Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from NCSU Libraries http://www.archive.org/details/yearbookofuniteOOunit Yearbook U. S. Dep: - - 1906. Frontispiece. Henry Cullen Adams, of Wisconsin. Born November 28, 1850. Died July 9. 1906. Mr. Adams represented the Second I gi -- naJ District of Wisconsin in trie Fifty- eighth and Fifty-ninth - ses. He was an active member of the Committee on Agriculture, and was the author of the aet for the increased endowment of the iltural experiment stations, generally known as the Adams Act TEAEBOOK OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1906. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, 1907. [Chapte: . - - at L., 1S95.] [AH ACT providing for the public j'rinting and binding and the distribution of public documents.] - :on 73. paragraph 2: The Annual Report of the Secretary of Agriculture shall hereafter be submitted and printed in two parts, as follows: Part One. which shall contain purely business and executive matter which it is necessary for thr 5c -ubmit to the Presi- dent and Congress: Part Two. which shall contain such reports from the different us and Divisions, and such papers prepared by their special agents, accompa- nied by suitable ill v.- - Shall, in the opinion of the Secretary, be specially suited to interest and instruct the farmers of the country, and to include a general report of the operations of the Department for their information. There shall be printed of Part One. one thousand copies for the Senate, two thousand copies for the House, and three thousand copies for the Department of Agriculture: and of Part one hundred and ten thousand copies for the use of the Senate, three hundred and sixty thousand copies for the use of the House of Representatives, and thirty -and copies for the use of the Department of Agriculture, the illustratio:.- the same to be executed under the supervision of the Public Printer, in accordance with directions of the Joint Committee on Printing, said illustrations to be subject to the approval of U .riculture: and the title of each of the said - hall be such as to show that such part is complete in itself. PREFACE. The Yearbook for 1906 closely follows in the main the style and character of its predecessors. The Annual Report of- the Secretary of Agriculture is reproduced in compliance with the act of Congress, which requires that the Yearbook shall " include a general report of the operations of the Department." The special papers contributed by the several Bureaus and Offices of the Department number twenty-rive and occupy 332 pages. These papers are all contributed by employees of the Department, and the subject-matter of each is closely related to some line of departmental work. An earnest effort has been made not only to maintain but to extend the scope and value of the Appendix so far as this could be done with- out too greatly enlarging its dimensions. It may be stated here, as an answer to many inquiries, that it has been found impossible to admit any but national associations in what may be termed the agri- cultural directory, which forms an important part of the Appendix. More than usual attention has been given to the presentation of agricultural statistics, as these constitute one of the most important features of the Yearbook. There appear in this volume all the usual Yearbook tables showing acreage, production, prices, values, etc., of the principal farm crops of the United States, production of the same crops in nearly all foreign countries, international trade in many lead- ing products, and statistics of all the principal animal industries. The exports and imports of agricultural products are presented with the usual fullness. One very valuable feature of these statistics is the presentation of data for previous years (usually four or more) so that comparison may reveal the increase or decrease of production or trade. The statistical portion has also been considerably enlarged by includ- ing a number of new tables. The most important of these are tables giving statistics of the cotton crop of the United States for one hun- dred and seventeen years (1790-1906); production of sugar in the United States and its possessions for fifty-three years (1854-1906); and farm and factory results in the beet-sugar industry for six years (1901-1906). The statistics of international trade have been amplified by the inclusion of tables showing the international trade in corn, 3 4 PREFACE. .t and wheat flour, hops, tea. coffee, oil cake and oil-cake meal, resin, spirits of turpentine, india rubber, wood pulp, hides and skins, butter, and cheese. Many of the facts embraced in these new tables are, it is believed, brought together and presented in this form for the first time in any publication. The Appendix includes a review of weather conditions during the crop season of 1906; a review of the live-.-tock industry during the year, involving a statement of the greatly increased scope of the Gov- ernment meat inspection: reports on plant d> aes, and the principal injurious insects in 1906: the areas surveyed and mapped by the Bureau of Soils: an account of what is being done under the new "pure food law:v a report on the progress of forestry, and a report on game protection for the year. The portrait of Hon. Henry Cullen Adams, Representative in the Fifty-ninth Congress for the Second district of Wisconsin, has been selected for the frontispiece. In view of the conspicuous services rendered to agriculture by Mr. Adams during his public career, recently cut short by death, this selection will be appreciated by the friends of agriculture throughout the country. The tendency in pa.-t years has been to increase the size of the Yearbook. This tendency ha.^ been rigorously controlled in the pres- ent volume, with the result that it contains nearly 100 pages less than the Yearbook for 1905. and only 13 plate-, as against 73 in the previous volume. The result has been to produce a volume more convenient in size than several of its recent predecessors. Geo. Wm. Hlll, Department Editor. Washington. D. C, May 29, 1907. C O X T E X T S . Page. Eeport of the Secretary 9 New Problems of the Weather. Bv "Willis L. Moore. W. J. Humphreys, and 0. L. Fassig 121 The Present Status of the Nitrogen Problem. By A. F. Woods 125 Object-lesson Roads. By Logan Waller Page 137 Introduction of Elementary Agriculture into Schools. By A. C. True 151 Cage-bird Traffic of the United States. By Henry Oldys 165 The Use of Soil Surveys. By J. A. Bonsteel 1S1 Birds that Eat Scale Insects. By W. L. McAtee 189 The Effect of Climatic Conditions on the Composition of Durum Wheat. By J. A. LeClerc 199 The Game Warden of To-day. By R. W. Williams, jr 213 Range Management. By J. S. Cotton 225 The Preparation of Unfermented Apple Juice. By H. C. Gore 239 Foreign Restrictions on American Meat. By Frank R. Rutter 247 Methods of Reducing the Cost of Producing Beet Sugar. By C. 0. Townsend. 265 Corn-breeding Work at the Experiment Stations. By J. I. Schulte 279 Nuts and their Uses as Food. By M. E. Jaffa 295 Some Recent Studies of the Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil. By W. D. Hunter. 313 Cloud-bursts, So-called. By Edward L. Wells 325 New Citrus and Pineapple Productions of the Department of Agriculture. By Herbert J. Webber 329 Distribution of Tuberculin and Mallein by the Bureau of Animal Industry. By M. Dorset 347 Promising New Fruits. By William A. Taylor 355 Freight Costs and Market Values. By Frank Andrews 371 New Tobacco Varieties. By A. D. Shamel Opportunities for Dairying: I. General. By Wm. Hart Dexter 405 II. New England. By George M. Whitaker 40S III. The North Central States. By B. D. White 412 IV. The South. By B. H. Bawl... 417 V. The Pacific Coast. By E. A. McDonald 422 Lime-sulphur Washes for the San Jose Scale. By A. L. Quaintance 429 National Forests and the Lumber Supply. By Thomas H. Sherrard 447 Appendix: Organization of the Department of Agriculture 453 Appropriations for the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal years end- ing June 30, 1905, 1906, and 1907 458 Agricultural colleges and other institutions in the United States having courses in agriculture 45S 5 6 CONTENTS. Appendix — Continued. Page- Agricultural experiment stations of the United .States, their locations, directors, and principal lines or work 461 iation of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations. . 464 Officials in charge of farmers' institutes 464- American Association of Farmers' Institute Workers 464 State officials in charge of agriculture 465 National dairy associations 465 American National Live Stock Association 466 American Association of Live Stock Herd Book Secretaries 466 National Wool Growers' Association 466 The Corn-belt Meat Producers' Association 466 Protection against contagion from foreign cattle 466 Stock breeders' associations 466 Sanitary officers in charge of live stock interests 468 .-sociations 469 Schools of forestry 469 National Bee Keepers' Association 470 National Association of Economic Entomologists 470 - - .iation of Official Agricultural Chemists 470 National horticultural and kindred societies 470 State highway officials 471 State officials in charge of protection of game 471 Organizations for protection of birds and game 472 American Bre- - - a :>ciation 472 Farmers' National Congress 472 Patrons of Husbandry 472 Review of weather conditions during the crop season of 1906 473 The live-stock industry in 1906 492 Plant diseases in 1906 499 The principal injurious insects of 1906 508 Areas surveyed and mapped by the Bureau of Soils 517 Progress in food and drug inspection and correlated investigations Review of road laws enacted in 1906 521 o farm management in 1906 524 : forestry in 1906 525 Game protection in 1906 533 Farmers' institutes 541 Statistics of the principal crops 542 Farm animals and their products 632 International trade in animal products 637 Farm animals and their products in continental Cnited States 648 Transportation rates - 665 Imports and exports of agricultural products 670 Legal weights per bushel 690 Index 695 ILLUSTRATIONS. PLATES. Page. Henry Cullen Adams, of Wisconsin Frontispiece Plate I. Buildings and apparatus at Mount Weather, Va 122 II. Appliances in use at Mount Weather, Va 122 III. Buildings and instruments at Mount Weather, Va 122 IV. Fig. 1. First object-lesson roads built by the Office of Public Roads. Atlanta, Ga., 1895. Fig. 2. Tarring road at Jackson, Tenn. — Latest advance in road surfacing 142 V. The evolution of a country-road, Uniontown, Ala 142 VI. Macadam road at Auburn, Nebr., built through river bottom 148 VII. Fig. 1. Crushing plant, Walla Walla, Wash. Fig. 2. Preparing set grade for macadam road with traction engine and road machine, Arkansas City, Kans. Fig. 3. Concrete bridge, Texarkana, Ark . 148 VIII. Methods of shipping and testing cage birds 170 IX. Lady Gould finch 178 X. Photomicrographs of cross sections of wheat grown under varying conditions 210 XL Whole wheat showing (1) flinty, (2) half starchy, and (3) starchy grains 210 XII. Fig. 1. A stallion used in improving a herd of range horses in North Dakota. Fig. 2. Range horses, the progeny of stallions like that shown in figure 1 236 XIII. Fig. 1. Polish women thinning beets. Fig. 2. Belgian method of topping beets 274 XIV. Fig. 1. Power hoe that may be utilized in blocking and hoeing sugar beets. Fig. 2. Siloing sugar beets for the factory 274 XV. Fig. 1. California Indians pounding acorn meal for food. Fig. 2. California Indian leaching acorns for food 306 XVI. Early versus late planting in the control of the boll weevil 322 XVII. Colman citrange 332 XVIII. Savage citrange 332 XIX. Rustic citrange 332 XX. Fig. 1. Branch of the Savage citrange. Fig. 2. Branch of the Colman citrange 332 XXI. Thornton orange 338 XXII. Fig. 1. Deliciosa pineapple. Fig. 2. Dade pineapple 338 XXIII. Fig. 1. Coquina pineapple. Fig. 2. Jupiter pineapple 342 XXIV. Fig. 1. Jensen pineapple. Fig. 2. Orlando pineapple. Fig. 3. Bis- cayne pineapple 342 XXV. Magnate apple 356 XXVI. Oliver Red apple 358 XXVII. Rabun apple 358 XXVIII. Early Wheeler peach 360 7 ILLUSTRATION-. Page. XXIX. Banner grape 360 XXX. J ..sephine persimmon 364 XXXI. Chappelow avocado 364 XXXII. Pecan varieties 368 XXXIII. Uncle Sam Sumatra tobacco XXXIV. Hazlewood Cuban tobacco XXXV. Brewer Hybrid tobacco 396 XXXVI. C -ley Hybrid tobacco 396 XXXVII. Plants for cooking lime-sulpbur wash. Fig. 1. A single-kettle fur- nace. Fig. -. A w ell-arranged plant for cooking the wash on a large scale 443 XXXVIII. Plants for cooking lime-sulphur wash: 1> A western Xew York outfit. (2) an inconvenient cooking plant, and (3) an outfit with two large tanks for cooking, with boiler between XXXIX. Outfits used for spraying lime-sulphur wash 444 XL. Departures from normal temperature for the crop season of 1906, from March 1 to September 30 XLI. Total precipitation for the crop season of 1906, from March I tember 30 XLII. Departures from normal precipitation for the crop season of 1906, from March 1 to September 30 XLIII. Successful example of planting denuded State land 530 TEXT FIG" Fig. 1. Black olive scale 193 lie 195 3. Oyster-shell bark-louse 196 4. Pasteurizer for apple juice _4 5 5. Value of pork. lard, cattle, and beef exported. 1S66-1906 248 6. Laborers' houses — one method of solving the labor question in growing 273 7. A portable house used in some parts of the sugar-beet area .'-. S. Percentage composition of an oily nut and a starchy nut 300 9. Map of cotton belt in the United States, showing area infested by boll weevil in 1906 and difference in amount of annual normal precipita- tion in different portions of infested and uninf ested territory 314 10. Section of skin S a ^nd Col man citranges 331 11. Typical leaf of Uncle Sam Sumatra tobacco 390 - Typical leaf of Hazlewood Cuban tobacco 392 13. Typical leaf of Brewer Hybrid tobacco 394 Typical leaf of Cooley Hybrid tobacco 396 15. Two plans for conducting steam into barrels 16. Top view of plant for cooking lime-sulphur wash 442 17. Temperature and precipitation departures for season of 1906 from nor- mal of many years for Missouri Valley and Pacific coast Temperature and precipitation departures for season of 1906 from nor- mal of many years for Middle. South Atlantic, and Gulf States 475 19. Temperature and precipitation departures for season of 1906 from nor- mal of many years for Lake region, upper Mississippi Valley. Ohio Valley, and Tennessee 476 20. Areas covered by the Soil Survey 517 21. Rise in prices per thousand feet of different kinds of lumber, 1S94-1906. 527 22. Map J higher than for 1901. which was third in order in the value of these exports. In exports of grain and grain products for 1906 the value again reached a high amount and has been exceeded only 13 times in the last fifty-six years. The value of this class of exports last year was almost exactly the average of the preceding twenty-five years. LEADING YEAR FOR PACKING-HOUSE PRODUCTS. Packing-house products are another class of exports that found their leading year in value in 1906, the amount being $907,700,000. No pre- vious year had reached S200.000.000. and only two years had passed $1SO,000,000. The value of exported fresh beef. £21.300.000. was well up to the average of recent years; lard exports to the value of $60,000,000 and a quantity of 712.000,000 pounds went far beyond the highest figure of preceding years in both respects; bacon took an upward turn with exports valued at $36,000,000 for 361. 000. 000 pounds and rose well up toward the higher export years of the past. The level of recent years was reached in the exports of hams, their value being 120,000,000 and weight 191,000,000 pounds. The highest exports, both in quantity and value, of oleo oil in previous years were far over- topped by the exports of this commodity in 1906, and the 210,000. oOO pounds exported were valued at $17,500,000. IMPORTS OF FARM PRODUCTS. The imports as well as the exports of agricultural products reached their highest value in 1906, when the amount was $554,000,000. or less than one-fourth of a million dollars over the value of 1905. which was then the highest record. The principal increases over 1905 in these imports were $20,000,000 for packing-house products, almost entirely composed of hides, skins, hair, and bristles: $4,400,000 for tobacco; $2,700,000 for vegetable fibers; $1,900,000 each for seeds and vegeta- ble oils; $1,800,000 for fruits; $1,200,000 for nuts; and $1,100,000 for vegetables. On the other hand, there were decreases in imports REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15 which nearly balanced the increases, and principal among1 these were coffee, with a loss of $11,000,000; sugar and molasses, with a loss of $12,600,000; wool and silk, with a loss of $7,000,000 each; and tea, with a loss of $1,650,000. The principal imported articles are the same year after year, and among them for 1906 the imports of packing-house products were valued at $96,000,000; of sugar and molasses, $86,000,000; of coffee, $73,000,000; of silk, $54,000,000; of vegetable fibers, $50,000,000; of wool, $39,000,000; of tobacco, $22,000^000; of fruits, $21,500,000; of tea, $14,600,000; and of vegetable oils, $12,600,000. FOREIGN TRADE IN FOREST PRODUCTS. On account of the increasing value of forest products, the exports of these commodities in 1906 reached a considerably higher figure than ever before, with a value of $77,000,000, or $13,748,000 more than in 1905. The imports of these products also increased in value by $3,000,000; all items exhibit an increase except india rubber, the imports of which declined by $4,800,000. In total value the imports of forest products were $95,700,000 in 1906, an amount far above that of any preceding year except 1905. BALANCE OF TRADE. The so-called balance of trade in the international exchange of agri- cultural commodities continues to run in favor of this country by an enormous amount; for 1906 the agricultural exports exceeded similar imports by $433,000,000, an amount which places this year with the seven high years beginning with 1898 and much above the balance of 1905. This new foreign credit, which equaled that of a rich nation, was mostly offset by large borrowings in this country from Europe for the purpose of enlarging railroads and other capital. While the farmer placed to the National credit in other countries $433,000,000 in 1906, other producers, all included, secured a balance in favor of this country of only $85,000,000. During the last seven- teen years the farmer has built up a balance of trade in foreign exchange of agricultural products amounting to $6,068,000,000, while all other producers find themselves at the end of the same period with a total on the debtor side of the account to the extent of $459,000,000. INCREASE OF FARMING CAPITAL. Having produced fabulous wealth during the year and having sent to foreign countries out of the wealth of the preceding year enough to pay the interest-bearing national debt, the farmer may now take account of his farming capital. The large rate of increase in its value since 1900 is not a mere matter of a higher price level and higher land values. In the meantime the farmer has earned a surplus income, 16 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. much of which he has invested in his farming equipment, in buildings, in many improvements, in live stock, in machinery, and in furtherance of the comforts and pleasures of living. REAL ESTATE AND FARM EQUIPMENT. The farm real estate, as ascertained by this Department last year, increased in value $6,131,000,000 since the census year, or enough to raise the census value to $22. 715,000,000. Domestic animals were worth $2, 979. 000,000. according to the census enumerators, and now they are estimated to be worth more than $1.000, 000,000. There has been a very active demand for implements and machinery, not only by farmers who have become financially able for the first time to buy, as in the South, but by farmers already provided with them, who have needed to reduce their dependence upon human labor by getting more serviceable machines. If real estate, domestic animals, other live stock, and implements and machinery are combined, the farmers' capital, as composed of these items, has increased by perhaps $8,000,000,000 since the census valuation, or about 10 per cent, and now amounts to perhaps 528,000,000,000. DOMESTIC ANIMALS. The domestic animals of the farm number about 200,000,000 at the time for which it is estimated by the Department, which is Janu- ary 1. Strictly beef cattle, sheep, and swine are each one-fourth of the total, and dairy cows and draft animals each about one-tenth. The value of these animals has increased during the year, and only a very rough estimate can now say how much, in advance of the careful estimate to be made in January. Perhaps the gain is about $100,000,000; at any rate, the increase seems to be as much as 10 per cent. MEAT SUPPLY. NUMBER OF ANIMALS SLAUGHTERED. Upon the farmers' vast herds of meat animals the nation depends for its most expensive class of foods in various kinds of meat and for one-third of its dietary. The figures of meat production, which are the result of a recent large and searching investigation by this Depart- ment, strikingly express the magnitude of the farmer's occupation, as evidenced by only one of its branches, and the largeness of its per- formance in national sustenance and exports. In the last census year, 1900, 93,502,000 meat animals were slaugh- tered and exported, and of these 18,809,000 were cattle, including calves; 21,518,000 were sheep, including lambs; and over one-half, or 50,115,000, were hogs. Every time the clock ticks a second during ten hours of a workday the farmer drives nine meat animals to the butcher. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 17 POUNDS OF MEAT PRODUCED. The meat production of 1900, in terms of dressed weight and weight of edible parts not included in dressed weight, was 19,186,330,000 pounds, of which 2, 1-33, 035,000 pounds, or 12.68 per cent, were exported, so that the national consumption was 16,753,295,000 pounds. Such great numbers may be better understood if they are reduced to the average of the census private family, 1.6 persons. To such a family in 1900 the farmer supplied 49 pounds of veal, 131 pounds of beef, 30 pounds of lamb, 39 pounds of mutton, and 165 pounds of pork, including lard, or, in all, 1,011 pounds of meat, amounting to half a ton. If the exports had been consumed at home, they would have given to each family more beef than the foregoing by 50 pounds, more pork by 97 pounds, or together 117 pounds. In the consumption of meat, expressed in terms of entire animals, each family asks the farmer for over one-third of a calf, over two- thirds of a steer or cow, over three-fourths of a lamb, nearly three- fourths of a sheep, and two and one-half hogs, and the farmer responds so liberally that one-eighth of his supply is left over for the foreigner. It is upon the selling of this surplus in foreign countries that the farmer depends for the maintenance of profitable prices for his meat animals. LAROE PLACE OF THE SURPLUS INr THE WORLD'S TRADE. This fraction of one-eighth is small, but it becomes remarkably magnified when it crosses the Atlantic Ocean. The national surplus of meat for one .year, if composed of the different kinds as actually used in consumption, is sufficient to feed either the United Kingdom or the German Empire for nearly half a year, or both for nearly one- fourth of a }Tear, and the population of these two countries in 1901 was 98,000,000, as compared with a population of 76,000,000 in this country the }*ear before. This little fraction of the national product of meat which goes to other countries looks large when viewed in another aspect. In the world's international trade in packing-house products and live meat animals the place occupied by the exports from the United States is indicated by about 10 per cent of the total value. IMPORTANCE OF SWIXE. As a meat producer, the importance of the hog appears in the fore- going statement. The yearly turnover or slaughter of hogs is equal to about four-fifths of the number on hand June 1, and the meat, in- cluding lard, produced in 1900 was 9,279,583,000 pounds, or more than 3 A1906 2 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF A6BICULTTJBE. half a billion pounds over the 8,771,2 pounds of year and beef, and _ht times the 1,1 ainds of lamb and mutton. Id i State alone. Iowa, the pork products for 1906, includii 5 to nearly the entire exports of the meat products of swine in Should Iovra suddenly lo rine, for the time g xports of their products must substantially cease or the home consumption of them be reduced one-fifth. Briefly mentioned, such are some of the main results of the Depart- ment's investigation of the meat supply. They indicate the pro tions of the part that the farmer of this country take-, in only one direction of his work, as a provider of meat to n< I fellow- countrymen and to the rest of mankind. COHSUHKBB' yearly meat bill. Meat consumers, as well as farmers who are meat producers, have concern with the national dietary. This nutritive element contributes one-third or more of the total assimilated nutrients of the diet both in pounds of protein, or flesh-forming material, and in calories off energy. In expense to the consumer the fraction is undoubtedly much larger. The investigations of the National Bureau of Labor into the retail prices of food indicate, for the many representative family budgets included in the investigation--, that the average retail price of meat, for all kinds in the proportions of actual consumption, was 2 cent- in 1900, 13 cents i and 13* cents in 1905; the average increased, perhaps, to 13f, or at the most to 14. cents in 1 At these average meat prices and with the meat consumption of 1 national retail meat bill was 279. . and it Every increase of one- :h of a cent per pound in the national av rail price of meat raises the total yearly expense to consumer- by $41, The increase of one cent a pound since 1900 cost consumers this si;;;.- : FUTURE PRODUCTION. PATOIS OF TITE PAST. The mighty production of the farm for one-third of a century has come out of an agriculture having many faults. In a large degree en one-crop farming: crop rotation, as practiced, has often a too short and ui _ . _ crops have been negle -lie animals . ntly entered into the farm economy, and man . have been kept at a The fertilizer- made on the farm have been regarded as a nuisance in • regions: they have been wasted and misapplied by many farm- ers; humus has not been plowed into the ground as generally a- it ild have been: and in many a place the unprotected soil has been wa.-hed into the streams. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19 IX. >N< IMIC JUSTIFICATION. This, in few words, is the historic story of agriculture in a new country ; yet the course of agriculture in this country, had as it may seem in its unscientific aspect, has had large economic justification. While pioneers, poor and in debt, are establishing themselves they have no capital, even if they had the knowledge, with which to earn- on agriculture to the satisfaction of the critic. They must have build- ings, machinery, and live stock, even at the expense of the soil. Millions upon millions of acres of fresh land have been coming into production faster than domestic consumption has required, and, at times, beyond the takings of importing countries. For many years the farmer was threatened with -±0-cent wheat. 20-cent corn, and 5-cent cotton, and at times he was face to face with the hard condi- tions implied in these destructive prices. A more scientific agricul- ture would have raised wheat that no one wanted to cat. corn to store on the farm and perhaps eventually to be used for fuel, and cotton not worth the picking. LARGER PRODUCTION INDICATED. So it has happened, with reason, that the production per acre has been low: but there is no likelihood that low production is iixed and that the farmer must continue his extensive system. When consump- tion demands and when prices sustain, the farmer will respond. The doors of knowledge and example are opening wider to him. There is abundant information concerning crop rotation, the depend- ence of high production upon the domestic animals, concerning grasses, clover, and alfalfa, and concerning the mixing of vegetable matter with the soil. Systems of farm management and soil treatment have assumed greater importance in their effect upon production; and there is the breeding of plants, which alone can multiply production so as to glut the market. MC'.Tiri.ICATIOX OF THE COTTON CROP. If there were need to do so, the cotton farmer and planter could double the present crop of two-fifths of a bale per acre, and the feat would need nothing more than demonstrated and well -understood prin- ciples of farm management. It would be no work of magic to multiply the production of cotton per acre by 3 and get a bale and a quarter; and, besides this, the planter has more than three times the pit sent actual acreage in cotton readily available and awaiting his use. More than the present area of cotton can thus be grown in a three-year crop rotation when the needs of the world demand it. 20 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. r CORK. In accordance with principles demonstrated, known, and applicable, bints of which have been given, the corn crop per acre can be increased by one-half within a quarter of a century, and without any pretense the limit has been reached. No wizard's services are needed for this, but just education. MORE WHEAT PER ACRE. The same statement is applicable to wheat. There is no sensible n whv half as much again wheat may not be had from an acre within less than a generation of time. It is only a question of knowl- edge, of education, of cultural system, and of farm management, all of which learning is and will be at the service of the farmer as he needs it. GATS IN* OTHER CROPS. Equally feasible is a 50 per cent increase in the crops per acre of oats, barley, rye. and buckwheat. Potatoes, instead of growing - - than 100 bushels per acre, should double their production. Wherever only - K) pounds of tobacco are got from an acre, -fourths of a ton is the prospect. Fruits, berries, and vegetables have a future too large to estimate. The cannery and the railway fast freight and refrigerator car have •ome obstacles of latitude, of longitude, and of season, and there erv indication that the farmer can supply any possible demand for these foods at home or abroad. AXIMAL PRODUCTS. Farmers will learn how to feed more prolific breeds and strains of ne than the ones which they are now chiefly raising, and thus will pork and its products be increased per individual of the permanent k of hogs. One -fourth of the dairy cows of the country do not for their feed, and more than half of them do not return any profit; in proportion as the dairyman weighs the milk of each cow and applies the Babeock test will he increase the supply of milk, butter. and cheese. It is merely a matter of education. Poultry is one of the steady and helpful sources of farm income. Movements are already on foot which may be expected to incr the egg production per hen by at least a dozen per year within a gen- ion; and there are poultrymen who are not enthusiasts who t tell double that increase. If the hens of this year had each laid a dozen egg> more than they did, the increased value of this product would have been possibly $£ , DUCATION. The farmer will not fail the nation if the nation does not fail the farmer. He will need education to know the powers of the soil which REPORT OF THE feECKFTARY. 21 are now hidden from him. The prospective yeany oxpenditure of $10,000,000 for educational and research work by Nation and States, with such increases as may come from time to time, must have enor- mous effects. There may 1 >e agricultural schools for the small children, and agricultural high schools for the larger ones, and their education will be continued in the colleges. The work of the Department of Agriculture has already had results which are valued at hundreds of millions of dollars annually, and yet the Department feels that it has barely crossed the threshold of its mis- sion of discovery and education. Cooperating to the same ends arc 60 experiment stations in 51 States and Territories, the 63 agricultural colleges, thousands of farmers* institute meetings yearly, many excellent agricultural periodical publications and new instructive books. Then there is a new line of work which is so productive of results that it is constantly extending, and that is the demonstration farm, the encour- agement of individual farmers to change their agriculture so as to multiply their yields and their profits, and thus afford object lessons to other farmers. Thus it appears that forces are now at work which will very consid- erably increase the production of the farms within a generation, and which promise to continue the increase indefinitely. He who would write the last chapter of the progress of the agriculture of this country must await the procession of the centuries. OPENING OF A NEW ERA. The farmer is financially in a position now to do what he could not have done previous to the recent years of his prosperity. ADVANCE OF FARMERS* WELFARE. National welfare has been promoted by few revolutions in agricul- tural economics to the extent that it has been and will be promoted by 10-cent cotton. The greater part of the cotton planters are out of their former bondage to future maintenance, and they are paying no enormous rates of interest for advancements— rates which were esti- mated fifteen years ago to average 40 per cent a year. In the Middle West the prosperity of the farmers during the last half dozen years and over has advanced in such mass and with such speed that no parallel can be found in the economic history of agri- culture. One of the great changes that have come over this region is the conversion of a million agricultural debtors, paying high rates of interest and finding great difficulty in procuring the wherewithal out of prices much too low, into financially independent farmers, del it- free, and begging the banks to receive their savings at as small a rate of interest as 2 per cent. 22 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT Ox ACffilCTTLTUEE. Farmer- are using -their new capital to abolish the waste places of the land. The river is leveed and alluvial bottoms subject to overflow become worth hundreds of dollars per acre for vegetables: a mar drained by ditch< liles and celery make> it the most valuable land in the county: semiarid land is ^ntly cultivated so as to make a mulch of finely pulverized earth on the surface, and the crops that it will grow make the farmer prosperous; durum wheat or alfalfa is luced and again the - are made to do the will of the cultivator: legumino: give humus and nitrogen to the sandy and profit of the farmer: the unused rocky, stony field or mountain • both to the economic and to the ith the apple, the peach, the pear, and the plum, and adds to the evidences that every square foot of the land may be made productive unless it is arid: and even then irrigation work^ as far as water is available, swell the evidence. Along all of : production using their newly acquired tal and are : . : before in their prosperity. - rmerly there was an abundance of farm labor and a dearth of fanning capital: i editions are reversed and lal f.rce and capital abuudan idiog the farmers* inability to do some thing's for want of labor, the new situation i- a great improve- the old one. The farmer can now employ every labor- g device and thus reduce both the labor and the cost of produc- : he can raise his land to a higher state of fertility than can be made by chemical fertilizers alone, because he can advance the nc capital for perm .1 improvement and is in a position to await roduee things that requi. for the first cro] in the case of fruits: he can teeded to is- and thus co a to kirn to a gn extent than ever before: he can .-ecure a better education for his children to the end. among other thing>. that they may do better with the old farm than he did. LOOK. The farmer's standard of living is rising higher and higher. The ::ion things of his farm go to the city to become luxuries. He is becomir._ hone and his daily mail and -paper. Hi- healthful to body and sane to mind, and I fever of the city have not become the craving of his nerves, nor his ideal of t: sores of life. A new dignity agriculture, along- with its economic strength; and the farmer has a new horizon far that of his prairie and his moun- tains, which is more promising than the sky-line of the city. REPORT of the secretary. 23 For the abundance that ator has - 1 the farmer in sap- plying, for the stability of the national agriculture, and for the com- forting prospect of a future, there are many evidences that the people are ready to join in a day of revere you-; Thanksgiving. It is no little gratifi bo the head of this Department in pre- senting the foregoing picture of the far:: momy of the country and picturing the possibilities of his future to realize that this Department and its work have had an important share in the development which ha-; culminated in the farmer's present prosperity, and that they are bound, if intelligently and generously administered, to play an important part in the future of American agriculture. Wfth this thought in mind I will proceed to present for your coi eration a review of the various channels through which the Department performs it^ important work and to place on record what has been done through them during the past year. WEATHER BUREAU. FORECASTS AXD WAR XI N The Weather Bureau has issued warnings of dangerous gales on the Great Lakes and along the seacoasts. and has kept the great commer- cial and agricultural Interests of the country as fully ■>le of the coming of adverse weather conditi EXT OF THE FIELD OF OBSERVATION. Irs tieki of observation i- being gradually extended in the hope that a view of the atmospheric conditions which prevail over the great oceanic and continental area- will prove of especial value is making forecasts for this country. The two points from which advic- - atmospheric changes are most desin sent are Siberia and the region in and about Bering Sea. It is hoped to obtain reports from Sil ria through the courtesy of the Russian [Meteorological Service. The laying of a cable by the United States Signal Servi ■-/meeting Alaska with this country, makes it feasible to secure much-desired weather reports from that part of the globe. EXTEXSIOX OF STORM-WARNING SERVICE TO VESSELS AT SEA. During the year a plan has been perfected whereby vessels at equipped, with wireless telegraphic apparatus may receive warnings of re storms if within communicating distance of shore stations, or of other vessels which have received a warning. OBSERVATORY BUILDINGS. Five observatory buildings have been completed during the year, and one (the physical laboratory at Mount Weather, Va.) has been partially completed. The number of buildings of all classes now owned and occupied by the Weather Bureau is 41. 24 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DISTRIBUTION OF FORECASTS THROUGH TELEPHONE EXCHANGES. The number of telephone subscribers receiving the daily forecasts on June 30, 1905, was 464,738. This number was augmented during the year by over half a million, so that at the close of this fiscal year more than a million telephone subscribers were receiving the daily forecasts. INVESTIGATION OF FROST CONDITIONS IN CRANBERRY DISTRICTS. A special investigation has been carried on during a part of the year, having as its object the establishment of a scientific basis for accurate frost predictions in the cranberry regions of the country, especially in Wisconsin. The conditions of both soil and air which shortly precede and accompany frost have been studied closely, and valuable data have been secured. INCREASE IN THE WEATHER SERVICE. The utilities of the Weather Bureau are such that there is a constant and growing demand for an extension of the service so as to provide for telegraphing and publishing more meteorological data and estab- lishing additional Weather Bureau stations. However, special effort is made to meet these demands with the existing appropriation, and no request that involves asking Congress for additional funds is honored except after a careful and thorough investigation of the necessities of the case. There is already an extensive output of meteorological information that comes from the 1S3 full meteorological stations maintained by the Bureau and from several hundred stations reporting only temperature and rainfall. The daily output finds its way to the public mainly through the columns of the newspapers and in the maps and bulletins issued at Washington and outlying stations. Outside of Washington there are 105 stations which issue an aggregate of 25,000 weather maps daily, making a yearly issue of over 8,000,000 copies. The number of monthly climatological reports printed at 40 different section centers 1,944, being an average of about 700 copies per month from each center; these contain the daily climatological features of various climatic districts. There is a constant demand from agricultural, com- mercial, and shipping interests for an additional amount of such data. MOUNT WEATHER RESEARCH OBSERVATORY. Progress has been made in the establishment of the Mount Weather Research Observatory. A station of the first order has been main- tained throughout the year for taking and telegraphing reports that are useful in making forecasts. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25 In the preparation for kite and balloon work, a number of import- ant instruments have been installed and made ready for systematic work. Observations of the upper air are now being regularly taken in concert with similar aerial research institutions in foreign countries. The interior finishings of the magnetic observatory buildings, the erection of the piers, and the installation of the magnetic instruments were completed during the }rear, and automatic and other records are now being continuously made. RECORDS OF EARTHQUAKES. The attention drawn to scientific observation of earthquakes by the calamity that befell San Francisco on April 18, last, has prompted the Department to authorize the Weather Bureau to install an additional number of instruments at places of observation where the Department owns buildings and suitable ground. It is probable that during the coming year about 15 or 20 additional stations will be equipped with seismographs, so that the progress across our continent of earth vibrations can be more accurately measured and the data submitted for scientific discussion. These additional observations can be secured with only the expense involved in the purchase of instruments and their installation. BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. THE MEAT INSPECTION. Meat inspection has been for several months a very live topic before the public. During the year the Federal meat inspection was con- ducted by the Bureau of Animal Industry at 163 establishments in 58 cities, and 42, 901, 284 animals were inspected at the time of slaughter, nearly all of them having also been previously inspected in stock 3^ards. This represents the greatest amount of work done in any one year since the inspection was inaugurated in 1891. Of the animals inspected, 158,953 carcasses and 126,159 parts of carcasses were con- demned for disease or other cause. The total cost of the meat inspec- tion, including the microscopic inspection of pork • for export to certain countries, was $852,561.70. The importance of more thorough meat inspection and sanitation las been forcibly shown by the recent agitation and investigations relat- ing to some of the paeking-house methods. The new law which was designed to correct certain evils was passed by Congress June 30, 1906, and hence the work of the fiscal year under review was performed under former laws, which were, in many respects, defective and unsat- isfactory. The act of March 3, 1891, as amended March 2, 1895, pro- vided for the inspection of all live cattle intended for export or whose carcasses or products were intended for export; also for the manda- tory ante-mortem inspection of cattle, sheep, and hogs, and the 26 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPAETMEXT OF AGBICTXLTUBE. add: assive post-mori pection of their carcasses for interstate trade. It has never been <\ however, to apply the all the establishments coming' within the law. since the rheient for that purpose. Many . ments which desired inspection have badl refused because ;k of funds to e?ctend the service. Many that should have been compelled t :i were able to avoid it. as the former j'ompell tion only in the . export I' The law grave the Department no authority whatever to control the itation o: rent adulters or the use of chemicals and preservatives: nor was any authority given for following up meats which had once been inspected and passed imme- diately after slaughter, or for conciemniii,. :h meat which might afterwa. me unwholesome or and r during the process of canning or packing or before being placed on the market. lection was therefore practically limited to the ante-mortem inspection of ani - -pection of the carcasses immediately after slaughl ? meat found free from disease and otherwise wholesome at the time of this post-mortem inspection i erly ked, and that found di lestroyed. This ■etion was efficient so far as it went, and it wont as far a- the law and the limited appropriations permitted. In its efforts to maintain an inspection the Department sometimes even assumed auth< not conferred by law. notably by requiring the destruction of con- demned carca sses. In all the recent agitation the who! Beat lias not beei - ioned. The dis- clo> .^satisfactory conditions have related almost wholly to I over which the Department had no 1- \\ as the _ -. and cured m< .. the use of ad the insanitary condition and - of the packing -. Realizing the shortcomings of the old law. the Department has recommended the enactment of new legi-da- the increase of appropri on and improve- ment of the service. Bills designed to remedy some of the del at different tim< .need in Congress but failed to p: Even before the appearance of recent pal - criticizing the aitary conditions at the Chicago stock yards and packing hor- -. and reflecting upon the Federal m tion servi had . taken to invest - • matter-. A c >nan ttti • consisting of Dr. John R. Mohler, chief of the Pathological Division of the Bureau 1 Industry. Dr. Rice P. S . chief of the In- tion . and Mr. licitor of the Department, was -out to Chicago and made a thorough investigation, y made an exhaustive report, which was promptly transmitted to REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 27 the President and was afterwards by him laid before Congress. An independent investigation was also made under the President's direc- tion by Messrs. Charles P. Neill and James B. Reynolds. Prompt and vigorous measures were taken to remedy the conditions disclosed by the reports of these committees, but it was realized that the Depart- ment could do very little under existing law and that the real remedy lay in new legislation backed by public sentiment. Such new legislation was provided by Congress in the so-called meat-inspection amendment to the agricultural appropriation act of June 30, 1906. This law provides for a more thorough and comprehen- sive inspection system and makes a permanent annual appropriation of $3,000,000 to pa}' the cost of the inspection. With the greater authority now vested in the Secretary of Agriculture and with the largely increased appropriation, the service will be greatly extended in scope and in the number of establishments and quantity of product covered. The inspection will be extended as rapidly as possible to establishments engaged in interstate or foreign commerce and which come within the law. It will be applied not only to the live animals before slaughter and their carcasses at the time of slaughter, as here- tofore, but also to the meats and meat food products in all the subse- quent stages and processes of preparation, curing, canning, etc. Sani- tary equipment, conditions, and methods will be required, the use of harmful chemicals and preservatives and of false and misleading labels will be prevented, and the transportation of meat in interstate and for- eign commerce will be supervised and regulated. It is probable that it will be necessary to request Congress to appropriate an even larger sum to provide inspection for all establishments embraced within the law. American live stock has long been considered the healthiest in the world. With our enlarged and improved inspection system, the stamp of the Government will be more than ever a mark of wholesomeness. We must not imagine, however, that since the packing houses have been cleaned up and the inspection improved all the meat found in our local markets may be considered clean and wholesome. It must be borne in mind that the Federal jurisdiction is limited to interstate and foreign commerce, and that this inspection can legally be applied only to establishments doing an interstate or foreign business. To be sure, the Department insists on inspecting the entire output of each estab- lishment at which its inspection is maintained, even though part of the product is to be consumed within the State; but the Federal inspec- tion does not and can not reach the establishments doing business exclusively within a State. The Department, under the new law, can and will enforce cleanliness and sanitation in the establishments doing an interstate and export business, but it is powerless to reach the local houses. The latter must be looked after by the State and municipal authorities. Each State or community must protect itself against 28 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. unwholesome meats originating within the State. In the absence of an efficient local inspection the consumer's only safety lies in seeing that meat hears the Government label. INSPECTION OF EXPORT AXI">: I -. The export trade in live animals is fostered bj the inspection con- ducted by the Bureau of Animal Industry. During the fiscal year more than 1 ■ inspections were made before exportation, and over half a million animals were again inspected on arrival at British ports by Bureau inspectors stationed there. Seven hundred and forty- nine inspections of vessels carrying export animals were made before clearance, and they were required to conform to certain regulations ■ space, fittings, attendants, feed, water, ventilation, etc. The percentage of animals lost in transit was less than one-quarter of 1 per cent. INSPECTION AND QUARANTINE OF IMPORTED ANIMALS. Our domestic live stock is protected from the contagion of destruc- tive diseases which exist in other parts of the world by a rigid system of inspection and quarantine of imported animals, in this service during the year 168,600 animals were inspected, and 1,898 of these were quarantined. The quarantine stations on the Atlantic seaboard, with one excep tion, are in satisfactory condition. The station near Baltimore will soon have to lie abandoned because of the dilapidated condition of the buildings and the building up of that locality. When a suitable I tion i- secured an appropriation by Congress for the equipment of the new station will l»e necessary. I. OF CONTAGIOUS DISEA£ The work for the control and eradication of contagious diseas.es of live >tock in our own country has been attended with encouraging result . Sheep scab and cattle mange, which a few y. _ had spread over the greater part of the Western States, are gradually yielding to our efforts. It is believed that their complete eradication will be only a matter of a few years. Duriug the year sheep scab has n greatly diminished in Arizona and Idaho, and practically .-tamped out in Utah and Wyoming. Even more rapid progress has been made with cattle mange. Washington and Oregon, and large portions of Kansas. Colorado. Wyoming. Texas, New Mexico, and Oklahoma, have been freed from this disease and released from quarantine, and it is expected that the same will soon be true of extensive areas in North Dakota and South Dakota and other portions of Wyoming and Texas. EEPOET OF THE SECRETARY. 29 Maladie du coit, or dourine. an insidious venereal disease of horse-, "which existed in portions of South Dakota. Nebraska, and Iowa, is now believed to have been eradicated, after several years of vigilant work. Out of 965 inspections during the year no positive cases and but 3 suspicious cases were found. ERADICATION OF THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK. Under the provisions of the act of Congress approved June 30, 1906, appropriating $82,500 to enable the Secretary of Agriculture to undertake experimental work in cooperation with State authorities in eradicating the ticks transmitting Southern cattle fever, the Depart- ment has for some months past been assisting the States and Terri- tories from California to Virginia along these lines. Anticipating the action of Congress an investigation was made respecting the laws of the various States, and through the various attorneys-general inquiry was made relative to the existence of State laws under which the Govern- ment could undertake the work of tick eradication. It was found that, while some State laws afford ample provisions, other States either have no law bearing on the subject, or the statutes are inadequate. The table following shows the particular points covered by the inves- tigation and the general trend of the information received. - of state laws relating to quarantine, disinfection, etc. Alabama . Arkansas . California , Florida Georgia Indian Territory Kentucky Louisiana Mississippi. Questions and answers. Are local officers author- ized and empowered to enter premises to in- spect live stock and enforce quarantine, including counties, districts, farms, and ranches, and to control the movement of live stock? Are State offi- cials authorized to issue rules and regulations " &SBEL ing quarantine lines? Are such officers empowered to enforce such dis- infection of ani- as may be nec- essary ? Mar the State con- fer authority upon Federal represent a tives to act as officials of the State in such matteis.' No live-stock quarantine or sanitary law. Peaceofficers may enforce No quarantine lines fixed by law and by the United St; Yes Impliedly No Yes No live-stock quarantine or sanitary law. Yes; impliedly so Yes Yes. No law to cover these matters. Yes Yes | Yes . Y"es; impliedly so Yes | Yes. No live-stock quarantine or sanitary law. ri No No. North Carolina Yes No. Oklahoma. South Carolina .. Tenne?>ee Texas Virginia Y'es. Yes. Yes . Yes . Yes . No law to cover these matters. Yes Yes Yes No Yi - Yes As county officials only. Not prevented. Yes. N No. Yes. Yes. Y - Not prevented. Yes No. Yes Yes. 30 I'JBOOK . DEPAJBTMEIST OF AGBICU1 _. The matter was early taken up with the proper officials in th ere made fc: :■ work has been dune in ch the local authorities, who were permitted to ies or localities to be covered and : immend for:. _ the Department men acquai:. the loct tive local iti> s. TL in which it " ■ 1. Calif or:, i'. ": Kentucky. Tenn- >pi. :h Carol: uia and 2s~orth Carolina. The work possible - ge of the in July before it could be begun at all. and even later before it could be taken up in some s in the diffei idely divert the plans of procedure and m oyed necess y varied itly. In son. ere held at w hi rockmen. and other i. I - s*s ended to be largely educa- an opportu - te autho: relief an ference for local inspectors, thus developing an enthusiasm and interest that can only come from a c! -onal identification with a: of this - necessary to employ inspectors who could live in He and wield ?o like a cowboy. These men worked in _ f about a d> each group L cook an I >ing outtit. They covered their territory system roping and examining wherever found, and informing the owners of infested animals of the most pra- method ol ig rid of 1 .' found ad to buy a carload of crudv tm (in barrels) for use in the treatment of -ted animals. This oil was distributed and used uuder the imme- diate su] partment in States, and was doubtless the means of doi . ould have been done in no other way. as the crude oil is difficult to obtain in small quantities ion. ble following - - the number of her : :ed, the number of cattle inspected, the numkr found free of ticks, and umber found to be infested — the grand total of :. ntaining 522,52 I cattle. REFOET OF THE SECRETARY. 31 '.', 1906. Inspections. Herds. Alabama 780 Arkansas 1,62^ California 1,015 \ I 4.474 icky a 4, 077 Missouri 126 North Carolina Oklahoma Tennessee t> 6, 317 Texas ] 410 Virginia ' Free. Infected. Total. 4 6, 071 3,000 1,430 07. S60 23, 204 86, 682 16.972 15,840 S 4, 430 Total 20,315 SOS, 044 Number of counties. n.In addition, in Kentucky 1,300 herds and 0,004 cattle were reinspected. fcln addition, in Tennessee 822 herds and 4,174 cattle were reinspected. The work is still progressing in some States, but vail be practically discontinued about December 1 on account of the lack of funds. The outlook for next season's operations in the different infested sections is very encouraging, and the work should be resumed in the early spring. In considering the work done and the results attained thus far it should be borne in mind that the season was well advanced before the law was passed, and that, although some steps were taken in anticipation of its passage, yet the actual plans and organization for the work were late in formation. It should also be remembered that the amount appropriated was only intended to be used to inaugurate the work, and yet, as set forth above, employees of the Department have inspected 15 herds, containing 522 529 cattle, and have, in connection with local authorities, so attended to their disinfection and to the suoer- vision thereof that forty whole counties and parts of eleven other counties, with an aggregate area of almost 50,000 square miles, will probably be released from quarantine before the end of this fiscal year. This is an area larger than that of the entire State of Virginia. Plans are laid and specific work is outlined for resumption in the early spring. The State officers, cattle owners, and others affected are intensely interested; educational work will be carried on, and there is every reason to believe that, with proper funds at the disposal of the Department next season, large inroads may be made into the territory now quarantined, and hundreds of thousands of cattle be given an unrestricted market, thus giving direct results to an immense number of people. This will stimulate interest in those States in which active interest is now lacking and will doubtless result in a more general movement against the cattle tick. If the Congress at its n^xt session will appropriate $250,000 for extending these operations and will continue to adequately sustain YEARBOOK C 7 Z B B I El L.TUBS . them, and the States intei I part in th f enact- ravorable law> and appropriating money to b- this cooper- - only a question of time when the southern cattle tick in this country will be a thing of the past. sc:: - The scientific inve- .ontagious di y the Bureau of Animal Industry hi Lai importance with regard to tuberculosis and hog cholera during and alarming frequency of tuberculosis in hog- observed in the mea~ luring recent years, led to experiments to determine the most probable source of infection of animals. The practical conclusions of res ligations are that the most freque - of tuberculosis in hogs are to be found in the common practices : allowing these animals to follow cattle in the f eed lot and of f eedir _ immed mill: use. The feces of tuberculous cattle have been found to be heavily with tubercle bacilli. The expei tals with tuberculous lungs, while rate a: up tuberculous materia. - icilli fr- val- lowingthem. having them issthi gh their in! . and discharging them with their feces. Hogsi idily contract tubei sis from eating the excrement of tuberculous cattle. For milk to be infected with tubercle bacilli it is not nee tat the udder should be infected feces are believed to be a common cause of contamination of milk drawn in the environment of tuberculous e -eased cow may be the means of infecting the milk of an entire herd. Other experin: location of lesions in the bodies of animals affected with tubei losis . ban- nel of infection. For ins! - as in the lungs have usually h tofore been regarded as ind: \ acquired by inhalation. The incorre ahown by producing lun^ lis iseby inoculating hogs in the tip of the tail and by feeding them with tuberculo v. - tsemphasi the great importance of ev rmer keeping his herd free from tuberculo - periments in the application : the tuberculin when proper precautions are taken tuberculin is as accu- in detecting tuberculosis in hogs as in the case of cattle. The found reliable in V7 rimental animals. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 33 HOC CHOLERA. Hog' cholera has long- been a cause of heav}^ loss to the farmers, and for years scientists in the Department and in various parts of the world have been working on the problem of the cause and prevention of this disease. Recent work of the Bureau of Animal Industry has demonstrated that the contagion consists of a virus which exists in the blood and other fluids of diseased animals, but which can pass through the finest filter, is invisible under the microscope, and therefore can not be isolated or discerned by any of the usual methods. This important discovery, which has since been continued by eminent scientific authorities in England and on the Continent of Europe, affords an explanation of the failure of past efforts to produce a satisfactory vaccine. The real cause of the disease having at last been determined, the Bureau has during the past season conducted experiments with a view to producing a vaccine or serum which will prevent or cure the dis- ease. Successful results have already been obtained in an experimental way, and efforts are now being made to adapt the method to practical and general use. The method has been patented b}^ the Department in the name of the scientist who evolved it, Dr. Marion Dorset, the patent having been taken out in such a manner as to insure to all the people in the United States the right to its use free of ro}Talty.. PARASITES OF SHEEP. The stomach worm or twisted wireworm of sheep, a parasite causing* great damage to flocks in many parts of the United States, has been studied, and the principal facts in its life history, which have hitherto been unknown, have been worked out. The eggs of the parasite are scattered over the pastures in the droppings of infested sheep or cattle. The embryos, which in a certain stage are enveloped in a sheath which enables them to withstand freezing and dryness, climb up blades of grass. When infested grass is eaten by a sheep the embryos continue their development in that animal. Experiments now in progress indicate that with certain precautions it is entirely feasible to raise lambs free from this and some other troublesome parasites. BLACKLEG VACCINE. The Department has continued to supply blackleg vaccine free of charge to stock owners, and reports indicate that the prevalence of this disease is gradually being reduced. During the year 1,350,915 doses of this vaccine were prepared and distributed. The losses among animals treated with this vaccine during the previous year wen- less than one-half of 1 per cent. 3 a 1906 3 34 YEARBOOK OE IflE DEPARTMENT OE AfiEICULTUBE. l'El . [ATION8. After consultation with officers of American pedigree record r ciations, the Department has radically changed the regulations the importation of animals for breeding purposes. Hiti certificates of approved domestic and ft is have been accepted with the requirement that they should show the a two generations. This requirement caused inconvenience and d: isfaction to importers, but the Department felt that unl >uld supervise m ery the books of record such a requirement necessary to give a reasonable assurance of pure breeding. The new regulations simply require that animals imported for bi pur- poses shall be registered in an approved American book of i order to be entitled to free entry. Where a breed has no book of record in the United States the certificate of the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry must be obtained. The records of the approved associations are closely supervised by the Department and n. form to prescribed conditions in order to remain on the approved list. This change should prove beneficial to the breeding industry. It will not only make officers more careful in the management of pedi- gree registers, but will practically compel the registration of imported pure-bred animals in American books. HORSE-BREEDINU INVESTIGATION -. Satisfactory progress is being made in the experiments in breeding heavy harness horses at the Colorado Experiment Station. The stud has been increased by the purchase of two Kentucky mares of c: able strains of breeding. It i- eo I advisable to increase further the number of experimental animals, and the Department should be prepared to pure! -eptionally good ma: ffers. line of experiments promises to be of theg ) Ameri- can stockmen and should be carried out systematically and thoroughly. Experiments have been begun, in cooperation with the Venn Experiment . in breeding Morgan horses with the object of preventing the loss of the Morgan blood, pi^erving the type, and increasing the size. Seven mares and two fillies were purchased in Vermont and two mares in Kentucky for these experiments. FECUNDITY OT Some unexpected but instructive results were obtained by a study of the fecundity of Poland-China sows. It had been supp* this breed of hog declining in fecundity, and the ment . d to undertake experiments with a view to ovcrcon. tendency. An investigation into the pedigree re son of two periods of years, based upon nearly 55,000 litter-, showed REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 35 that the average number of pigs per litter was 7.04 during the years 1882-1886, and 7.52 during 1898-1902. There was thus an increase of 0.48 per litter instead of a decrease. These results led to a similar investigation of the Duroe-Jersey breed, and while the popular sup- position that this breed is more prolific than the Poland-China confirmed, it appeared that the average size of litters of Duroc-Jer had remained practically stationary for several years, the figures being 9.22 for 1893-1897 and 9.27 for 1898-1902. These investigations are being followed with studies of the inheritance of fecundity. POULTRY BREEDING. Investigations, with a view to developing a strain of chickens with increased egg-laying capacity, are being* conducted in cooperation with the Maine Experiment Station. Several hens have been found to lay more than 200 eggs in one year, and the results seem to indicate that by selecting the best layers for breeding purposes and by proper feeding the average egg yield of a flock can be increased. The great benefit of such an increase is too obvious to require comment. EXPERIMENTS IN ANIMAL NUTRITION. A careful scientific study of the fundamental principles of animal nutrition by means of a respiration calorimeter has been in progress for several years at the Pennsylvania Experiment Station by coopera- tion between the Department and that station, and some important and valuable results have been realized. Beginning with the food as a source of energy to the animal machine, the investigators follow this energy through to its ultimate effect, determining how much escapes in the undigested residues of the food, how much is expended in the digestion and assimilation of the food, and what surplus remains tc tain the life of the animal or to enable it to produce meat, milk, or work. The results thus far published include experiments with timothy hay, red clover hay, and corn meal, and they have shown that the so- called "fuel value" of feeding stuffs can not be taken as a measure of their nutritive value. The experiments have amply demonstrs that the real nutritive values of stock feeds are much less than their fuel values, the former ranging from 56 to 07 per cent of the latter in the particular feeds used. Experiments to study the effect of age and breed upon the percentage of food energy utilized have not been concluded. FEEDING COTTON-SEED PRODUCTS TO HOGS. The Bureau of Animal Industry has conducted experiments during the year to test the harmful properties of cotton seed and cotton-seed meal when fed to hogs. These substances proved fatal to the hogs, the time required to cause death being longer when a varied ration was 36 YEARBOOK ■ DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fed " n jDnly one kind of grain was fed in addition to the cotton- seed meal. lined by experiment stations as to the jed products in combination with corn meal were confirmed, bat it from the Department's experiments that bran and middlings, instead of neutralizing the injurious effect of the id been concluded from experiment station work, gave very little better than corn meal. The experiments with bran and middlings will be repeated and otlr :iade. Chemical and pathological - are being made with a view to discovering the "larmful effects of cotton seed when fed to h< THE DAIEY INDUSTRY. >rk of the Dairy Division of the Bureau of Animal Indu>tiy . ably extended during the year. Results of a valuable and 1 nature to the dairy industry have been obtained from inve . the manufacture and storage of butter and cheese and the production and delivery of market milk: and a good begin- ning . - n made in . k for the improvement and develop- ment of dairying in the South and the investigations and studies action of dairy buildings and the organization and management of dairy enterpi i BriTEE ixvestigat: at 5, inds : butter were made under different conditions and stored for eight months at different temperatures. The conclu- 91 experiment is that the use of cream received at the .lition. light salting of the butter, and low temperatures (10° F. below zero to 10° F. above zero) give much the suits for storage butt o common troubles of butter makers — mold in butter tubs and the or of butter — have been studied. The coating of tubs with d found to be an effective method of preventing mold. Investigation 2 ling the fishy flavor have not progressed far enough to deterr. cause of this trouble and are being continued. A -ystem of market inspection of butter at New York and Chicago th a view to assisting cream'". - * improve the quality of their product. When butter arriving at one of these mar- >und deficient in quality a statement of its condition is sent to ■utter m aler who purchases the butter, and to the dairy and food commissioner of the State in which the butter was produced. Further work was done during the year in the manufacture and leese. A quantity of American Cheddar style cheese was REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 37 made, cured, and stored under varying conditions, and the details of the experiments, with a review of previous work on the subject, were published. The cheese that scored highest was that placed in storage at 32° F. directly from the press, while that scoring lowest was cured entirely in the factory curing-room at about G5° F. Cold curing appears to derive its value chiefly from its effect on what otherwise might be poor cheese. The popular taste is growing decidedly toward mild cheese, and to meet this demand it seems 'desirable. to have cheese ripened, so far as it is ripened at all, at low temperatures. The experiments in the manufacture of soft cheese of leading Euro- pean varieties have been continued throughout the year in cooperation with the Storrs (Conn.) Experiment Station. During the winter a scientist connected with this work spent two months in Europe study- ing the manufacture of cheese, and these studies have resulted in marked progress in our investigations regarding Camembcrt and Roquefort cheese. While there are some problems yet to be investi- gated, the knowledge so far gained of the fungi, methods, and condi- tions necessary in the production of these kinds of cheese indicates that it is entirely practicable to manufacture in this country soft cheeses of these types fully equal to the best European product. THE PRODUCTION AND HANDLING OF MILK. Probably no article of food is more generally consumed than milk, and in striving for pure foods a wholesome milk supply must be con-^ sidered of prime importance. During the year the Dairy Division x has investigated the milk supplies of various cities, and has begun studies of the organization and working of milk sanitary commissions and other bodies whose object is to improve the quality of market milk. . . The competitive exhibit of milk and cream at the National Dairy Show in Chicago in February was in charge of the Dairy Division and gave an object lesson of great educational value. It was demon- strated that milk and cream produced under sanitary conditions could be shipped long distances and kept sweet for several weeks without any other means of preservation than cleanliness and low temperatures. DAIRY IMPROVEMENT IN THE ,«OUTH. A careful survey of dairy conditions in the South has been made as the first step in the work of improving these conditions and promoting the dairy interests of that section. This preliminary work has shown that while in some cases southern dairy herds are yielding as good results as are ordinarily expected in any part of the country, there is great need throughout the South for education in improved methods of dairy breeding and feeding and milk production. Many of the south- ern people show a desire to learn more of dairying so as to get away 38 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. from the one-crop system. One serious handicap is the inferior class of cattle found there, probably due largely to the presence of the cattle tick. other dairy woek. To meet the demand for information and assistance as to the con- struction of dairy buildings, some studies and experiments have been and are being made. A circular giving plans for an improved dairy barn was published, and many plans for daily buildings of various kinds have been worked out and sent to farmers throughout the country. Some experiments have been made in building silos of three types of construction. Investigation-; into the organization, equipment, and management of creameries and cheese factories have been undertaken to enable the Department to give advice and assistance on these subjects. RENOVATED BUTTER. In the administration of the portion of the law of May 9, 1902, which relates to renovated butter, the Department has continued its supervision of the manufacture and sale of this article. The factories and ingredients are inspected to insure sanitary conditions and whole- someness, and the product is inspected in the markets with a view to detecting and preventing violations of the law and regulations as to proper labeling. The factories are in better sanitary condition than in past years, and as a rule the manufacturers show a disposition to comply with the law and regulations. Evidence of the illegal sale of renovated butter by dealers in several cities has been collected, how- ever, and some prosecutions have been instituted. The regulations of the Department have been sustained in two court decisions. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. A leading feature of the work of the Bureau of Plant Industry dur- ing the past year has been the cooperative demonstration work with farmers, fruit growers, and others. It has been my established policy to have our own officers carefully scrutinize all operations, including those which involve the conducting of business as well as those in which both field and scientific investigations are concerned. INTRODUCING NEW CROrS AND NEW INDUSTRIES. The search by agricultural explorers in foreign lands for new crops has been continued. A trained man has spent the last year in the cul- tivated fields and wild mountains of north China and Manchuria searching tor new plants and seeds worthy to be transplanted to this country and for wild forms of our cultivated fruits and vegetables which mav have characters of hardiness or unusual vigor that will REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39 make them useful for the plant breeders of the United States. Ship- ments of scions and of seeds representing hundreds of interesting- things have been sent in and arc now growing in the trial gardens of the Department. Among the things secured are new hard}' Pekin persimmon varieties, interesting varieties of the English walnut, the Chinese pistaehe. wild and cultivated apricots, the wild peach from its supposed original home, hardy apples and edible-fruited hawthorns, millets and field beans, a lawn sedge that is promising, and a very remarkable lot of Chinese grape varieties, not to mention a most unusually interesting collection of ornamental trees and shrubs suited to the climate of the Eastern and Middle States. New alfalfas and other ckofs. — One of the most important achieve- ments of the Bureau's exploration work is the recent discovery by Prof. X. E. Hansen, of the South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station, who is now abroad in the interest of the Department, of the existence of a Siberian alfalfa, an excellent forage plant with yellow instead of the usual blue flowers. This plant is native on the dry steppes of Siberia, where the mercury sometimes freezes without snow, thus proving the ability of the plant to withstand with no protection a temperature of about 40 degrees below zero. The existence of this alfalfa has been suspected for many years, and its final discover}', it is believed, may mark an epoch in the agriculture of the northwestern prairie regions of the United States, where the rainfall is slight and the winters are exceedingly cold. Professor Hansen is making a very careful study of this plant, with a view to its cultivation in this country. A quantity of the seed of this valuable crop has been secured, which will be given a thorough trial by the Department at an early date. It will supplement durum wheat in a rotative system and avoid the necessity of summer fallowing. The most distinct of any of the alfalfas is the newly introduced Arabian, characterized by its large leaflets, hairiness, and vigorous growth. Its quick recovery after cutting renders an extra cutting possible in long seasons. It is proving of special value in the irrigated sections of California and the Southwest, though its lack of hardiness makes it unsuited to the colder parts of the country. Attempts are under way to establish strains resistant to cold and drought. A species of vetch called the Tangier pea has proved superior to all others in California in its luxuriance of growth, having yielded as high as 9 tons of green feed per acre. On account of this great amount of herbage it chokes out weeds very effectually. As a green manure crop it promises in California to supercede all others. Its value as forage remains to be ascertained. A large quantity of seed is being grown so as to introduce it extensively next season. A most luxuriant subtropical grass, called the Parti grass, has proved well adapted to the Gulf coast region, Arizona, and California. Where J AGBICULTUBE. sufficient m provided tL g hay per acre. I: in quality, but very nutritk seed is very poor in quality, but the grass can readily be grown from e plant covering - or rno: planned to distribute the cur a spring ol Encourage i jstbt. — The Unite every year larger and larger quantities of hand-made floor coverings made from several - f aquatic rj sedges _ row pretty generally over the world. In re than ." . ads were imported, and more than $4, twith- Hng the fact that looms have been invented that can weave the rushes into useful floor mats. These loom- merican miry, when tended by single o| . can turn out ards of matting a day — a strong com ~he hand looms in in foreign countries from which we draw our - of matting. The common rushes of our neglected swamp lands and tidal regions can be made into m : the deli rac- ter of the cultivated forms in use in the Orient. India, and Africa. Our explorers have been gathering living plants of the best for selecting the m pes for trial plantings in the abandoned rice plantations arolinas and for the delta regions of the Mississ rrande, where cheap lands, which are not now growing profit;. "airing for a new plant culture. UTROPic .7. — The Florida fru'" \ sra have had their enthusiasm aroused this year by the ripening of several of the delicious, fiberl— Indian mangoes which artment has introduced. The collection is one of the 1 the world, and Florida growers are waiting to s the behavior of the differ' now under trial before planting larg- fruit, without doubt one of the great fruits of the world. .TE cultuek — The late palms introduced by the Department into southern California and A hun- dreds of pounds of delicious fruit this year. Even the famous Deglet Noor from the Sahara has ripened p«: proving that this unique ilture 1 the stage of a p>ure experiment into that of a n- he net. — The inve- gal a prorni- dry-land nut crop. L -d in a distinct widening of :. -' >ili- rough the introduction from Tori f hardy forms. Three wild spe« :j introduced from the dr: of the Old World, and a very hardy stock has ired in northern China. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 41 INVESTIGATIONS BY THE PATHOLOGIS • The year has been an unusual one in the field of plant pathology. There have been serious outbreaks of disease and the staff of men engaged in this work has been kept very busy. Pear blight. — The Department has worked out by careful bacte- riological investigation methods of controlling- this serious menace to the pear and apple industry. The disastrous attacks of the old eastern pear blight upon the magnificent pear orchards of California have brought into prominence, the importance of this work. During the past six years the Department has been engaged in demonstrating on a small scale in certain isolated orchards the practicability of control- ling the disease, mainly by the eradication of the blighted portions of the tree and the antiseptic treatment of the wounds. Strenuous efforts are being made by the Department, in cooperation with the State experiment station and the State and county horticultural com- missioners of California, to assist in applying these methods in saving the California orchards. The pear orchards of California represent a valuation of about Sl5.Gtio.oon. producing an average annual income to the fruit growers of $1,500,000. One-third of this, at least, has already been destroyed, but we hope to help the growers to save the remainder. Pear blight is destroying the pear industry in several other western States, and urgent requests have been made for assist- ance, which the Department expects to grant as far as it is able. Littll: peach and peach yellows. — The little peach disease has now been kept under control for three years on the test area in Michigan, and it is believed that the efficacy of the method has been fully demonstrated there. Work has therefore been transferred to a similar demonstration, in cooperation with the Cornell Experiment Station, in a test area in Niagara County, X. Y. This is confidently expected to show the possibility of greatly reducing the ravages of the little peach disease and also of the peach yellows. Peach yellows has been unusually destructive in West Virginia and Maryland during the past season. Department experts have been studying the disease in cooperation with the West Virginia State Experiment Station and urging the application of eradication methods. In one district, at least, in West Virginia, fully 90 per cent of the peach trees have been destroyed by the yellows during the past three years, and mainly during the present season, Apple bitter rot in the Ozark Mountain region. — Last sea- son's successful spraying experiments in Virginia demonstrated for the first time the possibility of controlling bitter rot of the apple on the Yellow Newtown variety and indicated the exact dates of treat- ment. This work has now been transferred to the Ozark districts of Missouri and Arkansas. Here it has been tested on a much larger 42 YE \RB00K OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. scale and on different varieties of apples. The results fully corrobo- rate last year's conclusions and have demonstrated the entire feasi- bility of practically complete control of this serious orchard disease. Some minor rots and defects of the apple have also been more com- pletely brought under control as a result of this treatment. Gumming fungus ok shot-hole fungus of the teach. — The gumming fungus or shot-hole fungns has been increasing in California i alarming rate during- the last five or .six years and has resulted in very severe losses to the peach growers of that State. It threatens the destruction of the peach industry of the Sacramento and San uin valleys. A treatment was suggested, after proper study by Department officials, which has been wholly successful. Wllt-besistant melons. — Wilt has nearly destroyed the water- melon industry in many sections of the South. All known varieties of melons Lave been tested, but none resistant to the disease was found. It was found, however, that the citron is resistant, and the Depart- ment undertook by hybridization to breed this quality into the melon. The result lias been successful, and there has been secured and fixed a variety of melon very resistant to wilt — a heavy yielder, of excellent quality, and well adapted to shipping. Next season it will lie propa- gated for distribution. Wilt-resistant cottox. — The wilt-resistant selections of Sea Island cottons are now regularly used in the infected soils in the Sea Island districts of South Carolina. The loss from wilt has thus been practically eliminated in the principal region in which this special cotton is grown. The disease is still causing much loss in the interior districts, where this variety of cotton is grown, owing to the fact that many of the growers do not appreciate the value of resistant seed. Demonstration tests, however, are rapidly convincing them. Excellent wilt-resistant selections of Upland varieties have also been secured. Seed will be distributed this year to cooperators and propa- gated next year for more general distribution. Disease-resistant potatoes. — For several years this Department has been testing various American and European varieties of potatoes, especially for disease resistance, and has now secured several good varieties resistant to both the early and late blight, as well as to tip- burn and Ilea beetles. The work is carried on principally in coopera- tion with the Vermont Experiment Station, though several other Stutes are also cooperating. PROGRESS IX CEEEAL WORK. Extension of the winter wheat area. — About four years ago the Department began a .systematic distribution of the Kharkof wheat, and extensive trials of this variety in cooperation with the State experi- ment stations. It is the hardiest winter wheat vet grown in this REPORT OF THE SECEETABY. 43 country, and is now thoroughly established. By its use the area in which winter wheat can be successfully cultivated has been much extended to the northward and westward, particularly in Nebraska and Iowa, while 8 considerable amount is now grown in South Dakota and southern Minnesota. It will be conservative to state that wherever this wheat has been introduced the yield per acre is being increased on an average of 5 bushels. tablishmext of wiXTER barley. — Much attention has I given this year to the introduction and development of winter varieties of barley. It is well known that fall-sown grain will yield much more on the same ground than spring-sown grain, in addition to the fact that winter grain is almost always or uaiity. Excepting some Southern States, winter barley has heretofore been practically un- known in this country. After three 3Tears of demonstration work, the Tennessee Winter barley is now well established in Kansas, Okla- homa, and southern Nebraska, in addition to a few successful trials that have been made in the North Central States. The results of the introduction of this barley are remarkable and very interesting. Wherever it has been grown it is now often yielding 50 per cent more to the acre than the ordinary spring barley. Besides, it has the advan- tage of giving much winter pasturage in seasons that are favorable for pasturing. The unusual success of some of our introduced Swedish and Aus- trian pedigreed barleys is opening up the great possibilities of pure strains of this cereal, especially for malting purposes. Durum wheat. — In the field work on durum wheat all efforts are now being- concentrated on its improvement, particularly in the devel- opment first of pure types. Much help is being given in the investi- gations of this wheat by the experiment stations, particularly those of North Dakota, South Dakota, and Colorado. It is so well demon- strated that the Kubanka variety is the best, considering all qualities, for the northern districts that farmers everywhere throughout the North are urged to sow only this type. A number of experiments, including baking tests, all of which have been published, have proved conclu- sively that it i> equal to the best No. 1 hard spring wheat for making bread. The results in the sale of this wheat during the last season and so far this season have been favorable far be\'ond expectation. Last year about 10,- bushels were exported to foreign coun- tries, and the price on an export basis at New York City and on the Canadian border was at several times equal to that of the hard spring wheat. Probably at least 20,000,000 bushels were produced in 1905, which, after making ample allowance for seed, leaves several million bushels that must have been used for bread in this country. A good portion of this was used in Minneapolis. For the crop this year a 44 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTYIEN I RICULTUKE. safe estimate would ibout 50, bushels, oi ximately one-twelfth of the usual wheat crop of this country. From the daily and weekly reports received from the markets appears that about 12, . bushels : this rop have so far been sold for export. This - n, at New York City, durum wheat i« far selling uniformly at 5 or 6 cei - than the s : Mani- toba hard. The increasing export demand from dealers who know how to judge this class of wheat ought to ; value to American manufacturers, and it is hoped that in the future our home consumption will increase much more rapidly. Sixty Day oat. — In previous reports attention has ailed to the superiority of the introduced Swedisl fcand- ard varieties throughout the Northern States. Duiii . same time another variety of oats has been introduced from Russia, known as the Sixty Day. but which matures, however, in a little over ninety ins of sixty days. It is so much earlier than other varieties that it often escapes many fungous and insect pests that attack other well as the effects of severe periods of drought. It is very prolific rule, and has an unusually wide adaptatioi ally. Amarillo testing farm. — The testing farm at Amarillo. Tex., been in operation one year, and the fall seeding of the second year is now finished. The operations here are to a large extent in the nature of pioneer work to demonstrate to the inhabitants of the large area of the Panhandle of Texas that agriculture can actually be conducted in that region. The experiments were conducted previously at Chan- ning. Tex. That much success has been attained in this work is indi- cated in the many crops that have been successfully grown throughout that territory during the last year, the farmers having been induced to sow these crops largely through the influence of these inv< • _ Investigations in California and the Southwest. — Experim for the purpose of improving the quality of wheat in California have been conducted for two years at M si a City, Cal. In addition, seed of some of the most promising varieties of wheat used in these experiments has been furnished in cooperative trials with farmers in othei of the Southwest. From the results of the work so far it is evident that at least two of these new wheats are very well adapted to the southwestern United States and are at the same time good milling wh Chemical and baking tests of flour and grain. — In eooperal with the Bureau of Chemistry many chemical anal I other I sts been made of introduced grains, particularly oats and bar: to determine their feeding value. An important piece of work has been the investigations of the comparative value of durum-w Hour for bread making conducted for this Department by the Colum- bus Laboratories uf Chicago. EEP0ET OF THE SECRETARY. 45 A study of wheat deterioration. — During the year a special investigation, also in cooperation with the Bureau of Chemistry, has been made to determine the causes of the deterioration of wheat from the milling standpoint. An important clue to the solution of this problem has been discovered, and when the matter is full}- worked out it will, without doubt, enable the farmer to prevent the production of soft and light-colored grains that are much inferior in quality. Rice investigations. — A series of experiments for the thorough study of rice, its varieties, methods of handling, irrigation, etc., has been inaugurated in cooperation with the Louisiana Agricultural Experi- ment Station. Crowley, La., having been selected as the place of oper- ations More than 300 distinct varieties of rice are under experiment. The'results of this season already show that a good beginning has been made in this work. grain staxdaedizatiox. From time to time during the past rive years demands have been made upon the Department for aid in the grading and handling of grain. It has been fully recognized that this is a matter which demands most careful investigation, as both our home and foreign markets are involved. Grain grading as now practiced by the various State and other organized bodies has not been satisfactory, chiefly on account of the lack of uniformity. The Department has consistently held the ground that some system of standardization is absolutely nec- essary as a first step toward securing uniform methods of grain grad- ing. With a view to eventually bringing about this standardization, Congress at its last session authorized the establishment of laboratories for the purpose of examining and reporting upon the nature, quality, and condition of any sample, parcel, or consignment of seed or grain entering into interstate or foreign commerce. After a careful study of the situation, two laboratories, all the funds at hand would permit, have been established — one at Baltimore, Md., the other at New Orleans, La. At both places the Department has received the cordial cooperation of the chambers of commerce, and is now about to enter upon the regular duties connected with the laboratories. It will be the object of these laboratories to make a thorough study of present systems of grain grading with a view to reaching, if practica- ble, conclusions which will make standardization possible. It is rec- ognized that much preliminary work must be clone, and, furthermore, that special apparatus will have to be devised for quickly determining the moisture content of grain, and for conducting other observations and investigations. A moisture-determining apparatus has already been devised and is now in use at our laboratories. It is believed that improvements can be made in these devices and the Department's officers are already at work on this problem. TEAEBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. :ognizing the need for the closest relations with the grain trade, the Department has secured the services of an expert ingrain gradi hould be of the greatest value in working- out the many problems wh: rily be connected with this important line of work. DRY-LAND FARMING. Recognizing th sity for more systematic efforts along- the line of dry-land farming-, during the past year important held and laboratory i:. s lions have been arranged for, which, it i< believed, will be of great value to the iiave already settled or who con- template settling .rid areas where irrigation is impracticable. The Great Plains area, lying between the ninety-eighth and one hun- dred and fourth meridians and including approximately 33 uare miles, is one of the most important di here this work is being conducted. .: of the investigations. — Throughout this vast area there is not a single State experiment station, although there are several sub- station-. The plan of the work is to establish special substations in cooperation with the : periment stations in North Dakota. South ta. Nel . Oklahoma. Colorad aid Texas. At the- -■ ill be carried on which will enable the S< :-- authorities and the Depart mei.: definitely important questions as to systems of cropping and farm management in this :ded area. Th- - -ful work already inaugurated with the durum wheat to the belief that there are several other crops which might al-o prove highly ful. Advice to prospective settlers. — On account of the efforts made by land agents for the pa.-t two or three years to induce farmers to up land in this region it seem- proper to make a few cautioi gard to this enti n of country. While there ricultural possibilities in the region", the fact must not be hat farming there must be conducted along radically differ- ent lines from those of the more humid portions of the Unite ■ tiers ha who will be pointed in the near future. In spite of the fact that given abundant rainfalls, the evidence is 5 will s d resume their norn which is one of semiaridity. and onditions must be met in a way for which few farmers of the section are now prepared. It is Iful to look with groat caution upon the staten :ianating from interested parties - bability of continued rainfalls and the growing- of • ommonly known to the mo: -the United £ REPORT OF THE BBCBEXABT. 47 GOOD SEED FOR THE FARM] Feral linos of work carried on duri; year have for their object the improvement of the seed upon which th must depend for his crops. The iaves Df seed adulterations previously mentioned in these report- have been continued, and there i- ev< ry evi- dence that the publication of the names of firms found to be selling- adul- terated seed has beea the means of checking the evil. In all this work the Department has but one object, namely, to protect the farmer from unscrupulous dealers who make a practice of foisting bad seed i him. The rank and file of American seedsmen do not follow any such practices and are as anxious as the Department to protect the farmer. A campaign of education. — The Seed Laboratory ha ' >oth seedsmen and farmers hundreds of sample- - during the past year, and in this way has greatly encouraged the propaganda for good seed. A feature of the work has been a campaign of education for bet Cheap seed is often the most expensive thing connected with a crop. •v cent< saved on each pound of alfalfa or clover seed may cost the farmer all of his work in preparing and fertilizing the ground, besides the loss of an entire season in getting the crop started. The Bureau has also been actively engaged in encouraging the good-seed work through addresses at farmers' institutes and other meeting-. Better grades of seed corx. — Special work has been done during the past year in demonstrating- the great importance of high-grade I corn. The work was inaugurated to establish the great value of proper care of the ordinary seed as grown by the farmer. The main point at issue was the gain in yield due to the vitality of the seed. Actual held demonstrations have shown that, taking corn in the aver- age— that is. corn from different parts of the United States as ordi- narily saved for seed by farmers— the yield would be increased about 15 per cent if the vitality were perfect. The Department has pointed out simple methods of testing vitality that any farmer can follow, and has shown in field practice that the adoption of such methods by the farmer may increase his yield from 10 to 15 per cent. Similar work has been conducted with a number of other crops. WORK OX THE SUOAR BEET. Production of high-grade strains of seed. — The work on breed- ing high-grade strains of sugar-beet seed has been very satisfactory during the year. This work i- being conducted in cooperation with a number of experiment stations and private individuals. The first commercial crop of seed raised from roots selected tinier departmental supervision was harvested this year by a grower in Washington State and some 15,000 pounds of seed were secured, all from beets which, 48 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARIMEN'T OF AGRICULTURE. commercially analyzed 1 -partment. showed sugar contents of 22] r. In the work of selection rigid attention is given to y detail of size, color, form of root, shape of leaf. etc. The Department has received from a number of sources satisfactory evi- dence that the American seed which it is developing is highly satis- fact ne factory alone reports that the American-grown seed increased the yield 1.19 tons per acre on an area covering 391 ac divided amo: _ Farmers. 1 was put out in competition with some of the most expensive grades of imported seed obtainable. As a line of work closely connected with the foregoing, the Department iref ally investigating and testing various varieties of sugar-beet seed imported, together with all strains of sugar-beet »Town by d firms. — Very satisfac Its have been secured in the development of a su_ seed which will contain a single germ, highly importai I 1 which will eliminate a con- . able portion of the work of thinning. The latest returns from our inv- us along this line >how that our beets are averaging about 26 per cent of single-germ seed and that such seed is producing lding from 16 to 17 per cent sugar. The purity coefficient is round to be satisfactory. The important work on fertilizers, the improvement of cultural con- ditions, and the extension of the sugar-beet area has been continued. FRUIT MARKETING. TRANSPORTATION. AND STORAGE INVESTIGATIONS. Experimental investigations of the methods of harvesting, packing, transporting, and storing fresh fruits of various kinds have been con- tinued during the year. The fruit transportation studies have been confined chiefly to questions involved in the transcontinental shipment of deciduous and citrus fruits of the Pacific coast to eastern markets. . .ipments OF PEACHES and plums. — Experimental carload ship- ments of perishable varieties of peaches and plums, which were allowed to remain on the tree- in California until they reached much fuller ripeness than has previously been considered safe by shipper-, dis- tat such fruit can be delivered in eastern markets in " ically as sound condition as when taken from the tree. The supe- riority in flavor and wholesomeness of such sound, ripe fruit as com- pared with fruit either overripe and decayed or prematurely picked and which makes up so large a portion of the commercial sup- ply of our citie-. sarly apparent. Special treatment of these experimental shipments consisted simply in the quick cooling of the packed fruit from the higli temperatures which it possessed when picked from the tree to a temperature of 4< F. before it was loaded in ordinary iced cars for shipment. Carloads of fruit thus treated not REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 49 only required less ice in transit, but maintained more uniform tempera- tures in the top and bottom of the car, with resultant greater uniform- ity of condition of contents when unloaded. Experiments in citrus fruit transportation. — Along similar lines, but with closer attention to methods of harvesting and manipu- lating the fruit, a careful study of orange-handling methods in southern California was made. This revealed many interesting and important facts. It was found that the difference in the carrying quality of oranges from different producing districts in southern California was due primarily to the methods of handling practiced rather than to inherent characteristics of the fruit itself. Oranges free from mechan- ical injuries, inflicted during the various processes of harvesting, rarely showed decay during the ordinary shipment period, even when transported without icing. On the contrary, similar fruit which had suffered from inconspicuous cuts or abrasions of the skin developed from 25 to 75 per cent of decay under similar conditions. A compre- hensive series of experiments, in which fruit treated by different methods was subjected to conditions favorable to the development of deca3T, showed that where unmutilated fruit as it came from the tree developed but 1.5 per cent of decay, similar fruit, when dry brushed, showed 4.5 per cent, and washed fruit 10.5 per cent. The whole trend of the results of the investigation thus far indicates that com- plexity of methods and appliances in the handling of oranges results in increased mechanical injury and correspondingly heavy losses from decay in transit. A study of the transportation of oranges across the continent, in which different methods of shipment were compared, showed that where oranges that had been mechanically injured were shipped under ventilation, 1-1 per cent of decay developed. Similar fruit shipped under ordinary icing developed 7 per cent of decay, while fruit that was precooled and shipped in iced cars developed but -1 per cent. Studies of the effect of holding the packed fruit before shipment showed that, on the average, fruit shipped the first day after packing developed but 2 per cent of decay; that shipped the third day, 3.5 per cent; the fifth, 8.6 per cent, and the seventh da}^, 9.5 per cent. The proportion of decay developed in the mechanically injured fruit included in the above experiments was very much above these general averages, the important fact developed being that prompt shipment after packing greatly reduces the risk in transit. Results of fruit transportation wtork.— These investigations have had the active support of growers, shippers, and transportation interests. In the citrus industry advantage is being taken of the results of the work. Packing houses are being remodeled and simpli- fied, the fruit is being shipped more quickly after picking. All the 3 A1906 4 50 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. interests involved have shown a disposition to take advantage of the eloped in the investigations. One of the prominent shipping interests of the Pacific coast has estimated that the work of the Bureau along this line saved the grower- at leasl ■--■ 000 in the season of - : FRUIT STORAGE. — In the f ruit-storage investigations the study of the effect of sod and tillage on the keeping of eeu continued with the New York State Agricultural oent Station, and special studies in relation to ternperat d made in the East. The apple- storage investigation- have tended to Pacific roast fruit, considerable quantities of apples from different California apple districts having been stored in that and in the East for comparison. Special attention has been given to farm storage-house questi Export shipments of fruits. — In the fruit-marketing investiga- tions the experimental export shipment of summer apples from Dela- ware was continued, and similar shipments also of winter varieties from New York and Virginia. The problems connected with the exportation of winter apples to European countries arc recognized as of the highest importance in this ion and are being studied as thoroughly as the conditions render practicable. The importance of the apple export trade to our domestic fruit industry is shown by the fact that while the crop of 1905 was estimated to bo the smallest during the past decade, the portion exported was but 7 per cent le^s than the avei _ lie previous rive years, constituting, as nearly as can be mated, mure than 5 per cent of the estimated total crop. Fuller information as to conditions prevailing in ocean transportation and in j;n mark atly needed. The exportation of eastern-grown "Bartlett" and other early pears, i : apartment experiments in 1901, shows a grati- fying . the total exports of pears during the fiscal year being vale 7i\ the larger part of which were of eastern- ficial effeet of this export movement of pears • lent in our markets, where good prices prevailed in eon- DEVELOPTNG NEW CROPS BY BREEDING AND SELECTIOX. rk in developing, by breeding and selection, new s been very successful during t! ear'. I, son i . which have been I with ;_ • .\v being grown on a large scale. —The production of the >up of fruits, far-reaching ut triumph- whi achieved a- a result of care- fully xperiments. Three varieties— the Rusk, Wil- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 51 lits, and Morton — have already been named, and trees have been dis- tributed to about 2,000 fruit growers and nurserymen, principally in the Gulf States and in Oregon and Washington. Two other new vari- eties have been produced, having large fruits similar in appearance to ordinary oranges, and these will be named and distributed in the near future. Both of these varieties are somewhat different from the sorts previously named, and are believed to possess superior merits in cer- tain characters. Both are large, fine-appearing acid fruits, and are very juicy. They will prove valuable, especially for culinary purposes and in the making of acid drinks. Another variety has been secured which has fairly good fruits, and gives promise of utility as a hedge plant and lawn tree. The citranges are of special value for cultiva- tion in regions slightly too cold for the ordinary orange, and can be recommended for planting throughout the Gulf States and in regions of low altitude in Oregon, Washington, Arizona, and New Mexico. New pineapple varieties. — Three of the new varieties of hybrid pineapples have this year been distributed to a number of good grow- ers, and next year stock of all of the new varieties developed by the Department will be available for distribution. The further experi- ments in this field have resulted in the discovery of six more new hybrids which possess qualities that will render them valuable for cul- tivation. These will be placed with growers at the earliest possible date. All of the new varieties of pineapples are superior in flavor to the ordinary varieties, and many of them have smooth or spineless leaves, a quality of considerable value to the grower. All pineapple growers who have had an opportunity to examine and test these hybrids are impressed with their superior quality and promise. A new early variety OF cotton. — It has been claimed by ento- mologists and others studying the control of the cotton boll weevil that varieties of cotton are needed which will mature their entire product very early in the season, in order to permit the crop to be harvested and the stalks destroyed early in the fall. A new early defoliate variety has been produced by an agent of the Department, working in cooperation with the Texas Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion, which possesses these qualities in marked degree and which, at the same time, is a productive sort having fairty large bolls. This new variety, the present season, ripened its fruit and matured earlier than any other of the varieties tested in comparison with it, among them being the King, which is probably the earliest variety cultivated. The new variety gives promise of being of great value for planting in boll-weevil infested regions. Several other varieties of cotton selected to secure earliness and productiveness, fitting them for boll- weevil conditions, have been under experimentation, and select seed of two of these sorts, the Edson and Triumph, will be distributed this winter. D'2 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGMCTILTTJBE. New strains of corn. — In the corn-breeding experiments great advances have been made. One variety, which has been carefully bred in central Ohio. has. for the last four years, shown an average yearly gain of 10 bushels per acre over the original variety. Seed of this variety has been sent to numerous farmers and is giving excellent results. The breeding work with sweet corn, having as its object the improvement of -trains for canning* purposes, has been continued with good suce--. It has been demonstrated that an excellent quality of sweet coro steed can be grown, and that with good care it will germinate much better and produce a better crop than such seed as is customarily purchased by canning companies. Improvement of oats. — The most promising features of the oat- breeding work are the new hybrids recently developed. These are large grained and early in season, and retain the vigor and size of the late-season parent. They bid fair to excel and eventually succeed all the early varieties now grown in the central Mississippi region. Selec- tions for disease resistance have also been made, and the year's experi- ments have proved that it is possible to secure smut-resistant varieties. One selection of the Burt variety has proved to be almost smut proof. Crops resistant to alkali and drought.