORS 12.0 SOushsDakota: 252 eee estes Tape |e bi 8.5 6.6 |p 2250) |) 12 8:0) 224 OS 7 6.9 Norns akota.. sees eee a7 oteen| | d2377 9260 WATS S20 OF | SS Ors se | manda iO es 4.9 Monta a)e62 ae) toe ae DAO) ff 2H 21. PAS 2359) Ve 26eby S25 bu h29cp) a eeoee 26.6 WivOMiin p55) See ee ee 20:0 7. | W857 119.65 22620) 12445. | 250m 2387) Ieiss8 17.6 Colorad om aoc. seeee cee cece PZ) |) POEL | 1382) VES) 232 Pai el| 2o Olea | mesent 22.6 New Mexico 25) 13285-31653) | SOM a20FA 210m DANO ose Sanat ses 21.0 PATIZONA eae neues. SaveipalanGy pabeiy abet || Oey OBE) HeaehO) | eave |) 338° 14.6 ON Ci TR es Pe eee ee 2D) [EWS | A858 \= | 2250) 22540 T2655) 121 Oe 280m leon 20.9 IN GVA CE ees 2k Sheen oe ee B33 | 1952) | ae 2050" 2a e SIES080) |) 245377 162950), e840) 24.5 WARN OM ase nee st hese ce eee oee HO! 2280" 1) L983) |) 2OK6. | ae78 P2475) 1222 0M eSi0) || 2452 20.8 Wrhankinotonrs. S902 cc cn ee P56 | AVE25 20539) TesGe bb) 3) d8s0) | 2350) P24: Roar, 23.5 Orer Oni asa at ees pee 9. D5a% VL ER ee 2020) a0) EO. | 20)/b tl e1oe 13.8 Calitormiavn 8:55 Shae sacte nee SHO BIS) aS See Ass) pa Gi | SLOr0 tS ee a Fs BE 10.3 On OM sis .5. akan oe eee eee eee be fot ae S| Aas e350) 1) LOVOl e459) Bes 19.0 | | General average ....... 15.33 | 18.38 | 11.44 | 13.19 | 13.72 | 12.35 | 13.43 | 15533.| 12527 | 12229 aan | | United Year. Gaited Russia. woe Austria. ees France. eine (1) (?) @) (1) (1) @ (*) 13.2 10.8 25.1 Ley) 17.8 20.1 31.7 13.7 9.8 24.4 15.8 26.1 19.7 Has 12.4 9.0 26.4 16.8 19.2 20.0 34.7 13.4 7.3 25.3 13.7 12.1 15.1 30.0 15.3 9.8 Pay? 18.1 iy gal 2151 35.8 12.3 Oval 28.4 19.4 17.9 21e2, 33. 8 13.4 | 9.3 | 26.1 16.9 17.4 19.5 32.2 1 Winchester bushels. 2 Bushels of 60 pounds. SroRAGE OF GRAIN IN BULK. The storage of grain in large bulk is commended, as the surface layers only are exposed to insect infestation. moths, which do not penetrate far beneath the surface. grain is also destructive to the moths. This practice is practicularly valuable against the Frequent agitation of the The rice and granary weevils, however, pene- trate more deeply, and, although bulking is of value against them, it is not advisable to stir the grain, as it merely distributes them more thoroughly through the mass. STATISTICS OF WHEAT FOR 1900. 769 Average value per acre of wheat in the United States, 1891-1900, by States. States and Territories. 1891. | 1892. | 1893. | 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. WietitiO® coe cen attentas a . 1% 6.48 5, 24 5.08 fa? 9.68 9. 80 6. 66 8. 64 AA OUIERe =e eo seta See tara 7, 22 6.47 6.00 6.80 | 10.10 | 10. 80 6. 76 8.45 Mississippi. 232.9222: s2.255n- 6.55 | 7.30} 4.88] 6.97 | 9.90] 11.54] 6.01 8. 06 AY c.g): a aes ee et en 6.09 8.15 3.76 8.78 | 14.06 | 10.06 7.55 11.7 Arkansas ...-.-- 5.20! 4.84] 5.55) 5.68] 8.82) 6.38) 5.50 6.57 Tennessee ..... 5. 24 4.13 5.46 | 6.29 | 10.64 8. 84 6.79 7.82 West Virginia 8.28 |. 7.26 | 7.8L | 8.03 | 11.93 | 9.80] 6.60 7.59 Rentuchksy=.- 5.82 5. -tess52 565 6.44 6. 25 6.65 | 6.61 | 12.10 9. 55 6.01 8.97 (Ole See eS: Oo ee eee 8.27 | 9.31] 7.98 | (7.02 | 14.87 | 11.15 | 9.09 4.26 Michivane:.6.seece ct eseeess- 7.52 | 8.22} 7.92 | 10.75 | 13.57 | 13.3 5. 46 5.24 Dieta ht hit: ye Seat ae ee 7.47 8. 46 5, 24 7,20 | 11.57 9. 83 6.27 3.71 MMIN OSs oe sins ck tees 5.87 | 8.19 | 5.83 | 10.88 | 7.03 | 6.60] 6.30 8.32 WaSCODRINy 28; 256 228 sen See 7.18 8. 42 7.91 9.31 | 10.50 | 10.62 9.46 9. 92 zl frat e210) 1 eee eae a 4.90} 6.62 110.12) 9.66 ]10.01 | 8.538! 7.37 6. 62 TOW aie Se bade Peo ees scans 5.64 | ‘7.40 | 8.97 | 9.92 | 9.75] 8.68] 7.15 9. 20 4°56: | 6.58 |, 6512") 8.19) 7.65} 5278 | +604 7.88 8.53 | 4.58] 38.47] 6.68 | 11.47} 7.10] 5.10 9.73 3.48 3.43 4.80 8.12 | 10.00 Tere 5. 05 6. 36 3, 74 3. 04 4.56 6. 94 5. 52 6. 20 5. 35 4.00" 4.13 | 5.07] 7.98 | 7.55 | 7.62] 7.34! 6.63 2.84 ; : 12.90 | 13.39 | 17.45 | 17.49 | 22.10 | 17.11 | 15.68 | 16.23 Wyoming: ...222062 s6<4252-3- 16.40 | 11.55 | 12.15 | 12.35 | 16.64 | 15.19 | 17.50 | 16.35 | 12.60} 15.38 3 ea ae Se tee 14.75 | 11.08 | 6.86 | 11.64 | 18.16 | 10.67 | 16.80 | 14.73 | 18.51 | 13.33 BIR Fans Siaaieini’ 9.43 | 11.04 | 12.60 | 15.84 | 14.89 | 13.86 | 18.00 | 14.76 | 8.42] 14.28 Pee eas Bae e dawooke 10.88 | 12.17 | 11.38 | 17.00 | 18.33 | 18.40 | 18.32 | 29.16 | 9.79 | 11.53 eeeraties «Betas emesis 13.13 | 10.73 | 8.28 | 11.66 | 9.86 | 18.02 | 14.28 | 15.12 | 10.97 | 11.49 ebce cet eccne ations es 15.92 | 14.40 | 10.73 | 15.00 | 10.63 | 20.70 | 21.87 | 27.55 | 13.68 | 17.15 Bei Abe Seems akcn aoe 16.80 | 13.20 | 11.58 | 9.48} 8.87 | 15.93 } 15.40 | 15.81 | 12.10 9.57 Be eee es See. 13. 12 98} 9.74] 6.47 | 6.35 | 13.32 | 15.98 | 13.07 | 11.58 | 11.99 eee Lo Ee chs Seek 16.72 | 10.05 | 9.63] 7.61} 9.40 | 12.24 | 12.24 | 12.71 | 10.18 7.59 eae saws ics 12.35] 8.84] 7.05] 6.44] 7.80] 12.12] 8.30} 6.55] 8.74 5. 97 Be ee aE eee | BS eee] he eo eee 5.76) 5.47!) 8.84) 14.44] 7.75] 7.05 | 10.07 Ste 12,86 | 8.35 | 6.16 | 6.48 | 6.99) 8.97 | 10.86 || -8.92 | 7.17 7.61 ProrTecTION OF STORED GRAIN FROM INSECTS. The bisulphide of carbon is probably the best known remedy against all insects that infest stored grain, but the following measures, principally preventive, may be profitably employed: Prompt thrashing to prevent the Angoumois grain moth, rice weevil, and some other species in the extreme South from obtaining access to the granary. Inspection, quarantining, and disinfection of infested or suspected grain, bags, and machinery before permanent storage. Scrupulous cleanliness, including the prompt destruction of refuse material, which will accomplish much in lessening the chances of injury. Constructing or refitting the warehouse or mill, especially in warm latitudes, with a view to the exclusion of insects. Substitution of metal for wooden spouts, ete., and the use of other improved machinery in mills infested with the flour moth. Storage in large bulk, particularly valuable against grain moths. Storage in a cool, dry repository, well ventilated to prevent ‘‘heating.”’ The use of naphthaline as a preservative of small samples in tight receptacles. 770 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Average farm price of wheat per bushel in the United States December 1, 1891-1900, by States. 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. } 1900. States and Territories. 1891. | 1892. | 1893. eS NED J (eee nore (2 ene EN WERT tne cela ce tes ea se $1.10 |$1.02 . $1.02 leo, 79 ($0.82 ($0.84 |81.06 |$0.89 |$0.91 | $0.90 New Hampshire ....-......-- T15. 11.00 .85 . 50 .76 1.00 1.10 $92, 95 -92 MeringmGssa-- 25-20 se2e one 1.14 . 96 . 85 .67 . 69 -93 | 1.04 -90 . 89 =f Newey Ob. . 5.22 sude gees ee en 1.06 Root die ecieese ee er S68! “Weems oe 1.00 .88 -95 . 82 Conneetiett, <.3.s2.. 5--cea- 1.00 - 89 Bay (3) - 62 -65 88 - 90 By . 80 aA New J @Isey. ...5 5-0 602-55 dace | 1.04 .83 .70 .61 ele e . 89 .93 ag} -15 .74 Pennsylvania. $¢).c..55 5 wana keX THOGiry TIS eese Tes =" = TOMO aG, : “-""IsnSsny pc” RR AS Rae eae Oe. tee ae Beane ae re ACRE ae ITU “ABIL yeti aes skeet ates —& tas sane So EE aio hig Ewa Ts eo a ER OM i Pe oe py Bio Lk CE ee Co ee orsyyl AIVNAQAT **senuee Se ee es *SGST wrcneatesesenececscccesencnssecccsssessonsssasassergqungggy Bae ne cae oe 2 Bee ORT ee Re Pane ae ened es Ol DEC a “*** 19q0}00 * zaquiajdag oune or Tere Sop oc en ne Rs teens reenable 5 are eer a a EPSP eat Boe tee ieee aa LL “** Yoru REPRE, Le Shee ee ee ee ee ce ee ee AIBNAQ BLT BO RL SIO RIO ATCO yy ahah “LOST “1OqMIDAON, nly raaciaist hoe Aioiensiehs alate Ce reicid ial eI ER aro YQ) See eee oe krek ae oe ee ae eee ne wean Sera Caer e “-"asnsny Tee eee eee eee eee ee “Ayn tte ttetacceeseescecnceeseceeseseeses oun p dines Fe INN -- . -. “judy ste rrctteeceeeeceseeseeseseeeeeres UDIUHT ela bb AAR EE AEE esa COACH b whee - oe . *** Se 288 See eee 10, 384, 000 9, 604, 000 4, 971, 000 6, 885, 000 9, 364, 000 Saptem pers. eoce soe see 11, 410, 000 13, 784, 000 7, 360, 000 10, 973, 000 13, 853, 000 Octobenr= v2.55. 5 nese 13, $21, 000 15, 573, 000 9, 286, 000 13, 127, 000 17, 140, 000 17,217,000 | 20,096,000 | 11,352)000 | 13, 254, 000 20; 528, 000 17,995,000 | 19, 768, 000 9, 460,000 | 11,789,000 18, 136, 000 19,538,000 | 16,148,000 | 10,893,000 | 12,004, 000 15, 861, 000 19,978,000 | 20,245,000 | 13,231,000 | 11,876, 000 16, 175, 000 20,832,000 | 17,925,000 | 14,782,000 | 12, 449, 000 16, S00, 000 20,672,000 | 15,609,000 | 15,725,000} 14,176, 000 15, 823, 000 16,138,000 | 14,402,000 | 13,971,000} 13,845,000 |.............. 12,878,000 | 10,421,000 | 13,661,000] 12,: Condition of oat crop of United States, 1886-1900. | - | = bs u oO ov iS) ; 2 fea: ls ee ibeey Hes: Wer Be: Year. 3 a E 8 Year, 3 r 3 Year. 3 3 y 5 Epa reeaeicencnt se Bla a Bec ieee 5 5 < mn 5 5 < dB rae 45 < mm 1886 ....| 95.9 | 88.8 | 87.4 | 90 1891 ...| 85.1 | 87.6 | 89.5 | 90.7 || 1896 ...] 98.8 | 96.3 |. 77.3 | 74.0 1887 ....| 91.0 | 85.9 | 85.6 | 83.4 |} 1892 ...| 88.5.| 87.2 | 86.2 | 78.9 || 1897...| 89.0 | 87.5 | 86.0} 84.6 1888 ....] 95.4 | 95.2 | 91.7 | 87.2 |] 1893 ...] 88.9 | 88.8 | 78.3 | 74.9 || 1898 -.-| 98.0 | 92.8 | 84.2] 79.0 1889 ....| 93.8 | 94.1 | 92.3 | 90.0 || 1894 ...] 87.0 | 77.7 | 76.5 | 77.8 || 1899...| 88.7 | 90.0 | 90.8] 87.2 1890 ea 89.8 | 81.6 | 70.1 | 64.4 |] 1895 ...| 84.3 | 83.2 | 84.5 | 86.0 || 1900-.-| 91.7 | 85.5 | 85.0] 82.9 ie Acreage, production, value, prices, exports, and imports of oats of the United States, 1866 to 1900, inclusive. v. Chieago cash price per | pomesti ie bushel, No. 2. exports, |mports Rae arm. Farm ae Se ere including bet =. a -7,| Produc- | price ss May o oatmeal, = Year. | Acreage. jyield) ‘tion, per pave December. | following | fiscal a Set aon bush- ect. year. years be- eae Lass el, —____—. - ginning jul at 1 Dee. | Low. High.) Low. High. July 1.! ieee j= Acres. |Biush.| Busheis. Cts. Dollars. Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Bushels. | Bushels. Tahe<..- 8, 864,219] 30.2) 268,141,078} 35.1). 94,057,945) 36 43 59 78 825, 895) 778,198 S673: == 10, 746, 416] 25.9) 278,698,000) 44.5) 123,902,556) 52 Bitlecena | cates 122,554] ‘780, 798 3 i 9, 665, 736} 26.4) 254,960,800) 41.7| 106,355,976) 43 493 5Gi| 624 481,871] 326,659 HSGOE = 9,461,441) 30.5) 288,334,000) 88.0) 109,521,734] 40 443} 463) 533 121, 517)2, 266, 785 1870..... 8, 792, 395] 28.1) 247,277,400} 39.0) 96,443,637) 373) 41 473} 51 147,572) 599,514 af: ee 8, 365, 809| 30.6] 255,743,000} 86.2) 92,591,359] 303) 33 343) 422 262,975] 585, 250 BVO acco 9,000, 769} 30.2] 271,747,000] 29.9) 81,303,518! 233! 253) 3 34 714,072) 225,555 aby pee 9,751,700) 27.7} 270,340,000) 34.6! 93,474,161) 3 403] 44 482 812, 873) 191, 802 pie, eae 10, 897,412) 22.1) 240,369,000} 47.1) 113,133,934) 513) 543) 573) 643 504, 770)1, 500, 040 1875.....| 11,915,075} 29.'7| 354,317,500} 32.0 113, 441, 491| 293} 303! 288] 313] 1,466,228) 121,547 1846s. <= 13, 358, 908} 24.0) 320, 884,000} 32.4 103, 844, 896| $13} 843) 872) 453) 2,854,128) 41,597 IST ccs 12, 826,148} 31.7} 406,394,000} 28.4) 115,546,194; 243) 27 23 | 27 | 3,715,479} 21,391 - BBS 13,176,500} 31.4) 413,578,560} 24.6) 101,752,468) 195) 203) 24% 303) 5, 452,136) 13, 395 28.7| 363, 761, 320| 33.1) 120,583,294; 323) 363) 29%) 342 766, 366) 489, 576 25.8} 417, 885,380} 86.0) 150,243,565} 292} 33%) 361) 393 402,904) 64,412 24. 7| 416,481,000} 46.4) 193,198,970} 433) 463) 482) 563 625, 690\1, 850, 983 26. 4| 488, 250,610] 37.5) 182,978,022} 343, 413) 383) 423 461,496) 815,017 28.1] 571,302,400] 32.7) 187,040, 2 293; 362} 3803| 342] 3,274,622) 121,069 5 . 97. 4) 583, 628,000] 27.'7/ 161,528,470} 223) 252) 343) 87 6,203,104) 94,310 1885. ....| 22,783,630] 27.6) 629,409,000} 28.5] 179,631,860} 27 29 263) 298] 7,311,306} 149, 480 1886..... 23, 658, 474| 26.4] 624,134,000) 29.8] 186,187,930; 253) 273) 253) 272) 1,374,635) 139,575 ney ae a 25, 920,906] 25.4) 659,618,000} 30.4) 200,699,790} 28§! 303{ 3824! 38 573, 080) 123, 817 1888..... 26, 998, 282} 26.0) 701,735,000} 27.8) 195,424,240) 25 263} 21§ 238] 1,191,471) 131,501 1889..... 27,462,316} 27.4) 751,515,000) 22.9) 171,781,003) 20 21 243} 30 | 15,107,238] 153, 232 1890... - 26, 431,369} 19.8] 523,621,000} 42.4) 222,048,486) 393) 43} 453| 54] 1,382,836) 41,848 Us ae 25,581,861} 28.9] 738,394,000] 31.5] 232,312,267} 312) 33%) 282) 333) 10,586,644) 47,782 E89 sla. 27,063, 835} 24.4) 661,035,000} 31.7] 209,253,611} 258) 312] 283) 323) 2,700,793) .49, 433 1893. .\..2. 27, 273,033} 23.4] 638, 854,850} 29.4! 187,576,092} 273] 3} 323) 36] 6,290,229) 31,759 1894..... 27, 023,553) 24.5) 662,036,928] 32.4) 214,816,920} 283} 293) 273! 303) 1,708,824) 330,318 1895... - 27,878, 406| 29.6} 824, 443,537] 19.9] 163,655,068) 16%; 173) 18 19§} 15,156,618} 66, 602 ES96: - 23: 27.565, 985} 25.7| 707,346,404] 18.7} 132,485,033) 163) 182} 163 183) 37,725,083) 131,204 T897- .- 3. 25, 730,375) 27.2) 698,767,809} 21.2) 147,974,719) 21 23%] 26 32 | 73,880, 307| 25, 093 1898. ....| 25,777,110} 28.4] 730,906,643) 25.5] 186,405,364) 26 273} 24 273) 33, 534, 362} 28, 098 1899..... 26, 341, 380) 30.2) 796,177,713} 24.9) 198,167, 975 3, 23 212} 233) 45,049,202; 54,451 Tt Sea , 364, 7 29. 6} 809,125,989) 25.8 poe STE RT UR oF = | a Pe eR poe a 1In years 1866 to 1882, inclusive, oatmeal is not included. re YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Acreage, production, value, and distribution of oats of the United States in 1900, by States. | Crop of 1900. Statesand Territories. Acreage. Production. | Acres. Bushels. MOR Co saale’aatiantesicee 140, 203 5, 257, 612 New Hampshire ..... 30, 526 995, 148 Wermontiocs2steccecee 106, 581 3, 719, 677 Massachusetts ....... 14, 967 550, 786 Rhode Island .......- 3, 705 114, 484 Connecticut ......... 18, 677 578, 987 New YODK=*. oo ccsese= 1, 596, 379 44, 538, 974 New Jersey .......... 95, 003 2, 812, 089 Pennsylvania........ 1, 221, 893 38, 000, 872 Delaware ).22250.--5<< 15, 844 332, 724 Maryland ...-....<-.. 74, 309 1, 783, 416 WAareinia =: os.-sncns50 349, 160 5, 167, 568 North Carolina ...... 363, 030 5, 046, 117 South Carolina ...... 259, 558 4,023, 149 Georpiaiccenseoe esse 467, 336 7, 010, 040 Worlds -......--2== 1, 662, 978 41, 907, 046 TO Watts ctieetce ese 3, 840,357 | 130,572, 138 Miesouni Goce =csc estes 901, 291 24, 695, 373 IRaMSRSS Se someccen mate 1, 362, 783 43, 063, 943 ING@braskais2°senccse=> 1, 732, 962 37, 778, 572 South Dakota .......- 588, 524 12, 653, 266 North Dakota........ 611, 581 6, 299, 284 Montnnaltcoscs ooh 65, 865 2, 568, 735 WivOmane? oss <<<. 18, 429 630, 272 Colorados. esto aee 99, 768 3, 272, 390 New Mexico ...--....- 7, 641 229, 994 LUC ci See eee 25, 577 918, 214 Wdshoeres.-2 eso Se 36, 881 1, 349, 845 Washington... -.-<=.- 87, 681 3, 016, 226 Orecone se Jo.se noe sce 177, 447 3, 282, 770 Galiformiae sso. 525 =e 60, 072 | 1,477,771 United States . + 27, 364, 795 | 809, 125, 989 Shipped out Stock on hand March | of county = 1, 1900. where Value. grown. Dollars. Bushels. Per cent. Bushels. 1, 997, 893 1, 945, 316 37 105, 152 378, 156 278, 641 28 9,951 1, 339, O84 1, 264, 690 34 0 209, 299 137, 696 25 0 43, 504 33, 200 29 0 202, 645 144, 747 25 0 14, 252,472 | 18,706,369 42 2, 226, 949 871, 748 843, 627 30 337, 451 11, 400, 262 15, 960, 366 42 2, 660, O61 99, 817 109, 799 33 53, 236 552, 859 410, 186 23 249, 678 1, 912, 000 1, 446, 919 28 310, 054 2,270, 753 1, 110, 146 22 201, 845 1, 931, 112 402,315 10 _ 120, 684 3, 434, 920 1, 121, 606 16 140, 201 189, 106 64, 296 17 11, 346 1, 927, 532 613, 306 14 87,615 1, 099, 424 286, 806 12 23, 901 245, 657 110, 546 18 12, 283 8, 483, 470 6, 786, 776 24 6, 786, 776 2, 463, 533 2,111, 600 30 492, 707 2, 033, 558 1, 452, 542 25 581, 017 941, 273 941, 273 34 166, 107 2, 885, 881 3, 165, 160 34 651, 651 10, 488, 539 15, 732, 808 39 10, 488, 539 8, 759, 279 14, 486, 500 43 9, 433, 070 10, 319, 188 14, 805, 792 33 17, 946, 414 30, 737, 863 52, 120, 725 39 73, 503, 586 14, 253, 457 27, 267, 483 44 15, 492, 888 10, 057, 691 16, 762, 818 40 8, 381, 409 26,114, 428 44,394, 527 34 €0, 063, 183 5, 679, 936 9, 137, 288 37 4, 198, 213 9, 904, 707 16, 364, 298 38 8, 612,789 9, 066, 857 10, 578, 000 28 12, 466, 929 8, 036, 784 4, 934, 774 39 2, 024, 523 2,015, 771 1, 889, 785 30 629, 928 1, 078, 869 1, 078, 869 42 667, 871 296, 228 151, 265 24 37,816 1, 407, 128 1, 145, 336 30 785, 384. 110, 397 45, 999 20 55,199 404, 014 156, 096 17 247, 918 539, 938 891, 455 29 391, 455 1, 206, 490 693, 732 23 1, 206, 490 1, 345, 936 952, 003 29 722, 209 679, 775 265, 999 18 265, 999 208, 669,233 | 292, 803, 480 | 36.2 | 242, 850, 477 Average yield per acre of oats in the United States, 1891-1900, by States. States and Territories. 1891 1892. | 1893. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. Mines ecco ceanaenee AAS O- | 34.6 32.2 | 36.3 New Hampshire ........-...- | 30.0 | 34.0 | 34.2 WWMermOnti - se. occ cee Seen 37.5 35.5 36.4 Massachusetis ............... | 33.0 | 30.4 | 34.3 Rhode Island 3.9 | 29.4 | 28.2 GRATE CTICME ne oe eee 1 30.0 | 25.3 | 25.0 New Works. 5-222. 255 -5 | 28.0 | 24.0 New Jersey... -=---=-2-.-5-255- 8.0 | 25.7 | 23.9 Pennsylvania Leal eose a eeoLe Delaware ...... .s | 19.3 | 25.4 Maryland ...... POY per fe Sa ea Dy PUAN gene eee e seca. cee fag Ws be beg ta By es Worth Caroling-2- 352... ce 9.5 OFF” | dae South Carolina —--- 22.2... ce. 10.6 | 10.5 | 11.8 GeOreit. o-oo eee ass sees LET. t| AOL «| dod ul org fs Fi eck eg ee eo 11.4 9.8 | 11.8 AUADEINA Sone oo. Se nee cmew eee 12.8 | 10.2 | 14.2 MISSISSIPPI) 2 cn eecen sons, TLS SO 6s bs Wiguibians oo. 25 oes eee 1253), | 2-27 |). 36.0: PExpa. 2 feet ee cs eee ez Ee in: as oa Pees af AT ATIGKS soon San oe ae 16.5 15.7 19.3 PENNMERSCC. . ooccaceeca cco eo ta chlono, | 18. 4 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. | = | Bush. | Bush.| Bush.) Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. 33.5 | 40.1 | 40.0 | 31.0 | 36.0 | 35.0 37.5 S151 7} 369) }38850) | 35.0" 123350) USs.0. 32.6 32.9 | 43.8 | 40.5 | 33.0 | 38.0 | 37.0 34.9 31.9 | 36.0 | 36.0 | 32.0 | 32.0 | 33.0 36.8 30.0 | 82.4 | 80.0 | 32.0 | 27.0 | 26.0 30.9 25.8 | 31.9 | 29.0 | 29.0 | 28.2 | 28.0 31.0 2201 | Sly eso40 role Om eagion ielolO 27.9 28.4 | 35:5 |°384.0° | 25:0 | 19:6: | 24:0 29.6 2220; [Ole Cage Onto. ell LeooomaioodO. 31.1 1970.- 119: 2° 152950" 3) 2250) "2230102070 21.0 21.4 | 26-2 | 24.0 | 24.0 | 19.5 | 23.0 24.0 AZO" | ied oS ebe 2-0) 16 ao Ea 14.8 10.9 15.1 12.0 13.0 14.3 12.0 13.9 125 Gs) Osea a Olea sm. al aiteen elon 15.5 13.4 | 14.5 | 12.0 | 14.0 | 16.6 9.0 15.0 11.8 | 10.2 | 12.0 9.0 | 15.4 9.0 uh fe} 13.2 14.9 14.0 13.0 16.8 10.0 14.4 43.0) ) DBs7e | 1320) 0450") S85) {| tere 14.0 22.3: | 15:0) 4050 | 1850) +) S821 Ass: 18.0 32.2. || 20:7 | 2030) |. 25:0) |) 2907" 1 25.0 88. 0 18.5 | 25.4 | 16.0 | 17.0 | 22.8 | 19.0 22.2 1476 }/22.6 | 16.5 J910.0» | 1Se7e | 1430 16.6 STATISTICS OF OATS FOR 1900. RT Average yield per acre of oats in the United States, 1891-1900, by States—Continued. States and Territories. 1801. | 1892. | 1893. | 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. Bush.} Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush.| Bush.| Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. Wiest Virginia: < cone soansecee 18.5 | 18.3 | 22.2 | 21.0 | 26.2 | 21.0 | 18.0 | 22.4 | 18.0 21.3 ORION sae ss Sead ek aten 81.3 | 26.3 | 28.6 | 30.3 | 31.7 | 31.0 | 32.0 | 30.9 | 36.0 38.0 1 GUT aN Fea a ie ea a ke a TS 82.6 | 28.7 | 26.0 | 26.1 | 28.9 | 30.0 | 26.0 | $2.8 | 34.0 36.7 In@iand) si oosdssecae on ceeses 3.5 | 26.5 | 27.5 | 32:3 | 22.9 | 29.0 | $0.2 | 29.2 | 32.0 7 MURR OIG! soe ae ee =| 86.2 | 26.3 | 27.2) | 86.1 1.24.4 | 28.0 182.0 | 29.0 | 38.0 38.0 Wisconsin....... -| 88.8 | 80.2 | 27.6 | 32.9 | 33.8 | 33.4 | 34.0 | 36.1 | 36.0 32.0 Minnesota ...... -| 86.5 | 27.8 | 24.8 | 28.1 | 39.9 | 33.0 | 26.0 | 36.3 | 32.0 25. 2 TOW ic J. oan cece -| 86.7 | 25.4 | 24.8 | 25.6 | 46.2 | 27.5 | 30.0 | 34.0 | 33.0 34.0 Wassourt 35. 2oo2.2.. sao} 2818 M200) Nese 4 bee. e nadede (L180) 22.0) i 70h 2550 27.4 Kansage 25.5522 Secse coos ce BOvO) 12825) | 18.57 | Peo L729) 18.0) 9) 24.0". 1820) 12970 31.6 INebrask sven 22: 5 eee sc. camccle 85:5 | 26:7 | 15.0 } 12.6 | 23:8 | 19.0 | 31.0 |.32.1 | 30.0 21.8 South Dakote.2252. 25 ssc ce. 82.5 | 26.3) | '21N5 26) Weare! | 275 | 2250 | 26.8 | 2620 21.5 INOTOM Dakota 2 255 ach acicteimass 88550 1 2.08 | 21 Oo 2nd Sar y Wi22.0.0 123.0) 1/8007 Ws050 10.3 MOntan sien, 2230 as ka cet ecaee 88.5 | 28.8 | 34.0 | 40.1 | 35.8 | 47.0 | 42.0 | 40.6 | 38.0 39.0 WOM Pees se eka Sh ewe cue dae Saat ee 28.6 | 24.0 | 30.4 | 41.0 | 82.0 | 35.0 | 31.2 | 30.0 34. 2 WOLGTHG Ola cere ee eee ose ls 82.6 | 28.7 | 26.7 | 138.5 | 34.3 | 28.0 | 34.0 | 35.8 | 27.0 32.8 New Mexico ............----- 22.0 | 20.3 | 29.2 | 35.0 | 39.9 | 27.0 | 35.5 | 38.8 | 24.0 30.1 UWS 2 eee See ee ee 82.5 | 26.5 | 27.9, | 33.0. | 33.8 | 38.0 | 35.0 | 39.7 | 34.0 35.9 GI SitKG) 8 eee es eee 85.0 | 29.0 | 33.1 | 88.5 | 35.2 | 42.0 | 36.3 | 43.6 | 34.0 36.6 WSabIne tone. = se gece ne a 10.73 | 13.57 | 12.32 | 10.21 | 12.60 | 11.62 | 15.70; 12.92} 14.64 Washinton .*- 5. 32 -- 2. eee kc 12.07 | 13.90 | 11.32 | 11.28 | 14.40 | 16.80 | 16.76 | 14.06 | 13.76 rere s:2 bans. ta eee : 9.81 | 10.55-| 7.48 | .7.78 | 6.93 | 11.20} 10.80 | 12.30 7.59 Caikformige? & 2: sete Aa 5 11.72 | 9.69 | 15.66 | 10.96 | 13.64 | 8.82 | 16.50 | 14.57} 11.32 General average .....-- 9.08 | 7.73| 6.88 | 7.95) 5.87 | 482 | 5.7) 7.231) 7.52 7.63 Average farm price of oats per bushel in the United States December 1, 1891-1900, by States. | States and Territories. 1891. | 1892. | 1893. | 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. Cents. | Cents.| Cents.| Cents.| Cents. | Cents.| Cents.| Cents. | Cents.| Cents. 5 45 45 : 34 3L 32 34 38 38 Maine so). 2 beae nes 4. ase 4 45 44 New Hampshire ..:......---: 46 4 43 49 35 35 38 38 39 38 Wermomias. 2 Aon a asso 41 43 42 | 51 33 ol 32 35 37 36 Massachusetts: -.-.- 3. --s=-0 47 48 42 43 34 35 33 37 38 38 hoe islawdl. 372 255 eee 47 49 43 47 39 31 34 37 37 38 Conpmecheue ¢ .2.5o-5- 5-52.25 45 45 40 43 31 3L 34 36 37 35 INGER OOLK. coho ciate de segs 38 39 30 39 28 26 27 31 33 32 INE WEL CISO YE mater onion aetese soe 40 41 35 38 29 28 30 31 33 31 Penusyly ania. - 4.2 235.2 37 40 35 38 27 24 27 30 29 30 Welmware. aes ses. 3- 4 Soeaeat 59 38 38 35 29 PAL 23 30 25 30 Maryland. i222 2. oc esse5n-22 38 38 35 39 27 23 26 29 30 3L ITT Che oe gee eae 41 39 35 sii 30 26 29 29 33 37 North Carolina=. ...:.22555-- 51 45 44 44 38 35 37 37 41 45 South Caroniiaes o-- seem acsaae 61 52 63 53 49 48 45 45 47 48 GEOISIN a 8 2 5 oS eect oe 60 52 52 51 46 41 42 48 48 49 MIGEIOR: oso eens eee ee eee 62 55 55 61 65 53 53 54 50 50 (ANS AIMA ea. secs Ss Sacer oe 60 51 51 51 42 41 43 41 43 44 MISSISSIPPI a on: Aes ae 58 50 47 47 39 44 44 42 50 46 MOWISIAN A sae so. cone hese 52 50 44 47 36 34 38 38 40 40 Do CY See ae ae Oe 47 38 42 39 26 34 27 2 30 30 TATE AUTSOR bere tet = oe slaee wrt 42 40 39 40 32 31 33 29 34 35 Pemnessees (5.5.32 S35... See 40 38 31 35 27 26 28 28 32 35 West; Virciniass-5 oso See 40 41 38 39 32 28 30 30 35 34 ESCH IIC RN a ae ae a cele BY 37 34 36 26 24 27 27 32 ol ONG0)4 3 2s SF Boe ae ot 33 35 30 31 22 17 20 24 25 26. Wirehicanis 3-6 625-- eo ee 32 35 32 34 23 19 23 27 28 26 Indiana....-: Be NS oe ee Se oe 32 34 28 30 20 16 19 23 23 23 Lats, eae eee eee eet 28 31 27 29 17 15 18 23 22 23 Wisconsin . é 28 29 27 30 18 17 19 24 23 23 Minnesota . Ss 27 28 26 30 14 15 19 21 22 24 ROG toh 8 Pi Sn ts Ste oe 26 26 23 28 14 12 16 24 19 20 MIBSOUTE (este h255-2 bk Sons 29 30 25 29 18 17 19 23 24 23 VRASAS 5 oe a 5 Sridain anaes ee ee 27 26 27 31 17 16 18 22 22 23 INGDNOR KO ge. = tees 5. Lk Sena 23 23 22 36 14 il 15 20 22 24 South Dakota-...-.-.-..... ae p> 23 25 35 17 13 18 21 23 24 North. Dakota: 222525. tases. 26 28 28 29 16 18 26 26 27 32 Moniana: = Foes cols 48 40 37 31 44 31 33 35 39 42 Whvominiey so. oes 3 aie oases 38 40 48 39 53 35 40 40 Al Colornd G222— one 38 34 37 46 28 30 32 41 42 43 Wew Mexieon - 2.06.55 -cas45= 5d 56 51 50 45 40 41 41 44 48 (OU: eae ea 42 40 33 34 30 39 33 38 40 44 Na cee ce < ote coe he Be 50 37 41 32 29 30 32 36 38 40 Washinetom 2... 2720 tao. Se 41 35 35 31 28 40 35 40 33 40. Opeean 3.34. 256 eee. eee 41 37 og 28 27 33 35 40 41 41 Californmiais..22: 2-252 0 Soe de 60 40 38 44 39 44 49 50 47 46 General average ....... 31.46 | 31.66 | 29.36 | 32.45 | 19.85 | 18.73 | 21.18 | 25.50 | 24.89 25.8 779 STATISTICS OF OAS FOR 1900. {28 ‘T 143 °T £08 0s £92 0g £2 F161 |fzo'L |%62 1G GS 08 13 #1ZT |¥eo'T 6G ee $3 LG IG 5 cen a 7) an | Sr kes 3 CG T0G {28 'T (a Sal | ee #3 id 186 £6 T18°T | O08'L |t6c CG 8% 63 G $18 'T ce‘ 4f08 3G 2G £6 1G GPT OFT 198 1 6 ia §8z fort | |¥28°L tae 28 GG ¢ 8% To8 ‘TL 0c‘T {to 11 ths 0g 8% {G0 'L reali | £4 8z ig 6% i Go CLL £93 ore #86 er 83 F40'L = |ESL'T 9% TFG cz te 9% 8% 02 ‘I CLT 9% ws Es T1G TFG 1Go #16 yee tka GS t1G ts toe Ms 08 °L LoL |¥8t \$Go &% 0G #83 j CZ 'T Oct ez E61 IGG SL id Pate Oo. |ELTL [Rt ete 11 6L ¥G pi CL 0Z'I (| ha 1 0% 83 I Cok aes. £ (a6 Keo ISL £86 03 106 'L Ot {te T1G 61 T9L 836 TS 08 T 02'L |fIZ 02 TLT ToL £0 TLL 0S'E jtZo'T 0% t6L TLL TOL T6L {91 OSL }f4o'T 0% T6L #81 f9L t6L SL cL oe a6 \6L 61 ELT t1@ ELT GI‘L i240 (tic 1106 6L FLT £06 f9L 120° 08: ee (oc) flte fat tte | a 06° |f248° Gs gL 6L cL 1G TOL $18" leg: TG fed t tL (ae SL 418° ipee. $83 61 T6L 1ST £03 ELL e. Ie is EST BL TL 0% at cg TLL* : 1% id LT t1Z 16 08: LL tea #1Z 6L tL a 0% Dy cL" &% {0G 6L 1T 1G aL a sme £8 4a 6L SL GG 02% 0s" cL" 6% 106 61 icL IZ {sl “squad “$)U9) *$)U9) "squad *s7UaQ *s7uag ‘USI | “MOT | “USI | “MOT | ‘WU AarA-] “MOT | ‘UST | “MOT Aaa “OUT '% “ON SON “OqITAL ‘% ON ‘OosTOUTIG, URS yong “yaad “OOMNBAMTL “USTTL | “MOT £2 9% ELZ TBS ia ts Ha 10% 10G 106 9% 0% £9% Iz a #92 EPG 1 (6 $6 £1 t & ac TOG TOL KGL ELT b0G iSL 106 rol iS LT f8L fAT EST 291 =eT LT LT OL f9L §CL LED eSE {ST FOL f6L ELT a FLT. TLL tPL ist fcr ST GL ®RST CT 261 Bt tog ‘st tert Et *s7uag “"s7uag ‘USI | ‘MOT ‘SON ‘osRoryO 08 8% 66 19% 19% & % GG TFG 1G LZ 186 8G TSS the 66 18 83 66 LG 82 to 9% #G c% ez PG 0G at 0% EG T6L 1z LT TIS T6L a6 6L 6 16L 13 0% 1% FLT. '6L FOL 03 {SL 10a SL a 61 0G LT TSL cL t1G LT &% 41 IG LT TCG 0% &@ £0 La6 1a 8% TL (46 f6L *syuag "squad “poxyur ‘G ‘ON “QRaUDUID “syuag | *s7wap *poxrul ‘% ‘ON ‘OIOTIIY [VL tog 66 166 CG 9% 1oG 8% 9G 8G 1SG {cs ELZ 98 ice {G8 6G as 08 (oh 63 166 13G Bird 19S £96 Th tho {GG (86 T&S 10 TI $05 {1G (86 tIG {8 ata 18o ‘Aa TOG 16 FIZ 16 106 1G £8 46 #G §26 Ss 1% 1G ESL fez 106 &G 102 83 t1G tS &@ Gz £3 z EF Ata ENG td T8 *S7UdD “s7Ua) ‘USI | “MOT “pexTut ‘Z ‘ON ‘YIOK MON Le a Ae Le a LOM ULODO UT: pak “""*"OqQMIOAON ===="" 1940200 --"* Joquieideg FPR OS i RG SO OHSU (=) ql jolt Gatos artes OSs TKGGane tse 193 176 z EGS GB 83 1G 196 1&3 < Px Flg'T iROGTCLRLG #93 406 #23 tS &% 10G b9% iS A ee Gea LEC IK $27, £07, ise ue £0G 198 ia OS ie ean TAG 9% 1GG 9 #G FaG a6 96 bFG OSE witzcek Liss es 0G 9 GG +80 ac 196 106 FR fer (jin ice 46 76. ECG 8% a6 r6L i0G 1G HZ es'E | 08 1S 100 ERZ Je {8 261 186 Go H irr |t2sr |r0s ES 196 166 tLe t9S TPS 63 S16 ChL OF'L |&S 08 496 18 £93 BL nx 166 ELG EH hr jist | 108 1G 18 166 tLG £93 108 3 O rt | ser jks 1s foc |HOS.-—(iéiéd]CCSELGCd:EG JIS —|f8% ie kaye ety tee 18% 18 160 18 b9G Fe £86 hd fs TS | os 1S | 88 408 £9 Z18 £9 £LZ 19% its #Oz, (je) "3]UI99 Ry Ua? *3]UIQ, S] ua? "sua, *87UI) *$7U99D, *s7UID “$}Ua) "3729, ro) Fa ‘UsIg | ‘MOT | ‘USIET | “MOT | ‘USI | ‘MOT ‘UstH | ‘MOT | ‘UStH | “MOT | ‘UST | ‘MOT < a Bs “OPIT[M ‘Z "ON Z'Oh “OUT ‘3 ‘ON ‘Z'ON *poxtut ‘ON “OOSIDUBI ues “qLOIJIT “TmANN¢® “OOYNBATITL ‘OSROITD ‘TYBUUTOUL) 780 62 9% 9% EPS tC Er Hod 1PG LG FG 183 1B 66 9% 186 19 166 ELZ 166 SZ 166 $86 163 8% 8 tho TLG GB TPS 186 106 166 65 (a3 a re *$7U3a9, *poxtul ‘GON *‘2IOWIY [VEL 186 9G 9% c 186 tS 19 196 63 193 6G 9% 8% (26 166 LLG 16G TSG T6G 62 63 63 8 183 08 186 16G 8G ‘6 fez. TLG 9% 108 8 TIS 108 ie |e TES TOS To8 cs igs ThE eg 1g *s7uaQ | *87UaD ‘UStH | ‘MOT *poxtut ‘Z "ON ‘yIOK MON sccececccescceecceccesccce soon eT9QTIQ00(T SOCIOL ROSS IETS OOI SIGS 5 ayo ay cyQOlN| wee sc eies=') TOQOIOO “--"* raquiaydeg SOO SOROS i avehai\iy eeteeceeteeceseeseceeereeseeeeseeeeees AMP “--" 9une OOO Ne “Tad y “* Oley ee Arsniqay BOS OR CUO UUM I OUODOCRO IOC GOGO YE) qyoq tp “0061 set eeeeeeeeeeeeeeresecerseseseses IQQUIQIOT vote eeee rete eeeeseeeeeeeeeeess=*I9qTIOAON * 1aq0V0O “*** yaquroydeg ee cesie.cies 2a STS Ty &,2/h\siniesivin.cjeisieiajeieisialsis.sin's.ce\\e.cirnisissiciel Sema l(t “"- 9une > ABIL “"Tudy vet eee eter eee ne eese terest eeess sees = TOIBAT Sq0n6 aD crete rerereveverr=cosee KIBnIGdOD BOUCIG Yevvevecerosscesvesvoovs KIBNUBS *668T ‘878 ‘ponunuog—oosl-968T ‘samig panug oy) fo sayno burps) ur jaysng dad syoo fo sand aj0sajoy Md STATISTICS OF OATS AND BARLEY FOR 1900. 