— The testing of different varieties of the leading field crops with regard to their alkali resistance is being continued and extended. Much information that will permit of a choice of crop plants and plant varieties for alkali lands and pro- vide a solid basis for the increase of resistance by breeding has been obtained. The held investigations of crop plants in relation to alkali are being supplemented by extensive laboratory experiments. As a part of the investigations of the Bureau in dry-land agriculture, the breeding of drought-resistant strains of important field crops has been taken up in cooperation with some of the State experiment stations. PROGRESS IN TOBACCO WORK. The tobacco-breeding experiments have proved particularly succ ss- ful. and several of the new sorts produced in the course of the Depart- ment's experiments have already been planted extensively by tobacco growers, and are giving excellent results in increa.-ed yields of a superior grade of tobacco. Connecticut wrapper tobacgos. — In the work of improving Con- necticut wrapper tobaccos two new hybrids have been produced — the Brewer and the Cooley. The Brewer i- a hybrid of the native I necticut Broadleaf with the imported Cuban, while the Cooley is a hybrid of the native Connecticut Havana Seed variety with the Imported Sumatra. In the hybrids the good qualities, hardiness, and adaptability to Connecticut condition- of the native varieties are com- bined with the superior wrapper qualities of the imported Cuban and REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 53 Sumatra. The product of the hybrids has superior qualities for cigar- wrapper purposes, possessing characters which go to make up a valu- able wrapper tobacco. Numerous growers have been pleased with the superior grade of tobacco produced by these hybrids and are this year growing a considerable quantity of the new varieties and selecting seed to extend their planting next year. Wrapper and filler tobaccos in the South. — The experiments conducted in Florida in the improvement of tobacco varieties have demonstrated the value of this work to growers. Carefully selected strains of Sumatra have clearly shown their superiority, both in qual- ity and yielding capacity, to the ordinary Sumatra-grown. The crops grown from select seed furnished by the Department to 12 different planters are far superior to the remainder of their crops and are decidedly the best crops of tobacco in the State. As a result of this demonstration of the value of the methods of selection and preserva- tion of seed worked out b}T the Department of Agriculture, almost all of the large tobacco growers are this }"ear using similar methods, aud more than 50,000 paper bags have been used during the past summer by growers in covering the flower clusters of their select seed plants. Maryland smoking tobaccos. — Experiments in the improvement of the Maryland smoking tobaccos have been carried on during the year in cooperation with the Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station. Selections made to secure greater uniformity and increased yields have shown striking results. The fields of tobacco grown from select seed are believed to be the best tobacco grown in the State the present season. Miscellaneous tobacco work. — One of the most important features of the tobacco-breeding investigations is the development of methods by which the grade and quality of the tobacco produced can be accurately determined. During the last year an apparatus has been devised for testing the burn of cigars accurately and another for testing the burn of strips of leaves. These machines will prove of great value in con- nection with the breeding experiments and probably also in the com- mercial testing of samples of wrapper tobacco. Investigations of the curing of tobacco have been undertaken, directed more especially toward the control of pole burn by means of artificial heat. Several diseases of tobacco are receiving attention, and the breeding of varie- ties for disease resistance gives promise of good results. Extension of experiments. — The tobacco-breeding experiments are being extended to the tobacco-producing areas of Kentuck}-, Ohio, and Virginia, and it is probable that results can be obtained in these regions as important as those produced in Connecticut and Florida. The introduction of the methods of seed selection and seed separation alone in these extensive tobacco-producing States will add many thou- sands of dollars to the value of the crop grown. 5-1 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DRUG AND POISONOUS PLANT i: ■ lTIONS. Work on camphor. — Rapid progress has been made in the investi- gation of camphor production, a number of camphor trees of various ages having been placed at the disposal of the Department for experi- mental work. More than 30 pounds of camphor were prepared, which on purification gave very favorable results. Tests of a scientific nature showed the identity of this product with that of the Orient refill survey of the camphor trees now widely scattered throughout Florida, and of the conditions of soil, drainage, etc.. in which they occur, has made it seem reasonably clear that camphor will nor.. - r a large part of the area from which frost has driven the orang ndustry. Studies of poisonous plants. — In the poisonous-plant investiga- tions chief attention has been given during the year to the poisonous action of the so-called loco weeds in causing the loco disease in horses and cattle. The general outcome of this work has shown very clearly that these weeds are able to produce the symptoms characteristic of locoism and are unquestionably the chief cause o: -tock-grazing interests of the West. Remedial measures are now being sought, as are also means of exterminating the weeds and meth- ods of counteracting the poison. PROGRESS IX GROWING AMERICAN TEA. The work in South Carolina for the purpose of determining the ibilities of the commercial production of tea in the Unite IS - has prog s Factorily during the year. The younger have given an increased yield, due in part to a change in the method of picking which sted during the year. As a result of all :.. ences th< eld during the history of the experhn obtained, .-.'.met king over 12.000 pounds of dry tea. In tin some new machinery was tested. The compression of finely ground tea into tablets was attempted with a machine of the same type as that . 1 by m taring chemists, the result . that after a few trials a hard, sightly 3 which dissolves i:; h >t water. The superior adapt 3 form of paration for - is desired is appai In addition to the work in South Carolina a tea g t Pierce. Tex. The work at this point gi - se of very satisfactory results. IMPROVEMENTS IN DISTRIBUTING NITROGEN-FIXING BACTERIA. The method of distributing cultures dried on cotton for the inoc tion of leguminous crops was discontinued during the year, and in its place the plan adopted of distributing pure liquid cultures her- metically sealed in glass tubes. This has been proved to be a g REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 55 improvement over the old system. It is planned to distribute during the current year larger cultures to the farmers, and thus render it pos- sible to reduce the time formerly required to develop a rich culture for inoculating- leguminous crops. Many held tests in this work are under way on large farms, and it i- hoped by this, careful experi- mental work to acquire much valuable information concerning the best manner of treatment of certain soils and crops in order to obtain successful inoculations. WORK OX WATER CONTAMINATION. The work of the Bureau of Plant Industry in the treatment of water supplies with copper sulphate for the destruction of alga? and patho- genic bacteria has passed from the experimental stage to that of actual practical use. Investigations of the use of copper sulphate in sewage disposal have indicated that in small sewage plants the use of copper will make it possible to produce sewage effluents that are entirely free from pathogenic bacteria. Work is being planned to test the etneieney of copper in connection with filtration. Additional work is to be car- ried on throughout the United States in order to determine the value of copper in various types of water. The copper treatment of water supplies, sewage disposal, etc.. should in all cases be supervised by an expert. Before this method of purification is attempted the condi- s must be worked out on a scientific basis in each instance. FARM-MANAGEMENT INVESTIGATIONS. The farm-management investigations during the past year have been carried on along two principal lines, namely, the study of farm prac- tice and demonstrations in improved methods. The object of the first is to make a careful study of farm methods as followed by sue- i essful men in different sections of the country and representing different types of agriculture. These studies lead to the securing of data which enable the Department to assist farmers and others in planning methods of cropping and maintaining soil fertility. In con- nection with this work special attention has been given to crops adapted to new sections and to the relation between certain improved crops and soil fertility. Alfalfa has been found to be adapted to an important soil formation in Alabama and Mississippi, and is rapidly becoming a valuable crop of that section. This soil is heavily charged with lime. In this connection the Bureau of Plant Industry follows closely the work of the Bureau of Soils in its soil mapping. A spe- cial study has been made during the year of the practices of farmers in the East who have been successful in growing alfalfa. Methods of storing silage.— In connection with the studies of farm practice, a special investigation has been made during the year 56 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of methods of storing silage. The kinds of crops used for silage, the cost of growing and of siloing them have all been considered. Control of Johnson grass. — The farm-management investigations also deal with the question of weed control. It is believed that data have been secured which will enable the farmer to control Johnson grass and utilize it in a satisfactory way in crop rotation in the South. The secret of success in this work lies in the fact that in a Johnson grass sod left undisturbed for two or three years the rootstocks are found only at the surface. In this condition the pe-t i- easily destroyed by -hallow plowing and a little extra cultivation the next summer. This permits Johnson grass to be grown in a rotation, such as of work are being carried on. indn _ iriety tests of all seeds and er crops for orchards, variety orchard and other frur e farm i. - a well-equipped range of g work and all the newer portions of the land are . ._ ight into good tilth, by the use of proper management and green ma DOS SAL .~EED DISTRIBUTION. TL nal seed work for the year has conducted along practical .me lines as in the past. The number of package mi- »le and flower seed sent out during the year was abov \ There has been no change in this number during i FIELD LABORATOl D TESTING GARDENS. •pi Valley laboratory, located ar the Bur ...... [ many of the which affect foi fruit trees in th of treating : 3 have also been "orkecl out during the y tven to t:. rn-gall disease of orchard and other fruits, with the object of finding a means for prevent- ive further spread of I Hie results obi .ined have shown gall of t " ry large! nted rting and by - - pping" °f paper. It has found that this - other hand, the ►e transmitted through the soil and mav be one vineyard to another. American staot to the disc and" trol will consist ..ow- roof ha- to the lure of the crown-gal - le fruits. rk on various _ ation of inued at various the - of the living tree w ■ • sti ted, particularly I .. of rot which d it. A L . fitment liminary rhis on could be prevented. Th. -dan increase of at of lun. meaning st a total pre- The m - rked our is .. tried by lumbermen on a > BEFORE OF THE SECBETABY. 59 At the Subtropical Laboratory, Miami. Fla., the Bureau is eondi iug inyestigatious of the diseases affecting tropical and subtropical plants, such as the mango, avocado, and citrus fruits. Methods have been worked out for the control of these troubles. Experiments in the propagation of tropical and subtropical fruits con- ducted at this laboratory. The Bureau of Plant Industry is carrying on at its Plant Introduc- tion Garden, located at Chico, Cal.. experiments in the pr . _ )n of many seeds and plants introduced from foreign countries. Trial- of forage crops'and vegetables suited to the Southwest are also being conducted at this garden. Twelve acre- at the garden have beei aside for experimental work on European grape varieties cut- tings having been rooted during the past season. A number of these were distributed during the past spring among the experimental vine- yards maintained by the Bureau in different parts of Califoi Experimental work in the propagation of tigs and of the pistache nut is also being carried on at the _ n and with growers in the South- western States. In addition to the fore. he Bureau is conducting an experi- mental farm :it San Antonio. Tex. The object of the work at farm is to test ne - likely to prove of v. to the regie a sented. and to find the best methods of tillage by which the relatively large but irregular rainfall of the region may be utilized in th able production of the staple crops. FOREST SERVICE. NATIONAL FOREST RESERVES. The fiscal year 1905-6 was and will remain notable in the history of the Forest Service for the progress made in actually applying a National reserve policy. In area the reserves were increased during the year from - 122 to 106,999,138 acres. In revenue the reserves brought in $767,219. against I >r the previ- ous year and S~ for the year 1903-4. In timbe - here were disposed of for immediate or early removal nearly 300 million board feet of lumber at stumpage prices ranging up to Si per thou- sand - other material to a large value), as again-: board feet, with a maximum price of $2. per thousand in and ard feet in 1903-4. The number of free-use per- mit-granted in the same showed progressive increase. In the year 1904-fi the reserves were under Forest control only after February 1. One fiscal year of full control has establishe aportant fact. — that the reserves advance the present interests of the people of the West and that they will speedily pay the cost of administering them. (50 YEABBOOK 0¥ EBEB DEPAETME>~T OF AGEICVLTUBE. PUBLIC UTILITY of te: These National fores s lug made useful now. The benefits which thev are to secure are not deferred benefits. Through Government control the interests of the future are safeguarded, but not by sacri- ficing those of the present. Far from handicapping the development of the States in which they lie. the reserves will powerfully promote development. They work counter to the prosecution of no industry, and retard the beneficial use of no resource. The wealth of the West lies, and will long lie. in what the soil will produce and in what the earth hides. Labor and capital will here find employment mainly in turning to use the farm land, grazing land, timber land, and mineral lands of the region, and in the commerce to which these great productive industries will give rise. That the reserves beneficially affect all of these industries is becoming clearer to the people of the West every day. and in consequence the policy of public administration of our unappropriated timber lauds become* more and more firmly established in the approval of a united public sentiment. Local sentiment has sometimes been unfavorable to the creation of res rv - before their effect upon the public welfare understood: but opposition has alwa] ssolved under th. oal experience. The reserves do not withhold land from agricultural use. but greatly increase the amount of available farm land. Though they were made from the most rugged and mountainous parts of the West and were intended to include only land unsuited for agricultui . the act of June' 11. 1906, the right is given settlers to homestead within the reserves wherever strips and patches of tillable land can be found. At the same time, through their water-conserving power. the>e forests fix in region- of -canty rainfall the amount of land which can be brought under the plow, since at be-t much otherwise fertile land miht go uncultivated for want of water. Without forest pi n much of the land now under irrigation would have i andoned again to the desert. Thus the promotion of agriculture is one of the main ends of the forest-reserve poll Mining in the West is mainly in regions surrounded by reserve - included within them: but the reserves do not imped.- iopment of mineral resources. On the contrary, by guaranteeing future sup- plies of timber they are indispensable to the future development of these resour s, - the great mining interests well know. They do not interfere with the pi r, who has the same right to prospect and locate in forest reserves that he has on any other part of the public domain. Administrative control of the forest reserves is beneficial to the grazing industry. The sentiment of stockmen throughout the West is unitedlv in favor of such control, because of the gain to them now REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 61 that the reserve ranges are safe from overcrowding and deterioration. Thus the rights of the individual user are respected and the permanence of this great resource is assured. I wish to commend particularly in this connection the heartiness and good spirit with which the associa- tions of western stockmen have cooperated in our efforts to enforce fair and just measures for the regulation of grazing in the interest of all users of the forests, and in the interest of the public, to whom these forests belong. The charge of a grazing fee, made for the first time during the past year, though reasonable in view of the advantages of grazing regulation to the stockmen and the costof reserve administration to the Government, and justly due in the interest of the public, might have been expected to cause dissatisfaction and friction. On the con- trary, as soon as the reasons for the charge and the method in which it would be applied had been explained, it was generally approved and paid willingly and promptly. It was followed by no falling off in the number of stock grazed in the reserves. In some cases the asso- ciations of stockmen have voluntarily aided the Service in settling local difficulties. Their whole conduct has shown remarkable modera- tion, far-sightedness, and readiness to recognize and accept what is in the permanent interest of their industry, even though it involves the sacrifice of immediate personal advantage. Finally, Forest Service administration of the reserves is beneficial alike to the lumber industry and to the timber-consuming public. There is now standing on the reserves not less than 300 billion board feet of merchantable timber. This is not locked up from' present use as a hoarded supply against future needs; it is ready for the immediate demands of a developing country. It will not be rushed upon the wholesale market in competition with the cheap stumpage prices of private owners anxious for ready money, and it will not be disposed of under a short-sighted policy of utilization which would leave a gap between the end of the present supply and the oncoming of the second crop; but it is and will continue to be available, first for the small user — home-builder, rancher, or miner — and then for the needs of lumber concerns, large miners, and railroads, for which a timber supply is indispensable, and which in turn are indispensable to the prosperity of the West. The supply of timber furnished by the matured crop now on the ground is so vast in proportion to the present demand that there might seem to be no need for caution in its use. Were no more cut than last year it would suffice for four hundred years. In the mature forest production is at a standstill, so that from the point of view of the largest possible production of timber lumbering under such methods as will insure a second crop is highly desirable. The demand upon the reserves, however, is as yet insignificant in proportion to even the present need, most of which is met by the suppl}' from 62 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPAETMEZs'I Of AGEICULTY private holdings. The reserves form the heart of the western timber lands. They are generally less accessible than the private holdi which surround them, and would naturally form the last re-ource of the lumberman. They must be so maintained as first of all to be readv to meet the future demands of the regions in which they lie. "With a growing population and expanding industries these demands will far exceed those of the present. The crucial problem of ma: ment will be to insure a timber and water supply for the great W and to conserve the summer stock ranges. To meet it successfully will require careful foresight and the best technical information. Timber sales are now made with strict attention to the welfare of the forest, and at stumpage prices often decidedly in advance of the market. TCE RESERVES BKU-SOSTAIKI* The income from the reserves is as yet but a small fraction of what may be expected as they approach full utilization. Yet their admi tration is already on a sound busi : only are they meet- in «r from their receipts a very large part of the cost of their main- tenance: thev are even now beginning to show a decided decrease in net expense to the Government. My estimate of the appropriation necessary to meet the general expenses of the Forest Service is I- -- by $100,000 than the appropriation of last year, notwithstanding that the total area of the i has been substantially enlarged by E: tive action, that increasing use necessitates greater expense of admin- istration, and that in general the work of the Service is growing very rapidly. Though the administration of tl. - rmsbutapai the field of work, it may confidently be expected that within rr from the transfer of the reserves to this Department the Fore-t Serv- ice will cost the taxpayer nothing whatever. In reaching this result no unjust burden will have been laid on est As public property the National f< mid yield to the public a reasonable return for whatever of value private individuals re from them for their own profit. In accordance with this prin- ciple, applicants for special privile. rights of way. i wer-house site-, and similar concessions— have been called upon to pay for such privileges on the b;: eir commercial value. example, in the case of water powers duly located under the State laws, but which can not be developed without the y of re- land, besides a charge for the land occupk -t land, a small charge per unit of power developed is made, not the use of the water itself, which is granted directly by tl but for the tion of the supply which the preservation of the forests furnishes, and which, were it not for the existence of the rve, the water-right owner could secure only by himself acquir- ing great bodies of forest land. Suchacharg ssentially similar REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 63 to the charge for stock grazed upon the reserves. It is a return for actual value received, and throws upon those who profit by public control of the reserves a -hare of the cost of maintaining that control. By the wise and just provision of Congress in enacting at its last on that 10 per cent of the gross receipts from the National reserves shall be made over to the several States in which they are situated, for the benefit of the counties which would otherwise receive no revenue from a part of their area, a real grievance was redressed. Even with the present use of the reserves the benefits thus reaped from them by the communities in their neighborhood are of substantial importance. As time goes on the importance of this provision will increase, and eventually the counties will find themselves far better off than they would have been without the reserves, for private ownership followed by exploitation would have destroyed the sources of revenue by leav- ing little or nothing of permanent taxable value, whereas now every resource is conserved and will be made to pay its just share of income. Since the fundamental purpose for which reserves exist is to secure the best permanent use of all resources, their effect is to add to prop- erty value, and by turning over 10 per cent of their gross receipt.- to local use they will contribute far more to the local public needs than the taxes they would pay if they were private property. Protection of the reserves from tire has been the most important task laid upon the Forest Service. It is cause for congratulation that the loss by tire during the year was so .slight. Indeed, the saving which resulted from the organized care of the reserve force was undoubtedly worth more than the whole cost of administering the reserves. Only about eight tires of any consequence occurred on the reserves during the calendar year 1905, a season of extreme dryness and one in which under ordinary circumstances the damage from tires should have been unusually large. This small number was due in large part to the system of patrol, which leads to the discovery of tires before much damage has been done. So far during the calendar year 1906 the damage from tire has been extremely small, even in compari- son with that in 1905. Increased efficiency of the patrol system, com- bined with favorable climatic conditions, has led to this favorable result. WORK OF THE YEAR. FOEE-T MANAGEMENT. The progress made by the Forest Service in the brief period of seventeen months, during which it has had charge of the reserves, in introducing management upon a vast field of operations in virgin forests of varied types, compares favorably with anything that the history of fore-try can show in any country. From Minnesota to southern California and from Washington to New Mexico, reserve 64 TEAEBOOK OF I HE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTV timber is now being cut under regulations looking to a second crop. With larger the method- now applied will doubtless be found faulty in some respects, and with opportunity for more intensive use which the rising value of timber will afford, much more - tisfacl Its will be possible; but tho important fact is that, confronted with a problem of unexampled magnitude in its kind, the roved able to substitute conservative for destructive . while greatly increasing the use itself. Live timber i< cut on the reserves under stipulations on actual study of the forest condition- to protect the forest and the water supply from injury. Piling- of the waste left by logging is always required, a diameter limit is set to prevent too heavy cutting. - ire left where necessary to provide for reproduction, full utilization of all salable material i> compelled, and young growth i- bed from injury. All this the purchaser is under contract to perform, under the >rirerv;-ion of the forest officers, who are held to efficiency by systematic inspection. Yet in spite of these require- ments, which -lightly reduce the profits of lumbering to the pur- . - . record stumpage prices have often been obtained, and the average pri - □ far above that u-ually paid in the same regions. Living trees to be cut are marked beforehand by the forest officers, who also scale the lumber before it is removed. Though some large ^ales of timber have been made in regions where great quantities of mature forest were available and exposed to dete- rioration, the constant policy has be I icourage the -mall user. -. in more than 99 cases out of every 100 the sale- were of less than 5 million board feet. le of timber on th - es were nearly r'i while the contra - - of the year reach a total of o- Five years i- the longest period allowed under these contracts in which to cut the timber sold. Timber which can be harvested with profit only by large operations and with a heavy outlay for the construction of a milling plant or means of transportation, or both, must neci ss - rily be -old under a contract extending over several years: but no sales made permitting the speculative holding of timber again.-t a . The la: _ - jales States in S nth Dakota (73 mil- lion board feet), Wyoming (71 million feet), and M er 53 million feet). In the latter two Si ' 9 heavy lodgepole pine foj are ready for the ax, but difficult to lumber from their inaccessibility. Attn - tmand for lodgepole pine raili opened a market for this timber and made it post 3ell by large tracts under conditions which will permit a second cutting after thirty or forty yen-. In South Dakota a special reason exists for of timber with the utmost energy. By the ravages BEPOET OF THE SECBETABY. 65 of a bark beetle great quantities of timber are being destroyed, and the annihilation of the entire forest of the region is threatened. Only by extensive cutting of infested trees can the spread of the beetles be checked and the damaged timber be utilized. In Colorado and Arizona sales of timber totaled over 27 million board feet for each State, and in Utah and California over 10 million. In Colorado and Utah these sales were mainly of tire-killed tin: largely used in mining. In Arizona large quantities of mature accessible timber permitted extensive cutting without injury to the forest. In other States cutting was comparatively insignificant in amount, save in Idaho, where nearly 9 million feet were cut. Little difficulty was experienced in preventing timber trespass upon the reserves. Where .-ueh trespass occurred the full value of the timber taken was recovered. Practically no loss was sustained from theft. COOPERATIVE MAXAGEMEXT. The Forest Service continues to receive application- from private owners for as-istance in introducing forest management upon their holdings. So far as possible the Forest Service will give aid in this work as in the past, since it is plainly in the public interest to promote the practice of fore-try among private owners on business principles. It is significant that while at the first it was necessary to prepare a working plan for every timber tract before recommendations for con- servative management could lie made, during the past year, out of o-t timber tract- examined, it was pos-ible on 43 to outline at once a sys- tem of management and the regulations to put it into effect. Working plans were made during the year for 6 large tracts in New York, Kentucky. Michigan, and South Carolina, and for 100 woodlots in 16 States. In the woodlot work, which assists small owners, particularly farm- er-, to make the best use of their woodland, special attention was given to the Middle West. Very different problems are here pre- .-ented from those of the Eastern State-, hitherto the main field of woodlot study. As the need of timber becomes more pressing, the yield from these small forest areas, which nevertheless in the aggregate form a large part of our total woodland area, will become increasingly important. On the whole, the farmer knows how to utilize his wood- land far less intelligently than any other part of his farm. If he' can be brought to an early realization of the future value of good timber and knowledge of how to grow it. great benefit will result, both to the farmer and to the community, which later will stand in need of every available supply. Cooperative forest studies were carried on during the year with the States of California. New Hampshire, and North Carolina; with the Office of Indian Affiiir> of the Department of the Interior, on the 3 a 1906 5 66 YEAKBOOK OF THE DEPABTMENT OP AGBICT7LTUEE. Wisconsin Indian Reservation; with the War Department, on the mili- tary reservation in New Mexico; and with the Hydrographie Division of the United States Geological Survey, upon the Potomac River watershed. Tie production in Wisconsin and Minnesota, in coopera- tion with the Northern Pacific Railroad, and the effect of sulphur fumes from smelters on neighboring forests in Tennessee, in cooperation with private forest owners and with the Bureaus of Chemistry and Entomology, were also studied. FOREST EXTENSION. The field of forest planting in the United States broadens with every year. In the East the economic conditions are bringing rapidly nearer intensive forest management, which will involve extensive planting, both to stock the land fully and to shorten the interval between crops. In the Middle West the rising value of lumber is tending to make the growing of trees profitable on land now in pas- ture or under the plow. Knowledge gained by past investigations of how to make trees grow under adverse conditions opens enlarged possibilities to private owners in the more arid parts of the far West. By far the most important part of the field, however, is that of reserve planting. Here in the future a gigantic task will be pre- sented, upon which the Forest Service has already begun a prelimi- nary attack. Planting wiil furnish a future timber supply, improve drainage basin-, and replace inferior species with more valuable trees. Of the 107,000,000 acres of reserves enormous areas are partly or wholly unforested. In the Middle West alone are 5 reserves, aggregating over 750,000 acres, which are practically treeless and on which planting is now under way. Doubtless future additions to the reserves will .still fur- ther increase the task. While some of this land may never support trees, the public welfare will eventually demand that the larger part of it be forested. Unaided natural reproduction can never accom- plish the task in time. As the need for wood and water increases, planting on a scale as 3Tet entirely unthought of in this or any other country will be carried on. For private planting the two most serious obstacles to widespread activity are the high cost and the poor quality of both the nursery stock and the tree seeds now commercially obtainable. In some cases eastern tree planters have been compelled to import from Europe nursery stock of American trees, and adulterated seeds are common on the market. It is not possible for the Forest Service to suppl}r nursery stock for private use, but it is doing what it can to aid the planter by tests pf the purity and germinative powers of seeds fur- nished by different dealers, and by information as to prices at which seeds and stock may be obtained in different regions. EEPOET OF THE SECEETASY. 67 For planting on the reserves the Forest Service must raise its own material. Six planting stations are now established, with an annual capacity of 6,000,000 seedlings. Yet to plant 1 square mile requires more than 700.000 seedlings. Though four years have passed since the first nursery station was established, the work as yet done has been hardly more than experimental, and in the newer nurseries few of the seedlings are old enough to plant out. To meet the needs of the reserves, preparations for planting must be made on a vastly greater scale. As a first step, nursery sites will be established at rangers* head- quarters on all the reserves. As rapidly as possible the reserve force will be traiued to carry on this work, and nursery stations will be multiplied. The real progress made toward reserve planting appears not in the number of trees set out or the present capacity of the stations, but in the fact that practical methods of doing the work at reasonable cost have been found. In spite of the high cost of labor in this country, an acre of land can now under ordinary conditions be planted to forest by the Service almost as cheaply as the same work is done in Ger- man.}-. The whole problem of successful forest planting under the conditions of aridity, elevation, lack of transportation facilities, and scarcity of labor, combined with the lack of an}- experience which could guide to right action, was one of extreme difficulty. Though much yet remains to be done before a perfected system of planting- will have been secured, the work now done amounts to a demon- stration that success is within reach. This in itself is no small achievement. COOPERATIVE PLANTING. The Forest Service cooperate^ with private owners to secure forest extension by preparing planting plans for them. Two years ago the average size of the planting plans made was 68 acres. Last year it was 310 acres. This is significant of changing conditions. Increas- ingly as the necessity of provision for the future needs becomes plain, large owners are seeking the cooperation of the Service. A number of railroads have begun to plan for tie production from planted tim- ber: coal companies are preparing to utilize waste land, and cities are seeking to improve their watersheds and at the same time derive a revenue from the land held for watershed protection. Examinations were made of over 300.000 acres on which the owners wish to consider planting, and detailed planting plans were made for over 10,000 acres in li' States. Cooperation with other Departments, by the preparation of planting plans, included the War Department, the Bureau of Fisheries of the Department of Commerce and Labor, and the Reclamation Service of the Department of the Interior. 68 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DENDROLOGY. The investigation of turpentining methods was pushed along lines which promise important economic results by diminishing the wound inflicted on the tree and greatly prolonging the period during which a tract may be worked. A chemical study of the turpentine from differ- ent specie^ of pines (conducted in cooperation with the University of North Carolina) is under way to learn which specie- furnish the most valuable yield. Studies of forest distribution and resources were continued. The experimental basket-willow holts demonstrated the success of the cul- tural methods advocated by the Service by producing a crop of rods of the finest quality. Analyses of willow barks established their value for use in tanning. By the identification of many samples of woods valuable information was furnished wood user-. FOREST PRODUCTS. An important means of reducing the drain upon our forests is the treatment of wood by seasoning, by the use of chemicals, or by both combined, to make it last longer. Careful experiments are under way to determine the most effective and economical methods of treating railroad ties, telephone and telegraph poles and cross arms, and fence posts. Material cut at different times of the year, seasoned at differ- ent times of the year, and by different methods, and treated by differ- ent processes is being tested in service to find out how it can be made most durable. Wood distillation to utilize the waste product of lumbering, and the lability of untried woods for making paper pulp, were made the subjects of s] studies. Over 12, 0 tests of the strength of timber were made. The woods tested include loblolly pine, red fir, western hemlock. Norway pine, tamarack, white and red oak. and eucalyptus. By these tests, which show the suitability of the various kinds of wood for different uses, bo;h timber-land owners and those who employ wood in building and manufacturing have received great benefit. New woods have been brought into use and economy in the use of material has been pro- moted. The present facilities for this work are inadequate, and it is important that a special laboratory be provided at Washington. By statistical study of the production and consumption of lumber in various forms and compilation of the various grading rules now in information greatly desired by the lumber trade but never before obtainable was gathered, better conditions were promoted, and light was thrown on the highly important question of the probable duration of the country's lumber supply. Special studies of the manufacture of cooperage stock, of vehicle^ and implement-, and of boxes, and of certain kiln-drying method-, gave results of decided value both to the REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 69 manufacturers and to timber-land owners. Wood as a paving mate- rial was also studied, and experiments were started to discover the best kinds of wood to use and how they should be treated and laid. BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY. The activities of the Bureau of Chemistry during- the year included a great variety of investigations. EXAMINATION OF BUTTER, MILK, AND CREAM. More than 800 samples of butter were investigated, to see if they complied with the requirements of the law relating to renovated butter. A study of the effects of cold storage upon the chemical com- position of milk and cream was inaugurated, to determine the length of time during which such products can be safely kept in cold storage. CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS. The effect of environment upon the content of sugar in Indian sweet corn was studied. The almost universal use of sweet corn for food throughout the country renders such an investigation of peculiar inter- est to consumers as well as to producers. A single variety of seed was planted in different localities from South Carolina to Maine, and the quantity of sugar in the product was carefully determined. At the same time meteorological data were secured which are utilized in determining the effect of environment in all of its factors upon the composition of the product. It was found that within twenty-four hours after harvest, if exposed to ordinary temperatures, a very con- siderable percentage of the sugar has disappeared from the grains of the corn. This fact has led to the observation that it is necessary to market the product as soon as possible after harvest, and meanwhile to keep it at as low a temperature as can be secured. Studies looking to the improvement of the different varieties of Indian corn, by selection based upon analytical data, were under- taken. These studies are a continuation of those conducted the pre- ceding year upon the effect of environment on the chemical composi- tion of the sugar beet. In all, over 3, GOO analyses were made of cere- als in the prosecution of the above investigations. These investiga- tions also include the effect of environment upon the chemical compo- sition of barley as related to the brewing industries. STUDY OF DENATURED ALCOHOL. An important investigation was also begun upon the economic pro- duction of alcohol from various raw materials in relation to the pro- duction of denatured alcohol for industrial purposes. The object of this investigation was to discover the value of various waste materials 70 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of factories — wood, molasses, sweet potatoes, cornstalks, etc. — in the production of alcohol for denaturing. This work is likely to prove of great value to our farmers in developing new sources of income from the production of denatured alcohol for industrial purposes. TESTING OF SUPPLIES FURNISHED UNDER CONTRACT. In the Contracts Laboratory, the object of which is the examination of materials furnished to the different Departments of the Govern- ment under contract, 69 samples were examined for the War Depart- ment, 19 for the Navy Department, 65 for the Department of the Interior, 36 for the Treasury, 73 for the Post-Office, 1 for the Depart- ment of Commerce and Labor, 73 for the Government Printing Office, and 59 for the Department of Agriculture. These examinations were of the most rigid character, and the result of the work has been to secure a much higher quality of material than was formerly supplied under the contract system. EXAMINATION OF DRUGS. The examination of drugs has been particularly fruitful during the year. Five hundred and fifty-three samples were examined for purity and quality. A large part of the work of the Drug Laboratory has been in connection with the Post-Office Department for the purpose of suppressing traffic in fraudulent preparations transmitted through the mails. As the result of these investigations a large number of fraud orders have been issued forbidding the use of the mails for such pur- poses. Other important investigations were undertaken in the testing of chemical reagents, of oils and essences, and of plant drugs. ANALYSIS OF WATERS. INSECTICIDES, AND CATTLE FOODS. The examination of waters used as beverages has been continued, and also the analysis of waters used for irrigation. Thirty-nine sam- ples of insecticides were investigated during the year. Studies were made also of the lime-sulphur-salt wash and allied mixtures. One hundred and fifty-four samples of cattle food were analyzed to deter- mine the quality of the cattle foods sold upon the markets. Studies were also made of the injurious effects of fumes from smelters upon vegetation, and testimony was given in the courts relating thereto. It is evident that the sulphurous acid fumes produced in most smelters are of a character to injure vegetation and also animal health in a region very widely extended about the factory. It appears probable that in the near future smelters will be required to convert the sul- phurous acid into sulphuric acid or some other substance which will not cause the injuries above mentioned. REPORT OP THE SECRETARY. 71 STUDY OF TANNING MATERIALS, PArER, AND TURPENTINE. The study of tanning- materials was continued, especiall}T of the Sicilian sumacs. The effects of different tanning materials upon the character, qualit}*, and durability of leather were investigated. Inves- tigations of great importance, not only to the various Departments of the Government but to the people in general, are those relating to the character of paper used for public records. Investigations have been continued respecting the composition of turpentine distilled from wood and its relations to the ordinary turpentine. FOOD INSPECTION. The food and drugs act, June 30, 1906, imposes upon the Depart- ment additional duties of a most important character. The two chief purposes kept in view by this act throughout all its sections are, first, to prevent the introduction of any injurious or debasing substance into foods or drugs, and, second, to secure the correct labeling of all food and drug products. This act applies to all interstate and foreign commerce in all foods and drugs, and also to all imported meat food products. The proper enforcement of this act must prove of immense benefit to all the people of this country in securing freedom from adul- teration and fraud. Regulations providing for the administration of the law have been carefully prepared, and 30.000 copies have been distributed throughout the country. The inspection of imported foods at the ports of entry has been extended, especially at New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. The earthquake and fire at San Francisco in April unfortunately destroyed our laboratory at that port. It is hoped that this enforced suspension, however, will not be of long duration. Five thousand seven hundred and forty-nine samples of imported food products were examined during the fiscal year. Of the 1.246 samples which were found not to comply with the law, 531 were released without prejudice because it was evident that no intent to defraud or deceive the people of the country existed; 577 were admitted after being relabeled so as to comply with the provisions of the law; 138 invoices were required to be reshipped beyond the juris- diction of the United States. In addition to the above number of samples, 8,735 inspections were made upon the floors of the appraisers stores. The effect of the food-inspection law on foreign commerce has been most salutary. In many cases kinds of food products which were formerly very generally misbranded are now found to be almost uni- versally free of suspicion. There has been a very decided improve- ment in the qualit}r of imported food products, due to inspection. , '2 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. food STrr: The Division of Foods has also conducted special investigations into at of domestic adulteration of food products and an investiga- tion of tropical and subtropical fruits, as well as of fruits of domestic | i taction. A very extensive investigation made to determine the character of distilled liquors, both those imported into the United States and those of domestic manufacture, has been practically completed. The study ot the effects of colors, preservatives, and other sub- stance- added to foods has been continued during the year, and most valuable data relating thereto are now being prepared for publication. This investigation is particularly valuable because the experiments are made upon human be' MICROSCOPIC WORK. T^e microscope has become one of the most valuable adjuncts in the lination of food products and materials used for technic-al pur- - -. Micro-chemical investigations have been largely made in the work of the Bureau of Chemistry and have extended not only to foods but also to leathers, papers, tanning materials, and bacteriolog- ical examinations. The total number of samples examined during the year was I. The bacterio-chemical work has been of extreme importance. Thi^ is especially true in connection with the work authorized by Congress on the effects of cold storage upon wholesome- ness of food products. Particularly in investigating the relative merits of drawn and undrawn fowls when placed in cold storage, the bacterio-chemioal examination is of vital importance. Studies have fore been made to determine whether the bacteria of the intesti- nal tract migrate to the fle>h of the fowl during the period of cold -torage. and. if so. what chemical changes are produced thereby. The bacterio-chemical investigations have extended to a large number of other Eurticularly to the chemical changes which take place in milk, cream, and evaporated and condensed milks, and to the g teral changes of a bacterial character which foods undergo on keeping. BUREAU OF SOILS. Underlying all attempts to improve the general agricultural welfare of the country lies the necessity for a correct knowledge of the char- acter and variety of its - -. ^uch knowledge is fundamental, and without it no grc - can be made in securing further diver-iri- ps,tbe introduction of new crops, or the more economical production of the great staples now known. EEPOET OF THE SECRETARY. 73 THE SOIL SURVEY. Since 1899 the Bureau of Soils has been conducting an investigation of the soils of the United States which will ultimately result in a thorough familiarity with the vast, varied, and but partially appre- ciated soil resources of the country. The purpose of this work is to ascertain the variety and extent of the chief characteristic soils of the country, to determine the crop or crops which can be raised to the best advantage upon each of these soils, and to discover what pecul- iarities of soil management are best suited to secure the maximum results on each soil in different and widely separated localities. EXTENT OF THE SURVEYS. During the fiscal year 1900 soil surveys covering 19,311 square miles, or 12,370,210 acres, were made in 29 States and 2 Territories. In all, to June 30, 1906, 251 different surveys have been made in 13 States and 1 Territories, covering a total area of 118,687 square miles, or 75,959,680 acres. These surveys have covered not only a wide range of soil and climatic conditions, but also the typical soils upon which the chief staple crops as well as many new and special crops are being produced. THE PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED. The work of the soil survey in 1906 and in preceding years, while dealing chiefly with the characteristic soils upon which the staple crops — corn, wheat, cotton, grass, etc.- — are produced in different sec- tions and under different conditions of soil and climate, has also encountered rnamx specific problems of wide interest and application. The opening of large areas for agricultural occupation has necessitated in several States a stud}T of the existing soil t}Tpes in order that the appropriate crops for production upon each might be determined. The widespread interest in the agricultural capabilities of undrained lands in many sections has led to demands for surveys which shall determine the character of crops to which such soils may be farmed after reclamation. The breaking up of large dry-farmed ranches for more intensive forms of agriculture under irrigation has also neces- sitated surveys which could be used as a basal guide in crop selection. The extension of crops like tobacco and alfalfa into entirely new areas whose soil adaptations were formerly unknown has been made possible by the soil surveys. The introduction of new crops has been accom- plished along the lines suggested by the surveys. One of the chief purposes and uses of the surve}Ts has been to aid individual farmers in the selection of land suited to general or special crops in regions unknown or but partly known. 74 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TITE SOIL RESOURCES OF THE COUNTRY. In the work of the soil survey, since its inception in 1899, 461 dis- tinct types of soils have been encountered. Some of these types are of great extent, covering areas measured by thousands of square miles. Still others are of local extent and distribution. Some arc distributed over a considerable range of climatic environment. Others are so restricted that they may be said to lie in a single climatic belt. The great striking fact, however, is that with such a great variety of individual soils onl\* about a dozen important crops are now produced in the entire country. Again, the same crop is produced with the greatest diversity of success or failure upon a great variety of soils, to some of which the crop is well suited while upon others it is annually produced at a loss. Before the farmers of all sections of the United States can reduce agriculture to a basis of permanent business success the knowledge of these facts must be thoroughly disseminated and fully understood. It has been found that in addition to the broad subdivision of the country into a humid region, an arid region, and a rather indefinite semiarid region, there are at least thirteen grand divisions among the soils which may be termed soil provinces. The soils of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains differ materially from those of the Piedmont Plateau. The soils of the glaciated region of the Northern States are materially different from those of the limestone valleys, and from the alluvial bottom lands or the residual prairies of the Western States. Still greater differences exist between the soils of the Pacific coast valleys or the Great Interior Basin and those of the Eastern State provinces. All of these differences have their deep significance in the selection of crops and in the management of the soils. Even within single provinces there are groups of soils which differ profoundly from all others, and these differences must be recognized and their crop signification understood. Each series also ranges from the coars- est sandy and gravelly types or individuals to the finest-grained clays. No two of the numerous individual soils possess exactly the same characteristics, and no two are, therefore, adapted in the same degree to exactly the same crops nor to the same treatment and handling. \\ 'hen all of these differences have been ascertained, and when the significance of these differences comes to be understood, the country will be able by the introduction of new crops and by greater special- ization in crop production to increase greatly the agricultural efficiency of every tilled acre. DEMA2TDS FOP. THE WORK. Each }Tear brings an increasing number of requests for survey work in particular localities to serve a great diversity of interests. The development of new lands in the United States has not ceased and the REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 75 need for specific and unprejudiced information concerning soils in newly developed regions has become widely recognized. The exten- sion of tobacco culture through certain portions of the Gulf States has led to numerous requests for surveys to locate areas of soil where the Cuban t}Tpe of tiller tobacco may be grown successfully. Only a few soils are suited to the production of this leaf, and unless such soils are found in an area the attempt to introduce the crop must result in failure. The growth of the fruit interests in all sections of the coun- try has led to widespread demands for surveys to determine what soils are peculiarly adapted to the growing of apples, pears, peaches, grapes, or citrus fruits, the location of these soils, and their extent. The depression of farm values in some sections has called attention to the possibility of rehabilitating these farms and soils through the introduc- tion of new crops and of new methods, and surveys are requested to furnish guidance along these lines. New areas for the production of market-garden and truck crops are being developed along the Atlantic and Gulf coast lines, and surveys have been requested for many of these areas. The northward spread of the culture of rice upon prairie lands has given rise to requests for surveys to indicate soils and regions where this crop might be introduced. As a result the Bureau of Soils has always on file requests for several times as many surveys as can be made during any one year, and the completion of each year's work is accompanied by an increased rather than a diminished volume of requests. While such a condition is gratifying from the standpoint of public appreciation of the value of the work, it is embarrassing and unsatisfactory because of the neces- sity for selecting among so many requests of almost equal urgency those areas which may be undertaken each year. The public demand for the making of these surveys and the constant application for sur- vey reports, not only for areas which have been surveyed, but also for those which have not yet been undertaken, both evince the necessity for a considerable increase in the volume of soil-survey work in the immediate future. RECLAMATION OF ALKALI LANDS. The progress of the work on the several alkali reclamation tracts dur- ing the fiscal year just closed has been gratifying, both as regards the immediate success of the experiments and as regards the stimulating effect that these results have had upon private initiative in the work of reclaiming similarly affected neighboring lands. PROGRESS ON THE UTAH TRACT. On the Swan tract, near Salt Lake City, Utah, the work consisted largely of experiments with various crops, as the removal of alkali had practically been accomplished by repeated flooding in 1903 and 76 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPABTMKBTT OF AGRICULTURE. 1904. The thrifty growth of alfalfa and of other crop-, not perhaps as sensitive to alkali, clearly demonstrates the great changes that have taken place in the soil since it has been treated. Formerly this field presented a desolate appearance, with large areas heavily incrusted with alkali. The success of this experiment can not but be far-reach- ing in its influence upon the alkali question in the Salt Lake Valley. COMPLETION OF WORK AT FEE- Our earlier work on the Toft-Hansen tract, near Fresno. Cal.. had freed the upper layers of soil from alkali, and very satisfactory crops had been grown: however, while the alkali question had been solved, a constant source of danger was the high ground water, which rises very rapidly in this district after water is turned into the canals each spring. The original drainage system was not very deep, and the question of keeping the drains free from sand and silt proved serious. In order further to experiment with the lowering of the ground water, it was thought advisable to install a new drainage system. This was completed in November. 1905. The entire drainage system was low- ered from 1^ to 2i feet, and the ground water is now kept at a safe depth, not only under the land drained, but under adjoining farms to the extent of 200 acres. The success of this work has proved of great value to the farmers of the alkali and seepage-infested district about Fresno, and many have signified their intention of undertaking work similar to that carried on by the Bureau of Soils. At the close of the irrigation season of 1906, the Bureau's work in the Fresno district will close, as the owners of the land are well pleased with the reclaimed condition of the soil and the success of the newly installed drainage system. CONTIKUATION OF THE WORK AT YAKIMA. WASH. In Washington, in the Yakima Valley, the results have not been quite as satisfactory as was hoped when the work was commenced. "While parts of the Gervais tract, near North Yakima, have been thoroughly reclaimed and produced in 1905 a heavy crop of hay. valued at $160, other parts of the tract have not yielded to treatment so readily. That some parts of the tract still contain appreciable quan- tities of black alkali is evident from the crop returns, from repeated chemical tests, and from the characteristic dark stains in the soil. It mewhat difficult to explain the retention of alkali by the soils of the Yakima Valley. It is well known that hardpan retards the move- ment of alkali, and it seems probable also that the volcanic a.-h soils of this valley may have a high absorptive capacity, enabling them still to retain injurious quantities of black alkali in spite of repeated flooding. Good lands in this region produce such profitable crops that the exact REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 77 treatment for the alkali lands should be ascertained if possible, even though the total cost of reclamation be great as compared with other districts. EAPID COMPLETION* OF THE RECLAMATION WORK IN ARIZONA. The record of the Cummings tract, near Tempe, in the Salt River Valley, Arizona, is excellent. The drainage system was installed early in 1904, but no water was available for leaching out the alkali until many months later. When the water supply became more abundant the removal of the alkali was comparatively simple. At the present time 1-H acres support a fine stand of alfalfa, planted in November, 1905, while the remainder has produced a heavy crop of barley. The owner of the land is full}' satisfied with the showing of the crops and only awaits the seeding of the small tract to alfalfa before accepting the land according to the contract originally agreed upon. As the water supply of the valley is still further increased by the extensive operations of the United States Reclamation Service in constructing storage reservoirs, the subject of eliminating alkali and controlling the ground water will become more important, and the Bureau is very fortunate in having undertaken and completed this work at such an opportune time. RESULTS IN MONTANA. The showing of the O'Donnell tract in the Yellowstone Valley, Montana, is fully as good, if not better, than the one just mentioned. The drainage system was installed during 1901, but too late to allow any flooding. During 1905 the land was continuously flooded for sev- eral months. From the outset the drainage system worked perfectly and large quantities of alkali were removed by the drainage water. Tests made in June, 1900, showed that the alkali content to a depth of 1 feet had decreased to approximately 0.2 per cent over the entire tract. In 1901 the soil contained more than 1 per cent to a depth of 4 feet, largely concentrated in the first and second feet. The compar- ison shows the extent to which the alkali had been removed by a sin- gle year's flooding. Early this year the soil was put in order and seeded to oats. This crop produced a yield that compared favorably with the most productive lands in the valley. Since it has been shown that alkali can be removed from the soils in the Billings district the outlook is most promising. One of the worst alkali and seepage areas has been included in a drainage district, and a deep outlet ditch now constructed will serve to carry the surplus water from smaller, more detailed drainage systems in individual fields. Smaller local drainage systems are also being formed by private enterprise. 78 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGLICULTUEE. NEED BOB CONTINUING THE DEMONSTRATIONS. In carrying on the work in reclaiming alkali soils we have had many different conditions to meet and local difficulties to overcome. At each tract the character of the soil differed from that of the other ts, and at no two places are the alkali conditions nor the details of attacking the problem the same. This makes plain the wisdom of nding the work to other affected districts in order that full and exact plans may be placed in the hands of the farmers suffering this common evil of the arid YCest. Already urgent requests for the extension of this work are on file in the Department, and in view of its great economic importance it is the intention to follow the completion of the present demonstrations with the reclamation of small tract- in some other of the worst affected ions. There is no one soil problem more important to a large number of our western farmers than this, and none, happily, that is capable of such quick solution or that involves so great and so certain immediate increase in their wealth. TOBACCO INVESTIGATIONS. During the fiscal year just closed the Bureau of Soils has continued its investigations for the improvement of tobacco in Texas. Alabama, Ohio, Virginia, and Connecticut. EXPERIMENTS IN TEXA>. The tobacco grown in Texas during the preceding year was distrib- uted to the trade for the purpose of ascertaining its commercial value. In all 300 samples were sent out. and from the numerous replies received it can be positively stated that the tobacco produced in Texas meets the requirements of the trade as a high-class domestic tiller. About 200 acres are now being grown on the Orangeburg soils in Nacogdoches. Anderson. Houston, and Montgomery counties in east hile in central Texas, in Lavaca and Lee counties, experi- ments were conducted on similar soils. The industry is now assum- ing a conun itus. as a ready market has been created for the leaf. Great interest has been shown by the trade, by railroads, and by local interests in east Texas as a tobacco-producing region, and, with the promising beginning made in the counties mentioned, there is every reason to believe that this section of the State will soon be recognized as an important factor in our tobacco industry. -I'ECTS IX ALABAMA. The investigations for the production of filler leaf in Alabama have this past year been extended into Dallas County, in the southern part of which the Orangeburg soils appear. In Perry County the acreage REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 79 increased over 100 per cent. A ready market has been found for the product, and this has proved a stimulus to the growers. The tobacco produced is similar in quality to the Texas and Florida leaf, and the cost of production is a little less. FERMENTATION AND SELECTION IN OHIO. In Ohio the work of introducing' the bulk method of fermentation has been continued, and over 25,000,000 pounds of tobacco have been fermented according to the method prescribed by the Bureau of Soils. It has taken a period of live years to accomplish these results, and the system is now so well established in Ohio that the packers should be able to proceed without further supervision by our experts. Besides the fermentation work, the work of introducing Cuban seed filler in Ohio has been continued, 25 acres having been planted by the farmers under the direction of the Bureau. This was contracted for with local packers at prices ranging from 18 to 20 cents a pound. In Ohio, also, cooperative experiments have been conducted with the Bureau of Plant Industry in the selecting and breeding of improved types of tobacco, with a view to securing types of leaf giving a larger yield and having a uniform quality. Selections were made of Zimmer Spanish, Little Dutch, Ohio Seedleaf, and Ohio Cuban. It is believed that by this method of selection of seed native varieties of Ohio tobacco may be greatly improved, since where so man}7 varieties are grown, as in the Miami Valley of Ohio, there is great danger of their becoming mixed. EXPORT TOBACCO IN VIRGINIA. The experiments begun in Virginia in 1901 with heavy fire-cured tobacco have been continued during the past fiscal year. In the first year of this work it was demonstrated that by the use of carefully selected fertilizers the profits in growing this type of leaf could be increased considerably as compared with those obtained by the Virginia farmer. During the past year the same treatment of the same land was followed, and, between the two crops of tobacco, rye was sown as a cover crop and plowed under in the spring of the year. The results obtained show the accumulative effects of the fertilizer and cultural methods used. The land was divided into 3-acre plats. On one the fertilizer practice common to the locality was followed, on the second a slightly bettor brand was applied, and on the third a still more expensive application was made. The cost of production of the three plats was respectively ^44.50, $63.60, and $85.49, which shows a net profit of $15.63 on plat 1, $37.01 on plat 2, and $10.10 on plat 3. It is interesting to note that the same plats of ground receiving the same treatment in 1904 netted profits of $5, $21, and $2-1, respectively, showing gains in 1905 over 80 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGETCCLTULE. 19*4 of $10.63, $16.01, and $16.10, respectively. These results are highly significant as indicating what may be clone in this important tobacco district by the use of such methods as are practiced, for instai by the Connecticut Broadleaf growers. BEGINNING OF EXPERIMENTS WITH VIRGINIA BRIGHT TOB.V. Investigations for the improvement of the Bright tobacco of Vir- ginia were also begun during the past h-cal year (ended Jure 1906), in cooperation with the Virginia Experiment Station, the experimental held being situated near Chatham, in Pittsylvania County, the center of the Bright tobacco belt of Virginia, and within 90 miles of Danville, tbe largest market for this class of tobacco. The experi- ment is still in progress, and it will be impossible to report definite results until next year. CONNECTICUT SHADE-GROWN TOBACCO. In the Connecticut Valley the work of producing, under shade, a wrapper leaf having all the qualities demanded by the trade fa - continued in connection with the breeding experiments of the Bureau of Plant Industry. Eleven selections were taken in a 4-acre tent, seven from Sumatra seed and four from Cuban seed of the third generation in Connecticut. The yield of Sumatra ranged from 1.445 to 1,619 pounds per acre, and of Cuban from 1,134 to 1,384 pounds per acre. Out of these eleven types there have been selected two types of Sam and one of Cuban seed that appear to meet the demands of the trade. Besides the area in the experimental tent of the Department, there were grown by private planters during the year about 120 acres under cloth shade, both Cuban seed and Connecticut Broadleaf being planted. This is a slight increase over the acreage planted the pre and indicates that the trade is becoming interested in the shade product. One firm growing Broadleaf sold the tobacco for $1,061 an a re. giving a profit of about $300 an acre. The Cuban tobacco was sold for $1,2 an acre. During the summer of 19u6 the crop grown by the De partment from selected seed of both the Cuban and Sumatra variet tributed to thirty-three of the largest leaf dealers and cigar manul turers in the principal cities of the East. These were sent out with a request that they test the leaf and report to the Department their opinion of its quality and its adaptability for manufacturing purp Up to the time of closing this report answers have been received from twenty-live of those to whom samples were sent, and with one excep- tion they report that the tobacco has all the qualities demanded by the trade in a domestic cigar wrapper, and if tobacco similar to the samples can be grown on a commercial scale they do not he that a ready market can be found for it. There can be no question that tobacco of this quality can be produced REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. §1 on a commercial scale by careful growers if the methods used and recommended by the Bureau of Soils are followed. Notwithstanding the uniformly favorable reports received from the trade on the merits of this tobacco, the Bureau, however, would caution the prospective grower against embarking in the industry on too large a scale at the outset. PREVENTION* OF POLE SWEAT. Owing to the serious damage caused annually in Connecticut by pole sweat or house burn, the Bureau of Soils conducted some preliminary investigations in curing sheds containing both the cut and primed tobacco. A detailed record of the moisture and temperature condi- tions in each shed was kept, as also of the condition of the tobacco, with a view to determining the point of relative humidity and tem- perature of atmosphere at which tobacco would begin to pole sweat and the means to prevent the atmosphere of the shed becoming such as to favor its spread. This study will lie closely followed, as it is believed that results can be obtained which will be of great value to- the Connecticut growers. Urgent demands have been made upon the Department to extend its- operations into Florida, Maryland, Wisconsin, and Tennessee, but owing to the limited appropriation for this work it has so far been impossible to comply with these requests. BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY. Practically all of the investigations under way in the Bureau of Entomology at the time of my last report have been continued with excellent results, and several new and important lines of work have been begun. THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. Encouraging progress has been made in the work against the Mex- ican cotton boll weevil, as shown by an extensive canvass of the cotton planters who have followed the recommendations of the Bureau. Owing to climatic conditions in the summer and fall of 1904 and in the winter of 1904-5, some of the area that became infested late in the summer of 1901 was entirely devoid of weevils in the early part of 1905, but the fall movements of the weevil in 1905 more than covered this area. This permitted studies for which there had been previously little opportunity, and many points which had a bearing upon the possibility of the continued advance of the pest were investigated. EXPERIMENTAL FARMS. The continuation of the experimental farms at fourteen places in Texas has been deemed desirable, as the value of experimental field work depends largely upon the number of seasons through which it has 3 A1906 6 82 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. been carried. Two additional experimental farms bare been carried on in Louisiana. The whole acreage placed under contract in these experiments is 877. The modifications in the cultural system of lessening damage, made necessary by the change in habits of the insect, were carefully studied in connection with the work carried on in the laboratory. OTHER FIELD WORK. In addition to experimental plats on a large scale numerous field experiments were conducted, including an extensive experiment in the hand picking of infested bolls and considerable other work directed to the solution of questions which can not be tested with the fullest practical effect in the laboratory. The continued spread' of the weevil has been carefully watched, and publications regarding the new territory infested have been issued in cooperation with the "Weather Bureau. Careful study has been made of the conditions in western Texas in order to determine whether the weevil is likely to spread to that part of the State in spite of the gen- eral idea that such spread will not take place LABORATORY WORE. In the well-fitted laboratory now located at Dallas, Tex., the effects of different temperatures and the condition of food supply upon the development of the weevil were tested, the breeding of parasites was continued, and a special study was made of a native ant which seems to be becoming more and more an important factor in the natural con- trol of the weevil. Investigations of the distribution of this ant, its adaptability to different soil conditions, and the possibility of its arti- ficial propagation have also been made. TRUE PARASITES OF THE BOLL WEEVIL. Since the weevil entered Texas native parasites have had little effect upon it until recently. During the year, however, it was found that in the Brownsville region — first entered by the weevil about 1893 — native parasites have accommodated themselves to its habits, and now at least 50 per cent of the early stages are sometimes destroyed by these parasites. Consequently much attention is being paid to the parasite question, in order to determine whether it will be possible to assist the work of these beneficial insects. It seems probable that the small results gained from the work of parasites down to the present time are largely due to the recent invasion of the cotton fields of the South by the injurious insect. COOPERATION WITH THE LOUISIANA CHOP REST COMMISSION. Cooperation with the Louisiana Crop Pest Commission, begun in l!»04, was continued during the year, three assistants being employed by the Bureau for work in Louisiana. During the season of 1905 it REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. S3 was planned to enter upon an extensive study of the so-called migra- tory movement of the boll weevil in order to learn, if possible, some method of checking- its further advances, or at least to learn more definitely the approximate time when other regions may become infested. On account, however, of the occurrence of yellow fever and the consequent rigid quarantine, it was impossible to carry on this work in full, but a number of important observations were made. In cooperation with the commission more than 25,008 weevils were carefully studied under natural conditions during the winter. THE COTTON BOLL WORM. The work on the cotton bollworm during the fiscal year was largely in the character of demonstrations, indicating the value of conclusions already reached and detailed in the last annual report of the Ento- mologist, aud successful efforts were made locally in the extermination of the bollworm by means of poisons. OTHER COTTON INSECTS. The work on other cotton insects has been done largely in cooperation witli the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station. A field agent of the Bureau was stationed at the Texas Agricultural College, devoting his attention to the other insects affecting the cotton plant. The important discovery has been made that it is possible to propagate the predaceous enemies of the cotton plant-louse, an insect which sometimes causes great damage to young cotton. It is believed that this work will lead to a practical method of controlling the pest. INTRODUCTION OF BENEFICIAL IXSECTS. The most important work in connection with the introduction of beneficial insects has been the importing from Europe of the para- sites and predaceous enemies of the gips}T and brown-tail moths, in cooperation with the officials of the State of Massachusetts. PARASITES OF THE GIPSY MOTH AND BROWX-TAIL MOTH. It has been shown that it is an easy matter to bring the European parasites of these injurious insects to this country, simply by collect- ing numbers of the larvae and chiysalides in different parts of Europe and sending them direct to Boston. A certain percentage of these insects on arrival in New England have given out the European para- sites, which have either been cultivated in wire-gauze inclosures, with plenty of food, or have been liberated in the open, there being chosen for this purpose patches of woods not subject to forest fires or to remedial work against the insects. It has been ascertained further — and this is a fact hitherto unknown even to European entomologists — that the young larvae of the brown-tail moth in their overwintering S4 YEAEBOOK OF THE BEPAETMENT OF AGEICULTUEE. - in Europe are extensively parasitized. Therefore, during the winter of 1905-6 over 117.000 nests of the brown-tail moth were col- lected in 33 different localities in Europe, ranging between North Ger- many. South Hungary, and West Brittany, and comprising a large range of varying elevations and climatic conditions. More than ft), I parasites were reared from the - n --on American soil. About 8 per - . were hyperparasites; that is. parasites upon parasites. By means of specially constructed cages the hyperparasites were separated and desti The primary parasites were placed in out- of-door cages or liberated in the open. The largest colonies included 1 . ,15, 0, and 25,000 parasites, respectively. Owing to the very wet season a fungous disease prevailed among the caterpillars, vitiat- ing to some extent the results of the experiments, but nevertheless thiv : parasites were seen to lay their eggs in American- born caterpillars, and there is positive proof of the development on American soil of at least one complete generation of two of the Euro- pean species. It has been shown that they may breed successfully through the season. :>f the brown-tail moth have'also been imported dur- ing the summer, and have been seen to lay their eggs in the egg- of N rth American injurious insects. Two important European preda- ground beetles have been successfully imported, and have bred through an entire generation upon American soil. Large numbers of ina flies have been reared from European specimens of the larvae of both the gipsy moth and the brown-tail moth, and are breeding in vicinity of Boston. The greatest care ha- been taken to prevent the introduction of hyperparasites and other injurious insects, and there seems every reason to suppose that sooner or later the complete natural environ- ment of both the gipsy moth and the brown-tail moth will be estab- lished in New England, placing them on a par with European condi- tions, thus greatly reducing their present importance. BW LADYBIRDS FEOM EUROPE. During the late winter months and spring of 1906 several species of European ladybirds, well known as destroyers of plant lice, scale -. and soft-bodied insects of other groups, have been imported from Germany. France, and Austria. All of these have been liber- ated in the vicinity of the parasite laboratory at North Saugus, Muss, the country about being orchards and forests, with an occasional table garden, promising plenty of food for the beneficial species. THE KELEP OR GUATEMALAN ANT. rts i - wfi illy overwinter in Texas the kelep or Guatemalan ant enemy of the cotton boll weevil have failed and a possible useful role for this i :t in Texas is seemingly very slight. It is possible REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 85 that this species may have some economic value in some of our tropical or subtropical possessions, where the climate will be more suitable than in Texas. THE SENDING OF USEFUL INSECTS ABROAD. It is possible, in many iustances, to secure the sending of beneficial insects by the official entomologists of other countries without expense to the Department, as was done notably in the case of the introduc- tion of an important enemy of the black scale from the government of Cape Colony. South Africa. In return for such services and as an earnest for possible future courtesy of the same sort exportation* of parasitic and predatory insects have been made, under the auspices of the Bureau of Entomology, to foreign countries. A notable instance has taken place during the fiscal year. A scale insect which occurs abundantly upon various fruit trees in portions of the United States is a serious enemy to the mulberry tree in Italy, and therefore large sendiugs of parasitized scales of this species have been shipped to Professor Berlese. Director of the Royal Station for Agriculture and Entomology, at Florence. After arrival two species of parasites were bred in some numbers, and efforts are now being made to colonize them in Lombardy. It is hoped that they will prove effective aids in the eradication of the mulberry scale. INSECTS DAMAGING FORESTS. Investigations of insects damaging forests have progressed in a satisfactory manner in cooperation with the Forest Service of the Department. Numerous problems have been studied and a large store of general information upon forest insects has been accumulated. Field work has been conducted from stations in West Virginia, North Carolina, South Dakota, Idaho. Washington, and California, the locations of the stations being determined by the advantages offered at the points selected for the study of some special problem or problems. A special investigation was carried on in regard to the Black Hills beetle, which has extensively ravaged the forests in Colorado, and the results prove to be in the highest degree satisfactory and have been published in Bulletin 56 of the Bureau. The recommendations are now being actively followed by private persons with excellent chances of checking what might otherwise prove a most serious invasion. The conditions in the Black Hills are not so encouraging, owing, doubtless, to the failure of the parties interested to realize the importance of the recommendations of the Bureau. These difficulties, however, have now been partially overcome, and all concerned seem alive to the seriousness of the situation. 86 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Investigations in the South of the destructive pine-bark beetle and of a number of important insects injurious to forest products have been carried on, and studies have been made in regard to the insect enemies of forest reproduction. Special studies and recommendations have been made concerning the western pine-bark beetle in the region north of Boise. Idaho, and a study of the forest insects of the Pacific slope has been carried on. INSECTS DAMAGING DECIDUOUS FRUIT TREES. For the investigation of insect enemies of deciduous fruit trees field stations at Youngstown. N, Y.. and Fort Valley. Gat., were car- ried on to the close of the growing season of 1905. and in the spring of 1906 others were started at Myrtle. Ga.. and North East. Pa. Later another one was established at Nebraska City. Nebr. In the course of this work some studie-s have been made of the parasites of the San Jose scale, and experiments have been made with a numl>er of insecticide mixtures. The chemical study of the lime-sulphur and other washes has been undertaken in cooperation with the Bureau of Chemistry. New studies have been made of the plum curculio. The peach borer has also been studied throughout its geographic range, and extensive demonstration work has been done in Nebraska on remedies for the codling moth, in cooperation with the Bureau of Plant Industry, which at the same time was dealing with the apple scab, combination treatments for both being carried on cooperatively. Cooperation in this work is also under way with the several other experiment stations and the Georgia State entomologist. FIELD-CROP IN'SECTS. The mo.-t important work in connection with field-crop insects has been upon the Hessian fly and jointworms, especial investigations having been made of the Hessian fly in the spring-wheat regions. It was predicted that this insect would not damage wheat in regions where the spring crop is exclusively grown. This has proved to be a fallacy, and by reason of remarkable changes in the life history of the insect it lias adapted itself to the conditions existing in the far north- western country. This means a radical modification in remedial work, and the studies have indicated that it will not be difficult to bring about conditions of comparatively small insect damage. Important results have also been reached in the study of parasites of the Hessiaa fly, which will probably have a marked effect upon the multiplication of the fly. In the same way the jointworm investigations have resulted in the acquisition of important knowledge, both regarding possible remedial work and the handling of parasites. Studies have also been made of clover seed and clover insects, and also of other lield-crop pests. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 87 INSECTS AFFECTING VEGETABLE CROPS AND STORED PRODUCTS. Work on insects affecting vegetable crops and stored products has been continued along the same lines as conducted in previous years. Insects affecting the sugar beet have been studied with care, and a special investigation has been made of a leaf hopper affecting this crop in Utah, Idaho, and Colorado. Many other insects of this group have been under careful observation, and results of value. have been obtained. INSECTS WHICH CARRY DISEASE TO MAN AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS. The work of the Bureau on the subject of mosquitoes has been con- tinued. A further stud}' of the yellow-fever mosquito was made in the autumn of 1005, and experiments were made with remedies and methods of destruction against both kume and adults. Kecords have been brought together of the life histories and geographic distribu- tion of the majority of the mosquitoes inhabiting North and Central America and the "West Indies. In the spring of 1906 a publication was issued upon the subject of the house fly, calling attention to its agency in the spread of typhoid fever, pointing out proper methods for its control, and urging the adoption of these methods by individuals and communities. It was shown by observations made by the Bureau of Entomology upon a series of stables in two different sections of the city of Wash- ington that it is a comparatively easy matter greatly to reduce the num- bers of the house lly in any given community at a comparatively slight expenditure of funds and effort. The investigation of the life history of the Texas cattle tick, men- tioned in the last annual report, has been continued in cooperation with the entomologists of the States of Louisiana, Arkansas. Alabama, Tennessee, and South Carolina. This work has considerably increased our knowledge of the development of the tick, and in connection with this work the life history and habits of a number of other common ticks, frequently confused with the fever-transmitting species, have been investigated. SCALE INSECTS AND EXPERIMENTAL WORK WITH INSECTICIDES. This work, in special charge of the Assistant Chief of the Bureau of Entomology, has been continued. An immense amount of material in this group is sent in to the Bureau for identification and advice and the work grows in importance and value. A thorough inspection was made of all new plants which the Depart- ment of Agriculture is importing from different parts of the world to detect and destroy any new insect enemies, principally scale insects, which might be brought in with them. ^s YEAP.BOGK OF THE DEPARTMENT OP AGEICULTUEE. e work with insecticides has covered tests with standard insecti- cides, fumigation of mills, granaries, and dwelling- _ ist insect pests, and many new insecticide ideas or mixtures, which come to the Bureau for attention almost daily, have been examined and reported on. Te-t- carried on upon a large scale and in a very thorough manner with sulphurous-acid ga- have fully demonstrated its usefulness. BEE CULTURE. The work on bee culture has greatly increased. A large number of 3 of different varieti - sre reared and distributed from the irtment apiary, as well as from the substation at Chico. Cal. Investigations of the giant bees of India and the Philippines were con- tinued through the year. The various methods of queen rearing have been tested in rearing queens for distribution, and studies in bee diseases and in the impor- -ubject of honey -producing plant- have been carried on. .-ILK CULTURE. There has been no change in the method and scope of the work on silk culture dining the year. The correspondence was increased; a supply of eggs has been brought from Europe and distributed to cor- respondents in the United States: mulberry stock has been distributed, and cocoons have been purchased from correspondents and reeled. OTHER INVESTIGATION.-. Work on ins ta injurious to strawberry, raspberry, blackberry, and other bush fruits has been continued, and studies have been made of insects injurious to flower gardens and in greenhouses. An especial - of the insect enemies of roses is under way. The study of ts affecting shade and ornamental trees has also been continued, and an investigation has been made into the habits of the gad die-. Routine work iu the laboratory ha- greatly increased and biological - liave been made of nearly 500 species not hitherto -tudied. - also been noted in the work of determining specimens for the entomologists of experiment stations and other workers. Many thousan dmens have been received for this purpose. BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION". LIFE AXD CROP ZOXES. The Biological Survey deal- with many of the problems of the farm, orchard, and stock range, and aims to answer in a practical way many of the questions that arise in their management. One of the most EEPOET OF THE SECEETAEY. 89 important of these is the selection of crops and breeds of stock adapted to the local peculiarities of temperature, moisture, and other climatic factors that prevail, not only in different areas, but which in mountain- ous regions often characterize different parts of the same farm. A direct and reliable guide to such selection, apart from costly experi- mentation, is afforded by the distribution of the native plants and animals, for it has been learned that animals and plants are not scat- tered haphazard over the land, but in their distribution are governed by fixed laws. Thus the association, on a given area of certain birds, mammals, trees, and shrubs, presupposes the existence there of certain climatic and physical conditions. It naturally follows that there is a direct relation between the plant and animal life of such an area and the nature of the crops that can be grown upon it. The purpose of a biological survey of the several States is to supply life-zone maps based upon a study of the natural animal and plant life, followed by crop-zone maps with lists of fruits and crops which will best thrive in such areas. A generalized report of this nature, covering the United States as a whole, has been already published (Bull. 10, Biological Survey). The work is now being car- ried on in more detail and on larger scale maps in several of the Western States. DISTRIBUTION AND MIGRATION OF DUCKS AND SHORE BIRDS. As the game birds of the country diminish in numbers, and as their importance in the eyes of sportsmen and for food increases, the neces- sity of legislative protection becomes more imperative. In order to afford an accurate basis for such legislation, the routes of migration and the time of arrival and departure of ducks and geese and the shore birds have been carefully studied. ECONOMIC INVESTIGATIONS. ECONOMIC MAMMALOGY. The field included in this branch of the work is wide and important, the losses inflicted upon the agricultural and stock-raising interests in the United States by noxious animals amounting annually to many millions of dollars. The most prominent offenders are the wolves and the gnawing animals known as rodents — especially the rats and mice, rabbits, ground squirrels, and gophers. Much time and ingenuity and vast sums of money have been expended in devising means to restrict the numbers and minimize the damage done by these animals. Traps, poisons, and gases have been carefully experimented with under vary- ing circumstances, and have proved more or less effective, but the farmer does not always possess the requisite time and skill to employ them to best advantage, and even when they serve to accomplish the object intended the cost is considerable. 90 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Meanwhile agriculture la assuming more and more importance in the United States, and with increasing crops comes a corresponding increase in the numbers of the pests that destroy them. In the hope of rinding a remedy, the Bureau of Biological Survey is now engaged in experiments with epidemic diseases — diseases which in the course of nature break out at intervals and serve to reduce the numbers of rabbits, squirrels, mice, and other noxious animals to below the danger point. As some, if not all these diseases, are of bacterial origin, it is thought possible to obtain and preserve cultures of them for employment when and where occasion arises. Prior to their use in the field, however, a series of careful experiments is nec- rv to determine the character of the diseases — whether limited, as some undoubtedly are. to particular animals — the degree of their viru- lence, the extent of their communicability from animal to animal of a colony, and above all to make sure that human beings and farm stock are immune from their influence. In cooperation with the Bureau of Animal Industry, experiments have been already made with a virus for destroying rats and mice, and in cooperation with the State Agricultural Experiment Station at Pullman. Wash., experiments are being tried with a disease endemic to one of the ground squirrels of that region. The results of the latter experiments are awaited with peculiar interest, since the area infested by ground squirrels in Washington, Oregon, and Idaho is very large, and everywhere over it great damage is done to the wheat crop. With a view to eliciting timely information as to the prevalence of epidemic disease among rabbits, ground squirrels, prairie dogs, rats, and mice, a circular of inquiry has been widely distributed. The sub- ject is one of large possibilities, and time and money will be well spent if effective and economical methods are found to relieve the farmer of part of the burden and expense of protecting his crops from rodent pests, which are as numerous and destructive as they are ubiquitous and elusive. UEPKEDATIONS BY WOLVES. In cooperation with the Forest Service investigations are being made with a view to the reduction of the numbers of wolves on the stock ranges and on the game and forest reserves of the West. Wolves are still numerous in certain sections, and by reason of their size and strength constitute a formidable enemy to stock and to wild game. It is thought that effective means for the abatement of the nuisance have been found and a report on the -abject will soon be ready for publication. THE EABEIT I\ The damage to nurseries, orchards, and crops of the United States by rabbits has always been great, though happily nowhere reaching the proportions reported in Australia. Many experiments have been EEPOET OF THE SECRETARY. 91 made by assistants of the Survey for the purpose of discovering cheap methods of protecting orchards by wire fencing and by other means, and of reducing the number of rabbits by traps and poisons. It is believed that young trees in orchards and in forest reserves, where they are particularly liable to destruction by rabbits, can be cheaply and efficiently protected by cylinders of woven wire, and experiments arc being undertaken in cooperation with the Forest Service for test- ing- the efficiency of such protectors. Babbits in various parts of the country appear to be peculiarly susceptible to epidemic diseases, and as they are one of our most destructive rodents special efforts are being- made to detect the presence of one of these epidemics for the purpose of securing cultures as a means of reducing their numbers. THE BOLL WEEVIL. During the year investigations were continued in the Texas cotton districts with reference to birds that feed upon the weevil. The results are encouraging. In all, 28 species of birds have been found to be more or less active enemies of the insect. Included in this number is the nighthawk, heretofore not known to eat the weevil. The night- hawk proves to be an active consumer of the insect. Its protection by law therefore is earnestl}' recommended. This is all the more neces- sary, since the bird is often shot for food. Of all the birds that prey upon the weevil, orioles are the most active and persistent. For this reason the possible introduction into the Gulf States of one or more additional species of these birds is being considered. Only one of the three species that visit the cotton- producing belt breeds extensively within it; hence if one is introduced it should be a species likely to make its summer home within the area infested by the weevil, as all birds are particularly assiduous in their search for insects during the time they are feeding the young. CALIFORNIA FRUIT ORCHARDS!. Work in the California fruit orchards is being continued and a study made of the food habits of birds destructive to orchard fruit, with a view to the suggestion of preventive measures. Careful investigations are being conducted also into the food habits of all birds that live in and around orchards, so that the orchardist may be clearly informed as to the beneficial species, in order that he may be able to discriminate between friends and foes. HALE INSECTS. Few kinds of insects are so inimical to the health and existence of fruit trees and other crop plants as the scales, and owing- to their small size and peculiar habits few are so diffcult to cope with. It has been generally supposed that birds lend no assistance in the destruction of scales. This proves to be an error, for the Biological Survey has 92 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. already found that more than 50 species of birds eat scale insects. Not only is thi> true, bat in the case of certain species, as the grosbeaks, scales have been ascertained to form a large percentage of the food. GAME PROTECTION AND INTRODUCTION. The experience of many countries proves how widespread is the desire to introduce foreign mammals and birds. When these are merely for cage pets or for exhibition in zoological collections, little or no harm results. But when, as frequently happen.-, exotic species are liberated in the hope that they will become acclimated and form permanent additions to the fauna, there is always danger that, like the English sparrow, they will be only too successful in adapting them- selves to the new environment and prove serious pests. The disas- trous experiments of Jamaica. Porto Rico. Hawaii. New Zealand, Australia, and other regions abundantly illustrate this danger. Sev- eral countries take the precaution of regulating such importations, the United States among the number. Since 1900 the Department of Agriculture has supervised all importations of live birds and mammals into the United States. A few well-known species of birds and mam- mals are allowed to enter without special authorization, but all others are refused entry except under permit by the Department. The num- ber thus entered during the year was 651 mammals 274,914 canaries, and 47,256 miscellaneous birds. The growth of the trade in imported birds is made manifest by the fact that the figures show an increase of 25 per cent over those for last year, and of 33. 27. and 37 per cent, respectively, over those for -1. 1902-3, and 1901-2. Despite the large number of birds and mammals imported under permit, averaging more than 6,000 a week throughout the past year, it is believed that no prohibited species was brought into the country. Increased interest is shown in the importation of foreign game birds for stocking covers. During the year 861 European partridges, 116 capercailzie. 73 black game, and 59 other game birds were imported for this purpose. Some of these experiments promise excellent results. >tocking covers with birds hatched from imported eggs has hereto- fore been unsuccessful in most cases. Last spring, however, of 5,564 ccrg< imported under permit by the Department, 5,500 were English pheasant eggs secured by the game commissioner of Illinois, who reports that 3,000 live, healthy chicks were obtained — an unusually large percentage. Large shipments of birds are examined by inspectors and the number and kinds are reported to the Department. The expense of fees has hitherto been borne by importers, since no appropriation for the pur- pose was made by Congress. This arrangement proved unsatisfactory EEPOET OF THE SECRETARY. 93 and protest was made by importers. Since February 1. 1906, the Department has undertaken to pay these fees, and an appropriation should be made to sustain the service, as in the case of inspection of meats. The lack of such appropriation permits inspection onlv of the most important shipment-. INTERSTATE COMMERCE IX GAME. The close surveillance of interstate traffic in game established in the Middle West has driven illegal shippers to the use of freight instead of express, and has brought the situation in that region under partial control. Attention will therefore be centered during the coming year on the Southwest, where systematic violations of the law are frequent. An effort will be made also to check numerous illegal shipments that occur in the South, particularly in West Virginia. Virginia, and North Carolina. The limited means available for this work make progress slow and difficult. A sufficient sum should be appropriated to permit the employment of three supervisors, at Chicago, St. Louis, and Balti- more, respectively, to study conditions, secure evidence of illegalities, assist prosecuting officers, and aid generally in a more effective enforcement of the law. BIRD RESERVATIONS. One of the most successful methods of preserving the birds of a country is by setting aside regions that contain important colonies of breeding birds as bird reservations or '"refuges." England. Aus- tralia. Canada. New Zealand, and other countries have followed this plan with great success, and in 1903 the United States inaugurated it by making a bird reservation of Pelican Island, Florida, to preserve the only colony of brown pelicans on the east coast of Florida. Afterward- two more reservations were established — Breton Island, Louisiana, and Stump Lake. North Dakota — and in the year just ended four more were added to the list, two in Florida, consisting of Pas-age and Indian keys, at the mouth of Tampa Bay, and two in Michigan, comprising the Huron Islands and the Siskiwit Islands in Lake Huron. These reservations contain large colonies of water birds — ducks. gulls, terns, pelican-, etc. — and their establishment will serve to pre- serve certain native species from possible extermination and provide favorable places for the study of bird life. It has been found essen- tial to have Federal authority to punish trespassers instead of depend- ing on varying State laws, and accordinglv. at the suggestion of this Department. Congress passed an act (approved June 29, 1906) provid- ing a penalty for trespass on bird and game reservations. This law will enable the wardens on bird reservations to protect them from marauders. 94 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BIG It is gratifying to state that part of the herd of dwarf elk presented to the Government by Miller and Lux was successfully transferred to the Sequoia National Park in November. 1905, thus insuring the pres- ervation of this rare speeies. It is now possible, also, to transfer to an ideal buffalo range in the Wichita game preserve the herd of buffalo offered to the Department by the New York Zoological Society, as Congress at its recent session appropriated $15,000 for the construction of the fence necessary for a proper Enclosure. The plan of preserving big game from extermination by providing game refuges where shooting is either prohibited or carefully regu- lated is at present attracting attention all over the world. In order to profit by the experience of other countries in a matter that must soon be of pressing interest in the United States, investigation has been made of the systems employed in Canada, particularly Ontario and Quebec, the Transvaal. Natal. British East Africa. Sudan, and Cape Colony. This work has been carried on by correspondence and will be continued and extended during the coming year. GAME PROTECTION" IN" ALASKA. The preservation of the game of Alaska continues to present dif- ficult problems. With the present unsatisfactory game law, and no appropriation available for enforcing its provisions, the efforts of the Department have been confined to preventing export of heads and skins by trophy hunters and dealers in hides, a fruitful source of destruction. INFORMATION" CONCERNING GAME. In performance of the important duty of collecting and disseminat- ing information relating to game, the annual summary of game 1 posters of close seasons, and directory of officers and organizations concerned in the protection of game have been published as usual, and also various pamphlet* relating to special features of game protection. In the near future it is intended to secure and publish information concerning hunting-license statistics, game refuges and preserves, introduction and propagation of game birds, duties of the modern game warden, and the cage-bird traffic of the United States. The constant demand for information on these and kindred mat: shows how important is this phase of the work. It is impossible to meet this demand satisfactorily with the present limited force and available means, and an increase in both is much needed. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 95 DIVISION OF PUBLICATIONS. The work of the Division of Publications continues inevitably to increase with the growth of the Department. The number of publi- cations issued in 1904 was 372; in 19G&, 1. "7:2: and in 1906, 1.171. The somber of copies Issued in 1S06 aggregated 13,1SS.021. The larger proportion of these publications consisted of reprints, but the new publications in 1906, exclusive of those of the Weather Bureau, numbered 111. FARMERS* BULLETINS The total number of issues of Farmers' Bulletins during the tiscal year was 137. of which 404 were reprint-, and the total number of copies was 6^*68,000, The demand for Farmers' Bulletins by Senators and Representa- tives, who under the law are entitled to SO per cent of the whole number printed, has been so much larger than usual that practically none were left to carry over to the present tiscal year. There being therefore no surplus available and the appropriation for the current tiscal year being no larger than formerly, the number available for each Congressman will this year be greatly reduced. 1 have there- fore felt obliged to include provision for an increase in the number of these bulletins in my estimates for the ensuing year. The num- ber of copies of Farmers' Bulletins distributed during the past year on Congressional orders aggregated .3.i'7'.,.17t'>. A DVLSORY COMMITTEE. On January i!3. 1906, in accordance with your Executive order of the 30th of that month. I appointed an advisory committee on the sub- ject of printing and publication, as follows: The Assistant Secretary, chairman; the Chief of the Weather Bureau, and the Department Editor, secretary. The rules laid down for the guidance of the com- mittee in the Executive order referred to, conform so closely to the regulations governing the printing and binding of this Department imposed upon the Division of Publications, of which the Department Editor is the chief, that it was not found necessary by the committee to adopt a different system of work or to recommend many changes in the existing orders. The services of the committee were, however, extremely helpful in disposing of many questions submitted to it by the Department Editor, which would otherwise have called for my personal intervention. I'p to date the committee has held ten meet- ings, not at stated times, but at the call of the chairman whenever questions of importance were ready to be submitted to it. 96 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OE AGRICULTURE. BSSIOirAIi PUBLICATION-. S .eral important amendment- to the law governing the public printing and binding have resulted from the special investigation con- ducted 1' int Committee on Printing of the Senate and House. One of these provides that the nr-t cost of all publications known as -ional publications shall be charged to the printing fund of the Department itself instead of to the appropriation for the printing and binding for. Cong: ess, I _rether with the cost of the copies assigned fcary for Departmental use. This has made it necessary. of course, 1 - are an i: - in the appropriation for printing for : this Department, and the additional amount estimated, as above made n y. has been duly appropriated by Congress. This, in reality, is not an increase, but a transfer from one fund to another. Another amendment provides that public documents ordered printed — may be printed in two or more editions not exceeding in the aggregate the total number authorized by law. This provision applies not only to the number assigned to the use of Congress, but to the number assigned to the use of the Department. This amendment will doubtless tend greatly to prevent waste by over- publication. LIMITATION OF APPROPRIATION FOR PRINTING. A further amendment to the law provides that estimates for the printing and binding of each Department shall be included in a single item, and that after the expiration of the current fiscal year no appro- priations other than those made specifically and solely for the printing and binding shall be used for such purposes. In this connection. I topi -f on record as strongly favoring the inclusion of the appropriation for printing and binding in the regular appropria- tion bill for the support of this Department, instead of being, as now, included in a separate appropriation in the sundry civil bill for the general printing and binding of the Government. INCREASING DEMAND FOR PUBLICATIONS. T:.e demands for publications continue to increase more rapidly than does the ability of the Department to meet them. The policy followed in the past of continuing the distribution after supplying the . d Jar divisional lists, including libraries, agricultural colleges, and stations, exchanges — foreign and domestic — and persons actively coop- erating in the work of the Department, to all miscellaneous appli- cants until the edition was exhausted, and then ordering a reprint to satisfy further demands, while perhaps the best method to be pursued REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 97 in any plan of unlimited gratuitous distribution, was found verv unsatisfactory. In the first place, the funds at our disposal precluded the possibility of unlimited reprints, and thus, while a great many persons were sup- plied who undoubtedly did not need the publications they asked for. a large number of persons to Avhom the publications would prove useful were unavoidably left unsupplied, including very often persons whose services to the Department gave them a special claim on us for our publications. Such a plan might have been satisfactory enough in the days when the demand for the Department's publications was not so great, though even then it was wasteful; but at the present time to undertake to supply all miscellaneous applicants — and this is the only fair way if the principle of gratuitous distribution is to obtain — would involve a cost far exceeding any sum which Congress is likely to provide. In the face of the difficulty thus presented to me for solution, I concluded to abandon any attempt at general gratuitous distribution of all Department publications other than Farmers' Bul- letins and circulars. FIRST EDITIONS. On April 14, 1906, I issued a general order which limited the first edition of every publication to the number of copies necessary to supply libraries, educational institutions, the press, State and foreign officials connected with agriculture, exchanges, and such persons as render tangible service to the Department, either by actively cooperat- ing in its work or as special correspondents, and including- a small number to be reserved for emergencies and for use in correspondence, and to furnish a small supply to be placed in the hands of the Super- intendent of Documents for sale. I am indebted to the courtesy of this official for the subjoined statement, showing the total number of the publications of this Department sold by him during the last fiscal year and the sums received therefor, and, for purposes of comparison, the total number sold of all Government publications and the amount received: Publications of Department of Agriculture copies. . 47, 745 Amount received therefor $5, 388. 28 All Government publications _ copies.. 75,828 Amount received therefor $16, 495. 88 REPRINTS BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS. I am also indebted to the Superintendent of Documents for a report showing that under the provisions of joint resolution No. 11. approved March 28, 1901, and with the concurrence of this office, as therein pro- vided, 13 reprints of Department publications were ordered by him from the Public Printer during the year ending June 30, 1906, in editions of 3 a 1906 7 98 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE. from 100 to 1,500 copies, in order to satisfy the requests of purchas- ers. Under the terms of the resolution referred to, these reprints, which aggregated over 10,000 copies, were paid for from the funds received by the Superintendent of Documents from the sale of our publications. This sale of Government publications under the pro- visions of the resolution, which authorize him to reprint as occasion requires, defraying the cost of same from the sums received by him as purchase money, affords the most equitable plan for the distribu- tion of these publications to miscellaneous applicants. It involves no waste, meets the requirements of all parties interested at a minimum cost to the Government, and provides for a supply adequate to any ole demand. To make this system a complete success requires the extensive advertising of the existence of these publications, and to this end this Department supplies each month to all persons desiring it a list of the publications issued during the month previous. By this means, and through the intelligent courtesy of the press, our publications are widely advertised. A second requirement is, in my opinion, that these pub- lications should be sold at cost of paper, printing, and binding, the cost of the first edition, which includes the making of the plates, being properly defrayed by the Government. Another great convenience would be afforded to intending purchasers if the Superintendent of Documents were authorized to receive postage stamps as cash. This is especially true where the sums involved amount to or include fractions of a dollar. DEMAXD FOR PUBLICATIONS BY EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS. A great many demands are being made upon us by educational insti- tutions for publications of this Department to be used as text-books, and as these demands usually involve supplying whole classes of stu- dents with the same publication, the question promises to present some difficulties. Heretofore I have made it a point to grant such requests, but how long I can continue to do so gratuitously, in the face of rapidly increasing demands of this character, is problematical. In many cases, especially where there has been cooperation between State institutions and this Department, the number desired is so great that the parties themselves desire the privilege of purchasing hundreds, and sometimes thousands, of copies. Under the law regulating such matters the Public Printer is author- ized to sell not more than 250 copies to any individual, and the appli- cant must tile his order before the publication goes to press. In the - I refer to. this number is generally inadequate, and moreover it is impossible to comply with the condition. There is then left to the institution or official desiring the publications the alternative of pur- chasing the plates, with a view naturally to saving the cost of composi- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 99 tion. Under the law no saving- can be effected in this way. The Public Printer is compelled to charge not only the cost of the metal in making the plates, but also the original cost of composition. I would suggest an amendment to the law, authorizing the Public Printer to supply duplicate plates of Government publications at the cost of such dupli- cation, with 10 per cent added for handling, to all applicants duly indorsed by the head of the Department issuing the publication. BUKEAU OF STATISTICS. SUMMARY OF THE WORK DURING THE YEAR. The work of the Bureau of Statistics is performed in three divisions: (1) The Division of Domestic Crop Reports, (2) the Division of Foreign Markets. (3) the Miscellaneous Division. As in former years, the principal work of the Bureau of Statistics has been the collection and dissemination of information regarding the acreage, condition, and yield of the principal agricultural crops of the United Stat* s. The Division of Domestic Crop Reports handles the great mass of reports received from month to month by the Bureau for the use of the Statistician and the Crop Reporting Board in preparing the esti- mates of the Bureau. The work accomplished in this Division is supplemented by reports received from salaried State statistical agents, one of whom is located in each State, and from special field agents who travel within and throughout defined territory, consisting of two or more States, exam- ining the crops in the field and securing information for the use of the Bureau from all available sources, such as country bankers, agricul- tural implement dealers, representative farmers, country merchants, and others. During the year the scope of this work has been very greatly broadened, the increase being approximately 100 per cent. Twenty- live crops not previously dealt with by the Bureau have been added, concerning which reports of condition are made from month to month. This has taxed the working capacity of the clerical force of the Bureau, and has rendered it necessary that they be required to do considerable work above and beyond the regular hours of service ordinarily required. The special field service of the Bureau of Statistics, as well as the corps of State statistical agents, has been considerably strengthened and the work of these employees has been placed upon a uniform, scientilic basis, such as did not formerly prevail. The reports of the Bureau and the methods employed in making them seem to have met with general approval, and have largely increased the confidence of producers, consumers, dealers, and the public generally in their integrity and accuracy. 100 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In order to prevent the possibility of information regarding the reports of the Bureau being prematurely given out, methods have been adopted which render such leakages impossible. These are explained and described in detail in the annual report of the Statistician of the Bureau. The value of the monthly crop reports of this Bureau has been so thoroughly established that any suggestion looking to their curtailment meets with vigorous objection and opposition from all who are interested in the promulgation of fair, unbiased estimates regard- ing acreages, conditions, and yields of the products of agriculture. The Division of Foreign Markets compiles information regarding the imports and exports of all the different classes of farm products; also of manufactured products as far as the output of packing houses .can be so denominated. The information thus gathered is published annually in bulletins, to which wide circulation is given. In addition to this regular work, studies are made of conditions in countries com- peting with the United States in the world's markets, with regard to packing-house products and meat animals, and a large amount of instructive matter has been collected and published. Investigations have also been conducted by this Division of the world's meat trade; of the comparative healthfulness of meat animals in different countries; of the situation throughout the world with regard to cotton production; of the British market for dairy products and its sources of supply; wheat growing in Russia; freight rates, and the world's production and trade in barley, rye, potatoes, wheat, tobacco, cotton, and other agricultural products. During the past }Tear a very interesting study was consummated upon the subject of the increase in farm values in the United States, the results of which have been published in bulletins which have attracted wide attention and interest. In the Miscellaneous Division of the Bureau of Statistics, which embraces the statistical library, the necessary translations incident to the work are made; and a few clerks are engaged in special work, such as the compiling and preparing of material to be used in answer- ing inquiries for agricultural statistics made by Members of Congress and others. The services of the .clerks in this Division are called into requisition in the tabulation and computation of the monthly crop reports, or for any other purpose for which they may be required. An employee of the Bureau of Statistics is stationed in London and from that point makes trips to the different European countries, col- lecting information regarding crop acreages, conditions, and yields, which he sends to Washington each month for publication in the Crop Reporter, a monthly publication of the Bureau, in which are given the reports of the Bureau, placed in comparison with reports for previous 37ears at the corresponding dates, together with various other statis- tical information of interest to farmers and dealers in and cousumers of farm products. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 101 Much statistical work in the way of tabulation and computation has been done for other Bureaus of the Department, and though the regular work has been greatly increased through the enlargement of its scope, all the statistical service required by other Bureaus has been accomplished promptly and satisfactorily. The work of the Depart- ment is being- unified and made cooperative in man}- lines of research and demonstration. Investigations have been carried on through a series of years regard- ing the cost of producing farm products, and results of these investi- gations have been embodied in bulletins, which, it is believed, will be of great value and interest. THE LIBRARY. The growth of the Library has exceeded that of an v previous }Tear, so that at present the scientists of the Department have available for their use a collection of scientific books, periodicals, and pamphlets numbering over 92,000. All new publications of value relating to general agriculture and to special subjects concerning which investi- gations are being carried on b}r the Department have been purchased, over 500 periodicals alone being received regularl}\ This Library is gradually growing to be the most complete collection of agricultural literature in the country. Many valuable purchases and gifts have been included in the 5,000 additions of the past year. For the advance- ment of work in connection with food and drug regulations, meat inspection, and game protection an unusual amount has been expended for law books and other works published in this country and abroad relative to these subjects. EvenT new line of work entered upon by the Department makes a correspondingly new demand upon the Library. t CATALOGUING. The card catalogue of 160,000 author and subject entries is the most valuable key to the resources of the Library. The cataloguing has been kept up to date, so that the material on a given subject is readily available. Cooperation with the Library of Congress and with other institutions which print cards has enabled the Library to secure a larger number of printed cards for its catalogue than ever before. These cards are not onl}- for books and pamphlets of its own, but maivy show what may be found on subjects of interest to this Department in other departmental libraries. By this means the scope of the catalogue is largel}r increased at the least cost of time and mone}T. The cataloguing of the publications of the Department has progressed from year to year until now there is a card catalogue to these documents up to the latest bulletin issued. These cards are valued by all libraries receiving our publications regularly, affording as they do the only LQ2 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPAETMEXT OF AGRICULTURE. up-to-date means of reference to all author- and subjects of the publi- On account of the ii ? demands for this catalogue and of the la rary for handling and storing the cards, it been found advi- I :;sfer the printing and distribution of care- rary of C _. --. This cooperation has given satis- factory results in the advancement of the work. t only is the Library indispensable in connection with the work of the Department, but much work has been done in it by visiting spe- cialists, and to many agricultural colleges, and experiment stations temporary loans of publications not elsewhere to be found in the been made. OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS. SELAT1 - : . ITDBAIi EXPERIMENT STATI Tie great value of the agricultural experiment stations as agencies for the advancement of agriculture through scientific research was gnized by Congress in a signal manner during the past year by age of the Adam- A . This measure, introduced and cham- pioned 1 Hon. Henry Oullen Adam-, of Wisconsin, had the unanimous appr he committees on agriculture in both He d in C jj sa without a dissenting vote, and received the r jval of the I arch 16, 1906. It provides that each State and Territory shall annually receive from the National Treasury a grant of money in addition to that given for the establishment and main- tenance of agricultural experiment stations by the act of March 2, 1887 Harch Act . The initial appropriation to each State under the 1 for the fiscal year 1906. To this amount $3 3 be added each year for five years, after which an appropriation is ( ontinue annually. Thus in 1911 and each year there- after each Si will receiv< j . double the amount hitherto granted under the Hatch Act. The new act recognizes the fact that through previous National and S legislation the stations are thoroughly organized, are equipped with lands and buildings, and have funds for the printing and di ion of publications. -ion and strengthening of th ;nental work of the herefore made the sole object of the Adams Act, and the additional funds are "to be applied only to paying the necessary - of con o original lies or experiments bearing directly on the agricultural industry of the Unite -." The Adams fund is thus essentially a research fund, and if properly used Id produce 2 the greatest and most permanent value to rican agriculture. The Stal experiment .-" ave already performed service of great value. They have done much to secure radical and wid- -_ ats in agricultural pra they have contributed in lar^e mc ition of a new American REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 103 literature of agriculture and made it available to every farmer; they have collected much of the material from which a science of agricul- ture is being formulated as the basis for the instruction of successive generations of farmers in colleges, schools, and farmers' institutes. As their work has developed, it has naturally divided itself into several broad classes, which may be briefly summarized as (1) original research; (2) verification and demonstration experiments, often of a local char- acter and import; (3) inspection service; and (1) dissemination of infor- mation. So great has been the local pressure for work of the last three classes that by far the greatest share of the National and State funds has been spent in these lines. The Adams fund now comes in to enable the stations to broaden and deepen their original researches, on the results of which largely depends the success of their other work. Previous to the passage of the Adams Act the funds of the stations from sources within the States had steadily increased, until in 1905 they exceeded the revenue derived from the National Treasury. There is every reason to believe that the States and local communities will continue to deal liberally with the stations, and that thus they will be able to extend their more popular and directly practical work. The United States will thus have a much more thorough and compre- hensive s}Tstem of agricultural experiment stations. Congress having put in my hands the administration of the Adams Act, I have assigned to the Office of Experiment Stations the duty of dealing with the experiment stations in matters relating to this act. The untimely death of Mr. Adams has taken away one of the fore- most leaders in the cause of agricultural progress in this country. His clear insight into agricultural problems and needs, his thorough sympathy with farmers, his appreciation of the benefits accruing to agriculture from the work of properly trained scientists, his independ- ence of thought and action, his fearless advocacy of measures which he deemed of importance to agriculture, his experience in public life both as an administrator and as a legislator, his thorough honesty, which won the respect and confidence even of those who opposed him, put him in a position to render the highest and best service in National councils and legislation. In consideration of the important social and economic changes which our rural communities are passing through in these days, as well as of the vast material interests involved in our agriculture, the loss of such a leader is most keenly felt. Great, how- ever, was his achievement in the short period in which he was a mem- ber of Congress, for the name of Representative Adams, of Wisconsin, will ever be linked with that of Senator Morrill, of Vermont, and Rep- resentative Hatch, of Missouri, as the author of a measure of funda- mental and permanent importance to the institutions which advance and disseminate the knowledge on which our agricultural progress and permanent prosperity largely depend. 104 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS. In response to demands from numerous sources the work of the Department relating to agricultural education has been gradually broadened, until now it touches nearly every phase of the subject. This Department, through the Office of Experiment Stations, has been active in aiding the establishment of agricultural high schools and the introduction of agricultural subjects into the curricula of the public schools. Representatives of that Office have addressed important edu- cational and agricultural meetings in the interests of agricultural education in a number of States, have given advice regarding legisla- tion and courses of study, and have assisted in the inauguration of agricultural instruction and the securing of agricultural teachers in different localities. The agricultural colleges have been visited and conferences have been held with their officers and teachers. A special study has been made of the agricultural work in the colleges for negroes. The general interests of higher education in agriculture have been promoted through cooperation with the Association of American Agri- cultural Colleges and Experiment Stations. As chairman of the stand- ing committee on agricultural instruction, the Director of that Office has aided in studies with reference to the improvement of courses of instruction in the agricultural colleges and schools. He has also acted as dean of the Graduate School of Agriculture, which held a second successful session at the University of Illinois the past summer. The faculty of this school consisted of 35 of our leading agricultural teach- ers* and experts from this Department and the agricultural colleges and experiment stations. The students, drawn from 34 States and Territories, were mainly the younger men already engaged in agri- cultural teaching and experimenting. With the development of the Department's work along educational lines it has become clear that it may accomplish important and valua- ble service as a central agency for the promotion of agricultural edu- cation in cooperation with the State departments of agriculture and education, the agricultural colleges and experiment stations, and the State and National agricultural organizations. The most important lines of educational effort in which the Department should engage may be briefly outlined as follows: (1) To aid the agricultural colleges to reduce the results of the investigations made by this Department and the experiment stations to pedagogical form for use in agricultural colleges and schools of dif- ferent grades. This work is now proceeding too slowly to keep pace with the accumulation of material, and the lack of well-ordered manuals and illustrative materials is a great hindrance to the effective organization of agricultural instruction. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 105 (2) To promote the efficiency of agricultural instruction in the negro land-grant colleges, in order that the funds granted for negro education by the Federal Government may contribute toward keeping the negro on the farm and making him a more efficient factor in agricultural pro- duction for his own good and that of the nation, rather than, as is largely the case at present, drawing him away from the farm into the uncertainties and dangers of city life. (3) To aid the agricultural organizations in the several States in promoting an efficient organization of agricultural high schools, con- solidated common schools, and other educational agencies best adapted to secure a high state of prosperity and contentment in rural life. It is along these lines that the great educational effort of the immediate future is to be made. The forces behind the movement for industrial education have hitherto devoted themselves very largely to the pro- motion of instruction in the city industries. It is now apparent that a similar work needs to be done for the great fundamental industries grouped under agriculture. Much work will be required to bring the masses of our agricultural population into sympathetic touch with the progressive movement in education and to secure for them a school system in harmony with their environment and their relations to the world's work and civilization. As the nation's representative of agri- cultural enlightenment and progress, this Department should be in a position to render effective aid in this enterprise, on the success of which depends so largely the permanent prosperity and contentment of our agricultural people. (4) Since the success of agricultural instruction in the public schools will depend very largely on the teachers, this Department should aid the agricultural colleges and other State educational institutions in preparing and inaugurating training courses for teachers of agricul- ture in secondary and elementary schools. (5) Since agriculture as a fundamental industry is of vital impor- tance to all our people, this Department should present such results of its work and that of the experiment stations at home and abroad as are adapted to instructional purposes in connection with nature study and elementary agriculture in a form available to teachers and pupils in both country and city, the object being to impress our youth with the dignity, value, and attractiveness of country life and pursuits. THE FARMERS1 INSTITUTES. Interest in the farmers' institutes continues to increase throughout the country, and a larger attendance is reported for the past year than ever before. The Department is keeping in close touch with the State organizations under which the institutes are held, and is especially aiding the lecturers to obtain up-to-date information regarding the 106 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. progress made in agricultural science and practice. In many locali- ties there is a demand for more extended and definite instruction than can be given in the ordinary institutes. The Department is therefore having short courses of lectures prepared by experts, which may used in so-called movable agricultural schools. Inquiry is also being made regarding the value of various other means more or less exten- sively used for interesting farmers and their families in improved prac- tice on their farms and in their households. Representatives of the Department have accompanied the special railroad trains which have carried exhibits and lecturers to thousands of farmers in many parts of the country, proving a popular and effective mean- of awak- ening interest in the work of the Department and the experiment stations. The farmer-;' institutes and other forms of what is often called extension work in agricultural education are very important supplements to the publications of the Department and the stations, as well as to the regular work of the agricultural colleges and schools. The Department should share in this extension work and seek to pro- mote its general inter EXPERIMENT STATIONS IN ALASKA, HAWAII, AND PORTO RICO. A systematic, effort has been begun to determine the feasibility of the live-stock industry in Alaska. A small herd of Galloway cattle has been purchased and located at Kenai. in Cook Inlet, and at Wood Island. These cattle have subsisted during the summer upon the native grasses, and a considerable supply of grain hay has been grown at the Kenai Station with which to maintaiu them during the winter. Wheat, rye. barley, and oats matured in 1905 and 1906 at the Rampart Station in the Yukon Valley, but 300 miles farther south, in the Copper River Valley, cold and drought killed all but the hardiest varieties of cereals. A large amount of grain hay was obtained at the Copper Center Station and sold at a highly remunerative price. It has been shown that many of the Alaskan soils require lime, and a method has therefore been devised for the cheap local production of iime in small quantities. Arrangements have been made to open a station near the prosperous mining towns of Fairbanks and Chena. on the Tanana River, as soon as funds are available for this purpose. The Hawaii : 9 an increasing appreciation of its en toward diversifying the agricultural industries of the islands, a direct result of three years* experimental work with tobacco it is said that this year fully 200 acres were planted. The discovery by the station chemist that Hawaiian feeding stuffs are deficient in lime is an important one, and will make it possible to arrange more satis- factory rations for live stock. The investigations on the marketing of tropical fruits promise to open markets in the Pacific coast, which can best be supplied from Hawaii. Investigations begun with the REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 107 object of rehabilitating the rice industry have been so favorably received that private individuals have generously contributed consid- erable sums of money to aid in carrying them on. The Porto Rico station is extending its influence, and requests for cooperative work are coming from numerous sources. While the income of the station has been too limited to enable it to meet these demands, yet they show a growing sentiment in favor of the station which is very encouraging. The coffee experiments have begun to show results, and the improved methods of pruning and cultivation are quite apparent in the increased yields obtained. A successful effort is being made to grow lowland rice, and this industry should be greatly extended. The Porto Bicans are large consumers of rice, most of which is now imported. Among- the forage crops experiments with cowpeas have been most successful, and it is believed that they can be grown throughout the island. Numerous horticultural experiments arc in progress, and studies are being made of insect pests and plant diseases. The work of the stations in Alaska, Hawaii, and Porto Rico is now so well established that the}' can profitabl}- make use of' increased funds. Considering the fact that all buildings, equipment, and live stock must be provided for these stations from the Federal funds, there is even greater need of more liberal appropriations for their mainte- nance than in the ease of the State experiment stations. I* therefore recommend that an appropriation be given to the stations in Alaska, Hawaii, and Porto Rico equal to the amount given the State stations under the Hatch and Adams acts. PROGRESS IN NUTRITION INVESTIGATIONS. The investigations on the food and nutrition of man, conducted in different States and Territories under the auspices of the Office of Experiment Stations, have, as in the past, been carried on in coopera- tion with universities and other schools, as well as public institutions, but chiefly with agricultural experiment stations and agricultural col- leges. By this cooperation the Department funds have been materi- ally supplemented in various ways and the scope and possibilities of the work greatly increased. The chief object of the investigations is to learn the nutritive value of agricultural products of animal and vegetable origin and the proportions in which such food materials of different kinds may be most intelligently used to the advantage of both producer and consumer. The general policy has been to under- take, in the different centers of investigation, work for which the institution or region offered exceptional facilities. Thus, at the Cali- fornia Agricultural Experiment Station studies have been undertaken with fruits and nuts and the products made from them; at the Minne- sota and Maine experiment stations with wheat, corn, and other cereal foods; at the University of Tennessee with cowpeas and other legumes; 108 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and at Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn., with cheese made and cured in different ways. New experiments have been undertaken whenever the finishing- up of any line of work has rendered this pos- sible, and it has been the purpose to select for study especially those problems which have a direct bearing- upon agriculture. The experiments which have been conducted at the California Agri- cultural Experiment Station have furnished additional evidence of the considerable amount of nutritive material which may be supplied in readily digestible form by fruits and nuts intelligently used as part of the diet. It appears further that fruits and nuts are more useful when eaten in combination with other food materials than in large quantities by themselves or at the end of an otherwise hearty meal. The studies of cereal breakfast foods undertaken at the Maine and Minnesota experiment stations have shown that different classes of goods made from the same grain do not differ materially in nutritive value though there is a considerable range in price. As a whole, cereal breakfast foods are nutritious and reasonably economical. As regards digestibility the}- closely resemble bread made from the coarser flours and are somewhat less thoroughly assimilated than bread made from white flour. It has also been shown that flour products other than bread closely resemble bread in digestibility and total nutritive value. From studies with corn products, undertaken at the Maine Experi- ment Station, it appears that corn bread of different sorts has about the same digestibility as bread made from coarse wheat flour, and that it is well worthy of a place in the diet as a reasonably inexpensive source of nutritive material, as well as for the sake of variety. The studies of different methods of cooking meat carried on at the University of Illinois have shown that it is possible to control cooking- processes so that a fairly uniform product may be obtained when simi- lar cuts of meat are cooked by either boiling or roasting. As a whole, meats of different kinds and cuts supply nutritive material, particu- lar^' protein and fat, in forms which are very well assimilated. Investigations on the digestibility and nutritive value of cheese carried on at Middletown, Conn., have shown that cheese (American cheddar) is very thoroughly assimilated and is not productive of diges- tive disturbances as commonl}- supposed. When desired it may be used in comparatively large quantities as an inexpensive source of protein and energy in the diet. Cheese, being rich in protein and fat, should be combined with cereal foods, fruits, and similar products, which supply an abundance of carbohydrates, and when eaten in con- siderable quantities should replace rather than supplement such nitrogenous foods as meat, eggs, and dried legumes. The experiments furnish the first extensive demonstration by scientific methods of the high nutritive value of this important dairy product. The great REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 109 importance of cheese as a source of protein has not been hitherto ap- preciated and in a sense its commercial value as a food has lacked satisfactory basis. The investigations carried on with the respiration calorimeter at Middletown, Conn., have furnished new and valuable factors regard- ing- the average amount of energy in the form of food required by men at rest and performing various kinds of work, the carbon dioxid and energy output at different times of the day under different conditions of work and rest, and related topics. The investigations undertaken at the Hawaii Agricultural Experi- ment Station have furnished interesting data regarding the nutritive value of tropical food products and the kinds and amounts of food consumed by persons living under different circumstances in tropical regions. At Columbia University, New York, the investigations which have been undertaken furnish new and valuable data regarding the demands of the body for the ash constituents of food. The results of the nutrition investigations are made public by means of technical bulletins and popular summaries, and a great deal of mis- cellaneous information is also supplied to teachers, students, and other persons by means of correspondence, the increasing demand for pub- lications and other data being an indication of the favorable way in which the work is regarded by the people at large. Extended use has been made of the nutrition publications as text- books in a large number of schools, colleges, and medical schools throughout the country, owing to the fact that satisfactoiy text-books on these subjects have not hitherto been available. In this connection it nia}T be mentioned that there are 45 agricultural colleges or similar institutions receiving Government aid for white students, and an equal number for colored people, where some of the courses of instruction necessitate the use of such data. The proper economical feeding of families or groups — that is, the best methods of utilizing the food products which come from the farm — is a subject the importance of which can hardly be overesti- mated, and a knowledge of the important facts regarding the nutri- tive value of different foods can not fail to bring about improved standards of living on farms and elsewhere and benefit alike the pro- ducer, the distributer, and the consumer of food products. IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS. Three years ago the Office of Experiment Stations detailed some of its irrigation experts to work out and introduce the right methods of irrigation in some of the older districts where water is scarce and costly and where skill and economy in its use are of the utmost impor- tance, and also took up giving practical advice to beginners in irriga- tion in sections where irrigation was being introduced. The conditions 110 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. under which these men worked therefore were widely different, but the results have been the same in each case. Wherever this educa- tional work was begun there has been a marked appreciation of it-; value. Each one of these men hi fixture in the State and ion where he was first located. Every attempt to send him to a different section to take up this work has been met by protests and remonstrances which could not be disregarded. The result has been that request- for similar work in other localities made by Membei -. governors, and communities could not be responded t". although the value of the work and the reasonableness of the requ< - - were fully appreciated. To meet these demands the number of men engaged in this work should be increased during the coming year. Thus far this work has been carried on entirely in aid of settlers under private works, but it is believed that the time has come when this Department should take up the work of educating and aiding set- tlers under Government reclamation projects, and that experts should .•■tailed to these projects to show the methods of applying water which should be adopted, the kind of tools to be used, the time when land should be irrigated, the quantity of water which should be used, and the cultivation which should follow this i g The experience of the past few years has also shown that this edu- cational work and the successful conduct of original investigations can both be best carried on through the establishment of farms where the best methods can be worked out and illustrated and their results dem- rated. While bulletins and report- are of great value, they are not equal to an object lesson. Nothing will teach these farmers how they should do their work so quickly as to be able to see iields pre- pared in the right way. water handled in the right way. and the cultivated in the right manner. I believe therefore that on each reclamation area a demonstration farm should be established, on which the methods of irrigation can be taught by a practical expert from this Department, and trust that provision will be made for this by the next Congress. ive irrigation extension stations for the demonstration of methods of u^ing groundwater and flood and storm waters in irrigation as sup- plementary to dry farming have been located in the semiarid belt dur- ing the past year. At these stations it is expected to work out and demonstrate the methods and practices for utilizing limited water sup- plies in the irrigation of from 1 to 10 acres of land, and the meth- of irrigation and tillage needed to conserve this moisture in the soil, and the benefits which will come by making such irrigation a fea- ture of i 'liarid farm. This work has assumed a new impor- tance because of the great wave of settlement which is now sweeping over this region. F.EFORI OF THE SECBETAET. Ill A number of influences, some of them proper and some questiona- ble, are aiding in this settlement. Among those that are legitimate are the greater possibilities due to the introduction of drought-resist- ant crop-, the improved methods of tillage, and the series of wet years with which that section has been favored. But there will come other dry years, and the permanent prosperity of these settlers will largely depend upon their having fortified themselve- _ : the risk of drought by utilizing every opportunity for a water supply that the region affords. Nothing will aid more to enhance their comfort >:>r relieve them from the danger of dry years than to have from 1 to 1") acres of land irrigated where crops can be grown regardless of the rainfall. Provision for such irrigation will enable the farmer to grow trees for fruit and shade, have a limited area of high-priced prodi enough vegetables for his family, and forage for his cows and hoi It will also enable him to make the surroundings of his homestead attractive, thus adding to the comfort and contentment of country life in these regions. That the demonstration farm is an effective influence in promoting the extension of this kind of irrigation has been proven by the results of the oldest of these stations, located at Cheyenne. Wyo. This tion. through the utilization of underground waters lifted by windmills, has produced crops equaling those of the old irrigated district-. It ha< shown the extent and value of water resources hitherto neglected. The station was visited during the year by fully 5,000 people, and its methods and results observed and described in a large number of sci- entific newspapers and magazines, as well as in the local press of that region. It has encouraged a large number of farmers to conserve and utilize water supplies which were hitherto going to waste, and the year's results are considered as marking the beginning of a new e. agriculture in that section. In many parts of the arid and semiarid region water for irrigation can be secured only by pumping. The Department has a constant call for information as to the cost of such irrigation and the types of pumps and the kind of power which should be used. We have col- lected a large amount of information on these subjects, which is now being prepared for publication, and recently have inaugurated some comprehensive tests to determine the value of alcohol as a power agent in pumping water for irrigation and drainage, and in other agricul- tural work, with a view to giving practical information to farmers about the value of denatured alcohol as compared to gasoline, and the conditions under which it should be used to secure the maximum efficiency. Every year the area of irrigated land that needs drainag increased, which proves that irrigation and drainage must go hand in hand. During the past year the Department has been carrying on 112 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. extended drainage investigations of some of the irrigated districts injured by surplus water in Utah, Washington. Nebraska, and Cali- fornia, this work been paid for in part by State appropriations. These investigations have been carried on as a preliminary step in the prep- aration of drainage plans. The past year has also demonstrated the benetits of good engineering in securing the efficiency of drainage as a remedy for alkali. The drains put in by .the farmers of Utah on lands which were regarded as ruined by alkali have so relieved the lands in a single year that they are now ready for cultivation, and land drained three years ago according to plans prepared by the engineers of this Department, this year produced -875 worth of sugar beets to the acre. Equally encour- aging results on a larger scale have followed the carrying out of the plans of the Department's engineers in the State of Washington. The drainage of the swamp overflowed lands in the humid parts of the United States would extend or greatly improve agriculture over an area almost equal to that of the States of Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. This makes farm drainage a matter of National interest and importance. Nor will the increase in agriculture mark the full measure of the bene- fits of this drainage. Many of these swamps are a menace to the health of surrounding neighborhoods and a great obstacle to the devel- opment of commerce and manufacturing. The reclamation of some of these areas, like the coastal swamps of the Carolinas. the Everglades of Florida, and the St. Francis Basin iu Arkansas, presents agricul- tural and engineering problems of great complexity, which can not be solved by private enterprise; the cost and the area of country involved are both too great. As a rule agricultural drainage requires special legislation to provide for the organization of the district to be benerited and the raising and expenditure of funds under public or semipublic authority. The general interest manifested in drainage in this country, with the large amount of work done at present, has given rise to many important questions, legislative, financial, engineer- ing, and agricultural. The calls on the Department along these lines have been far greater than could be met. During the past year it has rendered important aid by conferences with State officials and others in making surveys and investigations to determine the feasibility of large drainage projects and prepare plans for the work. During the year this Department has carried on these surveys and investigations in thirty-one of the forty-six States. OFFICE OF PUBLIC ROADS. Throughout the country, and more particularly in the rural districts, there is a steadily growing demand for information as to the best methods of road construction. Considering the country as a whole, REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 113 it is probably true that in no phase of development are we so back- ward as in the extension of hard and durable roads. In the cases in which the people are willing to expend money on the improvement of their highways, it frequently happens that, owing to inexperience and lack of organization, the money is partially or totally wasted. In some communities abundantly able to support a system of good roads, very little work is done, owing to a lack of knowledge of what can be accomplished with the resources at hand. It is precisely in cases like these that the work of the Office of Public Roads is proving of signal value. While it is no part of the scope of its work to undertake the construction of roads that can be and should be the care of communi- ties within the States, the educational value of employing expert supervision, as well as. to a limited extent, machinery for the con- struction of sections of improved roads in different parts of the coun- try, has been amply demonstrated. The act of Congress making appropriation for the Office of Public Roads makes three distinct requirements in relation to the work to be performed, viz, to investigate systems of road administration through- out the United States, to give expert advice on road construction, and to investigate the chemical and physical properties of road material-. During the past year the work of the Office lias been arranged in three general divisions along the lines indicated. The Office is also collecting information as to comparative cost of road work, methods of building various types of roads. State-aid roads, legislation regarding road management, the value of wide tires. the use of convict labor in road building, cost of wagon transportation, and bond issues for road improvement. Numerous inquiries are received asking for information on the subject of the road laws of the various States, and a complete digest of the road laws of all the States is being prepared for publication. EXPERT ADVICE OX ROAD COXSTRTXTIOX. Expert advice on road construction has boon given and experi- mental field work carried on by the Office. There were employed on this work at the close of the fiscal year, in addition to the chief engineer. 3 engineers. 1 consulting engineer. (3 engineer students. (3 road experts, and 5 expert roller operators. Whenever it is pos- sible and where application has been made in the proper Avay, object- lesson roads are constructed for the purpose of illustrating the best methods of road building. The local authorities furnish all material, common labor, teams, and fuel, the Office supplying supervising engi- neers and in some cases part or all of the necessary machinery. In addition to this, tests are made to determine the best material 3 a 1906 8 114 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTV available for the road. It freqa ippeas that these short - - of object-lesson roads have subsequently led to the construction of fin the localities in which they were built. Daring the p I year 17 roads ;ilt in 11 Sta; resenting" a wide diversity in character of construction and kin.; material used. In many cases in which rued ad the miction of an obje . road, engineers and experts of the Office are able I i give advice that enables local authorities to improve the conditions and surmount difficulties. It is evident that wl only small amount- of money are available for road improvement it is frequent. r to improve the highways already existing than to apt the construction of macadam roads. Special attention has been given to this >rk and the Office has been able to do much in developing- t - sand clay and burnt clay for roads in large areas of cour. specially in the South, where no stone is available. In order to give expert advice on special problems which are con- tinually arising in road construction and maintenance, it to carrr on experimental work. Daring the past year method rend ring - ted Hie growing as motor vehicles L »d difficult problem to engineers and road builder-. 3 xperiments were carried on at Jack- son, Tens., daring spring and with the citv engineer, to determine the value of coal tar for preventing dust and preserving th' surface of macadam road-. iade with Texas oil and its residuums on earth and macadam roads. The - entailed in these experiment- was nnalL The quantity of tar applied per square yard average-. _ lion and the cost of labor for applying this quant: - : nan 1 cent per square yard. .. -. including the winter season of 1906-6, the tarred roads are .still in excellent condition. Additional experim re conducted during the summer of 1 on the Potomac River driv. in W :>. D. C. ration the .Superintendent of Buildings and Grounds. Crude coal tar similar to that used at Jackson. Tenn.. was r. Fork. These have been completed ttime. The great demand : the country for - >rt of treatment of road surfaces to .suppress the growing du-t nuisance has developed a num- ber of materials which i imed will the purpose. Many hese nia i h are mainly emulsions of oil and tar with fcer, have been given trade names and patented. Il e hoped careful experiment will show that some material like crude coal tar. wb: b •• obtained and easily applied wherever ther. plant, will prove to be efficient if properly used. It may be said that REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 115 a large number of trials of crude tar in France and a few in this coun- try, notably the one at Jackson, Tenn., have given excellent results. In other cases partial or entire failure has followed the experiments, and it yet remains to be determined whether the successful use of materials of this nature can be developed. The Office will make unremitting eli'orts to solve this problem by such experiments as can be carried on in different parts of the country in cooperation with local authorities. In order to recruit th< ranks of engineers that arc necessary to the success of the work of the Office, the plan was adopted of appointing graduates from civil engineering schools to the positions of civil engi- neer students, as fully explained in the annual report of the Office of Public Roads for 1005. Up to June 30, 1006, nine students had been appointed, at $600 per annum. Of this number three have been given permanent appointments at increased salaries. The other six have not yet completed the one-year course. A number of schools and colleges have within recent years estab- lished summer schools in road building. INVESTIGATION OF THE PROPERTIES OF ROAD MATERIALS. During the past year 381 samples were received at the laboratory for routine tests, of which number 273 were samples of rock, intended for macadam road building. Of the 273 samples, about 12 per cent were limestone, 11 per cent dolomite, 10 per cent trap. S per cent sandstone, and 8 per cent granite. The remaining samples were of a miscellaneous character, including brick, cements, and sand. Some of this testing work is done in cooperation with various Depart- ments of the Government. A comparison of the demand for tests with the records of previous years shows that it has increased about 33 per cent. A significant fact, in connection with the laboratory work, is that a very large number of samples have come from the Eastern and Mid- dle States, which have not received much assistance in the form of object-lesson roads. This tends to distribute uniformly the benefit arising from the work of the Office. There is a growing amount of cooperation between the various State geologists and the Office in the preparation of data showing the character of material suitable for road work in the different States. From one State alone more than 80 samples have been tested. The information thus secured has been used in a bulletin, recently prepared and published by the geologist in charge, on the road-building resources of this State. Chemical and physical examinations have included practically all materials which directly or indirectly come into use in road construction. 116 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The studies of decomposition of various kinds of rock dusts under the action of water, which were undertaken in order to determine the reasons for the important quality of binding power in macadam- road materials, have brought to light some specially interesting facts. For instance, it has been found that by mixing certain rocks of inferior binding power on the surface of the road a much higher bind- ing power results, as in the case of limestone and granite. As the binding or cementing power of rocks is one of the chief factors in the life of a road, the value of this discovery is of obvious importance. These results, originally obtained in the laboratory, have been con- firmed by observation and experiment on roads. In the course of this investigation it was found that the decomposing action of water on certain t}rpes of ground rocks went much further than had been pre- viously believed to be the case. This applies to the alkalies, and especially the potash, contained in many rocks. The results have sug- gested the possible use of ground rock as a potash fertilizer. Work along this line has now been turned over to another Bureau of the Department, where it can be appropriately followed up and carefully investigated. Owing to the numerous complaints of farmers in regard to the rapid deterioration of the modern fence wire in comparison with that manii-' factured in former years, an investigation of the subject was begun to see what could be done to remedy the defect. Farmers' Bulletin 239 contains a report of this investigation, which has aroused the interest of manufacturers and has determined some of them to take active steps toward producing a fence wire more resistant to atmospheric corrosion. The scarcity of timber in many sections of the country, not only for construction work, but for fence posts, has in recent years led to a more general use of concrete. This material is admirably adapted for farm purposes, but there seems to be a general lack of knowledge con- cerning its preparation and use. After a series of tests and investi- gations, Farmers' Bulletin 235 was issued, giving full information concerning cement, cement mortar, the mixing of concretes, and the construction of concrete sidewalks, driveways, fence posts, etc. A number of persons throughout the country who claim to have obtained special patents on concrete fence posts have attempted to prevent fanners from constructing their own posts by threats of prosecution for infringement. In view of the fact that concrete construction of all kinds reenforced with plain, straight, metal strips, bars, and tubes has been in general use in all countries for many years, the claims ol such persons are usually without warrant. The Office has been enabled to be of great service to farmers by making it clear to them that, unless special forms and devices of reenforccment were employed which were REPOKT OF THE SECRETARY. 117 distinctly patentable, no rights were infringed l>3r the use of concrete with plain metal reenforcement. Before being- assigned to work in the field the engineer students employed in the Office receive a course of instruction in the testing laboratory. This work consists in actually making the various tests of road materials and computing results. The information thus obtained is considered necessary in connection with the selection of the best materials for road construction before a thorough understand- ing of the relations which exist between laboratory tests and the behavior of these materials under traffic can be gained. A number of new projects and lines of investigation have been mapped out for the immediate future. Outside of the laboratory a study of road machinery will be under- taken to determine the suitability of various t\Tpes for different kinds of road work. Cooperation will be sought with the Geological Survey for the pur- pose of indicating the various classes of roads on topographic maps issued b}T the Survey. Cooperation has been begun with the Forest Service in laying out and constructing wagon roads and trails in forest reserves to facilitate lumbering. As a beginning one engineer has been detailed to this work and has been some months in the Yellowstone Reserve. The tield report indicates that much good will follow the pre- liminary survey which has been made. Cooperation with the Post-Office Department has been begun in order to facilitate rural delivery b}r the improvement of country roads. This work is of vital importance. The plan, which carries the approval of the Secretary of Agriculture and the Postmaster-General, provides that whenever a road upon which a rural route has been or is about to be established is reported by the carrier or inspector to be impassable or in bad repair, the Fourth Assistant Postmaster-General will advise the Director of the Office of Public Roads of the fact and request that he have an engineer inspector detailed to examine the road and give such advice and instruction to the local officials as may be required. Upon receipt of such information from the Fourth Assistant Post- master-General, the Director of the Office of Public Roads will com- municate with the local officials and supply them with a copy of the circular of instructions and a blank form for making application for the detail of such engineer inspector. It is not the purpose of the Office of Public Roads to actually construct the road or to make any contribution in money, materials, or labor. In most cases a road is impassable on account of defects which can be remedied by the use of proper methods. The engineer inspector who examines the road will note carefully all such defects and advise as to what steps can be taken to place the road in proper condition without great expense. If prac- 118 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tic-able, and if so desired, he may in some cases assume temporary direction of the work for the purpose of instruction. A - the chief aim and purpose of the Office of Public Roads is to bring about a general and uniform improvement of the country roads through- oat the United States, a cooperative plan such as the one described above offers the best possible means of achieving positive result- in furtherance of that purpose. By this means correct methods of road building and road maintenance will be introduced into practically every section of the country. The engineer inspectors assigned to thi> work will, in visiting places which have requested assistance of this charac- ter, follow an itinerary which will include a number of places in a d territory. This will greatly minimize the expense of each inspection and permit the inspector to cover a much larger territory than would be possible in a special assignment to each place. A begin- ning has been made during the current fiscal year, and efforts will be made to increase the scope of the work in the future. EXPENDITURES ANT) EMPLOYEES. Congre<> appropriated $7,175,690 for the maintenance of the Depart- ment of Agriculture for the year ended June 30, 1906. This was $1,081,150 more than the appropriation for the preceding year. In addition the Department received from various sources, chiefly sales of product-. Si;,. 4~oAo. At the close of the vear there was >till unexpended, of the appropriation. $1,175,362.15, nearly all of which will be required to meet outstanding obligations. The unexpended balance for the year 1904 ($55,712.37) was. on June 30, 1906, covered into the Treasury. The account for 1906 was still open. Of the special appropriations aggregating $1,250,000 for new building-. - _ r.25 had >>een expended prior to September 1". 1906. For the current year (ending June 30, 1907) Congress appropriated I LO, 44" for the regular work of the Department. The increase i- chiefly due to the broadening of the meat inspection. For that service the permanent appropriation is $3,000,000. The estimated revenues " . ••«> from sales of products of the forest reserves and $780,934. 68 available for the new buildings bring the total amount to be disbursed by this Department during the current year up to $10,691,374.68. The number of persons on the rolls of the Department of Agricul- ture on July 1. 1906, was, outside of "Washington. 4,648; in Washing- ton. 1,594; total. 6,242, showing an increase during the year of 796. Of the total number, more than l.e being constructed of granite and the superstructure of white marble. The work has now progressed, with the exception of the interior finish, to approximately the fourth-floor line, and it is probable that the roof will be on before the winter season. The rooting and closing in will allow the interior work to be carried on during the winter without interruption, which, without unforeseen complications, will insure the completion of operations within the contract time, namely. November 11, 1907, and within the 8l.5n0.O00 authorized by Con- gress. The mechanical equipment work, including the heating and ventilating apparatus, the electric wiring and conduit systems, and the electric elevators, has been started, and these systems will be read}* for use at the time of the completion of the buildings. The estimated growth of the Department, made at the time the appropriation for the new building was approved, has been greatly exceeded. Statistics show that there has been during this period of approximately three and one-half years, exclusive of the Weather Bureau, an increase in the number of emplovees of from 1,037 to 1,183 in Washington, D. C making a percentage increase of 13. Further, the space required by this force of employees has increased from 137,963 square feet to approximately 261,000, this being a 00 per cent increase, and the rentals paid from the Department appropriation have increased from $21,700 to $51,108.00. or over 150 per cent. This rapid increase will require other segments of the proposed buildings to be constructed before the Department will have sufficient and suitable accommodations for its work and before the large amount paid annually for rentals can be substantially decreased. To carry on the work of the Department in an efficient manner on the lines laid down in the foregoing report has necessitated provision for somewhat increased appropriations. This report will fall short 120 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of its purpose if it has not made clear the importance of the interests the Department is designed to serve, and the necessity for carrying on its work. Moreover, the duties devolving upon it are imposed upon it by law. and it is with full appreciation of these several con- siderations that estimates for its expenses must be viewed. The esti- mates for the ensuing year have been most conservatively prepared, based upon the lines of work imposed upon the Department by the Congress, and I earnestly commend them to the favorable considera- tion of that body. Kespectfully submitted. James Wilsox, Secretary. Washington, D. C, November &£, 1906. NEW PROBLEMS OF THE WEATHER. By Willis L. Moore, W. J. Humphreys, and O. L. Fassig, Of the Weather Bureau. A knowledge of the coming- weather enters so intimately into every contemplated human action that the question is often asked: What are the prospects for further improvement in the accuracy of weather fore- casts, and can the seasons ever be foretold ? The answer is that, while the Government has a corps of forecasters who are now applying all of the knowledge of the atmosphere that has been revealed, little hope for material improvement in their work can be held out until a substantial addition is made to the pure science of the problem. This can only come through experiment, stud}7, and research. With 200 stations engaged in applying the "science, it is a wise economy to devote at least one of them to the work of adding to the knowledge that is now costing us nearly a million and a half dollars annually to apply. Accordingly, those in charge have endeavored to lay out a plan of study and research leading to an increase in our knowledge of the laws governing the atmosphere such as should eventually enable our successors, if not ourselves, to add to the accuracy of weather forecasts and to make them for a longer period in advance. THK MOUNT WEATHER RESEARCH OBSERVATORY. In order that this country ma3T do its share toward the advance- ment of meteorology along the lines that specially relate to conditions in America, it is imperative that the Weather Bureau should establish an observatory for its own special research work. A piece of land has therefore been secured and work has been inaugurated at an estab- lishment that is intended to respond to the present and prospec- tive needs of meteorology. This establishment is called the Mount Weather Research Observatory, and is organized on a broad and elastic basis, so that it may from year to year expand with the growing knowledge of our needs. (See Pis. I— III. ) STUDY OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE. In order to prosecute the researches contemplated at Mount Weather, a plant has been established there especially adapted to the investiga- tion of the physical condition of the atmosphere at great elevations above the surface of the earth. Hitherto our knowledge of the 121 122 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. conditions of temperature, pressure, humidity, and wind velocity and direction has been based upoo observations made at or near the surface of the earth or upon mountain peaks. Current conceptions of the laws of storms and of the general circulation of the atmosphere are based upon such observations almost entirely. Records obtained in recent yean by means of balloons have demonstrated the existence of hitherto unsuspected variations and contrasts in temperatui very great elevations, and have shown thai rations on mountain tops and at equal elevations in the free air vary widely. The necessity for a better knowledge of temperature condition- at great elevations has directed the minds of many mete ists to the study of the best method- for lifting self-recording instruments high above the earth's surface. The result has been the invention in recent years of ingenious forms of kites and of specially designed balloons for this purpose. The kite has again become an instrument for scientific research, and now enables us to bring down ro atmospheric conditions at elevations of 2 and 3 miles, and even of 4 miles, as was recently demonstrated at the German aeronautical observatory near Lindenberg- By mean .all rubber balloons. marvelously light self-recording instruments have been carried up to the remarkable heights of 10 to 15 miles, bringing back record- of low temperatures and high wind velocities which have been a revela- tion to meteorologists — records which are compelling a reconstruction of existing ideas concerning the dynamics of the atmosphere. Pioneer work along these lines was begun some years ago by means of kites, both at Weather Bureau stations and. under the direction of Mr. A. L. Botch, at the Blue Hill Observatory, near Bo-ton. Mass. By experiments begun at St. Louis at the time of the World's Fair in the summer of 1904, Mr. Botch also initiated the practice in this country of -ending up small rubber balhu, 5. The observatory at Mount Weather is now well equipped with the necessary plant for carrying on this new and promising work of aerial Eurch, and has for nearly a year been cooperating with European institutions and with the Blue Hill Observatory in -ending up. on prearranged day-, kite- or captive balloon-. These kite- may be raised in wind- varying from 10 mile- per hour to 35 or 40 mile- at tie- surface. With winds of less than 1" miles per hour it is necessary to employ captive balloon-. To attain great height- -mall free nil balloon- of -l or :) cubic yard- capacity, called pilot balloon-, are employed. The instrument- carried by the kite- and balloons vary in weight from 1£ to 3 or i pounds and record variations in the tem- perature, the pre-sure. the humidity of the air. and the wind velocity. The balloons are filled with hydrogen gas in order to secure the greatest lifting power. This necessitates the use of special apparatus for the manufacture of hydrogen. At the Mount Weather Research Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. Plate I. Buildings and Apparatus at Mount Weather, Va. p..— Power house and balloon shed. 2.— Revolving kite and balloon shed. 3.— The Siegs- feld kite balloon. 4. — Hergesell balloon meteorograph in protecting basket] Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. Plate II. Appliances in Use at Mount Weather, Va. [1. — French balloon meteorograph. 2. — Marvin kite meteorograph with anemometer. 3. — Hargrave-Marvin box kites. 4. — Marvin meteorograph, with record.] Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Plate III. Buildings and Instruments at Mount Weather, Va. [l.-Administration building. 2.-Magnetic observatory buildings. 3.-Interior of m observatory-magnetometer and indicator. ^.-Interior of magnetic observatory-decli- nometer and theodolite.] NEW PROBLEMS OF THE WEATHEL. 123 Observatory a strong electric current is passed through water, break- ing up the liquid into its constituent elements of hydrogen and oxy- gen. These gases are then collected and stored in appropriate tanks for future use as occasion may require. .V- the small pilot balloons carry up their Instruments to height.-, of many miles, where the prevailing temperatures are at all times very low (sometimes exceeding 100 : Fahrenheit below zero), it is neces-ary to test the accuracy of the thermographs at these low points. For this purpose the observatory is equipped with a plant for the manu- facture of liquid air. by means of which the instruments may Detested to the lowest points likely to be reached at great elevations. In the near future these small rubbei pilot balloons, carrying with them to elevations of 30.000 to 50,000 feet the light self-recording instruments referred to, will be liberated simultaneously at 20 to 30 Weather Bureau stations surrounding typical storm centers. Obser- vation.- obtained in this manner at various elevations when com- pared with the records made at the same time at the surface of the earth will doubtless throw much new light upon the mechanism of storms, cold waves, etc.. and give to meteorologists a better under- standing of the general circulation of the atmosphere. STUDY OF RELATIONS BETWEEN sL'N AND WEATHER. As one of the primary objects in view in establishing Mount Weather Observatory is to make a study of the relations existing between the various forms of solar radiation and terrestrial weather conditions, much attention has been given to the instrumental equipment and to securing men to study the variations in the amount of heat energy given off by the sun from day to day and variations in the amount of heat absorbed by the atmosphere. Some work along these lines has already been done; but a special building and instruments will soon be necessary for the study of these important problems of solar physics. At present the most sensitive index of changes in solar energy is the Suspended magnet. There is no doubt that changes in the intensity and direction of the magnetic force as registered at the earth's surface are coincident with the appearance and disappearance of certain well- recognized periodic phenomena observed on the face of the sun. Ic is fortunate that we have in the magnetism of the earth a terrestrial element which varies in delicate sympathetic relation with the activi- ties of the sun and is at the same time subject to continuous observa- tion and registration. To appreciate the value of terrestrial magnetism as a faithful index of the state of the sun it should be understood that not only are there regular ebbs and flows of magnetic force in response to the sun's annual approach and recession, his axial rotation and daily passage through the heavens but even the outburst of a solar spot is simultaneously announced by a disturbance of the earth's magnetism. 124 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. So important to the study of the sun is a continuous record of the magnetic variations that one of the first steps in the establishment of the observatory was the installation of a magnetic plant consisting of the best modern instruments for the direct observation and for the continuous registration of the variations in the magnetism of the earth. The standard observatory instruments, both for continuous registra- tion and direct measurement, are of the type devised by Wild for the model magnetic observatory at Pavlovsk. Russia. These are supple- mented by a set of Eschenhagen magnetographs, the extreme sensi- tiveness of which peculiarly fits them for recording minute fluctua- tions of the earth's magnetic force. The principal application #f the results of the observations will-be to supplement the direct observations of the sun. and thus to carry on the record of the solar activity continuously day and night in all con- ditions of weather. Researches will also be carried on to determine the existence and measure the extent of probable direct relations between meteorological disturbances and magnetic variations. The magnetic records will also be specially studied in conjunction with the results of observations of the radioactivity and the electrical condition of the air. particularly during thunder-storms and at times of auro- ral displays, for the purpose of revealing their relation to meteoro- logical conditions. EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS. The physical laboratory is not yet completed, and consequently it has not been possible to undertake investigations here in experimental physics. However, through the kindness of the authorities of the University of Virginia a good deal of spectroscopic work has been done at that institution. Some of the results have been published in the Astrophysical Journal, and there are many data yet on hand to be worked up at the earliest opportunity. An investigation, by the aid of a large telescope, of the causes and meteorological relations of the scintillation of stars is in progress at the University of Virginia along line- suggested by one of the Mount Weather officials. A special photometer has been devised for the purpose of measuring the relative densities of clouds, particularly when the entire sky is covered. As soon as the laboratory is completed and equipped investigations will be begun on atmospheric electricity, its origin, distribution, and laws, the causes and nature of precipitation, heat and light absorption, and other physical phenomena of importance to the meteorologist. THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE MTROGEX PROBLEM. By A. F. Woods. Pathologist and Physiologist and Assistant Chut of the Bureau of Plant Industry. INTRODUCTION. One of the greatest problems in the maintenance of soil fertility for the maximum production of crops is how to secure and keep a sufficient supply of available nitrogen at the least cost. For mosl our arable lands it is now pretty well agreed that this is a problem of bacteriology, with the soil as a culture medium. As in most other great problems, nature and practical experience hare pointed the way to its solution. Many of the standard practices of cultiva: crop rotation, etc.. which have developed from experience have very important relations to bacterial action in the soil. In fact, the true relation of many of these practices can be understood only from the standpoint of bacterial activity. It remains for science to explain. systematize, and improve practice, placing conditions more accu- rately tmder our control. The sources of nitrogen supply are. first. the nitrogen already contained in soils: second, that supplied to the soil by the decay of organic matter; and, third, the fixation of atmos- pheric nitrogen. THE DIRECTLY AVAILABLE NITROGEN CONTENT OF SOILS. The nitrogen in soils is of two types: (1) The ammonia, nitrites, and nitrates, in which forms it is available to crops; and (2) the- nitrogen locked up in organic matter and not directly available. The nitrate nitrogen (nitrogen in the form of nitrates) is in most soils present only in small quantity. This supply is quickly taken out by crops or washed out by rains, and if it is not renewed by the action of certain bacteria on the nitrogenous organic matter in the soil or from the atmosphere by other bacteria it must be added direct: nitrate of soda or nitrate of potash, or some other manure musl used containing directly available nitrogen. Manures containing directly available nitrogen are very expensive. The best of these is nitrate of soda, and at the present rate of use the known supply will be exhausted in less than fifty years. More than 1.543.120 tons were used in 1905. Prof. Sylvanus P. Thompson has reiterated in a 125 126 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. recent address0 the prophecy of Prof . William Crookes. that we shall have a wheat famine unless the yield per acre, averaging for the whole world 12T", bushels, can be increased. He believes with Crookes and many others who have studied the question carefully that the supply of nitrates is the most important factor in the situ- ation, and it is important not only for wheat but for all other crops. We are not. howeYer, as Prof--.' Thompson seems to believe, dependent on the electrical method, briefly discussed later in this paper, for obtaining this supply. The larger part of the nitrogen required in agriculture is now and will always be obtained from the atmosphere through the _ in soil bacteria. By careful iiiiisms and their requirements we can greatly increase their activity. The electrical method, however, will be use- ful m supplying a part of the immediately available nitrate needed in intensive agricultural operati THE DECAY OF ORGANIC MATTER. The organic matters which are added to the soils in manures and in vegetable and animal remains must go through certain proo of decay before the plant foods they contain become available to crops. Bacteria and fungi of various kinds are the active agents which bring about these changes. Decay is not a simple process, the in all placi ider all conditions. The process varies when the same materials under the same conditions are acted upon by different organisms or groups of bacteria which produce it. In general, organic materials contain two classes of compounds: The nit: _ us or albuminoid compounds, like flesh and blood and the protoplasm of plant celh: 2 the nonni' enous compounds — the carbohydrates (such suf! starches, and cellulose and the hydrocarbons, as fats. The firs: class contains the nitrogen formerly taken from the soil as nitrate by some plant. which i: its highly organized form is unavailable to crops until converted into ammonia or nitrate again by certain bacteria. The compounds of the second class serve as food for certain bacteria which are al .tain their nitrogen from the air and will be dis- cussed later. The highly organized nitrogenous materials above mentioned, in containing a good supply of phosphates, potash, carbonate of lime, and air. moisture, and the right kinds of bacteria, are first mod- ified or digested into soluble peptones by a class of bacteria which secrete a peptonizing ferment. Bae&hu i ■ Zopf, B. rfUn- ;ron. B. myetrides Fliigge. etc.. are good examples of this p. 355, 1906. THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE NITROGEN PROBLEM. 127 class. These peptonized products (peptones and albumoses) are then converted into ammonia through the action of these same species and other ammonifying bacteria. The ammonia may then be con- verted into nitrite by another class of bacteria, principally Nitro- monas europse, widely distributed hi Europe, and by species of Nitro- coccus, said to be peculiar to the soils of America and Australia,0 The nitrite is then oxidized to nitrate by still another kind of bacterium, Nitrobacter. On the other hand, if the soil is poorly aerated or deficient in mois- ture, lime, or other miner;:! plant foods, the course of this digestion or decay of organic matter is modified. Acids accumulate, and the bacterial action is largely replaced by that of fungi and forms of bac- teria that can grow in the presence of acids. The organic matter becomes more or less pickled or humified. The more active forms of peptonizing and ammonifying bacteria and the nitrifying forms are suppressed by the conditions unfavorable to their development. Pea ty soils represent the extreme of this type. In the improvement of such soils the great stores of nitrogen and carbon of the humus may be made available by the addition of the mineral foods if they are lack- ing— especially carbonate of lime or potash — by proper aeration, and finally by the addition of the peptonizing, ammonifying, and nitrify- ing bacteria. In the present state of our knowledge the last is best accomplished b}T spreading a few hundred pounds per acre of good, naturally rich, well-worked loam, which usually contains these bacte- ria. Care should be taken, however, to secure this inoculating soil from fields known to be free from serious weeds, insects, and plant- disease organisms. It is to be hoped that our knowledge of soil bac- teriology will develop in the near future to the point where we will be able to determine by bacterial analysis what organisms are present in a given soil and what bacteria are needed to raise the bacterial activity to the highest state of efficiency, assuming of course that the proper conditions for their growth have been supplied. Briefly, these con- ditions are a warm temperature, good aeration brought about by thorough and frecment cultivation, proper moisture conditions, also favored by thorough and frequent cultivation, good drainage, and a gooel supply of decaying organic, matter, carbonate of lime, phos- phates, and other mineral foods. a Hall, Alfred D. The Soil, p. 72, 1903. 12S YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The following table, taken from Bulletin 60 01 the Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, by F. D. Chester, shows the vary- ing activity of some of the bacteria here under discussion: Chemical functions of certain soil bacteria. Liquefaction and pep- tonization <>i" media. 1 ulturc. Bacillus tumescent Zopf: Culture I Culture 5139 Cul Cur. ir " - Culture 5201 Bacillus cllenbackiensis Caron: Culture I Culture 5167 Culture 5200 BaciUus alcaligcnrs Petruscbky var. i. X.J. Agr. Exp. Sta., and the station reports for 1903 and 1904; also the Dela a q bulletins previously referred to. THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE NITROGEN PROBLEM. 133 universally recognized that the ability of these crops to grow in soil devoid of nitrogen is due to the presence of certain bacteria in the root nodules. These bacteria have been carefully studied by many investigators in Europe and in this country, and much valuable infor- mation has been secured regarding them. The literature of the sub- ject has been reviewed so many times in various publications that it is not necessary to go over it again.0 It has been amply demonstrated, not only by hundreds of years of actual experience but by numberless carefully conducted experi- ments in many countries and under widely varying conditions, that clovers and numerous other legumes supplied with tubercle bacteria obtain from the air through the agency of these bacteria, under favor- able conditions, all the nitrogen they require, and that they leave in the soil considerable quantities for succeeding crops. In Germany the amount of nitrogen added to the soil by legumes, besides that taken off in the crop, is estimated at 200 pounds per acre. In the United States the average for sixteen States is 122 pounds, equivalent to not less than 800 to 1,000 pounds of nitrate of soda per acre.a These effects, of course, are secured where the conditions for fixation are favorable, viz, where the soil is abundantly supplied with nodule bacteria of high efficiency and where the available nitrogen content of the soil is low and the soil is well supplied with carbonate of lime or its equivalent, and when the phosphates and other elements of available plant food are present in sufficient quantity. If the soil is already rich in nitrates, the leguminous crop may do no more than maintain the nitrogen equilibrium. This is an important thing to do, however, inasmuch as this nitrogen will be required by subsequent crops in the rotation and the requirement of expensive nitrogenous manures is thereby reduced. VARIETIES AND EFFICIENCY OF ROOT-NODULE BACTERIA. It is now pretty well agreed that the nodule bacteria on most legumes belong to the same species. However, there are well-defined strains or varieties especially adapted to certain genera and species of legumes which adapt themselves with more or less difficulty to other genera and species. The immediate efficiency of the bacteria will, therefore, depend upon the natural or artificial inoculation of the particular legume with the best strain of bacteria adapted to it. In soils, therefore, where it is desired to cultivate a particular legume, and where that legume or a closely related species has not been suc- cessfully cultivated and well supplied with nodules, it is desirable that the proper bacteria be supplied. Experiments and practical tests made by this Department show that there is great variation a See Bui. 71, Bureau of Plant Industry. 134 YEARBOOK OP THE DEPARTMENT OF AGKICVLTV in the nitrogen-fixing power of these bacteria, dependent in part upon the conditions under which they have been growing. If they are in a soil which provides them with an abundant supply of c bined ni they ultimately Lose, t- ge extent, the power of fixing atmospheric nitrogen. Under such e of little or no benefit to the crop. It is an easy matt select strains of high nitrogen-fixing power as indicated by the • aria on the crop when growing in comparatively nitrogen-free - Is The cultivation of these selected strains on nitrogen-free media f few 2 a greatly increases their nitrogen-fixing therefore their value for inoculation purposes. Exactly ■ sinks apply to these bacteria as apply to other plants. There are some strains of beets that will make IS to 20 per oe These are worth cultivating for their sugar: but the ordinary - from which these have been developed by selection contained 5 or 6" per tent of sugar. A man who wants to make a sv growing sugar beets plants seed? of high sugar-producing The importance of using selected seed for all crops lias been so amply demonstrated that no argument in favor of the practice is needed. It is the very foundation of progress in plant culture. S eria are no exceptions to the rule, and pure-bred bacteria for specific « are as clearly an economic necessity as pure-bred cattle or pure-bred sugar beers. -;niBrTio> - >il. We are often told that these bacteria arc widely distributed and are present in n - .-. This is fan - -plied to the older .. vated areas, where various legumes have been cultivated, but it not follow that soils containing a few or even a considerable nun of these bacteria would not be benefited by inoculation with - kinds of bacteria. The varieties present ma; e adapted to the legume which it is desired to plant, and may have little or no benefi- cial effect on it, or if the proper strain is present in small numbers it may, ami usually does, take several years to bring the bacterial content of the soil up to an efficient basis. This, of course, i- slow a pi cess. It would be just as reasonable to depend on getl >p of clover or bluegrass in this way. It can be done in some places, but it is at least a makeshift method, and does not appeal to a practical up-to-date farmer. In newer regions, where legume? have not been cultivated, very few soils ha> i gh of these bacteria in them to be of any'pnu value, and inoculation is essential. This may be accomplished either by the use of soil from a field where the crop is making a vigor- growth, with the roots well supplied with nodules, indicating that the soil contains the right bacteria, or by the use of pure cultures THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE NITROGEN PROBLEM. 135 from selected plants. The soil method, of course, introduces not only the nodule-forming species, but numerous oilier forms, such as those previously discussed in this paper, and these may often he as much needed as the tubercle forms. "Where they as well as the nodule forms are needed, soil transfer is usually the most satisfac- tory method of inoculation. This is likely to be the case in "sour" soils. It is, however, expensive and cumbersome, especially where the soil has to be transported for some distance. Another and much more serious drawback to this method is the danger of introducing into a farm injurious and disease-producing bacteria and fungi, as well as troublesome weeds. It is not safe to use soils from areas in which such pests occur. Anyone who has seen the great injury wrought by root nematodes, the wilt diseases of melons, cowpeas, tobacco, cotton, tomatoes, potatoes, flax, the black- rot of cabbage and cauliflower, the various stem and root diseases of clover and alfalfa, and diseases of other crops almost too numer- ous to mention, and widely distributed, will investigate carefully before importing soil that may contain the spores of these organisms. PURK-Cn.TFRE INOCULATION". For the reasons above mentioned, pure-culture inoculation must eventually mainly replace the soil-transfer methods for all kinds of soil inoculation, but this has not yet been put on a practical basis for any except the nodule bacteria. The improved cultural and selec- tion methods introduced by this Department in the practical handling of these forms have brought within reach of every farmer who ma}* need them pure cultures of the most virile, vigorous, and best types of root- nodule bacteria for each particular leguminous crop. It requires care and skill, however, to make and keep these cultures in good condition. For lack of this, many who have tried to make these cultures have failed. The pure-culture method has come to stay, however. It will be improved by experience and continue to increase in usefulness in the hands of careful and progressive workers. It is suggested, before using cultures from any source, that farmers secure from this Depart- ment and read carefully Farmers' Bulletin 240. The Department of Agriculture is distributing the bacteria during the present season (1906) in nitrogen-free liquid cultures hermetically sealed. Excel- lent results can also be obtained in distributing the cultures in dry form. They must be dried quickly, however, from solutions con- taining very small amounts of soluble salts, and kept dry until ready for use; otherwise they are likely to mold and spoil. This Depart- ment has used this method very successfully for several years. It is also used successfully by Ferguson, of the Virginia Experiment Station/7 a See Bui. 159, Virginia Agr. Exp. Sta. 136 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE FIXATION OF NITROGEN FROM THE ATMOSPHERE BY ELECTRICAL METHODS. While much can be accomplished through the agency of soil bac- teria in conserving and increasing the supply of combined nitrogen, there will always be a demand, in intensive culture especially, for an immediately available supply of nitrates or other forms of fixed nitro- gen. The great Chilean deposits, which furnished more than one and a half million tons in 1905, will, at the present rate of use, according to careful estimates, be exhausted in less than fifty years. It has long been known, however, that atmospheric nitrogen can be oxidized under the influence of electricity, producing nitric oxid fumes, which are then combined with water, to form nitric acid, or with quicklime, forming calcium nitrate. Other bases may also be used. Various attempts have been made from time to time to develop a process by which nitrogen can be combined commercially. The most promising results have thus far been secured with Franck's process of making calcium cyanamid and with the Birkland and Eyde process of pro- ducing nitrates. The former process consists in combining nitrogen with the carbides of alkalis, producing cyanids, or, in the case of calcium, producing calcium cyanamid (CaCNg), contaming 35 per cent of nitrogen — more than twice the amount present hi Chile saltpeter. The calcium cyanamid, when properly used, has proved to be an excel- lent nitrogenous fertilizer for many crops, and quite equal to ammonia compounds, into which it can be readily converted. The ammonia thus produced can be further oxidized by conducting it over highly heated metallic oxids, thus producing nitric acid. The Birkland and Eyde process, however, appears to be the most promising as a means of producing nitrates. A special electric furnace is used, in which an alternating electric arc between 3,000 and 4,000 volts is produced in connection with a large electro magnet, which forces it to take the form of a roaring disk of flame. Air is forced through this furnace at the rate of about 3,000 cubic feet per minute, the nitrogen being oxidized in the furnace to nitric oxid. These fumes are then collected, and after further oxidation are absorbed in water towers, forming nitric acid, or by powdered quicklime, forming calcium nitrate. Of course, the nitric acid can be com- bined with almost any desirable base, such as soda or potash. With cheap water power nitrates can be produced by this process to com- pete in cost with nitrate of soda.a These direct pi of securing nitrogen will certainly be rapidly improved, and what has been accomplished already in this direction should remove the last vestige of doubt that we shall be able to secure at a reasonable cost all of the immediately available nitrogen we may i. in addition to the great supply that may be secured through ion. oS.v "Nature, " v-l. 7:1. p. 355; also, Exp. Sta. Record. Vol. XVII. pp. 74(v-750. Fi r a full, illustrated account Bee Engineering News. vol. 57. No. G. pp. 159, 151. OBJECT-LESSON ROADS. By Logan Waller Page, Director of the Office of Public Roads. NECESSITY FOE, INSTRUCTION IN ROAD BUILDING. Improvement of the public roads of the United States is a work of so great magnitude and involves the solution of so many problems of economic importance that it demands attention from every unit of government, from the township to the National Government. At the present time the township, the county, and the State are providing means for the construction and maintenance of roads to the extent of approximately $70,000,000 annually, according to information com- piled by this Office. It is unfortunately true, however, that the expenditure of the greater portion of this large sum is intrusted to men who have practically no knowledge of road building and who are acting under systems of road administration and management that are obsolete and totally inadequate. Until very recent years highway engineering has received slight at- tention in the engineering schools of the country, and, consequently, the supply of properly equipped men for this branch of engineering has not been equal to the demand. With approximately 2,300,000 miles of rural highways in the United States and an approximate annual expenditure of $70,000,000, the absolute necessity of placing road construction and administration on a correct basis may there- fore be seen. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE OFFICE OF ROAD INQUIRY. Congress, in 1893, realizing that much work of an investigative and educational character, which could be done best by the National Government, was necessary before any effectual progress could be made in the improvement of public roads, established the Office of Road Inquiry for the purpose of investigating systems of road man- agement and disseminating information on the subject of road build- ing. An appropriation of $10,000 was made to carry out the provi- sions of this act. Slight changes have been made from time to time in the language of the appropriation bills, and the amounts have 137 13s YEARBOOK OF THE ! been increased until the Office of Public R - the investigation - - " ~ advice on road - restigation ical and - upon t: - 1907 is $7 The act of ?ress provides for r - nal and investigative work. _ on the involved, and the other upon the pra J featores road construction and maintenance. The work b is defined by the requirement that . investigated. The practical side of the work by the pro- ds of the bill winch require that expert advi road materials be investigated. The g g :>f expert a - I deal primarily with the construction and maintenance of all • roads, while the investigation of road materials inclu;. laboratory t* ell as an investigation into the quantity, and location of road-making materials in all parts OBJZCT-I.E^SOX ROADS. The Office of Public Roads, in endeavoring to carry out the pro- visions of the act of Congress, has adopted a method of instruction known as the object-lesson road method. Its purpose > local road builders in the principles of road construction, to demon- te the advantage of a properly built road, and I ^certain the local material available for road building. The Office maintains a corps of highway engineers, expert road foremen, and machinery operators for field duty; and also chem geol _ a :.,ers to investigate by la" properties and relative values of road materials. Wh or community desires to improve its roads, applies" - made to I )ffice on a form which is furnished upor. -: . provides that the local authorities shah g all materials, common labor, teams, and fuel, the Office furni-" -urveys, estimates, expert su] a, and i hinery. The following questions accompa: form sent out : rich plan u What is i': WhaJ is the general | L, lolling, or hilly? i od -what te a This OBJECT-LESSOX EOADS. 139 < Have you a crasher or any road-building machinery that you will furnish? If so, what? What is the cost of labor per day? What amount of money is available to be expended on this work? What months are preferable for carrying on this work'? Why? What Is the earliest date this work can start? What kinds of road-building materials are locally available, and how far are they situated from the road'? Samples of such materials should be selected and shipped to this Office, that tests may be made before construction is started. Blank forms and instructions are supplied for this purpose. The system now in effect provides for an inspection report by the engineer first sent out to examine the road proposed for improvement, this report covering the following essential points: Miles of road inspected and location. Length of section to be improved. Relative amount of travel over road compared with other mads in vicinity. Local authorities having jurisdiction over road to be improved. Individuals or organizations especially interested in the work. Amount from public treasury. Amount from private subscription. Total amount of money ready for the work. Nearest shipping point. Xante of railroad. Best time of year for doing work (state earliest and latest months), and why. Nature of materials and distance from road. Present grades: drainage; nature of soil. Cost of labor and teams per day. Engineers or surveyors in vicinity competent to make plans and profiles of road. If, after consideration of the inspection report, it is decided to undertake the work of construction, surveys are made and estimates prepared, after which the expert foreman, machinery operator, and necessary road machinery are provided. Daily reports are required from the beginning of the work. These daily reports contain exact and detailed information, as shown by the copy of the blank form on the following page. It will be seen from the form that the unit cost may be computed from the data contained in these reports, thereby affording a basis for estimating cost of additional mileage. When an object-lesson road is completed a final report and sum- mary of the work done is prepared by the engineer in charge of the construction, which shows all details of the work, such as the length, width, thickness, and kind of surfacing material; method of construc- tion and time consumed; kind and size of machinery used for excava- tion, crushing, loading, distributing, and rolling stone; kind, size, and length of all side, cross, and under drams and culverts; together with the total cost of the road to the community and to this Office, and the unit cost (that is, the cost per cubic yard, square yard, or ton) for excavation, quarrying, crushing, hauling, spreading, sprinkling, and rolling. 140 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Daily Report of Work on Object-Lesson Road at Date: . Weather:— . Length of working day: hours. Signature: . Force empli Work done. Total in Pay pet- hours \ hour or days. ■ or day. Total. Earth exca- Sta. to Sta. Su bgrade First course placed Second course sq. vds. Excavation: Sta. ...to Sta. ... Sta. ...to Sta. ... Sta. .. .to Sta. ... Shaping: Surface course Road surface completed . . Material sq. vds. Quarry: Sta. ...to Sta. ... Teams Crusher: Men Hauling surfacing mate- rial : Materials used, paid for by unit measure. Quantity. Price. Total. Surfacing ma- Loading surfacing mate- Spreading surfacing mate- Fuel for Fuel for roller. Oil, waste, re- Drain pipe, Total Remarks: In every ease samples of all available road materials are secured by the inspecting engineer and sent to the laboratory of the Office for analysis and comparative tests. Such tests are made free of charge to citizens of the United States, and proper instructions for shipping the mples are furnished upon request, with details as follows: (1) All samples should be selected to represent as nearly as possible an average of the rial. (2) A sample of rock for laboratory tests must consist of stones which will pass through a 3-inch but not through a li-inch ring — excepting one piece, which should measure approximately 4 by 6 inches on one face, and be about 3 inches thick. The whole sample should weigh not less than 30 pounds. It is desired thai samples of rock be shipped in burlap bags. OBJECT-LESSOX ROADS. 141 (3) A sample of gravel must weigh not less than 25 pounds, and should not contain stones over 1 inch in diameter. Such samples must be shipped in boxes, sufficiently tight to prevent the liner material from sifting out. (4 > A sample of paving brick must contain 36 whole bricks, or 24 blocks, which must curely packed in a box for shipment. (5) A blank form and addressed tag envelope will be supplied by the Office for each sample. The blank form must be filled and placed in the tag envelope, which must be used as the address for tin- sample. It is essential that the blank forms be filled with the utmost care, as they are filed as records of the samples. (G) The Office desires to keep a record of the actual wear on roads built < >f the mate- rial- tested. If the material which this sample represents has been or is about to be used on roads, this Office desires to be informed of the addresses of those in charge of the construction and maintenance of such roads. The engineer, when making his preliminary investigation, gives due consideration to transportation facilities, railroad rates, and nearest material within shipping distance, in case local materials are unsuita- ble, inaccessible, or available only at prohibitive cost. The cooperation in object-lesson road work is entirely free, and the local authorities are not required to pay any portion of the salary or expenses of the Government engineers or experts, or for freight or repair of machinery owned by the Government. The construction crew consists of one expert foreman and one expert roller and machinery operator. Heavy- machinery requiring the direc- tion of an expert operator is unnecessary, except in the construction of macadam roads, and it frequently is the case that only an expert fore- man is assigned to the work. Engineering assistance is given from time to time as the case requires, the work being under the general direction of the chief engineer or the assistant engineer, one of whom is present at some stage in the construction of each road. The extent of the machinery equipment is governed by the require- ments in each case, the outfit for a macadam road usually consisting of wheel and drag scrapers, plows, road machine, crushing plant, distrib- uting and dumping wagons, sprinkler, and roller. (See PI. IV, figs. 1 and 2.) A modern crushing plant consists of crusher, elevator, re- volving screens, and bins for at least three sizes of crushed stone. The capacity of the average portable crusher is from 60 to 100 cubic yards per day. A gravel road usually requires the same machinery, except the crushing plant, while sand-clay roads may be easily constructed with a plow, road machine, and horse roller, though if excavation is required, wheel and drag scrapers maybe necessary. The horse rollers generally used by this Office are from 3 to 4 tons in weight. Ten-ton steam rollers have been used on most of the object- lesson roads, although 7^-ton rollers were used in a few cases. The assistance given by the Government in object-lesson road build- ing is not designed to extend beyond the educational stage, and it is, therefore, usually confined to such length of time as is necessary to instruct properly the local road foreman, who is expected to continue the construction begun by the Government engineers. Xo definite 142 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. length of road is guaranteed to be built, but it may be said that it rarely exceeds a mile, and is usually less than that distance. It may be well to state that owing to the immense number of appli- cations for object-lesson roads it is never possible to comply with ail requests, and the practice is therefore followed of apportioning assist- to those sections of the country which have previously received the smallest percentage, or which stand in greatest need of this kind of instruction. Requests receive due consideration in order of priority, so far as vhe location of the construction outfits will permit. PURPOSES OF OBJECT-LES-OX ROAD WORK. Briefly stated, the purposes of object-lesson roads are, first, to intro- duce among local road builders correct methods of construction and maintenance; second, to demonstrate the advantages of a properly built road in order to stimulate public sentiment for road improve- ment and arouse a spirit of progress: third, to afford a basis for esti- mating cost of additional road construction, which may be subse- quently carried on by the county or community: fourth, to demon- strate the availability and relative value of local materials as far as practicable; or, where no local material exists, to determine whether materials can be shipped in by rail so as to make the construction of hard roads feasible at moderate cost. The most important effect of the object-lesson road is the consequent improvement in methods of construction. The widespread igno- rance of the elementary principles of road construction has already been mentioned. It is fortunately true, however, that these princi- ples are not intricate nor difficult to learn, and a small amount of instruction properly directed in each community will go far toward promoting a general improvement of the public roads. This instruc- tion can not be given theoretically with entire success, for actual expe- rience i- essential to the acquirement of a working knowledge of the subject. Practical instruction is easily understood and the knowledge "ained; furthermore, it is an unanswerable reply to incorrect the- ories often firmly fixed in the minds of the ultraconservative element of a eomnnmity. Another advantage which frequently accrues to localities through this medium is the substitution of less costly methods of construction for those already in use. In 1905 the construction of a short section of sand-clay road, near Troy. Ala., established the wisdom of provid- ing s - id-clay roads supplemented by macadam only on heavily traveled thoroughfares. At the time of the construction of the sand-clay road the county was almost on the point of issuing bonds for a large amount to construct macadam roads exclusively. The result has been the saving of a large sum of money, with no material curtailment of transportation facilities. Nearly all innovations, whether labor-saving inventions, scientific discoveries, or economic achievements, have met at their inception Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. Plate IV. Fig. 1.