781 Transportation rates, average for oats in sacks, in cents per 100 pounds, St. Louis to New ‘p ? mle ? Orleans by river. LSS ieee acca 20500" | MUSSG2eeees= 16; 00°} 1891 ----... 165285 196 seeeesae 14.55 1BBS oS oe cece O00) TBST o oasccom 1 2 i ee | Pa LOSS 7 |) USO ese 15. 00 Soo. seca Lisios|| L888 eae ils} (0)0) || I eee ee Liptay el | AUS}! beh = 10. 00 LSS ees TE S(010) |/eakeree ie Ree = Wie Gd" \PUSIA: S — =z Ne SOO Mes Sane 10. 00 ESS aren orc ISRO) Pash 210) ee te EGO" USD ee 1 ZROOk| 1900 Seco ease 10. 60 BARLEY. / The United States produces only a small part of the barley crop of the world. For 1900 the total for this country was only 58,926,000 bushels, out of 921,076,000 bushels for the countries whose crops are reported. The acreage, as compared with 1899, which was the largest since 1896, shows in 1900 a slight increase, mainly in California, 34,000 acres, and Kansas, 7,000 acres. In Wisconsin the acreage decreased by 10,000 acres and in Iowa by 18,000. Other changes made a total decrease in the United States of 16,000 acres. Upon this smaller seeding there was a decrease in total production of nearly 14,500,000 bushels and in total value of $5,500,000. The average yield per acre fell from 25.5 bushels to 20.4 and the average value from $10.28 to $8.32. The farm price was on an average half a cent better, 40.8 cents in 1900 against 40.3 cents in 1899. The diminished results just noted were almost wholly consequent upon changes in California, which represents nearly a third of the total acreage and over a fourth of the total production. In that State the yield per acre fell from 26 bushels to 16.7 and the value per acre from $13 to $7.18, the farm price going from 59 to 43 cents. Other States important in barley producing for which decreases were reported are Wisconsin, Minnesota, and the Dakotas. The most important of these was North Dakota, where the yield per acre fell from 24 bushels to 8.2, and in spite of a slight advance in price the total value fell off $1,250,000. In Iowa, the second State in the production of barley, there was a slight advance in the yield per acre, but the total production was 300,000 bushels lees. The farm price per bushel in lowa advanced from 31 to 37 cents and the value per acre from $8.06 to $9.77, giving an increased return to the State. Wholesale prices of barley on the New York market advanced from 50 cents in January, 1900, to 66 cents in December. Chicago prices for 1900 show wide varia- tions in every month, the narrowest being 36 to 44 in March and May and the widest 36 to 62 in November. San Francisco prices were steady. The exports of barley in 1900 reached 23,661,662 bushels, worth $11,216,694, the highest figures on record. The export price fell from 60.7 cents per bushel to 47.4 cents. Barley crops of the countries named, 1896-1900. Countries. 1896. 1897. 1898. | 1899. | 1900. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. United States: jcnc- ah June. 1896-1897. 1897-1898, 1898-1899. 1899-1900. 1900-1901. Bushels Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. 5 1,574, 000 587, 000 1, 059, 000 1, 038, 000 1,051, 000 584, 000 694, 000 702, 000 1,578, 000 548, 000 1, 055, 000 1, 158, 000 2, 2) 630; 000 2, 125, 000 1,739,090 2) 779; 000 6, 4, 267, 000 8,777, 000 3, 925, 000 5, 396, 000 5, 6, 318, 000 4, 406, 000 4, 695, 000 6, 053, 000 4, 5, 115, 000 4,372, 000 3, 122, 000 5, 395, 000 4, 3, 455, 000 4, 017, 000 2, 303, 000 4, 331, 000 4, 2,571, 000 3, 067, 000 2, 138, 000 3, 903, 000 3, 1, 492’ 000 2) 626, 000 1,712) 000 2) 879, 600 2' 816, 1, 159, 000 1, 913, 000 1, 720,000'|:. 9. eee 1,819, 000 815, 000 1,555, 000 t; 267,000 |... 5 ceamaeas Condition of barley crop of United States, monthly, 1885-1900. Jul nes Y J Faty. 2) lot uly. | cust fem ear. une. ¥~} eust eo IN AS 2-25 1 PES ete IetBiee a coer eee 88.3 | 88.8] 84.6 83.8 89.7 Peed | ats CE RS 2 ace ee 82.2] 76.8] 69.8 71.5 82.8 SB cON SOD). oa ees nace a KOBE Ne tule) ieee 87.6 91.0 SOO elSeO cick teresa 98.0} 88.1] 82.9 83. 1 91.9 Coto) | echt eee ee Ee leet mer 87.4] 88.5 | 87.5 86.4 88.3 ONO MRBOSY sac. aerate aatsicia ope a 78.8 | 85.7 | 79.3 79.2 90.9 OAT OM WekS Go eee 5 2) era 91.4) 92.0] 93.6 86.7 92.0 87.4 | NOOO setae anes oe 86.2 | 76.3 | 71.6 70.7 Acreage, production, value, prices, exports, and imports of barley of the United States, 1866 to 1900, inclusive. Chicago cash price per bushel, No. 2. Domestic | Imports, Ay- + exports, fiscal Soe Ohl arpa ay Produc- el May of fiscal years ae specs le an tion. ec: December. | following years begin- Re ook year. beginning) ning i oS es a ig July 1. . |High.| Low. |High. ? Acres. |Bush.| Bushels. ts. | Dollars. Cts. | Cts. | Cts. | Bushels. | Bushels. 492,532} 22.9; 11, 283, 807 ; 7, 916, 342 70 ES yal me (0 eee 3, 247, 250 1,131, 217} 22.7} 25,727,000 -1] 18,027,746 180 | .227 | 250 9,810) 3, 783, 966 937,498} 24.4) 22,896, 100 4 24,948, 127 170 | 149 175 59,077} 5, 069, 880 -| 1,025, 795} 27.9] 28, 652, 200 . 8) 20, 298, 164 85 50 62 255, 490) 6, 727, 597 1,108,924} 23.7) 26,295, 400 ~1) 20, '792, 213 80 72 95 340, 093} 4, 866,700 1,118, 735) 24.0} 26,718, 500 . 8} 20, 264, 015 3} 64 55 71 86, 891] 5, 565, 591 -| 1,397,082} 19.2) 26, 846, 400 . 6} 18,415, 839 70 71 85 482,410) 4, 244, 751 1,387,106) 23.1) 32,044, 491 .7| 27,794, 229 168 | 1380} 155 320, 399| 4, 891, 189 1,580,626} 20.6} 32,552,500) 86.0) 27,997, 824 1294) 115 | 137 91,118) 6, 255, 063 1,789, 902} 20.6} 36,908,600} 74.1) 27,367,522 88 623} 72 317, 781/10, 285, 957 1,766,511) 21.9} 38,710,500} 63.0) 24,402,691 683} 80 85 | 1,186,129) 6, 702,965 1,614,654) 21.3) 34,441,400} 62.8) 21,629,130 64 463} 523} 3,921,501) 6, 764, 228 1,790,400) 23.6] 42,245,630} 57.9} 24,454, 301 100 64 73 715, 586} 5, 720, 979 1,680, 700) 24.0) 40,283,100] 58.9] 23,714, 444 92 75 80 | 1,128, 923) 7, 135, 258 8 1, 848,329) 24.5) 45,165,346} 66.6] 30,090,742 120 95} 105 885, 246] 9, 528, 616 88 1,967,510) 20.9) 41,161,330) 82.3] 33,862,513 107 | 100} 100 205, 930/12, 182, 722 1682.....| 2,272,103) 21.5) 48, 953,926] 62.9] 30, 768, 015 82 80 80 433, 005) 10, 050, 687 1S8S 8-282 2,379,009} 21.1) 50,136,097] 68.7] 29, 420,42: 67 65 74 724, 955} 8, 596, 122 at: 2, 608, 818} 23.5) 61,203,000} 48.7} 29,779,170 58 65 65 629, 130) 9, 986, 507 Ie 3 eee 2,729,359) 21.4) 58,360,000) 66.3] 32,867, 696 65 58 60 252, 183/10, 197, 115 T8862 22 2,652, 957| 22.4) 59,428,000] 53.6} 31,840,510 54 57 57 | 1,305, 300/10, 355, 594 1887 s~ 35. 2,901,953! 19.6) 56,812,000) 51.9] 29, 464, 390 80 69 77 550, 884/10, 831, 461 1. 2,996,382} 21.3] 63,884,000) 59.0} 37,672,032!......]......|...... femoase 1, 440, 321/11, 368, 414 1889..... 3, 220, 834) 24.3] 78,332,976] 41.6] 32,614, 271 9) Bees ere 1, 408, 311)11, 332, 545 1890= =. - 3; 195,802] 21.4) 67,168, 344)" 62.7) 42,140,502)... )so 0. foc. e cel eee ee 973, 062| 5, 078, 733 189fn a 3,002,079] 20.9f 86,839,153) 1°52, 4) “45,470; S40h ecto ce lec ewclecoean 2, 800, 075) 3, 146, 328 1802 52 sos 3,400,361) 23.6) 80,096,762} 47.5) 38,026, 062 67 65 65 | 3,035, 267} 1,970, 129 S93 aan. 3, 220,371} 21.7] 69,869,495} 41.1) 28,729,386 55 60 | 5,219,405} 791, 061 1894..... , 170, 602} 19.4] 61,400,465) 44.2) 27,134,127} 583) 653} 51 52 | 1,563,754) 2,116, 816 1895..... 3, 299,973) 26.4] 87,072,744) 33.7] 29,312,413 0 25 36 | 7,680,331] 837,384 T8962 ee 2,950,539) 23.6] 69,695,223} 32.3) 22,491,241 37} 124%) 35 | 20,030,301) 1,271, 787 1897 2 o2< 2,719,116) 24.5) 66,685,127} 37.7] 25,142,139 42 | 136 53 | 11,237,077} 124,804 I1S98e sce. 2, 583,125} 21.6) 55,792,257] 41.3] 23, 064, 359 503) 136 42 | 2,267,400) 110,475 1899. -... 2, 878,229) 25.5) 73,381,563} 40.3) 29,594, 254 45 | 136 44 | 23,661,662; 189,757 L900 22 == 2,894,282) 20.4) 58,925,833} 40.8) 24,075, 271 iit Toes 222 Bene naaee Hosen serie ear . 1 Chicago prices from 1895 are for No. 3 grade. 784 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Acreage, production, and value of barley in the United States in 1800, by States. Average Average Average : States and Territories. Acreage. | yield per| Production. farm value per Farm value, acre. acre. Dee. 1. Acres. Bushels. Bushels. Dollars. Dollars. WRI Conga nae vamos ce aa mee ance 11, 508 27.4 315, 319 16.99 195, 498 New, Hampshire so ccs son 4, 528 Peel 102, 786 15. 21 68, 867 WMermont 2-25 -Ss-5- ob ale aos cece 17, 210 29.1 600, 811 15.13 260, 422 Massachusetts) =--.-=---- 2 ssee 1, 661 25.8 42,854 17.80 29, 569 NOG EMSISAN OG © So. cose aoe ee 312 28.0 8, 736 21.56 6,727 INC Wnt ORE) once Se ceoee we 170, 542 22.0 8, 751, 924 1322 1, 913, 481 PENDS yl VaMNiIG = 2. Gass ce am ae 7,793 19.0 148, 067 9. 50 74, 034 WEROS oo Ss aceon ccles ome cwas 2, 049 24.6 50, 405 IY RA! 36, 292 Tennessee 1, 743 14.7 | 25, 622 9.11 15, 886 Kentucky 1, 312 28.6 37, 523 15.73 20, 638 ODIO messes ssse8s = 23, 058 27.0 622, 566 11.61 267, 703 Michigan 37, 858 23.9 904, 806 A523 425, 259 1 fats st2is6) eee ea ee Se 7, 5A2 24.6 185, 533 11.56 $7, 201 MAIN OSS eee es A ee Se ae 13, 365 25.6 342, 144 e 12.03 160, 868 WEISGONSINGS 3. Sta 2c Se 52 245, 458 25.5 6, 259, 179 11. 22 2, 754, 039 MaNiM ESOS. 20 =! de Ae Suse 324, 788 22.4 7, 275, 251 8.51 2, 764, 595 OER Re os ins soe eee eee 443,516 26.4 11, 708, 822 37 9.77 4,332, 264 MISSOUMLD cen es 7. Soe 713 20.8 14, 8380 45 9. 36 6, 674 LST CR ee 194, 735 21.5 4, 186, 802 33 7.10 1, 381, 645 Nebraska) scx cee ce es sien 33, 374 17.6 587, 382 33 5. 81 193, 836 South Dakota. 355.3 <2 82 3. 107, 942 14.3 1, 543, 571 31 4.43 478, 507 North. Dakota..5-22 ..5.s2ss<< 243, 761 8.2 1, 998, 840 35 2.87 699, 594 Warten ase Ashe. See 5, 194 38.8 201, 527 48 18. 62 96, 73: Colorado ee eee oe ae a 12, 672 24.8 314, 266 50 12.40 157, 133 Mew: Mexico jo5s25sssceseee 1,076 29.0 31, 204 62 17.98 19, 346 LOCH aE oes a ee one 5, S64 36.5 217, 686 55 20. 07 119, 727 1 Cot) crepe See ee eee So ae 12, 165 32.8 399, 012 50 16. 40 199, 506 Washington. .2so<5 etc <2 <2 41,505 33. 4 1, 386, 267 39 13. 03 540, 644 OTrepOn ass soso a= eee ooh 31, 347 28.9 905, 928 42 12.14 380 4390 Californth2ss003 5 JS: sree 889, 591 16.7 14, 856, 170 43 7.18 6, 388, 153 United States .......--- 2, 894, 282 20.4 | 58, 925, 883 | 40.8 8.32 24,075, 271 | Average yield per acre of barley in the United States, 1891-1900, by States. States and Territories. 1891. | 1892. } 1893. | 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush.) Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. Main Gam stescat wont Gc. once a 26.5 22.3 26.1 26.1 32.4 30.6 25.0 | 27.0 29.0 27.4 New Hampshire ...........-- 26.3°.|.23.5. | 2553 | 24.4 125.6 |) 2953 | 2255 | 2355) || 26:0 2252 MOTMON ces. ce cones eogeee se 24 fe 26.0 27.5 27.9 oon 33.0 28.5 | 30.0 31.0 29.1 Massachusetts) <. -.2-222sese8 26.7 | 22°56.) 2553) e2Te 7, 402225 SOLO) “7345p 9240p ai 80'0 25.8 Rhode dslind : Se. — 22. 28.0 |-21.5 | 26.2 | 30.0 | 23.5 | 29.0 | 28:0 } 28.0 |} 29.0 28.0 ING WHYlOFke.~2oe.2-2s4<.cK5 23.3 | 22.2 |.20:3. | 1756 |) 22:9 || 23.2 | 25:0; |.25:2 | 240 22.0 Pennsylvania 2s... oe ssc. 2255) § 20.7, | 1950" | 1636) W202 a2 P2425 ora 0 19.0 WESNSCS. ans) etcornc osha see 14522 4 16.5) | 1455) ADS) 21 6 id2.0) 1) 2520 = 20.0) sn0) 24.6 ierinicesee Ms. 225 occ 22 ese [12.7 | 19.5 | 15.1 4138 |231 [140 |180 | 180 )110 | 14.7 Ment icky: a*- 20). Stee eee | 24.5 | 22.3 17:0 | 28.7 1-33.3 | 14.8 | 20:0.) 16.0. | 21:0 28.6 OMe es se | 25.7 | 23.5 | 22.7 | 28.5 | 28.2 | 20.2 | 28. 5 | 28.7 | 28.0 27.0 Michiran’.0..02d.nc 12050) |) 2850). 1 3055 | 28.0 24.8 New Mexico 22.0 | 19.6 | 21.6 | 27.0 | 28.0 | 19.0 | 82.5 | 33.8 | 32.0 29.0 (US eae a ee 296.71 2058. | 3756 1188.0) 1-300 B27 |S On S700 ul33.0 36.5 PUMA ea see mcs | 29.0 | 26.0 | 30.0 | 32.6 | 24.5 | 15.3 | 35.0 | 35.0 | 35.0 | 32.8 Washing tony 26 03-22 5 2323 | 31.5 | 25.3 | 40.1 | 33.7 | 37.3 | 26.0 | 45.0 | 39.8 | 35.0 33. 4 WOTEPON . pooner eee eee aoe 24.0 23.3 26.1 38.6 22.1 21.8 32.5 | 29.1 28.0 28.9 Galiiormiaes 2 i. =o ce see oe 93.7 1.24.0 | 22.5 41522. |°20:3 of)21,6—1) 23.0) | 1055 12620 16.7 General average ....... 25.80 | 23.70 | 21.70 | 19.37 | 26.39 | 23.62 | 24.52 | 21.60 | 25.50 20.4 STATISTICS OF BARLEY FOR 1900. 785 Average yield of barley in certain countries, in bushels, per acre, 1894-1899. 4 United Year. pda Russia. fone Austria. |Hungary.| France. . ne. (*) (?) (1) (7) (2) (ie ee REE ec ebecic Meer pre Baca 19.4 33.0 21° 2152 22.0 39.9 DOOD occas scacsine sas onamme arena 26. 4 31.2 20.0 20.6 21.9 Sook JUSi ce RRS ee SR ee eee oe 23.6 30.7 18.8 22.8 21.8 35.2 232) 6o A See Se ee re ee 24.5 29.0 17.1 17.3 19.4 33.9 BOSS dos oe eee oe eee oe 21.6 32.2 20.8 22.5 23.3 37.4 SO are .ce emis sacral e cia peneetaararote 25.5 33.8 23.4 22.9 pee | 35.7 AV RTOS Bocas s5-be axn-- 23.5 31.6 20.3 21.2 21.8 | 35.2 1 Winchester bushels. 2 Bushels of 48 pounds. Average value per acre of barley in the United States, 1891-1900, by States. States and Territories. 1891. | 1892. | 1893. | 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. } 1899. | 1900 —— eS SS eee ee ee ee an Sa fearon NES Oe. ncn nn ctisiclan amon ne © soe $19.08 |$15.16 |317. a $17.23 |$16. 85 ere 16 |$13.75 |$15.12 |$17.11 | $16.99 New Hampshire ..........-.- 19.46 | 17.39 | 17.7 15.37 | 14.34 | 15.53 | 13. 50 13.63 | 16.25 15. 21 MEMMOM UCR sacs oe oases sce 19.66 | 17.16 | 16. 0 16.74 | 15. 60 13, 53 | 18.11 | 14.10 | 16.12 | 15713 Massachusetts ......c..2.-50- 20.03 | 16.87 | 22.77 | 13.67 | 14.63 | 17.40 | 22.77 | 16.17 | 20.40 | 17.80 Ruode Islang so. asss-5.02 ---| 21.84 | 17.63 | 21.92 | 21.60 | 17.63 | 17.40 | 15.12 | 17.08 | 20.30 | 21.56 INGWi YORK. =o sooo eas cticase re E 2. k 18.55 | 9.05 | 10.50 | 12.10 | 12.00 | 11.22 Pennsylvania ; 8.28 | 6.88 | 9.55] 8.54 | 10.29 9.50 TEXAS... 3. 11.66 | 6.00} 10.75 | 10.00 | 11.88 | 17.71 Tennessee . : i z : 11.55 | 6.30-} 10.62 | 10.08 | 7.04 9.11 RGRINCKY 24 aten « Su araimaiceslacre 3. 2¢ fy : 12.65 | 5.92] 8.00] 6.40] 9.03 | 15.73 OID Ree eee ee tee atemee . AS : . 67° ; 11.56 | 7.68 | 11.69 | 12.63 | 12.60 | 11.61 WE GRISHI onc Soeet ow ose : ! ( : 7.78 | 9.37 | 8.60 | 11.09 | 11.52} 11.23 1 Aa ta O42 0k eres ae ae aoe ea : 5 f 5 6.00 |} 6.70} 8.36 | 10.30 | 11.25} 11.56 MUN OISN = Foo Se eon eb Heese ee 9.00 | 7.35]. 9.50 | 10.65 | 13.63 | 12.03 WHISCOMSIN ESS oS eee w este 9.96 | 7.40] 8.96 | 11.64 | 12.00} 11.22 Minriresote j2se-26n 55 acssews 8.64 | 5.44] 6.12] 9.37] 7.75 8.51 OW Geese pis Se eis claw craton oe 6.44 5.52) 5.76 8. 84 8.06 9.77 HVEISSOUER SE 8 ) Oh eee eee eS boy oe Cae Fos oA | - 46 - 723| 75 7 BO ilar Oh len eeeds lekeaee oe .36 44 ape ey -52 | . 523) 36 45 . 723 72k -o2 2 .36 44 67% ~ 72h .51 -5d9 .30 - 48 673 iO 4 «54 .36 48 .70 712 -52 57 .30 - 50 . 123 «(ae .Oo4 -58 .38 -o7 ~ 724 «722 . 60 .62 2386 -59 . 714 . 724 62 -65 | 36 - 62 - 123) 75 . 64 . 66 37 -61 » 124 .79 : RYE. The rye crops of the world in 1899 and 1900 were notably larger than in any of the preceding years, and wholesale prices on the leading markets made a steady decline. In January, 1899, rye was worth 533 to 58 cents in Chicago, in January, 1900, from 50 to 52 cents, and in December, 1900, it was worth 45? to 49% cents. In late years exports of ryeand rye flour from the United States have been of considerable importance, reaching nearly $9,000,000 in 1898 and nearly $6,000,000 in 1899; but in 1900 there was a great falling off, the value being only $1,442,055. The export price advanced from 58.5 cents a bushel to 61.2 cents. The rye crop of this country, however, was only 23,996,000 bushels in a world’s ‘crop of 1,605,226,000 bushels in 1900, and the ratio shows very little change as com- pared with previous years. The total acreage decreased 68,000 acres, but the average yield increased from 14.4 to 15.1 bushels per acre and the farm price gained one-tenth of 1 na giving $12,295,417 as the total worth of the crop, against $12,214,118 in 1899. New York, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin are in the first class as rye States, with Kansas, Iowa, Minnesota, Illinois, Michigan, and New Jersey in the second rank. Of these States only Pennsylvania had an increased acreage, but in every case except New York the yield per acre advanced, and this, with a stationary or increased farm price, except in Michigan, brought up the average value peracre. Notable increases in yield were from 11 to 15.2 bushels per acre in Kansas, 15 to 17.2 in Illinois, and 18 to 19.5 in Minnesota. The leading advances in value per acre were in Kansas, trom $4.62 to $6.54, and in Illinois, from $7.05 to $8.08. In New York the yield per acre fell from 16 bushels to 15.1, and the value trom $8.96 to $8.46. In Michigan, while there was a slight increase in yield, the farm price dropped from 52 cents to 48, and the value per acre from $7.28 to $7.01. 788 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Rye crops of the countries named, 1896-1900. Countries. UnitedStates.<.c2- «s..t- ce Ontaniols 22 Seer o3 2 eee MAHON as A> 5 sss cence Rest ot Canadatns..3.2-2sssen-3 Total'Canada-..-.2--5-<== Total North America Grentt Britain. Jssee jee wseeec cts @reland t225 42-89 oc caidas ead Total United Kingdom... BIRelens seca none stesso nares one DM EHINAL Kee. 2 See tore as see eee IN (ey ates d thas ceo es tee IpelendMieee tae see eae eee France eee toe ee one anion STU A ee eee eeee ss sco eSneeee ALY wa eae Seek eee ee= = Germany Sesee ss seecssseicsEcaer J ATR it aa ee ee SRR SORIA PROM Par Vers pcan cation tee Groatia-Slavonuis, 222: .2.-2s>--- Total Austria-Hungary... PROUPR ATID corse hens Ce eee sib eit See ae ee ee ga soe RUGS a PTOPerssq-- 4 cows ewao on 12(0) Ein (6 ae eee See eee a Total Russia in Europe... Totalwurope.-2- == -a2=—— Sipenian- sen eee - seen ee eee Central Asia... 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. 24, 369, 000 27, 363, 000 25, 658, 000 23, 962, 000 23, 996, 000 2,301, 000 3, 489, 000 2, 757, 000 2, 357, 000 2, 432, 000 54, 000 50, 000 66, 000 , 000 27, 000 400, 000 470, 000 420, 000 400, 000 375, 000 2, 755, 000 4, 009, 000 3 | 2, $23, 000 2, 834, 000 27, 124, 000 31, 372, 000 26, 785, 000 26, 830, 600 2 065, OOON. | 102709, OGON |e 127825000) |S. = ee eee 349-000) 2835000) = —~B16000N\|25s 22205 -ce- eee ee eee 2, 414, 000 1, 992, 000 2, 000,000 2, 000, 000 24, 026, 000 23, 599, 000 21, 469, 000 21, 436, 000 26, 008, 000 20, 081, 000 18, 116, 000 16, 182, 000 18, 359, 000 18, 000, 000 13, 571, 000 11, 930, 000 13, 664, 000 11, 500, 000 12, 000, 000 22, 218, 000 20, 401, 000 20, 707, 000 16, 000, 000 19, 000, 000 69, 424, 000 48, 189, 000 66, 755, 000 66, 904, 000 63, 546, 000 15, 381, 000 18, 672, 000 19, 324, 000 20, A19, 000 19, 000, 600 4, 000, 000 4, 000, 000 4, 600, 000 2, 700, 000 3, 200, 000 335, 970,000 | 821,659,000 | 355,581, 000 341, 551, 000 336, 624, 000 76, 696, 000 65, 828, 000 $1, 620, 000 87, 676, G00 65, 000, 000 48, 426, 000 35, 309, 000 43, 142, 000 47, 482, 000 40, 000, 000 8, 021, 000 2,369, 000 3, 586, 000 2,781, 000 2,500, 000 128, 143, 000 103, 506, 000 128, 348, 000 137, 939, 000 107, 500, 000 12, 217, 000 6, 794, 000 7, 629, 000 1, 988, 000 5, 987, 000 4,800, 000 10, 000, 000 5, 437, 000 4, 655, 000 7, 000, 000 700, 983, 000 567, 466, 000 636, 467, 000 805, 230, 000 828, 816, GOO 61, 845, 000 54, 228, 000 72, 029, 000 67, 580, 000 67, 621, 000 4, 584, 000 3, 758, 000 5, 572, 000 7, 638, 000 7,500, 000 767,412,000 | 625,452,000 | 714,068, 000 | 880, 448, 000 $03, 931, 000 1, 214, 260, 000 11, 375,212, 000 {1 fs 525, 99, 000 | 1,523, 802, 000 rte 000 27,994,000 | 22,627,000 | 30,523,000 | — 15, $58, 000 833, 000 804, 000 660, 000 341, 000 28,827,000 | 23,431,000 | 31,183,000} —_ 16, 194, 000 31, 563,000 | 37,710,000 | _ 34,000,000 | __35, 000, 000 306, 022, 000 [> 465, 254, 000 re 617, 967, 000 | 1, 601, 826, 000 Nene nl Visible supply of rye in the United States the first of each month for ten years. Month. MELE Rae 28 sac stent pane ae eisam eae ARTES tree t= ee =o ee ete m ee September MCtODet < ou= fren ae oat Satins esse November -&2 220. 2 eee Peecemper sss s. Hi csoRewestee DARMATY o- 5o2 0. tkictseaew eee es repre ‘lai = a ee Re ec | 1891-1892. | 1892-1893. Bushels. 1893-1894. 1894-1895. 1895-1896. Bushels Bushels. Bushels. 450, 624 480, 000 158, 000 258, 000 408, 000 215, 000 470, 036 434, 000 511, 000 951, 978 582, 000 700, 000 1, 308, 752 658, 000 1, 250, 000 1, 575, 914 723, 000 1, 702, 000 1, 442, 059 717, 000 1, 739, 000 1, 157, 000 720, 000 1, 763, 000 1, 139, 000 1, 710, 000 1 at , 000 1 , 000 1 , 000 STATISTICS OF RYE FOR 1900. 789 Visible supply of rye in the United States the first of each month for ten years—Continued. Month. 1896-1897. 1897-1898. 1898-1899. 1889-1990. 1900-1901, Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Huby race occas es scan santos seee 1, 575, 000 2, 464, 000 988, 000 904, 000 806, 000 ING EAT (2 ERR aE eae apene ce 1, 630, 000 1, 946, 000 365, 000 638, 000 725, 006 September 2, 328, 000 2,499, 000 721, 000 647, 000 1, 056, 000 OGIOBED =. vtec e sone 2, 040, 000 3, 064, 000 894, 000 962, 000 1, 216, 000 November 2, 596, 000 3, 832, 000 1, 260, 000 1, 906, 000 1, 513, 000 December 2, 695, 000 8, 932, 000 1, 212, 000 1, 892, 000 1, 754, 000 VOILUGNY, 28 ase ane ses 3, 276, 000 4, 436, 000 1,573, 000 1, 806, 000 1, 651, 000 WEDTURLY =< 2c: Saecas fs age oa 4, 266, 000 4, 291, 000 1, 576, 000 1, 734, 000 1, 530, 000 MWGTCD Acne oS cesencecoes seamen ne 4, 104, 000 4, 099, 000 1, 724, 000 1, 951, 000 1, 582, 000 Ny 0101) I lips PO le SE See Save 4, 128, 000 8, 682, 000 1, 658, 000 1, 566, 000 1, 333, 000 MSO Se cones -cbeeeenc newman eee 8, 607, 000 3, 039, 000 1, 335, 000 1 44t OO0M |S = a2 Ba semee Suess ae ee Rea tng | 2, 798, 000 1, 526, 000 975, 000 11206: 000'| See ae ee Condition of the rye crop of the United States, monthly, 1885-1900. ae 7 ep mfsaee eee Hi = : 3 Ba = is 3) a 5a |) a oa = = B= Sy) See |) Gea) et eels va < a = 5 < = < = 5 5 = = 1885...] 87.7 86.0 830i} 87.0) | 9450"). 2252--. 1893 ..| 85.7 82.7] 84.6 83.8 | 78.5 82.0 1886...| 96.6 | 95.7 94,4 95.6 88.6 93.4 || 1894..] 94.4 90.7 93.2 93.9 79.8 86.9 1887...| 92.0] 90.8 88.9 88.0 84.6 | 82.2 || 1895..|; 87.0; 88.7 85.7 32. 2 84.0 83.7 1888...) 93.5] 92.9° 93.9] 95.1 91.4 92.8 || 1896 ..| 82.9) 87.7 85. 2 83.8} 88.0 82.0 1889...} 93.9] 96.5 95. 2 96.7 95.4 91.6 || 1897 ..| 88.9 88.0 89.9 95.0 | 89.8 90.1 1890...| 92.8 93.5 92.3 92.0 86.8 85.4 || 1898 ..| 92.1 94.5 | 97.1 93.8 93.7 89.4 1891...} 95.4] 97.2 95.4 93.9 89.6 95.1 |} 1899 ..| 84.9 85. 2 84.5 | 83.3 | 89.0 82.0 1892...| 87.0] 88.9 91.0} 92.9 89.8} 88.5 || 1900..| 84.8 88.5 87.6 | 89.6 76.0 84.2 Acreage, production, value, prices, and exports of rye of the United States, 1866 to 1900, inclusive. rer- Chicago cash price per - 4 bushel, No.2... | Domestic Ene expres F u c eluding = price | Farm value, May of oe RCI ACTEABE: per Dee. 1. December. | following | 2¥° Hour, isieine Geir fiscal years el a Sete bese : aay ae ; July 1. Dec. 1. Low. |High.| Low. |High. y Acres. Bush. Bushels. Cents. Dollars. Cents.| Cents. Cents.|Cents.| Bushels. 1866 ..... 1,548,033 | 13.5 90,864,944 | 82.2! 17,149,716 |......|....-. 142 | 150 934,971 (ee 1,689,175 | 13.7 93,184,000 | 100.4 | 23,280,584 | 132 | 157| 173] 185 564, 901 fee 1,651,321 | 13.6 92' 504,800 | 94.9] 21,349,190 | 106:/ 118] 100] 1153 92) 869 1909". 5.- 1, 657,584 | 13.6 99' 597,900 | 77.0| 17,341,861| 661 773| 78} 833 199, 450 taro. 3. 1,176,137 | 13.2 15, 473,600 | 73.2| 11,326,967] 67| 74| 81] 91 87,174 187122. 1,069,531 | 14.4 15,365,500 | 71.1] 10,927,623| 62| 633] 75] 93 $32, 689 1 ee 1,048,654 | 14.2 14; 888,600 | 67.6] 10,071,061 | 573} 70} 683} 70 611, 749 ya 1,150,355 | 13.2 15,142,000} 70.3 10,638,258] 70| 81{| 914 102} 1,923,404 1874 ..... 1,116,716 | 13.4 14,990,900 | 77.4] 11,610,339] 93] 993! 103] 1073 267, 058 1875 ....- 1, 359, 788 | 13.0 17,722,100 | 67.1| 11,894,223] 67] 683| 613] 703 589, 159 1876 ....- 1, 468,374 | 13.9 20,374,800 | 61.4} 12,504,970} 653; 73{| 70] 924) 2,934 856 Iie 1,412,902 | 15.0 91,170,100 | 57.6 | 12,201,759| 553| 663] 54] 60| 4.249684 10GEs os: 1,622,700 | 15.9 95,842,790 | 52.5} 13,566,002) 44/ 443] 47} 52] 4(877,821 ey, oe 1,625, 450 | 14.5 93,639,460 | 65.6} 15,507,431 | 733| 81] 7331 85] 2,943,894 cts pee 1, 767,619 | 13.9 24540, 829 | 75.6] 18,564,560) 82| 913! 115] 118] 1,955,155 1981.22: 1,789,100 | 11.6 20,704,950 | 93.3] 19.3827, 415 21 981 771 83| 1,003,609 1682) 08 2,997,894 | 13.4 29,960,037 | 61.5 | 18,439,194] 57| 583) 62{ 67] 2,206,212 5 aE 9,314,754 | 12.1 28,058,582 | 58.1] 16,300,503 1} 60} 603] 623] 6, 247,590 Tondo g he 2,343,963 | 12.2 28,640,000 | 51.9| 14,857,040] 51| 52| 68] 73} 2,974,390 Wasnt 2'129,301 | 10.2 21,756,000 | 57.9} 12,594,820] 583) 61] 58] 61 216, 699 1895" 2,129,918 | 11.5 24, 489/000 | 53.8] 13,181,330] 53| 543 4 562 377, 302 ae 2) 053,447 | 10.1 20,693,000 | 54.5] 11,283,140] 553] 613! 63] 68 94) 897 Fe gee 2,364,805 | 12.0 28,415,000 | 58.8| 16,721,869] 50| 52| 39] 412 309, 266 18g. as 2,171,493 | 13.1 28,420,299 | 42.3] 12/009,752| 44] 453] 49:] 541] 2,280,975 1890 2... 2,141,853 | 12.0 25, 807,472 | 62.9| 16,229,992] 6421) 68} 83 2 358, 263 1890 2,176,466 | 14.6 31,751,868 | 77.4 | 24,589,217| 86| 92] 70:| 791] 12,068,628 15022 2,163,657 | 12.9 27,978,824 | 54.2} 15,160,056 | 46) 51) 03) 62} 1,493, 924 1990324. 2,038,485 | 13.0 26,555,446 | 51.3] 13,612,222] 45| 473| 443! 48 249, 152 199423. 1,944,780 | 13.7 26,727,615 | 50.1 | 13,395,476 | 473) 49| 623} 67 32) 045 i ee 1,890,345] 14.4 27,210,070 | 44.0] 11,964,826] 32| 353] 33] 363] 1,011,128 18068 6 1,831,201 | 13.3 24,369,047 | 40.9 9,960,769 | 37} 423} 323} 354] 8,575, 667 18975. -22 1,703,561 | 16.1 27, 363,324 | 44.7| 12,239,647| 453) 47| 48] 751] 15,662,035 19006 e 1,643,207 | 15.6 25, 657,522 | 46.3 | 11,875,350| 523) 55:/ 563] 62] 10,169,822 te eee 1,659,308 | 14.4 23,961,741 | 51.0| 12,214,118} 49| 52| 53 1] 2389 012 1900-2 1,591,362 | 15.1 23,995,927 | 51.2] 12,205,417 | 453] 493)......]...-..]--.- ese 3 790 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Acreage, production, and value of rye in the United States in 1900, by States. Average | ANEMIGE Average e States and Territories. Acreage. | yield per| Production. ees value per F oes N Brus acre. jn ce acre. Best. Dee. 1. Acres. Bushels. Bushels. Cents. | Dollars. Dollars. 1, 22 0 RC Se Perea oe a aE 993 Ei, 2 17, 080 $2 14.10 14, 006 New Hampshire .. 2-4... 887 El. 4 15, 168 82 14. 02 12, 438 WeEPm On be: coc co wawn oteceta ss 2,887 16.6 47, 924 61 10.13 29, 234 Massachusetts ....:<.-.s..-.- 7,914 16.9 133, 747 a) 12. 68 100, 310 Cypnectieut) 235. 552-4.-5-4 14, 106 17.0 239, 802 65 11.05 155, 871 INGO OLR «0 wi cienin aotnaitacs 211, 203 15.1 3, 189, 165 56 8. 46 1, 785, 982 New Grsey ine sc teice aac oe 64, 717 15.9 1, 029, 000 55 8.74 565, 950 PennNSyIVANIS >. so. 92s- so==5 288, 647 15.3 4, 416, 299 53 8.11 2, 340, 688 Mariana. nor cca gona 24, 729 16.5 408, 028 52 8.58 212,175 Winisiyiy Ce See ee ee seme 30, 250 10.5 370, 125 58 6.09 214, 672 North Garoling:.sc..cssc.snce 46, 212 8.9 411, 287 76 6.76 312, 578 South Carolinas. -22-/--c----=- 3, 902 7.5 29, 265 105 7.87 30, 728 GeOreia: 26. Po cac te ewienins cee 15, 647 7.0 109, 529 103 YAPAL 112,815 PA SS elas os oR ae = speiee eee 1, 804 7.8 14, 071 103 8.03 14, 493 MOXBRE Freese tinaane cae anes 3, 917 16.5 64, 63 67 11.05 43, 302 SAT PSS oes Sacra clea eica a sinie 1,715 11.5 19, 722 72 8. 28 14, 200 Moemmessters 22525 oF. cee hess 11, 297 11.0 124, 267 68 7.48 84, 502 Westavireimig=. 3.5.5. 2-25o.2 5 12,171 10.5 127, 796 64 6.72 81, 789 TAGS ORT (ol AR ee ea ee 22, 488 13.1 294, 593 63 8. 25 185, 594 ORD sna saassianoas 30, 905 16.6 513, 028 55 9.13 282, 163 Michigan ... 71, 306 14.6 1, 041, 068 48 7.01 499, 713 Indiana. 