— First Object-lesson Roads Built by the Office of Public Roads, Atlanta, Ga., 1895. Fig. 2. -Tarring Road at Jackson, Tenn.-Latest Advance in Road Surfacing. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. Plate V. Fig. 1. — Before Improvement. . — Sjbgrade Ready for Macadamizing. Fig. 3. — Fp.Smed Maca;av Road. The Evolution of a Country Road, Uniontown, Ala. OBJECT-LESSON EOADS. 143 with determined and bitter opposition from the majority. It is the energetic, progressive minority to whom we must look for material as well as intellectual progress, and so it is in many communities with regard to road improvement, where the narrow conservatism of the majority may stand as an obstacle to the inauguration of any, well- defined and comprehensive scheme looking toward the betterment of the roads. The cooperation of the local authorities in the construction of an object-lesson road is frequently accepted as a compromise measure and serves as a sort of test case to determine whether a progressive or a passive policy shall prevail in the community. The road thus serves as the entering wedge in the establishment of a system of improved highways and the consequent development and advancement of the material prosperity of the country. While the cost of roads varies widely, owing to the variation of the factors entering into road construction, such as the amount of excava- tion, cost of material, depth and width of material, and wages of laborers, it is possible to approximate the cost of additional road building in a section of country where an object-lesson road has been built by applying the unit-cost data of the completed road to the known conditions. For instance, while it would not be safe to say that because an object-lesson road was built at a cost of $4,000 per mile the average cost for additional construction should be $4,000, it would be practicable to arrive at the total approximate cost by comparing each unit of cost and allowing for differences known to exist. In some cases satisfactory roads are being constructed at a great cost not justified by existing conditions. The object-lesson road often serves as a check upon this kind of extravagance or dishonesty. In some localities hard roads are being built of material brought in by rail, whereas a local material could be used to advantage at lower cost. In other cases no effort is made to build macadam roads because of the lack of a suitable material in the immediate locality. Macadam roads have been built at moderate cost of material hauled by rail distances exceeding 100 miles. In still other cases inferior materials are used when good material may be had at the same cost. The object-lesson road, in conjunction with the testing laboratory, is designed to meet these conditions. Until the fiscal year 1905, the Office of Public Roads was unable to perfect a system whereby complete cost data and record of con- struction could be obtained and placed in the hands of local road offi- cials. Under the present system the file for each object-lesson road contains application, inspection report, profile and cross section, esti- mate, machinery report, daily reports of work, final report, laboratory tests, and photographs showing various stages of progress. Dupli- cates of these records are available for the use of the authorities having jurisdiction over the road improved. 144 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPAETMEXT OF AGEICITLTr/EE. EXTENT OF OBJECT-LESSON ROAD COXSTEt'CTIOX. The first object- i oads were constructed on the grounds of the Bit Atlanta, Ga.. in 18 instructed, of macadam, sand, and earth, respec- tive, j - \vn in Plate V. figure 1. The macadam road was 300 feet in length, in - &ch of different grade, the first being level, and th - - aid 10 percent grade, respectively. I and earth roads were each 200 feet in length, divided into • - nd conforming in grades to the macadam road. - .am road was composed of Trenton limestone brought from quarries near Chattanooga, Tenn.. the depth of material Inches and the width 12 feet. o with experiment stations in carrying on object-lesson work in conformance with the provision in the act of Congress _- the Office of Road Inquiry to assist agricultural colleges and riment stations was first undertaken at Geneva, X. Y., during the fiscal vear 1895-96. It was found at the beginning of the work that to restrict it to cooperation with experiment stations would limit ilness too greatly, and since 1896 the construction of object- n roads has been carried on throughout the entire country in dire-. ' n with local officials. Dtiring the fiscal year 1896-97 -1 >son roads were constructed at New Brunswick and Florence. X. J.; L Y.: Warren. Pa.: and Kingston. R. I. During the foil. _ ,.r the scope of the work was broadened materially. Four- teen - -re built that year, located in Maryland. Ohio. Minnesota. - . I ... Xebraska, and the District of Columbia, all be noticed that at first this object-les^m work was confined rn States, but during the year 1- " most of the work s done in the Middle West. During the fiscal y« u 1 - 9-1900 there was a marked curtailment in th I -lesson road work, only 5 roads having been constructed Since 1900 this branch of the work has had nior 14 roads having been constructed in 1901, 15 in 1902, 1, 3 in 1904. 19 in 1905, and 17 in 1906. rger appropriation and increased facilities, it is expected a greater number of object-lesson roads will be completed during 7 han in any previo1 ^ince the Office was ..ready roads have been completed at Seattle, Wash.; nd Pendleton. Oreg.: Bozeman. Mont.: Benton. La.: Dyers- .. V...: Chevy Chase. Md.. and Washington. ads are under construction at Oswego. Kans.: Xew Orleans. La.: Paintsville. Ivy.: Lenoir City. Tenn.. and Williamsburg and > Va. In ail. 113 object-lesson roads have been constructed since the beg a - .<. distributed in 32 States, as follows: 12 in Ohio; th Carolina : 7 in Florida. South Carolina, and Virginia, respec- in Alabama: 5 each in Missouri and Tennessee; 4 each in OBJECT-LESSON EOADS. 145 Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, and Pennsylvania; 3 in Arkansas, Michigan, New York, and Washington, respectively; 2 in the District of Columbia, Illinois, Kansas, Minnesota, Mississippi, Nebraska, New Jersey, North Dakota, and Texas, respectively; and 1 each in Iowa, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. Local materials were used in the construction of these roads where- ever it was possible. Limestone was the principal material, though various grades of granite and trap rock were used in mamr places. The number of roads built of each particular variety of material was as follows: Limestone, 30; granite, 21; gravel, 12; trap and basalt, 9; sand clay, 9; chert, 9; shells, 3; novaculite, 4; steel track, 4; gneiss, 3; earth, 2; brick, 2; slag, 1; burnt clay, 1; hornblende- schist, 1; marl, 1; and oil, 1. The following table gives in brief form all of the essential details relating to the dimensions and cost of the object-lesson roads built in 1904-5: Data in relation to object-lesson roaels constructed in 1904-5. Place. Fcrnandina, Fla Pensacola, Fla Jacksonville, Fla Neosho Mo Beaumont, Tex Tallahassee, Fla Pensacola , Fla Gainesville, Fla Shreveport, La Walla Walla, Wash.. Beliingham, Wash... De Kail), 111 Gainesville, Fla Spr'mgr.eld, Mo Arkansas City, Kans Chagrin Falls, Ohio.. Columbus, Ohio Lebanon, Mo Ciarksdale, Miss Materials used. Kind. Shells Granite and trap Marl Novaculite Clara shelis Sand -clay Sand -clay Flint G ravel Tiap Granite Limestone Sand -clay Novaculite Limestone Sandstone and granite. Bricks and gran- ite. Novaculite Burnt clay Source and trans- portation. Local Ballast from Ger- many. By rail 2.30 miles.. Local By boat 28 miles.. Local Local By wagon 6 miles. By rail 32 miles.. . By rail 13 miles... By rail 30 miles... By rail 100 miles.. Local By wagon 2.} miles Local Local Local Local On road Dimensions of road. Cost. Ft. 1, 199 50G 5,280 2, 640 3,154 4,480 1,800 265 3,306 2,048 2,050 4,510 5,280 1,310 3,615 2,400 S35 2,950 300 Per square yard. so.. us .42n road was constructed at this place which occasioned much no! illy in Knox County, but in adjoining counties. The - of Bradley County, after a careful inspection of the road at Knoxville. started a m men: I issue bonds to the amount of - for the purpose of carrying on similar work in Bra<: nty. After much opposition the plan was put into effect. The improvement in the roads was of such general benefit that additional bonds were issued, bringing the total issue ->■ These bonds met so great a demand that -_ a realized from their sale. Lands that were worth from $8 to $10 per acre before road improvement now find ready sale at from SI 5 to $30 per acre. Madis :ty. Texx. — This county has expended $150,000 and is preparir._ :r>end an equal additional amount on road building, following thee on of an object-lesson road in 1901. Madison County has now ov es of high-class macadam roads. Pr .. Fla. — The following is a report on the object-lest Since its construction the work of building! with. good results, and now the city in th street improvements, and this sum, to..- holders under our law of apportionment - pended for this purr> Gainesville. Fla. — The following is a report on the object-lesson road built in 19 We immediai - >:d in machinery, the du] and have constructed as nearly as possible lil 2 1 are following sewer construction on ot":. — n. I feel confident that your object lesson h< the community. We had an abundance of raw material f Low to use it. Directly traceable to your work here is con? iderable of Jacksonville, Fla., as well as Lai: to examine your work, and are proceed: same material. Yearbook U. S. Dep: - e 1 906. Plate VI. Fig. 1. — Method of Construction. Showing Curb to Prevent Washing. Fi3. 2.— Road Under Wate^ KM Bbkv Fig. 3. — Completed Road. Macadam Road at Auburn. Nebr., Built Through River Bottom. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. Plate VII. Fig. 1.— Crushing Plant, Walla Walla, Wash. Fig. 2.— Preparing set Grade for Macadam Road with Traction Engine and Road Machine, Arkansas City, Kans. Fig. 3.— Concrete Bridge, Texarkana, Ark. OBJECT-LESSON BOADS. 149 Uniontown, Ala. — An official of this place reports as follows upon the object-lesson road completed in 1906. Plate VI shows the various stages in the construction of this macadam road. a result of the work done here by your Department, the city is now expending ¥25,000 on the streets. The whole county is alive with good-roads ideas. The county commissioners will take the matter in hand as to the advisability of making road districts and issuing bonds to improve the roads. All of this comes directly from the object-lesson road built by your Office 1 mile north from city limits. Auburn, Xebr. — The following is quoted from a letter concerning the road built in 1906: There has been an additional mile of road improved as a result of the object-I - work done at this place, and the Auburn Commercial Club, working in conjunction with the board of county commissioners, expect to go right on with the good work until every public highway leading out of this city has been put in first-class condition. The splendid effect following the object-lesson road work at this place is so exten- sive that adjoining counties arc sending representatives here to inspect the work and I i familiarize themselves with the construction of the road. It is generally conceded that we now have the finest and most durable - good roads in the State of Nebraska. Plate VII illustrates the peculiar conditions met in the construction of the object-lesson road at this place. IMPROVEMENT OF RTJB VL MAIL ROUTES. In order to promote the efficiency of the rural-delivery service and at the same time render effective aid in the improvement of roads throughout the United States, the following plan of cooperation has been arranged between the Post-Office Department, through the office of the Fourth Assistant Postmaster-General, and the Depart- ment of Agriculture, through the Office of Public Roads. This plan of cooperation was approved by the Secretary of Agriculture July 3, 1906. and the Postmaster-General July 10, 1906. Whenever a road upon which a rural route has been or is about to be established is reported by the carrier or inspector to be impassable or in bad repair, the Fourth Assistant Postmaster-General will advise the Director of the Office of Public Roads of the fact and request that he have an engineer inspector detailed to examine the road and give such advice and instruction to the local officials as may be required. Upon receipt of such information from the Fourth Assistant Post- master-General, the Director of this Office will communicate with the local officials and supply them with a circular of instructions and a blank form for making application for the detail of such engineer inspector. It is not the purpose of this Office actually to construct the road or to make any contribution either in money, materials, or labor. In 150 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTLIEXI OP AGRICULTURE. " cases a road is impassable on account of defects which can be remedied by the use of proper methods. The engineer inspector who examines the road will note carefully all such defects and advise as to what bteps. can be taken to place the road in proper condition without great expense. If practicable, and if so desired, he may in some cases assume temporary direction of the work for the purpose of instruction. There will be no expense to the community on account of the detail of such engineer, as his salary and expenses are paid by the Federal Government. LECTURES OX OBJECT-LESSON METHODS. ie present plan of confining the object-lesson road work to practi- cal instruction will probably be improved in the near future and the- oretical instruction by means of lectures will be given in conjunction with instruction by the object-lesson method. A lecture may of itself be entirely inadequate to impart a working knowledge of road struction; and on the other hand it is probable that instruction by the object-lesson method alone will fail to convey a sufficient st difficult points in connection with road build- ing. The theoretical portion of the instruction will probably cod of one or more lectures during the continuance of the work, in which subjects of primary importance will be discussed, such as grading, drainage, selection and preparation of materials, maintenance of roads, operation and repair of machinery, organization, methods of ration, and computation of cost data. These lectures, while intended particularly for road overseers, road foremen, and all offi- having connection with road building, are open to the general public and occasion will be given for a general discussion of w means, methods, and practice, in addition to the subjects of the lec- ture. The or^aiiizatk-n and practice governing teachers" and farmers' tutes will to some extent be applied to these road institutes. It is expected that the authorities having jurisdiction over the road under construction -will lend their cooperation in securing the pres- ence of the persons to whom this instruction should be given. In som< the county court, county commissioners, or county super- .ve authority to direct the various road ove: partici- pate in the construction of the object-lesson read and in the road *ute held in connection with the work: in othe: they can 2je the presence of the overseers. It will of course be n< be made to correspond with local conditions in each ci By this means it is hoped that the influen ce ! h road institute and object-lesson road will extend far beyond the immediate neigh- borhood and result in a more widely extended improvement in the public roads than would be possible by following the present plan. INTRODUCTION OF ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE INTO SCHOOLS. By A. C. Tbue, Director of the Office of Experiment Stations. The teaching of improved methods of agriculture to the masses of our agricultural youth has recently been advocated by the President of the United States, the Secretary of Agriculture, a former United States Commissioner of Labor who is now the president of a Massa- chusetts college, the president of one of our greatest railroads, the president of the University of Virginia, the superintendent of schools of New York City, acting as president of the National Educational Association, and by such bodies as the National Educational Associa- tion, the National Grange, and the National Irrigation Congress. This mav fairly be taken as a sure indication that the discussion of this subject has become very widespread, and that public opinion is becom- ing crystallized in favor of using the schools for the dissemination of agricultural knowledge. After a long period of comparative neglect of agricultural interests by the leaders of thought and action in this country, a great awakening to the tremendous issues which are involved in the permanent prosperity of our agriculture and in the maintenance of a high level of intelligence among our agricultural people has come, and happily the minds of our most influential men are turning more and more to the public schools as the fittest and best centers from which to spread a knowledge of the principles of agricul- ture and in which to inculcate a love of country life and an apprecia- tion of the dignity of agricultural pursuits. Sentiments favorable to agriculture are no longer expressed by our public men simply as a compliment to our farmers. It is rather a new and serious sense of the real importance of the farmer to the commonwealth, and a fear of the perils into which the crowding of our population in great cities and the neglect to maintain the fertility of our soil are sure to bring us, that are leading thoughtful men of all classes to pay earnest attention to the educational needs of our rural population. This means a great step in advance on this subject. It is now possible to secure a fair hearing of the claims of agriculture to a place in our public schools and a thorough testing of plans for the teaching of this subject in a wide and effective way. It becomes important, therefore, to look more closely at the methods which are being pursued to acquaint our 151 152 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fanners, educators, and legislators with the needs of the rural schools in different parts of our country and to make definite suggestions for then improvement. Under the authority of Congress and the Secretary of Agriculture the Office of Experiment Stations has been collating information from various sources regarding the progress of this movement, and the present summary is presented to show in brief the results of this investigation. INTEREST AMONG FARMERS- ORGANIZATIONS. Our investigation shows that in the farmers' organizations through- out the country, which as a rule comprise our more intelligent and progressive farmers, the introduction of agricultural instruction into the schools is being actively discussed and warmly approved. Local organizations are passing this question up to the State organizations, and these in turn are sending it on to the National organizations. Committees on legislation are being appointed, and there are many evidences of an earnest and -persistent effort to secure definite results. Xot content to wait for the formulation of definite courses of instruction in agriculture for the rural schools and the training of teachers in this subject, there is in many places an effort to do some- thing tangible to arouse the interest of farmers' boys in the study of agriculture. Through the agency of farmers' organizations cooperat- ing with the State agricultural colleges and State and county depart- ments of education, boys' agricultural clubs have been organized, largely in connection with the schools, in Georgia, Illinois. Indiana. Iowa. Kansas. Nebraska, Ohio, Texas, and probably other States. The members of these clubs have regular institute meetings and lecture courses, go on excursions to educational institutions and large farms, conduct variety tests with corn, cotton, sugar beets, and other crops, and exhibit then products at school, county, and State fairs. The agricultural press is devoting a larger space than ever before to the discussion of educational topics, and wherever an attempt is made t>. establish the teaching of agriculture in the schools it i.-. widely and fully advertised. Entire numbers of some papers are given up to the presentation of various phases of agricultural education. ATTITUDE OF SCHOOL OFFICERS AND TEACHERS. A remarkable change has taken place in tiie attitude of school offi- cers and teachers regarding nature study and elementary agriculture as school subjects. A few years ago it was unusual to find any sub- ject relating to agriculture in public schools in the programmes of teachers' meetings. Xow scarcely an educational meeting of impor- tance is held anywhere in the United States without at least one paper ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE IN SCHOOLS. 153 on some phase of this subject, and in many cases whole sessions are devoted to the discussion of various topics relating to it, from nature study and school gardening to the more formal courses in agriculture. A few examples will serve to show how widespread is this interest. At the sixty-seventh annual convention of the American Institute of Instruction at New Haven, Conn., in July, 1906, which is largely attended by school officers and teachers from different parts of New England, the teaching of elementary agriculture was largely discussed in the department of rural education, formal papers on this subject being presented by the superintendent of education of Vermont and the professor of agriculture of the Massachusetts Agricultural College. New England has also been aroused to a serious and thorough dis- cussion of this matter by the report of a commission on industrial and technical education presented to the legislature of Massachusetts in April, 1906. The chairman of this commission was Hon. Carroll D. Wright, for many years United States Commissioner of Labor and now president of Clark University at Worcester, Mass. This com- mission was appointed by the governor of Massachusetts in accord- ance with an act of the legislature, -and spent nearly a year in a study of the relation of children to our industries and the condition of indus- trial education at home and abroad. The commission found that "there is a widespread interest in the general subject of industrial education, or special training for vocations," but that our people gen- erally, and even those who are most interested in the subject, have no definite ideas as to its proper scope or method. "Compared with the opportunities afforded in Europe for acquiring knowledge and skill in productive industry, the work now being done in Massachusetts is strikingly and painfully inadequate," and while in this country "the general public has been strangely blind to the narrowness of the public school education," in Europe there is " the universal recognition of the necessity of special education for every form of industrial life." Among their conclusions were the following: The State needs a wider diffusion of industrial intelligence as a foundation for the highest technical success, and this can only be acquired in connection with the general system of education into which it should enter as an integral part from the beginning. The latest philosophy of education reenforces the demands of productive industry by showing that that which fits a child best for his place in the world as a producer tends to his own highest development physically, intellectually, and morally. There seem to be two lines in which industrial education may be developed — (1) through the existing public school system, and (2) through independent industrial schools. In regard to the former the commission recommends that cities and towns so modify the work in the elementary schools as to include for boys and girls instruc- tion and practice in the elements of productive industry, including agriculture and the mechanic and domestic arts, and that this instruction be of such a character as to secure from it the highest cultural as well as the highest industrial value; and that the work in the high schools be modified so that the instruction in mathematics, the sci- ences, and drawing shall show the application and use of these subjects in industrial 154 YEAEBOOE OF THE DEPAP.TME^T Of AGRICULTURE. life, with special reference to local industries, so that the students may see that these ts are not de-signed primardy and solely for academic purposes, but that they may be utilized for the purposes of practical life — that is. algebra and geometry should be so taught in the public schools as to show their relations to construction; botany to ulture and agriculture: chem - ..gri culture, manufactures, and domestic sciences, and drawine to every f cm of industry. Tho commission would also recommend that all towns and cities provide, by new elective industrial courses in high schools, instruction in the principles of agriculture and the domestic and mechani This commission has been continued, and Prof. Paul Hanus, profes- sor of the history and art of teaching in Harvard University, has been appointed chairman. Professor Hanus is thoroughly alive to the need of industrial education, believing that "the education demanded by democratic society in modern times must be a preparation for active life." and that '"the only real preparation for life's duties, opportunities, and privileges is participation in them, so far as they can be rendered intelligible, interesting, and accessible to children and youth of school age." This being so. he favors •'liberal provision for elementary training in agriculture, industrial and commercial pursuits, in addition to general manual training, at the upper end of the grammar school and also at the upper end of the high school." In New York, at the annual meeting of the State Association of School Commissioners and Superintendents, held at Cornell Univer- sity, in October, 1906. the best means of adapting rural schools to their environment was discussed, and it was generally agreed that agriculture should be taught as a part of the general scheme of peda- . of which it should be the basic factor. In Indiana the county superintendents in twelve counties have :_ized clubs for the study of crops, and th Ass Nation of County rintendents has asked Purdue University to organize a training school for teachers in agriculture and nature study. Th Teachers' Association of Michigan at its meeting in 1 ted resolutions favoring the teaching of agriculture in the public schools. In Missouri the State superintendent made the following statement in his report for 1<»04: ged at county teacht. -ons and granges that the ele- ments of agriculture be taught in public schools. Since then sentiment has grown until then a lemand for it. For five years the law has recognized it by making it one of a group of subjects from which appli- . : to be examined for first- grade cert i Sea* S ertificate. T ago State norm;.'. ?:ablished depa: agriculture and na: There are now many teachers in the agriculture. In 1905 the Missouri State Teachers' Association asked that agri- culture be made a requirement for any grade of teachers' certificate; Id ; .r a joint meeting of the : fcion and the State Farmers' Institute, held at the University of California ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE IX SCHOOLS. 155 in December, 1905, and attended by some 7,000 persons, the subject of agricultural education was discussed from various points of view, and as a result of this meeting a committee was organized to promote the interests of such education in the public schools of the State. At a conference for education in the South, held at Lexington, Ky., in May, 1906. and attended by leading educators from a number of States, much attention was given to the claims of agriculture to a place in the school curriculum. At the meeting of the Virginia State Teachers' Association and affiliated organizations in November, 1906, the teaching of agricul- ture in the public schools was widely and thoroughly discussed, and President Alderman, of the University of Virginia, in the closing address of that great meeting, declared that among the things which should be considered as settled in the campaign for a better school system now being actively carried on in that State was that agricul- ture in some form should be generally taught in the schools. At the annual convention of the National Educational Association, held at Asbury Park, N. J., in July, 1905, elementary agricultural instruction was a prominent subject of discussion, and such instruc- tion was favored in the annual address of the president, DrAYilliamH. Maxwell, superintendent of schools of New York City, delivered to thousands of teachers at the opening session. The committee on industrial education in schools for rural communities, appointed two years before, brought in an elaborate report, in which it maintained " that the rural schools, which train nearly one-half of the school popu- lation of this country, should recognize the fact that the major portion of their pupils will continue to live upon the farm, and should pro- vide specific, definite technical training for them for the activities of farm life. It adduceel strong arguments in support of this position and emphasizeel the educational value as well as the practical utility of courses of study framed with this end in view. The committee favored the consolidation of rural schools in orelcr that teachers specially fitted for this work might be secured and the instruction made more efficient. It also advocated the establishment of high schools to meet the special needs of the rural population for secondary education directly related to agricultural practice." PROGRESS IX LEGISLATE >X. Steady progress is being made in securing legislation favorable to the teaching of agriculture in public schools. The laws of over 30 States now permit or require such instruction. Among the States which rcepjire the teaching of agriculture in all elementary schools are Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, South Dakota, and Vv'isconsin. Legisla- tion on this subject is commonly accompanied with provisions making 156 YEAEBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. agriculture one of the subjects on which teachers may or must be examined. In Nebraska, for example, candidates for first and second grade county certificates must pass an examination in the elements of agriculture. In Wisconsin, since 1901, teachers have been required to pass an examination in elementary agriculture in order to secure any grade of teachers' certificate. In New Hampshire teachers in >ndary schools are required to hare training in agriculture. In Virginia teachers securing first-grade certificates must pass an exami- nation on either physical geography, elementary physics, or elemen- tary agriculture. In Alabama. Georgia. Mississippi. Missouri. North Carolina, and South Dakota all teachers must pass examination on this subject. In New York the new syllabus for elementary schools contains nature study and agriculture, and teachers in training classes are required to cover all subjects in the syllabus. In Ohio the Teachers' Reading Circle requires the study of one text-book on ele- mentary agriculture each year. The laws are also beginning to rec- ognize the fact that definite provision should be made for the training of teachers along agricultural lines. Thus a recent act in Michigan, which enables counties to maintain normal training classes with State aid, requires the teaching of agriculture to such classes. In Massa- chusetts the legislature appropriated $5,000 for normal work at the State Agricultural College as one result of the report of the commission on industrial education above referred to. It is also being seen that the high schools are very largely the insti- tutions in which the teachers of the rural schools receive their most advanced training, and this fact is now making it easier to secure legislation for high-school instruction in agriculture. Already under State laws there are agricultural high schools in Alabama. California, Minnesota, and Wisconsin. In 1905 the Minnesota legislature passed an act providing for local option in the establishment and mainte- nance of county schools of agriculture and domestic economy, limiting JO, 000 the amount: which any county may appropriate for this purpose in one year. Two or more counties may unite to establish such a school. Each school must have connected with it a tract of land suitable for experiments and demonstrations of not less than 10 acres. At the session of 1906 the Georgia legislature passed an act estab- lishing 11 agricultural high schools, as branches of the State College of Agriculture. These schools will each receive from the State about 00 a year, derived from the inspection fees collected by the State department of agriculture, but each community in which such a school is located must furnish not less than 200 acres of land and the necessary equipment. The people are responding enthusiastically to this requirement, and about S^OO.OOO in land and money lias been offered for the equipment of these schools. ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE IN SCHOOLS. 157 In New Hampshire, beginning with. 1906, high schools and acade- mies may be approved b}T the State superintendent of education if they are prepared to teach agriculture. Recent legislation in Virginia provides for the establishment of public high schools under the authority of the State superintendent of education. Arrangements are being made to open about 150 such schools, and it is intended to make instruction in agriculture a feature of the course in such of these schools as are located in the rural districts. FORMULATION OF COURSES. One of the objections often made to the introduction of agriculture into our schools is that the teachers do not know what should be taught under this head. This may have been a valid excuse in the past, but to-day is no longer so. While there is still much differ- ence of opinion as to details, the general scheme of instruction has been pretty well worked out. For example, the Office of Experiment Stations has published an outline plan of a course in nature study and elementary agriculture for rural schools. This was prepared by a committee of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, and therefore represents broadly the views of educators in different parts of the countr}' on this subject. In this publication, a which may be obtained on application to this Depart- ment, it is suggested that during the first six years of the child's attendance at school he should be led to make observations of the plants and animals on the farm and in the fields and woods, together with simple studies of soils, weather conditions, and other natural objects and phenomena. A more formal study of climate, soils, fer- tilizers, farm crops, fruits, domestic animals, dairying, farm build- ings and machinery, market ing, and farm accounts is outlined for the seventh and eighth school }~ears. The committee has followed this with a series of simple exercises and demonstrations on some of the elementary principles of agriculture. These have recently been published as a circular of the Office of Experiment Stations. In Missouri a course in agriculture for the public schools was pre- pared several years ago by the State superintendent of schools. This has since been superseded b}^ a more nearly complete presentation of this subject in a bulletin prepared by the State superintendent and published by the State board of agriculture. This bulletin advocates presenting the subject of agriculture "(1) by experiments at home and in the field, (2) by studying facts as given in texts and bulletins, and (3) by school gardens connected with school grounds." Nu- merous experiments and observations are suggested throughout the bulletin. a Office of Experiment Stations Circular 60, The Teaching of Agriculture in the Rural Common Schools. 158 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In Illinois a somewhat detailed course has been prepared by the dean of the College of Agriculture. This course is arranged bv nionths, and gives suggestions for a large number of experiments and observations bearing on all the divisions of agriculture. Consider- able reading along agricultural lines is suggested, as well as drawing, composition, and other work intended to correlate agriculture with other school work. This Illinois course has not only been used in thai State, but has also been adopted by several other States and published in the reports of their State superintendents of education. In Minnesota a bulletin prepared by Prof. W. M. Hays, then pro- fessor of agriculture of the College of Agriculture and now Assistant - retary of Agriculture, has been widely used in the schools of that and other States. This bulletin contains a large number of practical and illustrative exercises for use in connection with elementary instruction in agriculture. In "Wisconsin the State superintendent of public instruction, in 1906. prepared an outline for instruction hi the elements of agricul- ture for the use of teachers in common schools. In this outline it is recommended that agriculture be taught in the last half of the eighth year, and that nature study be given in all grades through general exercises and in connection with language exercises, geography, reading, and history. The outline is divided into three parts, (1) agriculture, including the soil, water and the soil, tilling the soil, soil enrich- ment, the plant, the leguminous plants, plant enemies, rotation of crops, selection of seed, the farm garden, weeds, and home and school gardens: (2) farm animals, including care and feeding, type forms, and farm economics, and (3) farm poultry. Outlines of courses, sample lessons, and other helps for teachers have also been published by the State departments of education in Georgia, Indiana. Maine, Michigan, Missouri, Nebraska, North Carolina, Xew Hampshire, Xew York, and probably in other States. The Xew York State department of education has published a sylla- bus of a course in agriculture for high schools, and this will be followed by a detailed series of lessons and laboratory and field exerci PREPARATION OF TEXT-BOOKS AXD MANUALS. The demand for text-books, manuals, and reference books on agri- culture adapted to school use is steadily growing. The agricultural experts connected with our agricultural colleges and experiment sta- tions are thus encouraged to prepare such books, and publishers are now active hi seeking for books of this character. The number of bul- letins useful to teachers and students which are issued by the United States Department of Agriculture and the State experiment stations has greatly increased in recent years, and the demand for these from educational institutions is now, large. Among elementary text-books ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE IN SCHOOLS. 159 which are already used more or less extensively in schools are Burkett, Stevens and Hill's Agriculture for Beginners; Goff and Mayne's First Principles of Agriculture; Bailey's Principles of Agriculture; Good- rich's First Book of Farming; Brooks's Agriculture; Jackson and Daugherty's Agriculture through the Laboratory and School Garden; Shepperd and McDowell's Elements of Agriculture (prepared espe- cially for North Dakota schools), and Hatch and Haselwood's Ele- mentary Agriculture with Practical Arithmetic. The last mentioned is an interesting attempt to correlate instruction in agriculture with that in arithmetic by connecting with the several lessons in agriculture a number of practical arithmetical problems directly relating to the farm. For the high-school library and the teachers' use we have such advanced manuals as Hunt's Cereals in America; Smith's Profitable Stock Feeding; Henry's Feeds and Feeding; Jordan's Feeding of Animals: King's Soil, Irrigation and Drainage, and Physics of Agricul- ture ; Decker's Dairying; Snyder's Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life ; Mead's Irrigation Institutions; Taylor's Agricultural Economics, and others. For general reference books we have the new Interna- tional Encyclopedia; Bailey's Encyclopedia of Horticulture; Wilcox and Smith's Encyclopedia for Farmers; Bailey's Garden Craft and Rural Science Series; the Yearbooks of the United States Department of Agriculture, and others of similar character. The bulletins and books which the schools can easily secure contain many descriptions and illustrations of simple and inexpensive apparatus and other facili- ties which may be purchased or made by the teacher. There is no excuse for keeping agriculture out of the schools to-day because of a lack of suitable books or other aids to such instruction. Suggestions for the adaptation of country schoolhouses to this new work are now being made. At Cornell University a model schoolhouse is being erected, which, in addition to the usual recitation room, will have a large laboratory for nature study and elementary agriculture. PROVISION FOR TRAINING TEACHERS. Realizing that a vital point in the effective teaching of agriculture in our public schools is the training of teachers in this subject, the friends of this movement are now making active efforts to establish agricultural courses for teachers in our colleges and normal schools. The agricultural colleges in a number of States have given instruction to considerable numbers of teachers at summer schools. They are now beginning to establish regular normal courses, provision for such work having recently been made at the colleges in Illinois, Mississippi, Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, and Xew York. The colleges in Ohio, Iowa, Illinois, New York, Mississippi, and Rhode Island also h so-called extension departments which are seeking to come into close 160 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. touch with teachers as well as with country boys and girls, and thus promote the wider diffusion of agricultural education. These colleges are also using their influence to turn students in their regular courses to the career of teaching. The agricultural high schools, whether attached to the agricultural colleges or independent of them, are also training teachers. Some of the normal schools in Alabama, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, California, Louisiana, Maine. Massachusetts, Michigan. Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota. Oklahoma, Texas, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, and Wisconsin are giving regular instruction in nature study and elementary agriculture. ORGANIZATION OF AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS. Meanwhile the establishment of courses in agriculture in secondary and primary sch< k >1s is g» >ing on in different parts of the country. The agricultural high schools organized in connection with the agricultural colleges in Minnesota, Nebraska, Oklahoma, Rhode Island, and Wash- ington report an increased number of students, and are better equipped than ever before. The National Farm School at Doylestown, Pa., has been recognized by the State legislature, which granted it an appro- priation of $1 2,000, to be used for agricultural instruction. This school now receives more applicants for admission than it can accom- modate, and is obliged to keep a waiting list. In Wisconsin the Dunn County School of Agriculture and Domestic Economy at Menominee has graduated three classes — 21 boys and girls in 1004. 19 in 1905, and 16 in 1906. The California Polytechnic School, at San Luis Obispo, has become firmly established and has a good equipment and a consider- able number of agricultural students. The nine district agricultural ils in Alabama are steadily growing in popularity, and the effi- ciency of their agricultural work has been much increased. The agri- cultural course at the Mount Hermon School, in Massachusetts, is being well maintained. In Missouri agriculture is being taught in 200 high schools, hi Ohio in 30, and in one or more schools in Alabama, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, New York. Iowa, Kansas, Nebr: la, Indiana, Maine. Idaho. Montana. North Dakota. Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee. Texas. Utah. Virginia, Washington, and Wisconsin. agricultural high schools have recently been org a *>kston, Minn., and Calvert, Md. At the latter a graduate of the Iowa Agri- cultural College has been elected principal, and a course of study ly following the course recommended by the committee on instruction in agriculture of the Association of American Agricul- tural Colleges and Experiment Stations" has been adopted, and the a Office of Experiment Stations Circular GO. ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE IN SCHOOLS. 161 agricultural work is arousing much, interest not only among the pupils but also among the farmers of the county. The principal visits other schools in the vicinity for the purpose of getting their teachers and pupils interested in agricultural subjects. The school is strictly rural, and although it has been running only since the 1st of November, 1906, there is an enrollment of 47, the school building is crowded, and already there is talk of a new building next year. Georgia is organizing eleven such schools. The agricultural courses in schools for negroes at Hamp- ton, Va., and Tuskegee, Ala., are maintained very efficiently, and efforts are being made to strengthen the agricultural courses of sec- ondary grade in a number of the land-grant colleges for negroes in other Southern States. In Ohio it is reported that elementary agriculture is taught in approximately 500 township schools; in Missouri in 3,000 schools; in North Dakota in 300 schools; and this subject is regularly taught in a considerable number of schools in Alabama, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Indian Territory, Iowa, Louisiana, Maine, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New York, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, South Dakota, Virginia, Wisconsin, and Washington. NUMBER OF PUPILS STUDYING AGRICULTURE. Reliable statistics of the number of pupils studying agriculture in our public schools are not available, but from the reports recently received at the Office of Experiment Stations it is certain that they are numbered by thousands. From the report of the State super- intendent of education of Missouri for 1905 we have gathered the following interesting statistics: The total number of schools doing high-school work in that State is 555, with 1,428 teachers and 28,354 students. The total number of students in agriculture is 1,180. In the sciences, which are more or less related to agriculture, the num- bers are as follows: Botany, 2,742; zoology, 1,905; chemistry, 1,492; physics, 3,386; physical geography, 4,215; physiology, 3,411. Latin is taken by 14,117 students, but Greek by only 200. In manual training there are 2,582 students, in bookkeeping 1,534, and in stenography 436. As some indication of the number of farmers' children in these high schools it may be stated that there are 4,000 nonresident pupils. From these high schools come very largely the teachers required by the elementary country schools, and 3,000 new teachers are needed for these schools in Missouri each year. These statistics show several things: (1) That a good beginning has been made in teaching agriculture in the Missouri high schools; (2) that there is so much elementary science taught in these schools that there should be little difficulty in laying a proper foundation for effective agricultural instruction; (3) that there are so many 3 A1906 n 162 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. farmers' children in these schools that with proper courses of instruc- tion the high schools of Missouri may easily become powerful agen- - for sending back to the farms yoimg people thoroughly alive to the advantages of country life and the requirements of a pro- gressive agriculture: (4) that it is vital to the advancement of the best interests of the elementary rural schools that the atmosphere and instruction of schools should be favorable to agriculture, for to these high schools the country school must largely look for teachers. HOW FARMERS MAY HELP THE SCHOOLS. Having now reviewed the progress which has been made in recent years in opening the way for the teaching of agriculture in our public ols. it may be well to give brief attention to some of the v. in which the farmers themselves may further promote the improve- ment of the rural schools in this and other respects. Our agricul- tural communities have never been so prosperous as to-day. And there is every reason to believe that with intelligent management of the land and sound judgment in the marketing of the products this prosperity may be permanently maintained. The farmers now have the means to improve not only their lands and buildings, but also their general social conditions. The experience of the past century has shown that a thorough and effective school system in which the curriculum recognizes the industrial, intellectual, and social needs of the community is a most influential factor in pro- moting material wealth, as well as a broad and satisfactory life. Our farmers will be wise, therefore, if they use a portion of their increased means to strengthen and improve the rural schools. Some have feared that agricultural prosperity would lead to a neglect of education in our rural communities. But the indications are that this is not to be so. Our agricultural colleges and schools report both an increase in the number of students and an improvement in their quality. It appears that with the improvement of agricultural conditions there is a renewed interest in farming as a business, and farm boys of strong mental caliber and active ambition are seeking in larger numbers to prepare themselves in the best way for a life on the farm. There is also widespread recognition of the fact that our present agricultural prosperity rests on a different basis from that of pre- vious periods in our history. There have been times when multitudes of our farmers were prosperous because they had occupied large ai of virgin soil freely granted them by the Government or purchased at a very low price. To-day our agricultural prosperity has come partly from increased demand for farm products at home and abroad and partly from the more skillful use of the land and the growing of im- proved crops and animals. And the improvement of agricultural ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE IN SCHOOLS. 163 methods and products has been very largely the result of the work of the United States Department of Agriculture and the State experiment stations. Technical and scientific knowledge is, as never before, a requisite of the most successful farming. The schools can be made efficient aids to the acquirement of that knowledge which our farm youth must have in order to perpetuate and extend the prosperity which their fathers now enjoy. Therefore our intelligent farmers are seeking to improve the rural schools, and will do so more actively as they come more generally to understand the im- portance of such action. Better-trained teachers, improved school houses and grounds, more apparatus and books, free transportation of pupils to consoli- dated schools, high schools made available to all country children, and the teaching of agriculture and home ecomonics will cost some- thing, and if they are to be had they must be paid for. But unless all past experience is a false guide, this improved school system will be one of the most profitable investments ever made by a civilized community. And if our farmers are alert to their interests they will push these improvements along rapidly, and they will not permit the entire expense to come out of the taxable farm property. The villages and cities, whose prosperity rests on the farms, and the accumulated wealth of the State should contribute to the education of the rural people. This is already recognized in a number of our States as a wise and just principle. The nation has also recognized it by appropriating large sums for the higher agricultural education. It can not be too strongly urged that the movement for the im- provement of the rural schools, and in particular for the teaching of topics directly relating to agriculture and farm home life, should receive the active support of the masses of our farmers. And this support should be felt in our legislatures, boards of education, and local school management. This, will require study of the present condition of our rural schools and careful consideration of their needs. As regards agricultural instruction there should be an under- standing of what the elementary and secondary schools may prop- erly teach and the relation of such studies to those ordinarily pursued in our schools. For example, our farmers should come to under- stand that it is not the ordinary practice of agriculture which can or should be taught in the public schools. It is rather the observation of the things in the natural world which the farmer has to deal with, the use of natural laws for the benefit of agriculture, the reasons why certain farm practices are beneficial and others injurious to the land that the school may teach. For example, in a dairy region the composition of milk, the causes of the souring of milk, and the ways of preventing this may be taught in school; in a potato-growing region, the nature and cause of potato blight, the reason why it is necessary to spray the vines before the disease appears; where the 164 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. soils are deficient in nitrogen, the advantage of green manuring with leguminous plants and the reasons therefor: in an arid region, the use of the soil mulch and why it prevents the escape of soil mois- ture. And, above all. the farmer should see to it that the rural school-teacher is a friend of agriculture and loses no good opportunity to show his or her pupils the advantages and opportunities of country life. The farmers can also do a great deal to promote the teaching of agriculture in the rural schools by encouraging the teachers to take up tins subject and to prepare themselves to give instruction in it. The farmers are very largely the managers of rural schools and their children are the teachers in them. Merely by taking an active inter- est in the local schools, inviting the teachers and scholars to visit the farm, especially when there are unusually good crops and fine ani- mals to be seen there, or sending specimens of products or injurious birds or insects to the school, the intelligent farmer may help to create a sentiment hi favor of agricultural instruction there. Teachers, like other workers, will inevitably respond to an active demand for new things. As soon as it becomes izeiierallv understood that the farmers are bound to have agriculture taught in the schools, candi- dates for teachers' positions will get ready to teach it. "With many of our educational leaders fully believing that subjects directly related to the life work of the pupils should be taught and a host of the intel- ligent farmers insisting that our future agricultural prosperity will largely depend on such teaching in the schools, a way will surely be found to bring this great reform to a successful issue. Meanwhile let us have great patience with even the most imperfect attempts on the part of our schools to work along this line. The whole matter of elementary and secondary instruction in agriculture is in an experi- mental stage. Many trials of courses, methods of teaching, books, apparatus, and other facilities must be made before plans fully adapted to the conditions of different agricultural regions can be matured. Intelligent and kindly criticism should be invited and utilized by all who are engaged in this work. In this way alone can the best prog- ress be made. What is now being done, with all its imperfections, is tremendously important. Principles of action are being determined. Every suc- cessful example of the effective teaching of agriculture, whether in a little country school or in the agricultural high school, is helping to indicate along what line the future growth of this movement must proceed. There is therefore much cause for congratulation that in so many different States and under such a variety of conditions honest and substantial efforts are being made to solve the problems of our rural schools and to test the usefulness of agricultural instruc- tion as a means of improving country life and perpetuating agricul- tural prosperity. CAGE-BIRD TRAFFIC OF THE UNITED STATES. By Henry Oldys, Assistant, Biological Survey. INTRODUCTION. Three hundred thousand cage- birds, largely canaries, are annually imported into the United States. Some of these are destined for zoological parks and a few for private aviaries, but the great majority find their way into the hands of those who desire to have a cage-bird or two to brighten the home. This yearly influx of captive birds may seem large, considering the comparatively small number usually in evidence; but it must be remembered that they are scattered over an area of more than 3,000,000 square miles, and are distributed among a population of more than 80,000,000, which allows but 4 birds a year to every 1,000 persons, or about 400 birds to a city of the size of Columbus, Ohio. The practice of keeping live birds in confinement is worldwide and extends so far back in history that the time of its origin is unknown. It exists among the natives of tropical as well as temperate countries, was found in vogue on the islands of the Pacific when they were first discovered, and was habitual with the Peruvians under the Incas and the Aztecs under Montezuma. Caged birds were popular in classic Greece and Rome. The Alexandrian parrakeet — a ring-necked parrakeet of India — which is much fancied at the present day, is said to have been first brought to Europe by one of the generals of Alexander the Great. Before this living birds had been kept by the nations of west- ern Asia, and the voices of bulbuls and other attractive singers doubt- less added to the charms of the hanging gardens of Babylon, while in China and Japan the art of domesticating wild birds has been prac- ticed for many centuries. It is not difficult to account for the motive that underlies this wide- spread habit. The same spirit that leads to the domestication of wild flowers for adornment of the home and the pleasure derived from their beauty or fragrance is responsible for the similar transplanting of wild birds from their natural homes to those of their captors, and the parallel extends to the subsequent production of new varieties. As a people, Americans have less of this spirit than prevails else- where. Despite the multitudes of birds weekly entering the country — a single vessel will occasionally deliver ten or fifteen thousand — our 165 166 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. interest in avicultural pursuits is comparatively slight. In Europe aviaries are numerous and their owners maintain a common interest by means of avicultural organizations and periodicals. Bird shows are held annually or oftener in London, Berlin, and manjr other Euro- pean cities. A friendly but keen rivalry prevails among the owners of aviaries as to which shall first succeed in breeding species that have not previously been bred in captivity or in producing new hybrids. The journals and magazines devoted to aviculture serve as a medium of exchange of methods and experiences and keep their readers in touch with each other. In Germany, particularly, the practice of keeping, rearing, and studying cage-birds is very common. In many a dwell- ing one room is set apart for birds, and these bird rooms are not con- fined to a particular class, but are found in the homes of people of every rank and condition. As long ago as 1880 some 200 societies of amateurs existed, and several weekly publications and magazines devoted to birds attested the general interest in avicultural pursuits. The breeding of cage-birds for sale is a regular occupation in several parts of Europe. Germany produces hundreds of thousands of sing- ing canaries in the Harz Mountains, those of St. Andreasburg being unrivaled songsters ; in England, Scotland, and Belgium fancy vari- eties of canaries are regularly bred for the trade; and at the Royal Society's zoological gardens of Antwerp, Belgium, the breeding of many species of foreign cage -birds is systematically conducted. The United States has few aviaries, and most of these are devoted to pheasants and other large birds. For a few years an avicultural peri- odical was published, but the support it received was apparently insuf- ficient, and at present there seem to be no periodicals and very few associations strictly devoted to aviculture. Hence in this country there is not that community of interest and information that charac- terizes the avocation in Europe. America supports a few small shows, mainly exhibitions of canaries; and small exhibitions of cage birds, mostly canaries, are usually held as adjuncts to the annual poultry shows of New York, Boston, Chicago, Toronto, and other cities. The breeding of canaries and cage-birds for the trade in any numbers is practically unknown on this side of the Atlantic. TRAFFIC IN DOMESTIC BIRDS. The once extensive trade in native American birds has dwindled to the vanishing point. Formerly mockingbirds, bluebirds, cardinals, tanagers, indigo birds, and nonpareils were caught in large numbers and sold either here or abroad, and more or less trade in other species prevailed. Bluebirds, which are known as blue robins or blue nightingales in England and France, were imported into England some time before 1869, as in that year they were first bred in the London CAGE-BIRD TRAFFIC OF THE UNITED STATES. 167 Zoological Gardens. They are regarded with much favor by amateurs and have been repeatedly bred in private aviaries. Mockingbirds were bred in French aviaries before 1873. While intolerant of cage mates, they are much valued in Europe for their song, which, how- ever, is there considered inferior to that of the nightingale — a judg- ment partly assisted, perhaps, by patriotic bias and association. Scarlet tanagers and cardinals are ranked very high in Europe, and frequently win prizes in bird shows. Evidence of the esteem as cage-birds in which the latter are held is shown by the fact that they are listed on the price list of a London bird dealer for September, 1906, at more than $5 apiece. Of interest in this connection is the statement of Gemelli Careri, quoted by Nuttall in his Manual of Ornithology published in 1832, that "the Spaniards of Havana in a time of public distress and scarcity bought so many of these birds [cardinals], with which a vessel was partly freighted from Florida, that the sum expended at $10 apiece amounted to no less than $18,000." Indigo birds and nonpareils are valued for their attractive plumage. Of the latter thousands were annually exported to Europe, where they sold for $1.50 to $2 apiece. In consequence of the continual trapping to supply the increasing demand, several of these birds became rare in localities where once they had been common. Nearly every State had a law protecting nongame birds, but such laws were at that time imperfectly framed and ineffectively enforced. The usual exception authorizing the keep- ing of birds in cages as domestic pets was unaccompanied by any restriction on trade, which, in consequence, flourished. Imperfect as these laws were, they were rendered still less effective by the absence of public interest in their observance and adequate provision for their enforcement. Gradually, however, the influence of the bird-protec- tive movement began to make itself felt and the laws were improved. One State after another adopted a model law framed by a committee of the American Ornithologists' Union, which instead of simply pro- hibiting the killing of a few birds specifically named, as had formerly been done, prohibited the killing, capture, or possession of all birds other than game birds and a few injurious species, and interdicted all trade in them. The interest in bird life awakened by the efforts of this organization and the various State Audubon societies caused these laws to be more or less vigorously enforced, and the trade in native birds declined proportionately. Supplies were still obtained, however, from States that had not adopted modern laws, and the export trade to Europe continued brisk. One by one these remain- ing strongholds were carried by the forces of bird protection until finally, in 1904, Louisiana, the only State left from which birds were procurable, adopted the model law, and now, beyond a few surrepti- tious and illegal shipments, the domestic and foreign trade in native 168 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. American birds has been entirely abolished. Occasionally a smail consignment of mockingbirds or cardinals is smuggled to Hamburg or some other European port, but the life of the trade is gone. TRAFFIC IN FOREIGN BIRDS, The importation of foreign cage-birds has grown to its present pro- portion, not only in this country, but in Europe as well, within the last fifty years. Up to the middle of the last century, apart from parrots and some other of the larger species, few birds were imported into Europe, and as late as 1860 only about 60 different kinds of for- eign birds were brought in, and these in moderate numbers. But about this time a rapid increase began, and by 1S80 the species im- ported approximated TOO and the individuals from 500,000 to 800,000. The Japanese robin, a favorite cage-bird of to-day, was first brought to the London Zoological Gardens in 1886, and the shell parrakeet of Australia, now one of the best known of exotic birds, and sold at whole- sale in London for about $1.37 a pair, was first brought to England by Gould in 1840. and for the next ten years commanded $100 to $1*25 a pair. In the United States the growth of importation has undergone a similar development, lagging, however, slightly behind the Euro- pean growth. In both cases the sudden invasion of the markets by foreign birds was due to the advantages of quick transportation. When supplies from distant lands were brought by sailing vessels but few birds survived the long vo3'ages. But the steamship afforded oppor- tunity for conveying birds with speed and safety, and dealers were quick to avail themselves of the changed conditions. As long ago as 1865 there was a brisk Americau trade in foreign cage-birds of all kinds, and by 1880 this had so increased that a single dealer in New York City handled 70,000 canaries each season. NUMBER OF BIF.D8 IMPORTED. The decline in the trade in domestic cage-birds has doubtless stimulated the trade in foreign cage-birds, which advanced from 235,433 imported under permit of the Department of Agriculture in the 3Tear ending June 30, 1902, to 322,297 in the year ending June 30, 1906, an increase of 37 per cent in four years. At the beginning of this period the model bird-protective law previously mentioned had been adopted by 16 States; at its close it was in force in 35. Of the birds imported in the jTear ending June 30. 1906, 274.914 were canaries and 47,383 miscellaneous birds. The canaries were nearly all raised in Germany. Thirty-three per cent of the miscella- neous birds were from the Orient, 30 per cent from Europe. 22 per cent from Australia, 7 per cent from Cuba and Mexico, 6 per cent from CAGE-BIKD TRAFFIC OF THE UNITED STATES. 169 Africa, and 1 per cent from South America. The remaining1 1 per cent were of unknown origin. In addition to these, 2,700 canaries, mostly from Germany, and about 6,000 oarrots from various tropical countries came in without permit, no permit being issued for these birds when they are unaccompanied by others. HOW BIRDS ARE SECURED. A peep behind the scenes is always interesting, and when we see diverse and remote regions of the world pouring their treasures of bird life into our country a desire is awakened to know by what means this is accomplished. In some cases the method is as old as the history of maritime com- merce. From the time when vessels began to make voyages to other countries sailors have brought back trophies of various sorts, includ- ing specimens of the fauna of distant lands. Some birds are still thus brought in and are bought by dealers in the various ports of entry. This method, somewhat systematized, prevails at San Francisco, where the trade, temporarily suspended by the earthquake and fire, is now beginning to revive. Supplies are here obtained from the crews of steamers coming from China and Japan, who make a regular business of transporting cage- birds, usually under an arrangement with the steamship companies by which they are employed whereby freight is paid out of the proceeds of sales. The birds thus imported are con- siderable in number, but few in species, being mainly Java sparrows, diamond sparrows, Chinese mockingbirds, and other common kinds. But most of the birds imported are secured by more highly organized methods. Several of the leading importers maintain forces of men to secure the desired birds either in their native haunts or in European ports to which they are brought by the agents of other importers. Parrots are generally taken while still in the nest. During the nest- ing season the leading American houses send men to Cuba, Mexico, or South America to obtain stock. Headquarters are established by these agents at some point convenient to the parrot country and natives are employed to secure the young birds, which are forwarded to the United States in periodical shipments. Agents have sometimes been sent from this country to Africa to secure supplies of the favorite African gray parrot, but these are usually obtained in European ports from vessels arriving with supplies for the large European houses. Small birds, other than canaries, are generally captured with nets. Expert netters continually visit remote regions in the interest of whole- sale houses of Hamburg, London, Liverpool, and other large cities of Europe. Similar expeditions are dispatched from New York and Philadelphia to Cuba and Mexico and occasionally to more distant lands — even India; but the principal American houses maintain con- nections with establishments in Germany, through which their supplies of Old World and South American birds are more commonly procured. 170 YEABBOOK OF THE BEPABTMEXT OF AGBICTTLTUBE. Canari - btained by agents who visit breeders in the Harz Mountain.-, the Tyrol, and other parts of Europe. A few, b :nported at San Francisco from breeders in China and Japan. HOW BEKDS ***** SHIPPED. of the small birds received from Africa and Australia are shipped in large bo: .ially prepared for the pur] PI. VIII, fig. 1 » are of different sizes and accommodate from 1 to 125 or 150 bir - ._ rise of box or of birds shipped. Shell parrakeets are sent from Australia in especially large box--, som* - many as 500 making the journey in a single box. The birds so shipped are of a peaceable disposition and may be caged I rher without fear of their injuring one another; but some bi such as buIU . -. g bes, :tnd male canari- .me, and each bird has to be placed in a separat -mall wicker ca_ n of which are ;g on a n-tituting what is technically known as a row. VThen shipped across the ocean these rows a: 1 and a linen or burlap sack specially made for the purpose is placed about each crate (see PI. VIII. rigs. 2and3). Aerate usually contains 33 rows. To para- phrase the old riddle — every sack has 33 row- has 7 cages, _- has 1 canary (or sometimes 2 if the occupants are the more peaceable females). Often more than two doze - are shipped in one consignment. Each of these must be opened every day of the ry row re . and food and water placed in the ca . In this daily re-crating the rows are rearranged so that the benefits of - >ns may be m ^mong the birds. 1 hn arrival in port consignments of birds 'which pay no duty) are entered at the custom-house under permit from the Department of Agriculture, usually secured in advance by the importer. The larger shipments are generally examined by one of the special inspectors of irtment stationed at the principal ports of entry. Nearly all shipments subject to such inspection enter at New York and Phila- delphia. After the inspector has examined a consignment to ascer- tain that it contains no objection- ies, and has noted, for sub- sequent report to the Department, the number and kinds of bir con. ie importer is free to dispose of it. It is the aim of the importer to seli dc as qui: jle, to dimini-h his losses by death and so increase his profit. It is esti- mated that the mortality en route and in the store among some of the more delicat- birds, such as African finches, may reach 14 per cent. 7. ological parks and aviaries are usually supplied direct by the importers, but the general public is reached by way of the retailer. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. Plate VIII Methods of Shipping and Testing Cage Birds. [1.— Cage for shipping small birds | see p. 170). 2.— Crate oi canaries ready for shipment (see p. 170). 3.— Crate of canaries partly open to show rows of cages see p. 170). *■— Testing singing of canaries (see p. 173).] CAGE-BIED TRAFFIC OF THE UNITED STATES. 171 Many small bird stores are scattered over the country, and some of the large department stores have added birds to the great variety of merchandise the}^ handle. Small consignments are shipped to retail dealers by express (at double rates). In the cages or boxes are placed water and food sufficient to last until arrival at destination. Some- times, when the distances are unusually long, the express messengers supply fresh water and food en route, and large consignments are often accompanied by agents of the importers. Several of the princi- pal importers have branch establishments at various points, such as New Orleans, Chicago, and San Francisco, which fill western orders. THE RETAIL TEADE IN BIRDS. While retailers do more or less business during the entire year, three well-defined seasons are established. In February canaries begin to breed, and for the first two or three months of the year the trade in breeding canaries, especially females, is brisk. About the time it subsides the first shipments of young parrots arrive from Cuba and Mexico. These at once take the stage and hold it until the mid- dle of August, when it is no longer possible to secure young birds. Interest then turns chiefly to singing canaries and the many other small cage-birds that are imported. The sale for these grows greater and greater and reaches its maximum by Christmastide, after which it abruptly declines. Many dealers probably make more sales in Decem- ber than during all the rest of the year. In the Christmas season of 1905 one Philadelphia department store sold 4,000 canaries, besides other cage-birds. From the character of the demand for cage-birds it is evident that the retail trade is, as a rule, not enough by itself to yield a profitable income. It is usually, therefore, combined with some trade of an allied nature. In retail bird stores one may usually find fowls of various kinds, pheasants, dogs, monkeys, squirrels, white mice, guinea- pigs, goldfish, and even lizards and snakes. The sale of food and cages also constitutes an item, and sometimes the proprietor acts as surgeon and physician to domestic pets. SPECIES IMPORTED. During the year ending June 30, 1906, more than 200 species of cage-birds were imported into the United States. These comprised canaries, parrots (under which term we may include parrakeets, cocka- toos, macaws, and lories), European birds, Oriental birds, African birds, Australian birds, and a few South American, Mexican, and Cuban birds. It is obviously impossible, in the space of the present article, to consider all these in detail; but a brief account of some of the most important will be of interest. 172 YEAKBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. So widely known has the sweet -singing canary become that should an inhabitant of one of the civilized countries of the world visit the Canary Islands and hear the wild birds in their native home the strains would, in all probability, bring to the traveler memories of his own home. The clear and varied notes of this favorite singer are familiar to young and old. and many dwellings, from the great mansion to the obscure cottage, are alike brightened by their beauty. The position of the canary among cage-birds is unique — not only because of its widespread popularity, but also from the fact that centuries of domes- tication have rendered it peculiarly dependent on man. Its cage has become its natural home and to it liberty would probably mean death. The bird is a native of the Canary Islands, the Azores, and Funchal (Madeira), and is said to have been brought from the Canaries to Spain and kept as a cage-bird by the Spanish nobility shortly before the time of the discovery of America. Other accounts make Italy the tirst country into which it was introduced and place the time early in the sixteenth century. It is sufficient for present purposes to note that it has been domesticated and prized as a cage-bird for the past four centuries. The wild bird is smaller than the bird now so familiar, and is also differently colored, having less bright yellow and considerable olive and brownish in its coloring. Nor does it sing as sweetly. Nevertheless, it is so attractive that soon after its introduction it became a general favorite, and was bred so assiduously that it is said that by the beginning of the eighteenth century 27 different varieties were produced. It is interesting to note that canaries are now exported from England to the Canary Islands. The canary is a very good imitator. Mature birds have been known to reproduce very closely the songs of even such birds as chewinks, house wrens, and others, and the faculty has been utilized by breeders to determine to a certain extent the quality or character of the song of a voung bird. In Germany young canaries have been associated with nightingales and in England with woodlarks to this end. But the method commonly employed at present is to place the young bird with a canary that possesses a superior song and is kept solely for training purposes. The tine singers used for this purpose are called "cam- paninis" and command high prices. Singers are measured by the rich- ness and sweetness, not the strength, of their tones. Thus the voice of one of the choice St. Andreasburg " rollers" (which sell at whole- sale for $2-4 to $36 a dozen, according to season, while ordinary canaries range from §15 to $21 a dozen) could easily be drowned by the sing- ing of many an inferior canary. A single bird with a superior voice, especially a campanini. will sometimes command a price for which several dozen ordinary singers can be bought. Ordinary female birds, CAGE-BIED TRAFFIC OF THE UNITED STATES. 173 on the other hand, which are purchased mainly for breeding purposes, may be had as low as $6 a dozen at wholesale. As previously stated, singing canaries are bred in the Harz Moun- tains of Germany. Large numbers are raised by the cottagers of this region and are bought directly from them by buyers for the wholesale establishments of Germany and England and the German branches of American establishments. How much the industry means to the peas- ants near St. Andreasburg, the Brocken, and other localities in the Harz Mountains may be gathered from the fact that thirty years ago it was estimated that the trade amounted to $300,000 a year. Some canaries sing much more freely than others, and immediately after the arrival of a consignment at the store of the importer the inter- esting process of testing the singing qualifications of the different individuals is begun. Cages are piled one deep in a tier containing 40 or 50 rows. In front of this large, somewhat semicircular pile, each cage containing a single occupant, sits the tester, watching and listen- ing (see PL VIII, fig. 4). Many notes are to be heard, but it is difficult to determine from which of the many scores of throats they proceed. This is the duty assigned the tester, and when he is certain that any particular bird is singing, he places a chalk mark on the cage contain- ing it. Marked cages are subsequently removed and their occupants are sold as guaranteed singers. Testing canaries is difficult and requires both patience and training, yet on a clear, sunny day, when the birds sing more freely and can be more clearly seen, an expert will some- times mark 500 cages. In the breeding of canaries song has not been the only desideratum, but has shared consideration with shape and color. The potency of artificial selection is as well shown in this pursuit as in the rearing of fancy pigeons, and some quite as distorted shapes are produced. Thus Belgium has succeeded in giving to the world a big canary with broad shoulders abnormally raised above the small head. And Scotland has produced a type — the Scotch fancy canary — that is bent like a bow, so that when the bird is at rest on a perch a line drawn from bill to tip of tail would pass well in front of the feet. Other abnormal products of breeders* ingenuity are the Yorkshire canary, very long and very slim, and the Lancashire or Manchester coppy, well proportioned, but a veiy giant among canaries. Still other fancy varieties are the Norwich canary, at present a popular favorite, the London fancy canary, the border fancy canary, and the lizard canary, a dark bird with gold or silver spangles and yellow crown. All these are further subdivided by breeders and fanciers. Norwich canaries and Manchester coppies are frequently ornamented with crests. Endowing with a crest a bird that has none naturall}* is striking evidence of the possibilities of artificial selection. 174 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OE AGRICULTURE. The diversity is further augmented by color possibilities. All canaries are either "yellow" or "buff.'* These are technical terms, however, and are somewhat misleading. A yellow (or jonque) canary is one whose plumage is lustrous; a buff (or mealy) one is one whose plumage is dull and has a frosted appearance. Cinnamon canaries with pink eyes, and green and piebald canaries also, are bred, and a few decades ago it was discovered that by feeding young canaries freely on cayenne pepper the yellow could be deepened into a rich orange. The combinations offered by these different characteristics are very numer- ous, and when to them are added the results of hybridizing with other species — goldfinch, linnet, siskin, and others — as is done for the pro- duction of the much-prized "mules." unlimited possibilities seem to open out before the breeder. In breeding for shape and color, singing qualities are neglected, and canaries in which these are so highly developed often have little left of the sweet song that was the chief cause of their original domestication. In view of the great number of varieties that have been produced and the differences in style and quality of song, and taking into con- sideration also the patience, care, and skill bestowed by breeders in producing and maintaining at an established standard the various results of their work, it is not surprising to find great differences in the prices of canaries. Ordinary male canaries may be bought for $1.50 to $2 apiece at retail, and from this the prices rise, through Norwich. Yorkshire, lizard, Manchester, and Belgian canaries in order, and reach in the last a wholesale rate of $30 to $50 a pair. Song pro- duction has not been led into bizarre channels, and that "beauty of song is more highly estimated than odd shape is shown by the fact that one of the finest singers among the "rollers" may command as much as *150. PARROTS. So far as known, the first introduction of parrots into Europe occurred in the fourth century B. C, when, it is related, one of the generals of Alexander's army, returning from India, brought with him specimens of the ring-necked parrakeet. These parrakeets, which were called "Alexandrian parrakeets," after the monarch in whose reign they were introduced, are still very popular with bird-fanciers, and are so common in India that sailors continually bring them to Europe and America. They are docile, and while slow in acquiring speech, finally make excellent talkers. Roman writers inform us that they were not eaten in India, but were held sacred because of their ability to reproduce human speech. African parrots were brought to Rome in the time of Nero from beyond upper Egypt, where they had been discovered by explorers. They were highly prized, both a^ pets and as table delicacies, by the CAGE-BIRD TRAFFIC OF THE UNITED STATES. 175 Romans, who kept them in cages of tortoise-shell and ivory with silver wires, and often paid more for one than for a slave. The earliest knowledge we have of the keeping of West African parrots as pets in Europe dates back to 1455, when Senegal parrots were first introduced. American parrots owe their introduction into the Old World to Columbus, who carried a few back with him on his return from his first voyage to America. They were among the objects of interest when he made his formal entry into Seville on March 31, 1493. Five years later the Portuguese circumnavigated the Cape of Good Hope, subjugated a part of India, and reintroduced the Indian parrots into Europe. The most popular parrots are the little green Australian parrakeets, variously known as shell or grass parrakeets, budgerigars, or love birds. These birds, familiar on the city streets in the capacity of fortune-tellers and performers of tricks, are retailed in this country at $4 or $5 a pair. They are among the easiest of all foreign birds to breed and are raised in large numbers in Europe, from which source come many of the birds brought to the United States. In the year ending June 30, 1906, we imported 5,387 to supply the demand, includ- ing a few of a yellow variety produced by the breeders of Belgium and France. Shell parrakeets are easily transported from Australia, owing to their ability to exist for long periods without water, and have frequently been carried to Europe in sailing vessels, making a three or four months' vo}7age, without being supplied with water. Cuban parrots have recently risen in favor and several thousand were needed to meet the year's demand. These medium-sized green, red, and blue birds with whitish crowns make fairly good talkers, and sell at wholesale for $24 to $27 a dozen. Amazons from Mexico and Central and South America, which aver- age $6 apiece at wholesale, are favorites among the larger parrots. They are known as blue-fronted, red-fronted, yellow heads, double- yellow heads, etc., according to the markings of the head. The blue- fronted amazons seem to be preferred in Europe; but the double- yellow heads make the best talkers, and when well trained command prices ranging as high as several hundred dollars apiece. The African gray parrots are probably unrivaled in ability to repro- duce human speech, and have been popular pets in Europe since the Middle Ages. Unfortunately they do not stand transfer very well and the great majority of the few imported die soon after arrival. The larger parrots have not yet learned to talk when they arrive, and, as a rule, are disposed of at once to retailers. By these they are often taught by means of specially constructed graphophones, which automatically repeat, for hours at a time, selected words, phrases, or songs. 176 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Parrots often attain great age — gray pariots have been known to live ninety years. They display affection and intelligence, and make very interesting, albeit somewhat noisy pets. They should be. allowed frequent liberty from the cage for exercise, where it is feasible: and they are much pleased and benefited by simple toys with which to relieve the tedium of confinement — an empty spool, a piece of tape fastened to the wire of the cage, or some similar object. Macaws, large birds with glaring reds, blues, yellows, and greens in their coloration and with voices to match, are secured in tropical America: a few lories are brought from the Pacific regions: and many cockatoos from Australia and neighboring islands. Of the last the rose cockatoo from the Moluccas -eems to be preferred. Nearly 300 were imported during the year. Both macaws and cockatoos are diffi- cult to handle. Their powerful beaks are weapons not to be despised. and are used so freely that specially strong cages and perches are needed to withstand their destructive attack-. Macaws were greatly prized as pets by the Peruvians before the Spanish conquest. The little yellow-crested cockateels from Australia seem to win less favor here than in England, where they are fairly common in avia- while but 30 or 40 seem to be enough to supply our annual needs. Thev retail here at $8 apiece and in England at about $2.50 a pair, a difference in price that may partly account for the difference in favor. EUEOPEAN BIRDS. The European birds ordinarily imported are sold at wholesale for $9 a dozen, with two exceptions — siskins, plain-colored birds, which are usually secured for crossiug with canaries and which bring only £6 a dozen, and trained or "piping" bullfinches, which command $15 each. The handsome goldfinches are easily first in popular estimation. a> is shown by the fact that 5,000 are annually brought in. Of bullfinches, '. mostly untrained, entered during the year. More than a thousand each-of siskins and linnets are imported each year and several hundred skylarks and chaffinches. Song thrushes, blackbirds, and black-caps show some degree of popularity; and so doubtless would the robin redbreast — the true robin of our nursery tales and jingles — were it easier to keep alive in confinement. Nearly a hundred night- ingales are annually brought across the ocean, but very few ever again utter the song that has become so famous. Their silence is a mute but eloquent protest against their captivity, and serves to remind us that in caging a bird we do not necessarily cage its song. ORIENTAL BIRDS. The Orient furnishes several of the most popular cage birds — Java sparrows, of which we imported 6.285 in the year ending June 30, 1906; CAGE-BIRD TRAFFIC OF THE UNITED STATES. 177 Japanese robins, of which 4,530 were brought in; Japanese nuns of various kinds, which aggregated 1,780; and strawberry finches, of which 1,280 were needed to supply the demand. Java sparrows, also known as paddy or rice birds because of their destructive work in rice fields, are hard}?- and breed freely in captivity. Their general color is a soft bluish gray, set off by the red bill and conspicuous white marking about the face. A white variety has been produced in the Orient. These retail for $3.50 each, while the grays bring only $1.50 apiece. Pure whites are not very common — in most white birds more or less of the blue-gray appears. Java sparrows were among the earliest foreign birds imported both in Europe and the United States, and those procured for the trade are, like canaries, chiefly cage-bred birds. The Japanese now breed these birds in large numbers. In order to increase production they raise the }Toung by hand, feeding them with a sort of spoon cut from a thin bamboo splint. The old birds, thus relieved of the care of their young, are free to breed again at once. Japanese robins, usually called Pekin nightingales by English avi- culturists (who know our cardinals as Virginia nightingales), were imported to the number of 4,539. They are peculiarly colored — dark and greenish with distinctive 3rellow and orange on breast, bill, and wings. The\^ are easy to keep, possess a sweet and musical song, and have a song period of ten months, which contrasts favorably with those of most cage-birds, the nightingale, for example, which, when it sings at all, is in song for only two months. They are native in China, Japan, and India, and were first brought to England about 1866 and to the United States ten or fifteen years later. They retail at $4 each. Nuns are small birds of different species, such as the black-headed, white-headed, and tricolored nuns, the spicebird or chestnut finch, and others. Most of them have more or less dark brown in the coloring. A pure white variety and a buff and white variet}7 of one species — the Japanese nun, also known as bengalee or mannikin — bear testimony to the assiduity of Japanese breeders. An attractive singer that seems to be growing in popularity is the shama thrush from India. Its song suggests by turns those of catbird, bobolink, and brown thrasher, but contains some clear mellow tones not in the repertoire of those singers. A few bulbuls are brought from India, mainly red-vented bulbuls, but including other kinds. These do not include, however, the famous bulbul of Persia, the oriental counterpart of the European nightingale, and they add comparatively little to the total number of songsters imported. The hill minas of India, like parrots, can be taught to talk, but very few are imported. These retail at $17 apiece. 3 A1906 12 178 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. AFRICAN UIKDS. Most of the cage-birds from Africa, which are brought to London, Liverpool, Marseille, Bordeaux, and other European ports in immense numbers, are secured for beauty of plumage, not song. The African weavers, 994 of which were imported during the year, in addition to attractive coloring offer an interesting exhibition of their skill in the art that has given them their name. At nesting time, if furnished with worsted or other suitable material, they will weave this in and out of the wires of their cages, making neat and compact examples of their handiwork. Bishops and Madagascar weavers are brilliant red and black in coloring, cut-throats have a band of red across the throat, from which is derived the name, and whidah birds (incorrectly called "widow" birds) have extremely long tails. The group furnishes an instance in which one family contains both bishops and cut-throats. A Napoleon also figures among its members, and all are frequently associated with Japanese nuns and Brazilian cardinals. Waxbills numbered 555 in the year's importations. These include the dainty little cordon bleu, or crimson-eared wTaxbill, various species of silverbills, and several other kinds. The violet-eared waxbill, a bird of radiant, prismatic beauty, is brought to England, but has apparently not yet come to the United States. The tin}- zebra finches, easy to keep and breeding readily in captivity, are favorites with the bird-keeping public, 591 coming in during the year. African siskins are also somewhat popular, and a small but increasing number of edel- singers, or African gray singers, one of the few African species that have a pleasing song, are imported annually. African birds generally bring $1.50 a pair at wholesale. Most of them have light, unmusical, but not disagreeable, notes, and being bright and active, give life to room or aviary where they are confined. While the breeding time of most of them is during our winter (the seasons being reversed south of the equator), many of the little immi- grants adapt themselves readily to the changed conditions and breed in the summer of the North Temperate Zone. AUSTRALIAN BUUDS, Ordinary Australian birds also sell for $1.50 a pair wholesale. Of these, apart from shell parrakcets, diamond sparrows are imported in the. largest numbers, the year's supply being 332. Australia is notable, however, for its charming Lady Gould finches, which, perhaps, reach the highest point of beauty and elegance attained by any of the smaller cage-birds of the world (see PL IX). Few are sold in this country, possibly because of their high price— $9 to $10 a pair at wholesale — and because they are difficult to keep (an English fancier says of them that they suffer all the ills that beset other cage- birds and several special ones of their own). They are highly prized Yearbook U. 5. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. Plate IX. / Lady Gould Finch. CAGE-BIRD TRAFFIC OF THE UNITED STATES. 179 in England, where they have been bred a number of times. The main reason for their unusual mortality seems to be improper treatment. Because they come from the warm climate of Australia, the}" are usually kept where they have plenty of sunlight. As a matter of fact, however, as recently pointed out by a writer in '"Bird Notes," they inhabit dense scrub, and in their natural habitat avoid the direct rays of the sun. To place them in a small cage in the sunlight is a \ effective method of destroying them. Lady Gould linches are attract- ive in their ways as well as in appearance. They tame readily, are not pugnacious with cage mates, and exhibit many individualities of disposition. They have a very interesting little dance that sometimes forms a part of their courtship. a Eir.D.S FROM SOUTH AMERICA, MEXICO, AND CUBA. Omitting parrots, gray cardinals are the principal cage-birds imported from South America. In England these vie in favor with our own cardinal, from which they differ in being gray in color, with no red excepting about the head. During the last fiscal year we imported 455, which were retailed at ^3.50 each. A number of differ- ent species of small birds are annually brought from Mexico and Cuba, but none in important numbers except tomeguinos, known also as grassquits or melodious Cuban linches and olive Cuban linches, according to species. These sell for $1.50 a pair wholesale, and 665 entered during the year. BIRDS BRED IX CAPTIVITY. In Europe, as has been stated, great interest is manifested in breed- ing cage-birds. This interest attaches to the propagation, not only of rare birds, but of niany species that are commonly found in aviaries. There is a great difference in the ease with which birds maj" be bred in captivity. Some, such as shell parrakeets, zebra finches, Java spar- rows, strawberry finches, and our own bluebirds and indigo birds, breed readily and their young can be raised without much difficulty. But some of the parrots and small cage-birds refuse to mate, others will not sit on their eggs, and others yet neglect their young. To breed such species requires much patience and ingenuity, and success is valued accordingly. In the United States, where bird-fanciers are few and lack association, there is not the same general interest in the breeding of captive birds. Few Oriental birds other than Java sparrows and but few of the small cage-birds from Africa and Australia have been successfully bred in the United States. Among the more important birds that have been reared in this country are the canary, shell par- rakeet, black-crested mina, all-green parrakcet. gray parrakeet, cocka- teel, graceful ground-dove, barred-shoulder dove, zebra finch, white a See a detailed account of this dance by Captain Perreau in "Bird Notes" for November, 1905, Vol. IV. No. 8, p. 203. ISO YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Java sparrow, gray Java sparrow, cut-throat finch, and saffron finch. Some hybrids have been produced by breeding canaries with gold- finches, linnets, and other birds, thus securing well-known and greatly valued mules. OPPORTUNITY FOR AMERICAN ENTERPRISE. The large and rapidly growing demand for canaries and other cage- birds that has sprung up in the United States and that is now satisfied by importations from abroad suggests the possibility of establishing the industry of raising birds for market on this side of the Atlantic. It is more than likely that interest in the keeping of cage-birds will continue to spread, and that its growth will result in the development of societies, periodicals, annual shows, and other features that mark it- advance in Europe. Breeding canaries for market brings, as has been shown, several hundred thousand dollars annually to the peasants of the Harz Mountains of Germany, canaries of fancy shapes that com- mand high prices are regularly bred in England. Scotland. Belgium, and other countries: and it is important to note that in nearly every instance the pursuit is carried on as an adjunct to some other occupation. There is no reason why the American market should not be supplied by American breeders. The need already exists: imported birds are not so well adapted to our climate as those raised here, and home produc- tion would obviate the large losses incident to the ocean voyage. Many difficulties must be met. Captive birds are subject to numer- ous diseases and. under the most favorable circumstances, require careful treatment. Attention to diet is important, particularly in the case of soft-billed birds, whose food is chierly insects. Questions of suitable temperature for aviaries, of securing sufficient open-air exer- cise without undue exposure, of preventing destruction of birds or their eggs by cage-mates, of inducing birds to breed, and many other problems constantly tax the patience and skill of the aviculturist: and owing to climatic differences between Europe and America many of thewn resources of Americas soils are fully called upon to feed the p-. nation. Xo such intensity ol cultivation is demanded as in Germany, where the average farm comprises V, -r in France, where it is 34 a< in England and Wales, where it is 63.4 acres. In the United States land is still so abundant that the average farm tains 14G.2 acres and less than half of it is improved. The time may some day come, and doubtless will — it may be when there are 300 millions of Americans instead of 85 millions — when more land will be needed for farms. Much sooner will come a time when the farm land now in use must be handled more intensively and more effectively and each acre must be made to produce to its maximum capacity the crops for which it is best fitted. THE USE OF SOIL SURVEYS. 1S3 STUDY OF LARGE PROBLEMS. It is partly in anticipation of that time that the soil survey is examining into the total soil resources of the country and investigat- ing the broad problems of the relationship of soil to crop, which must be solved before American soils and American farmers can do their best, the one for the other. In crop production, even under ordinary farm methods, there are two groups of influences which control the selection of appropriate crops — the planning of crop rotations and the adoption of correct systems of farming. These are the influences of the climate and the soil. Neither may be neglected by any man who hopes for complete success, and the due and relative importance of each must be ascertained. EXTENT OF SURVEYS ALREADY MADE. The work of making soil surveys was began in 1S99. and by June 30. 100(3. an aggregate area of rJ8,886 square miles, or 75,959,865 acres, had been mapped. This comprises something less than one-tenth of the area actually in farms and about one twenty-fifth of the entire area of the United States. These surveys have been made in 43 States and 4 Territories. They have been so distributed as to constitute numerous studies of each important geographical and agricultural district. SOIL TYPES. SERIES, AND PROVINCE-. The work of the soil survey is based upon the principle that there are differences among soils which so affect plants that not all soils are equally suited to the production of all crops. This work, therefore, comprises a study of both the character of these soil differences and the effects which they produce in the growing of farm crops. In the field work of the soil survey the soils are studied to determine their texture, or the relative amounts of coarse or fine particles of which they consist: their structure, or the relationship of these parti- cles one to the others: their organic matter content, both quantity and distribution: their internal natural drainage, and their topo- graphic relief. These factors operating together determine the char- acter of the home which plants are to find in the soil. All masses or areas of soil which are found to be closely similar in all of these respects are said to belong to the same soil type. Under similar climatic surroundings the type is capable of producing similar kinds of crops, and under the same conditions of farm management and of farm efficiency they may be expected to produce practically equiva- lent amounts of crops. It has also been found that several soil types in a given region may differ only in their texture, being identical or similar in all other 184 -3BOOK o* r::z department of agricultuee. resp S ich a group of soils - called a series. Again, several series have been found to be derived from the same cl material by similar processes and to exist in a region having similar climatic features in the broadest sense. Such a region constitutes province. PES. The soil survey recognizes at present 13 gre 3, 58 soil series, and 461 soil types. Of these types some 130 are more oi local in character, while the remainder are of widespread occurrence within their respective provinces. For example, the Norfolk sand is a warm, porous soil of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain Province, suited to the production of truck een mapped in 34 different areas, located in 14 States, extend a Eng- land to The total area covered by this in the areas mapped amounts to 1.702,000 ac: _ s uare miles. Its extent within the total area of these 14 States is many times as great. Throughout the region where it occurs this soil has a definite crop adaptation, and the variety of crops which may be raised sucessfully upon it is limited by nature. Similarly the Marshall silt loam has been mapped in 22 ar located in 9 differen: - n extent of _ s, or 6,126 square miles. It is again safe to say that within these States several times as many acres exist as have been mapped. Seven-eighths of the area of this soil is preeminently adapted to corn production, and the remaining one-eighth, while under climatic surroundings unfavor- able to corn, is well suited to the production of one or more other a of equal value. Although these two types of soil are extreme cases, they are by no means the only valuable soils of wide distribution and well-recog- nized crop adaptation. Among the other 459 types then me of which areas as large as the small 5 - have already been mapped. There are others of which areas scarcely larger than a single town- ship have so far been encountered and mapped. Whether exten- or limite'd in area, each pre- - and no two could safely be classed together as possessing identical properties and the same utility. ADAPT. SOILS. Enough has been said to demonstrate the wide range and the won- derful richness of the soil resources of the country. The other prob- lem of equal importance, possibly the greatest agricultural problem of the nation as a whole, is that of the proper and complete development of these resources along lines which shall give not only increased crop values, but also increasing ability to produce crops upon the part of the soils. THE USE OF SOIL, SURVEYS. 1S5 Careful consideration must be given to the fact that at least 461 types of soil possessing distinctive properties are already known to exist. It rests with some one, whether a private individual or a public official, to determine the crop or crops to which each one of these soils is best adapted; to devise the methods of soil management by which each one of these soils may be made to produce a sufficient crop to repay all expenses and to render a profit ; to adapt the systems of farm economy through crop rotations, tillage, and fertilization so that these different soils may produce their crops for long periods of time at least without deterioration and. if American farming is to become a science, with actual increase in crop-producing power. Moreover, it is necessary that the discovery, introduction, and cul- ture of crops adapted to these various types shall follow such lines that the greatest food values as well as the highest commercial values shall be rendered by each soil. It is also a necessity that upon widely extended types such crops shall be grown as are subject to wide demand in the markets of the world. Otherwise the farmers engaged in crop production must face a destructive competition or else portions of the soil type must be neglected or but feebly utilized. One may anticipate the time when all areas of Norfolk sand having suitable climatic conditions and transportation facilities can be made to produce great crops of those vegetables which now constitute winter luxuries for the few. At the present day such widespread produc- tion, coupled with a limited demand, would force prices to a point where the returns from the crop would only pay the charges of trans- portation and of retailing and the producer would be left with neither expenses nor profits paid. Therefore, before such anticipations can be realized, either demand must increase, as it will with increasing popu- lation and individual wealth, or transportation costs must diminish, as they also will with the progress of invention and a proper increase in competition. The soil-survey work thus possesses a dual aspect: (1) It must deal with those problems of crop and soil adaptation which concern the present individuals and generation; and (2) it must accumulate a fund of information in regard to soils which will assist in solving the broad problems of the nation's soil resources and the utilization of these resources, not only for the support of a growing population, but also for maintaining a favorable balance of trade for the nation. REPORTS OX ACTUAL USES OF SOILS. The individual report upon each soil-survey area contains an account of each soil type within the area. It gives a description of the characteristic appearance of the type and summarizes the crop uses to which it is put within the area. The methods of handling the soil are given, and a general statement is also made of the range of 1S6 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPABTMESl iBICUI/TUKE. crop production. Such, a report summarizes the actual uses of the ed limits, and it also summarizes the farm practices in ~ Each. report also contains an account of the in othe. -here the same tvpe of soil has been encountered: ai. - new crops, new methods of soil management, and new industries are made a f this wider knv i -ecuredfroni mi::, vs. PBESEXT USES ES. se reports on soil surveys the individual farmer may 1 the relationships of the soils upon his own farm. : in the immediate neighborhood, but to sons of the same character in widel; :edregi-:.