32, 167 15.1 485, 722 50 7.55 242, 861 Illinois. ... ee 73, 877 7 2 1, 270, 684 47 8.08 597, 221 WRISSMMUEAe 2h e505 ee 190, 534 15.8 38, 010, 437 49 7.74 1, 475,114 - dy, SULUS (oD) 2 ee See eee aE ae ae 53, 151 19.5 1, 036, 444 42 8.19 435, 306 TOW a. Store noe en ae hee 100, 365 18.0 1, 806, 570 41 7.38 740, 694 INMASSOULT sabe? 3 os Soto oe 9, 607 14.0 134, 498 51 7.14- 68, 594 MGMISHS 2h ae ook sess ames ae 126, 479 15.2 1, 922, 481 43 6.54 826, 667 ING BRASkae ess 2S Soo See 61, 073 14,2 867, 237 40 5. 68 346, 895 SOU DRKOL Lt: So. a soe 2, 623 10.6 27, 804 39 4.13 10, 844 INGELM DR ROES 205m. cemcsenc 16, 152 5.2 83, 990 41 2.13 34, 436 Cslgmda= ee 2,350 16.8 39, 480 54 9.07 21,319 Wits eases os eae eee 3, 383 17.5 59, 202 52 9.10 80, 785 WiashingtOnasssccce- 5. ssc-- 2, 403 16.3 39, 169 58 9.45 22, 718 OTESO RE ase 5, 841 16.1 94, 040 61 9. 82 57, 364 @alifprmigecs: 2 se25 as 52- se 38, 660 13.0 502, 580 58 7.54 291, 496 United States .........- 1, 591, 362 15.1 23, 995, 927 51-2 7.73 12, 295, 417 Average yield per acre of rye in the United States, 1891-1900, by States. States and Territories. 1893. | 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. sh. Bush. | Bush. | Bush.) Bush.) Bush. | Bush.| Bush. | Bush. ISSR ec eeePee - appdata ee che ip 3. 12.0 16.5 19.2 18.0 13.5 18.0 15.0 17.2 New Hampshire ...-..-.--:-- 16.2 | 14.0 | 15:2 |-16.4. |) 1620) -|, 1926, 1/18,0'" || 2725. Abe Lick WMETINGRb ooo ene Saou te- ct ee 16.1 14.3 14.0 13: 16.0 18.6 16.0 19.4 17.0 16.6 Massachusetts ..-..-2.---..<: 15:3 | 1622) | 1622 |UOlD |19595 1 9220) |) 2S S| ae l6s0) 16.9 Gomnecvious segs: 26 -2.- ance 14.3 | 14.3 | 15.9 | 12.9 {16.9 | 15.4 | 19.0 | 18:0 | 180 17.0 Mee MOn.. Soo scis Sonesta cacy. 15:0; Qe «| PaO | Ib ee nS a TAUB PES. o' liven hel ON 15.1 INGw JEISeY =. sone sae E73 | S377 9.38) 8.14 | 6:94) 6.49.) 8.50] 7.75} 8.25 8.74 Peunsylvania . 2. ~22.22-2225- UCSD) re Beh Scoot he atone ateOe| S.A women “Tbo 8.11 i Gide Ga ee epee 10.74 | 7.01] 6.68) 6.35} 6.32] 4.42] 7.82] 7.83] 7.98 8.58 AREER) + oe oe ek } 6.72} 3.54] 5.21) 4.75] 5.72] 4.80| 5.50] 5.15} 4.77 6.09 North Carolina, ..<. 1. <3 223. 5.95} 5.52} 5.39 | -6.30] 4.93] 5.32] 5.28] 5.82} 5.25 6.76 South Carolina .......-. eens 6.42 | 6.88 | 5.94] 4.51] 10.70] 4.18] 5.68] 8.67] 5.45 7.87 Cay Ee eS Ie ae gee 8.74 6 62006298 |) 6 31 | 612°) 7.17 | 6:87 FS8e) 6.72 7.21 YT CV ee eee 8.40 | 6.50 | 11.27 | 12.64] 8.57] 7.04] 11.33 |] 11.65} 8.32 8.03 PEEAAG Poe ae ae Se ace nee hie 8.96 | 7.84] 6.32] 8.48] 4.13] 4.69} 8.64] 8.52} 8.20} 11.05 PSRRALNISAR = S552 os Pen Se 8.18 | 6.72] 4.35] 6.84] 6.20}. 7.00} 9.46] 7.41 | 8:14 8. 23 Menmesseet sf. Oo se ain soo 7.40} 5.65] 5.60} 4.48] 4.46] 5.40} 5.80] 5.56} 6.03 7.48 West Virginia........ ea 7.98 | 6.37] 5.33 | 4.56] 9.82] 5.94] 5.87] 5.82] 6.20 6.72 Ken tuehkyes foo sss aeecceece 8.55 | 7.01] 7.66] 7.20} 7.39 | 5.94} 6.89] 7.15} 7.00 8. 25 ORIG esses. Sea ss Ae 13.18 | 7.06} 7.14] 8.23] 6.66] 3.74] 7.92} 7.83} 8.80 9.13 =, RON Sa se eas OE oc ee in Ey 7.26} 5.63 | 6.07] 5.44] 2.94} 6.30] 6.58] 7.28 7.01 THCHONG) J S2-- sacs Does oe: | 13.42] 6.50] 6.48| 8.11 } 56.12] 3.82] 5.46] 6.67) 6.24 7.55 GEM OIS yoann sais ss nietce | 13.48 | 6.15] 5.70} 8.00] 6.08} 5.20} 6.82] 6.512} 7.05 8.08 Wisconsin = c=. 0p ee | 11.39} 6.58] 6.24] 6.88] 5.64] 4.82] 6.56] 6.58] 7.20 7.74 Moarmesttats.2 9228.2. 2:35. j 11.70} 7.52) 6.27) 7.53] 5.91} 4.68} 6.36) 7.79 | 7.56 8.19 POW are = ok ec as ela Sees 11.39". 6.47 | 5.994 7°77 | 6.39! 6.08 | 5.76) 7.60} 7.20 7.38 Massourt 22 252 3.03. be | 9.86] 6.25] 5.76) 7.24] 4.7 5.73 | 5.28] 6.16] 6.50 7.14 Ria Sa5 2 255.2 5 Soden Seas 9.15 | 6.00} 2.66 | 2.67 | 2.24] 2.45] 6.60] 5.77] 4.62 6.54 Nebradhass 55 S62 ook eo : 5.65} 3.54] 2.93 | 2.79] 3.72] 6.44] 6.39] 6.08 5.68 South Dakota 22.25.5022... — F623 S92 2007 > 2.109) ~3.03: | 53,78.) b. 6€ |b. 65 4.13 North Dakota 5.19 | 3.94] 5.55] 5.75) 2.64] 5.22) 56.40] 5.55 255 Coloradomes.c253 5 sees asso. 7.59 | 10.50 | 10.30 | 6.96 | 14.57 | 7.80] 9.00} 6.72 9. 07 Utah) [ae se- 9 es ae 7.26} 5.59} 10.83 | 6.93 | 8.00] 7.20} 8.97] 8.16 9.10 Washington 9.35 | 10.42 | 8.06 | 20.03 | 7.50 | 12.09 | 10.44] 9.60 9.45 Oregon. 2254-3 7.20 | 7.66) 8.04] 6.05] 7.62] 8.85 | 10.37] 7.70 9. 82 Caltiormings= Ae es 7.70 | 10.50 | 7.92} 6.73} 8.70] 7.93 6.30} 11.70 7.54 Q @ i=} zg ~ fo = F oO ‘ . is — for} o (77) Ga for) Co © fo) oO he i ~I =" (os) ~I bo oe ~I oo So ~I ~I w 792 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Average farm price of rye per bushel in the United States December 1, 1891-1900, by States. States and Territories. 1891. | 1892. | 1893. | 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. MaING@ = cee cecceee ss cua ten see 97 84 108 $1 85 67 82 84 84 82 New Hampshire ........-..- 95 83 78 74 76 72 84 75 81 82 IMETIMONUS casa. os coche ses 90 73 73 73 57 65 60 58 62 61 Massdchusetitel 255 85 85 70 70 64 71 60 64 75 76 South Caroling. -ses+accc cece 107 98 110 96 115 87 86 102 109 105 GEOTOUR cecic ce ac oo- cineieesi coe 115 100 108 97 85 101 92 98 112 103 PAN SDAIN Bias onsite eae ere es srayeraiare 112 100 115 95 84 88 118 105 104 103 PERG re ctee ctenivasswiaw Genet mereretais 80 70 68 75 75 67 a2 71 82 67 INTICATISHS: Sete n cece ceaeace eee 88 82 58 76 72 70 86 65 74 72 TEnMeCSSCEl izes see cee eee 85 65 59 59 62 60 58 53 67 68 WieSt VIneiniay cc coset cases 76 67 65 57 61 56 61 52 62 64 MenIC Kye ete s cn oak aes 83 62 58 59 56 54 53 55 70 63 ODOS tee et eee coset none ane 85 56 47 45 45 39 44 45 65 55 Michigan 78 53 44 46 40 32 42 43 62 48 TRavout: ict: Haas Gey ee eee eae rere 78 2 45 42 42] 36 42 43 48 50 MIN GIS eho Soe. woe vith 50 41 43 40 34 44 44 47 47 WWHISCONSEDAE scene erento 78 48 43 43 35 33 41 43 48 49 WEN eSO Leben see Netemer ene cee 68 44 41 43 28 30 37 33 42 42 TOW eee eek eae ee 67 49 41 46 31 29 36 40 40 41 WRISSOUBU eee iat eecacen 7 50 45 47 39 47 44 47 50 51 IKiGNSAS aoe cee caw ae sten erostes 64 40 38 46 38 35 40 37 42 43 INGDINAKGpe sso sccm che canecees 60 39 35 48 30 22 32 34 38 40 South Dakota,.: ... ces ci/nacne 60 37 37 46 25 27 35 34 37 39 North Dakota loss secee ese Jee 65 44 32 37 27 22 36 36 37 41 Golorado ns aaseen ccehonearce 62 52 50 66 48 62 52 50 48 54 (Uist ocr cre siewaise ane seein: 64 55 47 57 35 40 60 46 48 52 Washington... 2 2, 55 69 56 75 50 62 58 60 58 Oregon....... 80 60 73 57 54 60 69 ae 70 61 CaiitoOnmiae sone cecce: secteeee 90 67 60 | 60 58 60 65 70 78 58 General average ......- 77.44 | 54.18 | 51.26 | 50.12 | 43.97 | 40.87 | 44.73 | 46.28 | 50.97 51.2 —— ~~ —— Wholesale prices of rye per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1896-1900. New York. Cincinnati. | Chicago. Duluth. Date. Prime State. No. 2. No. 2. Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. 1896. Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. {Pine yavSe AAnABedeemeppSOCOnC ne AC 2acC 45 45 37} 44 324 412 29 34 MG DTUALY pesene coterie aeimecne cebcee: 44 50 411 44 38 41 34 354 VIROL Me cite etic hese ees. mace ae acme ace 47% 49 39 42 35} 40 33% 36 SAAT es etre i Seemeinnrs eae eile ise 443 473 40 44 352 373 34 36 IMIR UV Ee eccepince sate ceer ee eame se 433 453 36 44 33 363 32} 354 MME oot ie cli kecGoceceh scinecemeae 37 44 33 36 282 34 282 322 MY = See ce woe Se ceee peat cn eee eee 354 40 262 35 29 313 292 30 AIP USt ie Semen sie cee otis stoma 364 40 292 35 28 32 282 33 SEPLCMEbEIN. fe. ceeeer tot tae seca ae 338 42 803 36% 304 36 3l 36 OCTOUER Sa-cok ce sees see es temas 39 48 362 43 34 41 34 40 INOVEDLDCL - oes soe nes ese te seeneae 40 44 89 40 36 43 34 40 DOCCEMPEL.. asec se cess ccc ces So ace ne 32 44 35 42 37 421 36 39 1897. TESTE a een See eaaneee cach aoc aneace 40 46 36 44 851 382 34 39 Weproiary ess. .2-08.6. 5, eee ee were 39 45 36 42 $23 36 33 35} 40 44 36 41} 32 344 32} 35 37 45 36 39 313 363 30 374 38 43 35 421 32} 352 33 354 38 42 3 39 824 35 333 35 38 46 33 36 34 42 34 41h IMA STING see seek Bale cn Se Sotelo ieee 42 55 35 52 41 56 42 53 September: cc. a-seesnstessccdeeses a2 47 58 46 50 46} 53 45 524 OCTODEE 2 seae te tmna cn cocceseeeaeecc cs 52 Pa 45 47 44 473 44 48 INOVGIDCL 2202 cseeccsenassaccen eens 53 + 46 47 45 48 45 475 WECEMDET See wesseaet ce seiaceisidereces 53 55 46 48 45} 47 45} » 46} 1898. SUSTITISUI YS cayeercte one bene entinea dee aceae 4 574 451 53 3 48 45 47h MEDTUANY cookie cme cae cebiemenincens 552 592 48 53 46} 50} 461 50 MATCH one wee cods oe pteareue eens 58 60 62 543 48} 50g 48 49% SACS rill ee gee a Senn oe see eee oom eeeae 574 69 52 66 50 62 49 62} gs bape Se ten ee IA, EI 60 743 52 80 48 75 48 72 STATISTICS OF RYE AND BUCKWHEAT FOR 1900. 793 Wholesale prices of rye per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1896-1900—Cont’ d. New York. Cincinnati. | Shicago. Duluth. Date. Prime State. No. 2. No. 2. Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. 1898. Cents. | Cents. | Cents. Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. VUNG Sarees asics yas wate Satie ante = mes 50 55} 40 45 423 48}) 41} 48} CAIUS Gee ch ce cinie mira a owciiake Riteia eateries 49} 52} 45 50 41 46} 404 45% Ronen ber ao-2 ese een eee 50 3 45 48} 423 49 | 42 47 Oetener’ ose. se bee aieees a 53 60 48 57 443 614) 44 50 Wovember’ a. 25.5 stoke ee cs oe oan 58 60 56 59 49} 523) 50 51 WSCEM DEV vec Jon4 cwawisns dees vanes eos 592 64 56 58} 23 653 50 54 1899, WRDUATY.- coca soca matens saece wine sce 63} 67% 57 65 534 58} 53 58 MODLUBIY 2-5-2 ses eteaecacckcisitesers 643 68 60 65 54 564 543 56 Mare he jee oceans mee cto eee see 63 67} 59 65 491 56} 48} 552 SALONS in koro acon eeeae eco Cals ace a 63 683 60 65 52 59 503 58 LD OOS RE Le 5 Siege em nee Rade a, Sy Se 65 67 62 68 56} 62 56 584 JRTinD Jee Seta 5 See coceene Boe oes Crea 64 663 64 68 62 56 594 MRM aca re ee cic ceca baceeeer ce 60 653 57 67 51 60 50 58 RUS UN be se vise seers ise = 59 613 56 60 513 563 504 533 September 613 66 58 65 54 538 52} 573 October=- =... <- 61 63 614 65% 54} 58 53 572 November 56 62 59 64 49 53 43 52 December 58 613 60 “652 49 52 47 491 : 1900. WARUATY en qo ce eelen cs ce staweepcece cee s 60 61i 59 64 50 52 48} 50 Ne DRUn ny see ee eae eee bee ome sae 3 642 61 65 51 552 50 53 March 26 on aa cn wane eee ce aseen 603 633 60 64 22 55 51 534 Aprile ss StS es ee ae eee 602 632 60 634 53 55} 61: 524 MS ee ec ee ee AER Se res 602 623 61 633 53 562 513 53} DUNG eos ons acccec yeas eneecnaese esses 613 68 61 67 523 603 522 604 DULY eet ec ewes He eee eae gece ceelese 7 65 59 66 50 58 49 572 ATI SUIS ne ene mecemeis oe seeaee ae 54h 58 51k 60 48 51; 48 50k Seprerm ber) see wean ss soe ae eco se 563 603 53 57 50+ 53% 50 534 Octoberss 8 22 Seok ses essese55 seks 56 61 55 59 47; 52 48 53 INO VeMiber +. | 20:0° | 20:0 22.0 Wermontc. 52. 2h ee = scans sa 2200) 120509 } 29:2. |) 2234 34.5 2) B14 | 24.0 | 21.4, | 23.0 25.0 Massachusetts ......... -| 16.5 | 11.5 | 27.5 | 18.9 | 15.0 | 18.3 | 19.0 | 20.0 | 20.0 17.0 @onnechcut ]-22--2..2525 == 416.0 -] 20.0 -) 1528. | 96,4. 1 95.4. 1 14752: | 17.0. | 19.0. | 19:0 16.0 ING WIV OIK: <2. cas no eos e- 17.5 | 14.7 | 14.4 | 15.5 | 21.4 | 18.8 | 22.0 | 16.8 | 13.0 14.0 New Jersey occa ce nc ssceees a2, aso | aa Ia AS IB, W207 | 16.0 | 21,07 |) 210 16.9 Pennsylvania. 502-422-2222 dS. 6) a4 Gass 1850) A909) 7S | 20.0. | 17.2 | 20.0 14.0 Delaware oo 2 secon ee ce eeece apeseceee 20.0 | 20.0 | 10.0 | 20.0 | 19.0 | 16.5 | 18.0 13.0 Maryland\.° 3-32. - tee 12.6 | 12.5 | 11.8 ]'20.0 | 1079 | 22:7 | 19.0 | 12.2 | 13.0 15.0 Mirpimiiey Ss oe oe 2 12D S28) ers eT 1850). | 14.0) | 17.8) 40 13.0 North Carolina)... 25.2.-2222.- = |e 2 DED) ets ce) 270012050) | 11.0. } 19.6. 107.0 13.0 PENDESSCO) oo oes ace see csices Sees 170) 14256" 278" 1100! | 24.0 } 18.0 | 18.0.1 12:0 14.0 West Virginia 23-. 2222.5: .22. (18. be 1658) db eor6 [1828.1 195. | 19.0 1205. | 127%0 17.0 Ohio S352 2 ent 15.5 | 12.6 | 12:0 | 14.9 | 14.6 | 18.8 | 18.0 | 20.0 | 16.0 16.0 Michigartir: oss sacciac - Secse’ 14.2 | 18:0) | 38.9) } 4250) Pa72° 115.3 | 17.0 | 14.2 | 10 14.0 Mrignine 3k ono nace ects 13.2 | 11.5 6.9 | 14.8 | 14.3 | 24.0 | 14.0 | 18.4 | 16.0 14.0 IIR See eee one cee 114.0 | 11.3 | 11.6 | 11.7 | 13.3 | 13.8 | 13.0 | 14.0. | 15.0 15.0 WusGOnSin! =25 552 ee seat) 9.5 | 13.5 | 15.8 SD PEO S| 136 |} 18.0 15.6 15:0 14.0 Minnesota 5225-5. <2o2 as e8 12.5 | 13.8 | 15.2 QZ loners 10.6% 7:0 > 11520). 4] L720 15.0 LOW: ona stone crenac esas A925 8 | 1ON2 1 13)2 0-326) pits) biel 1622) 1, 17:.0). | A6h0) || 16:0 15.0 Missouri! =... <5 Sess ee 12.5 | ala al vas Bee SoZ 20k 2188) -1 15.0) | 558) 14.0 13.0 Nebrasks 6 223552 52.5225 212 12:0 | 8:2 | 14.7 3.7 6:7 “21-53. | 14,0) 1258: 5) 16.0 16.0 OPEP ON <5). 2s ceo ativesee eee epee eeens 11.2 | 20.0 | 38:0 | 15.5 | 21.0 | 18.0 | 14.0 | 17.0 13.0 General average ....... 15. 30 14.10 | 14.86 | 6.95 | 20.10 | 18. 66 | 20. 89 | 17. 28 | 16. 56 15.0 States. 1891. | 1892. | 1893. | 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. Manipese oo 50 eran $13. 42 [$10.83 gts. 66 |$21.92 $17.76 |$16.07 $15.40 [$10.34 | $9.68 | $14.70 New Hampshire .-..-.......- 14.40 | 12.25 | 8.58 | 12.20 | 14.05 | 17.20 | 14.85 | 9.40 | 10.00 | 11.44 Wermnariis 9. ees = i soscos 12.37 | 9.60 | 15.48 |, 12.77 | 12.77 | 12.56 | 11.04] 9.84 | 11.96 | 12.50 Massachusetts ...222220222.2. 11.55 | 8.97 | 20.63 | 12.85 | 8.85 | 9.70 | 12.54 | 12.90] 14.00] 12.24 Connecticut: ...s2.-5-.2245- 12.32 | 9.00 | 11.38 | 10.99] 8.62] 7.24| 9.69] 10.64 | 11.97] 10.40 New Yorks) u feos, 9.80 | 7.35| 8.64] 8.37] 9.42] 6.96| 8.80] 7.56| 7.67] 7.98 Newdresey 2c 3., 2a, 9.51! 7.12] 9.50! 9.36] 9.35! §.07| 7.84] 11.34]11.76| 9.44 Pennsylvania...-..........-- 7.75 | 7.69] 8.32| 9.54| 8.76| 6.57] 8.82] 7.57|10.80| 7.70 Delaware 2725.05. so eh 11.47} 8.46 | 11.00 | 10.00] 5.00} 6.00| 6.84] 6.60] 8.82] 6.76 Merrvletads 2 jess et, 8.75 | 8.12] 6.84] 11.20] 6.10| 11.12] 9.69| 6.47| 7.28] 8.55 Mirgiia® Se 00209 wiih se 8.12] 5.06} 7.31| 7.94| 5.45] 8.46] 7.00| 7.79| 7.56] 7.15 North Carolina -.2.2.2....... 6.44] 3.96| 5.63| 8.79] 5.28] 12.00| 5.39] 9.36] 8.33] 7.28 5 | 4.65] 6.80] 7.30| 5.40] 14.88] 10.26] 9.36| 6.84] 8.26 10.60 | 7.82 | 14.01} 10.72] 9.75] 9.31} 10.05] 9.52] 9.52 7.43 | 7.20] 9.83] 8.03} 8.08] 9.00} 10.20] 9.28] 9.98 6.37] 7.37] 6.60| 7.40] 5.81] 6.46| 5.96! 6.05] 7.14 6.67 | 3.86} 8.29] 8.29] 12.24] 6.86] 9.38| 9.44] 8.54 6.78 | 6.61] 9.01] 5.85] 6.21| 7.41] 7.28] 8.70] 9.75 6.08] 9.01} 4.76] 8.23] 5.13] 6.84] 6.20] 9.45] -8.26 6.21] 8.06] 5.43] 7.80] 4.35| 7.65] 7.35] 8.84] 8.55 6.42 | 8.05 | 10.20] 6.75] 7.45] 8.33] 7.69| 9.28] 9.60 7.35 | 7.87] 5.52| 5.92| 15.26] 9.00] 9.48] 8.54| 8.97 4.10] 7.64| 2.52] 4.36 | 10.65] 7.14] 7.81] 9.92] 10.24 8.40 | 10.00 | 20.90] 7.75 | 14.28] 9.90] 8.12] 12.58| 10.01 7.81 | 8.67] 8.92| 9.09| 7.32] 8.80] 7.77| 9.23| 8937 796 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Average farm price of buckwheat per bushel in the United States December 1, 1891-1900, by States. States. 1891. | 1892. | 1893. | 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. ; Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents.| Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. Walne'eacn emcee no aes 61 57 54 58 46 38 44 39 44 New Hampshire'.. 2... 25.%<-i<- 67 70 37 61 47 63 55 47 50 Wermontestoccccce sccctewiaae 55 48 53 57 37 40 46 46 52 Massachusetts! 2e2 a 2. en 70 78 75 63 59 53 66 61 70 Connecticutss te cae ce 77 75 72 67 56 51 57 56 63 INGW MODKae sc ecceseese ee eaee 56 50 60 54 44 37 40 45 59 New Jersey: -. 255 -cac2ccce sacs 67 57 66 65 50 39 49 54 56 PenMsyVEVANiIOss..-s-scecace as 57 53 59 53 44 38 42 44 54 Delaware o. 2. dae .esese seen 75 60 55 50 50 30 36 40 49 Maryland’:.22.6.5-2-2505--0siec 70 65 58 56 56 49 51 53 56 WMiroiniia; 2s aan eee ee stoac 65 61 55 54 54 47 50 45 54 North: Caroline. ce==>--seece 56 55 49 47 44 60 49 48 49 MEWNESICEs .25..5seoer nsee nese esas 62 54 57 54 62 57 52 67 West Virginiat ten. 2-2 2.05 60 65 68 62 57 50 49 49 56 OIG) s-soaaaccseoseeusessneees 65 59 60 66 55 43 50 51 58 MIChIPaiiveeaacte tees tsee se 50 49 53 55 43 38 38 42 55 Indianaesssecek- Sean Seer ess 2 63 58 56 56 58 61 49 51 59 MUNIN GISkE 252 aaswccosseacence 64 60 57 77 At 45 57 52 58 Wisconsin 53 45 57 56 46 38 38 40 63 Minnesota 56 45 53 59 51 41 45 49 52 TO Wal Chee ene eae aneh eee 60 60 61 75 50 46 49 48 58 Missouri : vis) 65 58 60 58 70 60 60 61 Nebraska 68 50 52 68 65 50 51 61 62 | SS 55.57 | 45.21 | | | 56.98 | 51.85 | 58.36 39.19 | 42.14 | 44, 97 | 55. 74 POTATOES. The potato crop of the United States in 1900 was 210,926,897 bushels, worth on the farm $90,811,167. This was the largest value reached since 1894, although the crop was smaller by nearly 18,000,000 bushels than in 1899. The decrease in yield was more than made up by an advance from 39 cents to 43.1 cents in the farm price. The acreage in 1900 was larger by 29,703 acres than in 1899, but the average yield fell off from 88.6 bushels per acre to 80.8 bushels. The larger part of the potato crop of this country is produced by the States of New York, Iowa, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Illinois, Ohio, Wisconsin, Nebraska, Minnesota, Missouri, Kansas,and Maine. The New York acreage is usually nearly double that of any other State and the value of the crop is more than one-eighth of the total. The area planted annually in the other States named runs between 100,000 and 200,000 acres. -The increased acreage in 1900 was due mainly to an increase of 13,000 acres in New York and 9,000 acres in Pennsylvania. The yield declined in New York from 88 bushels an acre to 81, and in Pennsylvania from 85 bushels to 58, the farm price at the same time advancing from 40 to 45 cents in New York and from 43 to 53 cents in Pennsylvania. Notable changes were male also in Minnesota, where the acreage decreased 7,000 acres, the yield per acre from 96 to 81 bushels, and the price advanced from 25 to 30 cents; in Wisconsin, where the acreage fell off nearly 5,000 acres and the price advanced from 26 to 28 cents; Iowa, where the decrease in acreage was 4,000 acres, in yield from 100 bushels to 72 bushels per acre, and the advance in price from 23 to 37 cents; in Missouri, where the acreage was 3,000 acres greater, the yield increased from 83 to 93 bushels per acre, but the price fell from 40 to 35 cents; in Illinois, where the acreage increased by 3,000 acres, the yield fell from 96 bushels to 92 per acre, and the price was unchanged; in Michigan, where the acreage decreased by 1,500 acres, the yield advanced from 66 to97 bushels per acre, and the price fell from 32 to 26 cents; and in Nebraska, where the acreage increased 3,000 acres, the yield fell from 94 to 66 bushels per acre, and the price advanced from 25 to 49 cents a bushel. It will be noted that in no crop is there a larger variation in yield per acre in the important States, running from 66 bushels per acre in Nebraska to 103 bushels in Wisconsin, nor a greater change in the yield in the same State in different years. The farm prices also vary greatly. The wholesale price in Chicago in 1900 made little change and in other cities did not show such marked variations as are found in the farm prices. STATISTICS OF POTATOES FOR 1900. Condition of the potato crop of the United States, monthly, 1885-1900. SPOOOwsm ww SSSESSES CWsIK AID OO PO ees OopwnMmowos Wooo Ce) et dad €9 00 Cn 00 © En 69 CO eo WATCH OH IH el do NOCCBISCO 82.0 $1.0 61.5 86.8 | 1896 77.9 61.7 || 1898 91.3 67.7 || 1900 0 6 O09 Pa eny 797 Sept. Oct. cpl W1a2 62. 64.3 90. 87.4 83. 81.7 66. 61.6 vite 72.5 86. 81.7 80. 74.4 Acreage, production, value, prices, ex ports, and imports of potatoes of the United States, 1866 to 1900, inclusive. : Year. | Acreage. Acres. AShGee = 1, 069, 381 186 7eee 11, 192,195 ibe sea 1, 131, 552 1869Iee. . 1; 229; 250 187082850 1,325, 119 1971e 26s 1, 220; 912 yp ee 1, 331, 331 IOUS! 1,295, 139 hye ee 1,310, 041 1875..... 1,510, 041 1886... ..|2, 287, 136 LHL oe Se 2,714,770 18922 ~-- 2, 547, 962 1893..... 2, 605, 186 1894..... 2, 737, 973 Usb Pees 3¢ 2, 954, 952 | 1896. ..-. 2, 767, 465 1SG7h ccs 2) 584,577 1898. ....|2, 557, 729 1899..... 2, 581, 353 1900..... 2, 611, 054 SSAFRSRSASAASSAARSSSESSE} DOr RMeRWOAID POON WOOT! yield; Production. Bushels. 107, 200, 976 97, 783, 000 106, 690, 000 133, 886, 000 114, 775, 000 120, 461, 700 118, 516, 060 116, 089, 000 105, 981, 000 166, 877, 000 124, 827, 000 170, 092, 000 124, 126, 650 181, 626, 400 167, 659, 570 109, 145, 494 | 170, 972, 508 208, 164, 425 190, 642, 000 175, 029, 000 168, 051, 000 134, 103, 000 202; 365, 000 204° 990, 345, 148, 078, 945 254, 426, 971 156, 654, 819 183, 034, 203 170, 787, 338 297, 237, 370 252, 234, 540 164, 015, 964 192} 306, 338 228, 783, 232 210, 926, 897 Dollars. 50, 722, 553 62, 918, 660 57, 481, 362 74, 621, 019 64, 905, 189 60, 692, 129 69, 153, 709 65, 223, 314 57, 357, 515 77,319, 541 75, 524, 290 78, 153, 403 -4 108, 661, 801 91, 526, 787 78,984, 901 72) 182) 350 89, 643, 059 79, 574, 772 89) 328, 832 90, 811, 167 Chicago price per bushel, Burbank. fiscal years be- ginning July 1. Bushels. 512, 380 378, 605 508, 249 596, 968 553, 070 621, 537 515, 806 497, 413 609, 642 704, 379 529, 650 744, 409 625, 342 696, 080 638, 840 408, 286 439, 443 554, 613 880, 868 494, 948 434, 864 403, 880 471, 955 406, 618 341,189 557, 022 845, 720 803, 111 572, 957 680, 049 926, 646 605, 187 79, 833 803, 360 Domestic} Imports exports, during fiscal years be- ginning July 1. Bushels. 198, 265 209, 555 138, 470 75, 336 458, 758 96, 259 346, 840 549, 073 188, 757 3 ote! BB , 205, & 528, 584 2, 624, 149 2 Hes 9170, 342 8, 789, 860 2’ 362) 362 495, 408 , 937, 416 1, 432; 490 8, 259, 538 883, 380 3, 415, 578 5, 401, 912 186, 871 4,317,021 3,002,578 1, 341, 533 175, 240 46,178 1,171, 378 530, 420 155, 413 Acreage, production, and value of potatoes in the United States in 1900, by States. States and Territories. Maine......... weeta New Hampshire ...... Rhode Island ......... Connecti¢ut.........2- New: Yorke. +4026. 5.8. tee eeee Acreage. Average yield per acre, Bushels. 126 Average value per acre. Production. | Farm value, Dec Dollars. 3, 038, 102 959, 043 1, 322, 098 1, 492, 560 488, 762 1,734, 970 12, 366, 610 2, 005, 2 798 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Acreage, production, and value of potatoes in the United States in 1900, by States—Cont’d. Average Average Average States and Territories. Acreage. |yield per| Production.| #?™ | value per ee nae acre. Benet acre. ecg He ec. 1. Acres. Bushels. Bushels. Cents. Doliars. Dollars. Penrsylvanig.s2 5.2 22-5 be ae 188, 306 58 10, 921, 748 53 30. 74 5; 788, 526 Dela wane2.6 «22 essere 5, 344 43 256, 512 60 28. 80 153, 907 Maryland asso 2 se 352-2 sce 23, 081 5d 1, 269, 455 54 29. 70 685, 506 Wane IIA See eed ae ae 38, 341 58 2, 223, 778 59 34. 22 1, 312, 029 Nort Carolina os2he-seeeses 17, 434 61 1, 063, 474 65 39. 65 691, 258 South Carolina. sae eee. 4,307 78 335, 946 100 78.00 335, 946 Georgian ti aeeet ec: ates eee 5, 762 68 391, 816 77 52. 36 301, 698 IGE tae «<2 Shoes oem oo ae cere 1, 738 60 104, 280 166 63. 60 110, 537 AUapamMar.-=... - 43, 259, 756 1.37 59,282,158 | 6.55] 388,145,614] 8.00] 8.50] 8.50] 9.00 61, 658 DOT oe oe 42,426,770 | 1.43 | 60,664, 876 6. 62 401,390,728 | 8.00] 8.50] 9.50 | 10.50 81, 827 1898.2. 23. 42,780, 827 1.55 66,376,920 | 6.00 |- 398,060,647 | 8.00 | 8.25] 9.50 | 10.50 64, 916 1899 ....- 41,328,462 | 1.35 | 56, 655, 756 To2t 411, 926,187 | 10.50 | 11.50 | 10.50 | 12.50 72, 708 TOON cee ‘| 39, 132,890 | 1.28 50,110,906 } 8.89 445, 538, 870 | 11.50 | 14.00 agente ace 4 Condition of hay crop in United States, monthly, 1885-1900. Clover. | Timothy. Clover. Timothy. Year = June. | July. | July. | Aug. | June. | July. | July. | Aug. Stes fx 23: es Meee es bel gee | got ie Bute || 189 92.7} 92.6| 89.8) 89.6 TERS Sadeat a ee) ee es Te ee beeen 91.2 87.8:1) | 802 |) 7730 arose BEST. sos cece cop feovc cauclobomdeas | Gee eros 80.6 82.8 73.9 70.8}. 69.9 (1 ere = Se ne Ste PAs Me IH a eS ie see eee 87.5 DESO SS Meese ee Soe RL SS [eee IES WA ee 94.5 O60 |23 late ee ee ; ASOD, 0 255.2 see 95.1 94.0 93.9 95. Gi) AO eo acctose rs doen saeco eee smae eels Seer | 99.3 Lf Poe ee ee 91.0 89.3 87.4 90:9'\|. 4899 ccc cme cede alnicse steals como eufouuatenes 86.7 5 AS Aa a ee ee os 94.9 95.5 96.8 Sse Am fea Loa fn ee gy) ale 2) Bh ee Se eS 79.9 | STATISTICS OF HAY FOR 1900. 803 Acreage, production, gnd value of hay in the United States in 1900, by States. Average Average Average States and Territories. Acreage. | yield per| Production. far ae value per Farm y alue price acre Dee. 1, Dec. 1. , Acres. Dollars. | Dollars. Dollars. MIGINIGE stance uatewecrcmoneweee eee 937, 774 12.95 11. 66 10, 929, 761 New Hampshire .........-..-- 596, 076 15. 50 13. 48 $, 038, 083 MEDMON. bs. s5osGeSacb deeae mse 860, 100 11. 05 13.70 11, 785, 090 Massachusetts...... 567, 079 17. 40 16. 88 9, 571, 166 Rhode Island) ..2.2. 3.2.5... 72, 278 18.7 17.20 1, 243, 475 Gonnectituts.... esha eeise 369, 161 1. 60 590, 658 8.70 13. 92 5, 138, 725 WivOmine 2.2255. 22025 Ses aeeee 293, 718 1.68 493, 446 Tao) 12. 26 3, 602, 156 Colorado} se. Jon 2 855k tec cies 799, 611 2. 23 1, 783, 133 7. 60 16. 95 13, 551, 811 New Mexiéo..s.2 0222.2. Me 22 37, 544 2.06 77, 341 9. 90 20. 39 765, 676 ATIAOUG =. s2.-2 cess sceeae mm eees 24, 862 Ora 57, 481 11. 30 26.10 648, 970 tah) so 3.2 22 cctsbe ss oes cles 192, 398 2. 65 509, 855 7.95 21.07 4, 053, 347 WOWA GS ness cc sn eaet eee 154, 330 2.43 375, 022 7.70 18. 71 2, 887, 669 TGIRHO Ws. So scce ose <5 285, 394 2.80 659, 103 6. 50 18. 20 4,284,170 Washington 391, 894 2.16 846, 491 9. 50 20. 52 8, 041, 664 (CN (6) el eae ea 713, 653 2.35 1, 677, 085 6. 80 15. 98 11, 404, 178 CRITOrNTa: 25 sols6< sone oense 1, 793, 491 1.51 2,708, 171 8.15 res 22, 071, 594 United States,.....-..2- 39, 132, 890 | 1, 28 50, 110, 906 8.89 11.39 445, 538, 870 Average yield per acre of hay in the United States, 1891-1900, by States. States and Territories. 1891. | 1892. | 1893. | 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. Sa 19 Tons.| Tons.| Tons.| Tons.| Tons.| Tons.| Tons.| Tons.| Tons.| Tons. Mainecccpece ses cee =e Mee ee deed 28. te dd TAD is ee ok Rhode Island Be en ee At) .90 §3 ) 19.27 NOL Caroling=:...<2-5.s5ee- 12.10 | 12.66 | 18.89 | 15.85 | 16.53 | 18.55 | 12.19 | 15.81 | 15.15 South:Caroling.<. 2-2-0. | 14.01 3.56 | 15.18 | 16.45 7.62 | 15.06 | 11.50-| 15.20 | 12.56 GEOTRIR So nec ce ole wen oeconoe Jibs eae Bs aia y ty | 14.36 | 17.44 | 15.25 | 17.55 | 20.56 | 19.07 a Fey era Es hs OS Oe Fae ee ee | 17.70 | 16.38 | 39.50 | 19.99 | 20.24 | 18.20 | 14.25 | 22.56 | 22.41 5: 14.04 | 17.08 | 25.49 | 15.93 | 13.72 | 18.86 | 17.57 | 18.92 .5 13.38 | 15.86 | 17.79 18.91 | 12.77 | 14.06 | 15.86 | 13.3: 5.05 | 13.72 | 14.58 | 28.85 | 19.47 | 16.63 | 16.62 | 19.74 | 18.92 j 8.99 | 9.987] 10.138 | 9.52] 7.20] 10.15 | 8.77 | 10.15 3.74 | 10.05 | 10.96 | 11.66 | 11.12 | 8.90 | 11.25 | 10.39 | 12.80 3.56 | 11.44 | 14.96 3.30 | 15.05 | 13.54 | 15.59 | 14.25 | 14.74 Wiest VAreinigess.s cee cast we 10.82 | 10.50 | 14.02 | 10.87 9.04 | 11.94 | 11.95 | 12.94 | 12.19 Meentuchkyes: sceese set see: 11.98: | 10:92) 13. 61-| 13.19)) d4s47- | Dae Sby | a7 13.19 } 13. 42 Onion 2 ss. eee e ae beeen | 9.84 | 10.55 | 18.37 | 10.74 7.40 9.99 9. 00 7.89 | 11.63 MICHILaN 2 = cece eee cee es| 221008 | LOAO8h S18. 87a MLO: Gon sie DO tn OsOeaeld abo) mon 72 meade Ub cYeh hat: ee eee eS ee 9. 24 9.36 | 12.46 9.63 Vine 9.33 8.44 8.12 | 10.45 lino igs2es: sss. SS O65 9.41 | 10.72 9.50 6.7 8. 82 7.93 9.20 | 10.00 Wisconsin | 10.98 9.18 | 10.94 | 10.42 8.47 8. 25 8.44 8.62 | 10.07 Minnesota 6.61 | 5:75 | 7.40'| 6:41) 6.66 |. 6.41.) . 7.06) | 6.66.) “7.40 LOWS. 22 cn. See 6. 60 6. 56 9.73 5, 39 6.97 6. 94 6.37 7.09 7.10 MGSSOUTT 2h: soh os eee 7.13 | 7.76) 8.73 | 6.65) 7.96 | 6.94; 7.07 | 9.28) 8.56 RSSMSAS Ie 5 Sees aa eee 4.7 4.84 6.14 4.04 4. 04 3. 83 4.42 4.74 5.49 Nebraska) 523005 22h eas 3. 80 5.12 6.09 4.20 3. 52 4.05 4.80 5. 28 6.14 South Dakota 2-2. 22 s2es 2: 5.08 4.25 5, 21 4. 02 2.60 3.99 3. 69 4.14 4,43 Worth JORkotw 2-4... cc cee ceee 4. 60 6.3) 4.80 4.61 4.94 5.59 5. 20 4,87 5, 21 Montandicc.ssotc + os se eee ae 9.77 9. 85 9. 94 8.60 | 10.72 9.47 | 11.63 9.86 | 10.93 WiVOMRINE en seee <0 oso oe 8.37 7.36 | 10.80 | 16.10 7.02 | 11.07 9.90 } 11.40 9.70 Goloraddi- sensed ace oben | 15. 