~. He may tl. st tidy under- standingly the methods and results obtained under the most ft conditions 1; -sful farmers upon - :i of :vation is e:: i nd he may more surely be experience ion of others to his owr. 1 condi- - able to wnfarm.n' :edprop nship to other farml- and in a re-_ iiidividiu .me of a fixf a. the pr. - - of the com. there is slang ease new : general agriculture or for the production of special crops. Inquir person •h will enable him tb compare c. Uy kn< -a ikies m ::. Inq re are c received at the V ; artment of Agriculture, and wherever possible the infori supplied by the reports and maps covering the a: erned. or that is conin: he information v h a judgment may be based. The - - i means d to rep r newly ope: -rieultnral occupation. ■ i - calling the attention of individual farm Jar loc; the older States where possible advantages may be gained from the -d lands and the purchase of others which, for the time, aire offered t figure. Gi during the past : _ .s in the ■m and - ' States nn for those in any o^ier local: n of individuals and of investors is oekj shown bv this demand. THE USE OF SOIL SURVEYS. 187 During the past decade the funds accumulated by large invi slment companies have increasingly sought a farm-land outlet. The soil- survey reports are regularly requested by many such companies. Some only desire the reports in particular circumscribed regions. Others desire these reports as an unprejudiced basis upon which a judgment of land uses and of farm development in widespread and remote regions may be based. Obviously, the common interest of the entire community is served by these reports of soil facts, just as the individual interests of the persons concerned are safeguarded at the same time. The use of the soil-survey maps and reports by educational institu- tions has greatly increased within a few years, accompanying a renewed activity in the study of soils and in the teaching of soil sub- jects. Not only are the maps and reports used by those institutions directly for the study of soils, but they are also used in studies of crop production, of farm economics, and of the distribution of agricultural products. Xonagricultural colleges and universities are also using these reports in connection with courses in commercial geography. It has thus become necessary to hold such uses in mind in the distri- bution of the individual soil-survey reports and of the annual report known as Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils. FUTURE NEED FOR EXACT INFORMATION. All of these uses of soil maps and of soil-survey reports are imme- diate and present. They are more or less personal to the individual farmer, investor, or student. They do not constitute the only use nor possibly the greatest use of these surveys. As agriculture, based on the soil as its fundamental resource, is the greatest business of the country at the present time, so it must remain for many generations to come. Agriculture is still a generalized business, although its specialization into horticulture, market gardening, tobacco culture, cotton culture, and other subdivisions has begun. With increasing population, with greater intensity of cultivation, greater demands will continually be made upon the soil and greater precision and skill in the selection and handling of soils for special crops will be required. It will be extravagantly wasteful to allow these developments to occur along the lines of chance and to secure the ultimate ends as the result of haphazard trial or experimentation. The soil and climatic factors which goA*ern plant and crop growth must be understood and appre- ciated. Whenever through any cause a particularly valuable crop is brought to perfection upon a given soil, the extent and geographic distribution and the climatic environment of that soil must be known in order to insure the successful spread of its culture. Even at the present day there is continual inquiry as to the soil conditions under which specific crops may be successfully grown, and 188 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF A4TOIC1ILTUBE. crops formerly confined to na: jions are spreading to other locali- se culture of alfalfa, the production of sugar beets, the intro- duction of new varic tobacco oi of old varieties into new regions. all illustrate this tendency. Discussions of soils in connection with the great staple crops are usually confined to corn soils, wheat soils. >r grass - - Little attention is paid to the pertinent fact that each of these crops has developed well-marked varieties I to quite different regions, climates, and soils. It has become nece— ly not toba< s ils, but cigar-wrapper tobacco soils or cigar-filler to1: - Us. This is rec _•:..;: The equally impor- tant fact that corn and wheat, cotton, rice, and the other great staples should be studied as varieties adapted to different kinds of soil has een equally emphasized. From the stuc i . ?rican soil difference - . adaptations, and soil resources, and h . mg-continu vat ion. classification, and correlation of soil and crop f ts ascertained by the spe- cialist new ses, now unperceived. of each and every acre of agricul- tural land, so th will no longer report less than one-half of the land of the country apportioned into farms and less than one-fifth actually improved and tilled. From these studies and from the devel- opment of la - : - nd plant - iation it will undoubtedly be possible, at some future day, to increase the number of great staple crops from as lozen to several score, each occupying its proper place in the farm economy of the country and each produced under those circumsl a f soil and climate best fitted to its growth. ither problems, even now appearing in American agricul- ture, of the rehabilitation of so-called "worn-out" and abandoned farms, of maintaining and even increasing the producing capacity of broad areas, while they are probably economic and farm-management problem- I nsiderable extent, are only capable of solution after a thorough study of th iditions in the field. These problems may not - outlined without the aid of soil-survey work: much less can they ed. le time has come in the agricultural development of the United $ irate and detailed knowledge of the soil — its charac- ter, - viabilities, and adaptati >f great importance; and as the years go by such knowledge will become more and more important, until ultimately our greatly increased population will need and will be able to utilize fully the diverse capabilities of these 401 different types of soil. BIRDS THAT EAT SCALE INSECTS. By W. L. McAtee. Assistant, Biological Survey. IXTEODUCTIOX. The importance of birds to the farmer in his warfare against insects is everywhere recognized; indeed, it maybe said that successful agri- culture would be well-nigh impossible without their aid. One important role, however, is filled by birds, in which the value of their services has not been appreciated, chiefly, no doubt, because the facts are not generally known. This is as destroyers of scale insects. Very little has been published on the subject, although at least six foreign species and about the same number of native ones have been reported as feeding upon scales. These facts have been either overlooked or little weight has been attached to them. Indeed, only recently cur- rency has been given to a statement that birds never feed upon scales. Xot only is this statement not true, but investigations by the Biologi- cal Survey prove conclusively that scales are eaten by many species of birds and that with some species they are a favorite food. DAMAGE TO TREES AXD CROPS BY SCALE IXSECTS. Before attempting to estimate the value of the services of birds in reducing the number of scale insects, it will be well to review briefly the nature and extent of the damage inflicted by these pests. Many authorities class the scales among the most destructive of insects. They have caused the loss of hundreds of valuable orchards and are dreaded by the horticulturist above all other insects, being especiallv feared because of the insidiousness of their attack. When present in small numbers they are easily overlooked and thus may become nrmly established in an orchard before their presence is detected. When young and still more or less active, scale insects are carried from tree to tree by numerous agencies, and hence spread with great rapidity. When adult they firmly attach themselves to the plant. upon the sap of winch they feed, and then combined attacks gradually reduce its vitality till finally death ensues. Many varieties of plants are infested by them, and often large trees are completely incrusted by a mass of scales composed of hundreds of thousands of individuals. Even perfectly healthy trees do not survive the attacks of these minute pests more than two or three years. ' 1S9 190 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT! 01 DT.TUBE. In such extreme cases all methods of relief generally fail, and when once the vigor of a tree is seriously impaired by scales there i- no remedy. The old growth must be cut down and burned and new stock introduced. In most instances of scale attack, however, the problem is less serious, and \ suppressive measures are effectual. It is during the lighter infestations that the controlling power of natural •enemies of the scale is most apparent. NATURAE ENEMIES OF SCALE INSECTS. In. extreme cases of infestation by scales their natural enemies are rarely able to control them, at least until the insects have done much damage. The greatest value, therefore, of the natural enemies of scales is in preventing undue increase of the insects, in restraining them within what may be termed natural bounds, when the harm they do is comparatively of little moment. As an example of a species usually harmless but occasionally inc: ing beyond the limit of safety, the plum scale {Eidecarmim ■ maybe cited. Of this species Lugger, in a report on Minnesota ins says: "This is usually an uncommon species, but is now found in destructive numbers, not alone upon the cherry, but also more fre- quently upon the plum: though apples, pears, and other trees do not escape."0 The plum scale is injurious also in Xew York, but in many parts of its range it is not numerous enough to be a pest, which indicates that in tl enemies have been able to hold it in check and a maintain the balance. This is the ideal state. Under primitive conditions a balance among organisms, both animal and vegetable, quent and more stable than it now is. when man's inter- ference with the operation of natural laws, desta cies and protecting and propagating others, constantly disturbs the equi- librium. Owing to various changes, among the most important of which has been the importation of unlimited numbers of foreign scales, which a time at least, have enjoy t i entire immunity from natural enemies, the balance between scale insects and their enemies has been most seriously affected, and th have increased enormo Hence in attempting to reduce the numbers of scale insects « \ effort should be made to foster their natural enem For the purpose of considering their economic value, the latter i be divided into two groups — the parasitic and the predaceous eneo fectively do the n great part minute Hymenopt iwaragj ales that they sometimes destroy not lesathfl per cent of the j _ ether with then eggs. Neverth has been stated by Dr. L. O. Howard, "'it is perfectly obvious that these a Bui. 69, Agr. Exp. Sta. Univ. of Minn., p. 217, 1900. BIRDS THAT EAT SCALE INSECTS. 191 parasites wiU not accomplish complete extermination." However they do not have to fight the battle alone, for as allies they have the group of predaceous enemies which comprises beetle-, svrphus and lace-wing Mies, and true bugs among insects, and also mites, birds, and mammals. Among these, beetles are undoubtedly the most im- portant. Coccinellid beetles, or ladybirds, of many species feed upon the scale insects, and in their ranks are the most successful destroyers of scales known. One of them almost completely exterminated the cottony cushion scale, formerly the most destructive insect of its kind in California. Mammals may be dismissed in this connection with the statement that so far as known they count for but little in the warfare against scales: one instance is known of mice devouring the Lecanium scales from a peach tree in England. - was noted in the introduction, comparatively little has found its way into print as to the part birds play as destroyers of scale insects. Among the most interesting published observations on this point are th^se of R. Xewstead, Chester. England.'7 He mentions four scale insects which were preyed upon by five species of birds, and it is to be noted that two of the scales and two of the birds are identical with species occurring in the United States. The house sparrow was found apparently feeding upon the hawthorn scale (Eulecawmm genevense), which occurs only in Europe. Another scale insect, nevertheless, and an injurious one. the oyster-shell bark-louse £ MyiUa&pis pGino- . which was eaten by the birds Mr. Xewstead studied, is a com- mon pest in the United States. It was fed upon by the tree-creeper, a near relative of our own brown creeper. The English author says: Many tim.^ I have seen. with the aid o£ held glasses, the tree creeper collecting thL? species during winter and spring: and from what I have .. tit iP[o/-us] palustris) and the blue tit (P. aeruleus they, ies. He found a few of these scales likewise in the stomach of the long-tailed tit {Acrcdula caudaia). The latter bird, together with the blue tit. fed also upon another scale insect which occurs in the United States. This is a golden-colored scale {Asteroleaznium rariohsi which is sometimes injurious to shade trees. Xewstead ss I firmly believe tk: sought tor by various species of tits. Here, in shire, the characteristic little depressions made in the twigs of the oak by this -ands. Rarely is it that the Ooccids are found in them. This fact for many years led me to suspect the birds had taken them. It was not until 1S9! that the matter was placed beyond doubt [by stomach examination]. The May record is at the g - .n-rest. as at that time there would be a gi ion of bird food. It prove-, therefore, that the species is a selected item in the dietary o! the two species of birds. a The Entomologist's Monthly Magazine, 2d ser., VI [XXXI], pp. S4-S6. 1S95. 192 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It is significant that the fourth species of scale insect (Aspidiotus zonatus) found by him in the stomachs of birds is related to the notorious San Jose scale. It was eaten by the blue tit {Paras caru- leus) . Among other foreign birds known to feed upon scales is a South African species, the white-eye (Zosterops capensis), which selects the larger soft scales (Lecaniinse). Recent investigations show that a very much larger number of our North American birds prey upon scales than was expected, and some eat them to a considerable extent. Their influence upon the number of these pests, while doubtless less than that of the predaceous insects, is of far more importance than has yet been recognized. Among the scales they devour are some most notorious pests. SCALES EATEX BY XORTH AMERICAN BIRDS. At least two native birds eat the plum scale, which is destructive to cherry and plum trees. One of them is the beautiful rose-breasted grosbeak (Zamelodia Ivdoviciana). A female of this species collected by the writer in Indiana had eaten 36 of these scales, composing 95 per cent of the stomach contents. Two other grosbeaks from Illinois did still better. One consumed about 45 plum scales, which made up 95 per cent of its food, while the other had eaten nothing but plum scales, of which its stomach contained more than 100. The cardinal or redbird also feeds upon the plum scale, one taken in Texas in April having consumed a number sufficient to form S4 per cent of its stomach contents. These two species of birds devour other scale insects also, some of which are closely related to the plum scale. The rose-breasted gros- beak has been found to eat the hickory scale (Eulecanium carysc) and the tulip scale (Eulecanium tulipiferse). The latter is very destructive to shade trees in some parts of the eastern United States. While both the rose-breasted and the cardinal grosbeak eat scales of the genus Eulecanium in large numbers, we have been unable to identify spe- cifically any others, with the probable exception of the locust scale, Evlecanium robinarium (Douglas), from the stomach of a cardinal collected in Texas. Another grosbeak, the black-headed (Zamelodia nocephala), at home in the western United States, preys upon scales of the same genus. It is known to select the frosted scale (Evlecanium pruinosum), which attacks fruit trees such as apricot, peach, prune, and cherry, and is already important economically, with possibilities of becoming a serious pest if imchecked. It relishes also the apricot seal? (Eulecanium armeniacum), winch is an enemy of apricot, prune, pear, and other trees. In the southeastern United States occurs an allied genus of scale insects. Toumeyella. The cardinal feeds upon at least one species of this group. BIRDS THAT EAT SCALE INSECTS. 193 Distributed chiefly along the Pacific coast is a scale which is closely related to those of the above-mentioned genera and is preyed upon by many birds. This is the black olive scale (Saissetia olese, fig. 1). Its great economic importance is emphasized in the following quotation from Mr. C. L. Marlatt, of the Bureau of Entomology: The most destructive insect enemies of fruits in California are undoubtedly the scale insects, few if any other insects, aside from the grape Phylloxera, at all approaching them in this respect. Of these the ones of greatest moment, and in the control of •which vast sums of money are expended, are the black scale, the red scale, and the San Jose scale. * * * Of the three, * * * the most serious pest at the present time in California is undoubtedly the black scale. * * * This insect is not only a Fig. 1.— Black olive scale (Saissetia olex). (From Koebele, Bureau of Entomology, after Comstock.) heavy drain on the vigor of the trees, but exudes a great quantity of honeydew, in which a fungus propagates, creating a black, stifling deposit, which adheres closely to the twigs and leaves and discolors the fruit. This scale infests both citrus and deciduous trees, but is particularly injurious to the former, and also to the olive. a This abundant and injurious scale is at present known to be fed upon by no less than 29 species of birds, and their importance in checking its increase can not be overlooked. These include three woodpeckers, a jay, an oriole, five sparrows, four vireos, six warblers, a Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1896, p. 220. 3 A1900 13 194 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGKICTTLTV two wrens, a nuthatch, four tits, a gnatcatcher, and a bluebird. Several of them consume the black scale in great numbers, the two {■est conspicuous in this respect being the black-headed grosbeak and the bush-tit (Psaltriparus minimus). Eighteen per cent of the entire food of 120 grosbeaks consisted of black olive scales, while 21 per cent of the year's subsistence of more than 350 bush-tit=> was of the same nature. The work of birds upon the black scale is so conspicuous that it ha? attracted the attention of field observers. In a letter to the Biological Survey. F. S. Daggett says (March 17, 1903 : A thick top of pepper tree is opposite a window of my house. It is infested by black scale, and the past few years I have noticed several varieties of hirds going through p. carefully picking off scale. Audubon warblers do it. especially when it is cold and no insect* are flying; when it is warm they stay about the top. flying out after in- sects, but do not seem to take the scale. The intermediate sparrow, however, is com- monly seen in small flocks working on this scale, and they go through many gymnastic motions, not expected in a sparrow, in order to get at the scale on the underside of the twigs. The top is scarcely 10 feet from the window and I have watched them closely. There is an overgrow* cypress hedge under one side of the tree, from which "arrows work r.p. Prof. F. E. L. Beal. of the Biological Survey, while at Haywards, Cal.. May. 1006. noted particularly the relation of birds to this scale. He writes: u I have proved that they eat them freely." Following is a list of the birds which thus far are known to feed upon the black olive scale : Willow woodpecker i Dryobates tun-- Lutescent warbler (Hclmintlophila c. Nuttall woodpecker | Dryobates nuttaUi . Sifts* California woodpecker I M clan er pes J. Audubon warbler Dendrov: a a udubt la; Pacific yeflowthroat (Geothlypu t. arizela). California jay (Apkidmxmna caLifon* Golden pfleolated warbler Wihonia p. Bullock oriole | Icterus bull pileelata ►. Intermediate sparrow (Zonotrichia I. Black-headed grosbeak Zamdodia me- gar,- hnocepl -n- . i • • , /c • 77„ „ Cactus wren (Eeleodytes brvnneicapiUus). rn chipping sparrow iSpizella s. _. . _ l 1 hryomanes b. spun. _ „. .. , . Slender-billed nuthatch (i Sittac. aeulcato*. Spurred towhee iPrprlom. megatony ¥UJm ^^ {Bsgolopkug i]Wrna(, rma towhee | PxpOo - nut-backed chickadee tParvs ru/es- : n warbling vireo ( I ireo g. strain- cms) 80 ' Wren tit Chamsea fmciak . cassini) Hutton vireo ( Mreo mttkn -- vireo (I7reo pusill Yellow warbler I Dendroica sest ' Myrtle warbler I'cndroica coronata) California bush-tit 'Psaltriparus m. cali- forrt Black-tailed gnatcaicher iPolioptUa ecdi- forn Western bluebird [SiaKa m. occid Several of the above birds eat other scales, besides the one which infests the olive. One of these is the greedy scale (Aspidiotus rn pax, fig. 2), which Dr. L. O. Howard says "was found until recently only on the Pacific c< >ast and in the far Southwest." where "it levies a heavy BIRDS THAT EAT SCALE INSECTS. 195 annual tax on the fruit growers,- ' and which "has the present season [1S94] made its appearance in Mississippi and Texas."0 The greedy scale attacks both citrus and deciduous trees, infesting a very large number of food plants, among which it shows little preference, and is one of the destructive scale insects. Investigations by the Biological Survey prove that at least four species of birds — the myrtle and Audubon warblers, wren-tit, and bush-tit — devour this scale, some individuals examined having their stomachs filled with it. Another scale insect which is eaten by several birds, but which differs from the last-mentioned species in that it confines itself to a single host plant, is the oak scale (Kermes). Oak scales are not conspicuously injurious, but this fact does not detract from the value of the birds which feed upon them, since we can be assured fe (Aspidiotus rapax>. (From Howard. Bureau of Entomology.) they do not neglect other kinds which are destructive. In fact, one of the oak-scale feeders, the rose-breasted grosbeak, is already known to feed upon other and harmful scales. The following species of birds have been found to devour the oak scale: Rose-breasted grosbeak. Red-eyed vireo. White-eyed vireo. Worm-eating warbler. Magnolia warbler. Blackpoll warbler. Canadian warbler. The oak-, infested as they are by the comparatively innocuous Kermes, are fortunate in comparison to the maples, which are attacked by Pulvinaria. The cottony maple scale (Pulrinaria innumercv- is a special pest of the tree from which it derives its common name, but a Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1S94, p. 249. 196 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. it is found upon scores of others. The writer once observed an infesta- tion of this scale so severe that shade trees along the streets of a small town in Indiana, together with fruit trees, appeared almost white from the choking masses of cottony wax produced by the scale insects. Maples, poplars, and cherry trees were the principal hosts in this case. According to Dr. L. O. Howard, "birds destroy the full-grown scales, although one would hardly suppose a mouthful of wax to be verv palatable." Doctor Howard "has often observed the English sparrow apparently feeding upon this species.'" ■ The same little vagrant foreigner that attacks the maple scale, and about whose value there has been unending discussion, must be cred- Fig. 3. — Oyster-she'l bark-louse (Mytilaspis pomorum). '.From How- ard. Bureau of Entomology. | ited with preying upon still another of these destructive pests. Dr. C. V. Riley and Dr. L. O.Howard note that " Miss Jennie R. Bush, of San Luis Obispo County, Cal., finds it destroying a scale insect upon the climbing rose."6 Among scale insects eaten by birds other than those above men- tioned is a very abundant and widespread species, the oyster-shell bark-louse (Mytilaspis pomorum, fig. 3), which is sometimes quite injurious. Indeed it is said that in some sections the oyster-shell bark-louse is, with the exception of the San Jose scale, the most a Bui. 22, t". S. Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Entomology, p. 12, 1900. b Insect Life, V, p. 349, July, 1893. BIRDS THAT EAT SCALE INSECTS. 197 destructive scale insect. It will be remembered that in England this scale was found to be devoured by titmice and the tree creeper. In America the same kinds of birds also select it. In regard to the brown creeper of the United States (Certkia familiaris americana) , V. H. Lowe says: That it feeds extensively on scale insects there is little doubt. It may often be seen on scale-infested trees both in summer and winter pecking at the scales, especially the larger ones, such as the oyster-shell bark-louse, evidently for the purpose of getting the eggs or the live scales. a Of American titmice the black-capped chickadee is known to devour the same pest. In an analysis of the stomach contents of one of these birds Prof. C. M. Weed mentions "bark-lice (Coccidse), apparently oyster-shell bark-louse (Mytilaspis pomorum).'' b The white-breasted nuthatch of the same family of birds also manifests a liking for the scale. Mr. E. N. Forbush records the following concerning this species : March 20, 18;)5, Mr. Bailey brought in specimens of apple twigs infested with the bark-scale louse (Mytilaspis pomorum). He reported that the nuthatch was feeding on them. c With this insect ends the list of scales which have been specifically determined to serve as food for birds. It is to be remarked, however, that scales are difficult to identify d under the most favorable condi- tions, and in the state in which they are often found in the stomachs of birds their identification is impossible. Hence there are a number of birds which, while not mentioned in connection with particular scale insects, are nevertheless known to feed upon scales. These birds, 16 in number, include several woodpeckers, which, as their method of feeding would indicate, pick up many scale insects. The downy woodpecker is one of the most successful in gathering these minute tree pests. Following is a list of birds ascertained to feed upon scale insects none of which were specifically identified : Hairy woodpecker {Dryobates villosus). Northern downy woodpecker (Dryobatcs p. medianus). Red-eockaded woodpecker (Dryobatcs bo- realis). Arctic three-toed woodpecker (Picoides arcticus). Yellow-bellied woodpecker (Sphyrapicus varius). Red-headed woodpecker (Melanerpes ery- throcephalus). Blue jay (Cyanodtta cristata). Orchard oriole {Icterus spurius). Baltimore oriole (Icterus galbula). Cedar waxwing (Ampclis cedrorum). Townsend warbler (Dendroica townsendi). Tufted titmouse (Bseotophus bicolor). Bridled titmouse (Bseolophus icoUweberi). Carolina chickadee (Parus carolincnsis). Ruby-crowned kinglet (Bcguluscalcndula). Varied thrush (Irorcus nscnus). a Trans. N. Y. State Agr. Soc. and Bureau for Farmers' Inst. Rpts., p. 321, 1898. b Bui. 54, N. H. Agr. Exp. Sta., p. 93, 1898. cMass. Crop Rep., p. 384, 1895. ''Mr. James G. Sanders, of the Bureau of Entomology, has named several of the scale insects mentioned in this paper and has given assistance in other ways. 198 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPABTME>~I 0* AGBICULIURE. SUMMARY. All told, 57 species of birds have been found to eat scale insects. It is interesting to note that this number comprises representatives of 12 families, differing widely not only in structure but in habits. They are distributed as follows: 9 woodpeckers. 2 jays. 3 orioles. 8 sparrows, 1 waxwing, 6 vireos. 11 warblers. 2 wrens. 1 tree creeper, 2 nuthatches and S tits of the titmouse family, 1 kinglet and 1 gnatcatcher of the Old World warbler family, and the varied thrush and the bluebird. At first thought it seems strange that the larger birds should take the trouble to pick up such small insects as scales. Yet the numer- ous representation of woodpeckers on the list and the fact that the grosbeaks among the bulkier species are most conspicuous scale destroyers prove it unsafe to assume that a direct relation exists between the size of a bird and its insect food. At the other extreme of size among scale eaters are some veritable feathered midgets, as, for example, the ruby-crowned kinglet, the black-tailed gnatcatcher, and the bush-tit. the last of which makes more than one-fifth of its food of scales. Among the majority of these birds, both great and small, there is noticeable one similarity of habit. They are tree frequenters. On their arboreal excursions they must constantly come across scale insects, and as the latter are no doubt nutritious and are toothsome to the avian taste, it is only natural that birds should feed upon them. A few species which do not often visit trees, but which are included among the birds known to eat scales, probably secure them very rarely. It is worthy of note that the buds thus far found to prey upon scales are practically the only species in their respective families that have been carefully studied. Thus only a few stomachs of the black and white creeper, one of the most exclusively arboreal birds in North America, have as yet been examined: and while it can not be included hi the present list, there is little doubt that, in common with many of its warbler kin. it subsists partly upon scale insects. Investiga- tion of the role birds play in destroying these insects is far from com- plete, and, bearing in mind the number of scale-eating birds of each of the families named above, it is fair to conclude that the majority of the species of woodpeckers, vireos. arboreal warblers, nuthatches, tits, kinglets, and gnatcatchers ultimately will be found Co eat scale insects. The fact that 57 kinds of buds feed upon scales. 20 of them, destroying one of the two most destructive species hi the United States, is most encouraging While in the p. ate of our knowledge it can not be claimed that birds are among the chief enemies of i yet they are proven to be one of nature's means of keeping these insects in check, and there is no doubt that their aid is important. THE EFFECT OF CLIMATIC CONDITIONS ON THE COM- POSITION OF DURUM WHEAT. By J. A. Le Clerc, Of the Bureau of Chemistry. IMPORTANCE OF DURUM WHEAT. The growing importance of durum wheat in this country, as shown by the ever-increasing acreage devoted to its culture (the season of 1906 yielding a crop of over 50,000,000 bushels), makes this kind of wheat a profitable subject of investigation. When one considers that it is only since 1 S99 that any sj'stematic attempt has been made to propagate this valuable crop in the United States,0 the value of the investigation to our agricultural interests is evident. Durum wheat (Tr'rtieum durum, in contradistinction to Triticum vulgare, under which name ordinary spring and winter wheats are known) is grown extensively in Russia, Algeria, Italy, and Spain. In this country it flourishes remarkably well in the Great Plains areas of the Middle West, where the climate is hot and dry, similar to that of those European countries whence this wheat was obtained. Durum wheat is a hard, flinty, translucent grain, very rich in gluten and comparatively rich in sugars. The gram is long, and may be either dark or light in color, according to the variety and the condi- tions under which it is grown. It is somewhat poorer in gliadin than the best bread wheats. Like other good varieties of wheat, durum or hard wheat is one of the most nutritive and healthful of human foods, containing as it does protein and nonnitrogenous substances in almost the ideal ratio for maintaining the body in a normal condition, the gluten (protein) being used in repairing waste body tissue, and the fat, starch, etc. (nonnitrogenous substances), furnishing the heat and energy required by the system. On account of its highly glutenous nature it is extensively used, especially in Italy and France, in the manufacture of macaroni, vermicelli, and other edible pastes. For this reason it has been called "macaroni wheat. " There is likewise a growing demand for durum wheat on the part of millers here and abroad, both for making straight durum flour and for mixing with the softer and less glutenous varieties in order to improve the quality of the flour, making these wheats, therefore, valuable as bread wheats. °U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry, Bui. 3, Macaroni wheats, and Bui. 70, The commercial status of durum wheat, Carleton. The influence of environment upon the composition of cereals is now the subject of cooperative study by the Bureau of Chemistry and the Bureau of Plant Industry. 199 200 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. For these reasons we may expect the price of durum wheat in the near future to be as high or higher than that of the ordinary spring or winter wheat. FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE QUALITY OF GRAIN. In studying the influences which affect the quality of grain, one may either grow the same variety of gram in a great many localities, or else grow it in the same locality during a long series of years. In either case we are able to note marked changes in the crop, due to the climatic conditions under which it is grown. As it is only two years since this cooperative work was undertaken, we are limited to a com- parison of the same varieties grown in many different localities during this time only. The requirements for growing a plant are many, and the deficiency or excess of any one of them has its influence on the crop. In order to grow, cereals require plant food, water, oxygen, heat, and light. A wheat seed must have an initial temperature of at least 42z F. in order to germinate, and only when the temperature is above that does the plant grow. Cereals are influenced both in quantity and quality to a greater or less extent by the soil in which they grow, the plant food contained therein, the temperature of the season, the rainfall or the amount of water they receive during the growing period, the amount of sunshine they get. the humidity of the atmosphere, the previous crop, the time of harvest, the length of the growing period, the kind of seed, etc. In our study of the chemical and physical changes which durum wheat has undergone in growing in different localities or in different seasons, the following determinations have been made: Water, ash, phosphoric acid, nitrogen (gluten), the weight per thousand grains, the weight per bushel, and the character of the gram (whether flinty or mealy). As far as possible the folio whig data were also collected: The monthly temperature and rainfall and the elevation above sea level of each locality, the time of growing and harvesting, the yield, the successive number of crops grown after the introduction of the original seed into this country, and whether or not the crop was grown under irrigation. The percentage of water in the grain was determined in all cases, that all results might be calculated to a water-free and therefore com- parable basis. The ash is of importance in showing the amount of plant food taken up by the plant and transmitted to the grain. The determination of phosphoric acid shows the amount of a most impor- tant and too often neglected food constituent, it haying been shown that the phosphorus of wheat occurs as an organic compound having a decidedly beneficial effect on nutrition. The weight per thousand grains is of greater importance than is generally supposed, for when taken into consideration with the weight per bushel it forms the basis of valuation of commercial CLIMATE AND THE COMPOSITION OF DURUM WHEAT. 201 wheats; for the heavier the wheat per bushel and per thousand grains, the more protein, as a rule, does the sample contain, and there- fore the more nutritious and valuable it is. The weight per thousand grains is also of value in indicating the amount of seed to be sown, as the larger the seed the greater the volume that one should sow. The nitrogen determination0 is the most important, as the food and commercial value of cereals depends in a large measure on the amount of gluten they contain. The character of a grain, whether it be flinty or mealy, is likewise a good indication of the nutritive value of a wheat, a more flinty or horny appearance always indicating, in the same variety, a higher amount of gluten. The difference in percentage of protein, as will be seen later, may be as much as 6 per cent in favor of the flinty grain over the mealy one. In many places the price of wheat is dependent mainly upon the gluten content. This is especially true in Budapest, in Magdeburg, and in other markets where buyers depend on weight per bushel and the flinty or amber appearance of the grain, for the more flinty or amber a wheat of the same variety is the higher is the gluten content. Before discussing the results obtained from the chemical studies and field observations, it may be well to say that of all the samples and varieties investigated three varieties of durum have been selected for comparison — Kubanka, a Russian or northern wheat, and Pelissier and Marouani, Mediterranean wheats, the latter two being from Algeria. These wTere chosen because they had been grown under a greater diversity of conditions, thus giving better opportunities for more correct interpretation of the influence of the various conditions on the chemical and physical characteristics. In order to be able to judge correctly of the changes which a plant undergoes in changing its habitat one should know the composition of that plant in its own home. As only a very few of the original samples were available for analysis it was necessary to rely on the published results of wheat analyses for information concerning the character of wheat grown in Russia and other countries. From these sources it appears that Russian spring wheat contains about 3 per cent of nitrogen, an amount slightly greater than that in the average of our American-grown durum wheat, though many individual samples of our durums far surpass that figure. The average per cent of pro- tein in Italian durums is about the same as in those grown under our best conditions. On the other hand, American-grown durums con- tain several per cent more protein than those grown in Roumania. The samples of Kubanka were grown in 1903, 1904, and 1905 in every State west of the one hundredth meridian (approximately a straight line drawn through western Dakota to Texas), most of them « Mr. T. C. Trescot, Bureau of Chemistry, made the nitrogen determinations and Mr. Leavitt and Mr. Keister assisted in the analytical work. 202 YEAEBOOK OP THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. coming from the great semiarid region. Some were grown in the irri- gated lands of Colorado. "Washington. Idaho, and Utah, and some in the dry sections of those States. EFFECTS OF EXCESSIVE MOISTURE. In comparing the results the remarkable influence which irrigation or rainfall exerts when either is in excess is very striking. For exam- ple, in 10t)3 eight samples were grown in the arid or semiarid regions and seven samples in more humid localities, as given in the following table: Comparison of wheals grown in arid and humid regions. ARID AND SEMIARID REGIONS. La bo- ra torv X gen. 1 Phos- g Weight phoric per I arid. grains. bushel. Belt. Mom Reiburg. Idaho Idalia.Colo Westport, S. Dak Brooking:?. S. Dak .... Culber 1493 Heath, Xebr Havs. Kans Per d. 2. 03 3.16 - ■ ! ■ • 3.00 - 72 2. SB - . - 2.50 2.05 . IS Per ct. - .91 1.10 1.04 .83 1. IS Grams. a -. 32.9 33.S 33.6 -' - - I - ! Rain- grains. Pounds. Per cent. Inches. 63.7 100 14 _ 95 15 - 100 12 60.2 95 23 58.1 100 28 100 100 13 57.1 33 Average. ; 3D. •■> nCMIP AND IRRIGATED REGIONS. Colo 638 Crest one. Colo 1560 1.84 Ibapah. Utah ... 477 2.46 I v.Mich 1489 1.96 East Peru. Iowa 1491 2.78 Fargo. X. Dak Mavfield. Utah 1,483 - B - 2.18 0.99 34.1 (») 2.10 1.00 40.0 63.1 20 . - .99 - (») j 2.09 .98 25.3 S IE -4 . 1.03 27.4 " 95 36 2. 14 1.05 .88 34.9 34.4 22 ■■ - "■ 2-l.i .98 33.5 68 a Or.e ounce=approximately 2S grams. ^ Crop was in The most striking result is the higher nitrogen content of wheat grown in the drier localities, the difference amounting to 0.57 per cent of nitrogen or 3.2 per cent of protein 7 = protein1. There hap- pens to be very little difference in per cent of ash or of phosphoric acid, but the weight per thousand grains is considerably higher as a general rule in the more moist regions. A glance at the column headed " Flinty grains " will likewise reveal the fact that in the humid or in the i ted regions the general tendency of the wheat is to become mealy tarchy. Similar results were obtained in 1905. though owi: _ the presence of more moisture than usual in the semiarid regions the difference in the nitrogen content is only 0.3 per cent, which is equiv- alent to 1.7 per cent protein. The weight per thousand grains was as 31.7 is to 35.6, the humid regions producing the larger gra CLIMATE AXD THE COMPOSITION OF DURUM WHEAT. 203 In 1904 thirteen samples of Kubanka were o-rown in as many dif- ferent places. By separating these into two classes, one consisting of 7 localities with IS inches or less of rainfall, and the other of 6 locali- ties with more than 15 inches of rainfall or having irrigation, it is again seen that the wheats from the drier regions contain 0.47 per cent more of nitrogen (2.7 per cent of protein). Furthermore, the wheat of the humid regions contains a larger percentage of mealy kernels, showing that there is a very close relation between the percentage of protein and the percentage of flint}- grains— that is, generally, the more flinty the kernels the higher is the percentage of protein. An excess- ive amount of rainfall or irrigation is almost always accompanied by a crop containing a very low percentage of protein. This is further shown in the work done in 14 different localities in the far Western States; 7 of these places were irrigated and the percentage of protein averaged 12.1, while in the 7 places where no irrigation was practiced the protein content of the wheat was 15.4 per cent. Two samples of durum wheat grown in Mexico Avere recently received and analyzed. They had been grown from the same seed and on adjacent land. One sample was irrigated, the other was not, there being, moreover, very little rainfall during the growing season. The following table shows the difference in the two samples: Comparison of irrigated and nonimjjated durum wheats gro:- ;<:o. Samples. Original seed Irrigated Xonirrigated ratorv No. Protein. Flinty grains. Weight of 1,000 grains. 17S0 1781 17-2 Per cent. 12. 3 11.1 17.7 Per cent. 100 20 100 Grams. 38. S 29.4 29.2 The nonirrigated sample consisted of flinty kernels entirely and con- tained 5.4 per cent more protein than the original seed and 6.6 per cent more protein than the irrigated sample. The irrigated sample contained, moreover, very few flinty kernels (only 20 per cent). The difference in protein content between the irrigated and nonirri- gated samples is the greatest that the writer has ever observed, the irrigated sample showing a marked deterioration both in chemical and physical properties. Such observations on the influence of excessive amounts of moisture corroborate the results obtained by Lawes and Gilbert, in which they showed that the hot, moderately dry seasons produced the best quality of wheat, the cold,, rainy seasons yielding the poorest crops in the history of England. The six seasons of bad crops showed rain to have fallen during each of 190 days. The seasons of good crops had but 136 days during which it rained. The probable reason for such differences is that an excessive rainfall dilutes the nitrates 204 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE. in the soil too much, and there being but small amounts of carbo- hydrates in the process of formation, owing to lack of sunshine, less protein is formed. The result is a mealy grain of low protein content. EFFECTS OF PROPER IRRIGATION IN DRY REGIONS. Without water, however, there can be no vegetable production: even the best soils must lie sterile. When, therefore, there is too little rain- fall for plant growth, irrigation is the salvation of the crop. It supplies water when needed, and in proper amounts. It is capable of doubling, even trebling, crop?. Backhauls found that irrigation increased wheat straw 94 per cent and wheat grain 169 per cent, the actual value of the increase in crop per acre-foot of water being $27 to $70. In the mountain States of the West, where irrigation is practiced, in Colorado for example, ideal conditions for plant growth prevail, for there the sky is clear, the sunshine intense, the air dry. Therefore, if water can be supplied when the crops are in need of it. assimilation will go on at its best and the production of organic substance will be all the more favored. The result will be a large crop of large-sized grain. The results, in fact, show this to be true. Whereas the aver- age weight of a thousand grains grown in the semiarid regions from Texas to North Dakota varies from 23 to 31 grams, a thousand grains in the mountain States of Colorado. Wyoming. Idaho, etc.. where irrigation is in vogue, average over 36 grams. The table following shows the differences in the same variety of wheat (Kubanka] when grown during three successive seasons with and without irrigation: A }xml-(i wheats groirn under dry-land farming and under irrigation. UNDER DRY-LAND FARMING. Year. Locality. L 1 ' ratorv i Nitro- gen. Ash. Phos- phoric- acid. Weieht of 1.000 grains. Weight per bushel. Flinty ' grains. Per d. : Per ct. Per cf. Grams.a Pounds. Fer ct. 1903 Idaho 14S1 1.75 0.91 32.9 62.1 95 1904 Colorado ffiS 3.16 ' 2.12 1.10 • - 100 - 1.93 1.00 33.3 97 Idaho 1548 -_ 2.05 - 31.1 57.1 100 j Do 1554 2.60 2.03 1.00 ■ 63.0 95 Colorado 1562 2.61 2.32 1.21 23.3 61.5 100 1905 Do Average Idaho ""- 2.64 2.40 1.26 14.5 56.3 100 ; - 2.20 1.11 - - 1555 3.01 1.76 .79 35.0 63.5 100 Do G 3.15 208 1.12 27.3 60.9 100 Colorado 1559 2.41 . 25 1 15 33.6 63.1 95 Do Average 2.45 2.16 1.19 33 1 . 90 - 2.16 1.06 32 2 K - " . . 1 07 30.3 tO 9 98 i One ounce = approximately 2S grains. CLIMATE AXD THE COMPOSITION OF DURUM WHEAT. 205 Kubanka wheats grown under dry-land farming and under irrigation — Continued. UNDER IRRIGATION. Year. Locality. Labo- ratory No. Nitro- gen. Ash. Phos- phoric acid Weight of 1,000 grains. Weight per bush-]. Flinty grains. 1903 1904 1905 638 LS60 Per et. 1.63 1.84 Per ct. 2.18 2.10 Per et. 0.99 1.00 Grains. 34.1 40.0 Pounds. 63. 1 Per ct. 20 Do Average Idaho Do Colorado Do Average 1.74 2. 14 1.00 37. 1 20 1552 1549 1516 1517 2.37 2.04 1.9S 2.02 2. 22 2. 11 1.90 2. 25 1.13 1.06 .97 1.10 39.7 37.0 37.0 35.8 62.8 62.8 63.1 60.9 82 46 38 47 2.10 2. 12 1.06 37.4 53 1553 1563 1518 2.30 1.85 2. 11 2.24 1.97 2.05 1.13 .89 1.00 35.8 36.1 33.7 62.1 64. 5 61. 6 90 50 70 Do 2.09 2.08 1.00 35.2 70 2.02 2.11 1.03 36.6 62. 7 55 These samples were grown in Colorado and Idaho, some under dry- land farming, the others under irrigation. One of the first differences noted is that under dry-land farming there is 0.73 per cent more nitro- gen (or 4.16 per cent more protein) in the dry-land wheat than in that grown under irrigation. The weight per thousand grains, however, is greater under irrigation. The percentage of flinty kernels is markedly greater under dry-land farming. It is almost alwa}Ts the case that irrigation tends to produce a mealy grain, although in several instances it has been noted that even under irrigation the grain has kept its flinty character. This is explainable only on the theory that the irri- gation has not been excessive, and suggests a line of research just entered upon — that is, the investigation of the effects of varying amounts of irrigation at different periods of growth. The grain grown under dry-land farming contains practically the same, amount of phosphoric acid in the ash as that grown under irrigation, the per- centage being 49 in each case. INFLUENCE OF SOILS, FERTILIZERS, AND TEMPERATURE. Soils and fertilizers also have more or less influence on the quality of the crop. This influence is much less marked, however, than is that of rainfall or of climate in general. One would naturally expect that soil would exert less influence than the character of the season, from the fact that only 5 per cent of the plant constituents are derived from the soil. Yet it is a well-known fact that nitrogenous fertilizers affect the straw content of cereals, and, to a certain extent, the percentage of protein in the grain, Wiley having long since established that the nitro- gen of the grain was present in proportion to the nitrogen of the soil. 206 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTO Lawes and Gilbert showed that manure performed the function of lessening relatively the transpiration of plants. They established the fact that for every gram of organic matter elaborated 250 to 3 as much water had been transpired, but that when the land was rich in plant food, after having been well manured, for example, a rela- tively- smaller amount of " ken up and given off by the p] Therefore, fertilizers not only supply the plant with the necessary f but lessen the relative amount of water transpired. It would follow from tins that fertilizers are of considerable assistance in combating drought, for we know that potash increases the water-holding capacity of soils, and that one of the chief uses of transpiration is to obtain for the plant the necessary plant food : it is a means rather than an end. The temperature of the season likewise has its influence on the qual- ity and quantity of plants, hot seasons producing the s »undant crops. As hot seasons are more or less dry seasons also, and wet and cold seasons go together, the latter yielding the poor crops, one must assume that it is not so much a matter of temperature alone as it is of both temperature and moderate rainfall. ADVANTAGE OF SHORT BROWING SEASON. The length of the growing period also exerts its influence, the longer period of growth giving, as a rule, a lower percentage of protein. This is conclusively shown in the table following, the crops having been grown without irrigation. /' QTcnrth on nitrogen content and \cright of vrheat. KG PERIODS IX THE SA15I V. FUice T.abora- 1905 am Idalia. Colo Do Do I>ai: Holyoke, Colo Per c»«f. : 111 1H - :-. ~ 1559 " . 30 33.6 1486 i 2.45 » 33.1 i I 1 " _•- 33.6 1477 123 - - 33 34.3 1 130 . % 22 35.6 119 ' 33.5 rTH. DIFFERENT LOCAL] as Uafao 1904 1904 Do 1905 1905 IlnjToke, Colo A vcr.g; I " i . 14* ■ ■ 133 B 140 S3 153 130 2. 41 .- ■ - 12 3L1 - 23.3 ■ 33.6 30 33.1 34.5 22 35.6 30 3L4 ] CLIMATE AND THE COMPOSITION OF DURUM WHEAT. 207 Effect of long and short periods of growth on nitrogen content and weight of wheat- Continued. SHORT PERIODS OF GROWTH, DIFFERENT LOCALITIES. Place. North Enid. Okla . . Fitzgerald. Okla. . . Oakley, Elans Fargo, N. Dak Fullerton. H. Dak.. Heath. Nebr. _ Rexburg, Idaho. . . Idalia, Colo Cowichi, "Wash Cheney, Wash HoLyoke, Colo Average . Year_ Labora- tory No. 1903 1593 1903 659 1904 1049 1903 649 1904 1487 1905 1522 1903 1481 1904 1558 1904 1533 1984 1537 1903 16(56 Days. Nitro- gen. 71 82 96 99 86 102 85 97 73 70 ri9 Ptr cent. 3.42 . _ 3.05 2.37 2.40 3.21 2.78 2.64 2.85 1.99 3.45 2. 80 Rain- fall. Weight of 1.000 finches. 29 22 21 22 21 24 15 21 10 14 11 Grams. 40.3 31.6 33.2 34.9 19. 6 30.0 32.9 14.5 37.6 38.7 33.3 31.0 The number of days varies from 71 in Oklahoma to 254 in Washing- ton, where the sample was grown as a winter variety. The difference in the average results between the short and long growing periods is 0.35 per cent nitrogen or 2.1 per cent protein. From the length of the period of growth and the average temperature during that period some conclusions may be drawn as to the number of heat units required to mature a crop in the various localities and tinder the vary- ing conditions. We find, for instance, that North Enid. Okla., with 71 days as the growing period and 64° as the average temperature of that period, requires 4,544 heat units to mature a wheat crop. On the other hand. Idalia, Colo., required 157 days with an average tempera- ture of 58°, or 9,106 heat units. Professor Ladd, of North Dakota, found that for conditions prevail- ing in that State an average of 98.5 days or 6,215 heat units were required for wheat to mature. The results obtained by the writer are very close to these figures, giving an average of 6,280 heat units for North Dakota. For North Dakota, South Dakota. Kansas, and Nebraska, averaged together, 7,037 heat units are required. Practi- cally the same amount. 7.054, is found necessary in Colorado, Mon- tana, Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming. Heat is the chief factor in the distribution of plants, as they only live where the air and soil are warm enough to carry on the vital processes. The absorption of water, and therefore of plant food, by the root hairs, the assimilation of carbon by the chlorophyll of the leaves, stooling. flowering, and maturing all require so man}- heat units. As a general thing the length of the growing period, and therefore the heat units, decrease as one goes toward the pole; in Norway, for example, barley requires but 1,500 heat units to mature. 208 YEARBOOK OF IKE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. INFLUENCE OF SEED AND PREVIOUS CROP. As to the influence of the seed on the crop, there is here also a diversity of opinion. Fischer, in Germany, maintaining that it has no influence, whereas in the work done by Hopkins, of Illinois, in grow- ng corn for protein or for oil. the seed was selected because of the high protein or oil content. Considerable work is being done to determine the influence of the previous crop on the quality of grain, such work being carried on in cooperation with the experiment stations of Tennessee and California. As the fertilizers exert more or less influence it is to be expected that such crops as legumes will play some part in modifying the composi- tion of wheat. EFFECT OF TIME AND MANNER OF HARVESTING. The time of harvest also affects the quality of a grain to a marked degree. If harvested too early, the grain is shriveled and so of inferior quality: if harvested too late, the quantity only is appreciably affected, as a considerable loss is apt to take place through shattering. The most propitious time for harvesting is when the grain is of a waxy consistency and can be cleanly broken by the finger nail. From this time on there is no appreciable change in the chemical composition of the dry matter. Any delay in harvesting after the waxy consistency of the grain makes its appearance may result in considerable loss, not only through shattering, but from the effect of unfavorable weather conditions. Even during the time of the Romans the saying was '"Better to harvest two days ahead than two days too late." The changes which take place during the growing period are of exceeding interest. Up to the time of full flowering, wheat has elaborated S7 per cent of the dry matter and has absorbed all the nitrogen, lime, and potash that it requires and 74 per cent of the phosphoric acid. From this it will be seen that the plant continues to absorb phosphoric acid from the soil until almost mature. Shortly before maturity the mother plant ceases to draw any further nourish- ment from the soil, and it then becomes the function of the plant to transport the elaborated materials to the head and grain. At this time a severe drought, accompanied by excessively hot weather, is apt to check the process of transporting the soluble substances elabo- rated in the leaves and stems to the head and gram, thus causing the production of a shriveled wheat. In 1905 the writer collected several samples of wheat at Brookings, S. Dak., some of which were harvested early, i. e.. in the soft dough stage, and some after fully maturing. In every case those samples harvested early gave a very low weight per thousand grains and were more or less shrunken. Those harvested late were plump. The following table shows the results more in detail, giving the per- CLIMATE AND THE COMPOSITION OF DURUM WHEAT. 209" centage of nitrogen, the weight per thousand grains, and the percent- age of flinty kernels. Enough samples were harvested so that part of each one could be allowed to ripen in a protected place (indoors) and part outdoors or exposed. In every case also part of the sample was harvested with the stems, that is, the whole plant was. harvested, and of part only the heads were collected. Comparison of ivhcats harvested early and late awl under other varying conditions^ WHOLE PLANTS HARVESTED Laboratory No. Tested for— Harvested early. Harvested late. Protected after harvest. Exposed after harvest. Protected after harvest. Exposed after harvest. S230 821° 8213 (Nitrogen per cent . . ■[Weight of 1,000 grains grams.. I Flinty grains per cent . . (Nitrogen per cent.. - Weight of 1.000 grains grams. . [Flinty grains per cent.. (Nitrogen per cent. . ■ Weight of 1,000 grains grams. . [Flinty grains per cent.. (Nitrogen per cent.. 1 Weight of 1,000 grains grams.. [Flinty grains per cent.. (Nitrogen per cent. . ■{Weight of 1.000 grains grams. . [Flinty grains per cent. . 2.02 29.94 95.00 2.01 30.16 95.00 1.91 29.10 95.00 2.14 26.50 98.00 2.01 26.84 80.00 1.88 30.74 S5.00 1.93 28.50 90.00 2.08 24.00 90.00 1.99 :;:. 68 95.00 1. 80 33.78 95. 00 2.04 35.64 90.00 2. 11 35. 98 95.00 1.99 36.48 90.00 1.89 34. 24 90.00 1.97 36.16 95.00 2.09 3a 86 95.00 5643 Average. . 2.02 2a 92 96.00 1.98 27. 52 86.00 1.99 35.77 94 00 . 1.99 35.19 9a 00 HEADS ONLY HARVESTED. 8230 (Nitrogen per cent.. •{ Weight of 1,000 grains grams. . [Flinty grains per cent. . (Nitrogen percent.. •{Weight of 1,000 grains grams.. [Flinty grains percent.. (Nitrogen percent.. • Weight of 1,000 grains grams.. [Flmtv grains per cent.. (Nitrogen per cent.. ^Weight of 1,000 grains grams.. [Flinty grains per cent.. (Nitrogen per cent. . ^Weight of 1.000 grains grams. . 2.15 23. 94 100.00 1.90 30.90 95.00 1.96 2.5.80 2.17 23.20 1.94 37.08 1.92 36.48 90.00 1.91 34. 66 95.00 1.91 35. 42 8212 90.00 1.99 27.78 90.00 1.93 27.30 85.00 1.92 35.64 95.00 2.01 34.64 8213 5C43 90. 00 ! 85. 00 2.09 • 2.02 24 56 25. 64 95. 00 ! 85. 00 90.00 j 90.00 2. 14 : 2. 10 36.94 I a5.90 95. CO 100. 00 Average. . 2.03 i 2.03 26. 30 25. 90 95.00 2.00 36.07 91.00 1.96 35.61 94 00 The table shows that when only the heads are harvested early the grain thereon is small and shriveled, whereas if harvested late the grain is plump. The reason for this is that the heads harvested early being cut off from the stems, the supply of elaborated food in the latter is actually lost to the grain. The grain, therefore, is unable to increase in weight. On the other hand, the heads which had ripened on the stem, that is, those harvested late, had received from the latter much of the elaborated material. The difference in the number of flinty kernels in the grain harvested early and late when the samples were protected is too small to afford any conclusions; but when the 3 A1906 14 210 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. samples were exposed, the one harvested early had a smaller number of flinty kernels. This was true likewise of the samples harvested on the stems: the one which was harvested early and exposed contained .aller amount of flinty grains than the one collected at full ma- turity. This was due to the effect of weathering, as it is well known that intermittent rains have an injurious effect on the grain in the shock, much more so than when the grain is still standing. The grain which was harvested late was not materially affected, so far as its flinty character is concerned, by exposure, whether the heads only or the whole plants were collected. Likewise there is little difference in the weight per thousand or the percentage of nitrogen, showing that at full maturity no more change goes on in the plant. This table also shows that the percentage of nitrogen or protein is practically the same in every sample whether harvested early or late, heads separate or the whole plant, and whether these samples were protected or exposed. The chief difference here is the the weight per thousand, the samples harvested late weighing 7 to 10 grams more than the early ones. This simply means that on ripening the elabo- rated organic material in the leaves, stems, and heads is transported to the grain and that this material is also rich in proteid substances. The number of starchy grains, that is. those having white spots, is not very great in any case, as is shown by the percentage of flinty kernels. The samples harvested early and exposed have the greatest number of starchy grains. From the table on page 209 it will be clearly seen that the sam- ples of heads only, which are harvested early, yield a grain which is appreciably smaller than when the whole plant is harvested early. The same explanation here holds true as was made above when con- sidering early and late harvesting of heads only, but to a less degree. In this case only a comparatively small part of the elaborated mate- rial is transported from the stem to the grain, giving it a higher weight per thousand, that is. the weight per thousand grains where the heads only were harvested early is 26.3 grams, whereas when the whole plant is harvested at the same time the weight per thousand ha- increased to 28.9 grams. Such experiments clearly show that harvesting by means of ■"header.-" should be carried on only when the grain is fully mature, as otherwise an incompletely developed or shriveled grain will be obtained. VALUE OF DURUM WHEAT. Professor Shepard. of South Dakota, has recently issued a report on durum wheat, in which it is shown that Kubanka contains less bran than Red Fife, that more flour is made from Kubanka. and that the flour contains a larger amount of the proteid of the wheat than does flour made from northern spring wheat. Baking tests, however, show Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. Plate X. Photomicrographs of Cross Sections of Wheat Grown Under Varying Conditions. [1.— Flinty wheat grain grown under dry farming. 2.— Half-starchy wheat grain. 3.— Starchy wheat grain grown under excessive irrigation.] Yearbook U. S. Oept. of Agriculture, 1906 Plate XI k Whole Wheat showing (1) Flinty, (2) Half Starchy, and (3) Starchy Grains. (X4i.) CLIMATE AND THE COMPOSITION OF DURUM WHEAT. 211 that spring wheat makes a larger loaf and contains a larger amount of gliadin in the gluten than is the case with Kubanka wheat. Taking it all in all, however, Professor Shepard states that "for the yield, hardiness, flour yield, protein distribution, and the quality of both bread and macaroni, durum wheat, especially Kubanka, is to be recommended for general use." Several years ago Clifford Richardson, of the Bureau of Chemistry, published the results of several hundred analyses of wheat grown in the various States of the Union, from which it appears that the aver- age protein content of our American spring and winter wheat ( Tri- ticum vulgare) is 12.2 per cent, whereas the average proteid content of considerably over one hundred samples of durum analyzed by the writer is 14.7, or 2.5 per cent more than that of the common wheat. Durum wheat grown in Algeria contains only from 8 to 10 per cent of water. Common wheat grown in countries adapted thereto con- tains from 10 to 16 per cent of water, according to the moisture of the atmosphere. The difference in the water content was sufficient to make the French officials hrrestigate the advisability of buying wheat from dry-land regions, which wheats would contain less moisture, and thus not only a large saving would be made in the cost of transporta- tion, but more wheat per bushel would be actually obtained. IRRIGATION EXPERIMENTS. As climate is the great factor in influencing the composition of crops, and as we are powerless to change it in any way, it devolves upon us to make as wise a selection of our grains as possible, choosing those which are more apt to resist the unfavorable elements. Though we can not control rainfall, we are able in irrigated districts to determine how much water a crop shall receive by irrigation. As excessive irrigation tends to change the hard, flinty durum into a soft, mealy grain, thus robbing it of its most important physical characteristic, as well as lowering its nitrogen content below that of a true durum, it is important to carefully determine the amounts of water that should be given to a wheat crop and the times during the period of growth when it should be applied. This question is the subject of an investigation which is being conducted in cooperation with several of the Western States where irrigation is practiced and facilities exist for irrigating with definite amounts of water at stated periods. ILLUSTRATIONS OF OVER-IRRIGATED GRAINS. The photomicrographs shown in Plate X represent cross sections of grain grown under dry-land farming and under irrigation. Figure 1 represents a durum grown on land not irrigated, being flinty, hard, and translucent, and containing over 18 per cent of protein. No. 2 is an 212 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. intermediate grain, showing both the starchy and the flinty charac- teristics. Xo. 3 represents a grain from the same kind of seed as that which produced No. 1 and grown on adjacent land, but under ex - sive irrigation, the result being a soft, mealy, dull-looking grain, some- what shorter than Xo. 1 and containing only 12 per cent of protein. It has lost its durum characteristics entirely, and is no more suitable for making good macaroni than are our soft wheats. Plate XI is a reproduction of an enlarged photograph of the whole wheat grains, and represents the same samples as are shown in Plate X. Xo. 1 showing the dark amber color of the flinty grain. Xo. 2 the inter- mediate sample, and No. 3 the light starchy grain. Both the photo- micrographs and the photographs shown in these plates were made by Burton J. Howard, chief of the microchemical laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry. NECESSITY OF PRODUCING HIGH-PROTEIX WHEATS. In conclusion, it may be well to emphasize the fact that the coun- tries which are the great buyers of wheat purchase generally on the basis of protein content, that is. on the basis of the weight per bushel and the weight per thousand grains, while in some localities wheats are bought on the basis of the chemical analysis itself. It is therefore of the utmost importance, in order to retain our foreign markets and maintain our commercial supremacy and national repu- tation as producers of high-grade wheat, that the closest attention be paid not only to the production of high-yielding wheats but al- the cultivation of varieties having a high protein content, with a v to growing wheats which combine these two characteristics — high gluten content and large yields. THE GAME WARDEN OF TO-DAY. By R. W. Williams, Jr., Assistant, Biological Survey. INTRODUCTION. For several hundred rears the enforcement of criminal laws of all kinds in this country has been intrusted to sheriffs, constables, and police officers, and until the middle of the nineteenth century this method was considered satisfactory. But with the growing demand for more stringent enactments for the preservation of game and the increasing complexity of statutes for this purpose it was found no longer practicable to include the burden of enforcing them among the duties devolving upon general officers, and their enforce- ment has consequently been intrusted to special officials, usually called game wardens. The origin of the term "warden" in relation to game is somewhat obscure, but it was probably adopted in analogy to church and wood wardens in England, where the word first came into use. However this ma}' be, a game warden is now generally understood to be an officer charged with the enforcement of laws for the protection of game and fish. Several substitutes for the term are in use in a few States and Canadian Provinces. Thus in New York all, and in Xew Jersey and Pennsylvania some, game officers are styled " protectors;" in Xew Hampshire the designation "detectives" is employed; in Prince Edward Island, "inspectors," and in Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan, "game guardians." Wardenships for the protection of fish existed quite early in the histoiw of this country, and some time after the establishment of similar offices for the protection of game the duties of the two were united and intrusted to the same officers. Consequently to-day, in all but a few States, the game warden is a fish warden also and per- forms manifold duties in that capacity. The present article does not deal with this phase of his duties, but is limited in scope to those he performs solely as a game warden. In the United States the establishment of a special office for the protection of game and the enforcement of the game laws dates back to 1852, when the legislature of Maine created the office of moose 213 214 VEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. warden, directed the governor to appoint one for each of the counties of Oxford, Franklin. Somerset. Penobscot, Piscataquis. Aroostook, and Washington, and allowed the warden three-fourths of the fines recovered for killing moose and deer contrary to law. This seems to be the first game wardenship established in this country. For three decades there was very little further activity in this direction. A few State- authorised the appointment of local wardens, but the experiment was almost entirely a failure. During the period between 1878 and 1888, however, the urgent necessity for enforcement of game laws became apparent, and in that decade ten States created a State office or department charged with the enforcement of the game laws. Other State- quickly followed, and at the present time in thirty-six States and Territories the enforcement of the game laws is intrusted to a State board, a warden, or. as in North Carolina and Delaware, to an incorporated association. Florida. Georgia, Ken- tucky. Louisiana. Nevada, and South Dakota .-till adhere to the county warden system, and Texas. Alabama, and Arkansas provide no special officer for protection of game. Correlated with the estab- lishment of these offices has been the increasing complexity of game law.-, until at the present time the modern game statute assumes the magnitude of a criminal code, and to enforce its provisions and exer- cise the powers thereunder requires a high degree of judgment and skill. The necessary qualifications of an officer in this department of the State's service are consequently much greater to-day than formerly. This is apparent from an examination of the one hundred and fifty-six sections of the Colorado game law. which, it may be noted, do not include the provisions relating to nongame birds. THE OFFICE OF GAME WARDEN. Since the establishment of State offices or departments for the pro- tection of game, the position of warden, whether the jurisdiction extends over the entire State or is confined to a .-mall area, has assumed an importance and dignity it did not formerly pose Fortified by plenary power to enforce the game laws, and with a consciousness of the important public service performed, the warden of to-day stands upon an equal footing with other executive officers of the Government, and commands like respect. The salary attached to the position of State commissioner or warden in those States pro- viding for a salary compares favorably with the compensation of other State officials. In Xew York it is So. 000 a year, in Illinois sl'.oOO, and in other States it varies from $1,000 to 12,060. In the States which intrust the administration of the game laws to a board of commissioners, position on the board, except in Connecticut. Ma--aehusetts. and Maine, is honorary and without compensation. Such is the case in Arizona. California, Xew Hampshire, Xew Jersey, THE GAME WARDEN OF TO-DAY. ZIO Minnesota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island, but even under these circumstances the States have no difficulty in securing ready and capable men. The compensation of deputies varies more than that of the State officers, and the system of payment adopted by each State has fea- tures distinct from those of any other. A few States pay their deputies salaries. In Montana each of the eight district wardens receives a salary of 8100 a month, and in California the salary of county warden is graduated according to the population of the county, $50 to $125 per month, with an additional allowance of $25 for ex- penses. Colorado allows each of her five chief wardens S900 a year and S300 for expenses, besides a share of fines and officer's costs. In Illinois the ten district game wardens receive $900 a year each and their actual and necessary expenses while under the direction of the commissioner. Game protectors in New York, except the chief, first, second, and third assistant protectors, who receive annual salaries of $5,000, $2,000. $1.400, and $1,200, respectively, are paid $600 a year, and receive one-half of the fines in actions brought upon information furnished by them; and they are allowed also $450 a year for their expenses. In some States the deputies receive the whole or part of the lines, together with tho usual fees of a sheriff or constable. In Tennessee the State warden serves without compensation. The terms of service are usually the same as those of other officers. The State warden of Tennessee, however, is appointed for eight years, a longer term than is usual for any State officer. It may be of interest to note, as showing the type of men required for this work, that the present warden of Tennessee was a former member of the Federal House of Representatives; that one of the Members of Congress from Michigan was the fust warden of that State; that the present game commissioner of one of the States was formerly United States minister to Turkey; and that several promi- nent lawyers and physicians are serving their States in the capacity of State warden or as members of boards of game and fish commis- sioners. The governor of Nebraska is nominally fish and game com- missioner of that State, but the active work of the office devolves upon his chief deputy. This somewhat anomalous condition is due to a constitutional prohibition against the creation of any executive State office not provided for in the constitution. Hence the law of 1901 establishing the office of game and fish commissioner provided that the duties of the position should devolve upon the governor. DUTIES. The duties of a game warden are those usually performed by a sheriff, but they differ in one important particular, and this differ- ence inheres in the object for which the wardenship was established. 216 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. eriff ordinarily acts only in pursuance of preliminary proceed- ings by private persons or by a court officer and usually under a warrant issued by a court commanding him to arrest a certain person, summon a jury, or perform similar acts: but a warden can not await the initiative or detection of a violation by others. He must act, must himself search out violations, find the evidence wherewith to convict offenders, and institute prosecutions. This is one of the primary reasons for the existence of a special officer to enforce the game laws. During the open season much of the game warden's time is spent in examining shipments, and if his territory includes a railway cen- ter this service is arduous and requires much night work. The devices employed by shippers to conceal contraband trade in game compel wardens to examine many packages the contents of which are not exposed to view. It frequently happens that the warden must perform detective duty in order to secure the evidence necessary to convict suspected parties, and this means that occasionally he is subjected to all the dangers of such service. In States prohibiting sale or possession of game he must periodically visit and inspect hotels, restaurants, and other resorts where it is likely to be served to guests, and must keep a watchful eve on markets and cold-storage plants. In a few States and in several of the Canadian Provinces wardens issue hunting licenses, and in consequence are compelled to keep accounts. By the passage of laws in several States prohibiting the hounding of deer and directing the wardens to kill dogs found chasing or molesting deer or found in the deer country, another task, and often a disagreeable one, is added to the warden's duty. The secretary of the game commission of Pennsylvania, in January, 1906, estimated that 1.500 dogs had been killed in that State during the few months of the operation of the law. Examination of hunting licenses issued to nonresidents requires the warden's attention, and it is always necessary for him to make sure that all persons found hunting are provided with proper licenses. In many States wardens are required to destroy traps and devices employed to capture game, and in a few to seize guns and shooting paraphernalia used in viola- tion of law. They often perform the duties of auctioneers in the sale of confiscated game, guns, traps, nets, etc. Occasionally when an offender against the game laws has escaped into another State the warden is required to enter that State and. with proper requisi- tion papers, apprehend and bring back the fugitive. In nearly every State wardens are empowered to serve criminal and civil proc- ist as a sheriff would, and this requires knowledge of the proper procedure. Every statute providing for the appointment of a warden defines his duties, some more explicitly and in greater detail than others; THE GAME WARDEN OF TO-DAY. 217 but the officer who would perform the greatest service to the State must do many things not laid down in the law. As a rule, the active field work of the game department is performed by deputies under instructions from the State warden, but the laws of Idaho and Wyo- ming declare that the State warden shall be an active executive officer, and when possible shall take the field in person in performance of his duties. An officer who realizes the responsibility of his position can do much to bring game protection into popular favor. He may easily become an educator, however circumscribed his field. Much of the wanton destruction of animal life proceeds from thoughtlessness, and few persons once impressed with the importance of preserving wild creatures continue to destroy them. In North Carolina the bird and game wardens, in addition to their official duties, spend a considerable portion of their time educating the public as to the value of birds and game to the State. During the close seasons they visit farmers, explain and discuss the game laws and their object, and hear complaints. Each warden is supplied with a selection of stand- ard books on birds and is required to familiarize himself with them, so as to be able to answer the numerous questions propounded. A very useful and interesting feature of a warden's duties in Illinois is the periodical census made by him of certain species of game. In this way the commissioner, with reasonable accuracy, can determine the status of certain species and recommend necessary legislation. Similar service is performed by the wardens in Pennsylvania. The general adoption of this scheme over the entire country would greatly facilitate the drafting of proper laws and in addition furnish very interesting statistics. Another valuable service performed by the Illinois wardens con- sists in rendering aid to the farmers in enforcing the trespass laws. Telephone connection makes it possible to quickly reach the scene of a trespass, and ready response has greatly reduced the number of such offenses in that State. The Illinois and Wisconsin wardens, as part of their duties, periodically examine and check up the hunting- license accounts of the county clerks. The rapid decrease in the number of quail in several States, due to starvation in severe winters with heavy snows, has awakened the citizens of those States to a realization of the necessity of providing food for the starving birds during such periods. The game depart- ments in some of the States have adopted a systematic plan for pur- chasing and distributing this food by the aid of wardens. During the winter of 1904-5, which was very severe and protracted as far south as North Carolina, thirty wardens in that State devoted much of their time to distributing grain for the quail and in enlisting the cooperation of the farmers in their behalf. During the same winter 21S YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. some of the wardens of Mew Jersey .purchased grain at their own expense and distributed it widely in their territory, and the Indiana wardens employed men with sleighs to distribute food for the quail. In Illinois quail were systematically fed by the game department dur- ing that winter. An expenditure of $25 in each county was author- ized by the State game commissioner to be used in February, and with the means thus supplied the wardens were able to scatter a large amount of grain throughout the region inhabited by quail. The mounted police on duty in the neighborhood of Washington, in the District of Columbia, under instructions from their superintendent, who is ex-officio game warden of the District, carry with them regu- larly, during severe weather, bags of grain from which they scatter food for the quail. POWER.-. The powers exercised by the wardens of the present day are very extensive. Indeed, were it not so. enforcement of game laws and the consequent preservation of game would be impossible. It is the exception now for a State to withhold from its game wardens the right to arrest without warrant persons found in the act of violating the law. and a number of States confer upon their wardens the right to search summarily any place where they suspect contraband game to be con- cealed. In Xew York the power of search without warrant under the game law* is granted to game protectors, but is withheld from peace officers, who otherwise exercise all the powers of protectors in the enforcement of the game laws. Several States have excepted dwell- ings from the general warrant of search, thus preserving the ancient and time-honored sanctity of the home. "While the warden may be lawfully invested with broad powers, it behooves him to use tact and discretion in exercising them, so as to give no just grounds for com- plaints of oppression. In Michigan and Wisconsin wardens are authorized to conduct prosecutions in the courts in the same manner and with the same authority as prosecuting attorneys, and in Oklahoma and West Vir- ginia they may do so without the sanction of the prosecuting attorney. In Tennessee the State warden may compromise or discontinue cases where the violations are technical or where he believes the prosecution or fine would be oppressive. In Maine the commissioners of inland fisheries and game may entirely prohibit the taking of any kind of game in any part of the State for a series of years, not exceeding four. These are some of the extensive powers granted wardens, and they illustrate the position of the service at the present day. In this connection may well be quoted the instructions given the deputy and county wardens of Michigan by the game warden of that State: The proper observance of the fish and game laws depends almost entirely upon the vigilance and good judgment pi the county and deputy wardens. Keep your eyes and ears open for violations, but do not be too hasty in acting upon what you hear. Be THE GAME WARDEN OF TO-DAY. 219 careful nut to let the public know your plans. Be vigilant and fearless in enforcing the laws, hut try to do so without being obnoxious. Be gentlemanly at all times. Show no favoritism, and be especially careful that all persons are treated alike. It is important that the people should be awakened to the importance of respecting the laws for the preservation of iish and game. Use your influence to arouse public sentiment in this respect. (Game 'Warden Dept. of Mich.— Instructions to Wardens, 1903. ) SPECIAL EQUIPMENT. The equipment of the game warden diners very little from that of other officers who enforce criminal statutes, but on account of the character of the territory to be patrolled several States in the past few years have provided launches for wardens doing duty on water courses. Massachusetts for several years has kept in service along the coast a naphtha launch, the efficiency of which the commissioners of that State declare to be equal to that of a hundred men. The Audubon Society of North Carolina, an incorporated body, which, under the terms of its charter, administers the game laws in that State, main- tains a launch for the use of its wardens along the Atlantic coast. This boat is used in winter for patrolling the ducking grounds in the larger inlets along the coast of Xorth Carolina, where wild fowl resort in great numbers and are extensively shot for market ; and in summer it does duty in the region about Cape Hatteras and Ocracoke Inlet and around the islands in Pamlico Sound, where large numbers of sea birds rear their young. The game commissioner of Illinois has recently provided a cabin cruising launch for the use of the wardens along the Illinois River, and early in 1906 New York authorized the purchase of a steam or electric launch for the use of the two game protectors on Jamaica Bay and adjacent waters, and appropriated $1,500 for the purpose. The police department of the District of Columbia maintains a launch for service on the Potomac River largely to enforce the game laws on the marshes along the river. The National Association of Audubon Societies, always desirous to cooperate with game wardens, owns a launch with which its warden patrols the southern coast of Florida in the interests of the nongame birds of that State; and in Louisiana its warden, who has supervision of the Breton Island Reservation in the Gulf of Mexico, is the owner and captain of a schooner which he uses in his work of protection. CIVIL-SERVICE SYSTEM FOR GAME WARDENS. With increasing necessity for enforcement of the game laws and the corresponding intricacy of these laws arises increased necessity for more intelligent officers to execute them. The civil-service rules, winch have worked so well in other departments of the State govern- ment, have recently been applied to the game departments of Massa- chusetts and Wisconsin, and their example will, without doubt, soon 220 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. be followed by other States. The system, besides insuring a higher grade of officers, has the advantage also of eliminating politics from the service. An examination of the questions propounded to candi- dates for the position of game warden in Wisconsin shows that in that State great importance is attached to ability to endure exposure and hard plvysical exertion. Some account is taken of the applicant's familiarity with the game laws and conditions in his territory, and enough arithmetic is required to test his ability to keep his accounts. On the other hand, in Massachusetts less importance is attached to physical endurance, but applicants for the position of deputy fish and game commissioner are required to answer exhaustive questions on their powers and jurisdiction under the game laws, and in relation to the preliminary procedure in the courts. Applicants should be examined upon the subjects usually included in the common-school course. Physical fitness and such previous experience as would be serviceable in the position sought should have due weight. Other qualifications being equal, the applicant who is an experienced hunter should command precedence over one who is not. In order to secure the largest measure of efficiency in the game department, civil-service questions should be framed to test the applicant's qualifications to perform any and all services likely to devolve upon him in the performance of his duties. They should elicit his knowledge of the powers, duties, and jurisdiction apper- taining to the position of warden and the methods of procedure in case of violation of the game laws. He should have a general knowl- edge of the object of game laws, and should show fair acquaintance with the fauna of his territory, especially with the species classed as game; he should be familiar with the limit of hunting seasons, with prohibited devices and methods, limitations on amount of game per- mitted to be killed, and restrictions on hunting by residents and nonresidents, and on sale and transportation. If the examination is for one of the higher positions in the service, such as chief warden, the applicant should know something of the decisions of the higher courts in cases involving game, at least in his own State. ASSOCIATIONS OF WARDENS. In the early part of December, 1892, the fish and game wardens of the two Dakotas, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Illinois met in convention at St. Paul, Minn., for the purpose of considering a uni- form game law for the States mentioned. A bill providing for such a law was agreed upon, but failed of adoption in the several States. Since this meeting similar conventions have been held in other sec- tions of the country, with like objects in view, but no permanent association was organized until July 21, 1902, when the State wardens THE GAME WARDEN OF TO-DAY. 221 and commissioners of Colorado, Minnesota, Montana, Oregon, Utah, and Wyoming, together with several other persons interested in game protection, met at Mammoth Hot Springs in the Yellowstone National Park, pursuant to previous agreement. A permanent organization was effected under the name of the National Association of Game and Fish Wardens and Commissioners. Papers were read and dis- cussed on various phases of game protection, spring shooting, hunting- licenses, export and sale, bag limits, and the right of search. The primary object of the association. was to secure cooperation between the States. The constitution adopted made all State and Federal game officials eligible to membership, and fixed the entrance fee at $10. The discussions at this meeting had a marked effect upon sub- sequent legislation and have resulted in more stringent enforcement of the game laws. This association was reorganized on February 11, 1904, and, with dues reduced to $5, now numbers among its meni- bers the State game officials of-most of the States where such office exists. A personal acquaintance with the deputy and county wardens in the State is always of great advantage to the State officer in the administration of his duties, and in recent years several officials have called conventions of their deputies for this end and to discuss mat- ters pertaining to then duties. One of the first meetings of this character of which the writer has any knowledge occurred in Mon- tana in 1901, shortly after the creation of the offices of State and district game wardens, when, in compliance with the summons of the State game and fish warden, the eight deputies met at his office in Helena for the purpose of mutual acquaintance and instruc- tion by him in the duties of then position. Quite the most notable and successful of these conventions met in the Armory Building at Springfield, 111., on January 26, 1904, pur- suant to a call issued by the game and fish commissioner of that State. There were seventy-five wardens present, and after organ- ization the commissioner stated that the object of the meeting was to become acquainted, discuss matters of general interest in game protection, study carefully the new game law in order that all might understand its provisions, and outline a general policy for its enforcement. Some very interesting and important papers touching various phases of bird and game protection were read and discussed, and new legislation was proposed, some of which was enacted at the following session of the legislature. (A detailed account of this meeting will be found in American Field, vol. 61, p. 119.) One of the most recent meetings was that of the game protectors of New York, who met in Albany during February, 1906, and formed a permanent organization. Hereafter they will meet yearly for the purpose of discussing matters pertaining to their duties. 222 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. PERILS OF THE WARDENS POSITION. The record of fatalities incident to the warden's official life testifies to the perils of the position. Exposure to inclement weather, with attending discomforts, may be reasonably accounted part of the chances a warden assumes when he enters upon the duties of the office; but conditions should not be such as to compel the risk of surren- dering his life to the depravity of his fellow-men. Yet such is the fact. Several deputies and other officials have been killed within recent years while in the discharge of their duties. In not a few cases the culprits have received merited punishment for then crimes and have been sentenced to prison for longer or shorter periods. In other instances they have gone unpunished, as in the case of a plume hunter who killed a Florida warden while he was attempting to arrest him for shooting herons in a colony of nesting birds and who escaped through refusal of the grand jury to indict him. In cases of miscarriages of justice like this, however, it should be remembered that game laws and game wardens are of comparatively recent origin in the United States, and that only a short time ago the popular idea respecting fish and game was that wherever found they were almost as much the property of the individual citizen as the air we breathe. The creation of a healthy public sentiment everywhere in regard to the protection of game and the enforcement of game laws is only a matter of time, and the wonder is, not that violations of the law, followed by occasional tragedies, occur in remote districts. but that respect for the law is so widespread, cooperation so general, and the cause of bird and game protection so far advanced in public estimation in so short a time. The most serious problem the warden of to-day has to contend with in some sections of the country is the control of certain classes of immigrants who in increasing numbers infest the woods and fields of some of our Northern States at all seasons intent upon the slaughter of all kinds of birds. They set at defiance the game and trespass laws, and to warnings not to hunt upon the farmer's land they sometimes respond with the use of weapons, occasionally with fatal results. The seriousness of the situation is echoed in the following paragraph from the report of the board of game commissioners of Pennsylvania for 1904, page 3: We are deeply impressed with the grave condition that surrounds the enforcement of our game laws in communities where the foreign element * * * is in any force, and recognize in this question the most serious one we are compelled to meet. This class seems possessed with the same purpose throughout the State, and is the most persistent and determined in not only violating the law. Inn in resisting arrest and attempting to evade punishment after they have been arrested. Hardly a week passes without an assault of some kind upon our officers from these people. THE GAME WARDEN OF TO-DAY. 223 REVENUE FOR THE WARDEN SERVICE. The long delay in establishing a practical and efficient scheme for enforcing game laws in the United States was due more to lack of financial means than any other one cause. Only a small part of the people in each locality hunted, and the suggestion to levy a special tax or to appropriate funds from the general treasury for the support of a wardenship excited strong opposition. It was argued that citizens who, from lack of inclination or convenience, do not hunt should not be taxed for the maintenance of the sport. So strong was this sentiment that advocates of game preservation undertook to find a way by which the laws could be so framed as to provide funds for their own enforcement. A provision was inserted in the game laws providing that the informer should be entitled to a moiety of the fine or that the game warden should receive the whole of it. But competent men were not readily found to work for such uncer- tain and inadequate compensation and the game laws were not enforced in many localities. Finally, within the last twelve years the hunting-license system as a means of raising revenue for game pro- tection has proved to be more successful and more equitable than any other, since those who hunt and are directly benefited by the enforcement of game laws contribute the funds for the protection of game. Since the inauguration of this method nearly every State has established a game department, and several of them support their departments wholly from hunting-license fees. At first the nonresident was the only one required to take out a license to hunt, and this is now the usual license issued ; but it was found that public sentiment in several States favored a small fee for residents and in 16 States this additional fee is now required. In Illinois the fund derived from this source is so large (the receipts in 1905 amounting to $127,988) that after payment of all salaries and other expenses of administration a large surplus remains, which the legislature has authorized the State game commissioner to use for the purchase and propagation of quail, prairie chickens, and pheasants. The commissioner has established a game farm near Springfield and has stocked it with several species of game birds, foreign and native. This project has met with marked success and bids fair to furnish the State with game to stock depleted covers. Thus the license s}^stem, originally adopted merely for the purpose of supporting the warden service, has very materially broadened the scope of the State game department. CONCLUSION. It will be seen from the foregoing that game wardenship in this country has reached its present state of efficiency within a compara- tively short time. Beginning with the very local moose wardenship 224 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. iii Maine in 1852, "the service has been gradually extended in scope and purpose until now there is scarcely a locality in the United States where a game warden is not in service — scarcely a wild bird or animal which does not come under his protection. This satisfactory condition lias not been attained without a strug- gle. Many obstacles have been placed in the way of progress by an unwilling, because uninstructed, public, and these have been over- come onty by the persistence and devotion to duty of those who have occupied the office during the formative period. The game warden of to-day should recognize this obligation to his predecessors and endeavor not only to maintain but to surpass the high standard estab- lished by them. Some of the former antagonism against game laws still persists, and in certain parts of the country the wardenship is yet in an experi- mental stage; but it may be safely predicted that in the near future every State in the Union will have established its game department on a footing with its other executive offices. In spite of its growing importance and power, however, the office of game warden is a diffi- cult one to fill, and it is the duty of every good citizen to lend this important public servant every assistance and encouragement in the discharge of his duties. RANGE MANAGEMENT. By J. S. Cotton, Assistant in Range Investigations, Farm Management Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry. THE PRESENT SITUATION. At the present time the greater part of western grazing lands is badly overstocked. Some of the ranges are so crowded that the stockmen are experiencing difficulty in getting sufficient grazing for their herds. Many herds have been cut down in order to meet these conditions, while in some instances, rather than run the risk of an unusually hard winter or a period of drought, stockmen are going out of business entirely. When the first stockmen drove their herds on the western range lands there was a great abundance of feed, and it was generally believed that this feed would never be fully utilized. As a conse- quence these men increased their herds as much as possible, so as to use all of the feed they could. Others, seeing the prosperous condi- tion of these men, began to bring in large herds, that they also might get their share of the free grass. Thus it was only a few years until the range was carrying more stock than it could properly support. During the past few years there has been a heavy immigration of settlers to several parts of these grazing lands. These settlers have taken up large bodies of the very best grazing lands for farming pur- poses. The men ranging their stock in these areas were for the. most part crowded back to the ranges of other stockmen, thus greatly aggravating the already crowded condition of the range. As a neces- sary result of all this overcrowding the range began to deteriorate. The rate of this deterioration has been governed somewhat by accessibility, a range that is easily accessible being much more likely to be overstocked than one that is difficult to reach. It has, however, been governed much more largely by climatic conditions. In the northern range States, where the severe winters and the lia- bility of a heav}* fall of snow acted as a cheek, and where the rainfall is sufficient for the growth of a good crop of grass, the deterioration of the range has been rather slow until the past few years. In the South, where the stock can be grazed the year round with perfect safety, the range has been stocked to the highest number it would 3 A1906 15 225 226 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. earn* during favorable seasons. When a period of drought has occurred, with a consequent shortage of grasses and other forage plants, the same number of animals has been still on hand to be sup- ported. This has resulted in severe grazing of the native grasses and other forage plants, preventing the vegetation from yielding seed with which to reproduce itself, thus greatly lowering the carrying capacity of the range. This carrying capacity is, of necessity, gov- erned largely by the amount of rainfall. In years when there are ample rains there is an abundance of vegetation for grazing, but in the periods when the rainfall is light the growth of vegetation is much less. Much damage has been done to the ranges through the inability of the stockmen to reduce their herds during periods of drought. With the exception of the western portions of Oklahoma. Ka: - and Nebraska, the carrying capacity of the range is much lower at the present time than it was in the early days, or even a decade ago. Reports from various stockmen indicate that the majority of the ranges are not carrying one-half as many animals as formerly. Ranges which formerly required from S to 12 acres to support a single steer throughout the entire year now usually require from 20 to 35 acres. Instances are cited in Arizona where from 50 to 100 acres are needed to support a single beef animal.0 In western Nebraska the carrying capacity of the range is considerably higher than formerly. This is because the stockmen of that region have protected their ranges from the ravages of prairie fires. Overcrowding the public ranges has caused considerable friction. In many sections there have been bitter fights between the sheepmen and the cattlemen. The majority of these fights were eventually settled by a division of the range and the establishing of dead lines. There have also been serious difficulties between the stockmen and the homesteaders. In some instances the stockmen tried to keep the settlers out ; in other places the settlers have taken up the watering places or settled on land adjoining them, and have kept the stock from watering in their accustomed places either by building fences or by driving them away. The stockmen have tried in many ways to adjust themselves to these conditions. Some have obtained virtual control of their ranges by buying up or leasing all the watering places. Others have been able to buy railroad land and deserted homesteads or to lease school lands, and thus bring their ranges under direct control. In other regions, where the land could not be brought under control by these methods, stockmen hare divided the ranges by mutual con- sent. Later they began to build drift fences on these lines in order to prevent their cattle from straying from their ranges. These drift fences were gradually extended until large tracts of Government land a Bui. G7, Bureau of Plant Industry. U. S. Dept. Agr.. pp. 33 and 34. RANGE MANAGEMENT. 227 were inclosed. The fencing in of large pastures proved to be so con- venient to the stockmen in the handling of their stock that it became quite general in several of the range States. ATTITUDE OF STOCKMEN TOWARD LEGISLATION. Recently an Executive order was issued requiring that these fences be removed. The results of this order have greatly emphasized the necessity for some legislation which will effect a distribution of range land among those having stock on the ranges, so as to secure to them by lease, purchase, or other legal means the possibility of managing their ranges with a view to maintaining their productiveness. The stockmen, who in the absence of legislation had gradually developed a system of range division among themselves, all recognize that this division was a primitive arrangement, devoid of legal status, but made necessary by the exigencies of the business. For the most part they are heartily in favor of legislation which will give stockmen a legal right to protect whatever range may be assigned to each. A few years ago the stockmen were bitterly opposed to any form of legislation for the division of the public domain through leasing or any other system. They felt that if they were deprived of free feed they would be unable to make a living from the range, for they could not afford to lease or purchase the feed. All they wanted was that the range should be " let alone." Now, with the greatly changed conditions caused by overstocking and the taking up of large areas of the best range lands for farming purposes, the more progressive stockmen realize fully that unless some such step is taken the open range will soon be destroyed. Although the majority of the stockmen now favor some form of legislation for the future disposal of that part of the public domain which is suitable for range purposes only, there is still a great diversity of opinion concerning the character of the laws needed. The greater number seem to be in favor of some system of leasing the land in indi- vidual pastures for terms of five to ten years. Nearly all believe that the area of land leased to a given person should be some multiple of the area to which he holds title in the vicinity, but that there should be a maximum limit in order to prevent any one man or company from securing control of too much land. BANGS IMPROVEMENT. So long as it remains public domain, and is consequently free to all without restriction, nothing can be done to improve the range land of the country, for whatever improvement might be effected would almost immediately be destroyed by the stockmen in their eagerness to be the first to profit by it. But when the land is brought under 228 YEAEBOOK Of THE DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTUEE. control by lease, purchase, or other means the problem of handling the range is radically changed and the stockman is on an entirely different footing. Instead of living in uncertainty as to when his ran^e will be a thing of the past, he will know just how much land he can use and depend upon. Then he will not feel that he must graze this land as hard as lie can while he has the opportunity. Instead, he will be in position to protect it and get the greatest amount of good from it from year to year. He will then be able to fence the land and keep off all outside stock, and to regulate the number of his own grazing ther- Many stockmen are firmly convinced that stock can not be run at a profit in pastures that are owned or leased. Numerous citations of large cattle companies that have lost heavily in leasing grazing lands on Indian reservations are made. It is true that many of the cattle .tanies have lost large sums of money in leasing these lands. Careful investigation, however, will usually show some special reasons for such I - First, the majority of these companies were handling a very poor grade of cattle. These yielded so small a margin between the cost of putting them into the pasture and the returns from put- ting them on the market that they could not stand the extra expense incurred in leasing. Then the cattle seemed to be unadapted to such irage conditions. Instead of grazing contentedly in the pastures they spent the greater part of their time wandering along the fences. Another reason for this failure, and a very important one, is that the number of acres allotted to an animal was usually placed too low. and overgrazing resulted. stock companies did not adapt themselves to the changed conditions. While a few men or companies have not mad >f running stock in inclosed areas, a very large number have succeeded. At the present time the most successful stockmen of such States as Texas. California, and Washington, where the free range is almost a tiling of the past, run their stock in pastures. [DANCE 05 OVERGRAZING. In making the change from the open range to the inclosed pastures stockmen must not lose sight of the fact that when they have thus shut out all stray stock they have not changed the carrying capacity of the land in the least. They must therefore be careful not to over- graze the inclosed areas, which is often done from a mistaken idea that the mere fencing of a range increases its carrying capacity. The majority of stockmen using the public domain place a very conserva- tive estimate on its carrying capacity. Yet when they come to inclose an area and pasture it. they are quite inclined to put in more stock than their estimate calls for: consequently their pastures are badly overstocked, and in some instances are actually grazed closer RANGE MANAGEMENT. 