04 | 13.00 8.3 17.12 | 14.21 | 18.68 | 12.88 | 11.88 | 15.43 ING WiMGSaCOES eee osc 0 .c5s2oae | 10.45 | 13.50 | 17.68 | 21.62 | 20.88 | 17.10 | 24.50 | 27.56 | 18.02 ASI ZONED warn ate tec:ctacecceaton | 9.90 | 13.65 | 14.44 | 21.84 | 16.65 | 28.00 | 15.00 | 42.00. | 27.22 (Oa eae See eee 4 Se eee 7.70 8.83 8.89 | 14.01 | 13.49 | 13.50 | 14.01 | 14.62 | 17.75 INGVARaie. 3. foe oe 6.00 | 12.25 | 26.60 | 29.29 | 20.32 | 12.29 | 12.50 | 18.20 | 14.31 Vasthoe sss. es 8.00 | 11.10 | 18.48 | 10.98 | 16.06 | 12.25 | 12.08 | 18.37 | 15.75 Washington... | 15,22 | 12.60 | 14.49 | 15.13 | 12.49 | 13.83 | 20.25 | 13.3 17. 98 (G1 yi (0) 0 hese eee oe el | 10.40 | 12.93 | 15.23 | 11.72 | 10.89 | 13.07 | 14.73 | 13.78 | 18.49 California ...................-| 15.40 | 13.14 | 18.30 | 18.34 | 11.72 | 10.48 | 14.40 | 22. 80 13, 04 General average | 9. 68 | 9. 64 | 11.51 | 9.70 | 8.89 | 8.97 | 9.46 | 9.30] 9.97 STATISTICS OF HAY FOR 1900. 805 Average farm price of hay per ton in the United States December 1, 1891-1900, by States. 1898. 1899. 1900. States and Territories. 1891. | 1892. | 1893. Maines. econ tocr ee noses $9. 30 |$12. 80 $12.13 New Hampshire.............- 11.00 | 13.20 | 15.60 Wermont.{—~ ooo. oe eeetne ee 9.00 | 10.00 | 10.63 Massachusetts ..............- 16.00 | 16.60 | 17.33 RAGE Wsland.. coo. seen. eee 16.25 | 17.40 | 19.60 Connecticht Ga. seek. feea-ceee 15.75 | 16.50 | 17.50 INGW YOLKS: os oceme sank os seces 11.00 | 11.00 | 11.33 INQW. dD CISCY) 22. awacione tes aess 14.40 | 14.25 | 17.43 Pennsylvania -| 10.00 | 12.30 | 14.40 DOlAWENC Sansone a cists cose | 12.00 | 12.33 | 17.00 Maayan Oe eee cael e as coe | 11.15 | 11.75 | 14.25 MW erineot Pelt: Ae ane eet SRO ae | 11.00 | 11.50 } 13.09 NWortli Caroling =s.s.ccsck cess | 11.00 } 10 55 } 11.11 South Carolia: 2. 2320-3522 12.18 | 11.30 | 9.67 GeO iden = eee ye oo 13.50 | 11.80 | 12.06 TOLER EC fs ieee ee ee ee ee a 15.00 | 14.00 | 19.75 ANS EIN Ge o.oo a ox a eae tae } 12.38 | 10.80 | 11.24 MISHISSIP Dl occ seated oo cece 11.22} 9.91] 9.61 PO WISIAN Das scctes ouoee a eee | 11.58] 9.80] 9.00 PHO RS aaa acon eae ae emia 8.75 | 8.56} 9.60 IATKANSASS 2 cca cscs ss=te 3 I 8.74] 9.37 Tennessee ot 10. 40 | 10.76 West Virginia Se Ook 110160) | 2525, WON CUCK Ve. coc s aces cicinasaeee 110.15 | 9.50 | 10.16 (O16 YO pean ee 8. 20 9.17 |} 10.05 Wight canis teo somone 11.00 | 8.40] 9.16 WMGIANS eS s SSe cee Seas 7.70 | 7:80} 9.16 MULT IS ee ee va os Oe a os Tela Wado te S280: WHSCODSIN Ss oo senccsette wee 9.80} 7.65 | 7.20 Minnesoteie os. 22s 1-2-5 se 5. 1D) 4.60) 14558 LOWS .cacessene watt wecs oases | 5.50] 5.25} 6.16 MESS OUNT Sean an sis cece = |} 6.201) 6.7 7. 04 Kansadse 282000 seh ene cae mins 3.62 | 4.40] 4.69 INGDTSSKAS ase. em oemteeeecees 8.17 | 4.27| 4.87 South Dakota 4,20 3.40 3. 67 North Dakota.. 4.00 | 4.10 | 3.72 MONTANA RS. 2 aaes ee en acs 8.50} 8.95) 7.89 WivOnaiie eco. sanen cei sac 9.00} 6.40] 8.00 Colorado 22050 ike 2 seas * 8.00} 6.50] 6.98 ING@wW MexiC0:. <2 sot soreds sen 9.50 | 11.25] 8.50 PANN ZOU Meee cata Sale Sots rere 10.50 | 8.25 ULC ae eee See ee §.'50 6.31 5.17 INGVROS ere sees a acecee Seat 5.00 | 7.00 | 10.60 VAS Oia sae ae. ee ee 6.67 | 7.40} 5.50 Washington ®:- -) 2755-62-45 10.50 | 9.00] 9.17 Oreéeon sic: J occ eases tee Sees 8.00 | 8.92] 8.10 CUMTOMULs.. -aares Sea wae See AASOOV NS GavOnle ison General average. ....- 8.39 | 8.49 | 8. 63 1894. | 1895. | 1896. | 1897 $9.60 | $9.68 [$10.25 | $9.75 10.50 | 12.50 | 12.90 | 11.50 9.94 | 12.25 | 10.28] 9.25 15.50 | 17.50 | 16.40 | 13.90 16. 33 | 17.25 | 16.60 | 14.50 15.56 | 16.10 | 14.71 | 13.00 9.66 | 13.70 | 12.04 |] 8.25 14.09 | 12.64 | 14.35 | 10.75 11.31 | 12.30 | 12.15 | 9.15 15.00 | 12.16 | 13.00 } 10.00 11.13 | 11.55 | 11.85 | 10.50 11.89 | 11.43 | 10.21 | 10.25 10.93 | 10.14] 10.75} 9.75 10.75 | 7.62 | 11.32 | 11.50 12.38 | 10.90 | 11.05 | 13.00 16. 25 | 13.23 | 13.00 | 14.25 9.51 | 10.21] 9.80 } 10.25 9.67 | 9.70] 9.46] 9.50 10.64] 9.64] 8.75] 8.75 TOG Ge A BON RTE 8.83 | 9.27] 7.54] 8.65 11.27 | 10.83 | 9.67 | 10.75 10.66 | 12.73 | 9.79} 8.85 10.47 | 10.94 | 9.46 | 10.00 8.46 | 12.76 | 7.93] 6.25 9.04 | 13.09] 8.48] 7.75 4,58.1_12..03 | 7.18 | 6.90 8.33 | 10.25 | 6.39] 6:15 7.96 | 9.63 | 6.60] 6.25 5.30} 5.12] 3.79 | 4.50 7.391 6.45 | 3.99] 4.25 7.82 | 6.80| 4.85! 6.15 5.25 | 3.26 | 2.70} 3.40 7.12} 3.56] 2.441 3.00 ASOS 1931201) 18) TOMI 2895 8. 876 03:48) 32300 (8.25 7.17 | 11.40} 6.86} 7.75 10.00} 6.50] 7.14] 6.00 7.54 | 6.87 || 6.22] 5.50 11.50} 8.00] 5.7 7.00 12.00! 9.00] 8.75! 5.00 5.56 | 5.27| 6.00] 4.75 7.251 6.75 | 4.82] 5.00 4.34] 6.25 | 4.71 | 5.25 7.38 | 6.75 | 7.09] 9.00 5.86 | 6.12| 6.60] 7.75 9.50 | 7.06 | 6.35] 9.00 al 6. o ie: TOSS OO} 9) UES O96 HEE EO 100 50 OO! 69 CF ~~) o oO [-r} i) PSISIA STAR n1g1 1m 99 99g 2 SMB oo TES 11. 25 I WWW WRARA I ~I9 HS fo ¢) or so LP OAINSSIH ee oO TRtomonio SSRaERRS Wholesale prices of hay (baled) in leading cities of the United States, 1896-1900. Date. 1896. ae Co ai ee es es Spee eran eres HME DTUSIY : commence tela serecaete ace WUIGEROE 355 322 88 Hone sce ss seeyseeeseee PAC TSH pps ie oh Sel gM eee tex a 8c QOe@taner ee Ae ea tees aoe ee wea FAG C id Gee es ne. ree Hebruanyessss se. eee a ee 5. coe oe WENA G0) AS ae srignmeocsaaceebooesees New York. No.1, per hun- | Ly dred weight. Low. High. $1. 00 -95 iste lealier BRSSSSRRSE Dolled | Chicago. No.1 Timothy, No.1 Timothy, per ton. per ton. Low. | High. $11. 50 | $12.00 | $14.00 11.00 | 11.50] 14.00 11.50 | 12.00} 13.50 12.00 | 12.50] 14.00 11.50} 12.00] 14.00 9.50} 10.00} 12.00 9.00; 10.00} 11.50 9.00 9.50 9. 00 8. 00 8.50 9.00 8.00 8. 50 9. 50 8.50 9.00 9.00 8. 00 8. 50 9. 00 8.00 8.50} 10.00 7.50 8.00 | 10.00 8.00 8.50 | 10.00 8.00 8.50 | 10.50 Chicago. | Cincinnati. St. Louis. Choice Timo- thy, per ton. Low. | High. 75 By) $025) . 00 . 50 . 00 . 50 . 50 . 50 . 50 75 7, BBs Low. High. 806 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Wholesale prices of hay (baled) in leading cities of the United States, 1896-—1900—Continued. New York, | Chicago. Cincinnati. St. Louis. No.1, per hun- | No.1 Timothy, | No.1 Timothy, | Choice Timo- dred weight. per ton. per ton. thy, per ton. Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High: | Low. | High. TEE ey ae en i Ape el lL $0.80 | $0.822! $8.50 | $9.00 | $11.00 | $11.50 | $11.50 | $13.75 Hi Pru (ee Sepa ae renee pet Be Beene, toe AIR ts 75 . 80 8.50 | 9.00 9.50 | 11.00 9. 25 12. 7! LN Ore ae te aay Sate 77% . 80 8.50 | 9.00 9.00 } 11.00 9. 50 12.50 PIONS oe seek see Pia Ee ee Ronee Si 90 8.50! 9.00 8.00 9.25 8.50 11. 60 BEDICIADEN oo sce a ccoce emcee asec . 723 . 80 8.50 | 9.00 8.00 8.75 8.50 10. 00 Orb Der aces Sas pense ceed ctepepes 4/6) . 80 8.00} 8.50 8.00 8.25 9. 00 10.50 NG WEMDeD 8p oe ee eee 0. - 80 8.00 8.50 8.00 9. 00 9. 00 10.50 IDECEM DER: onc senna. h ons ase ece = By {3) . 80 8.00; 8.50 8.50 9.00 9.75 11.00 No.1 Timothy. January - 72 - 80 8.00) 8.50 8.50 9.00 8.25 9.50 February - 723 Ay) 8.00 | 8.50 8. 00 9.00 8.50 9.50 EC lp pre eee ae a eee eee Se aif .80 9.00 9. 50 8.00 9. 00 9.00 10.00 APPR Pie cae = cee ae emeritus omen 5 f5) . 80 8.50 9.00 8.50 | 10.00 9. 00 12.50 Wisner seen Nee Seperate . 80 . 80 9.50 | 10.50 9.00 | 10.25] 10.50 12.00 URTRO s oP ey ese once tea cee cameo eee 772 . 80 9.00 9. 50 8. 25 9.00 | 10.50 11.50 ONLY eee oe eee oe ne tee meee .7T7t ByiTE 8.00 8.50 8. 25 9. 00 9. 00 10. 00 AMUSE oo oss secon. meses amecce Spee . 70 -773| 8.00 8. 50 7.50 9. 00 7.00 10. 00 BEPLOMPEE sos ane sock seis eens . 65 70 7.50 8.00 7.50 8.60 7.00 8.00 G76) 1 1 aye) 2 el See te een eS een Sete aed . 65 . 673 7.50 | 8.00 7.15 8. 25 7.00 8.50 November 2. cscs secnccesac-ee ee cene . 65 . 65 8..00.|. 8.50 8.00 8.00 7.50 8.50 DEGEMIPCE. a s.nc esc one ena ee eee .65 673; 8.00 8.25 8.00 8.25 7.50 8.50 1899, ARUELAIIY Gates cP oese tees ieee cima . 65 . 65 7.50 9.00 1.48 8. 50 8.00 9.90 GO Sp ip as ap a A A eh fc AER . 65 . 65 7.73 8. 50 8.00 8. 75 8.00 8.75 WESTON. se 2 eee hs te eel . 65 672 8.50 10. 09 9. 00 11. 00 8.00 10.00 NYE | een a oe Sees ee ee . 673 75 9.50 10.50 } 10.50 11.50 9. 00 11.00 11s es Se laren Uae ae ge, ee ae) . 90 9.50 10. 50 10. 50 11.00 10. 50 11.50. SAUER oer cae se cea oem eee eee eee . 80 - 95 10. 00 11.50} 10.50 12. 00. 10. 50 11.50 Ci a ai a cocoa gee ets Pet A 85 95 10.00 13.00 9.00 12. 60 10. 00 12.00 AITO IS es cae Shira ages mato nc oe ee ETE 872 - 99 9.00 | 13.00 9.00 | 10.50 8. 00 12. 00 DEPlCIBpPr |e k,. sacs oes ce ees . 80 . 90 9.50 11.50 9.00 11.25 8.00 10. 50 0,1, 5) OFS 2 eer Agta Rn ISIN po oe 80 g2z 9.50 11.00 11.00 12.00 9. 50 10. 50 Wovember ss: §22— 5. ..-i- o---eeen eee . 80 873) 10.50) 11.50) 11.50) 13:00) 10/00 10.75 Lea isl Per bhe s ape EE eS BSS oS 873, =. 873; 10.50 | 11.50] 12.00} 13.00} 10.00 11.50 Choice. January 872 . 872! 10.00 | 11.50] 13.00) 14.00] 11.00 12.50 February 872 873} 10.50 11.50 13.50 14. 00 10.50 12.00 Ai ft) a ia ee ete ap a ees rere es Se 872 90 10.50 11.50 13.76 14. 25 11. 60 12.50 UU anil Bei eel ones ee ee ne 90 . 90 10.50 14. 00 14,50 15. 00 11, 50 13. 00 WER) xceoo eee ancie oo nseee seoeeeeee 90 95 | 10.50] 12.50] 14.25] 15.00] 11.00 13.50 LSS Re ae fe arte ae ee ee 90 922, 40.00 11.50 14.00} 14.75 10. 50 13. 50 PICU oe a cS a earache EE i) 95 | 10.50 | 12.50) 18.75] 15.00] 11.00 14. 50 ANIOUS baa anew none os en ees eee 90 973) 11.00} 12.50} 11.50] 15.00 9. 75 13. 00. Beptembers {se sags eee . 90 =95.) S000). 125.00) || 2.506 T3575 1000 12.00 OCTONER. 620 a wees chee eee one ee . 95 .95 11. 00 12.00 13. 50 14.50 11.00 12.50 NOMEMIDEL | oo So sae oe en renee . 922 . 95 11.50 13.50 13. 50 14. 00 10.75 | 13.50 WSCRMIDET Accs sec. oon cm tepacmire - 90 -95 | 11.50} 14.00 | 18.75 | 14.25] 11.50 14.00 COTTON. The commercial cotton-crop year, which ended August 31, 1900, was, in some respects, one of the most remarkable in the history of this industry. There never was a time when so many American spindles were,in operation, and rarely, if ever, a time when they were so severely taxed to meet the demand for cotton goods. Such was the activity that many mills, both North and South, were obliged to run day and night, and but for the complications in China the latter part of the season, the whole of ee year would have been one of remarkable prosperity to manufacturers of this staple. In consequence of the great demand for American cotton goods the United States consumed more raw cotton than any other country, leading Great Britain, which for a century and more has held supremacy in this industry, by over half a million bales. But perhaps the most extraordinary feature of the year was the wide range of prices from the beginning to the close of the season. Spot cotton opened in New Orleans on September 1, 1899, at 512, and in New York at 6} cents a pound for mid- dling upland, and on the last day of the season, August 31, sold in New Orleans at STATISTICS OF COTTON FOR 1900. 807 9} and in New York at 9§ cents per pound, a difference of 3;°; cents in the former and of 3% in the latter market. The difference, however, to the planter was not so great as this, as the average price of spot cotton in September in New Orleans was about 6 cents, and in January (when the season is practically over with the planter) 7} cents, a difference of 14 cents, or about $7.50 for a bale of 500 pounds. Another noteworthy feature of this crop is its total value as compared with that of 1898-99, the largest crop ever made; for, although over 2,000,000 bales less, its value is over 529,000,000 greater. In estimating the crop of the States and Territories the Department has followed its usual method, the statistical data used being furnished by the officials of the rail and water lines that have transported cotton from the States of production, by the officials of the mills located in those States, and by special agents of the Department at the Southern ports and important receiving points in the interior. The reports from these sources are condensed in the accompanying table, so as toshow the num- ber of bales of cotton moved from each State and Territory to the ports, to Northern and Western mills, to Canada, and all other foreign destinations; the number, taken from the current crop by the mills; the number forwarded from one cotton State to the markets and mills of another, and the number taken by the mills from the ports. The column ‘Taken from other States’? includes all cotton forwarded by rail, water, and wagon from interior points and plantations of one State to interior markets of another; also all cotton shipped from interior points of one State to the mills of another—all of which is first credited to the State in which it originates. The amount of cotton taken from other States is 72,050 bales greater than in 1898-99, due almost wholly to the increased demand of Southern mills. In further explanation of the large amount of cotton ‘‘taken from other States,’”’ it may be stated that at points like Augusta and Columbus, Ga., there are large deliveries of cotton by rail, water, and wagon from adjacent plantations in South Carolina and Alabama. There are also considerable deliveries from Alabama plantations at Columbus and Meridian, Miss., and from Indian Territory plantations at Denison, Gainesville, and Sherman, Tex. At Shreveport, La., the receipts from Texas, Arkansas, and Indian Territory are very large. Moreover, the mills of nearly all the cotton States obtain supplies from other States at some time or other during the year. Hence, such movements from one State into another are deducted, otherwise there would be a duplication. “Taken from ports’? includes only the cotton purchased at the ports by mills situated in the cotton States, and which has already been counted in the movement to the ports. The amount thus obtained by the mills is 10,505 bales greater than in 1898-99, and is likewise due to the scarcity of cotton and the unusual activity of the Southern mills. The cotton produced in Kansas was partly used by local mills and partly marketed at St. Louis, and that in Kentucky was forwarded by river to St. Louis. The 26 bales made in Utah were used in one of the local mills. All round bales of light weight, that is, bales weighing about 260 pounds, are counted as half bales. Condition of cotton crop in the United States, monthly, 1885-1900. Sep- ii Sep- r Au- Octo- > =| Aue : Octo- Year. June. | July. gust. ay Ben Year. June. | July. gust eRe hex 96.0 | 96.5] 87.0} 78.0 85.6 | 82.7] 80.4 | 73.4 70.7 86.1} 81.8 | 82.1) 79.3 | 88.3 | 89.6] 91.8] 85.9 82.7 96.9 | 93.3] 82.8] 76.5 81.0 | _82.3.| 77.9 |. 70.8 65.1 86.7 | 87.3 | 83.8] 78.9 97.2] 92.5] 80.1] 64.2 60.7 87.6 | 89.3] 86.6] 81.5 83.5 | 86.0] 86.9] 78.3 70.0 91.4} 89.5] 85.5] 80.0 89:0], 912°] 91.2) 79.8 75.4 88.6 | 88.9 | 82.7] 75.7 85.7 | 87.8 | 84.0] 68.5 62.4 86.9] 82.3] 76.8 | 73.3 82.5 | 75.8] 76.0] 68.2 67.0 808 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Cotton crop of 1899-1900. [In commercial bales.] Movement and mill purchases. | 7®ken from other States and ports. States and Territories. Taken Total crop, Taken Forwarded; Bought by from : by rail,ete.| mills. Tete. (Mather 7, neeeOoe wipe eta States) ||) POEM: AN A WEIS Ase<2- 120, 982 68, 668 87,705 207, 386 207, 838 119, 939 KANSAS! so lob. o-cecce ees cc eac = 67 15 61 139 3 188 Keentuekyito- os sswonccos v= Joe () (1) 414 35 50 24 TAUISI AILS, Sess aioe eae cine 760, 757 513, 843 567, 251 788, 325 717, 747 699, 476 MUSSISSIPp! << Sos--semce= si05 1, 231,227 | 1,013,358 | 1,201,000 |} 1,624,771 | 1,247,128 1, 203, 739 MUSSOUTIF -<- ooo erence 25,476 11, 816 24,119 26, 848 33, 120 17, 275 North Carolina : 479, 441 397, 752 521,795 646, 726 629, 620 503, 825 Oklahoma a4 eons cen = 14, 584 14, 103 39, 251 110,175 109, 026 66, 555 South) Carolina--ss22-4- 5-426. 862, 604 764, 700 936,463 | 1,030,085 | 1,035, 414 830, 714 Tenn eGsSCOn penta asbestos 304, 981 172, 560 236, 781 268, 635 322, 820 192, 263 MOXGSe 6) 5-5 spec ewe at cee. 3, 140,392 | 1,905,337 | 2,122,701 | 2,822,408 | 3,363,109 | 2,438, 555 Witahts as onaeeeree cece J Ceeeeaetceo cca 103 2 60 34 26 Wirginiay 32: tees en. a. ase 13, 414 7, 964 11, 539 12, 878 13, 990 8, 007 United States .......... 9,901,251 | 7,161,094 | 8,532,705 | 10,897,857 | 11,189, 205 “9, 142, 838 4 41900——52 1 No data. 810 Exports of cotton from United States to foreign countries. [In bales of 590 pounds.] YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Year ended June 30, Year ended June 30, Year ended June 30, . 1898, 1899. 1900. Countries. : Bales. Value. Bales. Value. Bales. Value. Austria-Hungary ...<:.----.- 35, 614 $987, 724 57, 127 | $1,576, 175 44,919 | $1, 758, 164 (Be) Syiaeeaciscce «seen eee 161,942 } 4,809, 609 129,525 | 3,599,471 148, 319 5, 680, 303 MenmMATIC Re seen aeee cess 24,741 732, 810 39, 249 | 1,078, 300 31, 990 1, 251, 325 MPATICE Sh oes tee eo aie sees $42,038 | 24, 599, 724 803,406 | 21, 946, 691 736, 092 27, 729, 378 OTERO oc aainie a cts ie eee a 1, 858, 524 | 54, 886,245 ] 1,728,975 | 47,346,679 | 1,619,173 | 638,476, 825 UTC ECS ees Foire ci ea ae Ie a ee Re eB CH SS DR | a 400 18, 200 Tier liy a ae eee oes 387,581 | 11, 468, 025 417,353 | 11,652, 768 443,951 | 17,441,121 Netherlands ..ccs-0cce0ls age bp aXg ARG ri rg 1p 21g akg raquroydegy ig 1S ba Le i dla 8 OIG 40 a 9ko Ra i Te --"aSnSNW 8g §q fe 7a G r1g 1g rr kG gq tg Pe 19 ane sereeeg 5 ag G 8G &G tg NG Ric aq #G 1G iG 19 9 Aine a) nea 4 Va Pe Ee a es 4 ag ste Akg Aly SEIT OIG IOI DOCSO OS 08 df £9 alg 19 9 9 9 tg 9 9 u Ao ie 4 ho ge Tha NER CT ee poner iy ot? old ; te ata Bd ie : iG 4 He ag xg ag a9 icin) (aiein amine (niaimsalaipieia1e ns eieia rare /elais alacant lay, 9 erg cs a a8 ao : bk ure aa ia i 9) Bator Bonon acietincecodenpenrcts Biches “9 fe 9 G 4g fg aq Ato ie erg 4G tg PG 9 a) YORI 2To 5G te KG +G 8tq DAT 9 8G kG AKG #4¢ tC oa) 2t¢ Pee CIO il CO I ak oi Areniqo ats 1 5 pal Lp] ~ = I] Ilo See . “te =i RG ¢ KG ¥ to sigs ig [Aka fg = GCG 4g Xrvnuee “*S68T t a + iho ae BAC OOOO OOIC IO One DOU MOORE OCT uro9e fa 4g fe q 6a Ra g {9 tg tc i tg Be RES A AIU ONC Voce scahh cis ataeon teem eecgan tare ae ake ig 5G TG akg 7 G 19 4G tg 1d i 1G a) erg RRC nd Ak ep rnta CS +A he a 50 26 G 50a B¢ ota AIG 5 Bo fq "9 9 19qQowoO 19 6G 19 ig 9 eG Se aoe 9 Hee io : at) ot 1 Re tens eeeemencccenes s225** yoquioide OL y ata } ola By +9 Oty 9 a) Eg Sty, 9) q g BS v9 ok 9 ty ary 7) a ay By aty char oT) OL) 4) fy -- waeetee “qsnsny 1 18 L L 4 4 oh tS ae Z ae a ‘ at Se ie 48 ap i] sy D §) a) uy Rt) ay Rey uy 8 By Aqne TD L iS tL EL th tL, th 10 @) $4 TS ala 4 4 4 ri =, Shy 7 ? ¥; fi y} By ca) By) am) ay ty By ol) y) He a), ot, oun te Ue eeu dea ley lag Ge alee 4 5 ny Ac &) ! 19 4 PL, & Z L th th 14 14 a9 ie) a e vu old NSS id 8 os ‘ety, 2, 5% Pa AD ty » 0 uy, by ey na ca tL ty ig 8 gon aaa eer peea ng L k uh oh bi M i & %) ot) oN) id ‘) hy £9 By acnene tudy £1 eh tL 1h th th eh th pe) 114 6 th a o4 te L gh = 2 SUE Git WE See ae . Sy ) By +) By ory 24) Ry ¥L By Qt), R) g ay OLB af’ ott ay by bp ay ty any 'g OL, at) iy) ng a) t Rt), SO OD IE aL ard IE AIO VA E}AN COLA L : 1 oe = od tet € 4 H Mt! ewe eww eee eee eee Orde like a) ty ty a «ONS ime lita er =e th, gate bg Ks reece eeeeees Arenues ‘ “ on i ~ ~ ~ ved « od Late! rs ay ‘gjuag | ‘squap | syuap | ‘stuag | ‘sjuap | ‘syuag | ‘sjuap | ‘s7uaD | ‘swap | ‘s}waD | ‘s7uaD | ‘sua | “spwaD | “sIwWAD | “sua | *87UAD ‘968I ‘usr | -moT | asm | “MoT | Ust | “MOT | ‘USTE | “MOT | ‘USI | “MOT | ‘USI | “MOT ‘UStH | “MOT | ‘USIE | “MOT ‘uot *H[OJION. ‘UOJSUIUITM .}| “UOISoTIeYO “YRUUBARS “UOISIATLY ‘std ue ‘suUvOLIO MON | ‘“HIOK MON ‘OOGT-969T ‘sams panug oy) fo sano Burpna) we ‘Spunod sad wonoo buyppyu pumjdn sanud oosajoy Ad \ YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 814 6 6 6 16 6 St8 Yor | 6 ts IL #6 nat) Or 16 or! SXOT £6 26 $6 fg #8 46 16 t t £6 6 16 16 i t £6 £6 16 16 16 6 £6 ate 16 th §8 th, §8 fie $y, aR, Ry tL, 4, i L Ay 4 L th th 41, Phy $h TL th 29 at), nae +), 49 L £9 4g 9 49 79 39 §¢ £9 Hg 40 8G ete 4g 9 ig 2g 9 ps fg 19 rag $¢ 4G 49 a) 4g ig 9 La 2¢ #g a 4g fg 4G 9 2g 9 ag ag ig iG 4G 49 9 9 9 fig ag 4g hg 79 9 9 ig $a HS Sig 8G 9 ig £q #g tg 19 #G a “S2UuUID *$7Ud), "syuag *$7Ua9 *87UaD 87a) *"S7Uad *s7Ua), ‘USI | ‘MOT | "st | “MOT | ‘USI | “MOT | "Gott | “MOT *1O].BUTUNIL MA “HOJSO[IBYO “UBUUBARY *“TLOJION *ponuyuogjg—oo06l-968T ‘8aInIS! panuy 116 +6 16 16 216 16 6 6 Or 18 16 6 Or 88 SFOL a 1 00 tts OL 16 IL 6 i! 16 ALG 18 6 16 101 46 16 £6 Or 86 TOL 16 16 £3 86 48 ‘or «(R¥8 me [48 [6 | f6 lis eR Re Ue he Le Big §L #8 PL i8 th ae tl TL th tL th ay +), Vali th 1 BEY, 5 2 & or 14 wd i L Eh, 19 th $19 t £9 Ho 79 49 *9 t9 iq #9 fq 10 4a it tg 81g #G Ag 4G tc Sq t¢ 4c Bo #¢ Hea a¢ £g #G org q t¢ G ag tig arg aa 29 tg tg fg 2 Hg 19 aft 19 ' ~ Cc ee *squagQ | *87UWaD | *s7UaD | “S7uUAD | ‘s7UAD | *87aAD ‘St | “MOT | “USI | ‘MOT | ‘USI | “MOT “MOJSOATBY) “sty d ue fT “SUBOLIO MON SF OT 6 701 6 IL #6 IL 46 sO TOL (86 26 iat 46 6 46 At 16 OG 456 ag 8 tL ff tL Rth tL th BEY | fo yt 19 9 | 4o Aig ®k9 19 19 Mt) ac iat) Ako #9 ~—/Aro lt) 4 "s7Ua) | ‘87laD ‘YSIH | “MOT *yIOX MON --""*JOq TOD -s"* TOQUIOAON srp/see slain inieilsis") TOCO1OC onic HazP eer sr TOC UIOIGom “qsn.sny “AME Ease Omnitt ¥ sieisisiviciin/s miei. 6 Sh nin ie a RAN ASST oe Se TT Seep ira wees * WOIBy meres ATBNIQIT SSaronpersewnrcecer cre ATRUEh ere=-="79CUI900(T corrorsces* JOQULOAON COA I EI II II ol ay CML Tayo fayital t)) are -** raqmiaydag “qsnsny “Ane “ABI “udy * YOIRL sores KIVNAQAT Cd to et eda aa TRI OOO ICI Juhi TL “6681 See ee were eeeee '0y BCL ayn fo sana burpnay ur ‘punod uad ‘uonoo buypprnu punjdn sarwd apnsajoy Af STATISTICS OF HOPS FOR 1900. 815 HOPS. The hop crop of the world reported for 1899, a total of 1,286,460 bales, was the largest in five years, and the crop of the United States the largest since that of 1895, which was 55,000 bales greater. The New York production has steadily declined, until it is now little more than half what it was in 1895, while the Pacific Coast pro- duction has increased. Exports have been about the same, except in 1897, when there was a heavy decrease, and in 1899 when an increase of over 3,000,000 pounds was noted. The wholesale price has been quite steady since a sharp gain was made in November and December, 1895. Declines are found, however, in the summers of 1897 and 1900. ~ Hop crop of the countries named, 1895-1899. [In bales of 180 pounds.] Countries. 1895. | 1896. 1897. | 1898. | 1899. ICRIORIN Soares Ske aces ack eeesechs 52, 000 35, 000 45, 000 44,500 59, 000 (ON doy (03 1 Pepe Ag ea ae ee ee ee 99, 500 56, 000 75, 000 71, 250 - $2,300 NYSSDINSTON sae ce anclnnic woemcactcstoncien ocaas 28, 800 iY 32, 000 36, 200 36, 000 ING MOD jac S oe oie ces cace suoeamisee oe aise 110, 000 75, 000 75, 000 65, 000 58, 000 Total United States... .<2s<-2..- 25 290, 300 | 178, 090 227, 000 216, 950 | 235, 300 (ASB ET MLS oe a Seeoac ate oat cinate «nqeudleamrasiecte & 5,476 7,162 6, 560 7,597 AStris 2 222 ono 2 oo bactans Saapccue pescceass 95, 378 121, 876 77, 896 76, 774 182, 753 EAS H Se eee eee eee ie ele care Sean ocee cae ain See Sas Saal | ore eretnin mcm 3, 369 3, 383 BSlSNUN Bs Sere hecis haces SEE hia Sine sates GO2880R eae eee 83, 020 30, 630 270, 311 Liat Cho ls AA eee Be eee earn, Aer oe 344, 335 281, 983 255, 787 222, 018 411, 521 IPTANCG Spec sec corse ec ceeeedecncsauyseece 41, 966 38, 647 44,101 37, 411 48, 427 Gemmdinyeacceaceseos sh ccacone see Seceo- ec 369, 654 310,178 292, 247 267, 825 336, 111 FRISSI Do eis oe sows eaiclanc Oiscw eat clas aes sciomcePemiere tac cece [Une eeciec cee 64, 000 61, 240 41, 057 GCA BAS settee shee aa akan cto 1, 241, 513 | 936, 160 | 1, 051, 213 | 922,777 1, 286, 460 1 Victoria and Tasmania only. 2Includes Holland. Wholesale prices of hops per pound in leading cities of the United States, 1896-1900. New York. Cincinnati. Chicago. Pacific coast, Date. Choice State. Choice. common to choice. High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. Cents. | Cenés. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. 8 9 7 9 5 8 ves 8 7 8 5 8 7 8 6 8 5 7 ve 8 6 7k 5 7 7 7 6 ves 5 7 7h 7k 6 7 5 i Te 7k 6 7 5 7 ee OE Se a nae 7 7 6 fr 4 "i 7 9 6 7 4 7 aE eS Fe Ne en een ee 9 11 10 12 6 10 November 10: 15 12 15 11 14 December 13 14 14 15 ll 14 1897. SENSI Ye ate tate ein alos eee eect rer cls inate aero enone 13 13: 13 13} 11 14 HeBrOar yess sents ee oe 2 re sue oe hom Mote ne 12 13 13 134 ik 14 March Fen RS Se OS eA OE Ie ear ae ieee 10: 12 ali 123 10 13 Ape ae ets ae ee tel sae cece at oe a clacmaeeeoses i 10 10 103 9 12 LE ane es A eee ea eee ee ea 8 93 9 10 7 12 ed CLT arr eee es Aes ea anne er ne se ae Se a rciee 8 8 9 9 8 11 Gn gags ee SES Sota © Se aye oe oe ee eee Tf 8 9 9 8 ui! ASIA Shee ate ts nemnletene jean mead Soowiceases see if 7 8 9 6 10 SiG) op feted oVaty ae ene mae eee aN SR pene RG aS Cera tes Wf 15 8 16 | ro 11 OCTODER EE ee Soc ntt oan ewer cea cere el caieaccecctes 14 15 16 16 15 17 MOMEMIDER Ses oss aes seaakoncces. 15 17 | 16 18 | 10 17 DeCOMDErs. cc. asccccosecesess Wace eet aicacatcise vise 16 18 | 18 18 12 17 816 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Wholesale prices of hops per pound in leading cities of the United States, 1896-1900— Continued. | New York. Cincinnati. Chicago. ; Pacifie coast, Date. Choice State. Choice. common to choice. Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. 1898 Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. AE nk Ay eC SACAC NSH EEE ao arajavaya\avaja/a/al S/aink ulatnieoo A= 18 19 16 16 10 al? LS) RTE WIS 3S oe Sagas cost obboadesnesso corona lo lose senses 18 19 16 16 10 17 AVES Gee erestetm te stele ial tee = 17 18 16 16 10 17 NEN soa Se 50 Steno teaser 6 OT anos HAO SO ROS SHO Soee+ SSeSae 15 17 15 15 10 16 IWR CREE a ann sic ania oa ote eramic in Seisieisaw mnie iis ceisincisie te 12 E 16 16 10 14 AUN hs Pe Se Bae SEAN oS sone nomonsoboncoomSoceDnce 12 13 15 15: 10 13 Ae pare aa amaoac mole em neG- nen aceppanseepecenannae il 12 14 15 8 10 UN ORTG) AAR esos sd ase ocr oe me podeadtacs coduusecuste. 11 12 14 14 5 10 September ui 15 14 14 5 10 October 15 19 14 19 16 18 November . 18 20 20 20 15 193 December 18 20 19 19 16 19 1899. AAMUATY 6 cate easiness ceeciels sastghedoodhduasscsee 18 18 19 19 15 18 IDG) Da T CNN @ BB Seo oaer ae ereaooen en caooe a oouene mpoaeaTee 18 18 18 ily) 12 18 IMs Ch se een prea cee ae ance eset nee oo oacemeee 17 18 TESTA ikea kD 13 18 UN U1e OR ee ee ee Se at aaa peo Tb cSuEScE Ont 15 17 18 182 13 18 1S a a he Oe TE ae or eee Reh ean ne 16 16 163 18 12 18 RIEL ee ae pea os aici eestor orale eis aioe Sete 15 16 16 18 12 18 RULE eee oe Sec ome ae e.ce ae eee cine etree mane 15 16 16 18 12 18 ENTE Rh anes seme See Son aSoon eens Se eab san sseceoaaassS See 14 15 16 17 12 18 SOC Neier econ cooaeoae Sosa SdapEuScooaCOssase IaeDe 12 13 16 16 123 16 WMGIGDR Re se se re ones aie mise wale intatale oem ialalatareraiata 13 15 13 13 9 16 IN ON OTH TY Bone Sae Sse nounsonseoaceueosse pscocsegocecde 13 14 132 132 9 13 IPTC ttn be Ree ReBo SED eeiCOoOCL coo CU DnSOSCCEe ODOCOnC 123 14 13 13 7 13 1223 133 13 123 133 13 123 133 122 123 132 123 123 14 10 13 14 10 13 14 10 13 15 10 13 15 163 CTO Ciara era oars aya ae pcre hee taln im is a= erate loans 17 pAl 163 INGOT OT er bce wis ao nc ois cise ataiae e ee ee ee ae eroen ceSainetele 20 PAT ie 173 PSCC Pele teen amen mieten ccemiaaareeeniae siaetes neniae 18 21 18 FLAXSEED. The production of flax in this country so far as reported is for the seed only. The world’s product of flaxseed in 1899 was 68,553,000 bushels, of which the United States supplied 29,601,000 bushels, an increase of 4,950,000 bushels over 1898 and of 11,000,000 bushels over 1897. The exports in 1899 amounted to 2,830,991 bushels. The reported production of flax fiber for the world in 1899 amounted to 1,295,943,000 pounds, a decrease of 557,000,000 pounds as compared with 1898. The United States imported 10,415 tons, valued $1,783,628, the top figures of a’steady increase which has been in progress since 1895. The wholesale prices of flaxseed have increased steadily on United States markets for the past five years. The lowest figures in the Chicago list are 63} cents per bushel in September, 1896; the highest $1.86 in October, 1900. STATISTICS OF FLAX FOR 1900. Flax crop of the countries named, 1897-1899. 