229 than the outside range. This means not only that the pasture has been seriously damaged, but that the stock are in poorer condition at the end of the season than if they had run outside. It is safe to say that nine out of ten men changing from the outside range to pastures will overgraze their land the first season. Many of these will change their methods immediately and soon get their pastures on a support- ing basis; others will take two or three years to really learn the true carrying capacity of their pastures; and still others, who can not get out of the rut, will continue to overgraze, with the result that their pastures will continually run down, while their stock grows poorer in quality from year to jTear. RESTING THE LAND. Where an area of land has been very severely overgrazed in the past it will be absolutely necessary that it be very carefully pastured for the first two or three years. The native grasses and forage plants must have a chance to regain their former vigor and to go to seed. A very large number of stockmen advocate resting the land — that is, keeping all stock off for a period of three or four years. That this remedy will bring about the desired results has been definitely proved in numerous instances. In Arizona the Department of Agriculture has a large area of land in the Santa Rita Forest Reserve that is entirely protected from stock. This area contains about 50 square miles, and includes range country that varies from very poor mesa to fairly good moun- tain range. Before it was fenced this area was in a very badly denuded condition. In less than two years, under protection, it has improved wonderfully. A large percentage of the new vegetation is of little value, however, as many of the seeds present were of plants not relished by stock. But the better kinds of grasses scattered among this vegetation are increasing. In the State of Washington experiments and observation of inclosed areas covering a period of five years have shown conclusively that a given range can be very greatly improved and in some cases brought back to its original carrying capacity in from two to five years if it is properly protected. The length of time required for the range to be fully restored depends partly on how complete the overgrazing has been and largely on the amount of rainfall. While resting will bring about the desired results, there are very few men who can afford to allow their land to remain idle for so long a period, as the taxes, interest on the investment, and cost of mainte- nance go on just the same whether the land is in use or not. Resting would in the end be cheaper than to continue overgrazing the land, but it is really not necessary. There is no reason why, by judicious management, the feed on such an area should not be utilized. If such a pasture be grazed very lightly during the early part of the season 230 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. until the grasses can get their growth and go to seed, it will then have a chance to improve, although this improvement may be slight. It would be much better if the pasture could be protected until the grasses have gone to seed and the seed has fallen to the ground. Then the dry feed can be utilized without damage to the range. ALTERNATION OF PASTURES. This improvement can best be accomplished by dividing the pas- ture into a number of smaller ones and alternating the stock from one to another. The number of pastures will depend somewhat on the size of the range and how it is watered. In order to secure the best results there should be not less than three pastures, while four, or even more, would be much better. In all parts of the country the more successful stockmen have a fenced area that they reserve for winter pasture, while those who run their stock entirely on their own land nearly always subdivide to the extent of a summer and a winter pas- ture. It is noticeable that in nearly every instance the winter pasture shows an excellent stand and produces much more feed than the sum- mer pasture. This is solely because the grasses, being grazed only in the winter, have a chance to remain in healthy condition and also to produce a crop of seed with which to supply new plants as the old ones give way. Again, there being a good covering of vegetation, the ground is protected so that the wind and hot sun do not take all the moisture out of the ground. Instead, the moisture is utilized in grow- ing vegetation for feed. In Texas many of the stockmen have found that it pays them to alternate their pastures. Some even assert that' with their pastures in the best of condition they carry more stock on a given area where alternation of pasture is practiced than where one big field is used.a Even in the East, where there is plenty of moisture, alternation of pastures is being more strongly advocated each year, as the farmers, are gradually learning that their pastures can be made to carry more stock by this method. RESEEDING THE WORN-OUT RANGE. The problem of reseeding the range has received much attention from the Department of Agriculture. So far, experiments have shown that in the extremely arid portions of the range country reseeding is impracticable. The only method of restoring such areas is to rest the overgrazed portions. In case such ranges are grazed the year round, alternation of pastures is the only solution that can be offered at the present time. Fortunately, on account of the scarcity of water, the great majority of these areas are used only for winter pastures. In a Bui. 10, Division of Agrostology. U. S. Dept. Agr.. p. 22. 1899. EANGE MANAGEMENT. 231 this way these areas have a chance to make a good growth and to go to seed during the summer season. Thus they have ample oppor- tunity to restore themselves in case they are not overgrazed. In the semiarid regions, such as the bunch-grass hills of Washing- ton, Oregon, and Idaho, and the grama-grass regions of Montana, the Dakotas, and Wyoming, alternation of pastures will be equally useful. Ordinarily, unless the overgrazing has been very severe, the restora- tion process will not take many years, in some instances only four or five. If, however, the overgrazing has been complete enough to practically destroy all the native plants and has been so long in dura- tion that no seed is left in the ground, the process will be very slow mdeed, for there is nothing left on which to base improvement. Under such conditions weeds of almost no forage value are very likely to take the place of the valuable forage plants that have been de- stroyed. In order to prevent this, it might be feasible in some locali- ties to gather seed of these native grasses and scatter it on the over- grazed portions. In the State of Washington, farmers have taken seed of the tall lime-grass (Ely m us condensatus) , called rye-grass by stock- men, and sown it on areas where it formerly grew. Instances are known where these men are now cutting lime-grass hay from these same areas. Experiments carried on b}T the Washington Agricultural College in cooperation with the Bureau of Plant Industry have shown that this could probably be done in favorable seasons with bunch-grass. In the Dakotas and eastern Montana it is quite noticeable that wherever a part of the prairie land is plowed up and then allowed to revert it will in time be covered with wheat-grass (Agropyron occidentale) . If it is plowed and nothing else is done the wheat-grass will take possession of the area very quickly. This and the rapidity with which this grass works into overgrazed places that are rested a little show very plainly that the overgrazed areas where it grows naturally can be easily re- stored by reseeding with this grass. Whether the grama grasses of these regions could be restored by this process is not known. Many of the leading stockmen are inclined to believe that they could, but think it would be a difficult matter to procure the seed. RESEEDING IX THE MOUNTAIN AREAS. In the mountain areas, where the rainfall is much greater, the problem of restoring the range is not nearly so difficult. Where the devastation has not been too complete the range will soon restore itself if protected. On those areas where overgrazing has left the range in a denuded condition the restoration will take a number of years. It can, however, usually be greatly hastened b}~ reseeding with some of the cultivated grasses. Experiments carried on during the past four years in the mountain areas of Washington have thor- oughly demonstrated that timothy can be used to excellent advantage 232 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in the mountain meadows and in the parks of that State where the original vegetation has been destroyed by sheep. This grass proved to be the best of a number used in reseeding the devastated mountain meadows (1) because it made the best growth and stood pasturage well, and (2) because it was the cheapest and easiest to start. According to these experiments, the cost of reseeding land is from 60 cents to $1 an acre, depending on the amount of seed used and on the cost of getting it into the mountains. Eight pounds of seed per acre ought to give a stand that if cut for hay would yield approx- imately three-fourths of a ton of hay per acre. That would mean that it would yield nearly enough forage the second season after it was sown to pay for the reseeding. If the seed were sown in the autumn before snow falls it would need no further treatment, but if sown in the spring it should be harrowed in, which would greatly increase the cost. These experiments have also proved that orchard grass and tall fescue would do well on those areas that arc a little too dry for the successful growth of timothy, and that Bromus inermis will be of very great value in range improvement along the drier edges of the meadows and parks, provided the seed can be secured at a price that does not make it prohibitive. Redtop has given good results, but it has been very slow in establishing itself. It made almost no showing until the third }Tear, but by the fourth season it had attained an excellent stand and was beginning to crowd out the native vegetation growing in the meadow with it. It will furnish a large amount of excellent feed in the mountain meadows. In the Sierra Nevadas of California redtop and timothy have shown themselves to be of great value in reseeding along the edges of the worn-out and badly overgrazed meadows, provided they are not sown on those areas where there is standing water throughout the greater part of the year. Redtop seems to do especially well in the mountain areas. Judging from the results of experiments, when once introduced it will spread over a great part of the meadow and will form a dense sod that will in time crowd out other vegetation. Orchard grass also grows very well in meadows, and also will appar- ently do well on some of the drier hillsides where there is not enough moisture for timothy or redtop. In fact, one of the rangers of the Sierra Forest Reserve has succeeded in growing a fair crop of orchard- grass hay for his saddle horses just on the lower edge of the timber belt, where the land has been cleared of chaparral and the conditions are quite arid. CONSERVATION OF WATER. The water problem is of extreme importance in range improve- ment, for without plenty of good water stock can not be expected to make good gains. When the land is once brought under control the RANGE MANAGEMENT. 233 stockmen can afford to go to considerable expense to secure plenty of water. In many instances, as in parts of Montana, Wyoming, and the Dakotas, large reservoirs, or "water holes," can be made, which, with the local showers during summer, will insure plenty of water throughout the year. In other sections, as in the sandhills of Nebraska or in southern California, the water can be easily obtained by means of wells and storage tanks, the water being pumped by windmills or gasoline engines. In many sections of the countiy, as in Washington, Oregon, and Nevada, there are numerous springs which formerly watered a large number of cattle, but which have gone dry through the incessant tramping of stock about them. If these springs were dug out and fenced and the water conducted to troughs they could again be made to furnish an abundance of water for a considerable number of stock. The water thus stored in troughs will be kept clean for the stock and none of it need be wasted through seepage. In Nevada the digging out and protection of the springs is considered to be of the greatest importance." Every opportunity should be taken to increase the number of watering places, so that the stock using them would need to travel 011I3* comparatively short distances. In this way the range can be improved greatly, as the stock will not need to tramp over so much ground in traveling from the grass to the water and back. It will also be beneficial to the stock themselves, as the time spent now in traveling for water can be spent in resting or in feeding, and thus in making larger gains. rREMATURE CRAZING TO BE AVOIDED. One of the great dangers in handling range stock is the tendency of many of the stockmen to put their stock out on the range just as soon as the grass begins to start in the spring and before the ground is thoroughly settled. The vegetation, being nipped off before it gets a fair start, or, as the stockmen say, "gets strong," is greatly retarded in its growth and does not produce as much feed that season as it would if it had a better chance. Where the soil is clayey the damage caused by the premature grazing is greatly increased by the tramping of the stock, which tends to pack it into a hard layer that is impenetrable to plant roots. This packing of the soil has been one of the greatest factors in the destruction of the feed in many mountain meadows. RAISING WINTER FEED. In order to obtain the greatest returns from his land, the stockman of the future will need to grow enough feed to carry his stock through the winter without danger of loss and to keep them in good growing a Bui. 55, Nevada Agr. Exp. Sta. , pp. 14 and 26. 234 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. condition. With the extra cost of running his stock in pastures he must keep them constantly gaining, or they will prove a loss. If he can not get water for irrigation either from some stream or through storage reservoirs, such as are common in the Dakotas, that will catch enough surface water to insure sufficient pasture, he will need to grow grain hay. Of the different cereals that can be used for hsij, rye will prob- ably prove to be the surest to }Tield a good crop over the greatest area of country. It will stand the hard winters of the North as well as any of the other cereals and requires the least moisture of any of them to mature a crop of ha}". It can also be made to yield a fair crop with as little effort as any of the other cereals, and can thus be grown at the least cost. Many of the stockmen are greatly prejudiced against this plant as forage. This is probably very largely due to the fact that they have allowed it to get too ripe before cutting. If cut when just in the milk it makes excellent hay with which to winter stock. Beardless barley is another excellent crop to grow for grain hay. It produces a better quality of feed than rye and in some localities is preferred to any of the cultivated grasses for feed. It probably could not be depended on to produce as large a yield as rye, nor is it so certain a crop. In some sections of the coun- try, as in the Dakotas, durum wheat will produce a considerable amount of forage in the more favorable years. In other sections many of the farmers seem to be well pleased with spelt. These last two plants are not so desirable for stock as some others on account of their heavy beards. These beards will often cause sore mouths, especially when fed to horses, and will also cause losses among sheep. In the more favorable localities wheat, barley, and oats can be grown. In the Dakotas and eastern Montana a number of stockmen raise corn for forage and find this to be exceedingly profitable. These men are thoroughly convinced that by feeding corn fodder to their calves and yearlings they get enough better gains to pay them well for their extra work. It is noticeable that the men who are doing this are topping the markets with grass-fed cattle from their sections. This they ascribe largely to the fact that they get better gains on their young stock. In most instances these men are really raising a better grade of cattle than their neighbors, which must also be taken into consideration. Where a little water can be stored for irrigation, brome-grass (Bromus inermis) produces a fair crop of hay and is becoming quite popular. This is especially true of the western half of the Dakotas. It is quite probable that with the same amount of water alfalfa would give a larger yield. Alfalfa will grow on much drier land than is often supposed. In many parts of the West the stockmen have RANGE MANAGEMENT. 235 been trying to start this plant. Some succeed, while others fail. A large number get very poor results, as their alfalfa seems to 'winter- kill" badly. Experiments that are being carried on at the substation at Dickinson. X. Dak., appear to indicate that much of the winter- killing is due to a lack of nitrogen-gathering bacteria, which are essential for the successful growth of alfalfa." Alfalfa is really worth a considerable effort in order to get it started. In case of failure it should be tried again on a small scale until it has been determined whether it can be made to succeed. AREA OF LAND NEEDED. The area of land required to justify- engaging in the stock business, without other source of revenue, varies greatly in different sections. In the northern range States, where stock must be fed for a period of three or four months during the winter season, and where the rain- fall is fairly abundant. 2.500 to 4.000 acres of land would ordinarily be needed to make a fair living for a family. If the settler were for- tunate in selecting a range that had not been very much overgrazed and on which there was very little waste land, he might be able to get along with only 2,000 acres. Such areas will, however, be diffi- cult to find. In the more southern range States, where the rainfall is much less and not so well distributed throughout the season, the number of acres required for an animal will be much greater. Here the area required to support a family will vary from 10.000 acres in the better sections to 25,000, and in some cases as much as 40,000 acres are required. IMPROVING THE GRADE OF STOCK. Improvement of the class of stock using the grazing lands is becom- ing constantly more important. In the old days, when there was plentv of free range, almost any kind of animal could be sold at a profit. Under the present crowded conditions the cost of mainte- nance is much higher, and the poor-grade animal, or "scrub," will no longer yield satisfactory returns. The man who is running his stock in inclosed areas or contemplates so doino- in the future will find it necessarv. if he is to be successful, to carry that class of stock that will net him the greatest returns. This statement holds equally true for the outside range. In fact, there are only two methods whereby the man who expects to con- tinue running his stock on the public domain can meet the existing conditions successfully. One is the raising of sufficient feed to carry his stock through the winter safely: the other, to run a grade of stock that shall make the largest possible returns in the shortest time. a For information ns of juice, using i hine of the ic&y indicated and a jui ining sedun* .ch quantity that a run of that amount would fill the space between the disks and the sides of the bowl with sediment, requires about one hour and a qua irough the bowl twice. THE STEELLIZATIOX OF THE JV. - soon as the juice is clarified ized in closed containers. The points which have been carefully med in this work have been the lowest safe temperature and the shortest pe: mating for bottles and for cans. If the not to be packed and shipped, fruit jar dth patent stoppers, may be employed, but to -tand shipping well, sealed cans ;st be used. i>: bott: In the work with bottles, quart 1 - of the champagne type were These were filled with clarifh some air space being left •low for expansion of the liquid on heating. The bottles were ed upright and entirely submerged in water in a tank which could be heated by a jet of steam. it fifteen minutes were required to bring the water in the tank up to the tern} - em- •d in the sever . - >f experiments, nam :. 140' . F. 60° i . . -rift . the tank from twenty-fr - were required for the con- tents of the e begin:.: a imt tim - — fifteen minui lemperatu:-?. and fifteen minutes holding at this temperature for the juice in the bottle to in the bath temperature. The bottles were withdrawn at inter- and set away on their sides in baskets, being kept in a warm room whose temperature was quite c day and night, between 3 were agitated and notes taken on them from day to day. e results show that a temperature of 149° F. 5° C. for one hour jive good results and that 158° F. 7 for one-half hour also gives good results. Only a ver. cooked given to the juice b; 15S° for one hour — slightly than is given by heating . . for the same pei PREPARATION OF EXFEEriEXTED APPLE JUICE. 243 STERILIZING IX CANS. One-gallon packers' cans were employed. These were first care- fully rinsed with water, filled, sealed (rosin dissolved in alcohol being used as flux), and then heated in the same manner as the bottles. The juices employed were thoroughly typical and were clarified by passing twice through the separator. A full half hour was found by a careful test to be necessary for heating the contents of the can up to the bath when the water in the bath was cold to start with, and this period was only slightly shortened when the bath was hot at the time the cans were placed in it. Unfortunately, the periods of heating were not short enough nor the temperatures used low enough to indicate unsafe conditions, since none of the cans spoiled; but proper treatment was found to be very readily given at low temperatures and for brief periods. It was expected that the cans which were only heated up to 140° F. (65° C.) in the hot water and then removed would surely spoil. These cans remained sound, however, and thus the period of heating indicated as sufficient for canning is unexpectedly short. When the cans were removed, they were cooled over night and allowed to stand in the same room as that hi which the bottles were held. Owing to the large bulk of jniee in the cans of the size employed (1 gallon), it is evident that the juice was maintained at a sterilizing temperature longer than if bottles or small-sized cans had been used. This fact must be kept in mind if the results here obtained are applied to other sizes than gallon cans. THE CAEBOXATIOX OF TTIE JI'ICE. In addition to experimental work on clarifying and on heating the juice, investigations were made on carbonating it with a view to dis- guising the slight cooked taste which it is impossible entirely to avoid. Carbonating also increases the palatability of the juice hi the opinion of many persons. The method used consisted in carbonating the juice under slight pressure and then heating in bottles or cans, and no difficulty was encountered. In the simple experiments devised and carried on in connection with this work, the carbon dioxid (car- bonic-acid gas) was secured from a firm handling soda-water sup- plies. It was obtained in liquid form in a steel cylinder furnished with a reduction valve and a gauge and delivery tube, so as to deliver at pressures up to 30 pounds. After clarification, the juice was carbonated by pouring it into a clean keg and running in the gas up to a pressure of 15 pounds. The keg was provided with a thick pine bung, through the middle of which was bored a half-inch hole, which received the rubber delivery tube from the cylinder of compressed gas. The bung was soaked in 244 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. bt for a few niinutes before use. so that it could be driven in to make a tight joint, and was so fitted that it projected beyond the surface of the keg and could be readily loosened when carbonation nnished. About 12 gallons of juice were poured into the keg. Carbon dioxid was admitted before driving the bung in air-tight in order to expel the air which fills the space in the keg not occupied bv the juice. The bung was then driven in by tapping with a ham- mer and more gas admitted. The keg was vigorously rocked so as to thoroughly agitate the juice and so accelerate the absorption of the The gauge was watched, and in these experiments the pressure was not allowed to go beyond 15 pounds per square inch. The juice used in the carbonating work was quite cool, ranging from 4S° to 6S° F. _ ' in the different experiments. As the carbonating of liquids is apparently well understood, no attempts were made to cor- relate the pressure, temperature, and amount of gas which could be ived in the juice. In these experiments the juice was carbon- ated at a pressure not exceeding 15 pounds until a sample was drawn ing distinctly of the gas, this being the amount of carbonation . ed. Working under these conditions in the different trials, from fifteen minutes to one-half hour was required to carbonate 12 gallons of juice. The stream of gas was then stopped, the bung cautiously I ->ned, the contents of the keg poured out, and the juice bottled or canned. The gas remains for some time in the juice when under atmos- pheric pressure and only gradually diminishes in quantity, so that t haste in sealing the juice is not necessary. If the carbonated juice is to be sterilized in cans they must be heated in stout frames to prevent distortion of the can while hot and consequent bursting. The finished canned product bulg - the ends of the cans to some :: :it, but not enough to cause permanent bending. The juice must d I be too highly charged with the gas nor removed from the frames while still hot, or such bending, with consequent weakening of the soldered joints and bursting of the can, may occur. THE BEST CONTAINERS FOB STERILIZED JUICE. In the work with juice treated as above described, bottles and cans have been used as containers. The other containers which might have been tried were barrels or kegs, and jugs. Owing to the great liability to leakage and consequent infection of juice when treated in barrels and kegs, these containers are considered impracticable when the juice is to be kept indefinitely. Jugs are considered to be cumbersome and at the same time too fragile to be handled lily in comparison with cans. PKEPARATION OF TJNFERMENTED APPLE JUICE. 245 & l equaled, and subse- quently another decline occurred, bringing the exports of bacon and hams from the United States to Germany d >wn to less than 10.000.000 pounds in the fiscal year 1905, and only 1.">.m>0,000 pounds in 1906, notwithstanding the increased shipments that took place during the early part of the year to avoid the anticipated increase in duties that took place on March 1. In the case of France, the highest point reached by the bacon and ham shipments from the United States after 1881 was in the year FOREIGN RESTRICTIONS OX AMERICAN MEAT. 251 ending June 30, 1900, when the exports amounted to 14.000,000 pounds, valued at about si. 000. 000. only about one-fifth of the mag- nitude of the trade before the prohibition went into effect. Moreover, by a considerable drop since 1900, the shipments in the fiscal year 1906 fell to 133.000 pound.-, valued at $13,000. The effect of the pork restrictions is clearly seen in figure 5, PROHIBITIONS AFFECTIXG CATTLE AXD BEEF. The second period of special prohibitions against American products began in 1894. In the latter part of that year various German States issued decrees prohibiting the importation of cattle and fresh beef from '•America." Denmark, which since 1879 had excluded cattle from the United States, published a similar order: and Belgium pro- hibited the importation of United States cattle. Early the following year France likewise prohibited the importation of cattle from the United States. The cause assigned by Germany was the prevalence of Texas fever in this country. Belgium explained its prohibition by the need of preventing the introduction of contagions pler.ro-pneu- monia. while France attributed its action to the presence of diseases not existing in France. The magnitude of the trade thus destroyed is indicated by the fact that the exports of cattle from the United States to Germany. Belgium, and France in the year ending June 30, 1895, during part of which the trade was prohibited, were valued at $i.soo,ooo/ The exclusion of United States cattle from Belgium was of com- paratively short duration. The prohibition was withdrawn May 25, '. but the immediate slaughter of cattle imported from trans- Atlantic countries was required. In June. 1899, Germany prohibited the importation of fresh beef from Belgium.0 The prohibitions of Germany, Denmark, and France are still in force, and in the case of Germany and Denmark cover fresh beef as well as live cattle. EESTRICTIVE AXD PROHLBITOEY EXACTMEXTS OF VARIOUS COUXTRIES. The various countries which have raised special requirements for the admission of live stock and meat haA-e brought about this result in widely different ways. While it is important to bear hi mind the two special cycles of restriction — the first affecting pork products, the second cattle — to which attention has already been directed, it is necessary to describe separately the measures adopted by each of the principal countries. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY'.- FAR-RE ACHING RESTRICTIONS. f p to the close of 1905, the great bulk of the live stock imported into Austria-Hungary came from Servia and was entered at reduced rates of duty under a treaty which terminated February, 1906. a Foreign Relations, 1900. pp. 493-195. 2-52 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPAETMEXT OF AGRICULTV Failure of ne_ new treaty was followed by restrictions and even prohibitions that practically cut off the importation of Ser- vian live stock. In July. 1906, foreign supplies were further reduced by decrees pro- hibiting in general the importation of animals and meat from coun- tries outside of Europe, except in special cases with the permission of the minister of the interior. This restriction affects the United States, except as to swine, pork, bacon, and sa _ - hen accom- panied by a certificate of the United States Department of Agri- culture attesting their microscopic inspection in this country. IMMEDIATE SLAUGH: .TTLE IX BELGIUM. No direct prohibition of the importation of live stock or m from the United States into Belgium is at present in force. The conditions to which the importation of live animals into Belgium from countries across the sea are subjected require their entry at Antwerp. Ghent, or Ostend. and their slaughter in the public abattoirs of those cities within three days. GENERAL 7-1 LUSEOH BY DENMARK. The law of Denmark is very strict in regard to the animals and animal products admitted from non-Scandinavian countries. All animals imported from Sweden and Norway, and horses imported also from other countries, are subjected inert ly to sanitary inspec- tion at the expense of the consignee. Ruminants and swine from the United Kingdom and Finland are liable to "limited prohibition." which covers the importation of animals of the kind; casings, unless air-dried and salted, horns and hoofs, unwashed wool, milk, hay and straw, and manure. From all other countries the s - general prohibition" of ruminants and swine, together with fresh meat and all raw products of those animals, is in force. In consequence the imports into Denmark from the United States do not include any live meat ani:. _■ the packing-house product- nly meat (other than fresh . lard, tallow and - and oleomargarin and oleo oil. Pork and swine products not pre- pared, including bladders and unrefh. an lard, may be imp' from the United States if accompanied by an ofrL ncate of inspection. - The important restrictions on United States products are 1 1 the prohibition of cattle sine- " _' the requirement for salted, smoked, or pickled pork of a United Stat - certificate of inspection, entry at one of six ports, and on arrival reinspection at the cost of the con- signee: (3) the inspection of sausages from the United States, for FOREIGN RESTRICTIONS OX AMERICAN MEAT. 253 which, however, no fee is charged. These special restrictions, together with discriminating tariff rates, have placed the United States at a great disadvantage as compared with its competitors. In 1904 less than 10 per cent of the live animals and packing-house products imported into France came from the United States. The official export statistics of this country show a decline during the decade from 1895 to 1905 in the exports of packing-house products to France from §4,700,000 to §1,500,000. In other words, this line of trade is in value less than one-third of its magnitude ten years ago. MEAT PROHIBITIONS OF GERMANY. Largely because of the constantly increasing sales of American lard in Germany, the exports of American packing-house products to that country show a continuous increase since 1SS5. In that year $5,700,000 worth of these products was shipped to Germany; in 1895, $13,800,000 worth; in 1905, $21,900,000. Lard alone, however, consti- tutes over two-thirds of the aggregate value of this trade and accounts for over 810,000,000 of the total increase of 816,000,000 in the twenty years. It must be borne in mind, moreover, that the low figure in 1885 was reached while the prohibition against pork was in full force, and the subsequent increase is undoubtedly due in part to the with- drawal of that prohibition in 1891. The importation of cattle into Germany has been totally prohibited since 1894, while the importa- tion of other kinds of meat animals is subject to four weeks' quaran- tine, together with subsequent supervision on the part of the Govern- ment for five months, if not slaughtered. Xo meat animals whatever have reached Germany from the U/nited States since 1900, and only ten during the preceding six years. The restrictions upon the importation of meat are much more important than those affecting the importation of animals. A general prohibition is in force since the passage of the meat inspection law of 1900 in regard to the importation of canned meat and sausages from all countries. Dog meat and prepared horse meat are entirely excluded, while fresh horse meat may be imported only when clearly marked "Pferdefleisch" (horse flesh). While these provisions apply to all countries, the prohibition of canned meat and sausages affects particularly imports from the United States. In 1900, prior to October 1, when these prohibitions went into effect, the United States alone furnished nearly 81,600,000 worth of these products out of a total of only $2,200,000. Other restrictions affect only meat imported from the United States. In addition to the total exclusion of fresh beef from America since 1894, the importation of pork of all kinds is permitted only on presentation of a certificate of inspection. 25-1 YEARBOOK OP THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ITALT AI :.ICAX FORS AND LARD. The ministerial decree of March 31. etermines the treatment to be accorded to imports of foreign animals and animal products. The entry of cattle and sheep from South Africa. Australia, and cer- tain European countries is prohibited, but not from Argentina or the United States. Swine from the United States. Turkey. Cyprus, Egypt, Aa-Herzegovina. Crete, and Denmark are prohibited, but salted cured pork, while excluded generally. tedfrom United States and from specified European countries when accompanied by official certificates. In all ■ a arrival in Italy imports must undergo inspection, and, with the exception of lard from the United S tes and certain European countries, they must be accompanied by an official certificate. PROHIBITION" . HE N'ETH: Meat animals from France. - : m Belgium, and cattle and sheep fr< i /.any. may be imported for bree purposes if accompanied by a certificate of health: otherwise such animals must under _ .-in twenty-four hours if imported France or Belgium, and within foi hours if from Ger- No : .imais may be imported from any other country unless under special ministerial permit. The importation of meat into the Netherlands is nominally pro- hibited, but if shown not to be injurious in character it may be im- ported under special dispensation of the authorities in the different provinces. Apparently meat and other animal products enter the Netherlands freely and no doubt this form of regulation was adopted merely to retain full coni or the character of imports. NORWAY Only two lines of trade in live meat animals are unimpeded: (1) The importation of reindeer, and (2) the shipment of all meat animals from the Arctic Sea ports of Eu- rinmarken, the extreme northern province of Norway, from which province animals will at received into other parts of the Kingdom. From Sweden rumin maybe imported under numerous restrictions: from other countries neither ruminants nor swine are admitted.. The im - alted or prepared, and of unren- dered ta rohibited from A Italy. Greece. Turkey. Russia (except the Arctic ports when destined to Finmarken . and all : European countries. Raw animal products, except hides and skins from Sweden, are generally prohibited. FOREIGN RESTRICTIONS OX AMERICAN MEAT. 255 RUSSIA PROHIBITS FORK. Russia is essentially an agricultural country, and exports much. larger quantities of animals and animal products than it imports. Since 1873 all lands of pork products intended for food have been prohibited, with the exception of rendered lard. Under special per- mission of the minister of agriculture and domains, samples of foreign hog products are admitted when necessary to enable Russian export- ers to compete. The ministry of the interior is authorized to prohibit the importation of live swine whenever it seems necessary. FEW RESTRICTIONS IX SPAIN". The prohibitions of Spain affecting meat animals and meat are few in number. From the United States unrendered lard alone is prohib- ited, and from Algeria the importation of swine and sausages is like- wise prohibited. Pork imported from the United States with an offi- cial certificate of inspection is admitted into Spain without any further microscopic examination. SWEDEN" EXCLUDES AMERICAN" SWINE PRODUCTS. In Sweden animals and raw animal products from a place infected with foot-and-mouth disease or rinderpest are entirely prohibited, as well as such imports if in transit they have touched or passed through infected places. In the case of ruminants imported from places infected with other contagious diseases, a consular certificate and a veterinary certificate are required, and on arrival at a Swedish port the animals must be reinspectcd and quarantined for periods varying from 10 to 120 days. These restrictions are not enforced against the United States, because this country has not been declared by the Swedish Government to be infected with any of the diseases named. Swine and swine products from the United States are, however, subjected to stringent restrictions, owing to the fact that the govern- ment of Sweden has declared the United States, as well as Victoria and the principal countries of Europe, to be infected with hog cholera. Live swine may be imported only if accompanied by a veterinary certificate viseed by a Swedish consul, stating that before sailing all animals on board have been inspected and found free from disease, and on arrival must be reinspected and quarantined for 60 days. Slaughtered swine and all swine products are also prohibited, with the exception of lard and well-salted pork, including bacon. SWITZERLAND REQUIRES IMMEDIATE SLAUGHTER. The situation of Switzerland, with no seaport, renders impossible direct importation from any countries except France, Germany, Aus- tria, and Italy. Its restrictions and prohibitions are consequently directed primarily to animals coming from any of these countries. 256 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Immediate slaughter, within periods varying to some extent in the different Cantons, is required. In all cases the animals and meat imported undergo inspection. GREAT BRITAIN OFFERS AX OPEX MARKET. Since June 3, 1898, the importation of swine from the United States into Great Britain has been prohibited, but no exclusion of other meat animals has been enforced, except during the period from December 1, 1902, to September 28, 1903, when the importation of such animals from the New England States was temporarily suspended. Strong efforts have been made by this Government to have revoked the requirement that cattle shall be slaughtered at the port of entry within ten days after landing. While this restriction entirely pre- vents the importation of cattle for fattening, and undoubtedly pre- vents the realization of the best prices for the animals imported, it offers no discrimination against the United States as compared with any other foreign country or any British colony. The United States now furnishes 74 per cent of the total value of live meat animals imported into the United Kingdom; ten years ago it contributed only 63 per cent. The change is due largely to the prohibition of live animals from Argentina and Uruguay since 1900, except for the period from February 3 to May 12. 1903, when the British market was reopened to La Plate cattle. Xo restrictive measures affect the importation of meat, and Argentina and Uruguay now furnish large quantities of frozen beef and mutton for British consumption. The fresh beef alone imported into the United King- dom from Argentina in 1904 was valued at nearly twice as high a figure as the cattle imported in any year before the restrictions of 1900 went into effect. The continued large shipments of cattle from the United States is a striking feature of the trade between these two countries. During the ten years ending 1904 such shipments increased in quantity 32 per cent, while the imports of fresh beef from the United States increased 45 per cent. The continued importation of live cattle in such large numbers, notwithstanding the great improvement that has taken place in refrigeration and the enormous packing-house industry of the United States, is probably due mainly to the strong preference of the British consumer for domestic meat. If home-grown meat can not be obtained, home-killed meat is preferred to foreign-killed, and this preference is doubtless rendered more possible of realization, owing to the stringent laws prohibiting the sale of food products under any misleading designation. A number of prosecutions have taken place on account of the sale of foreign for domestic bacon. The importation of meat animals into Ireland from foreign coun- tries or British possessions is prohibited. FOREIGN RESTRICTIONS ON AMERICAN MEAT. 257 FEW RESTRICTIONS IMPOSED BY XOXEUROPEAN COUNTRIES. Outside of Europe, the most important exports of live stock and packing-house products from the United States take place to Cuba, Canada, Mexico, and the British West Indies. During the fiscal year 1905 large shipments of canned beef were recorded to Japan, but with the cessation of the war in the Far East a considerable decline occurred in 1906. Of the American markets named, Canada alone restricts seriously the imports from the United States by requiring, since December 31, 1905, the quarantine of all swine for thirty da}^s, thus cutting off the entry of United States hogs for slaughter." Cuba not only offers no impediments to the importation of liye stock and packing-house products from the United States, but by special reduction in tariff offers United States animals and products a considerable advantage over those from other countries. This advantage amounts to 33 cents per 100 pounds on salted or pickled pork and lard and to 65 cents per 100 pounds on hams and shoulders. SUMMARY OF PROHIBITIONS NOW IN FORCE. At the present time the importation of live meat animals from the United States is prohibited by Denmark, the Netherlands, Nor- way, and Ireland. Moreover, Austria-Hungary, France, and Ger- many exclude cattle, Italy and Great Britain swine, and Austria- Hungary sheep and goats, when imported from the United States. The only European countries to which live stock are shipped from the United States in any considerable number are Great Britain and Belgium. The importation from the United States of all meat, except pork and sausages, is prohibited by Austria-Hungary. Pork is excluded from Russia. Norway prohibits the importation of all fresh meal from the United States; fresh pork is excluded from Sweden and other fresh meat from Denmark; while Germany excludes American fresh beef. Canned meat, sausages, cured horse meat, and dog meat are prohibited by Germany, while Belgium also refuses to admit cured horse meat. SPECIAL REGULATIONS. In addition to orders which absolutely prohibit the importation of live stock and meat from the United States, many countries restrict in various ways these lines of trade. In regard to the trade in live animals, enforced quarantine is required in some cases, while in others the contrary policy of enforced slaughter is observed. The former imposes a considerable expense ee Monthly Cons. Repts., Jan., 190G, p. 166; also Report of Canadian Min. of Agr.. 1906, p. xli. 3 A1906 17 25S YEABBOOK OF THE DEFABTXTEXT OF AGBICULTTJEE. on the importer, while the latter, by limiting the opportunity for sale and in some cases preventing the animals from fully recovering from the exhaustion of the sea voyage, operates clis advantageously upon the price realized. Restrictions affecting both live-stock and meat imports are the requirement of a certificate, inspection on arrival, and the limitation of the ports at which such imports are admitted. If fresh meat is imported, some countries require that the whole carcass be presented. A few countries specify the preservatives that may be used. QUARANTINE RESTRICTIONS. Live stock from the United States is subject to quarantine in Sweden. Germany. Spain, and Canada. Swine imported into Sweden from all countries except Finland and Xorway must undergo quar- antine for sixty days: Germany requires the detention of swine, sheep, and goats from America for a period of four weeks: Spain requires a quarantine of ten days before animals are admitted; Canada isolates all swine for thirty days. IMMEDIATE SLAUGHTER REQUIRED. On the other hand, the United Kingdom. Belgium, and the Neth- erlands aim to prevent any possible danger to domestic animals bv requiring the immediate slaughter of the live stock imported. The United Kingdom, since ISTO.has required that cattle, sheep, and swine imported from the United States shall be slaughtered at the port at which they are landed. This requirement is now general in its application, and meat animals, no matter from what country imported, must be slaughtered within ten days from their arrival without coming in contact with any British animals. Belgium requires the slaughter of all animals imported from across the sea within three days. The Netherlands imposes the requirement of slaughter within twentv-four or fortv-eight hours in the case of such animals as are admitted, but live meat animals from the United States are totally excluded. PRESENTATION OF CERTIFICATES. The presentation of a health certificate is a prerequisite to the admission of live stock into Austria. France. Italy, the Netherlands, Mexico, and Cuba, while Mexico also requires a health certificate in the case of fresh meat imported, and Austria and Italy in the case of all kinds of meat. Sweden requires a certificate only when the animals are imported from countries infected with contagious dis- eases, in order to ascertain that the animals imported have not been directly exposed to contagion. Canada requires the presen- tation of a health certificate in the case of swine. FOREIGX RESTRICTIONS OX AMERICAN MEAT. 259 In some special cases the admission of swine and swine products from the United States is made dependent on the presentation of an official certificate from the Department of Agriculture. Austria requires such a certificate on the importation of swine, pork (includ- ing bacon), and sausage; France in the case of cured pork; Denmark in the case of fresh pork, bladders, and unpurified steam lard, and Spain and Germany in the case of all kinds of pork. INSPECTION OX ARRIVAL. Inspection of imported live animals is generally required. France and Mexico, moreover, require the inspection of all fresh meat im- ported; Germany, Switzerland, and Belgium the inspection of all kinds of meat, and Italy the inspection of all animal products. France provides especially for the inspection of cured pork and sausages from the United States, notwithstanding the fact that the first of these products must in all cases be accompanied by a United States certificate of inspection. On the importation of cattle, with the exception of those for immediate slaughter, the tuberculin test is required by France and Denmark. FEES IMPOSED. In most cases fees a are charged for inspection, which constitute a very considerable factor in raising the price at which the product may be sold. These fees differ widely in amount. In addition to the ordinary fees, a special charge is imposed in Germany for an exam- ination to discover the presence of trichime, to determine whether a shipment is horse meat, or to ascertain the presence of forbidden preservatives. The inspection required by France on salt pork when imported from the United States, but not from other countries, entails a charge of 13 cents per 100 pounds. For the special inspec- tion required in the case of sausages from the United States, however, no fee is charged. PORTS OF EXTRY LIMITED. European countries in most cases restrict the importation of live stock, and in some cases also the importation of meat to certain ports in order apparently to facilitate inspection. This requirement is general in its application by the United Kingdom, Denmark, Swe- den, Germany, and Spain. Belgium, however, limits more strictly the importation from trans-Atlantic countries than from European a Fee for imported cattle, per head (cents): Belgium, 19 to 39; France, 10 to 29; Italy, 39. For imported meat, per 100 pounds (cents): Belgium, 2; France, 9; Italy. IS. In Germany ices on live stock are of local or State origin, and differ widely. For fresh meat, per carcass (cents): Cattle, 3G; calf. 12; swine. 14; sheep or goat, 10. For prepared meat, per 100 pounds i cents): Sausage casings, 5; bacon, 11; other, 22. These rates superseded on February 15, 1907, the higher rates previously in force. 260 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. countries. France restricts the importation of cured pork from the United States (which alone is compelled to undergo inspection on arrival) to six ports — Dunkirk. Havre. Bordeaux, Marseille. Boulogne, and Dieppe. A larger number of ports are specified for the importa- tion of cattle which must be subjected to the tuberculin test, w other animals may be entered at a still larger number of custom- houses. CARCASSES OR SPECIFIED CUTS. Belgium. Franco, and Germany prescribe minutely the form in which fresh meat may be imported. In Belgium such meat may be imported only as whole carcasses, halves, or forequarters with the lungs attached. As to horses and other solipeds, all the breathing organs, including the head, must be present. France requires in the case of fresh beef and pork that the whole animal be presented. For convenience of shipping, the carcass may be halved or quartered, but in these cases the parts must fit exactly and the lungs must adhere naturally. Internal organs must show no trace of scraping or scratch- ing. Choice cuts of beef, such as the tenderloin or sirloin, may be admitted separately. Fresh mutton may be imported only in quar- ters, the pluck adhering to one of the forequarters. Germany requires that fresh meat of all kinds shall be imported only in whole carcasses, but carcasses of cattle (with the exception of calves) and of swine may be cut into halves. The pleura and the peritoneum, the lungs, the heart, the kidneys, and in case of cows the udder, also must be attached to the carcass in natural connection. The importation of salted meat in pieces weighing less than 9 pounds (4 kilograms) is prohibited, but this requirement does not apply to hams, bacon, and sausage casings. RESTRICTIONS OX THE USE OF PRESERVATIVES. In the United States, under the meat-inspection law approved June 30. 1906, the use of drugs, chemical-, dye-, ami preservatives is restricted much more stringently than in most foreign countries. The regulations issued by the Department of Agriculture under that law prohibit entirely in the preparation of meat products the use of any drug, chemical, or dye, and of any preservative other than com- mon salt, sugar, wood smoke, vinegar, pure spices, and temporarily saltpeter. The requirement in regard to the use of drugs, chemicals, and dyes affects export products equally with those intended for domestic consumption. In regard to preservatives, a slightly wider range is permitted in the preparation of products for export to countries in which the requirements are less strict than those in force here. To this end the law of June 30, 1906, provides — That, subject to the rules and regulation; of the Secretary of Agriculture, the pro- visions hereof in regard to preservatives shall not apply to meat food products lor ■ : FOREIGN RESTRICTIONS ON AMERICAN MEAT. 261 to any foreign country and which arc prepared or packed according to the specifi- cations or directions of the foreign purchaser, when no substance is used in the prepa- ration or packing thereof in conflict with the laws of the foreign country to which said article is to be exported. The United Kingdom, Austria, Italy, and Denmark prohibit in general terms the use of any ingredient that is injurious to public health, but do not prohibit any specific preservatives. The United Kingdom expressly provides that food products may contain pre- servative or coloring substances, provided that they are not used in such quantities as to render the article dangerous to health. Italy similarly provides that the addition of a noninjurious substance which is necessary to fit the article for sale or transportation shall not be deemed an adulteration. France prohibits adulterations in general, and specifically the use of salicylic acid and formaldehyde. Cuba by a recent law prohibits the use of all preservatives for meat except common salt. Germany and Belgium, instead of a general prohibition, name the preservatives the use of which is prohibited. These are in Germany formaldehyde, alkali and alkaline earth hydroxides and carbonates, boracic, salicylic, hydrofluoric, and sul- phurous acids, hyposulphites, and chlorates. In Belgium the pro- hibited substances are salicylic acid, formaldehyde, sulphurous acid, sulphites or bisulphites, antiseptics, and in general substances injuri- ous to health. It is to be observed that the greatest latitude is permitted in countries such as the United Kingdom, which are com- pelled to depend for an import ant part of their food supply on products carried long distances. TREATY LIMITATIONS. It is universally admitted that sanitary considerations necessitate at times the exclusion or restriction of imports from certain regions. It is not this principle, but what are deemed unjust applications of it, that have called forth protests in the past. A treaty provision guaranteeing that no prohibition shall be applied to imports from any one country unless made applicable to imports from all countries, such as is contained in the treaties of the United States with Austria- Hungary, Prussia, and other European countries, necessarily requires qualifications when actual sanitary reasons exist. Yet in the guise of sanitary needs there is undoubtedly a temptation to extend the requirements of this kind in such a way as to constitute unjust dis- crimination. More precise definition of the obligation imposed in this respect by the treaty guarantee of most-favored-nation privi- leges is urgently needed to safeguard a country against unfair treat- ment. An unqualified guarantee that no prohibition shall be directed against the products of an individual country is far less effective than a careful definition of the rights retained by each. 262 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The recent treaties entered into between Germany and various European countries have clearly stated, in the form of an exception to the most-favored-nation clause, the right to prescribe the sanitary measures necessary "to protect animals or useful plants against dis- ease or injurious insects or parasites." But, on the other hand, this right is qualified by the proviso that such restrictions •'shall apply to all countries or to those countries in the same condition" in regard to the prevalence of disease and measures for its control. In presenting the treaties to the Reichstag for ratification, the imperial chancellor emphasized the advantages gained in regard to the establishment of sanitary measures. Under the former vet- erinary treaty with Austria-Hungary, except in the case of rinder- pest and contagious pleuro-pneumonia. Germany could not prohibit the importation of Austrian cattle unless a contagious disease within its own borders had actually resulted from such importation. Under the new treaty, prohibitions may be imposed whenever a contagious disease is conveyed from one country to the other, or whenever such a disease is prevalent in one of the countries, but in the case of most diseases (not including rinderpest or foot-and-mouth disease) may be directed only against the particular district affected, and not the whole country. The prohibitions may in no case be maintained more than nine months after the end of the infection as officially declared. The importation of cattle and sheep for immediate slaughter in public abattoirs may be prohibited only on account of the more virulent diseases, such as foot-and-mouth disease. Such prohibitions shall apply only to the particular districts affected, and must be withdrawn within thirty days after the districts have been officially declared free from the contagion. Owing to the division of Austria-Hungary and Germany into small districts in regard to contagious diseases, the burden involved in temporary prohibitions is vastly decreased, with no decrease in the efficacy of the measure. With other countries, however, Germany retains much fuller liberty of action with regard to sanitary prohibitions. By treaty with Russia. Germany guarantees that imports from that country shall not be subjected to stricter veterinary measures than are taken against other countries, which, in regard to the prevalence of con- tagious diseases and in regard to veterinary control, are in the same situation as Russia. While Germany maintains a nominal prohibition against the importation of hogs from Russia and Austria, a special exemption is granted by which SO. 000 animals may be imported annually from Austria-Hungary and 130,000 animals from Russia. DISCRIMINATING TARIFFS. As a rule the tariff rates imposed do not discriminate against the United States. At the present time no country of Europe, except France, imposes on any United States product higher rates than FOREIGN RESTRICTIONS ON" AMERICAN MEAT. 263 those applicable to the products of its most highly favored com- petitor. Even in the case of France, the benefit of the lowest tariff rate is accorded to the United States on several of its leading packing- house products. The commercial agreement of 1898 with France specified as among the products of the United States which would be admitted at the minimum rates canned meats, sausages and assimilated products, and lard. At that time a uniform duty was imposed on imports of meat animals and of fresh and salted meat of all kinds, with the exception of salted beef and mutton, on which the minimum rate of duty was very slightly below the general rate. The general rate of duty, which was imposed on this product when imported from the United States, was $2.63 per 100 pounds, while the rate imposed under the minimum tariff was $2.37 per 100 pounds. With the excep- tion of this item and one or two others of merely nominal importance in our trade, the United States was put on an equality with its com- petitors on the French market in respect to live meat animals and packing-house products. On July 31, 1903, a new law was passed by which the duties on cattle, sheep, goats, and swine, and on fresh and salted meat, were largely increased, while a minimum tariff rate was enacted but little in excess of the rate previously in force. In consequence of this change, United States meat was placed at a great competitive dis- advantage, varying from $1.31 to $2.75 per 100 pounds. The year 1906 witnessed the withdrawal of discriminating duties by two European countries. Beginning January 1 , 1 906, United States products were admitted into Switzerland at the lowest rates of duty and on September 1, 1906, the same treatment was first accorded by Spain. The high level to which import duties on live stock and meat have been carried is also a factor of considerable importance. Dur- ing the year 1906 no less than twelve new tariffs were put into effect by European countries. Three of these — the tariffs of Belgium, France, and Sweden — while issued in the form of new tariffs, repre- sented in fact merely a complete revision of the tariffs already in force; two more, the Italian and Russian, left the rates on live stock and packing-house products practically unchanged; while seven — the tar- iffs of Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Germany, Roumania, Servia, Spain, and Switzerland — increased those duties very materially. FUTURE PROSPECTS OF TRADE EXPANSION. The present- study discloses some discouraging features. Cattle and meat from the farms and packing houses of the United States arc placed at a great disadvantage by the prohibitive and restrictive decrees of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Denmark, and by the differential tariff duties of France. 264 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. But there are also features of a peculiarly favorable character. The great meat market of Europe, that of the United Kingdom, is open wide for the admission of American meat, and places American cattle and sheep on a footing as favorable as that enjoyed by any other dountry or by any British colony, and more favorable than that applied in the case of many of our chief competitors. The advantage gained by the United States in obtaining for its products admission into Switzerland and Spain at the lowest rates of duty will undoubtedly prove of value to the meat exporters of this country. It was predicted in some quarters that the complaints made during the first six months of 1906 in regard to the methods employed by some packing houses in the United States would result in a serious decline in our meat exports and in further exclusion of such products from foreign countries. Fortunately the first part of the prediction has not been realized and the second part only in a small measure. The exports of meat and meat products from the United States show an increase in the calendar year 1906 aggregating $15,000,000 over the value for the preceding year. The only product showing a noticeable decrease is canned meat, of which large quantities were exported in 1905 to Japan for use as an army ration. Except in the case of Austria-Hungary, moreover, no new restriction was decreed affecting meat imported from the United States. The trade with Austria-Hungary in meats other than pork (which was not affected by the decree) was already small, amounting to only 883,000 in the year ending June 30, 1906, and less than 822,000 the preceding year. The actual effect will therefore be much less injurious than would be antic- ipated from the general terms of the decree, but its potential effect in preventing any future expansion is far more serious. Instead of leading to increased restriction on American products, the events of 1906 really afford an excellent reason for the removal or modification of the restrictions that in the past have exercised so injurious an effect on the trade in meat and live animals. The exten- sion of the powers of the Bureau of Animal Industry in 1891 over the inspection of exported meat led to a considerable relaxation of the restrictions against American swine products. There is no reason why the stricter control now exercised over all processes of slaughtering and preparation of meat should not induce the leading foreign govern- ments to modify the more serious restrictions and admit American meat on freer terms. Such action is more feasible because treaty relations among European countries are still undergoing revision, and within many of those countries a strong demand has sprung up for the freer admission of foreign cattle and meat. METHODS OF REDUCING THE COST OF PRODUCING BEET SUGAR. By C. 0. Townsend, Pathologist in Charge of Sugar-Beet Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry. INTRODUCTION. The first refined beet-root sugar produced in commercial quantity was made about one hundred years ago, at a cost of approximately SO cents a pound. The cost of producing cane sugar was then somewhat higher than that of beet sugar. The amount of raw sugar extracted from the beet at that time varied from 4 to 0 per cent, and the amount of refined sugar obtained was from 1 to 2 per cent of the weight of the beet. The cost of producing an acre of beets was estimated at approx- imately $35, while the yield was from 6 to 25 tons per acre. When it is considered that upward of 15 pounds of refined sugar can be obtained at retail to-day for the original cost of manufacturing 1 pound of beet sugar it must be realized that many improvements have already been made in the quality of the beet, in cultural methods, and in factory operations, all of which have tended to reduce the cost of the finished product. The advances that have been made in cultural methods have been offset to a very great extent by the increased cost of labor in this coun- try, so that the actual reduction in the cost of producing beet sugar has been due to the improvement of the beet or to less expensive oper- ations in extracting and refining the product. It appears, therefore, that there are three avenues through which the cost of producing beet sugar may be increased or diminished. This article will deal only with those methods for reducing the cost of beet sugar which bear directly or indirectly upon the improvement and production of the raw material — the sugar beet — while the questions connected with extract- ing and refining the sugar will be left to the sugar chemist and to the sugar engineer. In this connection it may not be out of place to mention the possi- bilities of utilizing to greater advantage the by-products of the beet- sugar factory. The first beet-sugar factory built (1S05) manufactured raw sugar, wine, spirits, and vinegar. After several years of successful operation, the owner of this factory stated that if the sugar paid only for operating the factory the enterprise would still be a success. He further reported that the utilization of the beet leaves and pulp enabled him to double the number of cattle on his farm, and the 265 266 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPAETMEXT OF AGEICUL1UEE. manure thus produced greatly increased the yield of his wheat. Stockmen are rapidly coming to understand the value of beet pulp as a cattle food, while the possibilities of manufacturing alcohol, fusel oil, vinegar, fertilizers, etc.. from the refuse molasses have already been demonstrated. It may be that the ever-increasing demand for cheaper sugar, and the constantly advancing possibilities of utilizing the by-products, may eventually place the manufacture of sugar in that class of industries in which the factories are operated for the sake of the by-products. However, that time is far distant, and if the onward prog- ress of this new industry is to be maintained the manufacture of sugar for sugar's sake must be fostered. THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE BEET. INCREASING THE SIZE OF THE BEET. One of the most promising lines along which the cost of producing beet sugar may be reduced, so far as the epiestion relates to the raw material, is that of the improvement of the beet. "When one examines the wild beet and notes that the roots weigh but a few ounces each, he can not help wondering at the large tonnage that was sometimes produced early in the nineteenth century, when according to pub- lished reports the yield frequently reached 25 tons of roots per acre. It is true that the average yield was much below this point, but it undoubteelly eompareel very favorably with the present average yield of beets in this country, which according to obtainable figures is from 8 to 10 tons per acre. It would appear, therefore, that little progress has been made along this line. That the individual roots of the- culti- vated beet arc larger than those of the wild beet there is no question; but it would seem from a study of comparative yields that the larger the root the fewer the beets which can be produced per acre. This is undoubtedly true within certain limits: but, after the most satisfac- tory relation between the number of beets per acre and the size of the beets has been determined, there are three methods by which the yield of beets per acre may be increased without diminishing the percentage of sugar in the beet: (1) By improved cultural methods; (2) by the use of fertilizers: and (3) by selection. In regard to cultural methods used with sugar beets our foremost agriculturists do not agree. They are unanimous, however, in regard to the importance of early thinning. Undoubtedly many tons of beets are lost to the farmers and to the factories annually by delaying this important operation. In the use of other cultural methods we are constantly gaining new information through our experiments and through the growers' experience, which must eventually result hi an increased tonnage of beets. Thorough cultivation can not be too strongly emphasized as a factor in producing good sugar beets. It is a common saying among the REDUCING THE COST OF PRODUCING BEET SUGAR. 267 Germans that "the sugar must be hoed. into the beet," While it is true that the sunshine and the air are the principal factors in sugar pro- duction, the cultivator and the hoe are important aids in keeping the beet vigorous and active. At no time in its life should a beet be allowed to cease growing, for if it once becomes stunted it is doubtful whether it will ever make as good a beet as it would have been under conditions of continuous growth. Numerous experiments have been conducted by the United States Department of Agriculture, by the State experiment stations, and by growers to determine the proper relation between fertilizers and the sugar-beet crop. While there is still much to be learned in regard to fertilizers, there can be no doubt about the benefit to be derived from their judicious use with sugar beets. The rotation of crops is an important matter in the growing of sugar beets, and while the rotations must necessarily vary in different locali- ties there should always be some green crop in the rotation, preferably a legume, that can be plowed under to furnish humus and to supply at least a part of the nitrogen. . Having done everything possible by means of cultural methods and by the use of fertilizers of different kinds, there are still promising possibilities in the selection method. By this- process, in which experi- ments are already under way in the Bureau of Plant Industry, it is proposed to select for seed production large beets rich in sugar, and by repeated selection and crossing to produce a strain of beets 'that will greatly increase the yield without any decrease in the sugar con- tent of the beets. The results should be a much larger quantity of sugar per acre without any increase in the cost of production. INCREASING THE SUGAR CONTENT. Another possibility of improving the beet is to increase its sugar content. _ If this is done, even without increasing the size of the bee?, a greater yield of sugar per acre may be obtained. When the percentage of sugar obtained from the beet a century ago is compared with the present sugar content of our cultivated beets, it is seen that much progress has already been made in improving the beet in this direction A comparison of the average percentage of sugar actually obtained from the beet with the high sugar content of the best samples indi- cates that there is still opportunity to greatly increase the average sugar content of our beets. If a largely increased yield of beets is combined with a much higher sugar content it is entirely possible to obtain three times as much sugar per acre as is produced on an average at the present time. For example, the present average yield of beets per acre in the United States is about 10 tons, and the percentage of sugar actually extracted and refined does not exceed 12, making the average yield of sugar per YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUP.E. acre approximately 2.400 pound-. Yields of more than 30 tons of beets per acre are sometimes obtained, and yields of more than 20 tons are common. From 20 to 25 per cent of sugar in the beets has been so frequently that it is safe to assume that an average sugar content of 18 per cent is within the limits of possibility. If an average yield of 2 per acre and an average sugar content of 18 per cent I be reached, we would have an average yield of 7.200 pounds of his could be realized without increasing the cost of ing the bee - add be entirely possible for the grower to furnish the raw material to the factory at a somewhat lower cost than present practicable. This is the first important step toward reducing the c production. One of the most important factors in producing a beet rich in su is the proper selection of beets for seed production. This is the seeds- man".- problem, and is, under the present methods of beet -seed produc- birely outside the province of the grower of factory beets. However, the sugar content of bee* depends to a very great extent upon the soil and climatic conditions. For example, in 1903 the Bureau of Plant Industry planted several varieties of sugar-beet i »n the Arlington Experimental Farm, near Washington This seed duced from beefs that tested from 16 to 18 percent of sugar. The beets grown from the seed tested in no case more than 12 per cent - a ly all the samples tested less than 10 per cent. - were sent to Utah and planted for seed in 1904. The from the seed produced from these roots tt 16 t<> 17 per cent of sugar. It will be seen, therefore, that while the bee - *d the tendency to produce a high sugar content, the soil and climatic conditions in the vicinity of Washington, D. C, in 1903 kept the sugar production too low for practical purpi If the c 1 li i - litions in any locality appear to be unfavorable forsuga: m, it is not advisable to undertake to grow le until a beet has been developed by selection or otherwise that is adapted to that particular locality. It been found that clay loams and sandy loams are very satisfactory igar-beet production, provided other conditions are favorable; but more depends upon the physical condition of the .-oil and upon methods of cultivation than upon the particular kind or variety of soil '.. The soil should be well supplied with humus and well drained. «T OF GROWING BEETS. LAND YA In considering the methods by which beet sugar may be produced at a smaller the raw material is concerned, there are certain factors which tend to increase rather than to diminish th< of production. One of these is the increase of land values. Duiing REDUCING THE COST OF PRODUCING BEET SUGAR. 269 the past decade there has been a remarkable advance in the price of farming lands, especially in those localities where beet-sugar factories are in successful operation. These lands have become more valuable not only because they produce large quantities of sugar beets, but because there is a ready market for the crop and because other valu- able crops form with the sugar beets a very satisfactory rotation. There are thousands of acres of good farming lands where sugar beets may be grown with profit as soon as sugar factories are constructed. Five years ago the land in a certain valley in Utah was offered for sale at- $20 an acre. Since that time a sugar factory has been built, and from 6,000 to 8,000 acres of sugar beets are grown in that valley annually, bringing to the owners a return of $75 and upward per acre. As a result, practically none of the land is for sale at the pres- ent time. If by force of circumstances a tract of this land changes hands, the price obtained is $100 or more per acre. In some parts of Colorado sugar beets, potatoes, and alfalfa form a rotation series to which small grains arc sometimes added. When it is realized that potatoes often yield from 600 to S00 bushels per acre and sugar beets upward of 20 tons per acre, it is not surprising that this land is held at several hundred dollars per acre; and it may be stated that in none of the sugar-beet areas is the price of land decreasing. The theory that sugar beets will ruin the land has long since been exploded. The best crops of sugar beets and other farm products are found on many of the farms where sugar beets have been grown longest. This is in part due to the fact that good farmers have become better farmers through their experience in growing beets. Proper rotation of crops, good cultivation, and the judicious use of fertilizers are the factors that keep the land in good condition and enable farmers to obtain the highest possible returns for the labor and money in- vested. The situation in regard to land values, so far. as they relate to sugar beets, may be stated as follows: Inasmuch as sugar beets require the best quality of soil and demand that it shall be in the highest state of cultivation to produce the best results, sugar beets must remain a comparatively high-priced crop, and any attempt to reduce then price must result either in producing an unsatisfactory crop or hi eliminating sugar beets from the system of crop rotation in many localities. COST OF LABOR. Another factor which up to the present time has had a tendency to increase rather than to diminish the cost of sugar-beet production is the cost of labor. The price of farm labor, like land values, has increased materially within the past few years. This is especially true of hand labor for thinning, pulling, and topping beets. In view of the greatly increased cost within the past decade of nearly all the 270 YEABBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGSICUL.TUBE. necessaries of life, and with every indication that the cost of living will not be materially reduced in the near future, it can not reasonably be expected that farm wages will be appreciably lowered within the next few years, at least. It is clear that the increased cost of labor thus far has had a tendency to increase rather than to decrease the cost of beet sugar. AMOUNT OF L ." Another phase of the labor question should be considered in this connection, and that is the amount of labor required in growing an acre of beets in order to obtain the greatest profit from the crop. The average cost of growing and harvesting beets at present is estimated to be approximately $30 per acre. It would undoubtedly be poor economy to lessen the cost of growing beets by reducing the amount of labor per acre under the present conditions. There are some indi- cations that a still larger expenditure of labor upon the crop would produce a much greater return. For example, several yi - one of the leading agricultural papers of this country offered a series of prizes for the best crop of sugar beets to be grown under certain con- ditions. One of the winners produced approximately 30 tons of beets on an acre of ground. The total cost of growing this acre of beets was nearly $60. A little reflection will show that a much larger profit per acre was obtained in producing 30 tons oJ - on a given area at an outlay of $60 per acre than would have been made by spending $30 in growing the present average tonnage on the same area. From this and other examples that might be cited, th. sion is obvious that the production of sugar per acre may be inert by increasing the amount of labor per acre in growing the beets. : ABOR. The question of obtaining a sufficient number of the right kind of laborers to grow the sugar-beet crop has become one of the most complex and at the same time one of the most important problems in connection with the sugar-beet industry in nearly all the beet areas in this country. Scarcity of labor has an important bearing upon the cost of sugar production in several ways, but especially in delaying the work and in leaving certain operations undone, the. reducing the yield of sugar per acre. In some localities no difficulty is experienced in obtaining a suffi- cient number of suitable laborers throughout the season, especially in those sections where the farms are small and the country is th: settled with good farmers. Under these circumstances the in farmer is usually found growing a small acreage of beets — frequently not more than from 3 to 10 acres — which he is able to care for with his own family, with possibly some assistance now and then from his neighbors. In this wav beets are irrown more satisfactorilv as EEDL'CIXG THE COST OF PEODT* CIXG BEET SUGAE. 2 1 1 regards labor than in any other. In most of our sugar-beet sections, however, it is necessary to depend to a greater or less extent upon outside help. Just how this labor is to be secured, how it is to be retained throughout the season, and how it can be made a permanent factor in the sugar-beet industry are problems upon the correct solution of which the future of the beet-sugar industry depends to a very great extent. Efforts are being made to work out these problems in the various localities where help is needed; and. while the conditions in the different sections are not identical, a brief review of some of the important methods used may be helpful. In the Middle and Eastern States, and in some of the Western States, a large part of the labor in connection with sugar beets must be done during the summer, at which time a large number of pupils and teachers from the public schools are available for the work. Many growers take advantage of this fact, and hundreds of school children are employed annually in thinning, weeding, and hoeing beets. In some localities the teachers, both men and women. spend a part of the long vacation in the beet fields, much to their advantage physically as well as financially. When this kind of labor can be employed it is generally satisfactory, and improves from season to season with the experience gained. Unfortunately there is not enough of this kind of labor to supply the demand, and in a few localities it is reported unsatisfactory. If the sugar-beet area is located near one or more large cities a considerable portion of the temporary labor comes from that class of city residents who have no permanent employment and who are willing to go out and work in the fields. This is especially true of certain members of the foreign population, both men and women, who often make excellent farm hands. Most of these laborers insist upon returning to then homes in the city at the close of the day. Xumerous instances might be cited of Polish women who walk from 2 to 4 miles in the morning in order to do their dav's work of thinning, hoeing, or topping beets, or other farm work that their employer may require. (PL XIII. fig. 1.) At the close of the day they walk back to their homes only to repeat the same operation the next day and each day throughout the season. Some of the employers state that this is the best class of labor that they are able to obtain on their farms. Some of the laborers become very skillful at this kind of work: others were familiar with it before coming to this country and depend from the first upon finding employment of this kind. However, many of these laborers are seeking permanent employment in the factories and other enterprises in the city, so that this class of farm labor is in constant danger of depletion. At best this kind of labor is limited by the number of people who are willing to go out from 272 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUEE. the city and do work of this kind, and also by the small number of farmers who are near enough to the city to allow the laborers to return home at the close of the day. If some of the farmers living farther away from the city could induce some of these families to become permanent residents of the rural districts it would undoubt- edly be mutually beneficial in many cases. Various methods are being used in different places to accomplish this result. In one sec- tion where labor is scarce the officials of the sugar company - _- gested that each farmer build at least one tenant house for the ac- commodation of some of the labor required. The farmers are acting upon thi tion, and undoubtedly within a few years this com- munity will be well supplied with good labor. It is well known that many families, especially those of foreign birth, hesitate about going into the country for the reason that they would, in a way. become practically isolated from their countrymen. In order to overcome this difficulty and at the same time to solve the labor problem for the sugar-beet industry, several sugar com- panies have purchased large tracts of land and have offered various inducements to laborers to settle upon the land in colonies. For example, one sugar company divided its land into small farms of 40 acres each, which were sold at a low price on easy terms. The only requirement was that the purchaser should grow a small acreage of sugar beets for at least two years, upon the presumption that if beets were grown for two years the purchaser would be a permanent grower. This plan, which was started four years ago. worked out satisfactorily. All the land was sold and each year upward of 6.000 acre- *ar beets are grown for the near-by factory. In another sugar-beet section the sugar company has divided its land into small farms, which it has equipped with the necessary stock and tools and on which it has built comfortable houses. These places are rented to farmers, who are growing small areas of sugar beets. This plan is working satisfactorily for the sugar company and, like the preceding method, is of inestimable benefit to many families desirous of becoming independent citizens. Still another sugar company has set apart a portion of its land with a view to forming a Russian colony. This land is divided into acre ts, and a small house is built on each tract. Figure 6 shows four of these houses: that is. the two buildings shown consist of two houses each, placed side by side. These houses are rented to Russian families with the definite understanding that when a family has worked for the company a given number of years a deed for the house and lot will be given to that family. This plan is of comparatively recent origin, and the effect that it will have upon the solution of the labor question is still problematical. If there is any disadvantage in this plan over the preceding ones it undoubtedly lies in the fact that REDUCING THE COST OF PRODUCING BEET SUGAR. 273 the tract of land is not large enough to support a family: hence, the workers must seek employment on other farms, necessitating the expenditure of considerable time and energy in getting to and from their work. In the same community another plan has been adopted which promises good results. The important point, the nucleus of this plan, is a portable house. The outfit, as shown in figure 7, consists of a farmer's handy wagon, the wheels of which are 28 inches in diameter and have a 5-inch tread. The construction of the house is shown in the cut. The outfit consists of a laundry stove, cooking utensils, woven-wire folding cots, mattresses, and blankets. Each house will accommodate from two to five workmen, and costs about 875. The laborers occupying one of these houses contract to do the hand work for several beet growers at a price ranging from SIS to $21 per acre, depending upon the number of hoeings, etc., included in the contract. " :i. 'h% & Fig. ij. — Laborers' houses, one to each acre tract — one method of solving the labor question in grow- ing sugar beets. The agreement is that when they have finished one operation, such as thinning, for one farmer, he will take his team and haul the house to the next farm. This house is portable, not only in the sense that it is on wheels, but also from the fact that it is capable of being taken down and shipped on the cars. In this way it is easily shifted about from community to community, to the place where it is most needed. The laborers using these houses are mostly Belgians, who seem to be very satisfactory in the beet fields hi most instances. They are tireless workers, and when employed by the acre often utilize every moment of davlight in caring for the beets under their contract. Their method of topping beets, as shown in Plate XIII, fig. 2, is one that seems to be peculiar to themselves, and is very rapid. The beets are pulled and thrown in rows, with the tops all one way, and then in a bent position, as shown in the illustration, the laborers go up and down the rows, cutting off the tops and throwing the beets into piles. The two brothers shown in the illustration were photographed in 190-i 3 A1906 18 2:-: dzp. ..::::Tirvr.z. :; on one of their r( 1906) thev rented a I arm and are growing their own b»: re to predict that in a lew liey will be landowners and employers of labor. In - number s esc are employed for sag; For s riven community the Japanese art. -rough their leader, who agrees under bond to fu: so many laborers for the hand work at some stipulated price, price is abas me in all the sugar-beet see:: — i-20 per acre. army of laborers, often consisting oi ml hundred under one b, and usually is, divided into smaller squads, which are e he various field- needed. They usually form a camp in which they live by themselves. Under the dire of a con. jreman they are capable of doinsr excellent work, but . - . ... _ ^ :hing become c that ma] id or done. in the Y^ : he Chinese as labor- ers in the sugar-beet fields, but owing to our t ion laws ihey are necessarily xery scarce, this beir _]]y true of the younger and more active members of the race. ■.:"-. of labor, as well as its scarcity, has acted as an ineen- ine of beet seed and dev: r means whereby beets may be grown with less hand labor, vr wn that all the labor performed in produci: crop of q order to obtain the best r rider : may be possible to perform one or more of these in some other manner with _ood or - expense. ¥ ipie.the production of single-germ beet seed is but a method of thinning t he seed ,-d. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. Plate XIII. Fig. 1 .—Polish Women Thinning Beets. Fig. 2.— Belgian Method of Topping Beets. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. Plate XIV. Fig. 1.— Power Hoe that may be Utilized in Blocking and Hoeing Sugar Beets. Fig. 2.— Siloing Sugar Beets for the Factory. REDUCING THE COST OF PRODUCING BEET SUGAR. 275 Production of single-germ seed. — Commercial beet seed con- sists for the most part of from two to seven individual seeds welded by- nature into one mass. It is evident that plants produced from such a mass of seeds must necessarily be very close together, and thus far no mechanism has been devised whereby the plants can be properly thinned. It is clear, therefore, that if we expect to do away with the hand thinning of our sugar beets it can probably be accomplished only by changing the construction of the seed ball, either naturally or artificially, so that there will be but one germ in each ball. Repeated efforts have been made to break up the seed balls by passing them through various forms of rollers and grinders so that each seed could be planted by itself. The seed coats are so hard that any device that has been tried thus far that will crush or break the seed ball breaks a large number of the seeds and renders them useless. An effort is being made by the Bureau of Plant Industry to produce a single-germ beet seed by selection. The results of this work up to the close of last season (1905) are reported in Bulletin Xo. 73 of the Bureau of Plant Industry, in which it is shown that the percentage of single-germ seeds has been increased from less than 2 to upward of 25 per cent.a In the light of the advance that has already been made it is reasonably safe to assume that this object will finally be accomplished by this means. After a plant possessing single-germ seed balls has been produced it will necessarily be a number of years before a suffi- cient quantity of this seed can be produced so that it can be used commercially. Thinning. — Meantime, as the industry grows, there will be an ever- increasing demand for hand labor for thinning the beets. Many growers have not yet learned the importance of early thinning, and consequently they try to do the work with an insufficient force, letting this operation, which should be done within a few days, extend over a period of several weeks, much to the detriment of the yield and con- sequently to the returns from the crop. Hoeing. — The number of hoeings given a crop of sugar beets varies from two to five. A single hoeing is much less expensive than the single operation of thinning or of harvesting, but the total number of hoeings, if properly done, will cost more than either of the other opera- tions. It is important, therefore, that something be done to reduce the cost of hoeing sugar beets. As already pointed out, it would be poor economy to reduce the cost of hoeing beets by giving them a smaller number of hoeings or by doing the work less thoroughly. On the other hand, there are indications that better beets could be grown o Since this paper was -mitten the single-germ seeds produced in 1906 have been separated and counted, and it is found that several of the plants yielded upward of 49 per cent of single-germ seeds. A large number of the plants produced more than 30 per cent. 276 YEAEBOOK Of THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. if more attention were given to this phase of sugar-beet culture. If anything is to be gained over the present method of hoeing beets it must be by means of a machine that will do the -work more thor- oughly or at a lower cost per acre. A power hoe has recently been invented and successfully used in the cotton fields. Although not yet tried in connection with sugar beets, it would seem from its con- struction that it could be used to considerable advantage in the beet fields. This hoe consists of a metal disk which may be forced into the ground to any desired depth, and is made to rotate rapidly in a plane parallel to the surface of^the ground. The power that causes the disk to rotate is furnished by a gasoline engine, while the movement around the plant is guided by the human hand, as shown in the illus- tration. (See PL XIV, fig. 1.) It is claimed for this machine that from five to six times as much work can be done per day with one of these hoes as can be done by the same man with a hand hoe. If this particular implement is not adapted to sugar-beet work it will doubtless lead to something whereby artificial power may be used in blocking and hoeing sugar beets. Cultivating. — Several cultivations are necessary in the growing season. The number of cultivations and the depth and distance from the beets that the teeth of the cultivator should operate are moot questions among agriculturists. It is agreed that different conditions require different treatments, and hence the expense of culti- vating beets must depend somewhat upon soil and weather conditions. However, the single cultivator has given way to a great extent to the two-row cultivator, and recently a four-row cultivator has been devised and put in operation, so that the cost of each cultivation is greatly reduced. The initial cost of the four-row cultivator is greater than that of a single-row cultivator, but the additional outlay is soon made up if there is a considerable acreage of beets to be cared for. Harvesting. — Harvesting sugar beets consists of three distinct operations, viz, lifting, pulling, and topping. For many years lift- ing or loosening the beets has been done by horse power. In some parts of the West steam power is now being used for this purpose. Two kinds of lifters are in general use, one consisting of a side' plow, which passes along one side of the beet row and loosens each beet by pressing slightly against it and at the same time plowing it up. The other form might be described as a plow with two points or shoes, so arranged that as they pass along on either side of the beet row each individual beet is caught between the points and lifted slightly, so that it is left perfectly loose in the ground. The beets must then be pulled and topped by hand. Many forms of beet harvesters have been constructed, but none has come into general use. It is the aim of the inventor of the beet harvester to perform the three operations at the same time. REDUCING THE COST OF PRODUCING BEET SUGAR. 277 Some inventors aim to top the beet and then pull it; while others maintain that the beet must be first pulled and then topped. If the beets are topped and afterwards pulled, there seems to be some diffi- culty about getting all of them out of the ground. On the other hand, if the beets are first pulled and then topped, considerable diffi- culty is experienced in topping them correctly, owing to the variation in the size of the beets and the difference in the length and size of the crowns. Several new harvesters are in the field this year (1906), and it is probably a question of only a few years when the harvester in the beet field will be as common as it is in the grain field. The cost of hand work in harvesting beets is from $5 to $8 per acre. It must be remembered that no machine annihilates the cost of any farming operation, but that a satisfactory beet harvester would greatly reduce the expense of harvesting the crop is evident. Transporting to factory. — Another important factor in the cost of producing the raw material is the expense involved in transporting the beets from the farm to the factory. If the field is located near the factory and the roads are level and well made the beets may be delivered at a minimum cost. As the distance from the factory increases, more time is consumed, and consequently the expense is increased. The importance of good roads can not be overestimated. It frequently happens that the fall rains begin before the beets are delivered, and unless the roads are well made they are soon full of holes and ruts that make it impossible to haul more than half a load at a time, practically doubling the expense of delivering the crop. One effect of the sugar-beet industry is the improvement of the coun- try roads, and conversely the improvement of the country roads is an aid to the sugar-beet industry. Railroad facilities and rates play an important part in the cost of delivering the sugar-beet crop. Very few factories grow all their beets within hauling distance. The grower and sugar company are fortunate if the railroads so radiate from the vicinity of the factory that the beets grown in a given community can be brought in over one line of road. It is often the case, however, that the cars must be sent over two or more roads, which necessarily increases the expense. It too often happens that there is an insufficient supply of cars at the time they are wanted or the cars furnished are not adapted to handling sugar beets; consequently considerable time is lost in loading and unloading the beets. All these things are adjusting themselves gradu- ally to the betterment of the industry through the persistent efforts of those interested. Destroying weeds. — The improvement of farming methods has been mentioned as playing a significant part in sugar-beet growing. One point that should be emphasized in this connection is the impor- tance of destroying weeds. This work should not be confined to the 278 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. beet fields. Adjacent fields, roadsides, fence rows, and vacant lots should be watched and the weeds destroyed before they go to seed. It is not uncommon to find beet fields that are in fairly good condi- tion while the roadside just over the fence is full of weeds. Some of the seeds of these weeds will certainly be scattered by various agencies over the field and be ready for growth the next year. The destruc- tion of weeds for a single season will not always produce appreciable results, for the reason that a large number of weed seeds remain alive in the ground for a number of years. Persistent efforts in destroying weeds, however, will result after a few years in greatly reducing the labor of keeping beet fields free from these pests. Siloing the beets. — Another expense that must be reckoned with under certain circumstances is that of siloing the beets. This becomes necessary when the beets must be harvested faster than they can be handled at the factory. It will be seen at once that siloing the beets necessitates an extra handling of the crop, since they must be reloaded into the wagons and hauled to the factory or dump- ing station. Inasmuch as siloing factory beets has not yet come into general practice in all of the beet-growing localities, a fair idea of the methods employed and labor involved may be gamed by referrm Plate XIV. figure 2. In addition to the extra expense involved, which varies from 20 cents to SI a ton. there is more or less shrinkage in weight due to evaporation. To avoid the expense and loss incident to siloing the beets an effort is being made by the Bureau of Plant Industry to lengthen the harvesting season by producing an early-maturing beet. It is hoped by this means to so distribute the ripening period that the factory will be able to handle the beets as soon as they are harvested. SUMMABT. While the methods of cheapening the process of making beet sugar can not be adequately treated in a short article of this kind, the principal points to be aimed at may be summed up as follows: (1) Increasing the tonnage without increasing cost of production. (2) Improving the quality of the beets without additional expense. (3) Improving the beet in size and quality, or both, at additional expense, but in such ratio that the gain is greater than the outlay. (4) Providing a sufficient quantity of suitable labor at the proper time so that the beets may be kept growing without interruption. (5) Modifying the beet seed so as to render thinning unnecessary. (6) Modifying the beet so that siloing for the factory will not be necessary. (7) Devising machinery that will do away with hand labor. Improving farming methods and operations so that less labor will be required to produce the crop. (9) Improving wagon roads and railroad facilities. COKX-BKEEDIXG WORK AT THE EXPERIMENT STATIONS. By J. I. Schume, Of the Office of Experiment Stations. The com produced m the United States each year is worth more than a billion dollars— nearly twice as much as any other crop This immense resource has been practically created since the United States has existed as a nation. Corn was cultivated by the Indians before tne Western World was discovered, and hence was the first of the common cereals to be grown under the care of man on American soil ihe most rapid development in com production, however, has taken place during the last forty years, the annual yield for the entire coun- try having approximately trebled during that time The vast increase m production is of course- mainly due to the increase in the acreage devoted to corn culture, but it may also be attributed in part to improvement in the plant itself. Ever since corn came under the beneficent influence of agriculture, such improvement has been in progress, at first unconsciously and later consciously, but with the principles of corn breeding very little understood. The earlier work which was of slow progress, adapted the crop to a wider range of lati- tude ami assured greater success in its culture over large areas, par- ticularly m the northern portions of the corn belt. While we are .till far from completely understanding the principles underiying the im- provement of the com plant by breeding, the work of the experiment stations has elucidated the subject to a considerable extent and has shown the farmer how to apply the principles alreadv demonstrated During recent years the improvement of our corn varieties has become a matter of great general interest among experiment-station men and progressive farmers. There has been a sort of agricultural awakening, largely due to the realization of what can be accomplished with a crop of such magnitude and one so ready to respond to intelli- gent treatment. Experimental work in agricultural lines, especially if its results are to be far-reacliing, generally requires considerable time lor the accumulation of data, their verification, and the dis- semmation and application of the information secured, but in the work of corn improvement the stations have been successful in inter- esting the farmer, and even the general public, in a comparatively short period of time. 279 280 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. GENERAL FEATURES OF THE MOVEMENT. An increase in yield is brought about by bettering the environment of the plant or by improving the character of the plant itself. All improvement within the plant is based, on the one hand, on varia- tion or the tendency of offspring to differ in some respects from par- ents, and, on the other, on heredity or the tendency of progeny to possess characteristics in common with parents and other blood rela- tives. That the corn plant has undergone a marked change since the beginning of its culture is unquestionable. Until quite recently all of the corn crop was harvested by hand, winch gave the grower an opportunity to observe all the larger, well-formed ears, and to select the best appearing ones for seed. Simple selection of the ears was the beginning of corn improvement and the only method followed from the earliest periods of American agriculture. It is not surprising that artificial crossing was not employed in the early improvement work when we consider that it was only a little more than two hun- dred years ago that the sexuality of plants was discovered and that the manner of manipulating the blossoms in the process of cross- breeding was even then not so well known either inside or outside of scientific circles as it is at present. Only during the last century has this knowledge found a more or less large and direct application in the improvement of cultivated crops. It was by constant and continued selection for a long series of years that many of the common and well-known varieties, such as Reid Yellow Dent, Golden Eagle, Iowa Silver Mine, Learning, and Boone County White, were brought to their present high standard of per- fection, with their characteristics generalby well fixed and uniformly reproduced, thus showing that marked improvement in varieties of corn may be brought about by selection without crossing. Cross- breeding has entered into the origination of some of the standard vari- eties, as, for instance, Riley Favorite, established a little more than twenty years ago, which is a hybrid resulting from a cross between Golden Yellow, a large late variety, and Pride of the North, a small early maturing sort. In the more recent efforts to fix the character- istics of the desired type the breeding-plat idea was adopted, the new seed being planted by itself away from other corn and all tassels of barren and otherwise undesirable stalks removed as soon as they appeared, to prevent them from producing pollen and fertilizing the future seed on the healthy and otherwise normal plants. In animal breeding selection is comparatively easy and a pedigree record on both the male and female sides is readily established, but in plant breeding we meet with considerable difficulty in this connection. We can be absolutely certain of the male parent of an ear of corn only CORN-BREEDING WORK AT EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 281 when we have excluded all pollen from the mother plant and fertilized the blossoms with the pollen from a particular plant. It is possible to do this only with a few plants on account of the time required for the proper performance of the work, and on a larger scale it becomes impracticable. The only practical and the nearest possible solution of the problem is the use of the isolated breeding plat, in which only seed of known breeding is planted and in which all blossoms are naturally fertilized with pollen from plants of equal breeding, although it is impossible by this method to know the individual stalk or stalks furnishing the pollen for any particular ear or the stalk producing the pollen for any particular blossom or rudimentary grain. In this connection it may be pointed out that even in the breeding plat with its plants of equal breeding there may be three different relationships between the pollen and the blossom which it fertilizes, or, as we may say, three kinds of pollination are possible, namely, self-pollination, close-pollination, and cross-pollination. In self-pollination the pollen produced by a particular plant falls upon the silks and fertilizes the blossoms of the same plant. In close-pollination the pollen from a particular plant fertilizes the blossom of the plant grown from the same seed ear, i. e., the two plants have the same mother ear. In cross-pollination the pollen from the tassel of one plant fertilizes the blossoms of another plant grown from a different mother ear. Recent experiment-station work has brought forth a system of-corn breeding in which inbreeding is practically entirely prevented. By this method self-pollination and close-pollination become impossible, and breeding between distantly related plants becomes merely a remote possibility. The first lines of the experiment-station work with corn comprised variety tests of cultural factors, such as depth and time of plowing; time, manner, and depth of planting; distances between rows and intervals between plants in a row; depth, frequency, and manner of cultivation; and other problems. After considerable light had been thrown upon many of these questions, the improvement of corn by selection, and by breeding and selection, received more attention. This work was inaugurated and is still continued with a view to getting larger yields of shelled corn, rich in starch, oil, or protein, as the purpose for which the crop is intended may require. By their work the stations have shown the susceptibility of the corn plant to change in location of ears, quantity of leaves, and number of suckers, as well as to change in the composition of the grain and other char- acters. The increase in yield has, of course, received the most attention, and in this connection it has been shown how individual ears may differ in productivity, although of the same variety and produced under identical conditions. 