817 Seed. Fiber. Countries. 1897. 1898. 1899, 1897, 1898. | 1899, Bushels. | Bushels. | Bushels. Pounds. Pounds | Pounds United: States! 2. kee eeweee IMO OOO s reueuee OOOH 200865000! bi. Selec, 0:2 o'm x-0'm | ovens bissens osama ercecte oie cee Manilobaieee eee 255, 500 361, 000 SSIS ACU UN lekrsoc, SASSO Leman mrceeeie Paice MMe RICO eee ke semen. 258, 000 WaVOO0E | MEL ZOO NCDOt |. aie 2s can aloccerocusee wae ee Ae ary ANvertine: Din: Soke ee 7,000; D0OM|| 7eOG0s 00081 9 O00\000) 2.286 35 855 Sle. ee eee | Sasa eee gio Amieries: 3.2.5. 1S b1Se SOON PAT Oo LODO A29 SOUL OUD) [a2 cimaistcom'= clas cl iim selela semdie wie | a aticccgoroten eee ate PTOIANG S24. oz wom ewes saa aelss oa Jock COREL aaeeeias seen eee esi aia 16, 290, 000 15, 062, 000 16, 034, 000 Simedenitee soccee ee eee ee 73, 500 72, 500 372, 000 3, 917, 000 3, 644, 000 c3, 900. 000 Netherlands 275, 000 176,000 | 2254, 000 11, 503, 000 10, 208,000 | ¢11,169, 000 Beleiumies.o2. 350, 000 407,000 | 2383, 000 30, 123, 000 35, 386,000 | ¢€32,3809, 000 Brance 30, 000 34, 000 31, 009 33, 000 Total Australia and Polynesia...... 153, 916 226, 241 | 171,371 149, 650 Africa: | REY p issn nc oasce ahr osencaocemeusecce 80,178 90, 822 99, 000 95, 000 WARTS. soccee carinnn espe seco eee 121, 693 186, 487 157, 025 190, 000 Reunions =o. 22 iS: ccccscicaceece scones 31, 483 37, 781 35, 000 35, 000 Rotel in AGiCe oc ennee eee e ews 233, 354 315, 090 291, 025 320, 000 Europe: SPDT eee A CRM Se eee ene eee 23, 000 25, 000 38, 215 33, 000 — =! ————= Total cane-sugar production (Wil- Lett Sekeraia Seer se eee cece 2,862,255 | 2,998,372 | 2, 833, 5384 3, 420, 770 —_—_——— a BEET SUGAR. Europe beet-sugar production (Licht): GEEMeny oon. 2 5. waaseomass Unwen secs xs 1, 852, 857 | 1,721,718 | 1,790,000 1, 970, 000 ATIStRIR eet ee eo eens ite es. 831, 667 | 1,051,290] 1,120,000] 1,095,000 Ma OT. hee hens ha eos Ques ca omens §21, 235 830, 132 970, 000 1, 170, 000 RUSSIA Se eek oe eee sete 738, 715 776, 066 900, 000 890, 000 poi 7i (anit ih oe ee es 265, 397 244, 017 300, 000 340, 000 FIOM AN Gaeta te eee ee ee ae 125, 658 149, 763 180, 000 186, 000 QiUner COURIFICH ..cemsccs cccensos-ae 196, 245 209, 015 275, 000 375, 000 Rotaliin Wurope,s--s6ssos—sa25 Cece nn oPaoeeseae bys ds 6b} 6 + 7 1899 E | Prime. ARETE TS Oy Ie SC ee ES A ee ee 55 53 5} + L 7 LS) SNS ese Se ce Se Cee EO ee eons Sa eee Eee cee 5 oF 53 3 $ 7 ES Pee 2 ee ee ee ene eee eer Ae di 5} 5} 6} 43 62 Torn ey ee eR eee Oe oy a Re Ie RS ee 5t 5t 53 63 32 64 COS In 9) ear ama a sae in ne ane 5h Bt 5i 63 33 6L RARER ee ee ae Se See ee PAE eo Sa emcee Fy 5t Bi 62 2 7 FTE ee RA ere I Bt 5t 5 6 i 7 LTE UIN” 2 Be SR BRE BS" a 8 ea ae 5 5s bs 6 oe i September -........ . 5 5 5 6 4i 7 eames PSE gs Migr BR aliseat ss) > eee re Re Soe ot 11,48: 1515 1.25 1.50} 2.75 2.00 2.10 1897 JAMMER. coe occ s saan nins GS alate Note atotnee 1.282 | 1.683 1.15 1.25 1.50 | 3.00 2.00 2.70 2} 1.80 1.35 A. 25 1.50 | 3.00 2.00 2.80 el) Abd 1.15 1,25 1.75 | 3.00 2.00 2.90 2 | 1.822 q35 1.25 2.50} 8.15 2.00 3.10 1.89 15 1, 25 2.005 )|" Shs 2. 00 3.10 TOG bec eames 1.50 | 2.773 2. 00 2.90 pY 7: eee. eee Sen) 150) 205 2.00 2.85 1. 68? 1.20 1.25 2.00} 2.90 2.00 3.05 1.64; 4215 4225 1.50} 2.90 2.15 3. 05 1.582 1.15 1,25 1.50 | 2.75 2.15 2. 80 1.463 1.15 1,25 1.75 | 2.70 PAs ts 2.80 1. 462 1.15 1.25 1.75 | 2.80 2.15 2.80 JOUHATVS lore eemeeas pus nc 1,233 | 1.46} 1.15 1.25 1.50 | 2.80 2.15 2. 85 Rebroary 250s. 22-20 c ee A oeenk 1.233 | 1.462 1.15 1.25 1.50} 3.00 2. 25 3.00 MarCh ose sn seni see ade eee ATS: 1. 463 1.15 1.25 1.25} 3.00 2. 35 3.00 pic! ae ee eee See ee ae ee eee 1.26% | 1.598) 1.15 1.25 1.50} 3.00 2.35 3.00 ERY. SOS ora tc aoe ne Se ae 1.35 1, 683 1.15 1.25 1.50 | 2.90 2. 20 3.00 UNC See ae ais a caste Soe me earea neces TERS: R68 Fe ooo ese mate ce ane 1.50} 2.90 2.00 2.90 PRPs sete dalin otaesseendabicen each ce 1.302) 36333522 eco ese ce ee 100) |e 207 2.00 2.60 CEIEY FG) ee SO eS ae ene ee eeee 1.30; | 1.574) 1.08 BA le 1.00} 2.60 1.75 2.70 Oh evil OS ae ae eee eee ene = 1.163) 1.53, -95 1.17 1.00} 2.55 1.50 2.50 (OYA 7 ee ee ee 1.12} | 1.413 -95 1.10 1.00] 2.40 1.60 2.50 MO VEIN DEN o cetwnemcceiencewcenesmacey 1.123 |} 1.35 .95 1.00 i | 2.35 1.70 2.50 December. <..so-c-.weces ewinisie me re) Moplase’ 4 sidaoe) -95 1.00 1.00 | 2.30 1.70 2, 59 1899. SUCRATE ie Ae eee eee Se ae eee: ee ee -95 1.05 1.25] 2.423 1.70 2.50 2 i a a 1.1332) 1.35 1.00 1.05 1.50 | 2.473 1.85 2.50 MIREOR ooo easeenlsn ee son fewasas 1.193,| 1.35 1.90 1.05 1.75 | 2.472 1.75 2.50 PaO ee Fos eee p manicine wae etace oenn SS 1.12: | 1.30 1.00 1.05 1.50] 2.472 1,75 2.75 Bt re cp atcckeaneewise seccnais 1.125 | 1,44} 1.00 1.05 1.50] 2.40 1.90 2.65 Jumme ss ss gg ae a eee ae eee 1.50} 2.40 1.90 2. 65 Aire ie Soe en oe Sen eee emis gt oe le ss Pera Se ae 1.25 | 2.76 1.90 2.80 Prpustiss « soscc cco Sean danee os cee ec 1.243;| 1.46} 1.10 1.15 1.50} 2.55 1,75 2. 80 September 252 Ssceswsesee ee sees 1.233 | 1.523 1.10 1.15 1.75 | 2.50 1. 80 2. 60 Oeteberise = so. oot ee eo ee 1.233 | 1.573 1.03 1.15 1.75 | 2.423 1.80 2.45 Noweniber 2s. ee os cee scans eck eoctal vex ccece 1.03 1.07 1.00] 2.50 1.90 2. 45 December........... Pe wcneienemere tel t Ley, 1. 462 1. 03 1.07 1.50} 2.45 1.85 2.50 1900. Per 100 pounds. JADBVATY ones noe detopatecccae 2.60 3. 25 1.03 1.07 1.75 | 2.60 2.00 2.50 Febnuany 22662 57Gb as gedecs 2.50 3.50 1.03 a Bas BJ 1.75 | 2.65 2.00 2. 50 Manehi. §22oe. Saas soles Soe 2. 50 3.50 1.05 ie be L.bO |. 2275 1.90 2. 55 ba hn Sn oe eee aoe, ae eee eee 2.75 3.50 1.07 pb 1.50 | 2.60 1.90 2. 55 Maye ees See eh See tee ee 2.75 3.50 1.07 i512 1.50] 2.60 1.90 2.60 JUMEts see sass choose oe meee wens 3 2.75 3. 50 1.07 1.12 1.50} 3.40 2.00 3.15 it hee ee a nee, Ger eee! Nominal. 1.15 1.40 2.25] 3.40 2. 65 3.25 AUPAISG aes Soe os SSE as soc hieas Ss Nominal. 135 1.80 2.75 | 3.85 2.75 4.25 Dep LGnURer 65 c6 Swe ce hes wee 4. 20 5.55 1. 60 2.00 3.00 | 4.65 3.50 4.5 igre) ct aa tee ee ee ee ee 4. 20 5.55 5 ay 2.00 3.25 | 4.65 3.50 4.30 MOVRIMDEE SS. 5.c.02 coos Jone han cane 4.20 5.50 1.70 1.85 3.00] 4.30 3. 50 4,02 DECEMBET. ase p denser ween a= saa acs 4. 50 5. 00 1.70 1.85 3.50] 4.65 3.50 4,40 1 Average. 824 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FARM ANIMALS AND THEIR PRODUCTS. The tables showing the numbers and values of farm animals which have appeared regularly in the Yearbooks of this Department for several years are omitted from this book. The reason is furnished in the following announcement by the Statistician of the Department: ‘*Pending the forthcoming publication of the Census report on live stock, which will be used for the verification or correction of the Department’s figures for the year 1900, the Statistician has temporarily discontinued his own estimates of the number and value of farm animals. While this omission renders it impossible to make any definite statement as to the losses from disease and exposure during the year ending March 31, 1901 (the losses being reported as a percentage of the total number of farm animals), the reports received from correspondents leave absolutely no room for doubt that owing mainly to the general mildness of the past winter such losses have been much below the average of a series of years.”’ HORSES. Jn the prices of horses there appears from the figures collected a gradual advance for the past five years. All grades except Western show a steady market for 1900. Range of prices for horses in Omaha, monthly, 1896-1900. : General pur- + : Carriage a | Drafts. pose. Southern. | Western. | Drivers. aceite ate. | a | Low. | High,| Low.| High.| Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. ee } | | 1896. | | | | January <..-- $75.00 |$90.00 |$30.00 |$50.00 |$15.00 |$30.00 [$15.00 |$22.50 |$50.00 |$85.00 |$100. 00 [$200.00 February ...-| 80.00 /100.00 | 30.00 | 55.00 | 15.00 | 35.00 | 15.00 | 20.00 | 50.60 | 90.00 | 160.00 | 225.00 - Marehs =. =24/2; | 82.50 |105.00 | 32.50 | 60.00 | 15.00 | 40.00 } 15.00 | 22.50 | 60.00 |100.00 | 110.00 | 240.00 pral S522 | 85.00 |110.00 | 35.00 | 60.00 | 17.50 | 40.00 | 15.00 | 25.00 | 65.00 1125.00 125. 00 | 275.00 Mayeee eS s-o-! 85.00 |110.00 | 35.00 | 60.00 | 17.50 | 40.00 | 15.00 | 25.00 | 65.00 125.60 | 125.00 | 275.00 JUNE ses lcs2. | 82.50 |105.00 | 30.00 | 50.00 | 15.00 | 37.50 | 12.50 | 22.50 | 60.00 |120.00 | 115.00 | 240.00 Jalysseot2 22k | $0.00 {100.00 | 25.00 | 45.00 | 15.00 | 32.50 | 12.50 | 22.50 | 55.00 125.00 | 105.00 | 220.00 August.....-- | 75.00 | 90.00 | 22.50 | 40.00 | 15.00 | 30.00 | 12.50 | 20.00 | 50.00 |120.C0 | 100.00 | 210.00 September -.-| 75.00 | 90.00 | 20.00 | 35.00 | 15.00 | 30.00 | 12.50 | 20.00 | 50.00 /110.90 | 100.00 | 175.00 October ------. 80.00 |100.00 | 22.50 | 40.00 | 15.00 | 27.50 } 12.50 | 27.50 | 50.00 |115.00 | 100.00 | 200.60 November ...| 65.00 | $0.00 | 20.00 | 35.00 | 15.00 | 25.00 | 10.09 | 20700 | 40.00 |100.00 | 100.00 | 260.00 December....| 85.00 |100.00 | 35.00 | 60.00 | 15.00 | 35.00 | 15.00 | 25.00 | 50.00 160,00 | 125.00 | 250.00 1897. A January ....- 65.00 | 90.00 | 30.00 | 55.00 | 20.00 | 40.00 | 13.00 | 20.00 | 40.00 | 90.00 | 110.00 | 225.00 February ....] 75.00 |100.00 | 35.00 | 60.00 | 20.00 | 45.00 | 15.00 | 20.00 | 45.00 /100.00 | 110.00 | 225.00 Marche <2 o>. 85.00 |110.00 | 40.00 | 60.00 | 20.00 | 40.00 | 12.00 | 20.00 | 50.00 110.00 | 125.00 } 250.00 Apr Woo <== 90.00 1115.00 | 40.00 | 60.00 | 15.00 | 35.00 | 12.00 | 20.00 | 60.00 |125.00 | 150.00 | 300.60 Wye A255. 85.00 |110.00 | 40.00 | 60.00 | 15.00 | 30.00 | 14.00 | 25.00 | 60.00 |125.00 | 150.00 | 300.00 TMMCE Asoo. o 85. 00 1110. 00 35.00 | 55.00 | 15.00 | 30.00 | 15.00 | 25.00 | 50.00 '120.00 | 150.00 | 300. 60 STL aon wee .00 |115.00 | 30.00 | 50.00 | 15.00 | 30.00 |} 15.00 | 25.00 | 45.00 |110.00 | 125.00 | 250.00 August....-.- 1100. 00 /125.00 | 30.00 | 50.00 | 15.00 | 30.00 | 15.00 | 30.00 | 40.00 |100.00 | 125.00 | 250.00 September .../100.00 |125.00 | 35.00 | 55.00 | 10.60 | 30.00 | 15.00 | 30.00 | 40.00 |100.00 | 150.00 | 300.60 October ..-..-- 90.09 1115.00 | 35.00 | 55.00 | 10.00 | 30.00 | 15.00 | 30.00 | 35.00 85.00 | 150.00 | 300.00 November ...| 85.00 {110.00 | 35.00 | 60.00 | 15.00 | 35.00 | 15.00 | 25.00 | 35.00 85.00 | 150.00 | 309.00 December....| 60,00 | 85,00 | 30.00 | 50.00 | 20.00 | 40.00 | 12.00 | 20.00 | 35.00 | 80.00 } 100.00 } 200, 00 1898. Jganuary ....- 75.00 |100.00 | 30.00 | 55.00 | 20.00 | 45.00 | 13.00 | 20.00 | 40.00 | 90.00 | 150.00 | 300.00 February ....} 75.00 {100.00 | 35.00 | 60.00 | 20.00 | 45.00 | 15.00 | 20.00 | 45.00 |100.00 | 150.00 | 300.00 Mareh .222.-2 85.00 |110.00 | 40.00 | 60.00 | 20.00 } 40.00 | 12.00 | 20.00 | 50.00 110.00 | 150.00 | 300.00 Aprals- 2282." 90.00 |115.00 | 40.00 | 60.00 | 20.00 | 40.00 | 12.00 | 20.00 | 60.00 125.00 | 150.00 | 350. 00 Mayes 22k 85.00 |110.00 | 40.00 | 60.00 | 20.00 | 40.00 | 14.00 | 25.00 | 60.00 150.00 | 150.00 | 400.00 JUNE Sse esa: 85.00 |110.00 | 35.00 | 55.00 | 15.00 | 35.00 | 15.00 | 30.00 | 50.00 125.00 | 150.00 | 350. 00 sk ee ee 90.00 |115.00 | 30.00 | 50.00 | 15.00 | 35.00 | 15.00 ; 35.00 | 50.00 125.00 | 125.00 ; 300.00 Aneust 22222. 100.00 |125.00 | 30.00 | 50.00 | 15.00 | 35.00 | 15.00 | 40.00 | 40.00 |125.00 | 125.00 | 300.00 September .-.|100.00 125.00 | 35.00 | 55.00 | 10.00 | 35.00 } 15.00 | 45.00 | 40.00 125.00 | 159.00 | 300.00 October ---..-- 90.00 |125.00 | 35.00 | 55.00 | 10.00 | 35.00 | 15.00 | 45.00 | 35.00 1100.00 | 150.00 | 300.00 November ...|100.00 {125.00 | 35.00 | 60.00 | 15.00 | 35.00 | 15.00 | 40.00 | 35.00 100.00 | 150.00 | 300.00 December....| 70.60 | 90.00 | 35.00 | 50.00 | 20.00 | 40.00 | 12.00 |} 20.00 | 35.00 109.00 | 150.00 | 300.00 1899, January ..... 75.00 |115.00 | 35.00 | 60.00 | 20.00 | 45.00 | 10.00 | 20.00 | $5.00 (225.00 | 200.00 | 300.00 February ....} 80.00 |120.00 | 35.00 | 65.00 | 20.00 | 50.00 | 10.00 | 20.00 | 95.00 |225.00 | 200.00 | 300.00 Marche. oo. 3 90.00 {125.00 | 40.00 | 65.00 | 20.00 | 50.00 | 10.00 | 20.00 | 95.00 (225.00 | 200.00 | 300.00 A rila 22 see 90.00 |140.00 | 40.00 | 70.00 | 20.00 | 50.00 | 10.00 | 20.00 | 95.00 |225.00 | 200.00 | 300.00 Mayes. Ss 100.00 |150.00 | 40.00 | 70.00 | 20.00 | 45.00 | 12.50 | 22.59 | 90.00 325.00 | 300.00 | 450.00 SHNC ee oesee25 90.00 |140.00 | 40.00 | 65.00 | 15.00 | 45.00 | 12.80 | 25.00 | 90.00 325.00 | 300.00 | 450. 00 PRICES OF CATTLE AND DAIRY PRODUCTS. 825 Range of prices for horses in Omaha, monthly, 189¢—1900—Continued. General pur- , “Le Carriage are Drafts. pose. Southern. Western. | Drivers. teams: Low. | High. | Low. | High.| Low. | High.} Low. | High. Low. High. | Low. | High. 1899, : rh ee $90. 00 |$140.00 [$40.00 [$60.00 /$15. 00 [#45.00 |$15.00 $27.50 $75.00 $200.00 |$200.00 |$325. 00 August..... 90.00 | 140.00 | 40.00 | 60.00 | 15.00 | 45.00 | 17.50 | 30.00 | 75.00 | 220.00 | 210.00 | 420.00 September -} 90.00 | 140.00 | 40.00 | 60.00 | 15.00 | 45.00 | 20.00 | 40.00 | 85.00 | 175.00 | 215.00 | 360.00 October ..../100.00 | 160.00 | 40.00 | 65.00 | 20.00 | 45.00 | 30.00 | 77.50 | 90.00 | 215.00 | 175.00 | 435. 00 November .| 90.00 | 150.00.) 40.00 | 60.00 | 20.00 | 50.00 | 30.00 | 65.00 | $0.00 | 325.00 | 230.00 | 370.00 December. ./100.00 | 160.00 | 35.00 | 69.00 | 20.00 | 55.00 | 29.00 | 45.00 | 90.00 | 300.00 | 200.00 | 375.00 1900. January ...| 75.00 | 135.00 | 55.00 | 85.00 | 20.00 | 45.00 | 10.00 | 20.00 | 95.00 | 225.00 | 200.00 | 800.00 February ..| 80.00 | 150.00 | 55.00 | 90.00 | 20.00 | 50.00 | 10.00 | 20.00 | 95.00 | 225.00 | 200.00 | 800. 00 Warehiii- 90.00 | 165.00 | 55.00 | $0.00 | 20.00 | 50.00 | 10.00 | 20.00 | 95.00 | 225.00 | 200.00 | 300.00 ARGUE soe See 90.00 | 175.00 | 60.00 |100.00 | 20.00 | 50.00 | 10.00 | 20.00 | 95.00 | 225.00 } 200.00 | 800.00 1) a 100.00 | 159.00 | 65.00 /105.00 | 20.00 | 45.00 | 12.50 | 22.50 | $0.00 | 825.00 | 300.00 | 450.00 PUM. ec caes 90.00 | 140.00 | 40.00 | 65.00 | 15.00 | 45.00 | 12.50 | 25.00 | 90.00 | 325.00 | 300.00 | 450.00 PETS 32S. a5. 90.00 | 140.00 | 40.00 | 60.00 | 15.00 | 45.00 | 15.00 | 27.50 | 75.00 | 200.00. | 200.00 | 325.00 AMP UISh ens 2 90.00 | 140.00 | 40.00 | 60.00 | 15.00 | 45.00.}| 17.60 | 30.00 | 75.00 | 220.00 | 210.00 | 420.00 September .| 90.00 | 140.00 | 40.00 | 60.00 | 15.00 | 45.00 | 20.00 | 40.00 | 85.00 | 175.00 | 215.00 | 350.00 October ..../100.00 | 160.00 | 40.00 | 65.00 | 20.00 | 45.00 | 30.00 | 77.50 | 90.00 | 215.00 | 175.00 | 435.00 November .} 90.00 | 150.00 | 40.00 | 60.00 | 20.00 | 50.00 | 12.50 | 45,00 | 90.00 | 825.00 | 230.00 | 370.00 December../100. 00 | 160.00 | 35.00 | 60.00 | 20.00 | 55.00 | 12.50 | 40.00 | 90.00 | 300.00 | 200.00 | 375.00 CATTLE AND DAIRY PRODUCTS. Prices of cattle are reported as well maintained since 1897, when a good advance was recorded. The market in 1900, as is usually the case, appears to have been strongest on the high grades. quite steadily maintained since that time. have since held their own with the usual decline in the summer. Prices of butter improved notably in 1898 and have been Prices of cheese advanced in 1899 and Wholesale prices of cattle per 100 pounds, 1896-1900. Chicago. Cincinnati. St. Louis. | Omaha. Inferior to Fair tome- | Good to choice | Fa oe: Date. prime. dium. native steers, | Native beeves. Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. High. January..... | $1.75 | $5.05 | $3.25] $3.75 | $3.00] $4.45 | $3.00 $4. 30 February .. 2.00 4.85 3.15 38. 85 3. 00 4.50 3. 00 4.15 March ....... 2. 00 4.80 3. 00 3.75 3.00 4.50 3. 00 4.10 ALU e emia ne = a= hain cs oan acne 2.00 4.70 3. 00 3. 75 3. 25 4,20 3. 00 4.15 We emia ccciscios Gacceee neces cece 2.00 4.45 3.15 3. 80 S25 4,25 3. 00 4,15- VN Se secas cece kane ne Sect ccse mane 2.00 4,55 3. 00 3. 63 3:25. 4.30 3. 00 4.30 Dyas) a oe aeias elec ak cin Seiden 1.75 4, 65 3.10 3.75 3. 25 4.45 3. 00 4,25 IANEPURD: eraeticra demoe de cicece sce ame ascs Li 4, 90 3. 00 3.75 BEES 4,50 3. 25 4,35 BEnteMIDe ese se aco se et esmeesstce 1.75 5. 10 3. 00 3. 65 Ss00) 4.90 3.40 4.70 OCtODER saa 5 ss aeisweesee secsoes 1.75 5.30 8.00 |- 3.50 8.25 4.65 3. 25 4.75 INDUEMIPOL o- ©) ja5- sate on See we teens 1.75 5. 40 38. 00 3.70 Bald 5. 00 3. 25 4,65 IDEGEmbpGrse. oo asseta re cawceesesscee 1.75 | 6.00 3. 00 3.75 3:25,| 510 3.25 | 4.50 1897. DAM AEY Sia aicteare , = SReira Saerer 15 153 12 14 123 143 14 15 PATS ate. oa ie eee cineca ae oem 15 164 12 15 12 164 143 17 September 15 163 12 15 12 16 15 16 OChODEL ah ss. 2-8 eee eee 16 20 13 16 13 19 165 20 November 20 23 15 20 16 22 18 233 J OSATTS STon te season Scoe boro: canesas 21 24 16 20 18 23 20 243 1897. DRDMALY come eee oe ap iaicies ect eacien er 20 22 15 16 17 21 19 204 February 19 213 15 ah) 16 204 18 21 gS els eee |S ee ee ae 19 20 15 20 16 19 18 22% ADT SS 2/3 Dee o> Sey et ake 17 22 13 20 14 21 16 20 ce Ie Be as a Ca 14 17 12 14 123 16 13§ 15 ING 2s ee mT Skee 15 15 12 13 13 15 14 145 yor we ee eee eae eae a ae 15 15 12 13 12} 143 143 144 (STS: P2k- bs pee as aces 15 183 12 18 12: 18} 144 18 September A a. ocean cesses ee sce ce 18 21 15 18 15% 204 17 22 OCCODEr en eee ener eee eee 21 234 16 22 19 23 22 23 Noyvemper <5 [Sts eae eas oear 23 23% 14 18 “49 23 22 23 DECIDES cane ceseene sbsconoeccocac= 2 24 18 20 18 23 21 223 PRICES OF BUTTER AND CHEESE. 827 Wholesale prices of buller per pound in leading cities of the United States, 1896-1900— Low. | High. | Low. | High. Continued. New York. Cincinnati. Chicago. | Elgin. Creamery = Creamery Creamery Date, extra. Creamery. | firsts. extra. 1898. Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. CONES ay ge ye Re ns Se eee aes 20 22 16 20 16 21 19 21 MBO TUR ie se ne ane a eeeiee oe eh eek 20 203 16 18 16 19} 19 20 19 204 16 18 16 20 1&4 19} 17 22 14 18 15 21 164 20 15 17 14 16 14 16} 15 16% 16 17 13 15 143 16 153 16 y 163 18k 14 15 143 17} 16 174 UAC a Sa ee ee i eee 18} 19 16 17 16 18% 18 18% Siero Roti ayord SSeS Aa aoe seo 18% 31 16 18 15} 20 18 20 MNLQDEE poe 2 oe cee. - J keeee - eee oe 20} 23 16 18 bef 22 20 22 TRAV EHIDEE scoot: - oe sam anes ohieee 23 23% 18 19 19 22 2 22 BORGO WON cae ccsels— ee onesies =p aer 20 23) 17 18 16 22 203 22 1899. PEL A TY eile ai. cts mas ctae min elton | 19 21 16 18 14 202 18 203 RRS EARL Stee aa eee in cis a nora = ate ale 19 25 17 20 14 214 20 22 Wil NYO ab 2s Re SE ad eee 20 22 19 20 17 21 20 203 OAS TINIE 2 pee ey te Sen 17 214 18 19 14 21 17 203 Re ese esc ee ee otis crate, oeee is oetate we 164 19 16 17 14 183 16 18 RUE eee eee oan ee te Set oe api 18 183 17 18 16 18 18 18 DASE oe Aas = scram: 2s os ees ccmen cee 17: 184 163 18 15i 18 173 18 OTE TCE: aha Se a = 173 21 163 20 153 20 18 20 September 202 23 18 20 173 223 21 224 Wxctober -s-c--:- 233 24 18 20 18 23 32 234 November 24 27 18 24 19 26 244 26, December. 25% 28 21 24 21 27 26 27 21 27 22 29 24 29 21 22 21 242 24 24 21 22 20 244 24 242 16 20 15} 22 18 228 16 18 16 193 193 193 16 18 163 193 18 192 17 18 17 19 19 19 JT Rae no apie ae ens ees 29 cieaeoues ee 18% 21 17 20 17 21 193 214 Sao] en oe See OR FS sooeeeee 21 22 19 21 17k 211 203 213 CYG{fo] Tie Sen SSC oe EE ieee eee 204 224 18 21 aly 22 204 22 MOVEMDED .-- 5 52cen 5 cece eee at ectoae 222 27 20 25 18 253 22 26 De ShD ee Se eee Soepe oe, 25 26 23 24 20 24 242 ® Wholesale prices of cheese per pound in leading cities of the United States, 1896-1900. New York. | Cincinnati. | Chicago. | St. Louis. Date. pe eee | Factory. Full cream. Full eream. Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. High, 1896. Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. JRBURESS nent riciiawocens eilabi@ersess oeKs 10 10: |" gt 10 ve 9} “al 104 Mebruany se acsacb cosas Sooke e ceccieee | 102 103 gh 10 8 103 9 103° Aiion@lsl Soe Selec casas 5 oSnsecoseeeeee | 103 103 gi 10 8 103 8} 104 Alpi) Sse sae Sa ee oS Sse iid os 93 102 gk 10 8 103 9 10 Wy ea ect che ews: secession 92 92 th 10 7t 104 Si 10 WUE. sear nea wean os ate ws ane 6} ii “i 8 6} ii 8 83 Nalgene ce ene ee ns 63 62 7 8 6 ml 63 a AWIENIStss co eoe 62 BL 7 ik 5} 83 | 7k 83 September .... 8 gi 7 8} 7 9 | 8 9 ORTOB RI a oe cates ie sae ses Sean 9 103 8 8: ik 9t | 9 10% INQVEIBIEM occ heen nie emanation ee 103 103 9L 19 7 gi gi 10 DCCEIRPED. 2. co. case ccm we cssacepces 103 103 gt 10 7 93 gt 10 Rabati he p2- Sy ee gee HE Se ae ee 10} 113 9 10 3 10 93 103 Reprusingg 4. 622 fees oae nie wens 12 i2} 9 103 4 ll 103 113 March REO cas ROE os Sh Seems Se oS = 12: 123 10 103 4 11 i: 113 Aprils sansa aL es eee 103 122 103 11 3 iL ni 11y MG i. 55- feb. Seto e pees = Skee + 10% gt il 3 10} 8} 113 PUNE SS OSS. oc oebas wok Ueoe ies see 8 82 7 8 3 L 8 83 VTUK asthe ctesostéotnesocoototescscda: i 8 7 8 4 4 8 8} 828 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Wholesale prices of cheese per pound in leading cities of the United States, 1896-1900— Continued. New York. | Cincinnati. Chicago. St. Louis. Date. Scored: x Factory. Full cream. Full cream. Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. 1897. Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. PANISTIRU = chs cine sms ote ron oats cs Hees 72 gi 93 4 + 4 10% September... 2-8 sa20 ee ate wens eben 9} gi Qi 4 Fe 4 102 IO CtODER ena eee eee eee eee 82 gt i 92 4 3 $ 10 NOVEMIUD ED 27h cna Soeise tele eee oe 84 &} gi gi 3 83 95 10 DeCeMhHer sHskecSco- es te es canker 8i 8} 9 91 3 > 94 10 VANITY eee ean e Seta ene nee Beis gi 83 9 92 3 9 10 10 February . --. &L 8} 9 gt 3 hh 10 10 March’ 5.0525 8 8h 8 gt 3 gt 10 10 AMDT 2.3 Safes onan one ev eds namcioniceeion 8 9 8k 9 3 9F 9 10 IE eh a eee Bie Seen oe epee ee 63 &} i 9 5 gf 9 4 ETT Ra ef ESI CSS 63 ves 7 73 it ves 8 2 RV SSH oe aeosnee ects ee ee sn decee 7 73 7 8 73 8} 82 z FACETS GA etna oie cee See nae miane 7 7% 7k 9 8 83 8 8z SEPLEM Der ss a = Oa ~ igs sae o [I a osesed t 3 ° Fe 53888 = eos 1D 16 118 Ms ood e oo i gt NS ie i 10> ieses | ois 3 ae ch os tr ang = page = Seas ee = Es i 6d 03 esses oD SESS : : “ ASRRS cost Seaee ‘> s | a prenmt 5 Sashes bo = eee each Sen sided Bis nn 3] i=) Be SES or OS kee) ees Pass 3 Sy bea gosos odes S10 sod ed oi gate oi BERS s A * 50309 eas I BIS eReaacd S o S6 See. ES Sst oseses ISS = ane = 3 29 Au ets esha Saeinat ale aedetkas = = RIBS S Seta we = Sates eretenaal nas os aq o . ro} =I : lo] : eine > Nai r= sixios jaa sen os o HH feats oS iG 3 ginaicici = sod 06 nit 28 BRAS “SHES AG oO 10 oO 1 Yen) a ri 12 =] Sal . wo wD Sa : : 2) Potted ee ee oe So a a See Shatcteas od od 03 Bos Seggnsas Ss 3 ‘eo 2199 foe eco a hs Reon 9 alt hotet Gente iSididid i=) 8 3 | BBS oe sinisini bo “A Race tee es did sid SS gacr ee ee 12 905 65 68 12S 08 68 NSS 23 aSS = ~» & 7 63.05 68 ee ~ pee. SSSSr Sone neasake Pie) n BS go88eh os od SSRBSS “iyi (SSS is ISS Ss EB ons stot 3 66 od oS Bias x SEs 5S S S q : cA o8 a 1D ii 1919195 wes oO oO isis = Oo N od bp 19 “05 es ei ep hod ESes SSS isis a] ~ S om BS oooses agin) wit Neat coon Seite isis i | aS] ty 2 ee SSS ses 318 6 08 ii g Res os o3 3 SS Ais BIA GRS eee ail BAS Boe os S H IB ASS gales) ‘ Boies Seagate 10 S55] R08 sd es sisios Oo od os es O19 to vol tohes| ~ iam . oO ° on] oD . oO on al 1 o 21d oso S228 oo SaASst Hees Seb cles \ Se of 18SRS as y 1919 18 ocd SSSS adidas 222 3S ; Di ete eee ilar ya oes = mrad RGROME Sais Talat 29 oes SSS isis SSS paves ae oes os et Se crey ss thoes ated SS rem : 08 5 Hi 8 eee 19 igiesss ic) 1916 +H . fy te ke c S eae eta cS e808 S31019 ose gessn Sees . . . x : ° . ~ ae ty 4 ar ee Sere oo a 2 1d 6 Hod ea ix SOA S . he . ae . . os 08 O83 ~ 10 on =H os Melia 191016 pene) rae . Ce ‘ fue . os od 05 = oi i-'e) 10 leli¥ele) [=] 2 ue Were C aly el a8 Lie ie soe on 08 00 Ow xii BIS Ri isis ES > Cres . Pa aC : aaa ¥ p eaes RES aes a oe io 7 mi Naat is Yo 4 TG cra ne ones oO r) <<< °o A A - . 1 en SCY IOOL 5 : a6 a ee r Riess ¢ aN cfs s : ips Deo ono os 2 5 ie AOS: ¢ R a : So #.: 2 2 oe os Px o i ios) ee = ra bw PAEURE SS Seto. a eee oases 55 58 50 52 53 55 43 45 45 47 36 38 September: oe. 5225-222 -2 56 63 51 55 54 56 44 46 46 48 87 40 October a2 < sa55-28 sae eae 62 63 54 5d 56 58 44 46 47 48 40 42 NOMEMIDED S52 ccocse ose 63 72 56 62 59 63 46 52 48 52 43 50 Weeerber- -2sso.c8- cee. P20 (751) (eer 60) |) (G25 ||eGauieer Go" | 250) | 520i bose b yee oO | 52 1900. | aN ees ee 73 74 60 62 63 65 52 55 53 57 48 50 Mebruary 2s 2625-6 5e8- 52. 68 70 58 60 60 62 50 2 55 56 48 49 Marchi2235 22.3. 25 65 67 55 57 58 60 47 50 50 54 45 48 SA Tilers ware seo contin 63 65 53 55 57 58 47 48 50 52 40 | 45 Mairead 25et acc diseeeacnind 60 62 51 53 56 7 46 48 47 50 40 42 PUR eS en = ee ee 5d 60 50 51 53 55 42 46 47 50 40 42 Pedy eS air Se 53 55 46 50 52 53 41 42 46 47 39 40 AU PMSA See ee. a 52 53 46 48 52 52 40 42 45 46 37 40 September/...5-c<.F 2 5<-%5- 50 52 45 47 50 52 38 40 45 45 36 38 Octaherees Se: 50 50 45 45 50 50 38 40 42 45 36 38 Novemberce-4 255.3. 2-5-5 50 52 45 47 50 50 38 40 43 46 37 40 Decemper) <2 222. 49 60 45 46 48 60 40 40 45 46 37 39 834 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Wholesale prices of wool per pound in leading cities of the United States, 1896-1900. Boston. New York. Philadelphia. St. Louis. Date. XX Ohio, XX Ohio. XX Ohio, Best tub- washed. washed. washed. Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cenis. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents JADE ictce wc Sutee ce pape cates She ws 20 21 19 19 18 19 20 21 February fe 19 20 19 19 18 20 20 21 Marchi ce osc. sc 19 19 19 19 18 19 20 203 VAC etl pee 3S Se Ee EN hs ee aS 18 19 185 19 173 18} 18 20 as, fy ee es BN eae eee ENE ge ee 18 18 183 183 aly 18 18 18 RMU G Sp. 2 oe tee ts 3 Neen cee ce Meee 17 18 173 173 16 18 18 19 SLs pote eo eee rE CE eee 17 18 17 17k 163 18 17 184 UNTER DTS eS aie a ae dg SE a 17 174 173 174 16 18 17 173 September ses sos eee seeeee 173 18 173 173 16 18 17 18% WOCtODET). <2 seca = cope sac ecco eeeeee 18 19 17k 17: 173 182 18 19 NOV Ember AU alec Soe 2 = clea series 19 20 17k 17} | - 18% 19 20 21 DECCMPETS. shes tome d oc seeeosceese 19 19 173 174 19 DAI 4 203 21 1897. JISTON CAM ing SORES at ss see a CD SO RED Ease 19 20 173 173 19 20 201 21k MCDrW at) a isos. Se ore ee eS 20 20% 173 17z 19 20 22 22 AMO a -Ss os oecceeee eee es 204 22 17i 172 19 20 22 234 U.N of el eee See peel a ee ee eae eS 22 223 172 18h 20 22 24 2424 11's Fi) ae ee ee Nene ee eae: ee 22 23 183 22 Par 22 23 24 Af hays eRe OES Syceeae eee ae oe ae 22 23 22 22 21 22 23 23h DU rn 5 ome daa eetie Riese 24 25 22 24 22 23 24 244 PARE EN US tee a enees eseceioactee eee CESae 25 26 24 253 23 25 25 283 September 5 si coonk toes ce eeeree 26 29 253 28 25 27 28 32 Oetobeie 55 =e as oh aewas s Seo e eee ee 29 30 28 304 28 29 31 32 MOOV GRONRET 2s re sos toe oa lance eet 29 30 29 314 29 3L 30 31 IPSCOMPET 22 oo 52 sce = cassoceee eee 29 30 293 30 29 31 30 30 1898. AE TIRSE) cy fy See See ee ee a ee 8 30 30 31 29 30 30 30 February 3 30 30 3 30 31 29 30° MAT CR ya. sos) n ee Pe on: cate es 5 29 30 30 31 292 304 28 29 UN Wl lee SER ERS Se ee cee 29 29 30 31 28 30 273 28 MER a are oe om Sob Ie oni) apenas 28 29 29 30 28 29 27 28 BNEUR Cie ee eee ee mest 2 accion pneeeee 23 29 29 30 28 29 28 28 PEW eret Ree eeyn 3 a Seep eee = 28 29 29 30 28 29 274 23 PRAT P US bos fac wat ersic seat tes = sie icicle ee 29 29 29 30 284 294 274 28 SEDleMmBene. 525 heel eee eee 283 29 29 30) 4s -29 30 27 27 OPRTOBEI Sac ae cee eae = aes Oe eee 28 282 29 30 29 30 26 263 NOVEMIDEN so eon ae aa os aeeeecce seers 28 28 28 29 28 29 253 26 WMECOMPEL. a cc0hnce ews sccapinn eviawees 27 28 28 29 28 29 26 26 1899. SANUS aa assess se ce e aoe eer 27 27 28 29 27 28 26 26 RE DIUEIY, econ. coe Sete eee eens 262 27 28 29 262 27 26 26 25% 26 28 29 263 27 254 26 2 262 28 29 25 27 26 26 27 27% 28 29 254 26% 26 263 272 28 28 29 27 28 27 27 29 32 28 29 282 30 26 264 31 32 30 32 29 81 264 27 32 32 30 32 31 32 264 274 CFO Fa) TS ae nae ee een ee 32 33 30 33 323 334 238 283 MOVEXDEL, suc lccn coos cen ee cases 33 37 32 36 33 34 29 32 DE COMIDE Tae che eae eee Ene Eee 37 38 36 39 35 3 od 35 1900. | che abl: 1 Gane, Maes see See eee ok POs 37 38 | 36 39 36 37 29 35 WEDIUSEY 2 Fic cscsto je -cese ee eee 37 37 36 39 36 3 35 36 34 36 36 3 36 37 33 35 32 34 36 37 34 39 33 34 31 32 34 37 33 34 33 34 29 31 3 3 3 32 28 823 29 29 28 36 29 32 28 29 28 29 28 3 29 30 29 29 LVRS rh cer eees See ee Sy Meni ee 273 28 28 30 28 30 29 29 DORIObeie 25.222 h eee ee ee 27 272 28 3 28 29 29 29 WO MCRD... cncocboccosneupheescaen. 27 28 28 30 27 28 29 293 SP COMIDEE nano eat ane cee eeind ceeesee 28 28 28 30 27 28 29 293 WHOLESALE PRICES OF EGGS. 835 EGGS. No considerable change in the price of eggs is recorded for 1900. The exports, 5,920,727 dozens, worth $984,081, were nearly one-half larger than in 1899, and that year showed a similar advance over 1898, while 1898 was more than double 1897, which quadrupled the exports of 1896. The imports, on the other hand, have stead- ily decreased. Wholesale prices of eggs per dozen in leading cities of the United States, 1896-1900. New York. Chicago. | St. Louis, Average best Cincinnati. fresh. Average best Fresh. fresh. Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. RP RURBULIN, etnias ia + cares Rosin seaman $ 14 le) 153 21 11 aly, February 10 14 gt 16 8} il} dC) Tien een ee + 10 9 104 83 9 PPh ae alate ae somes eeleo ae Si 94 9 10} 7 9 WSR Ree Sone eee seckk saceecenc cine 7 9 ves 103 6 8 WbRe ers sows ee ae seein seis ve 8 8i 11: 7 8h J ae ees Se ee ee ee 7 ‘Tk 9 10 6 8 LAULCHUE nS eee eee ae 7k AO} 9 12 8 10} al il 11} 143 gi 12 | S12 0] 0) 2) ee a SR a Se 12, 143 143 17% 12 14 INGER EDs coect ee tase acto oars 2 14} 163 17 22 14 19 December. sc-c2ccasesaseeeecs eeseess 3 J° IA3z 16 16 22 13 19 Be So Oe ee eee 15 22 103 123 ~i2 20 10 16 BS Sots Seine eiesse = 15 19- 12 13% 13 17 11 14 10 15} 7k 9 8} 134 7 11: 2 10 7 8 8 9 7i 8 10 12 7k 8 8 10 7k 8 102 11k 8 8 8 9 ji $1 103 13 ff 7 8 4 6 7k va Cadi econ pec be ae oo soe ebb an Someeee 13 17 ii 12 92 133 7k 12 September 22. 2255..5- i. a sces cece 16 182 10: 13 - 12% 133 19 13 wf PO De ge RR yt it Se eee 16 19 13 14 13} 15 12} a3 MOVEIMDER oi 22 ss seccc cack ecsee sas 19 22 15 164 15 18 14 17 DECOM PETA a2 = sca neon Ooaweeeee secs 223 PF) 163 17 13 OR ae ly 18 18 24 15 174 15 22 123 19 14 19 12 14 12} 16 10? 14 103 153 8 103 8? 12: 8 113 10 11? 8 9 83 103 8 9z 10: 12 9 9 9 11 81 ga 104 123 9 9 gt 11} 8} 9 13 14 9 9 9 iii 9 9 | TE eo ee ees Sas 142 153 9 12 9 123 9 13 EHC T So o2 nt aes owns Supt ce oe ox 15: 17: 12 13 12 14: 113 13} SeRlOPel ese. sees ece cercctcatesasas 17: 20 13 14 133 164 12: 15 MMIVERIBE Tn. oh men sc sensnencne sec osene 20 24 14 19 174 22 154 19 WECOMPEL...2 2 -o5-5oe- esse = saeco os 25 27 19 20 21 26 19 20 AMOUI AT eee os een oe eki- sacincee sans 17 29 14 22 15 27 133 22 February ..-- 19 35 15 24 16 35 133 32 Maren o22.. 2 121 30 10: 18 11} 20 10 17 2 OT th a ee, ae ee oka 12: 143 10: 113 11 13 10 1k WO eee a acne see anisecis xe Sere sisicie 13% 16 11 12 10} 13 10: ili REN Ce See eee ae Be ON Bene ssa 144 153 10 11 11 13} 10 ag): Di gan aay a ee ee ees 15 164 L t 10 13 9 10 VANRUBGls os = eae = woe ae oc amasa aa oy 15 18 9 11: 10 2k 9 12 Beptempen@ 250 ics ee oe eee see 18 21 123 15 11 163 il 15: SOCTODEN = ono eat me csecn eee seme nese 20 22 15 163 15 17 14 153 "A 21 24 17 17 17 18 16 17 21 24 17 17 17 | 20 17 Bh 17 26 15 19 13. 20 123 17 13} 19 123 14 12 16 10: 14 12 17 gi 14 10 16 8} 152 12 132 gL 11 103 1: 8} 1 12: 14: 103 11 103 11} 9t 10 13 15 10: 10: 10 11} 8 10 13 17 9 10 10} 11: 7k 92 9. QE Ca 51a a aR es Shae ee A IE 14 18 9 12 11: 13} 9L 111i September. 2-2-5553) sha. sees seteeae 123 14 11; 15 13 16 16 193 OCIGHE Rae ace eee eee eee ee 19 21 14 15 152 liz 14 163 INOVENIDerC cs fos oe ee 20 27 18 20 18 | 23 16 184 December: 25. o. cee ene ee ve eae 23 | 29 18 22 20 | 26 18 23 | 836 TRANSPORTATION RATES.! YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Grain; average rates, in cents per bushel, from St. Louis to New Orleans by river. Year. Per bushel. Grain + } ene in sacks | Corn and rye. | res per 100 | Wheat |————_———_| | pounds. | in bulk.| High | Low water. | water. || 1866 9.05 | 10.93 1867... 11.09 | 14.83, 1868 6.23 9. 84 1869 6.32 8.42 | 7 9.23 | 13.66 7) 165.29 79 | 19.04 15 9. 67 95 8. 09 87 | 10.01 2| 11.30 UO AT OY ST TY Ye GO > ¢ © oa Q'H & Go II. Miscellaneous commodities, AVERAGE RATES Per bushel. Grain in sacks Corn and rye. per 100 | Wheat pounds. | in bulk. | High | Low CSN nor or or oro ot water. | water. INI ou i) 6. 63 6.40 6. 50 25 6 6.50 93 5.95 65 6.58 28 6.88 87 6.50 54 6.55 14 5.89 50 5.95 55 5 4.98 | 4.50 | 4.50 4,95 New York to Chicago by rail.” FOR LESS THAN CARLOAD QUANTITIES, IN.CENTS PER 100 POUNDS. pi Sone 2 Soap eed Furni- | CU .q|Bag-| and | Cof a, | Sug- | Molas . : Year. aay soural j|Lead ging.| earth- | fee. Starch. | "oy ses, | Bice Castile Game ine en- and | mon ments. annie fancy. ‘ GES Reese cae 25 48 29 24 40 24 41 25 48 33 3h) |Soseceoe 20 37 20 20 32 20 23 20 37 23 72 \2.sanees BE 56 33 33 50 33 40 3 65 40 Gee Soe 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 62 = Al fate PRS ee ee 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 60 40 FO We segeeee 40 | 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 60 40 6a )|i 26 33 | 3 33 33 33 33 33 33 51 33 865) 2222 aeee 265. 26 26 26 26 24 24 26 44 26 (PN Peseee cc 35 35 35 35 35 30 30 35 60 35 1D: | bee sage 35 35 35 35 35 25 25 35 60 385 BO Seen 27 27 27 27 27 20 20 27 45 De WD shea? 35) 35 35'| 35 Bil) 125 ih Mie Bs 60 35 1D | soseesas 35 46 35 35 35 33 33 35 64 35 73 49 35 49 35 35 30 35 35 35 63 30 75 50 35 50 35 35 35 35 85 35 65 35 75 50 35 50 35 85 35 35 35 35 65 35 75 50 35 50 35 85 35 35 35 35 49 35 75 50 35 50 35 35 35 385 35 35 35 35 75 50 35 50 35 35 Bi) 35 35 35 35 Be) 75 50 35 50 35 35 85 35 35 35 35 35 75 50 35 50 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 75 50 35 50 35 35 35 35 385 35 85 35 75 50 35 50 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 75 50 35 50 35 35 35 85 385 35 35 35 75 50 35 50 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 75 57 35 57 42 42 42 35 42 35 42 42 1All figures here presented are upon a gold basis, the currency rates in actual use prior to the resumption of specie payments having been reduced to their gold equivalent. : 2 Rates for earlier years for this and succeeding tables of transportation rates can be found in Bul- letin 15, Miscellaneous Series, Division of Statistics, Department of Agriculture. TRANSPORTATION RATES. 837 Miscellaneous commodities, New York to Chicago by rail—Continued. AVERAGE RATES FOR CARLOADS, IN CENTS PER 1600 POUNDS. ‘ . } Soap. Agti- a | | P = Furni-| U4 Bag-| and | Cof ; | Sug- | Molas-|,.., ae at Year, rave erie: Lead ging.| earth- | fee Starch. | and ses, | Rice. pe Com ments sire | | | fancy, | 702. 53 33 25 48 29 24 40 24 41 25 48 33 39 23 20 37 20 20 32 20 23 20 37 23 72 39 33 56 33 a 50 Be 40 33 65 40 V7 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 4] 62 41 75 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 60 40 75 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 10 40 60 40 65 33 33 33 33 33 3 33 33 33 51 33 56 26 26 26 26 2 26 24 24 26 44 26 75 36 35 35 Bi) 35 35 30 30 35 60 35 7d 36 35 35 35 35 35 25 25°| 35 60 35 56 27 27 27 27 27 20 20 20 27 45 27 7E 85 39 35 35 30 30 25 25 39 60 30 67 31 27 35 31 27 27 25 29 35 64 ol 63 30 25 35 3 25 25 25 30 25 63 3 65 30 25 35 30 25 25 25 30 25 65 39 65 30 25 35 30 25 25 25 30 25 65 30 65 30 25 35 30 25 25 25 39 25 44 26 65 30 25 35 30 25 25 25 3 25 25 25 65 30 25 35 30 25 25 25 30 25 | 25 25 65 30 25 35 30 25 25 25 30 25 25 25 65 30 25 35 30 25 25 25 30 25 | 25 29 65 30 25 | 35 30 25 25 25 30 25 25 25 65 30 25 35 30 25 25 25 30 25 25 25 65 30 25 35 30 25 25 25 30 25 | 25 25 65 30 25 35 30 25 25 25 30 25 | 25 25 65 30 25 35 30 30 30 30 30 | 25 30 3 AVERAGE RATES, REGARDLESS OF QUANTITY SHIPPED, IN CENTS PER 100 POUNDS. Dry Cotton Boots Year, soda piece and Tea. | Drugs. 5' : goods. shoes. 53 53 53 53 53 39 39 39 39 39 72 72 72 | 72 72 77 77 77 | 77 77 75 15 75 73 7D 75 75 75 | 7D 1B) 65 65 65 65 65 56 56 56 56 56 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 7d 56 56 56 56 56 75 66 75 75 7D 1p) 50 vB) 75 75 73 49 73 73 73 75 50 75 75 75 75 50 75 75 75 75 50 75 75 75 75 50 75 75 7 75 50 75 75 1D 75 50 75 75 75 75 50 75 75 75 75 50 75 75 7 75 50 75 75 75 75 50 75 75 75 75 50 75 75 7 78 57 75 75 79 838 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Live stock and dressed meats, Chicago to New York by rail. AVERAGE RATES, IN CENTS PER 100 POUNDS. Dressed hogs. Cattle. | Hogs. | Sheep. 5D 43 65 35 31 61 36 29 93 40 32 50 3l 28 44 3 26 43 33 30 42 33 32 40 22 26 31 25 30 3 23 28 30 27 30 30 28 28 3 28 20 30 28 30 30 28 30 30 28 30 30 28 at 30 23 3 30 195 25 25 28 30 30 1Rates did not go into effect until February 1, 1899. Until that time the 1898 rates governed. Meats packed, Cincinnati to New York by rail. AVERAGE RATES, IN CENTS, PER 100 POUNDS. Jan. | Feb. | Mar.| Apr. June| July | Aug.| Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec. ta = co .0 | 39.0 | 39.0 | 34.5 | 30.5 | 30.5 | 30.5 | 30.5 | 30.5 | 30.5 | 31.5 | 35.0 | 33.41 .0 | 35.0 | 35.0 | 30.5 | 30.5 | 25.7 | 21.5 | 21.6 | 21.5 | 21.5 | 21.5 | 21.5) 26.73 a Ee oc | eee 21.5 | 24.3 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 30.5} 25.85 30.5 | 30.5 | 30.5 | 29.2 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.7 | 30.5) 27.83 30.5 |.30.5 | 23.3 | 17.5 | 17.5 | 18.4 | 23.0 | 26.-0.| 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 24.22 24.4 | 21.5 | 20.0 | 20.6 | 18.5 | 17.5 | 17.5 | 21.5 | 21.5 | 21.5 | 22.8 | 26.0} 21.10 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 27.7} 26.14 30.5 | 30.5 | 30.5 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0} 27.12 28.0 | 28.5 | 26.3 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 19.9 | 17.3 | 15.5 | 18.8 | 21.5 | 23.6 | 23.11 5.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.00 .0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 24.8 | 20.0 | 20.0 | 20.0 | 20.0 | 23.89 .0 | 24.3 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 25.36 5.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 25.7 | 21.5 | 21.5 | 21.5 | 21.5 | 21.5 | 21.5} 23.70 .5 | 23.7 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 25.43 5.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 |} 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0} 26.00 5.0 | 26.0] 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.00 .0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 } 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0; 26.00 5.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.00 5.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0} 26.00 3.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0.| 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 21.5 | 21.5 | 21.5] 24.83 5.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0 | 26.0) 26.00 TRANSPORTATION RATES. 839 Average freight rates, in cents per ton per mile. a |e e 2 |g a Veo (le a {8 i | Se 3 eee wii see. |-8 Sit = > A Cia : v - a | ee Fe) a |e (Se ss) 2] 6]. bag = Be 3 5 fem 5 a=} fan] ae Ss = 3 ms ; 5 a le — & S| |s 3 a | 2 | 82? a8 Sele) 8 joel l es | 4 Se es Wear ss. 4 |e il host ll erie | & | 63 |4- S | 3% | 22 e fez} ia od is | BS | oF =] eolms| v | o| av oo} Go ie e toned ate | ol oe as | a’) Ss! on | BS Sy ee be ae dl ledeatee =e cl eile = Se eri ea PS ag bee b= fe |) == 5 a we fee ann ad Sc ey 2 gre top 2 > Ke = 5 = ° Ej a/ @ |2a]/8 So |s8is"|s a. |S 9] a |Em; © |5s8| a |Be)38 © RSS cy i SS fp r= = 2 7 = 22) o a Ee | a A = AT aA ie aia |e |e 1b ba lO 1S Waser als Gea i SY a a |S aaa Lee a pa 1875....| 8.6241 1.346| 1.119] 1.061] 0.887 0.989] 0.970] 1.299] 1.691] 1.688) 1.833) 1.649] 2.164] 1.687) 1.421 1876....| 2.218} 1.139) .929| .972| .722) .841| .827) 1.062) 1.587] 1.693) 1.798] 1.438} 2.211) 1.638] 1.217 1877....| 1.955) 1.136] .954) .898| 813) 954) 1.024) 1.035) 1.719] 1.563) 1.949) 1.361) 2. 135) 1.382) 1. 286 1878....| 1.582 1.113} 1919] 960] [724 1914) .867| .985| 1.616] 1.539| 1.762] 1.354) 2. 236) 1.635] 1.296 1879....| 1.299] 1.100] .793) .779| .641| .823| .754) .860! 1.528] 1.429) Boe a: Oe 1.991] 1. 28 1.153 1880....| 1.36 | 1.207] .879] .836] .'750) .918]...... 866| 1.543] 1.209] 1.749] 1.206)... -- .594| 1.282 1881...) 1.26 | 1.088] .783] .805| .627) .857| .'745] . 892} 1.522] 1.220] 1.702) 1.241) 2.178] 1.503] 1.188 1882....| 1.17 | 1.064] .738| .749| .628] .874) .752| .753| 1.417] 1.281] 1.481| 1.258] 2.102] 1.349} 1. 102 1883....] 1.19 | 1.197] .915} 786] .728| .881) .787| . 722] 1.438] 1.170} 1.391) 1.128] 1.913) 1.323) 1.205 1884....| 1.09 | 1.098} .834 ne -652|° . 804) Bis 672) 1. 368) 1.097 es 1. 008 | 1.344 115 1885....| 1.06 | .944] .688| .656| .553) .695) .577| .550/ 1.807) 1.043) 1.278) 1.009] 1. 420) 1.159] 1.01 1886....| 1.07 | 1.101] .765} .659) .639) .755, .692| .541 1, 157) 1.071 1168) .961| 1.266) 1.079] .999 1887....| 1.13 | 1.107] .782| .687} .670| .730| .717| .587] 1.087] 1.012] 1.089) .946| 1.213] 1.075] ..984 1888....| 1.116] 1.099} .753| .716| .861| .723! .660} .541| 1.068) .964) 1.020} .973] 1.170] 1.049 1.001 1889....| 2. 015 1.030} .712| .644} 632] 1685] 169 | .538] .839| .971| 1.067| .525] 1.166] .998| .922 1890....| 995) 1.105] . 730) .665| .644) .661| .69 | .561| .942) 995) 995) 898) 1.138) .972) . 94 1891....] .991} 1.089} .740) .636| .630| .656| .70 25| .934) 1.039} 1.003} .980) 1.131) .968) 895 1892....] .925| 1.057) .699) .614| .602| .647/ .67 | .518) .908) 1.055] 1.026) . 973) 1.080) .948) . 898 1893_...|- .923| 1.006} .701| .631| .599| .620| .68| .511| .845| 1.039] 1.026) .949| 1.033] .917| .878 1994....{ .895| .944) . 733) .621) .587| .606] .65 | .478) .839} .989] 1.037) .974| .970) .876) . 860 1895....}. .878| .969| .726| .604| .567| .565| .64 | :425| .808) 1.084) 1.075) .994) .971| .831) .839 1895...) .864} .942] 668) .606| .551| .563| .66 | .425| .745| 1.017/ 1.003 .925| .957| .806| . 806 1897...) .870| .918 .679) .610| .538} .561| .60| .419| .671) .958/ 1.008) .891) .962| .791) .798 1898....} .844| 839) .606) .575| .530| .521| .57 | .369| .695) .966] .972), .866, .950) .743) 753 1899....] .771| .778 = 564] .481) .469| .50| .333 Sse .930| .937| .800| .992) .729) . 724 Average rates, in cents per passenger per mile. 3 mel ro) ° sl 5 o ? 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Ls aa 699 ‘OPT es 18 ‘ZO cs eee a ee ee ro 10 862 He gee ‘68 LUG ‘SIL 29F ‘LIT TI8 ‘OSL GLE ‘CPL PSP ‘LOS Z6P ‘COT O18 ‘FAL 062 ‘¢8 “*spunod******"**""""* qurumzoddag —[BIVUASSO 10 ‘AT BIOA SFI 'FS F6F ‘SOT 189 ‘LP 000 ‘L0T 6p ‘88 PLO ‘06 00L ‘ZF 296 ‘TIT 093 ‘ss 6ST 119 eon) preeree een rose pea ea eele) layla SEC '2ZL'FL | 068'206‘9F | GIS'LL0 ZT | IZ ‘Lz9 ‘0G | 619 ‘LET ‘OL | P84 ‘08% T98‘268'9 | 28886 ‘2c | OTG‘eZp‘a | SPg‘cpR‘6T |----Op-----°°--" >"> >*""* "=" pads-109709 L983 ‘Teg ‘Tt | 926 ‘Ese ‘F £6 °G9G Gay ‘098 ‘Z 9F9 ‘CLG 099 949‘ (1) (1) (1) (1) PAULOT BS nar ce ey Se oe ee aU) 10[(BI OSA ‘STIO ZOE ‘908 “OT | 008 ‘824 ‘Te9 ‘1 COL ‘8S ‘FL @8T ‘260 ‘699 ‘T| 028 ‘109 ‘Zr | ZOL ‘9ST ‘sce ‘T| FFO'TT9‘G | 980‘S6F‘9G0‘T| L¥9‘6RG‘L | ezL‘99R‘RGL [T-"OpT TT TT TTT BIOL, TEE ‘829 '¢ | ZSC‘OSE ‘Ssh | FEL‘LLG'S | O6S*LLT‘L8F | F28‘OFG*P | 128 ‘90z‘9Eh | FHZ'C6O'b | SFF‘OOL'SEh | STP ‘606 GEh OCP 868 [7 " "OPT" 777777" 7" Poasuyy 10 "poes=epy SSI ‘62c ‘IL | ke ‘FOL ‘GPE ‘T! 86¢‘86z‘6 | 62 ‘S66‘6L0‘T) OIL ‘OFO‘S | TOL‘ZcL‘6T6 | OOS‘STS‘e | ge9‘9sE‘sc9 | ZEZ‘OPL‘S | T6Z‘L86 ‘FOP [°° Oproe 7" POVS-0}}0DH YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 852 Senco rinieeise nse" NOUIBD) SOld BIOsOA, ce OD ee de cere Boeke Was a $90} 80d ECO DS Maas Men eee Re tee Fe aa suoIug “-sjaysnqg******"""***"" svad puy suvag :SoTqRasIA. seeeoprrtrnrernesteeeseseseseees Og s*sfOp ttt ss" ** SZUTUIUII) PUB SMaIS Os) 0} 04 gloom CIORDOGOSE CSS Spa See OTSA soooRqoL eee eed SEs o)agqlolale ges Oy ple {hake erm aE OEEN A soeecero ss" = TROUT BENG -dndis pus ‘sossvlOur ‘IBSNS [BIOL DSI} 0 tRNA Ra MN (gts) cL) seeroprtttrsttterestses ss =*=pougayy FES CMO Cie renin eis Siete Ue AS OTC —1Bsng -**Op*’ dndIs puv SassBlOM [BJO ==OD-tees ---- dnitg "“BUOT[BSae 2 aie ee ns 7 SPSS B LOIN, —dniiis pus sassv[oyy :dnidis pus ‘sassvpour ‘issng Ficta{aljalninnjyietelalalsi=lainiele'm =in\m(el>/e (min iatetsi =! -> ay ANAT Ct eB DUTOMe se amen gars se meee ea TE POD ae ty en eee eee Be RENAL Oy seesgperttseeseteteeseeseeeeees 7919 SSS SOD: sabre ee rn ee cL “*suO[[@s JOOId"--""***""" UOqANOg’ —AXSTAL *‘ponuy}u0p—pel [stp ‘syuidg *‘ponuljyuoo—uauaLLVN ATA VLESdA 882 ‘809 aay wane evel eg aad sie aot rasa lean .ogs sats es ser TORR eOn Fisegieains a eleraa ROU) A(E Sia kee Spae T6z ‘929 ZLP ‘608 682 ‘OCP £88 “619 999 ‘09F LST ‘C09 190 ‘GT¢ 9F9 ‘926 GSP ‘ILS 6F0 ‘089 97 ‘SFT 989 ‘TLT 086 FET. 206 ‘FOL ZES ‘06 SPL ‘O0T 88009 IT ‘Gz IST ‘19 916 ‘Z8 TOF ‘S86 gee ‘19 ZI8‘69G‘T | [0c ‘E88 $60 ‘F60‘T | F8z‘FS8 188 ‘OIL ‘T | 612 ‘006 $10 ‘GE9 OL6 ‘ELF TLe ‘cor ‘ez | L69'ec9 FRE | SIz‘Z9F‘Gz | cel ‘et9‘esc | O8e‘TLT ‘2s | FIZ‘0c0 ‘9% | DFF'TIL ‘FS | 169'TS6‘FIE | GOS ‘TL‘FG | SIS ‘GEG ‘c6s 9Rz ‘6% LSP ‘TGO'OL | LPP ‘966 LES ‘TOT ‘IT | ShG ‘LPS ZIG ‘T9L ‘OT | GLB'LET | 668 'EC6 '8 LIT ‘99L | ITO ‘6882 @go ‘eot ‘6s | OZ ‘FOO ‘FSe | TLL ‘OLT ‘ez | C6 ‘Ter ‘ZL | LES‘F26 ‘TZ | G06 ‘84s ‘ZGt | LOG‘STG ‘FS | Z60‘SL46 ‘GOS | SZ “COP ‘FS | LOE “O0L ‘L8z 788 ‘TS Bose ar sae AS) aa ale Beef asoeaealneGral sisietisisegy 22 ce I HOCRIG ES Se Bia Neco ) ee Saepere( () (1) (D (x) (1) ({) () (;) G86 ‘99 GLP ‘086 ‘E POCaleGe tot teL eae a QT OGhua ulpaasoaeoe es | CAUMORG Te leommmume a ssh TCC GO Tet: il semcnme csc a CTOs GOI Le ||: amar Berece + 16g ‘cto'T | S09‘FIG‘Ze | LLP ‘OFF LBS ‘G98 ‘6 $98 ‘STS 063 ‘80S ‘9 800 ‘LLE 61 ‘COE ‘8 GFL ‘TOF PEE ‘OF ‘6 cet ‘F00 T Tee ‘261 ‘Zo |: 20% ‘OUP 822 ‘Z9F ‘6 TT¢ ‘108 809 ‘260 ‘9 TF9 ‘TFS $c1 ‘OSF 692 ‘901 ‘6 296 ‘TL CGS ‘GCE CLS ‘FI 6I1 ‘SOF ecg ‘LT 789 ‘OOF 19 ‘Gs 688 ‘OL G93 ‘96% L8L‘9IT‘'S | PRL ‘GE0 ‘CT TFS ‘O16 ‘T | O84 ‘zou ‘CL 626 ‘T90‘T | O28 ‘T6S ‘TE | eae ‘ss O88 ‘S16 ‘8 - OL8 ‘LL 108 ‘86 ‘9 Z0G ‘289 ‘T OLL ‘681 “IT GS ‘COP ‘T | 0¢9 ‘0L0 ‘OL LOL ‘F6L TPS ‘eLg *L i ‘ at ‘ ‘allan { egg ‘FSF ple'263'e | ces‘re | 080‘s9'9 | zoz‘z9z ~—s| eae ‘zIg‘e f| S68 884 | OSS CTG BS | OLB ASL =| 08 886 9 002 ‘F bE ain ee eee (Coteee es «|| A0Er a Pee ee) PCGO Ge Nee sumee cor iisedne Paarrcre sss zoe ‘09's | $96 ‘cee ‘FeL | SkS‘z6c‘s | OLL‘S6L‘OIL | 6FG‘TLE‘T | TS ‘908 ‘cL 926 ‘G99 9148 ‘880‘6L | S6L‘egs | eer ‘zg ‘TS GOS ‘166 ‘T O6T ‘206 ‘T 184080'% | 620‘269‘c ezl ‘199 ‘T | STZ ‘z6o‘s G02 ‘TRE ‘T | 996 ‘228 ‘% £08 ‘O84 ‘T ZG 684 ‘T 126 ‘FZ CRG ‘RT CLE FZ 9e¢ ‘6L 6PT ‘08 698 ‘98 168 ‘Gzz gee ‘00¢ T2¢ ‘TCL PUP ‘9Es TFG ‘IZ TIGL ‘16 L19 ‘9CT. PSR “66 POL ‘TS CP. LT GOF ‘8S Z8Z ‘TSG $92 ‘CP 089 ‘9% 098 ‘POLS TPG ‘898 C93 ‘L973 | S16 ‘Fas 990 ‘Tred 669 ‘982 Toh ‘cr | STP ‘699 968 ‘L8T$ | 998 “6ST *SOnLBA ‘sormurnt ‘son[BA ‘saritquent ‘son[BA ‘sorqyTquBNe) ‘Sson[BA ‘solnurnt “Sson[BA ‘soumusn’ “66ST. "S681 *L68T. ‘96ST *poqiodxe saponi1y ‘ponutu0g—o06r ‘0g aunr papua sunah auf ay) Burunp sang pap) ayn fo (oysaumop) sa1odxa ounynowby 853 EXPORTS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. "poywis ION y ] an oee‘oro nag |*oeeteet020+*) gee tng 'gaa|sseeeteeee+-| ope “eto ‘Gaal eee eee sig [awe nsf wg ee foam rue Se ees'ecg fens | ose'oz9 [eesees'| @patgan foe =a esg‘cxe | gca‘eor‘t | ers‘tzo | szo‘son‘t | ezo‘ego | eor‘ezo'T 126 ‘64 168 “6 gto'%¢ | $46 ‘OT Teh ‘9h | 196 ese'er | cue‘ert | geb'er —_‘| ze ‘Lor Ge6%t_ | zco‘sor BLE ‘E58 'G | re See eae DOV GUlig6 g.\) ad Peg seutiggn. [pase OOP mls tes ae Ba fgase = [ee eel Payigage |e se-- ee 7 ) A146 Padi . 075 , - 066 . 067 . 168 . 089 Chicory root, raw, unground ..do...-| . 013 014 016 015 015 3,019 O14 Chicory root, roasted, ground, or : otherwise prepared Yu eee pound 5 . 033 BUS bn ten . 033 . 034 3.036 4.034 Total chicory, Toot... .-. 5... < Gis. . . O14 ALi ty ee ae . 027 . 019 - 023 4.014 Coffee substitutes, n. e. s...--- (pe ae . 038 . 037 . 034 . 037 - 039 . 039 . 037 Total coffee substitutes ....... (ols Gee .017 Bi if Gh Se ee - 033 . 028 . 026 4,018 Menton banca cs na ancmerbesaa ao... 119 113 . 095 . 100 118 109 110 USES Sear Setar ania e oem acne sini So ton. ./230.36 | 206.53 | 215.88 | 201.81 | 236.30 274. 36 218.05 PEP ENEN Piste eee cooler Pu waa etayair ats 0. ...|126.57 124.97 | 139.49 121. 06 132. 43 3133. 93 128, 24 Istle, or Tampico fiber.-..-..-- do....| 58.78 53. 20 50. 84 64. 31 82. 65 %56. 00 62. 18 Jute and MUGE POLS aaa. ss fess do....| 22.49 23. 93 22.65 | 27.61 38. 53 29, 20 27.29 WTR GH BM oe acon soe ava m do... =a] 10.00) 73. 68 64.44 | 116.77 168. 27 3 122. 00 98. 65 GIRS A TARGS sane cos oe Saree sens do....| 65.47 60. 61 74.58 | 128.12 | 153.17 889.05 100.17 Fibers, vegetable, Le Co: ee 00. 2..| 41058 66. 32 62. 22 68.74 81. 36 889, 91 65. 93 Fruit juices, n. e. é Prune juice oe prune wine, ET a ihe ne ees Se 83 . 701 . 890 . 776 815 . 893 . 798 Other, including cherry juice, ae A SPE SO SASS Pare (BCI ee sae 517 -617 ||..-------- 5.540 Total murt JUICES. - 5-2. =~ Pallonee sees a6) Sa eesiee 631 RI sec cca cee 5655 @urrants) 2. ==... ae -BOEE Hae . 017 . 020 026 . 025 $025 024 Le Dee ae Be ON a | es O20. 024 . 025 - 921 3.029 023 OT ieee eae et a ae emcee eer do....| .054 060 . 049 : 2 055 HSCHIO Siesta acla Sete ecic awison Clr See) Keb ed Pees coe) RSReSEE -O19 ° 6 021 Olranpessees ees ee ee 3 1a ae) Acai aE artes taped be eee ae 013 - 016 || 6.014 Plums and prunes ....-...-.-- Coz sai) 142 . 103 : . 106 - 108 - 048 415 WRISTS ee See was oa caniateie wise dor--- 043 . 045 . 057 - 052 - 046 . 049 AUMONGR elas: sos ace nase eae do 098 . 091 . 123 - 150 123 Silk} Ginger, preserved or picked 5 TR ES AEE | eae fe SS eee - O44 SUPA nae ne 6.042 Cy ee eee ee ee meee ees 2a ton..| 9.16 8.59 5.81 7.09 |} 8.14 8.43 13 11)): Seen ee ee pound Bey | . 209 - 449 - 276 - 368 «264 NRG EO =.= seeds oe ee ees do - 501 . 482 543 - 527 . 724 . 526 MalG= Danley... 2-5-2345 4-e bushel... . 856 . 847 892 - 938 - 691 . 881 Malt liquors, bottled......-- gallon..| .97 . 978 999 - 998 - 950 . 980 Malt liquors, unbottled.....-. Go25-:] | 298 3200 296 201 «324 . 289 Total malt liquors ...........- aos 2: . . 507 | . 526 523 ~522 553 .512 OM COO. Jao cc amndncosicee pound.. - 006 . 007 005 - 007 . 009 006 Olive ol salnd. 2.2.2 57...: gallon..| 1.17 1.22 117 1.21 1.24 1.20 Opium, crude or unmanufactured, Tapas lea Be eee a 5 eee See 1.87 2.04 2.38 2.06 2.13 2.09 Opium, prepared ........--- pound..} 7.44 (prAl 6. 67 7.48 6. 86 7.09 OLOPIOT <5 - = a2 See a2 do....] 3.06 2.70 3.22 3.19 2.74 3. 05 1. Seba a i 2 ae dos: 016 | 019 020 020 020 02 Rice flour, rice meal, and broken | IGE weee eee. ye. ota: pound..} .013| .015 . 016 015 . 016 . 016 2015 Total rice, rice meal, etc...-.. de... .015 .018 - 020 . O19 . 020 .019 - 018 Linseed, or flaxseed ........ bushel..| 1.08 1.03 Lik 1.07 1.40 Lot 1.10 ~ Spices, unground: OUI CRS ae a ee oc pound.. - 320 . 270 273 - 241 +221 - 416 . 263 Pepper, black or white .-.do....| .089 . 047 - 065 - 088 - 098 . 062 . 065 Other (free of duty) -...-. do.. . 052 . 053 . 065 072 .070 063 | . 062 Spices, ground (and other dutiable), pound ee i ee ois sa -100 . 099 . 086 135 . 100 POtal SPICCG =~ 355. s.5-se2 sees pound..} .060 . O64 -076 - 690 - 088 - 081 . 075 Spirits, distilled: | Of domestic manufacture, re- - Lipa (13 (eee re? proof gallon.. .913 - 903 . 860 . 836 . 918 | 1.05 . 885 TAM Gir eres mae cisicierca sie wne dors... 2.66 2.70 2.87 2. 85 2.85 2. 68 2.77 OPNEK Soon. 2 oaks seed oc nce do. 1.16 1.20 1.30 1.37 1.47 1.01 1.30 Total distilled spirits.......... (6 Co ea (oes Bp 3 | a ey ileval 1.29 1.45 1.24 1.29 Starch: 2 8et- ooo ease pound.. 018 01s -017 . 016 - 019 - 022 . 018 St Wias oto sess os ce econ eet ton..] 3.95 3.38 3.08 2.20 2.87 3.42 3.34 MDIDRSER ees os soc cone os gallon... 157 ~ 158 151 . 136 -127 -116 . 143 a not above No. 16 Dutch stand- ar Beet) 2c ass ocseseesebeeee Eade aled 3 O28 . 018 -019 021 - 021 . 028 . 020 Cane and other ......-.-.. Go 22) 3022 . 021 . 023 . 024 . 026 - 028 . 023 1Statisties for 1893 only. 2Statisties for 1900 only. 3 Annual average, 1892-1895. 4 Annual average for the four years 1896, 1897, 1899, and 1900. 6 Annual average for 1898-1900. © Annual average, 1899-1900. 856 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Average import price of agricultural products imported into the United States during each of the five fiscal years 1896-1900—Continued. Years ended June 30— || Annual average— Articles imported. a 1896. 1897. 1898. 185: 1900. —|/1891-1895. |1896-1900. VEGETABLE MATTER—continued. | Sugar above No. 16 Dutch stand- Cis ea ee eae pound..} $0.029 | $0.025 | $0.024 | $0.027] $0. 034 $0. 035 $0. 026 Totalisurarisesos:-o-eseese eee Gore. . 023 - 020 022 024 025 . 028 023 Mea See Sseeaeis ete anise eyes oie do.. 135 - 131 . 140 . 131 .124 . 153 . 132 Tobacco: Suitable for cigar wrappers, NOUN! se eeaeeee eee eee 1.07 - 935 - 981 1.05 -921 || 11.05 . 987 Other leaf, ete. (inecluding* . SUEMS) Sanccemesseeesee pound.. 394 - 506 - 551 - 561 581 1,396 . 488 otal tobaccomessce.2 senses d0-5--1) 501 - 694 . 715 . 705 67. - 535 . 625 Vanilla beans: 2: 322.2. sis. <2 = do....| 4.30 5.36 4.37 4.54 4.72 8. 52 4. 66 Beans and peas.......-=---- bushel..} 1.07 1.01 912 . 899 1.09 | 1.06 1.04 Gabbages:-soe.- 52. fase number... . 044 ODD Secreto es |ermw alee tate ree erate Near soccer 2.048 (Miu BReessaaapaaanosasboe busheleslesrcese- 1.12 . 878 . 647 ODD Brees cine cee 3.808 IPOTHLOeS ea cinjs states aaa Cees) ate 591 - 404 . 00D 945 | - 486 521 WINCEOT Ss saciseerseoce nates cis gallon.. . 803 70 . 261 252 251 . 270 . 265 Champagne and other sparkling Wale gos5oQhcaqeed dozen bottles..| 14.73 14. 64 14.58 13. 98 18.27 |} 14.52 14.18 Still wines: H Botiled areas sheet cenee do....} 4.86 4.77 4.88 4.90 4.94 | 5. 02 4.87 Unbotiledeas taco 5 see gallon.. . 688 . 680 - 721 . 698 . 689 | . 700 - 693 1 Annual average, 1892-1895. 2 Annual average, 1896-1897. 3 Annual average, 1897-1900. Average export price of domestic agricultural products exported from the United States during each of the five fiscal years 1896-1900. Articles exported. 1896. ANIMAL MATTER, Cattle sey. s setae anaes cteaeane xa head. . |392. 79 LGES see eee cecceeeccanace do...-.| 10.80 IEVOISES | sae eaten ere seeiioeceroce ts do... .|140. 52 Miles ato eee ntcmreisinciss oieiois'e's do....| 68.63 BREED rai oe ieee « meestincceene do.. 6. 26 PGES W axe nc eee necie sie = pound. a oth Bwtten sec sens cawecceoe reese (oko yeas ol52 @heese ste ssa sae ss Soe eee dor--- . 084 Df aa ee ee eee dozen... .147 Feathers, otherthanostrich.pound..| . 166 Gime to oe Rae. cee ee cee do.. . 095 Hides and skins, other than furs, DOWUNG! 2a. Ss odie cass seeensoee -aeeee - 098 Beef, canned... pound - 088 BeCie fresh: 2-52 5a. se ees eee Goneee . 084 Beef, saited or pickled ........ (los ee . 056 Beef other: cured... -2- 22-55-15; aoree- - 115 TPANIOW' 2552542 oes cw ctocteios cicas do . O44 IRA COM ion eee sale sicisie do . 079 ISS 255.226 222s sa esse dokeie . 098 Pork) canned. 2.25. 5222 Ss2cs5- doles. |hs- Ses Pork tresh Says eaccc-e eee ee do . 059 Pork, salted or pickled .....--- dows . 057 TSANG ss ace tees Sa ee dae do.=. - . 066 MINTEEOI (StS ate dot... . 075 Ole Olle Shan oe oer ene otc eae 078 Oleomargarin (imitation butte r), DOMME eS ees ee eee . 097 Animal oiis,n.e.s.: 1H R's Bro yl (Se eee ene ee gallon.. 611 Other, except whale and fish, ris) 100) oe ee een . 504 Total animal oils, n.e.s.....gallon.. - 510 GSillcavaste 826 jon... ss cece ae pound... . 304 Siihrt ale oe i es ree dos. - 051 W003 e eee sola se tees dGz.<.- ATP) VEGETABLE MATTER. BavlOyic «5 .sea ne see oes oat ore bushel. - 404 Bran, middlings, and mill feed.ton..|........ 1897. Years ended June 3)— Annual avyerage— 1898. 1899. 1900. _||1891-1895. [1896-1990. $86.12 | $78.35 Ye ali $89. 97 $85. 35 7.67 6. 88 (zfs 12.19 8. 46 120.75 | 118.93 | 117.62 190. 40 121. 66 82.09 76. 52 90. 38 111. 48 84.52 6.08 5. 96 5. 83 5. 87 6.15 SUL . 275 . 288 . 265 . 286 . 150 .161 172 165 - 154 . 086 . 087 -102 |) _ .093 . 090 . 163 174 . 166 | 182 165 BRO ee nd enema ate 1.150 2.132 . 090 . O94 . 096 . 104 . 094 . 088 . 092 . 107 3. 064 . 090 088 . O91 . 094 | . 088 - 090 . O84 . 083 . 0£0 | . O84 - O84 . 053 . 054 057 | . 056 . 055 094 . 092 085 | 091 - 092 . 038 O41 049 | . 050 . 042 O71 O74 .076 | . 