282 YEARBOOK 01 SffCUI/TU r.E" ire. The principal obje» d breeding at the experi: an increase in the yield of shelled corn per aci orn plant varies in height from 2 to 15 feet, according to variety and climate. The :iges from three 1 - "en months. The ear varies in shape, ^ize. thi ge of grain, ad depth and width of kernel. The stalk varies in as, number and tvpe of -ition of ear. productivity, tendency to sucker, el - aria t ions are all turned to account in com breeding. The problem is to indicate how the vari. lay be best ion should be nu and how favorable- characteristics which appear may be fixed and retained. - --POTT.TXATIOy. Experiments in the improvement of corn by cross-fertil uve been carried on by seven -. but this line of inves i seems to have been more prominent some years ago than it i- the work in breeding being at present largely devoted reeding on a lanj by methods applicable in provement by lination rried on at the Ka: I ^90. and numerous * hus red wei : I The different races, such as de: sweet, and pop corn, apparently crossed readily. In a com- paratively f n aerally in sweet-corn varieties, the effec -ing were visible the first year. The second generation usually more or less completely blended and often exactly inter- between the two parent typ re rarely the grains of a single ear were unlike each other, resembling closely or remotely one parent or the other. The third year the produce was generally true »d. :ie blue kernels, found on ea immediate par were known to have shown no kerne! r. were planted, and one of the resulting e 1 with pollen from th alk. ear contain 1 A which 206 were blue. 71 pink. 71 orange-yellow, and 22 pure white. Five other ears from the same he pollen of other va: owed the same variation with a slightly smaller percentage of blue. In studying the prepotency of the blue corn a large number of ears on other plats near by were examined, and it was found that about half the number of uninclosed ears had from 1 to 5 blue kernels, while of inclosed not one showed a trace of blue. This result also showed that inclosing the ears in ci ven cloth sacks is et: in keeping out foreign pollen. CORX-BREEDING WORK AT EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 283 Observations on the effects of cross-fertilization at the Iowa station have brought out the fact that the tassels and the silks of the upper primary ears generally appeared about the same time, and that the pollen of the upper central spikes of the tassels usually falls about twenty-four hours before that of the lateral spikes. The first silks protruding through the husk are from the lower end or butt of the ear. and the silks above them appear gradually until all are exposed, the time required for this process being usually from two to five days; but frequently the upper silks are not more than twenty-four hours later in appearing than the lower, and sometimes they are ten days later. It was found that usually twenty-four hours elapsed before the silks were in the receptive condition after their first appearance. When it takes four or five days for all the silks to appear, the lower grains of corn start their development before those farther up on the ear begin to grow and are, therefore, strong enough to rob the younger and weaker grains and to cause them to die from starvation. These conditions are considered the cause of the lack of proper filling at the point of the ear. But when the silks all appear within twenty-four hours or less, the ears develop simultaneously at both ends, making a properly filled ear from butt to tip. It is concluded froin the obser- vations made that the best corn for Iowa, when well grown, should not exceed 9§ feet in height, the ears being oh feet from the ground, and each stalk having 13 blades. In its early improvement work this station demonstrated the value of planting the corn in an isolated field for the purpose of carrying on breeding experiments, and the results obtained, together with the experience at other stations, sug- gested the idea of developing the breeding plat. Work in corn improvement was begun at the Illinois station in 1S89, crosses being made between varieties of dent corn and varieties of dent, sweet, and pop corn. In the crosses between varieties of dent corn of the same color or between varieties of sweet corn of the same color the change in the crossed ear could not with certainty be attributed to the influence of the pollen, the variations in these ears being apparently no greater than in those of the same variety left to form naturally. Ears produced by crossing white sweet corn with pollen of the yellow dent corn were nearly as dark as the male parent, with kernels very, much like flint corn in appearance and with the taste characteristic of dent corn. Where both sweet and dent kernels appeared on the same ear the dent kernels were always the heavier. It was observed that color, where it is a character of the kernels and not of the seed coat, tends very strongly to pass from one variety to another. Crosses in which yellow dent corn was the male and sweet corn the female, yellow sweet the male and white sweet the female, and yellow pop corn the male and white dent the female, exhibited the greatest degree of success. On 19 ears produced by these various 284 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. crosses only 2 kernels did not show distinctly the effects of the pollen. Of sweet corn stalks bearing 2 ears, one crossed artificially and the other left to be naturally fertilized, there was no indication of any- thing but sweet corn on the naturally fertilized ears. All crosses except the pure dent corn crosses were planted, and during the first growing season the uniformity of the plats was very noticeable. The number of rows of kernels on the ear seemed to be modified about equally by each parent, and the number of ears to the stalk showed a tendency to follow the same type as the stalk. The ears from each of the crossed plats were as uniform as the commonest varieties of corn, and the crosses of different varieties showed the characters of each parent to about the same extent. The crosses between pop corn and dent corn seem to show the effect of the male more than of the female parent, while those of which pop corn was the male parent were more flinty than those in which the dent corn had furnished the pollen. The corn grown from the crossed seed was in nearly all cases increased in size as a result of the crossing. The second year the corn continued to be comparatively uniform in type where the parent varieties were similar, but where the}* were different, as in the crosses between sweet and dent, the progeny tended strongly to run back to the parent forms, while at the same time taking on other forms different from either. Nearly all the corn grown the second year was smaller than that grown the first year, although most of it larger than that of the parent varieties. Some of the varieties which might be supposed to be most nearly related, as the sweet corns, showed very little increase when grown from crossed seed, while the two varieties of pop corn, which would seem as nearly related to each other as the varieties of sweet corn, gave a very decided increase in size when grown from crossed seed. Corn from the crosses of Black Mexican and White Dent, two widely different varieties, showed a decrease in size, while that from Flour corn and Golden Coin, varieties apparently as widely different as any crossed, gave ears showing the greatest proportionate gain in size. There seemed to be a strong tendency of the progeny of the different varieties of dent, sweet, and pop corn toward the flint type. In 1S92 in each of five cases the yield from plats of cross-bred corn was larger than the average yield of plats planted with varieties which had not been crossed, the average increase being more than 9 bushels per acre. In 1893 seed from cross-fertilized ears in every instance produced a larger yield and larger stalks than seed from self- fertilized ears, but the cars of the latter were more uniform in char- acter. In 1893 in three out of four cases the yield from cross-bred seed was greater by 2.3 bushels per acre than the average yield of the parent varieties. In 1894 the seed from cross-fertilized plants selected in 1S92 and 1893 gave an average increase of 12 bushels per acre over the parent varieties. COBfT-BBEEDING WORK AT EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 285 Of numerous crosses made by the Wisconsin experiment station, Wisconsin No. 8 corn on Toole North Star has given promise of the best results. The new variety appears to have a larger ear than the Wisconsin No. S and a shorter maturing period than the Toole North Star. In a culture test this variety was ripe for cutting September 26. 126 days after planting, while the preceding year Wisconsin No. S ripened in 120 days and Toole North Star in 133. OBSERVATIONS OX THE MIXING OF CORN. At the Minnesota station Mercer Yellow flint corn hi proximity to Black Mexican sweet corn produced several black grains on some of the ears. A dozen of these dark-colored grains were planted and protected from pollen from other varieties. The ears produced showed that the Black Mexican corn had fertilized dark-colored grams on the ears of flint corn the preceding year. Besides the yellow hint and black sweet grams, there were white sweet and white flint grams on nearly every ear. which is taken as showing the ancestry of this cross. It is possible that both parents had been crossed with different varieties and that the different ancestral characteristics reappeared, and from these results the importance of keeping seed pure is evident. The Rhode Island station planted Longfellow flint corn in close proximity to sweet corn, but the resulting ears failed to show any kernels of the sweet corn type on the ears of the flint corn, although the yellow kernels were very numerous on the sweet corn, being mostly found on ears taken from rows next the yellow corn. CHANGING THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE KERNEL BY BREEDING. After cross-fertilization and its effects had been studied for a series of years, the efforts of the stations were turned toward the improve- ment of the chemical composition of the kernel. At the Illinois station this special study was begun in 1S96. and the first results indicated that kernels of the same ear are much more uniform in chemical composition than different ears of the same variety, which often show a wide variation in this respect. Similar work at the Kansas station showed that in 33 varieties under investigation the nitrogen content ranged from 1.56 to 2.26 per cent: in different ears of a variety grown for thirty years it ranged from 1.53 to 2.24 per cent, and in ears of a cross originated the previous year from 1.35 to 2.22 per cent. In these tests the nitrogen content of single kernels from the same ear also showed variations, but not to so great an extent as among different ears of the same variety. It was also found that the specific gravity of kernels is too uncertain a factor for the selection of corn rich in nitrogen. Of the original 33 varieties. 286 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 21 were selected for breeding purposes, and for three years the cr obtained showed remarkably high percentages of nitrogen in many -. In 12 cases the average was about 2.40 per cent of nitrogen, or 15 per cent of protein. Subsequent to the preliminary work above referred to, the Illinois ion took up the work of breeding for high and low protein and high and low fat content in the kernel, and developed in this connec- tion a method for the arrangement and the maintenance of a breeding plat. In six tests the shelled corn grown from seed selected for high and low protein and high and low fat content showed differences ranging in protein from 0.50 to 1.25 per cent and in fat content from 0.67 to 1.45 per cent. Investigations on the relation of the size of the kernel to the percentage of protein or fat showed that the weight of kernels from 24 ears high in protein averaged 0.372 gram per kernel, from 16 ears low in protein 0.337 gram per kernel: from 12 ears high in fat 0.345 gram, and from 16 ears low in fat 0.42 gram per kernel. In general, the tendency of corn high in fat content was toward small kernels and of corn low in fat content toward large kernels. It was also found that a high percentage of germ is correlated with a high fat content. These results seem to show that by proper selection of seed the protein, fat, or carbohydrates of corn may be increased or decreased. Together with the chemical composition of the kernel its physical composition was also studied. The different parts which go to make up the physical composition of the kernel, as worked out by the Illinois station, are the tip-cap. hull, horny gluten, horny starch, white starch, and germ. The tip-cap covers the tip or base of the kernel, by which it is attached to the cob, and comprises about 1.5 per cent of the grain, and the hull is the very thin outer coat, consti- tuting about 6 per cent of the kernel and containing a smaller per- centage of protein than any other part of it. The horny gluten, lying immediately under the hull, comprises from 8 to 14 per cent of the grain, and is more abundant in the kernels with high protein content. It contains from 20 to 25 per cent of protein and is the richest in this substance of all the parts of the kernel. The horny starch is the chief substance in the sides and back of the kernel, making up about 45 per cent of ordinary corn. In high-protein corn the percentage of this substance is much higher and in low-protein corn much lower than 45 per cent. This part of the kernel is rich in starch and, while containing only about 10 per cent of protein, it furnishes a greater total amount than any other part, because it constitutes a larger pro- portion of the entire gram. The white starch, occupying the center of the crown end of the kernel and usually partially surrounding the germ, comprise- about 25 per cent of the kernel, being less in high- protein corn and greater in low-protein corn. It contains only from CORX-BSEEDIXG WORK AT EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 287 5 to S per cent of protein. The germ comprises about 11 per cent of the kernel and varies according to the oil content, constituting a higher proportion in high-oil corn and a smaller proportion in low-oil corn. In these investigations the oil in the germ ranged from 35 to 40 per cent and from SO to So per cent of the total oil present. Corn high in protein contains a larger proportion of horny gluten and L starch and a correspondingly smaller proportion of white starch. In corn of high protein content the horny parts constitute about 00 per cent of the kernel and contain about SO per cent of the total protein. Two strains of corn bred for four years for a high and a low oil content showed an average difference of 1.97 per cent in the oil con- tent and 0.18 per cent in the protein content, or. in other words, a very high degree of correlation between oil and protein. It is concluded that as the percentage of protein increases the starch decreases and the oil content remains practically unchanged, and that the selection of high-protein seed corn shotdd be governed by a high proportion of germ. In a study of four strains of pedigreed corn, the crop repre- senting the seventh generation, the protein content of low-protein ears varied from 6.36 to 7.9 per cent, with an average of 6.71 per cent, while the protein content of the high-protein ears varied from 1 to 15.01 per cent, with an average of 14.44 per cent. The average oil content of the low-protein ears was 4.21 and of the high-protein ears 4.93 per cent. In a further test of the composition of the kernels a correlation between oil and protein was apparent only to a small degree, the high-oil corn containing nearly three times as much oil as the low-oil corn, but being less than one-seventh richer in protein. A very marked correlation between oil and germ was shown, the low- oil ears containing an average of 2.52 per cent of oil and 7.74 per cent of germ and the high-oil ears an average of 7 per cent of oil and 13. S4 per cent of germ. The effect of breeding in charging the composition of the different physical pans of the kernel is shown by the fact that the germs from the low-oil corn contained about 25 per cent of oil and those from the high-oil corn nearly 42 per cent, while the endosperms from the low- protein ears contained less than 6 per cent of protein and those from the high-protein ears nearly 14 per cent. Breeding for high or low protein produced no marked effect upon the ash content or the oil content of either the germs or the endosperms and only slightly influenced the protein content of the germs. As calculated on the basis of 100 pounds of corn, there was a maximum difference of only 0.75 pound of protein in the germs from 100 pounds of low-protein and high-protein corn and a difference of 7.06 pounds of protein in the endosperms. 2^"> YEARBOOK OP THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. At the North Dakota station corn selected for high nitrogen con- tent in 1901 gave in most cases corn of high nitrogen content in 1902, but the crop of 1903 presented some marked variations. The phys- ical method of selecting corn of a high nitrogen content was found quite reliable. THE DEVELOPMENT Or TOE BEEEDIXG PLAT. The development of the breeding plat and its introduction into prac- tical corn breeding, aside from experimental work, mark an important step in the progress of corn improvement. The object of the breeding plat is to produce highly and purely bred seed and to enable the breeder to keep a record showing the breeding of every seed ear secured and the productive capacity of each individual ear planted in the plat. The principal purpose of its location, arrangement, and management is to prevent all foreign or outside pollen, as well as the pollen from diseased, poorly developed, or otherwise abnormal plants, from fertilizing the blossoms of the seed plants, and also to avoid self- pollination and close pollination within the plat. Corn, being a wind- pollinated plant, is with difficulty kept pure in breeding, and the first followed in establishing a breeding plat was to isolate it or to locate it at such a distance from other growing corn plats (a quarter of a mile if possible and preferably in the direction opposite to the prevailing winds' as to make it only a remote possibility that outside pollen would be carried into the plat by the wind and thus blossoms of one variety be fertilized with the pollen of another. The fact that individual ears similar in appearance and scoring equally high may still show great differences in yields was early recognized, and led to establishing the performam-e record of each ear and the selection of seed from only those ears showing the greatest vielding power. The most practical, if not the only, method of com- paring the productiveness of individual ears is the parallel-row system advocated by the stations generally. The first recommendation for the arranging of the breeding plat with these points in view made by the Illinois experiment station was to the effect that 40 selected ears be planted in 40 separate parallel rows, one ear to a row. the rows being long enough to require each about three-fourths of an ear for planting them. It was also advised to plant the very best seed ears in the middle rows, grading them uniformly to either side, so that the least desirable ears might be planted in the outside rows, and to shell the remainder of the corn from all of the 40 ears and use it for planting several rows entirely around the breeding plat to give additional protection, especially from foreign pollen. In this stage of its develop- ment the breeding plat gave a comparison of the different seed ears, showing their individuality, and by isolation reserved the fertilization CORN-BREEDING WORK AT EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 289 of the blossoms to the pollen produced within the plat. This arrange- ment, however, did not preclude either self or close pollination. In the experience of the stations, removing the tassels from corn plants can truly be said to be of benefit only in breeding work, where it is applied in the prevention of self-pollination or the transfer of pollen from the tassel to the silks of the same plant. As demon- strated by the Illinois station, it is possible for inbreeding to take- place in the field, because the plant sheds part of its pollen at a time when some of its own silk is already matured and in a receptive condi- tion. In order to prevent inbreeding in connection with the parallel- row system of planting, this institution practices and recommends detasseling every other row before the pollen matures and selecting seed from the detasseled rows only. This makes sires of the plants in the tasseled rows and dams of those in the detasseled rows and positively prevents self-pollination. It also makes close pollination or the transfer of pollen from the tassel of one plant to the silks of another plant in the same row of dams impossible, so that the seed selected is entirely cross-bred. Even before the detasseling of the entire alternate rows was practiced by the station, all abnormal-^ especially barren and otherwise imperfect — plants were detasseled before their pollen matured in order to prevent the transmission of their undesirable characters. The next step taken by the Illinois station in perfecting the breed- ing plat was to devise a method of planting which would give assur- ance that the seed of both sires and dams is cross-bred, and a practical commercial system insuring cross-breeding to the greatest possible extent was worked out. In studying the arrangement of the breed- ing plat up to this stage it may be seen that there still remains the possibility of introducing related blood, as the breeding is carried on from year to year, because the pedigree is established only on the female side, while it is impossible to tell just from what sire plant the pollen came which fertilized the flowers of any particular ear. As it is most likely that a row of dam plants is fertilized by the pollen of the rows of sires growing nearest to it, the station concluded that the breeding plat might be planted in such a way as to insure cross- breeding of plants not related to each other, or, at least, very remotely related. Based on this idea, and with this end in view, a mathemat- ical arrangement of seed ears for planting was worked out and adopted. SELECTION AS A FACTOR IN CORN IMPROVEMENT. We have seen how artificial pollination may be employed in corn improvement, but it remains very evident that it is really only a small factor when compared with selection, upon which the great and general progress in corn breeding must be based, because crossing 3 a 1906 19 290 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPABTMEXT OF AGP.ICULTUEE. without subsequent selection can accomplish but little, and for the further reason that selection is the more generally applicable of the two means. The farmer is already familiar with selection along a certain line and only a wider application of the principle is necessary. The endeavor of the experiment station anti the agricultural college is to teach him how to apply it scientifically and practically, not only with reference to the ear, but also with reference to the kernel, the entire plant, and even the row. Experiment-station work has brought about a marked change in the methods of selection. As already pointed out. the original method consisted in basing the selection upon the type of ear, and great progress in the improvement of corn has been thus accomplished, but experiments conducted by many stations have shown that even carefully selected seed ears, alike to all outward appearances, may still have a wide variation in yielding capacity, amounting to even more than 100 per cent. In fact, at the Nebraska station 10 seed ears compared for this purpose ranged in yield from 35.0 to Sl.G bushels, or a difference of 40 bushels per acre. The "Wisconsin station in a recent test found the yields of different ears of Silver King corn to vary from 14 to 97 bushels of shelled corn per acre, and the yields of select seed ears from Ik pounds to 50 pounds per ear of seed corn. The difference in productiveness is not revealed by an examination of the ears, but must be ascertained by actual test, so that the yields may be measured. This indeterminable factor is called the individuality and is analogous to the individuality in animals, wlrich also shows itself in the progeny. As in the development of the breeding plat, selection has gone through various stages. In some of the earlier work with corn the station efforts were largely directed toward testing and comparing varieties for the purpose of singling out those best suited to certain localities and conditions. This was selection applied to the variety as a whole, and as a typical instance some of the work of the iuinne- sota station may be cited. This station made a selection of var grown in the State and compared them. This collect ion was regarded as i foundation stock from which the best variety was to be selected. The varietal names, if any such existed, were disregarded and the samples received were simply indicated by a serial number. Of these varieties and strains No. 13 proved most promising, the distin- guishing character being a high yielding capacity. The variety was tested for several years and selected according to scientific principles and then disseminated under the name of Minnesota Xo. 13. At present it is grown quite extensively in southern Minnesota and it has also been distributed in South Dakota by the experiment station of that State. The Wisconsin station has selected a .-train of this variety, known as Wisconsin Xo. S. the seed having been secured CORN-BREEDING WORK AT EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 291 from the Minnesota experiment station, and has used the same as the male parent in breeding for earlier maturity in some of the late heavy yielding- varieties of yellow dent corn, in order to make them better suited to Wisconsin conditions. While this line of work is of the greatest value and must be carried on continuously, selection has been introduced to a much greater extent in procuring: seed either for the improvement of the variety itself or for the maintenance of its desirable characters. Formerly in seed-corn selection only the type of ear was considered, but it is now widely recognized, and the stations are continually dwelling upon the point, that this is not enough, but that selection must be applied to the individual plant and to the individual ear with reference to its productiveness. As shown by station work, it is the performance record rather than any particular point about the ear that forms a definite basis for the selection of its progeny for seed. Even the size of the ear, which undoubtedly was regarded as one of the principal and desirable features, and probably in most cases determined the selection of seed, can not be relied upon as indicating the best yielding qualities. In experiments to determine the relation of size of ear to yield the Nebraska station found that the average weight per ear of the five highest-yielding varieties under test was 0.705 pound, while the average weight per ear for all the varieties was much higher. In some cases large-eared varieties were rather low in yield, thus indicating that no definite relation between the size of the ear and the yielding capacity exists. It was further brought out by cooperative tests that the size of the yield varies with locality and is dependent upon soil, climate, and elevation, and the data secured showed plainly that for western and central Nebraska a smaller-eared type of corn should be selected than for the eastern portion of the State. The effect and value of careful selection in corn growing are shown by the results of numerous other experiments and are especially and more definitely thrown into relief by cooperative work. In work of this kind by the Wisconsin Experiment Association in 1905 with Silver King corn, a variety which had undergone selection at the station for several years, an average yield of 59.2 bushels per acre was secured, while the best of all other not so long and carefully selected varieties observed in the comparison yielded on an average 10 bushels less. At the Wisconsin experiment station the results of corn breeding in accordance with the plat system show an increase in the propor- tions and average yields of seed corn and marketable corn in the crops produced. In 1905 each row in the breeding plat produced on an average 22. G pounds of seed corn, 97 pounds of marketable corn, and 7.2 pounds of nubbins, and in 1906, 53.1 pounds of seed corn, 132.8 292 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. pounds of marketable corn, and 13 pounds of nubbins. The average yield per acre of the plats in 1906 was at the rate of approximately 75 bushels per acre. The increase in yield was in some instances largely due to soil and season, but the increase in seed corn was greater in proportion than that of the nubbins, thus indicating that a constant selection from the breeding plat will materially increase productiveness and quality. An experiment was also made to deter- mine to what extent the bearing qualities of different stalks would be transmitted to the progeny. Seed com was selected from stalks bearing a single large ear and from stalks bearing two ears. A greater total yield was secured where the selection was made to increase the number of single ears in the plat than where it was made to increase the number of double ears. Where two ears were borne on a stalk generally one or both were small and poorly formed. The Rhode Island station has pursued for several years a somewhat similar line of work with sweet corn by selecting the upper and lower ear of stalks producing the largest number of ears. This was done to ascertain whether the lower ear would increase lower-ear produc- tion, together with the number of ears on the stalk, as compared with seed from the upper ear. In 1901, 35 per cent of the plants bore more than one ear and in 1905, 90 per cent bore more than one ear, the highest number of ears from a single plant being 13. Although the earlier results seemed to show that the character or the individuality of the corn plant from which the seed is taken is of much greater importance in corn breeding than the position of the ear on the stalk, it was found that selecting seed from the lower ear was not so satis- factory as selecting it from the upper ear. THE INFLUENCE OF THE WORK. The corn-breeding work of the experiment stations has exerted a wide influence in all corn-growing sections of the country. Partly through the station publications and the agricultural press and partly through the activities of agricultural college extension forces, in coop- eration with station workers, the farmers' institutes, the corn-growers' associations, and other similar factors, the results of this work are presented to the farmer and every effort is made to induce him to apply the principles demonstrated as advantageous and profitable. Every gathering at which the value of highly bred corn is discussed reflects the interest of the farming population in the subject and indi- cates the confidence placed in the station results and recommenda- tions. Progress is most rapid when the individual farmer understands all the essential features of the work, but such a degree of efficiency is most readily reached through cooperation with the stations and such mutual assistance as the farmers themselves are able to give to each other. CORN-BREEDING WORK AT EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 293 Associations organized for the purpose of producing highly bred seed corn are doing good work in a number of States, prominent among them being Illinois, Iowa, Indiana, Kansas, Nebraska, and Missouri. In 1900, only about four years after the Illinois station inaugurated its corn-improvement work, the first seed-corn growers' organization, under the name of the Illinois Seed Corn Breeders' Association, was formed and the methods of corn breeding advised by the station were put into use throughout the State. As an example of different lines of endeavor of such associations the work of the Kansas Corn Breeders' Association may be cited. This organization endeavors to establish improved types and strains of corn meeting the needs of different sec- tions of the State, to stimulate and to promote the growing of pure seed corn within the State, to furnish means bj" which valuable native strains showing purity of breeding maybe recognized as pure bred, to establish a bureau of inspection with authority to give certificates of type and breeding for corn grown by breeders, to furnish information on seed corn to farmers and purchasers for their convenience and pro- tection, to aid in enacting legislation protecting the grower of pure-bred seed corn, to establish a score card or standard of perfection for each recognized breed of corn, and to further in every way the interests of corn culture. Corn maybe recognized as pure bred by a vote of the association when it has been bred and selected by itself for five years or more and the proper association authorities have inspected and examined the corn in the locality in which it is grown and have recom- mended to the association that such corn be recognized as a pure-bred corn. In addition to these stipulations the breeder is required to bring a bushel of selected ears of the particular variety to the meeting of the association in which the vote is cast and to give a detailed description, including the history of its breeding and its production. Another plan of cooperation followed in some localities consists in the production of seed corn by one of a group of neighbors whose farm is suitably located and presents average soil conditions. This farmer plants the best variety for the locality, as previously determined, and grows a crop under approved methods of corn improvement and cul- ture, with the understanding that the other parties to the agreement will buy the seed corn produced at a stipulated price. In the work of continuous improvement and the maintenance of a high standard of production throughout the entire country all associations of corn growers and corn breeders are a most important and helpful factor. Our farm lands are steadily increasing in value, and in view of this condition, together with the fact that American agricultural labor should always be well paid, we must obtain greater yields from the same areas without very materially increasing the cost of production in order to get the proper return on the money invested in our farms. This result may be achieved in corn culture by the use of higher 294 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and better bred varieties, as no greater expense is involved in grow- ing a variety ranking high in yield and quality than in growing an inferior one. The experiments showing the value of a full stand of healthy plants grown from strong and vigorous seed, the inquiries into the effects of detasseling, the observations on the mixing of different t}Tpes and varieties, the investigations in crossing, the studies of the chemical composition of the kernel, and similar lines of work constitute the pre- liminary measures which led to the establishment of the breeding plat, with its superior facilities for comparing the yielding power of indi- vidual ears, insuring cross-pollination and pure breeding, and estab- lishing a pedigree of seed ears. The data derived from all the different lines of corn improvement by the experiment stations have been S3^s- tematically and scientific ally grouped by these same institutions and are now presented to the farmer and the commercial seed-corn grower as a harmonious whole in the form of a complete and practical system of corn breeding for the improvement of the corn plant in both yield and quality and for the maintenance of a high standard of excellence. NUTS AND THEIR USES AS FOOD. By M. E. Jaffa. Assistant Professor of Nutrition, University of California. IXTRODUCTIOX". The constantly increasing consumption of nuts throughout the United States augurs well for a better appreciation of their food value. The time when nuts were considered merely as a luxury, or as something to be eaten out of hand at odd times, is rapidly passing away. In earlier days the native hickories, butternuts, walnuts, chest- nuts, and many other nuts found in the United States were to be had in country regions for the gathering and were of no commercial impor- tance. On the other hand, the English walnuts (to give them their most common name), almonds, cocoanuts, etc., brought from other countries, were relatively expensive luxuries. Conditions have mate- rially changed and our principal native nuts are now staple market commodities and bring good prices. At the same time, owing to changes in market conditions, the price of the imported nuts has dropped so that they are well within the reach of the majority. Some nuts, like the native hazelnut and beechnut, have practically no commercial value and, though palatable, are almost never offered for sale, doubtless because they are so small and difficult to gather in quantity. The chinquapin, a small nut allied to the chestnut, finds a limited sale in southern cities, but is seldom seen in other markets. From available statistics it appears that in 1905 the total quantity of almonds, cocoanuts, Brazil nuts, filberts, peanuts, walnuts, and other nuts, shelled and unslielled, imported into the United States was. in round numbers, 86,238,000 pounds, with a value of 86,138,000. In 1905 the total almond crop in California reached 4,200,000 pounds and the walnut crop 12,800,000 pounds. The richest yield of peanuts was reported from the Southern States, chiefly Virginia, Georgia, and Tennessee, and amounted to 225,000,000 pounds. The total quantity of home-grown nuts, including both native and cultivated varieties, must far exceed the quantities imported, but in the nature of the case no estimates of the total quantities gathered and eaten are procurable. When we consider the constantly increasing demand for nuts and the large quantity which we import the p. bilities of the industry for the American nut grower are obvious. As the use of nuts lias increased, many persons have turned their attention to the growing of native and foreign nuts on a commercial 296 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. scale. This work has been forwarded by the Department of Agri- culture, through the Bureau of Plant Industry, and by the Califor- nia. Florida, Michigan, and other agricultural experiment stations. With nuts, as with other crops, it has been found that, by selection and breeding, improved varieties are obtainable, of larger size, bet- ter flavor, thinner shells, or other desirable characteristics. The increased demand for nuts is due in the main to two causes, namely, a better appreciation of their appetizing qualities and the numerous ways in which they form a palatable addition to the diet of the average family, and, secondly, to then use by the vegetarians and persons of similar belief — a group small in proportion to the total population, but still fairly large numerically — who use nuts, and more particularly the peanut, as a substitute for meat and other nitrogenous and fatty foods. Many special nut foods, such as malted nuts, meat substitutes, etc.. have been devised and extensively advertised by the manufacturers for general use in the diet and for the special needs of vegetarians and fruitarians. It is said that some of these American nut products con- tain soy beans, but apparently the peanut plays a very important part in their composition. In either case, since the peanut, like the soy bean, is a legume, these preparations might more properly be compared with the bean cheese and other soy-bean products so much used in China, Japan, and other eastern countries than with such nuts as the walnut, almond, or cocoanut. DESCRIPTION OF NUTS. The term "nut" is not a definite one botanically speaking, but is applied indiscriminately to a variety of certain fruits or parts of fruits and implies a more or less hard, woody covering surrounding a meat or kernel. The most diverse plant groups contribute to our nut supply, many of the nuts being the product of our beech, chestnut, walnut, and other deciduous trees and bushes, some of pines and tropical palms, and others, like the peanut and pistache or pistachio, being the fruit, respectively, of a vine-like plant and a small tree, both belonging to the family of legumes. Still another, the water chestnut, is supplied by a water plant. Most of the native and foreign nuts winch we use are too familiar to need description. Several, however, are not so generally known. Pinenuts, which grow in the cones of a number of varieties of native and foreign pines, are now fairly common in our markets. The Indians have always known and appreciated them and have passed ' ' l~ " .- ; ;■ £• \ /r; '"^NT~~ 107 °f> RROTEIN FAT 634 <%, 1- ■ I lmffl^\ \ f/' "°?V ""- 70°t> FAT STARCH.SUGARETC IZ.S^c*. V \l JL-' £->!. v / tj ~^\ — 715 % STARCH SUSARETC. CRUDE FIBER 26%-.^ \^.-\I'-\ ./ '%^27°?0 CRUDE FIBER ASH 1 4 fy^S^C~~5\-%U \n'- .'Jt'"22 ^' ASH WALMJT. CHESTVJT. Fig. 8.— Percentage composition of an oily nut (walnut) and a starchy nut (chestn ;. Of the nuts here included the richest in fat is the pecan, with an average of 70.7 per cent, but 7 other varieties — the Brazil nut, butter- nut, candlenut, filbert, hickory nut, pinenut, and walnut — contain upward of 60 per cent. The almond, cocoanut, and pistachio yield between 50 and 60 per cent of this nutrient. The beechnut, peanut, and pignolia contain about 50 per cent. In other words, in 13 of the varieties of nuts appearing in the foregoing table, half or more of the edible portion is fat or oil. Only a few of the commonly used nuts yield any notable amounts of total carbohydrate matter, the dry chestnut, with 73 per cent, rating highest. Beechnuts, pinenuts, and peanuts have about IS per cent. The quantity of starch found is, with some exceptions, quite small, ranging from 3 per cent in the beechnut to 27 per cent in the chestnut. Figure 8 shows in diagrammatic form the percentage composition of an oily nut, the walnut, and a starchy nut, the chestnut. Xuts are, comparatively speaking, well supplied with mineral mat- ter, this constituent in the majority of nuts exceeding 2 per cent. The ash of the walnut, almond, etc., is rich in phosphoric acid, and NUTS .VXD THEIR USES AS FOOD. 301 in this regard compares favorably with that of cereals. It would appear from the data on the digestibility of nuts that the mineral matter is as well assimilated as that from other common foods. DIGESTIBILITY OF XUTS. With the exception, perhaps, of dried beans and cheese, no food material has the reputation for indigestibility that has been accorded to nuts. Discomfort from them is largely due to insufficient mastica- tion ami to the fact that nuts are often eaten when not needed, as after a hearty meal or late at night, though it is undoubtedly true that nut protein as ordinarily eaten is not so easily or so completely digested as meat protein. Very likely the concentration of nuts, with but 3 to 5 per cent water, as compared with meats containing from 50 to 70 per cent water, is a contributing cause. If careful consideration were given to this matter and if attention were paid to the proper use of nuts and their correct place in the diet, there would be less unfavor- able comment on their digestibility. The results of investigations carried on with fruit and nut diets at the California Agricultural Experiment Station afford tentative con- clusions regarding thoroughness of digestion which should be of value to those who wish to use nuts as a staple article of food rather than as an occasional article of diet. This work has comprised 15 dietary studies and about 100 digestion experiments with elderly men, young men, women, and children, of whom some had been vegetarians for years, and some had even limited their diet almost exclusively to fruit and nuts; others had previously lived on the usual mixed diet. The average coefficients of digestibility reported for 28 experiments with 2 men and 1 woman were: Protein, 90 per cent; fat, S5 per cent; sugar, starch, etc., 96 per cent: crude fiber, 54 per cent; and ash, 68 per cent, with 86 per cent of the energy available. The correspond- ing figures for three experiments with the same subjects in which no fruit or nuts were used are: Protein, 94 per cent; fat, 92 per cent; sugar, starch, etc., 96 per cent; crude fiber, 49 per cent, with 88 per cent of the energy available. The latter coefficients agree very closely with those in the average of nearly 500 experiments with different sorts of mixed diet, namely : Protein, 92 per cent ; fat, 95 per cent ; and carbohydrates, 97 per cent. In view of these facts regarding compo- sition and digestibilit}' of their diet, it is evident that nuts must be regarded as the main source of protein forthe fruitarians. The studies with fruitarians have all indicated that nut protein is fairly well assimi- lated ; and that this is true with the average healthy person is well illus- trated by an experiment with a university student, who, though en- tirely unaccustomed to such fare, gradually changed from an ordinary mixed diet to one of fruit and nuts, which he followed for a time with- out apparent loss of health or strength. 302 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It is somewhat difficult to arrive at definite conclusions regarding the actual percentage of nut protein digested or assimilated. The experimental data obtained at the California station show a range of 75 to 82 per cent digestible protein when fruit and nuts were eaten together, but the figure for nut protein is doubtless higher. These coefficients were in all probability influenced by the fruit pro- tein, which has been found to be less digestible than the nut protein. The digestibility of protein in 28 experiments with mixed diets, to which were added fruit and nuts, averaged 90 per cent. As fruits, with the exception of the avocado and olive, yield only a small amount of fat, the fat which is contained in a fruitarian diet must be very largely obtained from the nuts. The average coefficients of digestibility for this nutrient in 30 experiments with men on a diet of fruit and nuts was 86 per cent, and in the 28 experiments just re- ferred to it was 85 per cent. These figures are about 10 per cent lower than the average coefficient for digestibility of fats in the ordi- nary mixed diet. The digestibility of the carbohydrates in nuts, so far as the available data show, is about equal to that of the same ingredients in other foods. So far as can be ascertained no experiments have been made on the ease or rapidity of digestion of nuts. In the absence of such data it is fair to assume that within reasonable limits the finer the state of subdivision of the food material, the easier, the more rapid, and per- haps the more nearly complete will be the digestion or assimilation, presupposing, of course, that the nuts are not eaten in addition to a heart a* meal. Too much stress can not be laid on the necessity of thorough mastication of nuts. This is emphasized by the results ob- tained with one of the subjects at the Calilornia station, who ate largelv of nuts but did not properly masticate his food. The coeffi- cients of digestibility of the food were far lower than for other sub- jects who chewed their food thoroughly. The experiments with fruit and nut diets in general indicate that nut protein is as easily, even if not quite so completely, digested as protein from bread and milk. The present discussion refers only to the nuts included in the studies at the California station, viz, the almond, Brazil nut, coeoanut, peanut, pecan, pignolia, and walnut. It is believed that these are typical of the ordinary edible nuts, but further digestion experiments are much needed for the purpose of testing some other nuts. As regards the work of other investigators, both Memino0 and Merrill6 report experiments with cooked chestnuts. Memmo's sub- ject was a farm laborer, 53 years old, working eight hours a day. The experiment lasted four days. During the first two the food con- sisted exclusively of chestnut products. This was modified during a Ann. Inst. Ig. Sper. Univ. Roma, n. s., 4 (1894), p. 263. >> Maine Sta. Bui. 131, p. 146. ■U1E AXD THEIE BGB S FOOD. the last two days by the addition of herring and cheese. In rlinent 75 pear cent of the protein. 87 per cent of the fat. 97 per cent of the total carbohydrates, and S3 per cent of the ash were assim- ilated. The last figure is high: the others correspond to those reported for the California experiments with i nd nut diet. Tl. :' Merrill's experiments were two men aged 23 and 34 lively. A mixed diet was used. Each subject consumed daily _ : .- . ..-ooked chestnut flour, which furnished abou" _ per cent of the proteids. 50 per cent of the fat. nearly 50 per cent of the carbohydrate-, and not far from 40 per cent of the total fuel value of the food. The average digestion coefficients obtained for chestnuts with the two subjects were protein 56 per cent, fat 63 per cent, and total carbohydrates OS per cent, while 89 per cent of the energy avadable. Mem in o also studied a kind of acorn bread eaten in Italy. and found it was fairly well assimilated, though not very palatable. Saikia found tl. I raw Italian chestnuts was relatively indigestible. It would appear, then. that, while it is not possible to state the e: b coefficients for all nuts, enough has been done to indicate their lugh nutritive value and digestibility. PLACE OF NUTS IX THE DIET. It has been shown by numerous invest that nuts are rich in protein and fat and that these nutrients can be fairly well assimilated. - uch a concentrated food, their proper pi a matter for more careful consideration than is tfa y of our ordinary food materials. It must not be l Tg-nten that a cea bulkiness of the diet is conducive to its normal aa that too concentrated nutriment is often the ea\> urb- ances. It might be expected, then, that nuts could : advan- Mialj used in connection with more bulky : etc. Most rationally used, they should constitute an integral part of the menu rather >plemen already abundant meal. Since nuts a: considerable quantity out of hand at odd times will mean an over- supply of food if a corresponding reduction is not made in other foods. The distress sometimes experienced when nut undoubt- edly often due to improper mastication or to overindulgence. The investigations made at the California station indicate clearly considerable quantities of nuts properly eaten do not cause disti pular belief that a little salt with nuts prevents the diges- tive disturbance resulting from eating them. To most persons, salt undoubtedly adds to the palatability of the nuts, but no i:. tions have been found on record which demonstrate any a. improvement in the digestibility of nuts due to salt. oJour. Bi - 251. 304 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT 09? AGRICULTURE. Nuts may be readily used as staple articles of diet, as an ingredient in salads and in soup- 9 - Tuning for poultry, in the making of Berts, and in many other ways. Wild turkey stuffed with pecan nuts is a dish popular with old Virginia cooks, just as goose stuffed with chestnuts is prized in Germany. Salted nuts and nuts crystallized in sugar are very common accompaniments of other foods. In general, the nuts rich in protein and fat should be used in combination with carbohydrate foods, as bread, fruit, green vegetables, etc.. while such nuts as the chestnut , which do not contain much protein or fat, but are rich in carbohydrates, may be properly combined with meats, milk and cream, eggs, and other foods containing protein and fat. Since nuts are relished by most persons, are nutritious, and may be readily used by themselves and in various palatable combinations as an integral part of the diet, they have a legitimate place in the menu. Those who, for any reason, wish to live on vegetable foods and dairy products or any form of vegetarian or fruitarian diet will almost inevitably look to nuts, particularly such as the peanut, for a con- siderable proportion of their total nutritive material. A fruit and nut diet may be arranged to furnish sufficient protein, mainly from nuts, to satisfy the requirements of the body, but the consensus of opinion of well-informed physiologists seems to be that such a diet is not generally advisable nor to be recommended for the majority of mankind in place of the more usual mixed diet. It should also be remembered that numerous experiments have shown that the protein from mixed diet has a higher coefficient of digestibility than nut pro- tein, which indicates that the protein of nuts is the less economically utilized by the body. The argument which is so often advanced that primitive man lived on nuts and fruits exclusively and hence Ins descendants should do so. is not generally accepted. The comparatively high price of many of the edible nuts, particu- larly when shelled, and the difficulty of cracking some varieties — like pecans, black walnuts, and hickory nuts — and extracting the kernels at home, greatly militate against the freer use of nuts in the household. The consumption of peanuts and English walnuts is per- haps increasing faster than that of some other nuts: but. whatever sort is selected, they should, as already noted, form a part of the diet and not supplement an already sufficient meal. NUT BUTTERS. Within the last few years so-called nut butters have been used in increasingly large amounts, and at least one variety, namely, peanut butter, is made and sold in ton lots. It has already been sta4 in order to insure the best physiological results from the ietel use of nuts they should be thoroughly ground up by the teeth and I other things being equal, the digestion coefficient will vary directly NTJTS AXD THEIR USES AS FOOD. 305 with the fineness of division. The nut butters, made as they are from the finely ground nuts with or without the addition of 'some water, oil, and salt, have a homogeneous consistency nut unlike true butter., and when properly made the material is so finely divided that even if it is not thoroughly chewed it will presumably otter much less resistance to the digestive juices than nuts hastily eaten. Nuts, and hence nut butters, are very rich in fat winch readily becomes rancid and unpalatable. This is doubtless one of the reasons why nut but- ters are quite commonly marketed in jars, etc., containing small amounts which may be utilized in a short time. The nut butters are recommended by vegetarians as a substitute for butter in culi- nary processes and for use at the table. With persons who are not vegetarians they are commonly used for making sandwiches and in other ways for their agreeable flavor and for the pleasing variety which they give the diet. Nut butter may be easily made at home. The nuts may be poimded in a mortar, but a mill for grinding them is much more' con- venient and may be readily procured, as there are a number of sorts on the market. The process of making nut butters has been fre- quently described in journals and cookery books. Either the raw or the roasted peanut may be used for making peanut butter, but the roasted nut is the more satisfactory. The kernels should be freed from chair and reduced to a paste in the grinding mill. Freshly roasted nuts are necessary, as those which have stood for a day or so after roasting lose in crispness, do not grind well, and tend to clog the mill. Any sort of nut may be used, but experience has shown that it is more difficult to make butters from the almond or Brazil nut than from the peanut. Blanching these nuts requires consid- erably more time and labor than is needed to free the peanut from the skin which covers the kernel, and they are also more difficult to grind. Nut butters will keep well if sealed in glass or earthernware jars. Tin cans also may be used, but are not quite as desirable. As might be expected, nut butters do not differ materially in composi- tion from the nuts from which they are ground. (See table, p. 299.) The nut butters just mentioned are entirely different from cocoanut butter and from cocoa butter, which are expressed and purified fats. These "butters" are of considerable commercial importance and are used for culinary purposes, though perhaps they are more commonly used in other ways. NUT TASTES AXD NUT PRESERVES. Paste? which are used by confectioners for candy making and in other ways are made from nuts with the addition of sugar° Some- times water and starch are added, but such admixtures are inferior to the nut and sugar pastes. The most common material of this 3 a 1906 20 306 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. sort is the almond paste, which is manufactured in large quantities in the United States and is also imported. It is used for making cakes, candies, etc., the highly ornamented cakes called "marzipan," so popular with the Germans, being one of the very well-known almond-paste confections. Chestnuts preserved or candied in sirup and then dried, the mar- ron glace of the confectioners, are esteemed a delicacy and are eaten alone or are used in confectionery, etc. Thus prepared, they are a common commercial article. Much less common are the Eu^ walnut meats in sirup, which are manufactured in Europe and exported to this country in limited quantities. In the Tropics a thick, sweet preserve is made from cocoanut and sugar which is much liked locally, though those who are not familiar with it con- sider it very sweet and insipid. As the data in the table on page show, these products are rich in carbohydrates, owing to the added sugar. NUT FLOURS AND MEALS. Among nut products may be mentioned nut flours and meals. Some of these are used in large quantities and are made on a com- mercial scale, while others, perhaps owing to the trouble and expense incidental to manufacture, find only a limited use. In general, meals are made from the ordinary edible nuts by blanching, thoroughly drying, and grinding. By using a nut mill such meals may be ground at home. Analyses of some products of this character will be found in the table on page 299. Almond.meal lias been on the market for a long time, being used as food for diabetics and for making cakes, etc., as well as in a number of technical ways. Special mention should be made of chestnut flour, which is on sale in the United States and is used for most of the culinary purposes for which the fresh nut is recommended. In Italy it constitutes a con- siderable part of the diet, in some regions being extensively used for making a sort of bread or cake. One of the most complete studies of the dietetic use of chestnuts has been reported by Memmo.a Accord- ing to the author, the chestnut often serves almost as the exclusive food of the peasants of Tuscany for a considerable part of the year. The whole nuts are eaten in a variety of ways; for instance, boiled in water without hulling, hulled and boiled, or roasted. From the flour various cakes and other foods are made. Acorn meal made into a sort of bread with the addition of about 75 per cent of flour is a common article of diet in several regions, notably Umbria and Tus- cany, but the bread is black and heavy and not very palatable. The early travelers and explorers make mention of the extended use of nuts by the American Indians, and the custom of using acorns a Loo. cit. ; see also p. 302. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. Plate XV. Fig. 1.— California Indians Pounding Acorn Meal for Food. Fig. 2. -California Indian Leaching Acorns for Food. XUTS AXB THEIB USES AS FOOD. 307 as a staple food is still kept up. The methods of preparing acorns followed by the Indians of northern California have been described by P. E. Goddarda in a publication of the University of California, and by V. K. Chesnut,6 formerly of the . Department of Agriculture. Briefly speaking, the shelled nuts are split, dried, and ground with a mortar and pestle. The sifted flour is placed in a hollow in the sand on a convenient river bank and leached to free it from the bitter prin- ciples present . From the leached meal a porridge or mush is made, which to the ordinary palate is much improved by the addition of salt. Plate XV shows the way in which the nuts are pounded into flour, and also shows an Indian woman leaching the meal. These typical Indian foods, when well prepared, are relished by many persons who have tried them, and it seems not improbable that improved methods of removing the tannin and bitter principles present in most varieties of acorns might result in the utilization of the acorn crop, which is fairly large and is generally wasted. According to Chesnut'sc investigations, the California buckeye or horse-chestnut is also used by the Indians as a food and is leached to free it from poisonous or objectionable matters in much the same way as the acorn. Many attempts have been made in Europe and else- where to treat the fruit of the common horse-chestnut in some way so that it might be made wholesome and palatable, for it undoubtedly contains an abundance of nutritive material, particularly starch; but none of these attempts has been really successful. The use of partly extracted peanuts and other nut meals with wheat and rye flour for bread making should be mentioned. Such breads have been used for patients with diabetes, but have never come into general use, perhaps because they are not very palatable, since the nuts become rancid so readily. NUT CAXDIES. One of the most extensive uses of nuts is in the manufacture of candy of various sorts, such as sugared almonds, burnt almonds, nut chocolates, caramels, pinoche, nut brittle, etc. "While there are some differences in the process of manufacture followed in these candies, they all in the main consist of nuts and sugar in varying proportions, with flavoring extracts, and in some instances butter and flour. The table on page 299 shows the composition of common sorts of nut candy. As may be seen, the water content is low and these can- dies are highly concentrated foods. On account of the added sugar the carbohydrate content is high. The proportion of nuts used in candies varies. By assuming that the nuts furnish the bulk of the fat a Univ. Gal. Pubs.. Amer. Arch, and Ethnol., 1 (1903), No. 1, p. 27. 61". S. Dept. Agr., Div. Bot., Contrib. Nat. Herbarium, 7 (1902), p. 333. cLoc. cit., p. 366. BBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in the candy imated that nuts constituted about 50 per cent in the specimen- I rzed. It is perhaps well to suggest that nut can- dies and other candies which sometimes cause digestive disturbances would be tisfactory if eaten in a rational way and at the pr time. Since they are concentrated foods, they should naturally replace an equivalent amount of some other food material and not be eaten in quantity simply for their palatable flavor in addition to an otherwise adequate daily ration. NUT COFFEES. A number of coffee substitutes made from nuts have been devised and placed on the market, peanut coffee and acorn coffee being by far the most common. The nuts are parched and sometimes otherwise treated. Such coffee substitutes lack the stimulating properties of true coffee, and the infusion does not have the high nutritive value which is sometimes claimed for it. GEE EX NUTS. A number of kinds of nuts are used before they are fully ripe, and are esteemed a delicacy. In California in spring the markets quite commonly offer green almonds — that is, the almond picked from the tree while the husk is of a decided green color and easily separated from the soft and immature shell. The kernel, after the skin is peeled off. is eaten with or without salt, and is relished by many persons. The price of green almonds in California markets commonly varies from about 20 ~ und. Green almonds are found to a limited extent in fancy fruit shops in eastern cities and elsewhere, and are perhaps purchased as much for their ornamental appearance as for their palatability. They are much more commonly used in Europe than in the United States. Green English walnuts and green hazelnuts are also eaten to :i considerable extent in Europe and are it favorites. The nuts are gathered when the shells are fully matured but not thoroughly ripe. Sometimes these given nuts are imported into the United States. Many who have grown up in the .try will recall the delicate flavor of the immature butternut and hickory nut and the stained lingers which they caused. Such green nuts have apparently never been marketed. Whole green walnuts and some other nuts are also used in a quite ature state for pickle making. They are picked when still er enough to be easily pierced by a large pin; then, after being in brine for a number of days, they are exposed to the sun until they turn black. Afterwards they are placed in jars and covered with hot vinegar and spices. Sometimes they are treated with dry NUTS AND THEIR USES AS FOOD. 309 salt instead of brine before pickling. It is claimed that nuts thus treated will blacken without being exposed to sunlight. Such pickled nuts are considered by many as a very palatable dish for use with meats and poultry. Walnut catsup is also made from green walnuts. NUT OILS AND OIL-CAKE MEALS. In some parts of Europe almond oil, walnut oil, and beechnut oil are manufactured and prized as salad oils, and in South America Brazil-nut oil is used for table purposes. Cocoanut oil is an important oil in the Tropics. Peanut oil finds a large technical application and is also used in large quantities as a salad oil and for culinary purposes. Oils are also made from the kernel or nut of the peach and apricot, but these, like most nut oils except those mentioned, are used for medicinal or technical purposes. The various nut oils, which are practically pure fats, have a very high fuel value, and, like olive oil and other oils, may constitute an important energy-yielding constituent of the diet. It is commonly assumed that, like olive oil, these oils are readily assimilated when properly combined with other food materials, as in salads, as " shorten- ing" for various dishes, and in similar ways. The oil-cake meals, as the ground products remaining after the expression of the nut oils are called, are much used as food for live stock and all kinds of poultry, and this is especially true of the peanut and cocoanut oil cakes. It has been suggested that such oil-cake meals might be valuable dietary articles if properly manipulated, as they of course contain a higher percentage of protein than the original nut. Some attempts have been made to thus utilize peanut-cake meal, but the results have not been very satisfactory. PECUNIARY ECONOMY OF NUTS. The composition and digestibility of nuts have been discussed in the foregoing pages, but little has been said regarding the cost of nutrients and energy which they supply as compared with other and more com- mon food materials. The table on page 310 shows the comparative cost of a pound of protein and 1.000 calories of energy when furnished by different nuts and nut products and some other staple foods, and also the amounts of nutrients and energy which 10 cents' worth of these foods would supply, rating the foods at certain average prices per pound. The common nuts — though, with the exception of the peanut, they are more expensive sources of protein and energy than meat and a number of the common foods — may yet be considered reasonably cheap sources of nutrients and energy, and hence may be regarded as justifiable additions to the diet on the score of economy. For 310 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPABTM] ICULTUBE. --egetarian or fruitarian, wh< I to nuts as the chief sou: protein in the diet, the peanut must he i nch the : Lomical. As may be seen by a referenc nts will purchase in in and i hen expended for the fl and meals than : : the other foods, but it must be remembered in this connection that these are tl materials requir. s siderable preparation before they are palatable. This is n< \ sary with fruits and nuts, except in the ■: tut and chi -~- nut, winch are usually roasted before they by most persons, though there are those considering nuts, it is readily observed that 10 < the same amount of nut pi = of animal protein, except in the case of cheese and skim milk. If spent for peanuts, it will | more than twice the protein and six times the enem could be bought for the same expenditure for porterl. - ;tk. Price per pound. one pound protein. - . 1,000 An: Kind of food. Total - 1 - - .ucts: I - Pound*. Pounds. Pound*. I . S 20 1.76 13.0 8.3 ■ 0.06 .04 .07 0.14 - .44 78B 1 rata 1,196 " _ • . . Hickorv cuts 9 " 1.11 -■ 1 1 t* 7 - 3.6 1.43 .31 ' . 1 " . Pignolias Pistachios .74 .40 ! .14 .11 : ■ Z 40 3. 17 21.0 E .04 .13 h33 AJmo 475 Peanut t otter 20 7.1 ' - .09 1.412 jt candy .' _ S 11.8 .04 1 . • foods for com- ison: 1.31 .07 ! 4 1.21 12.0 . " ■ .13 ■ i . i . .03 1,330 : flour 3 - 3. S3 • - ■ " • ' Beans, dried i 3.1 ! LIP H - 1.11 t,4 ■ 1 .09 ~, It is of more than passing interest to note that 10 vorth of will contain about 4 oun-o - - and calories of energy, which is more protein and en- _ n is furnished by many ratio:.- _ led as adequate for a day. Alth a peanuts supply protein and energy for a smaller sum than brt are outranked by dried I oich. at 5 NUTS AND THEIR USES AS POOD, 311 for 10 cents over 200 grams of protein ami 3,200 calories of If more peanuts and dried beans were used by fruitarians, their diet would be enriched and the cost decreased. The almond, so much in favor with fruitarians, furnishes for 10 cents about one-fourth the protein and less than one-third the energy supplied by peanuts. HANDLING AND MARKETING NUTS. Within the last few years the trade in shelled nuts has very mark- edly increased, and shelled walnuts, hickory nuts, almonds, Eng walnuts, pecans, etc., are now very commonly found in shops. The bulk of the nut crop is. however, marketed unshelled. Some of the unshelled nuts, notably pecans and peanuts, are very often pol- ished before marketing by rotating them in rapidly revolving drum- in such a way that the shells are worn down until they are more or less smooth. This method of treatment also removes any dirt anil is supposed to make the nut more salable. It is worthy of note, however, that the highly prized, large fancy pecans are marketed without such treatment. For shelling nuts on a commercial scale a number of ingenious machines have been devised. In order to meet the market demand for clean and uniformly colored nuts, many nut growers have resorted to the process of bleacliing their product. The first attempts in this direction were made by sulphuring: that is, by exposing the nuts to sulphur vapor. This treatment, though improving the color, proved decidedly injurious to the flavor of the nuts and lessened the keeping qualities. At the California experiment station experi- ments with bleaching solutions have been carried on and very satis- factory results have been obtained with a mixture of sal soda, chlorid of lime, and water. According to reports of the imperial department of agriculture of the West Indies,0 a similar process has been sue* - - fully used for bleaching peanuts. The consumer should bear in mind that the bleaching of nuts is entirely unnecessary and in no way increases their food value. The process is carried on solely for the purpose of improving the appearance of the nut and thus com- manding a higher price. It will doubtless be continued as long as the public is willing to be guided by appearance rather than food value. The term '•bleaching,'* as applied to nuts, must not be con- founded with the household term ••"blanching," which applies to the process of removing the skins from nut meats, as almonds, by immers- ing them for a short time in hot water. Vegetables and fruits exposed for sale under ordinary condition- may be readily contaminated with bacteria, dirt, and dust. Nuts sold in their shells are protected in large measure from such contami- nation, yet many careful housewives wash, or at least wipe, the nuts aIinp. Dept. Agr. West Indies Pamphlet No. 43, n. s. 312 YEABBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. which are to be cracked and served in the shells, as anything which adheres to the shell would readily contaminate the nuts after crack- ing, if all were mixed together in a dish. Shelled nuts, if exposed to dust in shops and markets, should be washed before they are used for salads, etc. If exposed to damp conditions, nuts mold and decay, and even under favorable conditions the nut oils and pits become rancid on long-continued storing. In the main, however, the keeping quali- ties of most nuts are excellent. Nuts should be stored in such a way that they may be free from attacks of insect enemies. When such precautions are not taken, "wormy" nuts are by no means uncommon. SUMMARY. Summarizing the foregoing data, it may be said that nuts are a very concentrated food, even more so than cheese, but when ration- ally used they are well assimilated and may form a part of a well- balanced diet. Nuts are a very valuable source of protein and fat, these two nutrients being the characteristic constituents of the more common nuts, of which the walnut and cocoanut may be taken as types. In nuts like the chestnut, carbohydrates are a characteristic constituent. For most families it is undoubtedly wiser to use nuts as part of the regular diet than as a condiment or supplement to an otherwise hearty meal. Vegetarians and others who use nuts in place of meat should not depend upon them as the main food supply, but should supplement them with more bulky foods with a low content of protein and fat. As a whole, nuts may be classed among the staple foods and not simply as food accessories. At usual prices, nuts are reasonable sources of protein and energ}'. Peanuts supply protein and energy very cheaply, even compared with such staple foods as bread and beans. There are a number of nut foods on the market, but it may be stated that there is little to be gained from the standpoint of food value or economy in their use, especially by healthy persons who are willing to masticate their food thoroughly and to use nuts in reasonable combinations. Unless something has been added, the nutritive materials in such special preparations can not be greater than the nuts from whiteh they are made, though in the mechanical condition or in some other way the foods may be better fitted for ready assimilation. Furthermore, nut butters and similar foods give a pleasant variety to the diet, and they are relished by many who would not care for the unprepared nuts. Though less subject to contamination than many other foods, nuts should be handled and stored under good conditions, and especially should be protected from dampness and insect enemies. SOME RECENT STUDIES OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. By W. I). Hunter, In Charge of Cotton Boll Weevil Investigations, Bureau of Entomology. INTRODUCTORY. The boll weevil problem still remains a most important one for the cotton industry of this country. The insect continues to spread. Climatic barriers have given it temporary checks, but they have been successively overcome. The prediction that the pest will eventually reach the limits of cotton culture in this country has 'repeatedly been made, but an important consideration connected with the future spread has received less attention, largely because it has more recently become evident. This consideration is that damage in new regions is likely to be more severe than it has been in the territory infested up to this time. The experience of the past two years has rather tended to obscure some of the features of the weevil problem. The large crops produced in Texas have given an erroneous impression of the prospects. It is true that very remarkable results have been ob- tained in the work of the Department of Agriculture. Making due allowance for this important work, it must be stated that the recent large crops are largely due rather to a combination of conditions favor- able to the growth of the plant and unfavorable to the weevil than to a lessened capacity for damage on the part of the insect. The work of the Bureau of Entomology has shown that in Texas, except in unusu- ally wet seasons, a fair crop can easily be produced. The possibilities of production in a favorable season are shown by the fact that in 1906 the infested area produced about one-third of the total crop of. the United States; but the same success will by no means necessarily follow in other regions where the conditions are different. There- fore future developments must be awaited with some solicitude. THE STATUS OF THE COTTOX BOLL WEEVIL IX 1906. The total area infested by the cotton boll weevil in 1906 is indi- cated on the accompanying map (fig. 9). It extends over the greater part of the cotton-producing region of Texas, much of Lou- isiana, and comparatively small areas in Oklahoma and Arkansas. 313 314 YEABBOOK OP THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. This area extends a distance of about 590 miles northward from Brownsville, where the insect first invaded the State of Texas. The insi ct I >read both to the west and to the east. At present the infested area extends a distance of 400 miles east and west. Within the i area the annual rainfall ranges from about 12 inches in the west to more than 50 inches in the east. The altitude RECENT STUDIES OF MEXICAN COTTON BOLE WEEVIL. 315 varies from sea level to about 2.600 feet. The mean annual temper- ature varies from 72° at Brownsville, Tex., to 62° at Paris, Tex. During the season of 1906 the increase in the infested area con- sisted of a belt varying in width from 20 miles in northwestern Texas to over 60 miles in northern Louisiana, and Oklahoma. Over 1,500,000 acres of cotton land became invaded. This dispersion, however, began in August, so late in the season that no appreciable damage was done in this area. As a matter of fact, estimates of the damage for the year 1906 must be made upon the basis of the area infested in 1905. One of the most interesting features of the situation in 1906 was the fact that a considerable advance was made directly northward into Oklahoma and Indian Territory. The insect reached points as far north as the Red River as early as 1904, specimens being found in Lamar County at that time. For three successive years the advance had been checked by winter conditions, but the season of 1906 wit- nessed a net gain northward of about 60 miles. The causes for this great advance after repeated checks are somewhat obscure. The preceding winter conditions in northern Texas were not especially favorable for the weevil. The precipitation was about normal, although the temperature was slightly higher than usual. Some study has been given this matter, but on the whole it does not seem that the climatic conditions alone would account for the northward advance. A more reasonable explanation seems to be that the weevil has gradually acquired an ability to withstand conditions that pre- viously checked it. We thus have apparently another illustration of the adaptive capacity of the insect. LOCAL VARIATIONS AXD TIIEIE CAUSES. In such a large area, where the climatic and geographic variations are so important that entirely distinct agricultural provinces have been formed, it would naturally be supposed that the boll weevil problem has various local aspects. It is true that there is no uni- formity in the damage that is done throughout the affected area. In some regions the weevil has caused great depreciation in land values, while others have not suffered appreciably in this respect. In gen- eral, the drier and freer from timber the less is the damage by the weevil. The reasons for this are that dryness increases the death rate of immature stages in the fallen squares enormously in the sum- mer and the absence of the protection afforded by timber contributes equally to a decrease in the number of adults in the winter. When the foregoing conditions are combined with low winter temperatures, as happens in northwestern Texas, there is a total of conditions most disastrous for the weevil. The reverse of these conditions is found 316 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in the timbered valleys of eastern Texas and Louisiana, where the precipitation is much heavier. In addition to the variations in weevil damage due to the decided constant differences in climate that have been mentioned, there are also local and temporary differences of climate and other conditions. These add to the large-area variations local modifications within the special regions. For instance, a local severe outbreak of the leaf worm in eastern Texas has been known to give that particular area comparative immunity from damage for one season. Much information about the local variations affecting the weevil problem was gained in the spring of 1906 by a series of examinations to determine the number of hibernated weevils present per acre and later by a series of examinations to determine the extent of infesta- tion by the first broods. These examinations were made practically simultaneously at over thirty localities. At each place entomologists made examinations of fields in different locations as regards the prox- imity of timber and other conditions which have a bearing upon the number of weevils which successfully pass through the winter. By a plan of examining a certain number of groups of plants in each cotton field it was possible to determine the average number of wee- vils present in that particular field. By averaging the number of weevils found in the different fields examined in any one locality the number of weevils per acre for that region was determined. By far the greatest number of hibernated weevils was found in eastern Texas, in Rusk and Shelby counties. In that quarter an average of more than 500 weevils per acre was found, and in some cases the number per acre reached nearly 700. This area extended well into Louisiana and comprised at least 500 square miles. A study of the conditions in this quarter gives the best possible indication of the conditions which will arise in the central and eastern portions of the cotton belt when they are reached by the weevil. Two widely sepa- rated regions showed an average of over 300 hibernated weevils per acre. One of these was in northeastern Texas, another in the coast region including Bee, Refugio, San Patricio, and Nueces counties. These areas were separated by extensive ones wherein comparatively few hibernating weevils were found. Much of the recent advance in our knowledge of the boll weevil is the result of comparative studies of these areas of great damage and of other areas of comparative scarcity. The study has been con- tinued by an examination of the statistics of production as far as available. The production by counties up to December 13, 1906, as determined by the Census Bureau, has been used. The crop of 1904 has been used as a basis of comparison for the reason that it may properly be considered a normal crop. In Louisiana, in the heavily infested portion, the percentage of increase of the crop of 1906 over RECENT STUDIES OF MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 317 that of 1905 was 9.7 per cent of that of 1904. In the lightly infested area of Louisiana, however, the percentage of increase, determined in the same way, was 44.6 per cent. In Texas the increase in the heavily infested portion of the eastern part of the State was 12.9 per cent, and in the lightly infested region in the north-central portion of the State it was 59.9 per cent. These figures show clearly the temporary advantage gained through the scarcity of weevils in cer- tain restricted regions. THE RELATION BETWEEN WEEVIL DAMAGE AXD PRECIPITATION. For a long time it has been recognized that the most important single factor in assisting in the production of a cotton crop in a weevil- infested region is dryness during the growing season. An excellent illustration of this is furnished by the conditions in Victoria County, Tex., during the spring of 1906. The crop of that year in Victoria County is much the largest ever produced, although the acreage prob- ably was not as large as has been planted in other seasons. The exact records regarding production are not available at this time, but a very conservative estimate of the crop of Victoria County for 1906 is 13,000 bales. From the accompanying table it will be seen that May and June were abnormally dry months; in fact, the total precipitation for April, May, and June (4.19 inches) was less than half of the mean total for those months for the five preceding years (9.28 inches). Comparison of spring precipitation with the cotton crop in Victoria County, Tc.v., 1901-1906. Year. Precipitation. April. 1901 1902 1903 190-1 1905 1900 Inches. 2.43 2.85 1.03 3.33 7.58 2.88 May. Inches. 0.59 3.23 2.25 4.37 2.45 .63 Cotton crop, "n bales of total \f„„fv,i„ ' in baies oi June. for three vonP:,„'> 500 pounds months. Inches. Inches. 1.14 4.16 1.38 2.03 8.11 2.70 4.05 7.33 2.44 5.32 13.02 4.34 3.77 13. 80 4.60 .GS 4.19 1.39 9,060 9,236 5, 355 6,495 9,016 ol3,000 c Estimated. While the total for April, May, and June, 1906, was only 4.19 inches. the mean total for 1901 to 1905 was 9.28 inches. There can be no error in estimating the effect of dryness in this case, on account of the number of weevils present. In fact, far more than the usual number of hibernated weevils appeared in the fields of Victoria County up to the end of April. In one instance a total number of about 1,500 per acre was shown to have come to a certain 318 YEARBOOK OF THE TEPAETZMEX .TUBS. field. O: . clue allowance must be made for tlie effect of the id the ant 8 . referred to else- re. However, the dryness rather interfered with the work of the ant and certainly di. ilitate greatly the work of the p therefore, must be considered as the controlling factor. In the facta brought out in the preceding paragraphs we have the most ex present available for an estimate regarding the manner in which the boll weevil will affect cotton production in the more humid regions that it is now invading. Taking Vicksburg, Miss., as a typical location in the Mississippi Valley, we find that the normal precipitation for April is 5.86 inches, for May 4.85 inches, and for June 4.31 inches. This gives a mean total for these months of 2 inches as again riches at Victoria, and a monthly average for the same three months at Vicksburg of 5 inches as against 3.09 inches for Victoria. From these figure- leaf that the weevil conditions in a region like that of Vicksburg will normally be similar hose of the years of greatest precipitation in Texas. FACTOR- IX THE NATURAL CONTROL OF THE BOLL WEEVIL. Valuable results have been obtained in an extensive study of the as in the natural control of the boll weevil. Many climatic and other conditions are known to exert influences in reducing weevil damage. Low summer temperatures check the insect by lengthening the period of development, and the amount of the food supply is a controlling element. Aside from such general influences and cul- tural expedients, the following are the principal factors which are now affecting the boll weevil in the infested region: 1. Heat and dryness during spring and summer. 2. The ant Solenopsis geminata and other predaceous inse 3. Winter temperatures and moisture. •u. 5. Para-/ 6. The cotton leaf worm. 7. Determinate growth of the cotton plant. irds. The above arrangement places these factors in the probable order of their importance at the present time. It must be remembered that future developments will undoubtedly necessitate a rearrange- ment of the above lif ill prob- ably increas ar. and the effect brought about by the leaf worm will give that i: greater importance as the weevil invades the Mississippi Valley proper. The above arrangement n merely to the present conditi The importance of proliferation has been brought out forcibly by the writ .-. Dr. W. E. Hinds, in Bulletin No. 5( . Bureau of RECENT STUDIES OF MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 319 Entomology. During the year 1006 special attention has been paid to heat and dryness, an;s, and parasites, the last two of which are factors of which practical use could more or less easily be made. Altogether 86,982 squares and bolls were collected and examined to learn the effects of these three factors. This material was collected in many localities in Texas, Louisiana, and Oklahoma. In it were found 38,883 weevil stages. Of this number 21.1 per cent had been killed by heat and dryness, 27.1 per cent by ants, and 4.3 per cent by parasites. The total effect of the three factors in Texas and Louisiana was to destroy 52.3 per cent of the weevil stages; that is to say, natural causes cut off more than one-half of the possible number of weevils. Moreover, more than one-half of this destruction was caused by the ant alone. A comparison of the efficiency of these natural factors in Texas and Louisiana is of interest in showing the probable future aspects of the weevil problem. The combined effect in Texas was the destruction of 53.8 per cent and in Louisiana 44.1 per cent of the weevil stages. The rather close approximation of these percentages is due to the greater work of the ant in Louisiana, the two other factors being rela- tively unimportant in that State. In the case of ants the percentage of destruction in Louisiana was 35.7 and in Texas 31.3; in the case of heat and dryness 5.9 in Louisiana and 27.7 in Texas: and in the case of parasites 0.7 per cent in Louisiana and 3.5 per cent in Texas. The work of the native ant Solenopsis geminate deserves special attention. The insect is distributed throughout the cotton belt, and in fact was found by Mr. E. A. Schwarz to be an important enemy of the boll weevil in Central America. It must not be confused with the Guatemalan ant, the importation of which has proved a failure. In country the native ant was quite carefully studied by Mr. Schwarz and others in the early eighties. It has always shown an inclination to attack insects that it encounters in its travels up and down the cotton plant primarily for the purpose of obtaining nectar. It was natural to suppose that it might acquire a habit of feeding upon the boll weevil. Nevertheless, the rapidity with Avhich the ant seems to be acquiring this habit is surprising. Our attention was first especially directed to this matter during an ariment which was being made to test the effect of direct sunlight in destroying the immature stages of the weevil. One hundred and fifty squares believed to contain larva? were divided into two lots and placed on the bare ground in the cotton plat at the laboratory in Dal- las, Tex. One lot was left dried while the other was moistened to determine whether the mortality would be equally great in both cases. The squares were placed on the ground at 4.30 p. m., September 5. The following morning numerous ants were noticed running over and around them, although no signs of a nest had been seen the previous 320 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. evening. Subsequent observations showed holes in several of the squares in size and external appearance resembling weevil emergence holes so closely that at first they were mistaken for them. A more care- ful examination showed that the weevils had not emerged, but that the holes were really entrance holes made by the ants to enable them to get at the weevil wihin. Practically all of the squares had been opened. In the 75 squares kept dry the ants had entered 64, destroying prob- ably 44 larval stages and 20 pupal stages. In the lot kept wet the ants had entered 73 of the 75 squares, destroying 50 stages probably larval, and 23 probably pupal. A remarkable fact was that out of the 150 squares in the lot only 13 were not entered by the ants, and 9 of these 13 were found on examination to have no weevil stages within them. It seems reasonable to conclude that the ants have some ability to determine from the outside whether there is some stage of the weevil within the squares. It was thought that conclusions from this single experiment might be unreliable on account of artificial surroundings and the nearness of the squares to the nest, which, however, was more than 3 feet away. Subsequent experiments in cotton fields and the examination of thousands of fallen squares have all led to the, opinion that the work attributed to the ants was not overestimated. The following are some records of the work of the ant shown by examination of squares picked at random from the ground in cotton fields in various par Texas: At Beeville, Tex., August 13, out of S74 weevil stages found 6S4 had been destroyed by ants. In another field, also at Beeville, on September 3, the ants had destroyed 11 out of 117 stages. At Dal- las, on October 15, the ants had destroyed 39 out of 247 weevil stag a. The following statement shows the results of extensive observations on the percentage of mortality in weevil stages brought about by the ant under different conditions : rUagcs of mortality of xoeevil stages brought about by the ant Solcnopsis giminata. Weevil stages. ..lity. In Louisi- ta _ ana. Percent. Percent. 9 11.8 27. 7 11.8 ! " 20.7 In view of the abundance of weevil food, there is certainly nothing surprising in the present indication that the ant is rapidly becoming an important enemy of the weevil. We have many letters from farmers scattered throughout the infested territory informing us of observa- tions similar to ours on the work of the ants in cotton fields. RECENT STUDIES OF MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 321 Some practical conclusions may be drawn from a comparison of mortality among weevil stages in fallen squares and bolls with the mortality found when the fruit remains attached to the plant \ ■ careful investigation of this matter will be detailed in a bulletin to be issued in the near future by the Bureau of Entomology. The hanging forms referred to are only those which are to be found in a perfectly dead and dry condition but still attached to the plant by a thin strip of bark. This tendency seems to be more developed in the duster varie- ties of cotton like the Dickson than in those that are more frequently planted m the infested region at the present time. However, indi- vidual plants in fields of any variety observed occasionally show the same tendency toward holding their fruit, and certain climatic and soil conditions seem to increase this tendency, sometimes to a con- spicuous degree even in case of cotton of unknown pedigree. It was early observed in the present investigation thai the hanging forms show a considerably higher percentage of parasitism of we'evil stages than the fallen ones. For instance, in a very extensive series of observations m Texas the percentage of parasitism in fallen squares was 3.5, but in hanging, 13.9. In Louisiana a somewhat less extensive series of observations showed a percentage of parasitism in fallen squares of 0.7 and in hanging squares of 8.3. At first these fio-ures seemed to indicate that a variety which would more or less uniformly retain instead of dropping its infested fruit would be highly desirab'e in weevil-mfested regions. Further data, however, show the fallacy of such a supposition and also incidentally indicate the danger of erro- neous conclusions in such a complicated biological problem as the boll weevil presents. While the hanging forms showed much hi-her percentages of mortality due to parasites, the fallen forms showed a much greater percentage due to the other factors in natural control namely heat and dryness and the ant Solcnopsis geminata. In Texas the percentage of mortality due to ants, in hanging squares, was 18.2, while in fallen squares it was 31.3; in Louisiana the hangino- squares showed 32.3 mortality and the fallen squares 35 7 from the same cause. In Texas heat and drying brought about a mortality of 18.6 per cent m hanging squares and 27.7 per cent in fallen squares ■ in Louisiana the same factor resulted in a mortality of 5.9 per cent and 20, per cent, respectively. In other words, the combined effect of heat and dryness and ants in the fallen squares was much more important than the individual effect of parasites in the hanging squares From the results of the examinations made upon hanging forms it appears that the mortality found among nearly 10,000 weevil stages present averaged 42.6 per cent, while in the case of fallen forms among approximately 30,000 weevil stages, there was a mortality of 56 per cent, From this extensive series of observations, covering a very wide range of variable conditions, it appears that the average 3 a!906 21 " ARTMENT OF AGI.ICULTV salting from the three natural faetors iin< 13.4 per cent greater in fallen than in hai -. The . y in hang v&ey near) fallen! he mortality in fallen squares is nearly twice as great as in hang- •ie. too. that a very large majority of weevil und were in the fallen squares. These results indicate that those varieties of cotton which shed - 1 squares and small bolls most readily and most com- pletely will have an advantage by bringing the weevil stages con- tamed in those forms under the most effective action of these impor- tant natural factors. ADDITIONAL DATA CONCERNING IMPORTANCE OF FALL DESTRUCTION <;F COTV It has been considered by many that the destruction of cotton ter killing frosts was of little value in the control of the weevil. All htave agreed that this pro : pafan* fore that time. Recent data snow clearly that the ckstruf- tion of t . after several severe frosts is of great value ; in fact, it :parem! o efficacious than earlier destruction. the first kill -: in the fall of 1000 occurred on -ember 19. On t hnateof .ber of weevils per acre on a 00-acre experime. nta- - made. In different portions of the field 35 plants were mined and calculations were made on the basis of 8,300 p] — probably not far from the usual number in Tex-. From the 35 plants examined 20 live weevils were taken, indicating the nee of 6,477 live weevils per acre. On November 22 another .notation gave an estimated number of 6.403 weevils per acre. additional examination was made on December 1 after many heavy frosts. A: this time 14 hibernating weevils were taken from 36 plants, indicating that 3.22s weevils per acre were present in the field. Examina i;ions of the remains of bolls on plants on Novem- ber 21 revea- 2 Is in 3251 lis; thai is, 6 per cent of the idom in the field protected 7 On December I ibernating adults were found in the examination lis. From the above data it is evident that a farmer : atrol the number of v rable extent by the fall destruc- The advantag shown : ; mi- fore the first killing - red. Ar lime the leaf rubbish on revealed adult weevil- at th<- per acre. After tin ding frost a similar examina- The frost had forced large numl of weevils from the plant- to the protection afforded on the ground. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 1906. Plate XVI. Early Versus Late Planting in the Control of the Boll Weevil. [The upper illustration shows a cotton field planted late and yielding nothing. The lower illustration shows a field on the opposite side of the turnrow on same plantation, planted and treated in accordance with directions of the Bureau of Entomology, and yielding three-quarter-; of a bale per acre. | Original).] RECENT STUDIES OP -X COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 323 The very great advantage the farmer may obtain by removing from the field and burning at the earliest possible dace all debris w favors the hibernation of the weevil is evident. LATE PLANTING. An important step in the present method of control perfected by the Bureau of Entomology is early planting. At various times for a num- ber of years different persons have s I the possibility of con- trolling the boll "weevil by late planting. It has been urged that early planting merely serves to breed myriads of weevils to injure the crop of the farmer who has been unable to plant early. It was thought possible that better results might be secured by lengthening the hiber- nation period by fall destruction of the plants, followed the next spring by late planting, and that this practice might actually result in the complete extermination of the weevil over as large areas as it could be applied to uniformly. (See PI. XVI.) Previous work (referred to in Farmers' Bulletin Xo. 21G, pp. 20 resulted in a very small crop and seemed to show the fall of the proposed method. However, it was decided to obtain more exact information than was possible at the time of the previous experiment. Accordingly, at four j presenting different cli- matic conditions, carefully planned experiments in late planting were conducted in 1906. For these experiments fields were selected which completely isolated from other cotton to prevent the inflow of weevils from other fields, which might have happened in the case of the previous experiment. In brief, the results of this work have amply verified previous conclusions. In .not one of the four e any cotton whatever produced. The plants grew well, in some 3 reaching a uniform height of about 5 feet, and the only apparent factor in preventing the maturing of a crop of cotton was the presence of the weevil. The most striking of the four experiments was located on the Edwards Plateau, about 30 miles west of Kerrville, Tex. At this place was found a field of 16 acres which had been in cotton hi 1905. Very earlv in Xovember of that vear the owner turned a large herd of goats into the cotton field during a drought which had reduced his pasturage area. In a few days no traces of green portions of the its were visible. The goats stripped the stalks of leaves, squ; and bolls. Cold weather following during Xovember prevented the growth of any sprouts from the stalks that might have furnished nance for the weevils. Xo other cotton was planted nearer than 9 miles from this field either in 1905 or 1906. During 1906 the field was planted on June 10. The cotton grew to a height of about 5 but weevils appeared practically as soon as the plants came and soon multiplied sufficiently to cut off all the fruit. There is no reason to suppose that the weevils that did this damage were not those that passed the winter in the immediate vicinity. The 324 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. appearance of the first specimens found clearly indicated, that they were hibernated individuals. Their numbers and the time of their appearance, together with a considerable amount of data now avail- able as to the distance hibernated weevils can fly, show clearly that they had survived the long period from November to July without food. Data obtained from weevils placed in cages in the fall of 1905 throw considerable light upon the obscure point of the possible length of the hibernation period. In an excellent series of experiments insti- tuted by the Louisiana Crop Pest Commission at Keatchie under Mr. Wiimon Newell's direction, it was found that the weevils placed in wire compartments in the field on November 18 did not emerge until the 27th and 28th of the following June. In this case the arrangement of the experiment precludes any doubt whatever as to the ability on the part of the weevil to live in hibernation for a period of 221 or 222 days. Long before the last weevils had emerged the temperature had approximated that of the summer season and, of course, was much higher than that which caused weevils to seek hibernation in the fall. An interesting point in connection with the study of the possibility of controlling the weevil by late planting was the general occurrence of volunteer plants coming from seeds falling to the ground in the fall. It was found at Dallas, Tex., for instance, that volunteer plants appeared in the spring at the rate of over 200 per acre. The number of such plants growing in the fields was greater in the western regions as the climate became drier, but numbers of volunteer plants were found in cotton fields along the roads near Memphis, Tenn., and in the neighborhood of Yicksburg, Miss., in a region having at least 50 inches of annual precipitation. The occurrence of this volunteer cotton of course could hardly be prevented. It would give a supply of food for weevils which would be practically certain to carry them through even in case planting could be deferred universally by the planters. As the result of the work that has been mentioned we have empha- sized the three following vital difficulties in the way of controlling the weevil by late planting: (1) Emergence from hibernation may be deferred until practically the first of July. (2) Everywhere numbers of volunteer plants occur which would furnish food for a certain number of weevils, regardless of how late planting might be deferred. (3) Testimony from a large number of planters, which has been solicited on this point, and in fact the whole tendency of cotton plant- ing show that to defer planting the crop until as late as the time when the last weevils may be expected to emerge from hibernation would prevent obtaining a crop, even if the weevils were entirely eliminated from the problem. CLOUD-BURSTS, SO-CALLED. By Edward L. Wells, - Section Director, Weather Bureau. RELATION OF PRECIPITATION TO IRRIGATION. It is the proud boast of the irrigator that he is independent of the elements; that it matters not to him whether his fields are wet with refreshing showers or whether the heavens are brass above them, and this is apparently true. But to him who takes more than a superficial view of the question it becomes evident that the irrigator is not inde- pendent of the forces of nature, for the streams from which he draws the water of which he boasts are supplied primarily by precipitation, which is subject to the same laws that govern the rain that falls in the field. Therefore he who would make no mistake in constructing reservoirs and canals to store the water and convey it where it is needed should know these laws and their application to the region from which the water is to be drawn. In making studies of climatic conditions preparatory to inaugurating irrigation projects the mistake is sometimes made of considering only the normal annual precipitation as determined by the records extending over a period of years. This might answer well enough in some instances, but in general the infor- mation should be much more complete. As for the annual values, in addition to the normal amount, one should know something of abnormalities that are likely to occur, particularly the least amount of precipitation that may be expected to occur in a year. Then there are various types of distribution- of rainfall throughout the year. On the California coast, for instance, we find what is known as the Pacific type, in which there is a wet season extending from October to March, with the late spring and summer months nearly rainless. In Idaho there is the sub-Pacific type, with heavy precipitation in the winter and a secondary maximum for May, rendering the irrigation season shorter and storage comparatively simple, for the May maximum occurs at about the time of the most rapid melting of mountain snow, resulting in a large surplus of water in the height of the growing season; and the period of storage does not necessarily extend over more than three or four months. In Arizona is found what is known as the Arizona type, in which May and June are the months of least rainfall and more than one-third of the annual amount falls in July and August. Here the irrigating season is also shorter than in the Pacific type, but storage is much more difficult. Another feature of precipitation which should not be overlooked is the intensity of the rainfall At Phoenix, Ariz., for instance, during 325 326 'K OF THE DEPARTMENT OF A.GBICUI/TTJ 1904 the average amount of precipitation for each rainy day was 0.25 inch, while Winnemucca, Nev., with a much greater annual xotal. had only 0.11 inch per day. "When rain falls during the grow- ing season the cause of irrigation may be best served by the more intense type of precipitation, up to a certain limit, that limit itself being extremely variable in different localities, depending on the topography of the country, character of the soil, etc. The more rapid the rate of rainfall the higher vrill be the percentage of immediate run-off, but when the run-off reaches a sufficient magnitude it may become destructive to irrigation works and other property, and then any further increase in the intensity must lessen the benefits received. APPLICATION OF THE TEEM " CLOED-ErPST." That rain does sometimes fall with such intensity as to result in r damage to property and even in the loss of human life is a matter of history, though it is very probable that these dov>nrpours are not so common as is generally supposed, and that their magnitude is greatly aerated. It has become a common practice to apply to such a rain storm the name of cloud-burst, though it is probable that few people at this day associate these storms with the phenomena, real or ginary, Jo w] 3 name was originally applied. Dr. Hugh Robert Mill, of Edinburgh, in his book entitled ""The Realm of Nature," has this to say relative to cloud-bur The rapid condem f in the axis of a tornado, or in the compara- - whirlwinds that sometimes occur in all parts of the world, produces a dark funnel-shaped cloud tapering downward to the earth. Such a cloud occupying - a ascending eddy of air is called a waterspout. When it strikes the ground the heavy fall of rain on a very small area sometimes proeluei - . -truc- r a lake or river, the low pressure hirling air of a waterspout often sucks up a column of water and whirls it on for considerable }h or swarms of frogs are sometimes raised high in the air, carried for miles inland, and dropped as - of fish or frogs to the wonder of . happens that the upward rush in a tornado is strong c-r. the condensed war rail a great quanta - ;ain. but like a river, ancl the phenoniei- - - ken of pes cloud-bur- a. to hollow out a few minutes. Severe accidents of thi :i occasionally occur in the Cordilleran district oi North in may be sin: accumulated, and the Istorms occur during the passage of a tornado. This reads very well, but, before accepting it, it is well to remem- ber that cloud-bursts are most often heard of in mountainous regions, while tomadi . .zely a phenomenon of the plains. Gen. A. TV. Greely, while Chief Signal Officer of the United States Arm}-, in his entitled "American Weather," wrote of cloud- burst.- as foH< Apart from e\ "ingly heavy showers or ~ I the enor- mous masses of water which now and then fall, and which are popularly known in CLOUD- -'J-CALLED. 327 In such v.o must equal rainfalls which are otherwise deemed ex or even a month in the region. These downpours of torrential rain are form L in the less densely populated part In his report on the rainfall of the Pacific coast and Western Terri- tories, issued in . eneral Greely speaks of cloud-bur- It is well known that enormous quantities of water occasionally fall in these arid as, the phenomena being known as cloud-bur- downpours of rain, while injurious and even destructive at the time. yet. being taken up by the earth. Eully later -upply. through the medium springs. The h fall in a single cloud-burst can not be calculated, but e . can be expressed by no other w He follows this with an account of a number of instances of precipi- tation considered by hirn worthy of mention under this head. CONCENTRATION OF EALXFALL AS AFFECTED BY TOPOGKAPHY OF COUXTRY. It might seem from the foregoing- that we would be justified in putting these extremely heavy rainfalls in a class by themselves and in applying to them the term ••cloud-bursts." However, since the publication of the (pinions already quoted there has been a wonder- ful increase in the population of the WL and Territories. -ration stations have been multiplied, and much of the mystery that formerly surrounded the so-called " ' meriean Desert ' been cleared away; and modern meteor. I bave come to believe m many i:: the damaging flood- ned by what are called eloud-burste are not so much a result of ex:: - dinary and unexplained meteorological phenomena as they are the resuh of a topography favorable to a high percentage of . - and a concentration of this run-oft into a comparatively narrow and swift- moving stream. This belief is expressed by William Morris Davis. ■ ssor of physical geography at Harvard College, in his Elemen- tary Meteorology, as foil Thecloud-bu: (B are only -:Tns. -md short-lived, and seem to result from the erturnir.. Tkeclou accompany ;re indicative the end of i .aing with ordinary cumulus clou.". little rain falls that it ■:-- . through the thirsty lower air. and :hed ground; next to more active local thunderstorms of the usual type: and all - culminating in the drone! :>m the c: A namr country is inundated by such storms for a short distance: -hen rush down channels that are nearly dry at other times, gathering sand and dusr. and delivering the discharge rm to the main rk, muddy ton many miles from the place of the rainfall. 