083 - 073 . 095 . 092 104 | - 107 - 097 wiaveyeGAeton | Rrets.a See PU) el Breet oe 4.077 . 067 . 066 074 | 078 - 069 056 . 058 . 062 | . 068 . 057 . 056 . 059 . 063 | 080 - 059 O85 .078 . 083 081 . 089 . 060 . 054 072 097 . 056 . 089 092 . 088 -111 - 095 | . 395 - 450 457 |} 578 - 450 - 409 . 387 . 453 . 559 43) . 397 . 440 - 455 . 573 448 +123 125 . 189 . 364 - 184 . 047 Eis eee . 049 5 048 - 149 141 | 176 123 .181 .493 . 607 .474 518 _ 445 14.58 15. 65 OS G4T ll fe eiclae saree | ©15.48 1 Annual average for the two years 1893 and 1895. 2 Annual average, 1896-1897. 8 Statistics for 1895 only. 4 Statistics for 1900 only. 5 Annual average, 1896-1899. 6 Annual average, 1898-1900. AVERAGE PRICES OF EXPORTS. 857 Average export price of domestic agricultural products exported from the United States during each of the five fiscal years 1896-1900—Continued. Articles exported. Years ended June 30— | Annual average— = nC) m BP Ep S or - to to 7) Cort 61.36 1896. | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. |/1891-1895. |1896~1900. 1] i VEGETABLE MATTER—continued. Bread and biscuit........... pound..| $0.045 | $0.046 | $0.049 | $0.049 | $0. 051 $0. 050 Buckwheat... .....-...-2--s bushel sss. 2a -405 . 430 . 552 yy! | ene Corn (maize) Pao. se. 25 -cce en goes. 378 - 806 - 300 . 896 407 || 525 Commebile: 25. voce noes ot barrel..| 2.36 1.90 2.13 2. 24 2.28 2.93 OBS Fo aa capac mab exec cases: bushel.. 269 249 298 - 323 302 389 ORM Gall ee. cemmmea atee a pound.. 24 023 021 . 022 23 . 027 RV Goo pons scr seecweesncncnss bushel..} .450 428 568 . O85 612 . 907 IVS HOULCcce moe ecnn cence e barrel..| 2.96 2. 87 46 8.11 3.38 | 3.92 Wiheat= scone nee cccecs cc sacle bushel..} .655 753 983 . 748 718 . 829 Wheat flours. =-- O81 074 060 . 056 078 O81 WESC COUDD. ...ccce cess cncece GOs se slesscasas loa cueweae O41 . 037 (ay: (ad | Pe see TotalCObLOM- 2c. See ceceeeeee= doz.<. 081 . 074 060 055 078 | OS1 Apples! dried se. 2.2....e222--- Goro se|) > 050 . 044 061 . 065 064 055 Apples, green or ripe ........ barrel..| 2.58 1.58 2.78 3.18 OP 2. 60 IPEUN CHS eee seek so neice sane POUNG =. oecn s-.- editors . 064 7.068 O64: |-s2oeee ese IRSESING) oo case wcleence ca ceese GOs sce [no eence| te eee eee 054 . 052 (ts | eee Ginger eet: Gore es| 88586 4.68 3. 67 3.99 5.18 | 3.36 Glucose and grape sugar...... do....| 016 - 014 . 015 . 016 . 016 021 12 eee ee aE ton..| 14.80 1 WAP pee Ay) 13523 13.65 || 15.98 HOPS) le tee nne es te ane sees pound..} .088 114 154 171 135 | 194 Lard substitutes, n. e. s. (cottolene, IRECINIE CLC) o aoe cca pound..} .060 - 053 052 054 057 | 4.078 MSG ose ceten sees bushel..} .635 .612 707 715 - 725 | 777 Malt liquors, bottled.dozen bottles..| 1.20 1.16 22 1.21 L3230| 1.37 Malt liquors, unbottled ..-... gallon..| .240 . 223 226 257 . 255 | 264 Oil cake and oil-cake meal: Cini see eaten ccaen ke POUNGsslee enon Nacsa ae 009 . 009 O10 ee ecoe ee Gotton=seed 222... a-ce ccs: doze: 009 . 009 009 . 009 010 6.009 Flaxseed, or linseed ...... do=->- 011 . 009 010 011 O11 6.012 Total oil cake and oil-cake meal, 009 . 009 . 010 O11 218 . 239 SB0S) Is ss aeeeees , 252 239 301 365 : 427 446 «023 541 5 1.24 1.01 1.01 | 2.58 : : - 043 . 045 «039 | 7.038 Rice bran, meal, and polish . ee: - 006 - 006 006 . 006 - 006 | 7,009 Total rice, rice meal, ClC.= ue do....| .006 . 009 010 008 016 | O11 Root beer ........--.- MOZEOE UMS == |". Saoc es pes coee cele setae eee weeks ease OIG ciel | a eareeme Cantonseced! = ps5 2220 2. eee pound..| .007 . 006 006 006 007 | 008 Flaxseed, or linseed ........ bushel..| .910 - 820 899 995 1,27 1.14 Clover'seed).< << <2 -..022 2550 pound... .079 .077 061 063 074 093 Timothy Seed: 2. a=. 5- 255.2455 <5 do: .-.| - 044 . 034 031 031 03 048 Alcohol, including cologne spirits, proof gallon 257 . 836 . 286 . 289 . 333 ~ 302 Loi hy ae ae eee - 978 1.07 1.59 1.40 1.04 . 816 SUI ee ee es eee do 1.36 1.36 1..39 1.38 1.35 1.20 Bourbon whisky... 1.34 . 742 . 841 1.19 . 886 - 939 Rye whisky Oe) eee) i ey (1) 1.80 1.78 1.57 1.32 1.16 Distilled s apes 1 0 a eae ra colo eae - 450 - 451 - 818 1.25 1.34 - 468 Total distilled spirits ......... Gozs-2 967 - 834 637 Sei 1.03 || - 875 tach - osssseneen cs ws cneses pound.. 028 21 019 . 021 . 021 . 032 WMOlasses en caso omen ne aan Filiove Weal bee See Eee eee 70 078 LIS Ee Sikup ooh eet eee se ece ns (6 Co FON Pree eee (eee, Seer 105 . 146 Hh ET eee are Total molasses and sirup....-- G0:=.- 106 . 088 093 121 141 116 Sugar, DrOWNe =a. <2 ces ssc pound.. 035 - 032 038 035 035 037 Suvar-Tenned 520. sees os: dose . 049 . 047 050 045 045 053 Total Sugar ors ssa s a2 exces do-:-. . 049 - 045 049 045 045 053 SuparImedl ewe os sess nn wroes AOE sath PAULiy bern nce [eae en) ek. | eine sl ee reer Tobacco leak 23.55 oss =e dos. - 085 080 087 | . 092 087 087 Tobacco stems and trimmings.do.... 21 022 23 . 026 26 035 OITODACEO aes oe cea e a cae do . 083 78 O84 . 090 085 O84 Beans and peas............- bushel...) 1.33 1.23 1, 28 1.44 1.59 1.72 Onions ees ore eae ee GOs si), dos 817 907 .814 835 1.06 Potatoes 226 a5 a22 55a cesansaat do....| .546 556 761 and, 77. 785 Mine rar ssa is ae aoeaceaeoc gallon..| .188 123 119 126 109 . 146 Wines, bottled ......- dozen bottles..| 4.05 4.14 4.83 4.74 5.07 4.48 Wines, unbottled ........... gallon - 434 453 420 -417 409 518 1 Annual average, 1897-1900. 2 Annual average, 1898-1900. 3JIn 1900, including stearin. 4 Annual average, 1893-1895. 6 Statistics for 1900 only. re 55d 4 A1900 6 Statistics for 1895 only. 7Annual average for the four years 1891, 1893, 1894, and 1895. 8 Statistics for 1896 only. 858 SOURCES OF SUGAR IMPORTS. [From Section of Foreign Markets.] YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Quantity and value of sugar imported into the United States from the principal countries of supply during each fiscal year from 1896 to 1900, inclusive. ‘ QUANTITIES. Countries from wean eeded sane | Annual average 0) e € i whichimported. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. | 1896-1900. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. | Pounds. | Per ct. Dutch East Indies..} 567,670,780) 634,171, 629) 621,731, 462) 986, 438, 330/1, 162, 202, 854|) 754, 443, O11) 20.37 Germany ........... 525, 991, 657 1, 604, 233, 071| 175, 275, 440! 667, 127, 773| 590, 984, 996|| 712; 722) 587| 18.27 @wba, = 4- Seses2 2-222 jL, 095, 171, 312) 577, 790, 1 73) 440, 225, 111) 663,543, 657} 705, 456, 230!) 696, 037, 297} 17.84 Ewald 2 o-oo 352, 175, 269) 431, 217, 116| 499, 776, 895) 462, 423, 600) 504, 713, 105]! 450, 067, 198) 11.54 British West Indies.| 217,421,118] 322) 103; 866| 231,401, 746| 267,565, 738| 200,479, 351 247,794,364) 6.35 British Guiana ..... 146, 433, 256] 175,639,179] 139, 145, 529| 138,152,464) 149,715, 600! 149,817,206! 3.84 13 Cn ee Sees 1$1, 457,878; 140,773,692) 139, 426,285) 41,222,162 89, 684, 600}} 120, 512,924) 3.09 Santo Domingo..... 116, 972, 841| 131,279,582) 94,336, 444) 112, 213,037; 122, 206,692) 115,401,719} 2.96 Bey be: i Seen iene 100, 335,317} 124,055,211) 52,354, 144/ 141,940,690) 74,015, 702)| 98,540,213) 2.53 POELOURICO! a s.5 cae: 81, 582, 810 86, 607,317] 98,452,421) 107, 208, 014 72, 558,181|| 89,281,749; 2.29 Philippine Islands .| 145, 075, 344 72,463,577| 29,489,600) 51, 625, 280 49, 490, 542|| 69,628,869) 1.78 Austria-Hungary... 40, 703, 929) 105, 138, 128 2, 788,767; 69, 397, 343 96, 130, 457|| 62,831,724) 1.61 IB@IERUM =n. 5-2 sse5 72,721,186} 180,423,987} 1,366,370 30,000) 15,198, 903)} 43,948,089) 1.13 United Kingdom ...| 56,992,162} 68,250,019} 21,106,706} 16, 685,790 9,375, 569}) 34,482,050; .88 Netherlands........ 40, 965, 863}, 82, 248, 664| 38,659,827; 6, 894, 728 153, 860]| 33, 784,589) .87 British Africa ...... 26,564,115} 25,895, 460| 12,081,142} 55,075,128] 36,502,673|| 31,223,704) 80 Bape oe, Soa ceo le aes Pee 2,863,350} 8,544,857) 50,050,303} 75, 155,975]| 27,328,897) .70 WMRHGE a icseese cose 34, 810, 370 92, 169, 241 17,781 66, 007 9, 819 25, 414° 643 . 65 Dutch Guiana ...... 12, 299, 609} 18,043,833} 25,636,341) 38,124,370) 18, 265,520]) 21,473,935) .5o Danish West Indies. 12, 202, 619 16, 999, 347) 14,882,991) 22, 711, 543 21, 664, 980} 17, 682, 296 45 Chinese Empire .... 31, 827, 859 11, 437, 760 7,161, 664) 10, 758, 164 4, 606, 743]| 13,158,438) .34 Arrenting. 22<-/-2=-- ee oeeee ee 430 Crows, food:of nestlings2? - _. 222255. 52) Set eet Be ee ee eee 424 Guba asamarketfor United States; notes-e2- s- 2 eae ee eee eee eee eee 69 notes on tobacco ‘exhibit ate Parissh 22 cere ee 369-396 Curing, ‘gathering, and packing.of dates: =.ccc aaa ctioae eee ee ee eee 481 INDEX. 865 Page. Curly mesquite, description and value..........-..-.----------------------- 590 Cyanide, quantity to use in gassing, and danger.....-...-.-.2-2-..-.-2----- 257-259 Cyclorrhynchius psittaentis, TO00 Or Mestlings’: o2 2 2s... 25.22 e re obese 435 Cypress, cedar, and) oaks, motes’on/studies)_- 2. -.2..42.22-..2.2.2- 222559528 53 note on resisiance to injury JON(G1UDUAY os Dette tage leaieer pak ea See A eS 201 Peck PEOvADIG CAMS HIIMIMEY loa heel ce tee eee oc abe 208 Dactylopius citri, common mealy bug, description and remedies .......-.----- 282 Dairy awards for United States at Paris Exposition, list) t..2ss 3852s eee 734 cattle, numbers repistered = 2<-- == -- 2222-5 -0- si sjss - 25 sso. t ee ieee 738 cow, scale of points for judging, regardless of breeds ........-...---.--- 737 Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, work; remarks of Secretary~---. 11, 22 exhibit at Paris Exposition, jury and awards; by-products .......-.---- 601, 604, 606, 62 3 industry in United States, illustrative exhibit at Paris Exposition ..... 624 fan dant tot ENE MAikop uel lag aVe lino | uri chee sehen: SM ae de en ee ea te 644 producis;and cattlewholesale prices\...55...........cssel venode ee 825-828 at Paris Exposition, article by Henry HK. Alvord ...-.-.-..-- 599-624 transportation and care .......--.----- 604, 605 WAYS] 0,21 61 9K0) CNet Peer i Speer eee eed, Aes Rae eRe eg Ante 23 Slatesstandards Ss sset 8 ae fe ae OS, 2 OEE a ite School, National, of France, methods, course, éxpenses, ete.....---..- 121 AGHGO SVM RUSSI A: NOLES Sa= ate Saas ae ey Se ee Soe Se eee 613 Slockunebranece: note‘om mumbersiseass ee See eee eee See 610 Brite enlirein MestCO) 62. beSt le = Soe ee hah ae es is ee rk ee 482 offshoots, purchased in the Sahara, discussion ...-..-.-.------------- 460-462 palm and its culture, article by W alter AS wingle st. 2.68ee eee 453-490 as‘shelterforminutt trees 2. = 7. ee els ec eg ee ees al ae 474 conclusions as to culture in United States ..........-.-..-..-.---- 490 raiUnited: States, History: iret eet Hore RL oe 458-464 irrigation; male trees; bearing age; pollination .....---. 471, 473, 475, 476 limits of endurance of cold and requirement of heat -.--..------- 466 requirements for successful growing and fruiting ...-......-.-.---- 465 resistance to unfavorable climatic and soil conditions -......------ 470 Dates and fies, notes onjimtroduetion. —- -= 2202 222-5 <-22seceee-- == -2- senses oe Cathenin oyeUnIMe samc AC kN Oe eee ren See em eee wee Sean ere 481 THANMeL GheTawihtss 2 7 5ad)s 2. bose os eee JeU Ae. Se 478 three types and keeping qualities, remarks. ...--..-..----------------- 479 TaliasinewaAcro puneATIZOnawess4-- seven cee aoe ese een ce see eee 138 Dawson Alaska moveionmankebeardens --cee peewee ca eek ee ee cee ee 60 Death Valley region, fitness for growing date palm........-..--------------- 487 Deglet noor date, remarks; Arizona experiments. .-...-.-------------- 461, 481, 489 Delaware Agricultural Experiment Station report on rabies......------------ 216 Deiphinium, species suspected as poisonous: - 22254 eck s. Fosse ete sae 315 Denmark, butter exhibit at Paris Exposition, character and awards..-..------ 614 extent of dairy industry and Government inspection of exports.... 615 Desert region of United States, native pasture grasses............-----------. 595 Brekéigsely Toauvar nestlings ~-55.. S224 Jee ee. Jae ee es See ee ek 420 eb ne Scoot, poienoedsipCussiOl a: sete t eile ce ee Re coe Ae cee 347 Digestibility OL POtatoes* discusslOny os skh aes es ae eee oe eee eee dd Disease of rabies, discussion of existence and early recognition .........--.--- 221 periods of inenbation, or latenayre: 22saer bees RE et Ca ee Diseases, fungous, of forest trees, article by Hermann von Schrenk-.-.-...---- 199-210 Disinfecting solution, use and composition in cutting out pear blight -...-.--- 391 Distichlis maritima, distribution and value on alkali soils.........------------ 596 Distillate (kerosene) for use against scale insect, method of preparation --..-.- 260 District of Columbia, beginning of inv estigations Orrabiess eset tse ee eee 211 Ditch, cost of building sndsniginininine. cote cn Ate Ss LS a 511 line, directions for locating with triangle and plumb bob ........-.--.-- 498 lines, choice and selection of site for hesdenten.cc ace. c=) ees el ale 501 method of mankino line with funrowenes see SN Stee oe fae ae a 503 Ditches, grade and economy of construction; running grade lines ...... 492, 495, 496 velocities and discharges for different grades ........-....-------- 42 7 498 Doeyecommuanicabilityor, disease to man. e.sce2ele sles cee eee css 225 pyimptomas of furious rabies-< 2-2-2 22-202 hes woe ete S ee 2 See sees 231 table on incubation of rabies; limit of safety after inoculation --..-.--- 235, 236 tax and license as means of prevention of rabies..........--..--------- 242 Degrees miericat ene Gl Done ocelmasae ene nees oat eet Sur Sena eee 652 866 INDEX. Page. Dogs, and other animals, statistics of cases of rabies; prevention of rabies... 228 242 muzzling as cause of disappearance of rabies in Berlin........--...---- 244 relation to danger irom: talies**= es - 22a. oo en ee ee 472 object in road building; for corduroy road, note.........-------- 188, 197 Prilling ef ~wheat; remarks 22-822 Sao. + So oe eae eee eee 541 Driving, pleasure, range.of ‘grade of roads) 52 - --23-5 Seen eee eee ee ee 184 Brought, effect upon grain, alialia; ete= == 5: 2. 222522 SS eae eee 510 resistance of. buitaloomass moles 22235. see h oo tee as we eee ree 592 resistant. wheats motes! 2-2 oer s.c ase a2 Sats oe SO eee 533-537 Pryme-and harvesting Snryrna hes 22252 22S ee sees ae ee ee Poa Dryobates pubescens, downy woodpecker, discussion; food of nestlings. .-.--. 292, 427 « willosis2-. 2232-2 -2-s =a snes 68 of United States, acrieulturalproductss: 222255. 22222 eel Seo See 847-853 United States, average prices. 2... 2752: 22 eee 856-857 Express shipment of ‘truck; strawberries..:.2....--s..2c-ecense cescccn— ae 441, 444 Falco sparverius, sparrow hawk, food of nestlings..-...-.-------.------------ 430 Farm animals and their products, prices............- midis el eich) alin oe INDEX. 867 Page. Farm fields of demonstration in teaching agriculture in France, note.......- 128 influence of rural free delivery on social life, motes ........- 524, 525, 526, 528 schools in France, character, work, methods, ete..................... 124 price of principal crops.--...---2 758, 770, 778, 785, 792, 796, 800, 805, 811, 813 Farmer, importance of character of food of nestling birds, note ..........--- 411 great horned owl adome of allies.- =. 22.22. -2.-- 2.2.2 ep ieee ck 430 Parmers ond farming: eAmercin motess = 255.) 2522 se ee VBR EY Bulletins, remarks of Secretary on usefulness and numbers......---- 70 experiments of experiment stations in cooperation...............-- 58 DLN ee igs OMe opt i Ae ei i eR ME A es ONES 643 lumbering in Southern Appalachians, notes............2..2.2--.- 361, 567 ' INationah Comerenst dimestompe = 22225) a hes eke 671 opinions: as to. rural free delivery ............ 2-02-20 ccee eens e tse 523-526 suggestion of cooperative storage houses for fruit.............--.--- 573 Farming, truck, definition and general observations.............------ ops See 437 Feather sedge, Andropogon saccharoides, distribution and importance .......-- 589 Weed for poultry, note: oni siilowers <2 25-0. sn 133 Felling of trees, points of neglect and consequent damage ...............---- 367 Pelsites, qualities for road: buildimg’). =... 2222220242. ede nnn kee eed 395 Bence posts, timber: best anited soo. 0 os a se 148 Semicatntionw of topseed, rete 3 73) ey)! ae, vege se ee 35, 48 wine, control by chemicals...._...... ease Miyata Sot ee ape 556 Fertilization of flowers of Smyrna fig, use of caprifig..................---1-- 81 Pocos orebimdhy Ah) ied sa ee pies a ae ed 378 Fertilizing, planting, and cultivating date palnis, discussion.............-.--- 472 Fescues, distribution and value, note 594 Field crops, ordinary, amount of water nece 511 laterals in irrigation, laying out 505 operations of experiment stations, cooperation with farmers _.-...___-- 59 peas; Victoria; niote.on mitrodnetian 6. 6c fi0s oe eB 139 Fig, changes resultant upon presence of Blastophaga_..............----- 90, 97, 103 Smyrna, culture in United States, article by L.O. Howard....-.......- 79-106 industry ia United-States, owtlook. ....2-2...22---L-5. 2 22: 104 note on establishment of industry =<. .<...2.2+ 2i.4:-.L5s.22-25 1358 Brenna’ dates, notes om ttrodmetion)! 5 22 oe a 32 product. of Roeding oxehard im 1900: - 2-26 Yoh och ee ee 94 Pn VT, | PPCIRLE CEE OUARAMA a: 5. set tate te RE 1 eee eo Le 95 study of relations of generations of Blastophagas to generations of caprifigs. 96-99 Filler, tobacco. (See Cigar. ) Pinch, house, Calitormia:, destruction of figa 22462550. 220 ac nek oe ole lek 93 purple and house finch, food habits and relation to orchard -...____.. 302 Pir; red, notes on. injury by Polyporus pinicola =....2.. 2-22-2222 20s ane ene 209 Brewood; productioniat; Biltmore, N.@ 222220223. .8-25leno. sie 366 Pep tie, pines. Moles CNN SUI 452555555 4 2555555555 eee ee 53 Pearson on young birds; note = 2c 2.2 25.2255.4035 a532505-0 2 ds sien ska 411 bawis, of osprey, food.of nestlings... ...25.0.2 22.5.5. GI aie es ae 430 Flax, cereals, cow peas, cotton, notes on diseases -..---.......-.---.-------- 73 Flaxseed, statistics of world’s flax crop and United States flaxseed prices... 816-818 Pleming. statement as-to rabies in-Vienwa ..2 22.202. -.e en 2 edn Soe 245 Flicker, destruction of ants and other insects; feeding of young ............ 294, 427 Florida and Texas, note on production of Cuban tobacco............-------- 166 characteristic species of scale insects. ..........-....-2-.----2-1----- * 250 exclusion from date-growing climate by heavy rainfall .............- 469 grown Sumatra and Cuban leaf tobaceosat Paris Exposition, remarks. 49, 162 BRalemNerinis 49 Nips Ooh a ere 52s as ss See 267, 277, 280, 281 shipment of tomatoes to England, note .......2...2..2-2.3225-2-0--- 579 Flower clusters of date palm, descriptions and treatment............-------- 476 Froyp, Marcus L., article on ‘‘The world’s exhibit of leaf tobacco at the Paris README OR MOO thy 95523 3 oo sk eehdens 554-865. 55 el ml Dhl eee Salah 157-166 Dinorwls, tise/as tandipreservainve. 24 sso 505 ee oo eel eo ect 559 Fluted scale, Icerya purchasi, distribution, description, and control......_.- 280, 281 Bivcatehers, feed: on nestlings 2. joo. ko as see os on ak le ee 426 Foliage (ornamental) plant, Perilla arguta, note on introduction.........---- 142 Food adulteration, discussion of work of Division of Chemistry........------ / 23 methods of service to the [human] body ......-.......-..-.---..----- 340 of nestling birds, article by Sylvester D. Judd___..........-...------ 411-436 preservatives, commercial, composition. .-..............-------------- 55d Hatiof analyses:..s52..225 22525 748-750 868 INDEX. Page Food preservatives, purpose Of Use... 5=-----s---26- 125-42 -3 52-5 52--2--225 552 use and abuse, article by W. D. Bigelow .....-.-..---- 551-560 products, foreign, notes. on examination .--.-~-----=--2<<---st=----- 25 value of potatoes, article by C. F. Langworthy.-:......--.---.------- 337-348 Forage crop, note on value of everlasting radish.........-%------------------ 140 plant, note on new, kind. 1m Nexas— 2 ose. ee 143 plants and grasses, collection of seeds and study, remarks. -.-...---- 32, 38, 40 notes on introduction of several kinds.......-.....-----.----- 139 Forbush, E. H., method of attracting titmice to orchard, note -.-.-.--------- 296 Forecast, limit of practicability for high temperatures.-........-------------- 336 service of Weather Bureau, remarks of Secretary on value.....-.--- 14, 15 Forecasts, weather, amplification, article by Alfred J. Henry-_.--.-.-------- 107-114 Foreien buyers, effect‘ot false brands: .- = =.= eee ee eee 23 food. products, examinations =. ..0-.< sc ea.ee n+ one 22 a eee 25 Markets, Section, remarks of Secretary on work .......------------- 67-69 work, duties, publications: 2.2. 5 2s2se se2- = 13, 634, 693 plants, notes on introduction by Congressional seed distribution. ---- 29 Forest cover, note on investigation of relation to flow of stream-_...-....----- 52 extension in the Middle West, article by William L. Hall-.-.-------- 145-156 fires, damage and causes in Southern Appalachians. ...-....---.------ 363 harm done by bad system of lumbering in southern Appalachians - ---- 362 land, Government, introduction of principles of forestry...--..-.------- 51 notes on causes of wounds which give lodgment to fungi....-....-.--- 201 planting, propitiousness of present time (1900)..---.---.------------- 147 preservation in Southern Appalachians, relation to riversand health... 368 trees, fungous diseases, article by Hermann von Schrenk.-...-------- 199-210 Tobe on, stud’y of Gistases: 2s = see 35 types in Southern Appalachians, discussion ...--.-------------------- 399 work and forestry associations and. schools... 2. 2-22-2222 =5-—- ses 655 Forestry, Division, general results of cooperative plan of timber planting--.. 153, 155 remarks of Secretary -onmwork.. =i e222 255 ee oe eel 50-53 work; organization and duties; publications -.......- 12, 635, 693 practical, in the Southern Appalachians, article by Overton W. Price 85/-368 qrogresd dn LO0Q) 2 oe. ee ele a ee 733 suggestions for practical and profitable methodsinSouthern lumbering 361 Hormaldehyde, use as food preservative .... 2-5-5 -- meee ee ee 558 France, agricultural education, article by C. B. Smith ..........------------ 115-130 exhibit and awards on butter and cheese at Paris Exposition --.---. 609, 620 importance of cheese making as industry -.---.-..------------------- 623 numbers of dairy stock; creameries and production of butter -.--.-- 610, 611 Fratercula corniculata, food. of- nestlings... <=.224225.-s2sses s2n=-- 25s see 433 Breezing,etiect upon/roads, note. --- <>< s-<..5ess-2e-459== =e ee 302 mixture for retrigeratog Car, NOG =. 5-50 oe ee 574 preservation of meat ..¢ 5. <6 22s. sen eae aa eee ee 551 Rreicht rates, rain, Cte. - 2-35 oo i te eee 836-839 tratie, maxinium rade of roadse. . o-oo ee 185 French colonists, care and culture of date palm, notes.-...-..--.--------.---- 473 markets, familiarity of merchants with American cheese ..-....-.--- 615 method of measuring traflic, remarks -- =< 6-255 543 ee eae eee 393 Fresno, Cal., notes on experiments in growing figs. ...--.-------------- 80, 81, 82, 83 Frost, effect on flavor and composition of potato .....-.-...-------.--------- 346 Frozen meats, experiments leading to transportation from Australia...--.---- 567 Fruit and fruiting, quantity and age of date palm........---..-------------- 475 car ventilated {motesion use! 2=-secst 2 eee eo ee eee ee 442 culture, growth by reason of keeping crop by refrigeration .......-.---- 577 grower, birds of importance, discussion..........--.------------------ 291 growers, old fashioned, preference in fertilizers for pear orchard ...----- 380 Growers’ Union, American, functions in distribution of fruit......----- 450 growing: m_ 1900, progress... -.6j<-me~ sen emer ee = = Sa eee 731 of, pears for market, discussion ~~ -- 22-22 -eee eee ee 369-396 importance of fig in Gulf and South Atlantic States, note......-------- 79 industry, influence of refrigeration, article by William A. Taylor. -.--- 561-580 losses from overproduction and lack of transportation... ---- 562 limit of temperature safe in transportation.......-------------------- 741 of pear tree, thinning, remarks. 2... 2-o- 22a 22-59) ee ee 387 on European markets, competition with United States ...-..---------- 579 rapid spoiling after refrigeration, note. -2+--.--+-.2s-==---+++--s9-25- 578 shipments in cold storage on steamers, note.........---.-------------- 576 INDEX. 869 Page Fruit storage, application of mechanical refrigeration..................----- 568 transportation, establishment of first refrigerator car line..........-.-- 575 tree, value of top and superfluity of long trunk.....................-- 387 trees, date palm-as shelter, discussion. 2... 20-46 os. ese leon lt poe d 474 wild, planting as protection of cultivated varieties, note ..............- 304 Fruiting of date-pain, melatiom or bumidity: 2... s.cels secs oe eee 469 QRDANS) Gpmanmel varia MO nee ee eee ee he he eh 205 Fruits, catalogue, and: cooperativework; note.cs2).22+2.. 22 sees Jee oe 37 CLEMEA) dm POP AGH SORts 2 ae tse ie toe So see. ee 262 overripe, shipment on special cars, note.........:-...-----+-.-2s-2-- 446 rules. ton mami pvandtemnibtineg > 2 suer 2 sets tee ae oS kek ee 742 small, irrigation; deterioration in storage........................-- 509, 569 Eine: detinimon and remarks). W205 4 cue oe ee Jk cise Dee oe 199 Gestructivecto trees, Listes ee et. Fhe an oan Pe ig ee ete ae 206-208 INURE ho TER =< coe Oe eM veh ae Seine old 200, 202, 208, 204, 208 relanonito simuebural tover 525. vedncsee tle See es Se 210 TeMariks O01 Crm OLrmamnet oo hic ie Eh eel atl el ae ae irae 205 Fungous diseases of forest trees, article by Hermann von Schrenk.......--- 199-210 Fungus, scab, on pear tree, use of Bordeaux mixture.................2------ 388 Bueze, wild, note on tial as forage plant. .2.2.52:5- sae ose et 2a 139 Fusicladium pirinum, fungus cause of scab in pear... Bs await Seen = ae een 387 Galcoscoptes carolinensis, catbird, food ‘habits. 2a: a2. 12, ou bess Lee 303, 416 Galleta prass,. value in.desert remion, 122 oko See ee be en ag 28 ek ee 595 Gatlinaceous-pirds; food of nestlingses. lea crs ole oo ee ae 431 Game and birds, organizations aiding in protection ...............----.--- 664-671 birds, Lacey Act for restoration and protection ........22../-.2..22:<- 46 Garhanzos, introduction. (sceaiso @hick peas.) sites S255 ess 52. AS 140 Gardening, market, relation to truck farming, notes ............-.---------- 437 Gardens and grounds, experimental, remarks of Secretary...........-..----- 42-44 work, duties, publications......... 12, 635, 694 in connection with schools in France; note ....._........-.-------- 126 Gassing trees, details of method, with tables of proportions of chemicals.... 254, 257 Gatbering:, curing..and packing Of dates: 22.222. 5 4. --5=42 ase oc sas oe oeemet 481 Geological Survey, U.8., cooperation of Division of Forestry............----- 52 Georgeson, Professor, remarks on agricultural possibilities in central Alaska-- 60 Geranium viscosissimum, forage plant, differences from Jarkspur ........--.--- 316 Germany, exhibits of butter and cheese at Paris Exposition, and awards... 612, 617 muzzling of dogs, report of Consul-General Mason ........-----.-- 244 GeawHon, perlods1.domestic animals’ 2.35535 ee. & Bees at ee. 740 Gettysburg Cemetery, work of William Saunders.................-....----- 626 Gila iver, areas adapted to dateseulture.<- 5-21.02 3. oc Sobor ee! Re 488 Gansyamabh. note on, parasites....25 541.5 255.5 Sh SO ek ee ee Ee ih Ginagiem, chronic poisoning from, cockle, note. 22425 ssc-2 scones eo aL 307 Gizzards ofbirds, differences, noted: sac 2 2s - soba coon os 366, Ses Se 412 Clandersi bacillus note Sass ee Se ee ee eo 240 distribution of mallein for testing horses .............---..-------- 19 Glaucidium gnoma, pigmy owl, food of nestlings ..................--........ 431 Goat breeders’ association; ages and periods important in breeding ........ 652, 740 Goaischeese. irom millcat Paris Exposition... 2:). sf. saedee ines: 2c 617, 623 Good Hope, Cape, shipments of fruitass. 3025008 See es 2 oe ee 579 hoatsra ssociations National. 2-.. eo32-.7 a cee ne va Lae eee eee * 664 people, interest in sample road construction ..........--.------- 54 Gorrie, Dr. John, relation to invention of cold-air machine, note ..........-- 566 Gossard, H. A., work against fluted scale in Florida ..............-.-------- 281 Grade lines: directions jor running. «9422225225. Suc se cloh oy eB. 496, 499 GhdiLchpsamdmripaniom zecersity 155.0036 sc CS ees 498, 503 Toads The key, to Gomect methods: = 25 <2! -.0)2G 2. ws, SE eek Bes 184 Grades, different, velocities and discharges of ditches ............--...-.---- 494 for roads, mathematical discussion of widths..................------ 192 onaitehessrelation tosallvotstream so2s.) ss 222 2 oe ee ae ae a ae 2509 Mocking bird, food of nestlings oe wee SEE eee eee 415 Mohave Deser t, fitness for growing date palm -.-.---.---------------------- 486 Moisture and temperature Ofer 0 Sees eee ce OF ROS es > 109 in'soils, methods of determination 22: {2224 23 SS ee eee 402, 403 Money orders, registered mail, and drop letters, free rural delivery --....---- 521 Montana, extensive poisoning ‘of shoep by Camsas: 6208. ebb Ue 2h eee 322 note’on study of poisonous plants’. .. Ste 202225 Se Jee. Se cee 30 sheep industry, mote i=). [2202 Ps ae ness net es teeees 305 Mort, T. S., experiments in transportation of frozen meats .......--.-------- 567 Mosquitoes, note on publications 2.5224 1s See a UE 28 Mountain forests of Southern Appalachians, note.......--..---------------- 365 roads, article by James W. Abbott. 2222292. 22 U SE 183-198 discussion of dressing. os Jeu. 160 3h) See ee eee. 197 methods in bailding. 2: 222 26h. a ee eee 185, 188 Muhlenbergia spp., notes.....--.------- oes ees. Cee Re ee 592 Mulberry, note on growing and value........-.------------------+---------- 149 Russian, sections for profitable planting -..........---2---------- 152 INDEX, 875 . Page Murré, Palleg-togurammereimen ose ge eo ee cle 433 Mushroom honeys uapary tO tiGadie ee tee) S52 se cL ele 200 Muskmelon, Khiva winter, note on introduction in Arizona........22222--2--- 13 note on NEw Warlety s525 oo video Le ee 141 Mutton, Australian, first cargo in London, note.........-......-. 2222.22 220 567 Muzzles, use in prevention of rabies among dogs...........-------.--.------ 242 Myiarchus crinitus, great crested flycatcher, food of nestlings..............--- 426 Mytilaspis gloveri and citricola, distribution and treatment.................- 265, 266 Nantucket, mistake in road building......- Sevens.) Slee. ot eee 352 Navel orange, introduction by William Saunders. ............-......22-...-- 628 Nebraska, notes on: profitable tree planting. 22: 2.2.2. os. iee Sa Se REL 146 University, report of animal pathologist on rabies -..2........---- 217 Needle grasses, distribution and value, notes.......-.....-222-.0-20, ee cc ee 589, 594 Nelson, Dr. S. B., experiment with poison camas.......2..-2.202.. 00.02. 321 Nestling birds, food, article by Sylvester D. Judd._...2....-..-2-2--2-5- eee 411-436 Weyadl arr culliuimerc iy Carters a cee cn ae fa ny ep WR este cs inn gaye ne 484 New Jersey, irrigation investigations, notes . 20.2.2. 2l 2. ee ee 66 Mexico dateccultumes sos Se eek ee eh De ee oe Se 483 York, reports of veterinary schools and of veterinarians on rabies. __...- 213 State Forest Reserve, note on working plan..................---- 51 Nice, France, date palm of unusual hardiness, notes ...........---...----- 485, 487 Niles, ‘Cal. notes on experiments with. figs 2.2.2.2. Pest ASRS 82 Nitrogen; lack ino West (Plains regions. S 52S a RO ee 539 Nitrogenous fertilizers for pear orchard, notes ..............22--02-2242----e 380 : midiier imipatator mo tes eles ees Se ars eee ee 340, 541 Norfolk, Va., early development of strawberry growing.............-..------ 562 Normal schools in France, courses in agriculture, note ...............2.2.-2- 127 North Carolina, bright-yellow tobacco, comparison with Turkish tobacco. .--. 49 notes on mountain resion'. 2264 Jet Ge ee 357 Novius ( Vedalia) cardinalis, notes (see also Ladybird)..............22-.------ 279 Noxious animals and birds, legislation for prevention of spread, note......_-- 46 Nucifraga columbiana, crow, food of nestlings................2..222..220.0-- 425 Nuthaiches and creeper, habits and relation to fruit growing, remarks .....-- 296 Nutrition of man, investigations of Department..............-...------.---- 64 Nuts, fruits, and other horticultural crops, note on proposed study ......-...- 42 Nyce, Rey. Benjamin M., construction of ice storage house, and patent...__... 564 Nycticorax nycticorax nevius, food of nestlings.............----...-22-------- 435 Oak, Bur, Post and White, uses and sections for profitable planting .... 149, 150, 152 note. on fungus which causes white rot 22252 20952 MEL sos ewe ess 205 Oaks, cedar and cypress, notes on studies .............--.-.2.--- a ee 53 Oases. (See Sahara.) Oats, note on introduction in Iowa of variety from Russia; injury by heat.. 140,326 notes on introduction of new varieties _.2..-.-..0..-.2..-.-.---- 141, 143, 144 relation of weather to seeding and harvest of oats._......... 700-705 statistics of world’s crop and of United States acreage, yield, ete... __. 773-781 Ocean refrigeration, discussion ..............--. SD I Lys SPORES ot vp oc 578 Odessa wheats, fitness for growing in semiarid districts .............2.....-- 536 Ohio and Kentucky Burley tobacco, note on position in trade ........-.-.--- 164 Oleander scale, Aspidiolus hederex, distribution and description..........-.-- » 269 Olive, early planting in Sahara desert; ‘note 2.020 fo 24 ee ee eee 474 seale, note on introduction of parasite .~ L222. 222 S. 20s see ee ee esse 27 Orange Chionaspis, appearance and treatment ................2-2-222-.----- 271 navel, introduction by William Saunders ...............--.-.--.---- 62 necessity of gassing for scale insects ...... 2.222222. 22 2.2 254 rust mite, and silver mite of lemon, discussion _.............-22.---- 285 Oranges and other fruits, diseases 1900... 2.2. see a Sd 73 pears, shipments under refrigeration.................-..------- 578 injuries by red-bellied woodpecker, remarks............--.--------- 295 Orchard, effect of birds, article by F. E. L. Beal........... SAE SE 291-304 Bareiial birds, diseusmos eC os 7 Ce RL Lee 302 method of attracting birds for protection from insects. ........--:-- 296 Tevigitiinepe tee SPC Sh Se ic ie eT Rese 509 number of trees set by four men in a day ..............--.---.---- o14 pear, ‘detarls of plasmimng Bt St Pos ASL LS 37 3ie 876 INDEX. Page. Orchard, pear, methods of building up soil with fertilizers ..........- ey ee eats) time and method of picking, packing, and marketing product. 391-396 pests, Lepidoptera, note ........------ Saver fare diets Sain SI ASE 297 Orchardist; classification) ofipeamsiaoseene tees a Pee eee eee ae 369 Orchards, pear, of United States, geographical distribution..........--.----- JWiEesis Oregon, conditions of growing and yield of wheat....-...-.--.+------------ =i eboD water hemlock» dishmbutionamotesas a. asses soci emeiee aes een ts Jul Orient, exports [from United: Statesis2# yams: 2 teseats Caeser eee 68 Oriental pears, soils, resistance to leaf blight..-............-------+--- 369, 371, 389 Oriole, Baltimore, food habits and relation to fruit growing........------- . 298, 422 Oryzopsis cuspidata, range and vaiue.on alkali soils.........--.------------- = 9 096 Osage orange, localities for successful planting; uses.....--... --.--------- 148, 151 Osborne, method of mechanical analysis of soil, note......--.-..----------- - 400 Osprey, or fish hawk, food/of nestlings 2222 a= ea eee 43 Oven bird, foodvofmestlings:. 252-5. aaee seas Seco eee eee eae 416 Owls and hawks, diet and relation to fruit growing; food of nestlings. .---- -299, 428 Pacific coast, characteristic species of scale insects..........----------------- 250 erassesiof treeless resion 2055...) o-sAesa- + eee ee meee mee 594 Packing and grading of apples, influence of refrigeration ............-------- 572 truck produce for market, discussion........-.---.----- 451 cnring gathering of, datess-5 == ssaec hon ee iee a eee eee 481 of Danish butter, notestos2e 3 ssa Gate e ee ee eo eeee eee 614 DEate Otesi= seems ee eee eee eae x Sia a SR tee el ee 392, 395 Suiymma fies icin: ssc ete Gee See eee 95 Pace, LoGaN WALLER, article on ‘‘The selection of materials for macadam BORIS he ins SHS See Like Bisbee eee po et a i ae ye eee ee 349-356 Palm, date, and its culture, article by Walter T. Swingle (see also Date) -... 453-490 manner of.erowthiss seco tke eaisioeeet. ae lech eee eae 453-456 Palouse: region, crowang ol wheat, Motes. sm pee ee eee ee eee ee 582, 533 Pammel, Prof. L. H., note on poisoning by water hemlock .........--.------ 313 Pan-American Exposition, proposed exhibit of grasses and forage plants ---.- 41 Pandion haliztus carolinensis, food of nestlings ..2...--.-.--2----2-2-----2525 430 Panicion spp.) range dnd wwaliexes-2e ececeesicses eves speek eee a eee ee 593 arasites, hymenopterous, as enemies of scale insects, remarks.....-...-..--- 252 of blackisealies ‘notesiz- ent ee eo eee a ee 274 Blastophagas, fig insects; absence: 25252 Ane see ee ame 99 Paris, Agronomic Institute, plan, courses of study, etc ......-----.-------- 116-118 Ba posttion, ja wards: Sai as 2a teil wate eta = are tener 161, 606, 607, 608 dairy awards for United States; list) 22.32.52 -t2e- ease sse 735 products, article by Henry E. Alvord.........-..- 599-624 1889, award of gold medal to William Saunders -.....---- 2629 exhibit of Division of Forestry..--.---- ase b oa eeere aes 52 foodsfox animals moteja2-sesseeee ese eee eee 41 office of experiment stations -.-..-.------------ 56 lack of cheese exhibits in competition with United States. 615, 616 leaf tobacco exhibit, article by Marcus L. Floyd ...-...- 157-166 MOTE On Calves IN Ui eee ee ston etek ste eee 22 hortreulfunaltexshibitssset4--e-eeeeseo- ee eeeeee 36 remarks of Secretary -..------- saree & Btls Ae eee oe 34, 49, 74 scale of marking for dairy exhibit..-....-.--.--..-2..--- = 99602 showing as to shipment of fruits under refrigeration, note.. 580 tobacco jury and awards, and lessons....-.-..---.----= soe as yea ee Se ee 26 Poles for electric lines, notes on number needed annually ....-..-.---------- 150 Pollination of date palm; keeping of pollen by Arabs --.-..---..---------- 476, 477 Polyporus, species, fungus destructive of trees, manner of injury, etc.... 206, 207, 209 versicolor, NoOterOn: InjUTyekor Mees S24 ee ee eS 200 Pomological Society, American, rules for naming and exhibiting fruits..-...-- 742 Pomology, Division, introduction of African dates into United States.--..---. 459 note on distribution of caprifig cuttings -.--...------..-- 82 remarks of Secretary-om work 2222-922 92.42 eee 36-37 work; organization, and duties; publications..-.-.-- 11, 635, 694 Poplars, note on value for planting.....--..----- Cra See ills Sees Seay 152 Porkv Americans microscope mspechione.2-8 2-222 sae eens eee ee eee 15, 16 Porto Rico and Hawaii, agricultural experiment stations -.......------------ 63 as market ior United: Statess notes so. 24 Jae e eee eee 69 note om Texas févers- csses<2 eee se ee ae ee eee 21 Portugal, award for cheese exhibit at Paris Exposition, 1900....-...--------- 617 Posts, fence; prospect. of steady laree demand 2... .- 222 22.5.2-2222255 222222 150 Potash-as fertilizeriin peartorehard, notes= 25 hoe eee 378, 380 Potassium permanganate, remedy for poisoning by larkspur-.-.--.------------ 318 Potato; ichemenl conapositionie: a) ee ee ee ee oo crop of 1889, relation to supply of food stuffs .-.-..--..---.---2---.- 17 Potatoes as food, value, article by C. F. Langworthy.-...--.--------------- 33/-348 differences in chemical composition from cooking .........--------- 344 methodioh irrigating’ ts se. he SEs ee ee eee 509 possible:dangers from eating 222 202s ¢ Usa eee 348 shrinkace:in. storagen...dha- pees ee eee 339 statistics of United States acreage, yield, value, and prices_------- 796-801 sugar beets and melons, notes on diseases, 1900..--.-..------------- 730 Potomac Plate testing erounds for seeds, notesa22- =-~ 2252-55-22 anes - eee 29, 30 Poultry associations, directory = 05 2eh 02 ROSS Sa a ae 652 note: on sunilower asi feed: :2220 928296 02 sR I Se eee 133 Prairie chickens, note on-feeding habits * ..-2 2225222 =.= ee ee 432 region, habits.of Tobins; note oae2 2: Le Ue a ee eee 303 Prairies, coastal, of Texas, location and dominant grasses .....-------------- 589 Precipitation, departures from normal, average daily for 1900, table. ------- 720, 724 Preservatives, commerciai food, composition, list of analyses.......------- 743-750 food, use and abuse, article by W. D. Bigelow-..------------ 551-560 Price movement and variationsmostipplye ssp) eee eee 172 of wheat, 1889-1891, comparison showing effect of bad crop outlook.... 179 Overton, W., article on ‘‘Practical forestry in the Southern Appa- lachians?”: .. ccc 2. $22 Se SS a, Pa aE ae ee 357-368 of wheat, average export, influence of rye crop, ete -------------- 168, 170, 181 table showing’ relation of rye crops. {255034552 322 tae 173 Prices, average, of imports and exports of the United States .............-- 854-857 explanation of apparent anomalies in relation to supply and demand... 174 of dates, notes esse Pon Se ee 2 Se Re 480, 481 farmianimals andttiberr productss.2222-= eee a eee 824-835 principal crops .-. 758, 760, 770, 771, 778, 779, 785, 786, 792, 800, 805, 811, 813 Profichi (figs) relation:to Blastophagas: 22-2 22 Sasa eee et seo ee 88, 89 Pyrogné.subis, martin, food of nesthings.c.e-~ ..c< SEEPS SS Seas FO 417 Protein in potatoe; notes on digestibility <:% 2.5... So See ae. 340, 845 Pretozoaias cause Giidisease, notes: 22545208... “See eee 237; 238, 240 Pruning, cultivation, and climate, influence on citrus insects.......-.-------- 248 of lemon, note on relation to remedy for scale insects.......-------- 255 pear orchard, discussion <> .. ..0 SSeS eee ee ~... 381-387 Psaltriparus minimus, bush-tit, relation to fruit growing .....---.------------ 296 Publications, Division, remarks of Secretary on work and growth.....--.---- - 69-72 work; organization, and duties; publications. - -- - 13, 635, 694 of Department of Agriculture, in 1900, list...........--------- 637-696 Public schools in France, teaching of agriculture...............------------. 126 INDEX. 879 Page. Putin food: onemesuineniess ee eee cee te et Mle ee kl esl ee. ae 433 Pulse of domestic animals, method of determining ......-...-..-..-.-.----- 740 Pump, use in spraying outfit for scale insects .........----.-.-.-.--------- 255-256 Pure Food Congress, notes on progress Of work.........-----------------+-- 24 Purple gras: weno inne verdes eee eos et ale ce J ae 592 Pyroligneous acid, use as food preservative. -........-....-.-.-2-222 5.250242 559 Quail, noteontiecdino hapits: asses s-22 sesso sos8S. 5h le ee 432 Quarantine, statistics of inspection and movement. .--..-...-....-------------- 17 Quartzites, qualities for road building. ...-.-....-..-.-----.--. Bia al ee 355 Quince root, necessity for moisture and relation to pear culture, note.....---- 276 Quinces; apples, pears, notes on: diseases. 422 5.52222 lee 2 I 729 Quiscalus quiscula, blackbird, food of nestlings. ........-.-.--.--+----.------ 423 Rabbit, ages and periods important in breeding -..............-.------------ 740 Rabbits, injury to fruit trees and destruction by birds, note .....-......--- 299, 300 value for biologie) test OF rabies 252 SAM oo ce So eee 224 Rabies, arrangements in District of Columbia for positive diagnosis, and cases. 212 danger semarky of Peeretary 2! eo oes. ot 4 ee See coe. SL 20 discussion of existence and early recognition of disease......-....-- 220, 225 distribution in United States, remarks... -.-. aese set ee ee 22 212 FURIOUS Hy Mi PhOwas 2: obs. 2 iso's $252 Sess et Se 23 its cause, frequency, and treatment, article by D. E. Salmon.....--- 211-246 misleading proofs of nonexistence analyzed and refuted........---- 227, 228 prevention; discussions 2022. ose ee bath Sees sok Se 241-246 question of spontaneous origin, discussion............---..---------- 236 statistical notes on frequency and effect of seasons......-....-------- 228 Sy Ra suotins aml Lerner: oS eats BH de SBA greed dea SERN bn hh ees 230 time after bite of dog for appearance of symptoms._...........------ 23 transmission between various animals, including man..........-.---- 223 virus; form, and ‘transmission. notet-. 1 = 3a eh ee eae 241 Radiation of heat, normal, impediment from conditions in time of hot wave.. 33 Radish, everlasting, note on introduction and value.............------------ 140 Railroad, cross-ties, timbers most in use, note; planting of trees.._._... 148, 150, 154 Bain, injury to-dates by heavy talks. 2.223 22sec eee SS ee 469 in 1900, relation to growing principal crops.......-.....----.------- 697-714 noe on eteer-on mourntam Trond PI 701th ee Usk, SLL eee 188 Rainfall, relation to production of wheat 2. -2252...... 5208s 5.2 ke lke kk 531, 532 Rainier, Mount, note on ‘‘streak’’ of punky timber__.................-..... 203 Rams summer note onveharacters]: 5. Jo ae eee ON Re nal 2 eee 108 Range, great (stock ), special conditions, discussion................-.----.--- . ' 308 inane and pranced, need ol-eare lio < f2 5502 Tee eA: oe ee 598 great stock, conditions favorable to stock poisoning............-....- 307 Raper ilarch, note on introduetion in California . 4. 225.222 9.2 ee 138 ‘Recommendations of Secretary 22-22-5522 2202 Sse ee ke 21, 62, 67, 76, 77, 78 Red-bellied woodpecker, injuries to oranges, remarks _................---..- 295 clover seed, notes on study ......- At: (Costes SSL Cb bek ARE OS se 2 Re ee 31 scales, distribution, varieties and method of control...........22...--- 267, 268 spring wheats, fitness for growing in the Dakotas...................-.-- 534 top, cistribulion and “varielies: 2.22 See be Ftc eee 584-585 Reed (amare. food of nestmape: | ox) sei hie 2) Ie Se) Eee els Redwood, note on resistanee to injury by fungi.....................-22.-5.- 201 Refrigerating companies’ machines; dates of opening early storage houses... 567, 568 metrigeration, Gevelopment, discussion fo 28: iyo ee See ae 563-566 effect upon usefulness of some choice varieties of apples......-- 572 influence on fruit industry, article by William A. Taylor... -- 561-580 Ae DUAR Sit CHISCUCKEO IIe = Ei ae ee eee CUE PRS 2 573 mechanical, discussion of development .............---------- 566 Ocean; GiscusHOWw =. Sl eee tee a ees Se oie i See 578 of apples, importance, discussion’)... 2.22. 2202¢ fuse et 570 PeLrIPeraLar CA, Linh MAbENe "ORE 232 oo S802 VoL FN. oot ore OY Ree 574 for fruit, description and date of patent ................---- 575 CARS ATO Wb tr Meee ae ses Ma Ya td ee ts a ee Se ee ae chests, use and value in dairy exhibit, Paris Exposition ......--- 605 shipments oi truck produce; points to be observed.......----- 444, 446 enauUih, wm vestigaivon oF rAlleses ss 22 lies) lee 2 eo eel a eee 223 Resin wash for use against scale insects, preparation .............----------- 261 880 INDEX. Page Rey, Professor, of Lyons, inoculations of sheep with rabies......--.---------- 223 Rhars date offshoots, distribution for trial culture........-..=...--.-:-.<--- 461, 464 | Rhizobius ventralis, ladybird enemy of black scale, note ---...--.---------.--- 274 Rice Association; Americans) e==— Sotho s oe bac oe 8 eee eee 643 Kiushu, notes on introduction; value of importation ..---.------------ 32, 135 wholesale prices ic. Gel sooth as cebsc ice gn dessa See ee ees 821 Ripening, harvesting, and drying of Smyrna figs ...-......-.-.-------------- 93 ol dates, discussioms 246-2 Sse 2S. emt ese e ss th eae ee eee 478 PCANS 22 2525 ose eas ee Se Re Sa a ee eee 392-396 Rissa tridactyla pollicaris, food of nestlings © 2.22.22 20-i9223 Foes ee ee 433 Rixford, Gulian P., note on importation of Smyrna fig cuttings -.....-------- 80 Road building, object; badly constructed road bed......--...--------------- 188 physical properties important in rock; country...------ 350-893, 354 corduroy, directions for building ..65 4:5. 4226.26 eee ee 196 factors. determining width 2. -¥-iect2t a-ha Seep eee eee 189 Inquiries, Public, Office, remarks of Secretary on work.--.....-------- 53-55 work; organization; publications....---- 13, 635, 694 line; remarks onvstakingioul-5-o5o5 aoe “Aa eee See ee eee 194 materials, laboratory study; arrangements for analyses......----.-.--- 27, 54 tests; location of laboratories in United States... 355, 356 tram sclassification = <5 os... o ae oeee ee ae eee see See MENS 304 Roads, adyantages:of Sper centigrade... 22)-5-. -- 22 0 3 eo oe 186 experimental, cooperative work of Office of Public Road Inquiries - --. 54 good, favorable infiuence of rural free delivery, notes.......---- 526, 527, 528 grades for bicycle, pleasure driving, and freight traffic.......----.-- 184, 185 macadam, selection of materials, article by Logan Waller Page ..---- 349-3856 mountain, article by. James W...AbbOtt .. = a225 252228 toca 5 eee 183-198 importance of location and suggestions for laying out --...-- 187 need of extra width for heayy hauling 222505224223. 359-5 basse 190 proposed, importance of record of traffic preparatory to building --.--- 353 remarks on best method of construction on curves ..-...------------- 193 tables showing widths and amount oi excavation ........------------ 192 Robin, food habits and relation to fruit (see also Oriole) .....-------------- 303, 413 Robbins, A. M., use of freezing mixture for cold storage .........------------ 565 Rock, dithenlties invoad making... 2.2.4. =-- acne sek ae Se oe ee ee 192 selection for road building and physical properties important.... 349, 350-353 slide, definition and directions for management in road building. .--...- 195 solid, batter for roads iGOVerine -.-- 2-62 sees ae sos ee eee 189, 197 Rocks, methods of determining value in road building..........-.---------- 355 Roeding, F., importation of Smyrna fig cuttings.........-...--.------------ 80, 83 Root development of plant, favorable condition, note........-.------------- 397 rot in pear tree; | GISCUSSIOR:. << 3 =< 2 sisee s cee es Sees eo aee -eee 389 Rue, oat’s, note on Introduehons. decease) ease seat easse aes eee 139 Rural free delivery, advantages of system, discussion .........------------ 522-527 histery of development. -o- 3 - - —pepeess ee ewe see mer= 516-521 influence on social life of farmers, note..............--- 528 method of procedure in starting new routes......----..- 527 routes, Marchil; 190)... -t2pee ate eee eee 752 mails, free delivery, article by C. H. Greathouse -.......----------- 513-528 Russia, butter exhibit at Paris Exposition, character and awards. .-....------ 613 character of cheese exhibit at Paris Exposition and awards......-.--- 618 importation of red winter wheat, note....-..----------------------- 135 wheat.érop in cold, semiarid regions. 32 - oc. ase noes Sain nee ee eee ddl “Russian crop failure of 1889, relation to world’s bread supply ...------------ 175 field. pea, .aiote qn: Valle sia 23553 hep ae eeeae ans oS ee 137 methods of wheat culture, lessons (for Americans) ....---.--------- 539 oats, barley, spelt, buckwheat, broom corn, millet, introduction. ---- 142 Bust fungi, kinds destructive. of rees.2< <2 42. 22sec 535, teehee = 200 mite of orange and silver mite of lemon, discussion.-...--------------- 285 Rye, influence on price of wheat, article by Edward T. Peters..---.-------- 167-182 in. 1899... jet oes See eee 180 relation of production in Russia and Germany to world’s supply --.---- 172 to deficiency of breadstuffs in Europe in 1891.......-..-------- 171 rise.in, wheat prices in 1896. 520s. 2j2-0- hee cos neeee eee 179 statistics of world’s crop and of United States acreage, yield, ete..--- 787-793 table showing advance of price in wheat in consequence of short ryecrop 178 INDEX. 881 Page Saccatone, species, range and value .........--...---- bisiscthoraterck 2a nance 592 Sahara, early planting OE ORKEE, NOlee Es oicc5s--26 Son Sesh ob eee 474 growing and importance of date palm, notes ...........----------.. 453, 457 Salicylic acid, use in food preservatives, remarks -.....-..--. Vuties poe 597 Saliva of dog, part in transmission of rabies........ Fee See eres tne "223, 232, 234 S ALMON, D. E., article on ‘‘ Rabies: Its cause, frequency, and treatment’’.... 211-246 Salm- Reiferscheid, note on early experiments regarding rabies3c% Seka 222 Salt content of soil, method of interpreting results in electrical determination. 408 early use in preservation Dip BOUus es. Ste ei Soe Oso. 2 so ee 551 PTASS: CIShHINUMON AN Gaal Nemanaee ese Rete! OA oe So Bs eae 595, 596, 597 River Valley, Arizona, fitness for date culture .......-.-.........s<----- 489 water, use in drying figs Bn eh Oey ts hs (avasi ty | ote Oh 4 Snead eee 94 Salts, soluble, in soils and irrigation waters, determination..........-...--- 406-409 translocation and capillary moy ement of y rater, need of investigation ois} p20 Sample-road construction, interest of good-roads people Hous ecb eee eee 54 roads as means of determining value of material for road building... 355 han Diego. mimeninoondatess. 6. 4cc8 asc. Le So. See ee 486 Sand binding and soil binding grasses, note on proposed investigations. -.--.- 38 Sandpiper, Pribilof, food:-of nestlings: --2....5..<25--42------ oS Aap ee 432 Sanitary boards, secretaries and State veterinarians .......------.-- SE see 653 Sapsuckers, yellow-bellied, food of nestlings -. ..-- 25.222 -e 2 se -scbee ess 427 Saunders, W “illiam, biographical notice by. Hie Bidttor acest claled pees 625-630 brief chronology of lifesdfues nos asi no ee ts eee 3 note:onsdeath 15-252 > ae a Sela eee 42 Sayornis PACHe, JOO. Of Nestlinge <4 2c we oes peas eee. See se ae Saioks SeekeO Sicabvoel. pear, tree, discusslonieaies osen sea Jo ret et oe ies oe See 387 sheep, efforts to control and number of inspections --....-.....-------- 18 Beale, black, -discovery.of male, remarks... .2i..s ease. 0206 -o-5 ee veebeae 274 insect and mite enemies of citrus trees, article by C. L. Marlatt....... 247-290 insects, citrus, classification and characteristics: -- 22. -.:<..-22sc. ese ee 262 naturahenemies; directicontrol 2: -- 52-2224. -2 eee 251, 254 effect of high temperature; periodiciiy eseee eee ee eee eee eee 741 high, extermination of acale:insecte ics os522e-6- Sa e eee 249 necessary for fruiting of date palm, remarks .............---.-- 464 of domestic animals, method of determining ..............----- 740 soils, discussion of methods of measurement.....-..-.----- 404-406 Temperatures and totals of heat required for successful date growing.....---- 466 high, limit of practicable forecast (see also Hot waves)...----.- 336 Tennessee, eastern; notes on mountain region... -.22 2-62 ose. soe cee eee 307 tobaccos, note on position in trade and Paris Exposition exhibit .. 164 Terns,and. cutls stood ‘of nestlings). ..26. 2308. secie see eee eae ae 434 Testing commercial varieties of vegetables, article by W. W. Tracy, jr----. 543-550 varieties of vegetables, details of methods <.-.. ss2se2lesceccnseeeee 548 Tests of veretables by seedsmen> character s.- sesso nseene eerie eee eee ee eeeee 545 Tetanus, or lockjaw, note on serum for prevention .................--------- PAL Tetranychus sexmaculatus, six-footed mite, discussion..........-..------------ 289 Texas and Florida, note on production of Cuban tobacco..........---------- 166 date-culture....-2)-o54 S20 ees oe ee ee eee oe ne ae 483 fever; remarks, oh Secretaty + s> eae eee soon 538-542 notes on introduction of new varieties_......2..---- ri ’ i] s ' ‘ ’ + : Ot Es 2 p 4 » t “ a - ' aid a cl yb hed re eee, ican Oe ite fate yee bhi! : ee aU ve Nea Di? ” ? ‘ ’ ‘ iReee Be . 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