32S YEAEBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, It is a notable fact that storms to which the term " cloud-bui - is applied do occur in mountainous districts, and that the damage caused is nearly always confined to narrow valleys through which the run-off from considerable areas must find its war. Stop to consider that even 1 inch of rain represents a fall of more than 72.000 tons ater on a single square mile, and it will become evident that it does not require such a remarkably heavy rain storm over a catch- ment basin of. say, 10 miles square, discharging through a narrow canyon, to produce all the effects that we e with a cloud- burst. A rain of 6 inches over such a basin would represent a fall of 43.509.S32 tons of water. Among the more recent destructive floods arising from this cause may be mentioned that which destroyed the town of Heppner. Oreg.. in June. 1903. causing the death of nearly people. An investigation of the area covered by the storm and the amount of water discharged through the valley was made almost immediately by Mr. John T. Whistler, a representative of the United States Geological Survey, who reported that a fall c^ an inch and a half of rain over an area of 20 square miles, the probable area of the storm, would account for all the water of the flood. To show that this is not a phenomenally heavy downpour, the following instances may be cited: At St. Louis, on August 15. 1848, a precipitation of 5.05 inches occurred in one hour: at Indianapolis, on July 12. 1876, 2.40 inches fell in twenty-five minutes; at Huron. S. Dak., on July 20. 1885, 1.30 inches fell in ten minutes: at Sandusky. Ohio, on July 11. 1879, 2.25 inches fell in fifteen minutes: at Madison. Wis., on August S. 1906. 4.45 inches fell in one hour and twenty minutes: at Jacksonville. Fla.. on May 12-13. 1903. 8.03 inches of rain fell in less than twenty-four hours. In the records none of these rain storms was spoken of as a cloud-burst, but had any of them occurred among our western mountains, over such a drainage area as that discharging through the Cottonwood at Boise, for instance, all the phenomena usually attendant upon a cloud-burst would have been in evidence. Commenting on Mr. Whistler's report of the Heppner flood Mr. Edward A. Beals. district forecaster in charge of the local office of the Weather Bureau at Portland, says: ntist? have never been able to account for " cloud-bursts" as anything more than heavy thunderstorms: therefore Mr. Whistler's conclusion that the ruggedness of the _:aphy rather than the quantity of the rainfall causes their great destructiveness appears to be well taken, and. if correct, loss of life and property in such < due t isitation of Providence" so much as to the "folly of man" in building cities and towns in such exposed localities. It would seem, then, that one of the most important things to be sidered by engineers in planning irrigation works would be the probable maximum intensity of the rainfall, in its relation to such features of the topography of the country as might favor the dis- charge of lar^e amounts of water through narrow valleys. NEW CITRUS AND PINEAPPLE PRODUCTIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE." By Herbert J. Webber, Physiologist in Charge of Plant-Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry. Xeav Citraxges. Of the new group of citranges or cold-resistant oranges, there have previously been described three new varieties which were produced in the course of experiments conducted by the Department of Agricul- ture, namely, the Rusk, Willits, and Morton. Nursery trees of these three varieties, budded on trifoliate orange stock, have been distrib- uted to a limited number of interested growers hi order that the varie- ties may be thoroughly tested and become generally disseminated. It is the object of the Department to make but a limited distribution of any variety, striving only to secure its thorough trial and general adoption hi cultivation if the variety proves valuable. As soon as good stock is obtainable from a number of nurserymen there is no need for its further distribution by the Department. The first trees of the Rusk and Willits were distributed in the spring of 1905 and the Morton was distributed a year later. Sufficient time has not elapsed to allow any of these trees to reach bearing age, and no further data are thus available in regard to their adaptability to various sections, soils, etc. In the Department's experimental orchard the trees have been con- tinued under trial. The Rusk has proved a very prolific variety, pro- ducing numerous well-formed fruits. The fruits of this variety, which are rather small, have for the last two seasons been larger than those produced in the early fruiting of the same trees, showing a tendency to produce somewhat larger fruit as the trees mature in age. The WiUits has in some respects proved disappointing. The fruits of this variety, which were described as rather rough and furrowed, have, as the trees grew older, become more irregular. Fruits are frequently developed which have several of the segments protruding above at the apex in free ends, similar to the so-called "fingered citron," though none of these free ends are so long as hi that fruit. When a number of the segments protrude in this way, as occurs in some instances, the shape of the fruit reminds one strikingly of a aIn an article in the 1904 Yearbook entitled "New Citrus Creations of the Depart- ment of Agriculture," the writer, in conjunction with Mr. Walter T. Swingle, described two new citranges, the Rusk and WiUits; one new tangelo, the Sampson: and two new tangerines, the Weshart and Trimble. In the 1905 Yearbook, in an article entitled "New Fruit Productions of the Department of Agriculture," tbe writer described one more citrange, the Morton; two limes, the Palmetto and Everglade; and five new pine- apple hybrids, the Miami, Seminole, Eden, Matthams. and Gale. The work of the Department in the breeding of oranges and pineapples was at first conducted jointly by Mr. Walter T. Swingle and the writer, but since 1S97 has been carried out by the writer, who has received valuable aid from Prof. P. H. Rolfs, Dr. E. A. Bessey, and P. J. ■r, of the Department's Subtropical Garden, in connection with the experim and from Mr. J. B. Norton and Mrs. L. H. Webber in testing the fruits and making the necessary notes. 329 330 YEABBOOK OP THE DEPARTMENT OE AGEICULTUEZ. summer squasli. Even u bl st deformed fruits, however, the pulp is very juicy and can be used as a substitute for the lemon or lime. This variety tendency , furthe :> drop a before it ripens, probably due to the abnormality and erfect development. The writer would advise that this variety be propagated sparingly. It is, however, an interesting and euri fruit and is well worthy of propagation as a lawn tree. The Morton trees at the experiment station at Lake City, Fla., and in the Government orchard at Glen St. produced a good crop of fine-shaped and fine-appearing fruit. The variety is without doubt one of the : the eitran^es. Bv Rids- way's standards the skin color of the Morton is deep chrome to cad- mium yellow and the pulp is between chrome and saffron yellow. The- : . . Is of color by Ridgway's standards were not given in the original description of the Morton.17 The writer wishes again to emphasize the statement that the cit- ciust not be confounded with oranges. They are not oranges, and are no more to be compared ..res than are lemons. new fruits of the citrus group which are much hardier than the orange or lemon, and which may be grown from 3 : miles n of the present orange region. They are principally of value for culi- nary purposes and for making citrangeade. As an ade fruit they are to be highly recommended, as the different v. present different and attractive flavors. Many inquiries have reached the Department regarding the methods of propagating the cicrange varieties. The writer would advise that they be >n 2 or 3 year old seedlings of the Trifol This is a perfectly hardy slock, which can be grown successfully anywhere in the southern Unit- The ordinary 1 of eye-budding which is 1 in the pn d of oranges, apples. . is used. It has thus far been in to con experiments in the manuring and cultivation of the citrange^ and hi the absence of exact knowledge the writer would recommend that in the difieren; sections about ie manuring and cultivation ..iven as is used with oranges, pears, or apples in those sections. In this paper there will be described three new ges — the lan, the Sav the Rustic. All of these varie fruits of the TVillits and Morton, all having developed from seeds of a single fruit of Trifoliate orange which was crossed by Mr.TT. T. Swi with pollen of the common sweet orange in the spring of 1S97, in the grove of Col. G. H. Norton, at Eusiis, Fla. Forty js were grown from this single hybrid fruit, which, since their germina have been under the care of the writer. A careful study has been 0 The colore referred to in tl: the determir. of the colore by a cai . with the sta . _iven in A Xoruenclature l: - by Ruben Bidgway: Boston, - NEW CII'LUS A1\D PINEAPPLE PEODt noi 3 of the 40 different seedlings and, with the publication of this r, 5 of them will have been named as new varieties of citranges. While the final value of none of the ci .ranges has yet been certainly hed, the writer feels certain that they will ultimately prove of inestimable value and be cultivated extensively in many parts of the world. The hardiness of the Colman, Savage, and Rustic citranges described m this paper has not been thoroughly determined, but the experi- ments have shown them to be apparently as hardy as any of the other citrange varieties. At Glen St. Mary and Lake City, Fla., and at the Georgia and Alabama experiment stations they have several times endured freezes without injury, when the temperature we:: low as 15° and 16° F. There would seem to be no doubt that inmost locations these trees may be successfully grown in regions from 300 to 400 miles north of the present orange belt of Florida. The writer would recommend their thorough trial in South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi Louisiana, and the warmer parts of Tennessee, Arkansas, and Texas. They can certainly be grown in regions of low altitude in Xew Mexico and Arizona and in the warmer sections near the coast of Washington^ Oregon, and northern California. Thev mav be safely recommended for any section which is only slightly too cold for the ordinary orange. THE COLMAN CITEAXGE. LTE XVII; ?LATE XX, FIGURE 2.] The Colman citrange is a hybrid of the Trifoliate orange with pollen of the common sweet orange, and is closely related to the Morton and \Yillits, having developed from another seed of the same hybrid fruit. This new citrange has been named the Colman in if the valuable serv- ices to agriculture and to this Department of Hon. Norman J. Colman, under whose admin- a, as Commissioner of Agriculture, the agricultural work of the Government was organized as a separate Depart- ment. The Colman is a remark- able hybrid, having fruits as large as the ordinary orange and of line appearance. It is very different in character from any other of the citranges and is easily recognizable. Description" of frett and tree. — Fruit comps lierical, frequently n ided or oblique, largo but rather smaller than the Morton, 2\ to 2| inches high and from 2| to3| inches in diameter; color light '.range or lemon yellow, lighter than Fig. 10.— a, Section of the skin of the Savage citrange, showing the shape and arrangement of the oil glands; b, section of the skin of the Colman ci showing the shape and arrangement of the oil glands. (Twice natural size.) do- - lBBOOK )F I 7 AGP.ICrXTV I ] main s - - . I Uy with a . • - thin. in the ord . . _ . -mall - - ; r than tl. - mem lerived from the Trifoli sis small one- fourth i L seed 1 5 from other citrus frun. _ frui! - in many in general Inn frequently unii .her. Tlie Colman eitra: _ - an exceedingly in - 2 ybrid in comb in;." * - thus far secured which has inherited in any marked degree the 1 fruit character of the Trifoliate orange. The fuzz on the Colman fruit, however, in no way detracts from its good appearance and is thus not a detrimental character. The foliage is in general slightly larger than any of the other Tri: .nge hybrids which have been secured and is nearly half unif ■ .ike the orange. In foli- haracters, therefore, the Colman is mor. jiiod or. than any of the other citranges. In odor and flavor it is nearly inter- mediate between the two paj nts. In shape and arrangement ( glands it is different from either parent or from any other citrange which the writer has examined. TVhiie the majority of the Colman fruits show very little indication of furrow 5, s as for instance, one shown in Plate XX. figure 2. have pronounced fin: radiating from the base and reaching nearly to the apex of the fruit. The tree of the Colman is very thorny, but the writer has obs rved many branches having the tl - sf entirely suppress .1 it is highly probable that the thorns may be bred varieties of the common orange, by selecting Is for propagation from such thornless branches. The almost variety is somewhat remarkable and greatly adds to the value of the fruit. A record of 102 fruits examined in the last two .->ws an average of only 1 seed to 6 fruits. The Colman is primarily re use in making citra:. - ade. It makes a rich 01 re-colored ade of high qua of bitterness, which - like the bitter principle of the grapefruit, is o jss stinro Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. Plate XVII. £j.ScJLd£: COLMAN ClTRANGE. NATURAL SlZE Yearbook U. S Dept. of Agriculture. 1906. Plate XVIII. £j.£'JL fA "m ' "^ ^^B* 1 T*i 3SBX ■$ W IP * ^ ^ BF 1 Fig. 1.— Branch of the Savage Citrange. One-half Natural Size. Fig. 2.— Branch of the Colman Citrange. One-half Natural Size. NEW CITRUS AXD PINEAPPLE PKODT 333 and healthful. The juiciness of this variety, its seedlessness, and its . specially lit it for use as an ade fruit. It also makes a very fair marmalade, and other uses for the fruit will doubtless he found. The tree is of fine appearance and well worthy of cultivation as a lawn tree, aside from the value of its fruit. THE SAVAGE CTTEAXGE. [PLATE XVIII: PLATE XX. FIGURE 1.] One of the best eitranges in size, shape, and appearance which have been secured in the course of the Department's experiments is hybrid Xo. 779. a cross of Trifoliate orange with pollen of sweet orange, and ster seedling of the Willits, Morton. Colman, and Rustic. This hybrid has been named the Savage, after Mr. Frank Savage, of El] Fla.. in whose orange grove many of the Department's hybridization experiments were started. The Savage produces a large, usually well-shaped fruit and is apparently a valuable variety, differing con- siderably from any of the other citrange varieties. Following is a technical description of the varietv: Description- of fecit and tree. — Fruit spherical or slightly compressed spherical, frequently slightly oblique: of medium size, from 2 h> 2j inches in height and from 2\ to 3^ inches in diameter: weight from 3 to 8 ounces, average about 6 ounces, consider- ably lighter than water, being less dense than the Colman; color light orange yellow (by Ridgway's standards between saffron yellow and Indian yellow . thus being almost the same color as Colman and lighter than the Willits and Morton; surface in some fruits smooth, in others considerably roughened by depressions: many fruits have very pronounced furrows, running from the base to the apex, while others show only slight furrows or none: with a few hairs on rind, but these very small and invisible without lens; calyx persistent but inconspicuous as in ordinary orange: rind of medium thick- ness one-eighth to three-sixteenths of an inch, adhering rather closely to fruit, gests orange in taste, but with considerable bitterness from the Trifoliate parent: oil glands spherical or ovate, similar in shape and appearance to those of ordinary oranee and being different in shape and more numerous than those of Colman I iig. 15, a : pulp tender, translucent, light yellow (by Ridgway"s standards between wax yellow and Naples yelli rw : pulp vesicles fusiform, varying in size, smaller than in ordinary orange but much larger than in Trifoliate; segments S to 10: separating membranes moderately tender, slightly bitter, texture tender and juicy: axis small, one-fourth to live six- teenths of an inch in diameter; flavor a sprightly acid, somewhat bitter, not so sour and bitter as Colman. more similar to the Morton; seeds few. usually averaging 3 or 4 per fruit: aroma pleasant but light, has a suggestion of apple odor: tree similar to Tri- foliate, very vigorous and proline: hardy, evergreen or semi-evergreen: without pruning grows rather tefl andslender: foliagedense: leaves mainly trifoliolate, some unifoliolate, large; season of maturity medium early, from September 15 to last of November. The Savage citrange is apparently the most fruitful of all of the citrange clous, or varieties, aside from the Rusk. The trees in the Government test grove were last year (1906) laden with a very full crop of nice appearing fruit, hanging on the tree in bunches. The fruit runs uneven in size and shows some tendency toward freakish- ness. a few cases of protruded segments having been observed. From the fewness of these among the comparatively large number of fri developed, it is believed that it is not a seriously detrimental char- acter. The fruit is not quite so sour and bitter as the Colman, bei more nearly like the Morton. By those who like a sour fruit it can be eaten out of hand with sugar. It makes a good ade and a fair 334 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPAETZMEX T OF AGETCULTlT;E. marmalade, and can doubtless be used in many places where • and lemons are now used. The tree lias dense dark-green foliage and will make a fine appear- ing; lawn tree. It may make a good hedge plant when pruned, but pruning on top would probably be necessary, as the test trees do not seem to develop many basal branches. The Sava j of the most vigorous growers of any of the Trifoliata X orange hybrids, and, i produces a considerable number of seeds, it is worthy of careful trial hardy stock on which to bud the varieties of the ordinary sweet orange. The Trifoliate orange is used extensively at the present time, but many orange growers object to it. owing to iis tendency to dwarf the trees. The Savage, being much more closely related to the sweet orange, an exceptionally vigorous grower, and wholly resistant to any degree of cold which would affect the sweet orange, would - to posses; all of the desirable qualities of the Trifoliata e - and would probably not have the same dwarfing tendencies. It might be supposed that, being a hybrid, the seedlings would be too variable to permit of using them in this way. While the vi y of the seedlings of the various citrange clons has not been fully determined. a number of seedlings have been grown, and the foliage characters of b are in all cases remarkably like those of the parent variety, show- ing no reversions to the pure Trifoliata or jnire orange, as i expected. TThile the value of the Savage as a stock is entirely prob- lematical, it is sufficiently promising for the writer to recommend its thorough trial. THE RUSTIC CITFAXGE. [PLATE XIX.] All of the citranges which have been named have tree chara< which render them desirable for cultivation in the South as orna- mental lawn trees or hedge plants, entirely aside from their value for the fruit the}' produce. Hybrid Xo. 783, which, as stated previously, is a seedling from the same hybrid fruit as the Column and Savage and is thus a hybrid of Trifoliata with pollen of sweet orange, does not produce as good a fr .ose varieties, but produces a rather ■ bushy, low-growing tree, which is believed to render it es ciaiiy desirable for cultivation as a lawn tree or hedge plant. This hybrid has been given the name Bustle, which suggests the use for which the variety is recommended. scbiptH)N of Fr.rrr and tkee. — Fruit nearly spherical, of medium size. & and from 2 to 2| inches in height; v. _ lium, aven r fruit: density lighter than water: color light yellow (by Ridg- iards chrome yellow i ; surface covered with small incoi - which altering arid hardly visible without lens, fairly smooth. of the oil i many sweet oranges, frequently with - furr ws radiatinsr from the stem and extei . :of fruit but seldom t ing beyond middle of fruit: calyx persistent but inconspicuous, as in i aedium thin, one-ei. en thirty- f an inch in thicl ! irr.it. as in ordinary orange, bitter t .1 glands prominent, NEW CITRUS AND PINEAPPLE PRODUCTIONS. 335 mainly round or pear-shaped, with major axis at right angles to surface; pulp light, translucent, greenish yellow, similar to the pulp color of ordinary lemons (by Ri< Lgway's standards nearest to primrose yellow, but this color is not exactly correct); pulp Les small and slender, not so juicy and melting as the Rusk, Colman, or Savage; segments 6 to 12, separating membranes rather thicker and firmer than in ordinary orange, slightly bitter; texture of fruit moderately tender; axis small, one-fourth inch in diameter; flavor a characteristic citrange acid with some bitterness, rather similar to the Willits; number of seeds variable; some fruits have as high as 24 se< ds, while others are seedless; aroma light but pleasant; tree similar to ordinary sw< et orange, spreading and branched below, differing in this regard from other citra : vigorous and cold-resistant, evergreen or semi-evergreen, of medium height and shapely; leaves trifoliolate, dark green, larger than those of Trifoliate orange; season of maturity medium early, from middle of September to last of November. The tree of the Rustic budded on Trifoliate orange stock differs considerably in shape from that of any of the other citranges, devel- oping fairly long lower branches, which are more widely spreading than in the Trifoliate orange or the other citranges, and giving the tree greater breadth near the ground. The tree of the Rustic is thus in shape much nearer to that of the ordinary sweet orange. In the other citranges there are fewer large branches developed near the ground, and such as there are have a tendency to grow erect and stiff, giving the tree a shape more nearly like the Trifoliate orange. The foliage of the Rustic is dense, dark green, and mainly evergreen, and the twigs, as in the case of all of the citranges, are armed with long, stiff spines. It thus possesses all of the characters which fit it for use as a hedge plant. The Rustic fruits in the seasons of 1904 and 1905 developed numerous seeds, ranging usually from 12 to 24 seeds per fruit. In 1906, however, for some unknown reason almost all of the fruits were nearly seedless. If the variety is to prove satis- factory for hedge purposes seedy fruits are desired, and it is desirable to learn what factors are conducive to seed production. The writer's experience at the present time is not sufficient to enable him to give intelligent suggestions, but he believes that ordinarily a sufficient number of seeds will be produced to use for propagation purposes. While the seedlings will doubtless vary somewhat, the experience with the citranges up to the present time indicates that they almost invariably produce seedlings with foliage characters like those of the parental variety. Cuttings from the citranges can be rooted fairly easily in hothouses with bottom heat, and it may prove practical to propagate trees in this way. Satisfactory stock for planting- hedges could be secured by budding on Trifoliate orange stocks, but this would make the plants rather too expensive for hedge purposes. As in the case of the Savage, it is believed that the Rustic might also prove a desirable hardy stock on which to bud the various clons of the ordinary sweet orange, lemon, etc. If it develops sufficient seeds from which stocks may be grown the writer would suggest its careful trial for this purpose. While the fruit of the Rustic is not so large or juicy as some of the other citranges, it is nevertheless of fairly good quality, and, as in the 336 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. case of the other citranges, makes a good citrangeade and may be used in making marmalades, pies, cakes, etc. New Loose-skinned Oeaxge — The Thorxtox. In the citrus-breeding experiments of the Department the improve- ments which it would be desirable to obtain were carefully studied and the combinations of parents were planned which would be most likely to produce these improvements. The loose, easily removal >le skin or "kid-glove" character of the tangerine and mandarin oranges was recognized as a very valuable character, as probably the majority of oranges are eaten by peeling and separating the segments. The various clons of the tangerine and mandarin group of oranges, how- ever, are sweet, rather insipid, and dry, and as a class lack the rich juiciness and sprightly high quality of the ordinary orange. It was thought that by hybridizing the tangerine with the common orange hybrid varieties might be secured combining the most desirable qualities of the two classes of fruits. With this in view many hybrids were made of the tangerine with the common orange and the reciprocal combination. None of these hybrids which have thus far fruited has given the desired combination of characters. It is surprising, however, that almost the exact fruit sought has resulted from a hybrid of the pomelo with pollen of tangerine, the same com- bination that gave the tangelo, though not from the same hybridized fruit. This hybrid, Thornton Xo. 5, has the loose skin and easily separable segments of the tangerine and also shows the tangerine in the form and color of the pulp vesicles and the green color of the cotyledons. The character of the pomelo or grapefruit, which is supposed to be the female parent, is, however, hardly discernible in any character. The writer, from the characters of the fruit, would suppose it to be an orange X tangerine hybrid rather than pomelo X tangerine. The original label of this hybrid was lost, but only pomelo X tangerine hybrids were sent to Mr. Thornton, who grew this hybrid to fruiting, and there would thus seem to be no doubt as to the parentage. An error may have been made, however, and if so it will probably be discovered later in the course of the fur- ther experiments. Regardless of the parentage, this hybrid is be- lieved to possess valuable characters and to be worthy of general cultivation. It has therefore been named the Thornton, in recogni- tion of the aid which Mr. C. E. Thornton, of Orlando, Fla., has given the Department in connection with these experiments. A technical description of the variety follows: Description of fruit and tree. — Fruit oblate, flattened at the apex and tapering from about the middle to the I . medium large, 3| to 3| inches in diameter by high; color orange, about the same shade as the ordinary Florida sweet oranges; surface Bomewhal rough, similar to the King orange, but not so markedly rough as in that variety; skin medium thick, one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch (rarely as thick as shown in PI. XXI), flexible and tough, being easily removable, like NEW CITRUS AND PINEAPPLE PRODUCTIONS. 337 the skin of the tangerine; oil glands large and conspicuous; segments 10 to 12, s< pa- rating easily like tangerine and with considerable adhering white soft membrane, as in that fruit; separating membranes comparatively thin and tender; axis small, except in old fruits, one-half inch in diameter, mainly hollow, as in tangerine; quality excellent; texture tender, very juicy; flavor a mild, rich subacid, very attractive but characteristic, not like any other citrus fruit; no indication of bitterness from pomelo; pulp orange-colored; seeds 5 to 12 per fruit, resembling orange in shape but with greenish cotyledons, similar to the tangerine; aroma not unlike ordinary orange with suggestion of bitter-sweet orange, attractive; tree evergreen, having general characters of ordinary sweet orange; leaves unifoliolate; time of ripening midseason. It might be assumed from the supposed parentage of this hybrid that it should be classed as a tangelo. The fruit, however, is sweet and not bitter, and more resembles an orange than a pomelo. From the general characters of this fruit it would be classed as a loose- skinned common orange, while the tangelo may be described in gen- eral as a loose-skinned pomelo. Some of the fruits of the Thornton have been affected with the orange scab to some extent, showing the susceptibility of the variety to this disease, as would be supposed from its similarity to the tangerine. As the fruits grow old they become rather large and puffy, as in the case of the tangerine, and it is a section of such an old fruit that is shown in the lower half of Plate XXI, which is not characteristic of the fruit when in prime condition. It is believed that the Thornton is a valuable fruit, and it should be tested thoroughly. Pineapple Hybrids. In the 1905 Yearbook of the Department five new varieties of pineapples were described, namely, the Miami, Seminole, Eden, Mat- thams, and Gale. Since that time a considerable number of the fruits of these varieties have been carefully tested, and a limited dis- tribution has been made of slips of three of the varieties. The Miami has proven to be one of the best appearing fruits of the various hybrids, but, while of fairly good quality, it is much inferior to many of the hybrids in this regard. It is, however, apparently a good shipper, and, as its quality is certainly superior to that of the orri- nary varieties of pineapples, it should prove a desirable sort. Tie Seminole and Gale produce fruits of exceptional appearance aid very high quality; both of these varieties, however, produce but fev slips and suckers and their propagation is thus very slow. This s the only important factor against the general cultivation of thee varieties. The Matthams has proven to be an all round good sot. At the Graduate School of Agriculture, held at the University >f Illinois in July, 1906, the writer had the pleasure of having a lare number of these hybrids tested by the various students and instruc- ors, fully fifty individuals taking part in the test. A vote on tfe quality of the fruits tested resulted in an almost unanimous vote 1 favor of Matthams for first, Eden for second, and Miami for thid plaice. The Seminole and Gale were not fruiting in sufficient quai- 3 a 1906 22 338 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. be entered in this test, but about forty different hybrids were ■ 1 in comparison with Red Spanish. The Matthams is a yeliow- ed variety of a rich - r. which on first testing is likely to be preferred by many people. The writer, however, believes it to be inferior in flavor to the Eden and to the Deliciosa. which is described la.er in this paper. In the present paper 7 new varieties are described. These are all very distinct from any of the known varieties, and 6 of them have smooth-margined leaves: thus the experiments have resulted in adding 9 smooth-leaved varieties to our list, where only one smooth- leaved sort, the Smooth Cayenne, was known at the time the experi- ments were started. Since the experiments were started, however, a variation of the Red Spanish has gradually come into cultiv which has nearly smooth-margined leaves. Some of the leaves of this variation are still in parts serrate, but unquestionably a purely smooth-leaved sort Can be established by the selection of slips from plants showing the least indication of spine development. r has been unable to learn the history of this smooth-leaved Red Spanish, but a considerable number of the fruits with smooth- leaved crowns can be observed in the market, so that it must be cultivated to a considerable extent. These fruits seem usually to be mixed with the spiny-leaved Red Spanish, as though the smooth- leaved type had not been distinguished as a distinct variety. The writer wishes to strongly impress upon growers the desirability )f only taking slips and suckers for propagation frorn those plants h have produced the finest appearing and best fruits. Several )f the hybrids which are being named and distributed produce fruits vhich have certain characters that are variable, and some undesirable its may be produced. Some varieties occasionally produce too • crowns or compound crowns of undesirable shape. By propa- gating only from plants producing fruits with good crowns this teidency may probably be easily bred out. In the case of varieties i as the Orlando and the Biscayne. described later, in which a iderable number of the plants produce no slips, this tendency will daibtless be bred out in the course of then regular propagation, as tb preponderating number of slips will be taken from prolific plants. THE DELICIOSA PINEAPPLE. [PLATE XXII, FIGURE 1.] Pineapple hybrid Xo. 9C, by all c^ hose who have assisted the witer in testing hybrids, has come to be considered as the standard :cellence. Mr. W. A. Taylor, of Penological Field Investigations, indescribing this hybrid, said: "If any pine is entitled to the name Diiciosa. this is it."" Folio wing this suggestion, the writer has given it name Delk-wsa to this hvbrid. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Plate XXI Thornton Orange. Natural Size. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agncultur Plate XXII. h S CO m NEW CITRUS AXD PINEAPPLE PRODUCTION Sji 339 The Deliciosa is a hybrid of Envillo with pollen of Porto Rico and is one of a series of 34 hybrids developed from seeds of the same fruit of Enville, a, number of flowers of which were crossed by Mr. Swingle in the spring of: 1S97. The first- fruit was produced in 1901.. and- since that time an increasing number of fruits has been produced each year. The Eden pineapple, described in 1905, is also one of this series of hybrids. A considerable number of the hybrids of this series are of remarkably high flavor. In the descrip- tion of the Eden (Xo. 90) the Deliciosa was referred to as probably the best-flavored fruit, but rendered worthless for cultivation by its small size and very large crown. In the summer of 1908 a larger number of fruits of the Deliciosa have been produced than in any preceding year, and for some reason they have run considerably larger in size, while the crowns have been smaller. The writer interprets this change as occurring normally in the clon as it becomes older in bud-propagated generations. In several cases, at least, such changes in clons or bud-propagated varieties have been noted. In sugar cane, for instance, it has been found that the normal sugar content of a clon can not be determined until it has passed through several bud-propagated generations. It may be that this improve- ment in the fruits of the Deliciosa is due to better manuring and cultivation, but, whatever the explanation, it would seem that, if put under good conditions, the variety will produce a fruit of about 2 to 2| pounds weight. At best, however, it is small and of poor shape, and, as in the case of the Eden, it is only its exceptionally high quality and flavor that justify its being named and distributed. In the case of both the Deliciosa and the Eden, however, it is believed that a special high-class market can be found for them, and in any case many growers will desire to cultivate a few of them for home use. A technical description of the Deliciosa pineapple follow^: De.-; ription of plaxt and fruit. — Plant usually large and spreading;; leaves broad, recurved, rigid, dark green in color, and with a distinct central purplish stripe 1 inch wide; margin straight or somewhat undulate, serrate or spiny, with closely set medium-sized reddish .-pines; crown of medium to large size, mainly single but sone- times compound; average crown 8 to 9 inches high, with spread of 6 to 7 inches; ap- pearance in general rather long and slender for shape of fruit; leaves of crown sei 4 to 10 inches long and from 1 to 1\ inches wide; fruit small, usually weighing from 2 a 2\ pounds, conical in shape, being rather tall and diminishing gradually in size frcn bottom to top, height 5A to 8 inches, diameter 3 to 4 inches: color of fruit in genenl orange yellow (by Ridgway's standards, fruits have been found to vary from dep chrome to orange oebxaceous), the eye bracts frequently having a tinge of coral the color is often considerably hidden by a whitish scaly covering similar to the bloon of other fruits; surface of fruits rough: aroma usually strong and attractive: eys small, averaging about five-eighths by five-eighths of an inch, similar to Enville i shape and considerably protruded: eye bracts medium in size, tip live-eighths f an inch long, with serrate margins frequently of coral or Indian red color: generl quality of fruit excellenl ; text are very tender and brittle; flavor a very rich sweet su- acidj very attractive; flesh light yellow or cream yellow, rather open; eye pita com- paratively shallow; axis small, three-eighths to one-half inch in diameter, com pa r- tively tender and brittle; in most fruits being of fair flavor and edible; slips numerou usually from 3 to 10, rather too close to fruit; suckers 1 to 2: shipping quality appa ently fairly good; season of ripening mainly between May 15 and July 1. 340 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The Deliciosa is very different in character from either of the par- ents and it is difficult to trace any resemblance to the parental charac- ters. The eyes are small and considerably protruded and the fruit is conical in shape. In these characters the Deliciosa most closely re- sembles the Enville. which was the mother parent. The very high flavor is also probably derived mainly from the Enviile. though it is surely superior to the Enville in tins regard. In no particular charac- ter can the influence of the Porto Rico be discerned and no one would suspect that the Porto Rico was one of the parents. The Deliciosa is considerably different from its sister variety, the Eden, being smaller and of darker orange ochraceous color. The crown is larger in comparison to the fruit, but of the same general shape. The leaves are also more erect and not so broad as those of the Eden, and the edges are raised, the leaves resembling a gutter. The central stripe of the leaves is rather narrow and dark purple. The fruit, which is elongated and tapering, is carried on a long stem. The Deliciosa is remarkable for its exceptionally delicate and deli- cious flavor and its tender, brittle flesh and core. It is not as juicy ■me fruits, but is sufficiently juicy to be good. Its detrimental characters are its small size, poor shape for shipping, and rather large crown. By selecting slips for propagation from the largest, -shaped fruits with small crowns, the variety can doubtless be much improved. As in the case of the Eden, the writer would rec- ommend that the variety be cultivated for home use and gradually introduced into the market. If the superior quality of this fruit and the Eden for table purposes were recognized by the market they would be in great demand. THE DADE PINEAPPLE. LATE XXII. FIGURE 2.] Pineapple hybrid No. 168, which has proven to produce a fruit of -lent quality, is believed to possess characters of merit, and for variety the writer proposes the name Dade. This fruit is a hybrid of Enville with pollen of Smooth Cayenne. The cross-fertil- fruit which produced the Dade gave only 3 seedling-. Nos. 166, If. and 168. No. 166, which is a serrate-leaved seedling, has already q discarded. No. 167, winch is smooth-leaved like Xo. 16S, is a farly good variety and is still under trial. The Dade resembles the Errille in eye, size, and shape, and has the smooth-margined leaves life the Smooth Cayenne. The first fruits of this variety were pro- 1 in 1904, and since that tune several fruits have been produced yerly. Following is a technical description of tins variety: Rescript] and fruit. — Plant medium to large, mainly rather spread- urved. rather rigid, green to dark green in a ilor, and usually with ..ewhat indistinct central purplish strir.»e about i inch wide: margin undulate, but in some alternately emooth and spiny or simply with a few spines x. Crown of medium to h - - -ingle: average crown about 8 to 10 inches hjh, with spread of 6 to S inches, general appearance good; leaves of crown mainly NEW CITKUS AND PINEAPPLE PRODUCTIONS. 341 smooth, from 5 to 6 inches in length and from three-fourths to 1| inches in width, rut her flaccid, with lower leaves rather long and frequently reflexed over apex of fruit; fruit of medium to small size, usually weighing from 2\ to 3| pounds, ovate to conical in shape, height from 5 to 7 inches, diameter from 3i to 4h inches; color of fruit light lemon yellow or orange chrome: surface of fruit comparatively smooth; aroma attractive, spicy, fairly strong; eves small to medium in size, similar to Enville in shape, flat and but slightly protruded; eve bracts small or medium in size, with slightly serrate mar- gins; general quality of fruit excellent; texture tender and brittle, slightly stringy; flavor a sweet subacid with little or no acridity; flesh yellow, attractive in color, juicy, rather open; eve pits of medium depth: axis large, averaging about 1 inch in diam- eter, lender and brittle and of fair edible quality; slips numerous, ustially 3 to 10, not too close to fruit; suckers 1 to 2; season late, the majority ripening in July. The Dade pineapple is inferior to the Deliciosa in flavor, but is a better-shaped fruit, of good appearance, having mainly smooth-mar- gined leaves. This variety, like a number of others of the hybrids where a spiny-leaved sort was crossed with the Smooth Cayenne, seems to be somewhat in doubt what sort of leaves to produce; fre- quently a leaf will be found which has scattered spines on the margin and occasionally a leaf will be almost wholly serrate. In general, however, it would be ranked as a smooth-leaved sort. The fruit is rather small for the size of the crown, but it has a bright, attractive color and good surface. It has some tendency to develop a fruit of slightly irregular shape, being in some cases slightly constricted in the middle. The plant is of good, vigorous habit;, and the fruit stem is short and stout. Some fruits when received have been found to show some eye-rot, but the variety in general would probably ship well. On the whole the variety is probably not as promising as some others, but is worthy of careful trial under different conditions. THE COQUIXA PINEAPPLE. [PLATE XXIII, FIGURE 1.] To this pineapple hybrid No. 169 (Green Ripley crossed with pollen of Smooth Cayenne) has been given the name Coquina. It is the only seedling which developed from a single hybridized fruit, but is of the same parentage as the Gale, described in the 1905 Yearbook. The seedling of the Coquina fruited first in 1902, and in 1905 a con- siderable number of fruits were produced. It adds another smooth- leaved sort to our list of promising varieties. The illustration of this fruit shown in Plate XXIII, figure 1, shows a poor fruit of the variety. A technical description follows: Description of flaxt and fruit.— Plant large, compact or somewhat spreading; Leaves broad, recurved, rather flaccid; color light green, mainly without a distingiish- able central band, but in some specimens with an indistinct pale green band ahait 1 inch wide; margins mainly straight, but in some cases slightly undulate, smooti, or with a few serrations at the apex; crown of medium to large size, about 9 inches ligh and with spread of about 7 inches, single and usually of good shape and size in connari- Bon with fruit ; crown leaves 5 to 10 inches long and 1 inch wide, with smooth mai ins; fruit of good appearance, medium size, weighing from 3 to 4 pounds, oblong elliptcal, aches in height and from 4} to 5 inches in diameter. Color of fruit orangi yel- low (by Ridgway's standards deep chrome); eyes small to medium, somewhat irregllar in shape, about medium in degree of protrusion; eye bracts of medium size, int< me- diate between smooth and serrate; flesh rather open, moderately juicy, of rich yelow color; texture brittle and solid, slightly stringy; flavor subacid, rich, sweet, attractve; 342 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. -mall, one-liali inch in diameter, tough and scarcely edible; eye pits shallow; aroma moderately strong and attractive; general appearance and quality excellent; ; to 12; suckers 1 to 4: season mainly July. The Coquina usually produces an attractive, good-sized fruit with good crown. The surface of some fruits has been slightly cracked and checked, but not sufficiently to seriously injure its good appearance. The flesh is of an attractive rich yellow color. The eyes in general resemble those of the Ripley, the female parent, while the crown and smooth leaves are mainly like the Smooth Cayenne.. The variety produces a large number of slips and suckers, and may thus be rapidly propagated. In some fruits the slips are rather too close to the fruit, but seldom so close as to seriously injure the fruit in cutting or tweaking it. While this fruit is not equal to some of the other hybrids in quality, it is believed to possess sufficient merit to justify its propagation. THE JUPITER PINEAPPLE. [PLf\TE XXIII, FIGURE 2] Pineapple hybrid No. L8S (Green Ripley crossed with pollen of Smooth Cayenne) has proven a very desirable sort in the tests made, and the writer has named this variety the Jupiter. The Jupiter is one of* a series of 20 hybrids developed from seed of the same original hybrid fruit. Many of these seedlings exhibit desir- able characters, and one of them, the Gale, was described in the 1905 Yearbook. Following is a technical description of the variety: Description of plant and fruit. — Plant of medium to large size, spreading; haves broad, recurved, rigid; margin of leave- mainly more or less undulate, and r in some cases marly spiny; color of leaves green, in most cases without central stripe1 but occasionally showing indistinct purplish central stripe about 1 inch impound, of medium size, averaging about 8 inches i! of 7 inches, of good appearance and symmetrical; crown leaves dark i. from 1 to 7 inches about 1 inch in width, margins smooth or serrate, I; fruit of excellent appearance, medium in size, weighing 5 pound- lliptical, from oh to 7 inches in height and from 4} to 5 : coloi of fruit dark orange (by Ridgway's standards orange ochra- : medium size, about three-fourths by seven-eighths inch. flat, giving a fruit m smooth surface: eye- bracts small to medium in size, with smooth or slightly serrate- margins; flesh solid, very juicy, yellow, and attractive in appearance: texture rather tough and slightly stringy, in Borne cases the fruits being recorded as render, this chars! !ev.bat: flavor subacid and sweet: core rather large, 1 inch n diameter, tender and edible, at least in some fruits, recorded as tough in other fruits: eye pits shallow; aroma light but attractive; slips few. 1 to 2. sometimes none; ■n June and July. ' Jupiter is a rather peculiar hybrid in its variability when propagated vegetatively, and there is some possibility that it will prote too variable to give satisfactory results. Some of the fruits are of isry excellent quality and appearance, while others are but little be ordinary in these regards. Some fruits have the surface sligitly cracked, but this in the fruits examined has not detracted - from the appearance. The foliage presents a peculiar inter- file of the spiny and smooth character of the two parental varie- Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. Plate XXIII. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. Plate XXIV. NEW CITKUS AXD PINEAPPLE PRODUCTIONS. 343 leraJ fcbe leaves h "th reaggias, but some B spiny throughout, while others have scattered r grou] spin- anged OBt the margin, still others being spiny e apex. The fruit of the Jupiter is. in general, about the same size and sb m Red Spanish, being thus of good market size and shape. It is apparently a good keeper. This variety gives evidence of bei: good canning sort, as it peels economically, and the core is soft enough in general, so that it probably can be sliced without cutting out the core. The solidity of the flesh and the sweetness of the variety also recommend it for this purpose. In flavor and quality the Jupiter is certainly inferior to a number of the hybrids, but it is superior in these respects to many of the varieties commonly cultivated. THE JEXSEX PIXF.APPLE. [PLATE XXIV, riGTRE 1.] Pineapple hybrid Xo. 17 is a cross of Green Ripley with pollen of Smooth Cayenne. It is one of 24 seedlings grown from a single fruit of Ripley which was cross-pollinated in 1898. Xone of the other seed- of this series has thus far proved valuable, and the majority of them have already been discarded. A few, however, are still under The first fruit of the Jensen was produced., in 100:?, and in 1905 and 1906 a considerable number of line fruits were produced. A technical description of the variety follows: Description of r-LAXT and nu*rr. — Plant medium to large, compact or somewhat .ing: leaves of medium width to broach recurved, rigid; color green or green without central band or with an indistinct purplish band about 1 inch in width: niacins more or less undulate, smooth or spiny at i n single, of medium coin}'. • inches in height, with spread el from 4 to S inches, of excellent - and appearance: crown leaves from 4 to I inches in length and from thr - ich in width, with smooth margins, frequently with very distinct purplish bands Lriiits strongly rerlex^-.l over apex of fruit; fruit of excellent appear- . medium size, weighing from 2 to 4 pounds, oblong, conical. 5 i :■_ o] inch's in • and 3} to 4\ inches in diameter: color light Lk>W; by Ridgway's •leep chrome: i hum size, seven-eighths by s*>ven- eigfitbs inch, somewhat protruded or nearly liar . giving a good sunace: eye 1 small or medium in size, with smooth or slightly iargins: rlesh solid, very juicy, of rich yellow attractive color: texture very tender, soft, and stringless: flavor a rich, sprightly acid, very attractive, and with very little indication of acridity: small, one-ltidf to five-eighths inch in diameter, tender and edible: eye pits siu aroma fairly strong and attractive: slips usually about 5 or 6, in some cases nther too close to the fruit : suckers 1 1 3 2 : season June and July . The Jensen pineapple produces a very bright, finely coined. attractive fruit of good shipping size, with symmetrical crown. The eyes protrude but little, so that the surface is fairly smooth. Lithe eye character and hi shape and size of fruit it is much like Ripley, the female parent, but fortunately it has inherited the smooth lerces of the male parent. While the traits are solid and very juicy, the majority of them have reached Washington hi excellent conditon, with little sign of roiling. It is probable, therefore, mat the friits will be found to be fairly good shippers. On some there is a }ro- nounced neck between the fruit and the crown, but this hi no vay 344 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. detracts from the excellent appearance of the fruit. The flavor of the Jensen is a sprightly acid, but it is nevertheless sweet, spicy, and of high quality. The flesh is remarkably juicy and tender and can be eaten very close to the surface. Withal, the Jensen is believed to be a verv valuable variety, worthy of general cultivation. Because of its shallow eyes, solid, juicy flesh, and tender core it may also prove a good canning sort. THE ORLANDO PINEAPPLE. [PLATE XXIV. FIGURE 2.] Pineapple hybrid Xo. 212. a cross of Green Ripley with pollen of the Smooth Cayenne, is one of the best appearing and most prom- ising of the various sorts under trial. For this variety the writer proposes the name Orlando. The fruit of the Orlando is very dif- ferent from either of the parental varieties or from any other of the known varieties. It has smooth, entire-margined leaves like the Smooth Cayenne, but differs from that variety in shape and size of fruit and in having much smaller eyes. In eye characters the Orlando somewhat resembles the Ripley, but could not be mistaken for that variety. The cross which resulted in the Orlando was made in the spring of 1898, and the first fruit was produced in 1903. Fol- lowing is a technical description of the variety: Description" of plaxt axd fruit. — Plants small to medium in size, compact or somewhat spreading, light green: leaves broad, recurved, rigid, mainly without cen- tral band, but occasionally with indistinct purplish or yellowish band about three- fourths inch wide: margin of leaves undulate, smooth, and spineless, or at least with only a few spines at the apex: crown single, of medium size and excellent appearance, 10 inches high, with spread of 4 to S inches: width of crown leaves three-fourths to 1 inch: fruit of excellent appearance, but rather small in size, weighing from 1 to 4£ pounds, and usually averaging about 2^ pounds, ovate oblong, 4 to S inches high and from 3 to 5 inches in diameter; color in general a bright orange ibyRidgway's standards between orange and orange ochraceous. with the base of the eye bracts ochraceous buff); surface medium in smoothness and attractive in appearance; aroma light but pleasant: eyes small to medium, three-fourths by three-fourths inch: in il flat or intermediate in degree of protrusion: eye bracts small to medium in size, x-ith smooth margins: general quality of fruit excellent, very juicy, texture usually brittle and tender, with slight stringiness: flavor a rich, sweet subacid if not overripe, very pleasant and spicy, with very slight acridity; flesh yellow, solid: eye pits usually very shallow: axis small, averaging about three-eighths of an inch in diameter, usually rather tough and with little flavor, but in some fruits tend* ediblt; slips rather few. in some fruits 3 to 6. in others none: not too close to the fruit; suckers 1 to 4: season mainly June and July. Tie fruit of the Orlando in general is very fine in symmetry, appear- ance, and all those characters which go to make up an excellent variity. The color is rich and attractive. In some fruits the eye brads are somewhat cracked at the base, but this has in no seriously detracted from the general good appearance. Some of the fruit are too small in size, but they are usually large enough to suit the market. In quality, the Orlando v. ill rank very high, if eaten before it is overripe. When the fruit ages, it is liable to become sonewhat water-logged and too sweet to suit the majority of tastes. It is difficult to determine the season of a pineapple until it is NEW CITRUS AND PINEAPPLE PRODUCTIONS. 345 grown on a fairly large scale. The Majority of the fruits of the Orlando have ripened in June and July, but some have been har- vested in December. There is little waste to this variety, as the shallow eyes allow it to be peeled very thin. A feature of importance in connection with this fruit is the possibility, owing to its small size, of its being a desirable sort to use as the Natal variety is used in South Africa, according to the observations of Mr. D. G. Fairchild. There single fruits of the Natal are commonly purchased by pedes- trians on the streets, peeled and eaten much as we eat apples in this country. The fruit of the Orlando peels without much waste, and is normally of small size. If the plants were grown considerably crowded together it is probable that numerous fruits of three- fourths to 1 pound weight could be produced, which, owing to their excellent appearance and smooth leaves, would be well adapted to use in this way. For such use they would probably be superior to the Natal, primarily because of their smooth leaves. THE BISCAYXE PINEAPPLE. [PLATE XXIV, FIGURE 3.] Pineapple hybrid No. 228, a cross of Pernambuco with pollen of Porto Rico, is one of the finest appearing and best of the various hybrids with smooth leaves which have been secured by the Depart- ment of Agriculture, and has been named after the beautiful Bay Bis- cay ne, on the shores of which it has been grown. The original crossed fruit from which the Biscayne developed gave 35 seedlings, 31 of which have fruited. Either the plants or the numbers of the other 4 were lost. Of these 31 seedlings, 21 have entire or smooth leaves, while 10 have serrate leaves. In this case both parents have serrate leaves, and it is difficult to account for the preponderating number of smooth-leaved plants among the hybrids. The proportion is exactly what would be expected in crossing a smooth with a spiny- leaved sort when the smooth character is dominant. It is difficult to understand how an error could have been made in the fruits, but the writer would be inclined to believe from the characters of the various hybrids that the Smooth Cayenne was used as the male parent instead of the Porto Rico. None of the other hybrids of this series has thus far been selected for propagation, though several of them are still under trial. The first fruit of the Biscayne was produced in 1902, and a considerable number of the fruits have since been grown and tested. Following is a technical description of the variety: Description of plant and fruit.— Plant medium to large in size, spreading or somewhat compact . green or green suffused with purple; leaves broad, recurved, rigid, with purplish central band about 1 inch wide; margin straight or undulate; smooth or entire except lor few spines at apex of leaves; crown single or compound, of medium size and usually excellent appearance, 3 to 6 inches high, with spread of from 4 to 6 inches; crown leaves usually rather narrow, from one-half to seven-eighths of an inch; 346 YEARBOOK OF THE I L -VIZ. ■A exeeUea obloi _ and 3| to 5 inches Ridgway ?s stac i 11 to medium in . - _ foun small -half inch I m of fruit excellent, jui - diam 1 to 3: season. June to July. The Biscavne is somewhat similar -ie Orlando. It is different in shape and appearance of surface. however, and is istingui- fully compared. Thee: I ..yre isfreqi: and in some cases this detracts from the appearance of ti. In no case, however, has the crown been so large and compound I injure the character of the apex of the fruit, and the compound nature of the crown has seldom detracted seriously from the ance of the fruit. The surface of the fruit is par: :md even under these conditions the ey nparativ Ordinarily fruits with flat eyes hfti while i: - are strongly protruded the eye pits are usv .ape the Biscavne is rather remarkable. Xo variety known to the wi ms in so marked degree its full diameter entirely to the apex. In almost all qualities the Biscavne is an excellent pineapple, and is believed to be worthy of general propagation. DISTRIBUTION OF TUBERCULIN AND MALLEIN BY THE BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. By M. Dorset. hemic Division, Bureau of Animal Industry. IMPORTAXCE OF EARLY DIAGNOSIS OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES. In order to cope successfully with infectious diseases we must pos- sess means for their early recognition. for, aside from the very great advantages which are thus obtained in cases where treatment is to be applied, an early diagnosis enables us to protect, by methods of quar- antine and disinfect ion. healthy individuals that might otherwise be exposed to the contagion. Indeed, the success of any struggle with an infectious disease which is spread by contact of healthy individuals with those that are diseased may be measured directly by the certainty with which the disease in question can be recognized. This fact is obvious when it is remembered that infectious diseases are each caused by a specific micro-organism and that these micro-organisms are, in many diseases, discharged from the infected individual in large numbers. The longer the disease remains undiscovered the greater is the danger of the infection of other animals, which in their turn act as distributing agents for the virus. Among the infectious diseases which affect cattle and horses, and which we are forced to combat chiefly by methods of quarantine. probably none cause greater losses in this country than tuberculosis of cattle and glanders of horses. It happens, also, that these two diseases are. in their early stages, among the most difficult to recog- nize.- and this is especially true of tuberculosis. The onset is fre- quently insidious: the animal may remain apparently well when the disease is far advanced, and the infecting organisms may be discharged in large numbers, even though no lesion can be demonstrated by. the usual clinical examination: Under these circumstances it is indeed fortunate that for b« th tuberculosis in cattle and glanders in horses we p specific diag- nostic agents to aid and supplement the clinical examination. Tl diagnostic agents, which are known as tuberculin and mallein, are derived from the bacteria which cause the two diseases, and are n< w regarded as indispensable in any attempt to eradicate these diseases if a successful result is to be attained. 347 .'.-- YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In order that the mode of applying these substances in dealing with tuberculosis and glanders may be more readily understood, it may be well to relate briefly the history of the discovery of tuberculin and mallein. and the manner of fighting d their use. TUBERCULIN AND ITS Ufi As is now quite generally known. Prof. Robert Koch, in the year 1890. first recommended the use of a solution prepared from pure cultures of the tuberculosis bacillus for the treatment of tubercui All live bacilli in glycerinated bouillon cultures of this bacillus were first destroyed by heat and removed by filtration. The filtrate, evaporated to a small bulk, constituted the tuberculin and consisted of the soluble and noncoagulable portions of the culture medium, together with those products of the growth of the tubercle bacilli and those portions of the bacterial cells which were like ise - table and not coagulable by heat. Professor Koch observed that minute quantities of this tuberculin, injected under the skin of tuberculous animals, exercised a specific stimulating action upon the tuberculous foci and at the same time produced a systemic reaction, which was characterized by a marked rise in temperature a few hours after the injection. Tuberculin was originally thought to p ssess musual value as a curative agent. Although P: Koch's expectations in this respect were not borne out by numerous practical tests, his discovery had a far-reaching influence upon the very futile struggle which had hitherto ber against tuberculosis in cattle: for hardly had his discovery been announced before the specific reaction produced in tuberculous indi- viduals by tuberculin was recognized as a possible means of diag: in obscure cases of bovine tubercui. Experiments to determine the value of the use of tuberculin for this purpose were begun immediately by veterinarians in all par the world, and the literature of the past fifteen years is filled with the records of their work. Without attempting to review these experi- ments in detail, it may be stated that while some have reported adversely upon the use of tuberculin as a diagnostic agent, the failures were, in many instances, due to a faulty application of the test or to improper interpretations of the results obtained. There appear to be possible sources of error in connection with the tuberculin test: (1) Apparent reactions in healthy cattle and (2) a failure of tubercu- lous cattle to react to the te- In regard to the first-mentioned p<> authorities are agreed that this source of error is exceedingly small, if. indeed, it s at all. Xocard. the eminent French authority, has stated that -itive tuberculin reaction is absolute proof of tuberculosis, and if a post-mortem examination fails to reveal tuberculosis we have DISTRIBUTION OF TUBERCULIN AND MALLEIN. 349 evidence not of the inexactness of tuberculin, but of its extreme deli- cacy in revealing lesions which are too minute to be discoverable by the ordinary methods of post-mortem examination. On the other hand, experience has shown that a very small percent- age of tuberculous cattle may fail to react to the test, though this is not a serious objection, for the reason that the failures of this kind are usually observed in advanced cases of the disease, which can be readily recognized by the ordinary physical examination. It is a curious fact that cattle which are affected with tuberculosis in an exceedingly slight degree may exhibit much more pronounced reac- tions than others which are extensively diseased. There can be no doubt that the tuberculin test is a remarkably accurate means of detecting tuberculosis in cattle, and the methods employed for ridding a herd of this disease without destroying even the affected animals will be readily understood. In the early days of the application of the test it was the common practice to test the entire herd and then to destroy all reacting animals. This has been found to be in most cases unnecessary and undesirable unless the number of reacting cattle is small and the animals not of particular value. The practice most generally followed is known as the ' ' Bang method" of dealing with, tuberculosis, so named after the originator of the system. By this method the entire herd from which tuberculosis is to be eradicated is subjected to the tuberculin test. All of the animals which fail to react are immediately removed to new quarters and kaept entirely separate from the reacting animals of the herd. The latter may be fattened and slaughtered subject to post-mortem examination, or they may be used for breeding purposes if they are high-grade stock. Tuberculosis is extremely rarely transmitted from parent to offspring, and if calves of tuberculous cows are removed from their mothers immediately after birth they may be placed with the healthy portion of the herd and fed with boiled milk from the tubercu- lous cows or raw milk from the healthy cows. Within six months or a year the healthy portion of the herd should be retested and the react- ing animals, which will probably be comparatively few, should be immediately removed from the healthy ones as in the first instance. If this system be carefully followed, with regular retests of the non- reacting portion of the herd, tuberculosis can be eradicated within a few years at comparatively small cost to the owner and with a tremen- dous gain in the productiveness of the herd. It has been quite defi- nitely proven that tuberculin does not injure healthy cattle, nor does it render the milk unwholesome. MALLEIN AND ITS USE. The methods used for preparing mallein and the manner of applying this test for glanders are quite similar to those used in the case of 350 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPART: tuberculin. In foot, the use of mullein was a direct outgrowth of experiments made with tuberculin. The bacillus of glanders Bo<: mallei) is grown in pure culture upon artificially prepared, media and the soluble noncoagulable portions of the bacterial growth, are dieted. This exrract is preserved by means of some suitable i : and is injected subcutaneously into horses suspected of being affected with glanders. Tnfi reaction obtained in diseased ho: the same general nature as that obtained by injecting tuberculin into tuberculous cattle, though there are certain difference - b the form of the fever curve. In horses reacting to nialleiii there is also usually a marked swelling of the tissues around tto at which the maliein was injected. This swelling, which does not occur in tubercu- rter a tuberculin injection, is one of the character- features of the reaction of glandered horses to maliein. In I be reliability of the maliein test, it must be ackn edged that, although a reaction to maliein or a failure to rea generally a correct indication of the existence or nonexistence of glanders, the results i f this test can not be accepted with the a a that follows a properly applied tuberculin t been cases in which apparently typical reactions were obtained with maliein, although the horses tested exhibited no symptoms what of the disease: and likewise failures have been recorded in v appeared to be undoubted cases of glanders. It is the general opinion, however, among those who have had experience in the practical use of maliein. that it is a very valuable aid in the diagnosis of glanders, and it seems not unreasonable to hope that improvements in the present technique employed in making this test, together with a fuller knowledge of the mechanism of the I ion, will eventually produce even more trustworthy results than those now obtained. In combating glanders the general practice is to destroy h which are positively known to be affected with the disease and to quarantine those which are merely suspected of being d. MAZvS"ER OF DISTRIBUTING TUBERCULIN AXD MALLELX. In order to be in a position to enforce more effectively its quarantine regulations, the Bureau of Animal Industry began in the year 1893 the preparation of both tuberculin and maliein. and it was de the b time to supply these substances free of charge to properly con- stituted health cfheers and official veterinarians in the various i Territories. This distribution was undertaken for the purp< - cooperating with State officials in their efforts to restrict and eradi infectious diseases under authority conferred upon the Seer, of Agriculture by act of Congress. This distribution is restricted to Federal, State, county, or city officials, who are supplied with tuberculin and maliein upon their DISTRIBUTION OF TUBERCULIN AND MALLEIN. 351 agreeing to furnish the Bureau of Animal Industry with records of all tests and with the results of the autopsies on all animals that are slaughtered, and upon the further understanding that all tests shall be conducted under their supervision by practitioners who are skilled in the use of tuberculin and mallein. In addition to furnishing tuberculin to the above-mentioned officials, considerable quantities have been sent to inspectors of the Bureau of Animal Industry sta- tioned at various places along the Canadian border and at other points where cattle are offered for importation without the required certificates of freedom from tuberculosis. In order to carry out more effectively the plan to exclude tuberculous cattle from this country, an inspector of the Bureau is stationed in England, and there tests all cattle intended for export to the United States and refuses cer- tificates to those found to be diseased. As was to be expected, in the first few years after the preparation of tuberculin and mallein was undertaken by the Bureau of Animal Industry comparatively small quantities were sent out. But the demand for these substances has steadily increased, this increased demand being especially noticeable during the last few years. In the fiscal year ended June 30, 1906, somewhat more than 103,000 doses of tuberculin and 10,000 doses of mallein were supplied to officials in different States and Territories, as follows: Distribution of tuberculin and mullein in the year ended June SO, 1906. Distributed to— Alabama Arizona Arkansas California do Connecticut District of Columbia . England Georgia Hawaii Illinois Indiana Iowa Mai no Maryland I IMiS'Mts Michigan ota Missouri Montana Ippi Doses. Tulweulin. Mallein. 24 754 16S G19 COO 130 120 221 2,067 344 1,1,90 288 19,385 912 1, -.in 1,304 203 12 151 12 252 516 2 54 272 12 45 4,110 20 Distributed to- Nebraska Xt'.v Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina. . . North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Porto Rico Rhode Island South Carolina. . . Utah Vermont Virginia War Department. Washington Wisconsin Total. Doses. Tuberculin. Mallein 14 1,008 78 161 l,.'.Mi 2,944 1,300 CO 731 50 30 6 734 19, 674 139 12.936 12 SC9 192 78 12 325 6 24 68 84 1,612 IP. 105 352 YEABBOOK OF THE DEPABTMEXT OF AGBICULTV The legislatures of a number of the States in the above list have - requiring that all cattle which enter these States -hall either prest ni proper certificate of freedom from tuberculosis or else pass the tuberculin test at the time they enter the State: in addition, ts of herds within the State which are suspected of being affected with tuberculosis are also provided for. These tests are usually con- ducted by a live-sl k -military commission or by the State board of health, and are compulsory in som- S - and made upon request in others. In many of the States having specific laws covering this subject the reacting cattle are red subject to post-mortem inspection and the owner is paid a certain percentage of the appraised value of the condemned animals. Similar regulations are in force concerning glanders. In addition to supplying these State boards, the Bureau furnishes a considerable quantity of tuberculin to city officials whose duty it is to detect tuberculosis in the dairy herds from which the citys milk supply is derived. the disteibut: The results achieved by the distribution of tuberculin by the Bureau .iiirnal Industry are best appreciated by referring to the reports of the several 5ta1 that have had supervision over the use of tuberculin supplied them by this Department. These officials have received from the Department in the last ten; a round numbers. ,000 doses of tuberculin. "This tuberculin has been used almost exclusively for testing dairy cattle, and the reports show a percentage of tuberculosis in these herds which varies from 1 to SO per cent, or . more in some instances. The average percentage of tubercu- I sis in dairy herds revealed by these tests certainly falls very little, if any. below 5 per cent of the umber tested. In the vast majority of cases the diseased anim. been removed from the herds, either by quarantine or ghter. It appears, therefore, that not less than 25,000 tuberculous cattle have been removed from our dairy herds through the agency of this governmental distribution of tuberculin. The great gain which must ultimately result to the owners of the herds from which these ini individuals have been removed is seen in reports of retests of herds which were found highly tuberculous upon the first examination. All reports bearing upon this subject show that the number of reacting animals in the second test 11 — at times none — and the owners are thus being enabled to rid their herds of the most serious menace winch confronts them. >:>r are the benefits derived from this work to be measured by an economic standard only, for an even more important object is being attained — the protection of the public health. The consensus of - mtific opinion now is that bovine tuberculosis is transmissible to DISTRIBUTION OF TUBERCULIN AND MALLEIN. 353 man, and it is an undoubted fact that tuberculous cattle frequently discharge tubercle bacilli from their bodies through their milk, even though no demonstrable lesion of the udder exists. Any tuberculous cow may therefore be a source of real danger to the people who partake of her milk, and in the case of large dairies, where the milk from the whole herd is usually mixed together before being distributed to the consumers, a few tuberculous cows may cause the contamination of large quantities of milk. This mixing together of milk serves to distribute the infective bacilli through all of the dairy products, thereby increasing greatly the number of persons exposed to -the infection. The good which has been accomplished by the removal of the 25,000 tuberculous cows from dairy herds in this country is thus seen to be much greater than would be at first sup- posed, for it is probable that the milk from at least five times as many cows has been rendered wholesome by the removal of these distribu- ters of the tuberculosis virus. The good which has resulted from the distribution of mallein can not be so readily determined, but it can not be doubted that the destruction of the many glandered horses which have reacted to the mallein test has protected many others from the infection. And in the case of glanders the diseased horse is not only a menace to others belonging to the same owner, but to horses that are exposed to infection through the agency of the public drinking troughs which are maintained in most of our cities. Quite apart from this distribution of mallein to civilian authori- ties must be considered the supplies which have been furnished the War Department. The Bureau of Animal Industry has been ready at all times to furnish mallein to that Department, and upon the request of the Quartermaster-General has sent out many thousand doses. During the war with Spain large quantities of mallein pre- pared in these laboratories were used for testing the horses and mules purchased for the use of the Army, and the facilities for preparing mallein are such that large supplies are always available. It is hoped and believed by the Department that, in addition to the actual benefit derived by stock raisers from the tests which have been carried out, the educational value of the work has been of great advantage to stock-raising communities. For it is reasonable to sup- pose that a dairyman who has once had his herd freed from, tuber- culosis will not knowingly again introduce the disease among his cattle. He will insist upon a tuberculin test of all animals which are purchased, and this demand on the part of the purchaser for healthy cattle will force upon breeders and raisers the necessity of supplying them. 3 a 190(3 23 354 YEARBOOK or THE department of agriculture. Ii seems not unreasonable to believe that if this testing of cattle for tuberculosis coul ried out on a sumcientlv laree scale, and if it were in all cases followed up by careful and intelligent quarantine measures with periodical retests of the herds, the percentage of tuber- culous cattle could at least be reduced to a very small fraction of that which is now known to exist. If tuberculosis can be eradicated from one her-. - me can be done for others. The whole question would seem to be simply one of organization and cooperation between the Federal and the local authorities and the stock raisers themselves. PROMISING NEW FRUITS. By William A. Taylor, Pomologist in Charge of Field Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry. INTRODUCTION. The question as to what varieties of fruits and nuts to plant is one that confronts the orchardist when he contemplates an increase of his orchard or vineyard. Requiring a more or less permanent invest- ment of capital in the form of land and labor, as well as cost of nursery stock, it is essential that he choose such varieties as shall not only be adapted to his climatic and soil conditions, but also to the markets or uses for which their products are intended. The desires and needs of consumers change as time rolls on, so that sorts that were once profitable cease to be so, even though they do not deteriorate in any way; hence continual attention by the grower to the new sorts that come to notice is advisable. A few of the more promising new varie- ties for cultivation in different sections of the country are described and illustrated here in continuation of the series begun in the Year- book for 1901 and contributed yearly since that time. MAGNATE APPLE. (Synonyms: Magnet of some; Slayman's Superior; Stayman's No. 1 of some; Stay- man's No. 2 of some.) [PLATE XXV.] This promising early winter variety is a seedling of Winesap which originated with the late Dr. J. Stayman, at Leavenworth, Kans., in 1866.° After the original tree came into bearing it appears to have been considerably disseminated by the originator, in the form of scions for testing, from about 1884 until his death, in 1903. While a number of descriptions and outlines of the variety made by Doctor Stayman are preserved in the extensive collection of such material bequeathed by him to the Department of Agriculture, it is appar- ently impossible at this time to determine under what designation the variety was first disseminated. It appears to have reached Mr. J. W. Kerr,6 Denton, Md., in the winter of 18S4-85 under the designation "Stayman's No. 1" with others of Doctor Stayman' s seedlings in the form of scions from a MS. notes of Dr. J. Stayman in Pomologieal Collections, Bureau of Plant Industry. b Letters from J. W. Kerr, December, 1906. 355 350 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPAPJMEXT OF AGRICULTURE. J. Silvanus Gordon., of Sergeantsville. N. J. Mr. Gordon had received the scions from Doctor Stayman a short time before.0 About lv^7 it reached the nursery of the Michigan Agricultural College,6 appar- ently direct from Doctor Stayman. under the same designation. In 1S90' Mr. Benjamin Buckman, of Farmingdale, 111., received scions of it from the Michigan Agricultural College orchard labeled "Stay- man's Xo. 1," and in 1S93 under the designation "Stayman's Supe- rior"' he received scions direct from Doctor Stayman. Having fruited both and finding them identical, in 1901 he sent specimens of the fruit to Doctor Stayman for authentication of name, and received from him a strong expression of Ins conviction^ that the apple sent was in fact Ins •Stayman's Xo. 2." The original tree is reported by Mr. George H. Black, its present owner," to be living still, though it was almost destroyed by a severe windstorm in September, Messrs Stayman and Black propagated a considerable num- ber of trees of it for their own planting in the winter of 1897-98 at Leavenworth. Kans., where some seventy trees about 6 years old are now in bearing. The earliest publication of the variety appears to have been by Prof. L. H. Bailey in >^7.; when, as "Stayman's Xo. I," it was included with several others of Doctor Stayman's seedlings in a list varieties growing at the Michigan Agricultural College. In 1S96 Mr. Benjamin Buckman published the names •Stayman's Superior'' and •• Xo. 1 Stayman's" in his " List of Fruit Varieties."? their identity not having been discovered at that time. The first commercial introduction of the variety appears to have been by Mr. J. W. Kerr, who catalogued it for the fall of 189S and spring of 1S99 as •Stay- man Xo. 1." It is evident from Doctor Stayman's notes and correspondence that at different times he had different names for the variety under consideration, such . Sap, "Stayman's Superior." ••Mag- net." and "Magnate." and it appears strongly probable that scions were distributed by him for testing imder all these names, as well as imder the designations "Xo. 1" and "Xo. _'." His final choice appears to have been "Magnet."' but conflict of this with a previ- .v published variety of Wise igin causes the present a Letter from J. Silvanus Gordon. December. 1906. b Letters from Prof. L. R. Taft and Prof. L. H. Pk: mber, 1900. and January. 1907. c Letters from Benjamin Buckman. December. 1906. <* Letter of Dr. J. Stayman to Benjamin Buckman. O IflOL Letter of George H. Black. January- 12. 1907. /Michigan Agricultural College Bulletin 31 S8! T>4. 0List of Fruit Varieties in Private Experimental Orchard of Benj. Buckman, Farmingdale. 111., fall 1S96. pp. 4-5. rf Dr. J. Stayman to Benj. Buckman. December 17. 1900. » Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station Report, 18 Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. Plate XXV. 9.4*fc <*4W"?-»-I~0-?-C- Magnate Apple. PROMISING NEW FRUITS. 357 adoption of his previously unpublished name ''Magnate," under which it was planted in nursery and orchard by Messrs. Stayman and Black. The Magnet apple listed hi Bulletin 56 a of the Bureau of Plant Industry is the Wisconsin variety, and the publication of "Stayman Superior'' as synonymous with it in the revised edition of that bulletin6 appears to have been due to a misapprehension as to its identity. DESCRIPTION. Form round to roundish conical; size medium to large; surface smooth, but gently undulating and glossy; color rich yellow, washed with crimson over almost the entire surface and indistinctly striped with dark purple and covered with whitish bloom; dots variable in size, numerous, yellow or red; cavity regular, large, deep furrowed and but faintly russeted; stem slender, curved, short, rarely extend- ing beyond the cavity; basin regular, of medium size and depth, and gradual slope, furrowed, and showing traces of bloom; eye medium, closed; calyx segments of medium size, converging, tube rather long and narrow; skin moderately thick, tenacious; flesh yellowish, stained with red, fine-grained, half tender, juicy; core small, conical, closed, clasping; seeds of medium size, plump, brown, numerous; flavor rich subacid; quality very good. Season, September to December in eastern Kansas, about the same as Jonathan. The tree is reported to be an upright open grower, loaded with wiry shoots, and requiring little pruning. The variety appears to be especially promising for the middle and northern portions of the region where its parent, the Winesap, succeeds. The specimen illustrated on Plate XXV was grown near Leaven- worth, Kans., in 1906. OLIVER RED APPLE. (Synoxyms: Ail-Over Red; Oliver; Oliver's Red; Senator.) [PLATE XXVI.] One of the striking features of the Arkansas fruit exhibit at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in' 1893 and the Cotton States Exposition at Atlanta in 1895 was a brilliantly colored red apple conspicuously marked with large light dots. It had then been grown for many years in certain localities in Washington County, Ark., both hi orchards and nurseries, under the name Oliver's Red, and according to some accounts as ATI-Over Red. It does not appear to have been known outside of the Ozark region until after it was exhibited with other Arkansas apples at Chicago. "B. P. I. Bulletin 50, Nomenclature of the Apple. January 25, 1905, p. 189. &B. P. I. Bulletin 56, Nomenclature of the Apple, revised July, 1905, p. 393. 358 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. nearly as can be ascertained, this variety originated early in the nineteenth century ° on the John Oliver farm, 7 miles south of Lincoln, in Washington County, Ark. It was first propagated by Earles Holt about the middle of the century, who grafted it on a place 2 miles north of Lincoln, where it has been locally known and propagated ever since that time under the name Oliver's Red. At various times one or two other seedlings appear to have been somewhat confused with it, but at the present time no other sort is recognized in the locality under that name. In 1898 Prof. John T. Stinson* described it under the shortened name Oliver, but this had previously been published0 for a very different sort. the variety has been quite widely disseminated by the k Brothers Nurseries and Orchards Company under the name which was registered by them in the LTnited States Patent Office on November 22, 1898, as a trade-mark. In view of the fact that the earlier name had been well established for half a century in the region where it originated and continues to be practically the onlv name known for it there, that name. Oliver Red, is here accepted e one to winch the variety is entitled under the code of nomen- clature of the American Pomological Society. DESCRIPTION". nn oblate to roundish oblate; >ize medium to large; surface smooth and glossy, excepting occasional russet knobs and numerous color deep yellow, washed over most of the surface with bright mixed red and brokenly striped with dark crimson; dots very oicuous, russeted, mostly aureole: cavity large, regular, deep m short, rather stout: basin large, deep, regular, grad- ual, furrowed; eye large, closed; calyx segments of medium size, converging, tube very short and broad; skin moderately thick, tenacious : flesh yellowish, frequently stained, moderately fine grained, breaking, juicy: core medium, conical, open, meeting the eye; seeds lium in size, plump, brown: flavor subacid, pleasant; quality good ry good. The tree is a strong, upright grower, somewhat subject to sun scald unless headed low. but coming into bearing at an early age and bearing well. It is a choice dessert apple, well adapted to fancy trade, and thy of testing throughout the important apple districts of the country. The specimen illustrated on Plate XXVI was grown in 1906 by G. TV. Collins. Lincoln, Washington County, Ark. o Letters of Win. G. Yincenheller. December, 190i, and It D. Holt and Gr. W Lincoln, Ark., January. 1907. i> Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 49. January. 1898, p. 16. £ Magazine <*i Horticulture. i853, p. 165. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. Plate XXVI. 9.49* cx4M 2->T-<>7-C^ Oliver Red Apple. Yearbook U. S. Dept o* Ag Plate XXVII. ■4^/\Q. Chappelow Avocado. PROMISING NEW FRUITS. 365 stem stout; surface undulating, smooth, glossy; color dull purple, with reddish-brown dots; apex a mere dot; skin vers' thin, tender, adhering closely; flesh pale greenish-yellow, buttery; seed large in proportion to size of fruit, roundish conical, filling internal cavity: flavor pleasant, though less rich than the best varieties of the West Indian type. Season, July to October at Monrovia, Cal. The tree is a vigorous, rather diffuse grower, with slender wood. It is productive, although being an early bloomer it is sometimes caught by frost. It is considered worthy of testing in the thermal belts of southern California, and for domestic use along the northern edge of the avocado districts of Florida, where its superior hardiness is likely to outweigh the disadvantages of relatively small size and early time of ripening. The specimen illustrated on Plate XXXI was grown on the original tree on the grounds of Mr. William Chappelow, Monrovia, Cal. PECANS. [PLATE XXXII.] The pecan continues to engage the attention of nut growers in the South Atlantic and Gulf States almost to the exclusion of other nut- bearing trees. The increasing popularity of the nut, doubtless due in part to the development of systematic methods of grading and cracking by machinery operated by steam or electric power, which render possible the marketing of the meats ready for use, have com- bined to produce a market demand considerably in excess of the present supply. Under this stimulus and the production of consid- erable numbers of budded and grafted trees of choice varieties in southern nurseries the planting of pecan orchards is proceeding rap- idly in many portions of the South. Much of this planting up to the present time has of necessity been done rather blindly as regards the adaptability of varieties to soil and climatic conditions, very few varieties having yet been fruited sufficiently outside of the localities of their origin to determine their probable behavior elsewhere. As the earlier plantings of budded and grafted trees come into bearing, it is unfortunately becoming apparent that in the infancy of the industry the stock of several of the leading varieties was consider- ably mixed with other sorts. In some cases closely related seedlings inferior to the sort whose name they bore appear to have been propa- gated from. This confusion of identity is now giving rise to diverse reports as to the behavior of particular varieties in different sections, and will doubtless require some years of careful work by nurserymen and orchardists to rectify. Seedling orchards grown from nuts of the large varieties, such as Centennial, Frotscher, Stuart, Van Deman, Russell, etc., that came into public notice from 1875 to 1895, are now coming into bearing 366 YEAKBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. throughout the South, and as both the trees and nuts commonly bear a general resemblance to their parents, they are in many instances being discussed and even labeled with the names of the parent varie- ties. As such seedlings are likely to disclose characteristics even more diverse from their parents if budded or grafted from and planted elsewhere, they should never be designated otherwise than as seed- lings until found worthy of distinctive varietal names. The utmost care in selection of authentic stock of these earlier varieties to bud and graft from is necessary at the present time to insure trueness to name in the nurseries and orchards. It is not safe to use grafting or budding wood of any of these sorts from trees that have not borne, except where such stock can be unquestionably traced to bearing trees that are true to name. Less confusion exists among the more recent introductions, although some of these have in various ways been more or less confused with one another. A few of the more promising of the newer ones are described and illustrated. Alley Pecan. The original tree of this variety was grown by Mrs. C. H. Alley," of Scranton, Miss., from a pecan of unknown variety presented to her by the late Col. R. Seal, of Mississippi City, Miss., in 1871. This nut she planted in a box the same fall, transplanting the young seedling that resulted therefrom to its present location in her garden in 1872. The tree began bearing at the age of about nine years and has the reputation of being a steady and prolific bearer. The variety was first propagated by Mr. F. H. Lewis, of Scranton, who set buds and grafts of it in 1S96, and since that time it has been considerably disseminated by him and others under the name Alley. The original tree bore about 200 pounds of nuts in 1905, and had a fair crop when the storm of September, 1906, occurred. This destroyed a consid- erable portion of the crop and broke several large branches from the tree, though not enough to permanently injure it. DESCRIPTION. Size medium, averaging 60 to SO nuts per pound; form, oblong to ovate conical, with moderately sharp quadrangular apex; color, bright yellowish brown, with rather long and conspicuous black mark- ings; shell brittle, thin; partitions very thin; cracking quality excel- lent; kernel plump and well filled out, though deeply grooved and considerably undulated and irregularly indented; kernel bright, brownish straw color; texture firm and fine grained; flavor sweet, delicate, and free from astringence; quality very good. The specimens illustrated on Plate XXXII were grown on the original tree in the garden of Mrs. C. H. Allej^, at Scranton, Miss. a Letter from Mrs. C. H. Alley, November, 1906. PROMISING NEW FEUITS. 367 The tree is a moderately strong, though rather slender, grower and is reported to be productive in several localities where it has been top-worked during the past five or six years. Teche'-? Pecan-. (Synonyms: '' Frotschcr Xo. g;" " Duplicate Frotscher;" ''Fake Frotschcr;" "Spuri- ous Frotschcr." ) Among the budded trees of the Frotscher pecan when first dissemi- nated by Mr. William Xelson and the late Mr. Richard Frotscher, of New Orleans, about 18S5,6 it has recently been discovered that there were trees of at least one other variety quite closely resembling it in wood and habit of growth, but yielding a smaller and more con- ical nut. This sort, which reached a number of growers, including Mr. J. B. Wight, c of Cairo, Ga., and Dr. J. B. Curtis, of Orange Heights, Fla., in this way, has proved to be of sufficient merit to entitle it to a distinctive name. The place of its origin is not known, but since it appears to trace to the first lot of Frotscher scions received by Mr. Xelson d from Mr. Frotscher for propagation, all of which were supposed to have come from the original Frotscher tree near Olivier, La., on the Bayou Teche, it is probable that the parent tree of this one was somewhere in that vicinity. Acting on this suppo- sition, the committee on nomenclature and standards of the National Nut Growers' Association, at its annual meeting at Scranton, Miss., in November, 1906, named the variety ''Teche" to distinguish it from the true Frotscher. As there appears to be good reason to sup- pose that several other varieties closely resembling Frotscher have been and still are mixed with that variety in many orchards and nurseries, the name Teche should not be indiscriminately applied to all the "spurious" Frotschers, but should be restricted in its appli- cation to the one which is here described from specimens grown by Mr. Wight on trees obtained from the Nelson nursery in 1895. DESdUPTIOX. Size medium to large, averaging oo to 65 nuts per pound; form long oval, compressed, tapering gradually, with the smaller specimens slightly curved near apex: color bright, light, and free from the objec- tionable brownish veining ot the Frotscher, with few broken black stripes; shell comparatively thin, but thicker than Frotscher, with which it was disseminated tlirough error; partitions thin and soft: cracking quality excellent: kernel bright, plump and uniformly well a Pronounced Tosh. l> Yearbook. 1904. p. 408. 'Letters from J. D. Wight, November, 1906; also The Nut Grower, June, 1906, p. 190. d Wm. Xelson in The Nut Grower, August. 1906. p. is 368 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. filled, with shallow grooves; texture of meat firm, fine grained, solid, creamy in color; flavor delicate, rich: quality very good. The specimens illustrated on Plate XXXII were grown by Mr. J. B. Wight, Cairo, Ga. The tree is of more slender and upright habit of growth than Frotscher, and is reported to be fully as productive as that variety in Georgia and Florida. It is worthy of trial wherever that variety succeeds. Curtis Pec ax. (Synonym: Curtis No. J.) The original tree of this variety was grown by Dr. J. B. Curtis, of Orange Heights, Fla., from a nut of the " Turkey Egg" pecan obtained from Arthur Brown, of Bagdad. Fla., in 1SS6. It bore about a dozen nuts in 1893, and has borne a crop each year since then, except in 1902, when heavy rains at blooming time prevented fertilization of the blossoms. It was first propagated by Doctor Curtis in 1896, and was disseminated by him somewhat later. The original tree, though heavily cut for scions, yielded SO pounds of nuts in 1905. a The vari- ety appears to have been first described and illustrated by Hume6 in 1900. DESCRIPTION. >ize medium, 60 to 70 nuts per pound; form ovate conical, com- pressed, with a sharp pointed base and an inclination to curve near apex: color bright, with very few black stripes, but sparsely stippled with black over most of the surface; shell very thin and brittle; par- titions thin; cracking quality good ; kernel very plump and thick, free from indentation other than the narrow grooves, which are of medium depth; color bright, except certain brownish stippling that percepti- bly darkens the tint in some specimens: texture firm, crisp; flavor sweet and rich: quality very good. The specimens illustrated on Plate XXXII were grown by Dr. J. B. Curtis, at Orange Heights. Fla. The tree is reported to be slender and rather pendulous in habit of growth and regularly productive. The variety is of special prom- ise for Florida glowers, as it is one of the few sorts that have origi- nated and been thoroughly tested in that State. It is reported to be rather hard to propagate, the wood being slender and the buds not numerous. Doctor Curtis reports it free from attack by the bud worm where such sorts as Rome and Centennial are badly damaged by it. a Dr. J. B. Curtis in the Nut Grower. June. 1906. pp. 200-201. and letter of February 11, 1907. *> Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 54. August. 1900. pp. 203-209. Yearbook U. S Dept. of Agriculture, ,906. Plate XXXII. DELMAS. £JSJL 1**s6r Pecan Varieties. PROMISING NEW FRUITS. 369 Georgia Pecan. (Synonym: Georgia Giant.) The original tree of this variety is one of a large number of seedlings grown in nursery row by Mr. G. M. Bacon, a of Dewitt, Ga., from nuts of unknown parentage in 1885. Enough of these seedlings for a 30- acre orchard when planted 30 feet apart were transplanted to their present locations the following year. In 1891 this tree, which was the first in the orchard to bear, yielded 32 nuts, which are said to have weighed 1 pound. The following year its crop was 2\ pounds, increas- ing annually until 1902, when it yielded 4h bushels of nuts. Its bud propagation, begun in that year, has resulted in such heavy cutting of the young wood that the crops since then have been comparatively light. DESCRIPTION. Size large to very large, averaging 40 to 50 nuts per pound; form round ovate, with a tendency toward inequality of sides; color rather dull and dark grayish brown, sparsely striped with black; shell rather thick, with moderately thick and soft partitions, yet cracking well; kernel broad, plump, rather bright and very attractive; texture rather soft and inclined to be coarse, though of pleasant flavor and excellent quality. The specimens illustrated on Plate XXXII were grown by the G. M. Bacon Pecan Company, at Dewitt, Ga. The tree is a sturdy, strong grower, precocious and productive, and worthy of thorough test throughout Georgia and adjacent States. Delmas Pecax. The original Delmas pecan tree was grown from a nut planted by Mr. A. G. Delmas at his place at Scranton, Miss., about 1877. It began bearing in 1884, and has been known under the name Delmas since the following year. It was propagated in a limited way by Mr. Delmas about 1890 by grafting both in nursery and orchard. Its gen- eral dissemination, however, appears to have occurred in connection with the "Schley" about 1902, mixed scions of the two varieties received from Mr. Delmas having been grafted in the Pierson nursery, at Monticello, Fla., and disseminated under the name Schley before the admixture was discovered. The wood of the Delmas is so much stouter and more erect than that of the Schley variety that little diffi- culty is experienced in separating them even in the nursery row. The original Delmas tree was blown down by the September storm of 1906 before the crop was ripe, but was severely headed back soon thereafter and righted, so that it is hoped it will survive. a Letter from II. C. White. Dewitt. Ga.. January. 1907. 3 Aui0B 24 370 tEA TLTUEE. . 2 _ 50 nuts per pound ; form iuntly (ji jular rked ,-ieuous ridges extending - of the nut: color grayish brow: - iek, with partitions soft good plump and well filled. arrow, but shallow, and surface undulating: k i ".■•"-•: textu: and open; flavor XXXII were grown by Mr. A. G. I . erect and roundish head, very, dis- I from the Schl ith which it has been somewhat mixed in . Is. It is productive and promising for the tower I region, where it originated. FREIGHT COSTS AND MARKET YALIES. By Frank Andrews, Scientific Assistant in Transportation, Division of Foreign Markets, Bureau of Statistics. FREIGHT COSTS AND MARKET VALUES OF COTTON AND WHEAT. It is well known that goods whose value is high in proportion to their weight are likely to be charged higher freight rates than goods of relatively low value. It is understood, however, that value is not the only condition affecting freight charges; under some circum- stances a higher rate may be charged for a less valuable than for a more valuable commodity between the same points. The influence of value and weight upon the cost of carrying is illustrated in the case of two of the most important farm products of the United States — cotton and wheat. And it is of no little interest to note that this rule of freight traffic applies to the cost incurred by farmers in hauling their products from farms to shipping points. An investigation was made by the writer, under the authority of the Bureau of Statistics of the Department of Agriculture, in Sep- tember, 1906, to learn certain facts about hauling farm products on country roads, and from results of this inquiry it is estimated that it costs an average of 16 cents per 100 pounds to haul cotton from farms to shipping points, while the cost for wheat is 9 cents. The average distance of cotton farms from local shipping points is ll.S miles, the average weight of a wagonload of cotton is 1,702 pounds, and the average cost of hauling the load, $2.76; the corresponding averages for wheat are 9.4 miles, 3,323 pounds, and $2.86. It is plain that cotton may be profitably hauled for greater distances and in smaller loads than wheat, since the value of an average load of the cotton picked in 1905 was more than $170, while a load of wheat was worth about $40. CHARGING WHAT THE TRAFFIC WILL BEAR. The average railway freight rate for cotton from local shipping points to seaports is estimated at 40 cents per 100 pounds, while the corresponding rate for wheat is about 20 cents. This difference in railway charges between these two commodities illustrates the tendency of value to influence transportation costs, and also shows one of the several phases of the principle of railway rate making which is often described as "charging what the traffic will bear." 371 372 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. RELATIVE VALUES AND OCEAN" RATES. On the ocean, also, freight charges for cotton are higher than those for wheat. The rates quoted for regular lines of steamers for canning cotton from Galveston. New Orleans, and New York to Liverpool averaged during the year ending June 30. 190(3. about 32 cents per 100 pounds, while the corresponding rate for wheat was only one-fourth that sum. or S cents per 100 pounds. A cargo of cotton shipped from Galveston to Liverpool frequently contains as much as 5,51 pounds, and the value in 1005-6 of such a cargo at Galveston was not far from $600,000, while the same quantity of wheat would have been worth from 870.000 to 890.000. The entire cost of carrying this amount of cotton from the farms in the United States to Liverpool, not including costs of transfer and terminal charges, at the average rates estimated in this article, would be about -Soil. 000. while the corresponding cost for wheat would be 12 COTTON. COST OF HaTLING FROM FARMS. The cost of hauling cotton and certain other products from farms to shipping points has been determined with the aid of the county correspondents- of the Bureau of Statistics of the Department of ulture. In answer to questions sent out by the Department in August. 1900. correspondents in 555 cotton-producing counties returned, in addition to other data, information as to the number of pounds of cotton usually hauled at one load, the time required for the longest haul by any considerable number of fanners, and the usual cost per day for hiring teams. The cost of hauling a wagonload of cotton from the farm as deter- mined here is the cost of hiring such work done, though it is usual for a farmer to do his own hauling and not to hire such work done. The actual cost to an individual farmer at a given time may vary ly from the usual cost of hiring a team, wagon, and driver: he may haul his cotton when he has nothing else to do and when his team would be otherwise idle, or he may be compelled to haul at a time and under conditions that may involve no little sacrifice of labor and expense. However, in determining an average value of the service of hauling it may be assumed that in a given community usual cost per day for hiring a team, wagon, and driver is a fair measure in that community of the average outlay of capital and labor required to perform the service in question. TWO REGIONS COMPARED. By this method .the cost of hauling cotton from farms in the South Atlantic States was found to be 13 cents per 100 pounds, while the FREIGHT COSTS AND MARKET VALUES. 373 average for all the cotton regions west of Georgia and the Allegheny Mountains was 17 cents. The difference in cost between the two regions was due chiefly to the difference in the average distances from farms to shipping points, the distance for the South Atlantic States being 9.6 miles and for the South Central States and Terri- tories 12.7 miles. FREIGHT RATES TO SEAPORTS. Nearly three-fourths of the cotton arriving at Galveston is carried by railroads at a uniform rate, and comes from stations serving a large part of the area of the State of Texas. The railroad" freight rate from Texas "common points'' to Galveston was 55 cents per 100 pounds during the year ending June 30, 1906. Of the 188 Texas counties which produced cotton in 1905, 118 were in the region to which the "common points" rate of 55 cents applied. The usual rate for stations in 14 counties was 65 cents, for 7 counties 58 cents, 5 counties 49 cents, 4 counties 66 cents, 4 other counties 54 cents, 2 others 63 cents, while the rates to Galveston from stations in 34 counties, which were situated between the region of the "common points" and Galveston, ranged from 6 to 48 cents per 100 pounds. The average rate from all points in Texas, taking into account the quantity of cotton affected by each rate quoted, was 52.9 cents per 100 pounds. The average cost of shipping cotton from Indian Ter- ritory to Galveston during the year just mentioned is estimated roughly at 66 cents per 100 pounds, and the average rate from Okla- homa to Galveston is estimated at 72 cents per 100 pounds. GALVESTON, NEW ORLEANS, VXD SAVANNAH. Taking into account the relative quantity of cotton produced in the region affected by each rate, the average charge to Galveston from local stations in Texas, Indian Territory, and Oklahoma during the year mentioned was 54 cents per 100 pounds. Average rates from points of original shipment to Xew Orleans, Savannah, and Xew York were estimated by adding the rates given for a large number of representative local shipping points and dividing the sum by the number of items. In this manner the mean rate to Xew Orleans from 347 stations in Mississippi, Louisiana, and Tennessee was SI. 14 per bale, or about 23 cents per 100 pounds. Cotton sent to Savannah from 738 stations in Georgia, South Caro- lina, Florida, and eastern Alabama was charged a mean rate of 41 cents per 100 pounds. ROUTES AND CHARGES TO XEW YORK CITY. Consignments of cotton to New York City from local stations in the cotton regions may be carried all the way in freight cars or may be sent down to some southern port and there transferred to one of 374 YEAEBOOK OF I IfKNT DP AGFJCTLTUF.E. the lines of coasting vessels for shipment northward. The charges on cotton to New York are from 20 to 25 cents higher than the . from the same stations to New Orleans and Savannah. The r rate per 100 pounds to New York from 2981 - - ssippi, by railroad routes exclusively, was 4s cents, _ Ls more than the rate to New Orleans as given above, and the mean rate to York from 402 stations in North and South Carolina. Georgia, and tii Alabama was 05 cents by all-rail routes and 59 cents by : and-water routes. These charges, it will be seen, are from IS I cents above the rates from practically the same regie - vannah. The mean freight charge to New York from 700 local points among the cotton fields in Mississippi, Xorth Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and eastern Alabama is taken as 54 cents per 100 pounds, the same as the estimated average rate from stations in Tl Oklahoma, and Indian Territory down to Galveston. PRICES AT WW If the relative quantity of cotton exported from each port be taken into account, the average of the freight rates on cotton to Galvesi Xew Orleans, Savannah, and Xew York from local shipping points would be 40 cents per 100 pounds. At the four cities named the mean of the daily closing prices for Upland middling t( n for the year ending June 30, 1000. was 11 cents per pound, which was about the same as the average export value of all cotton for all United States ports during this year. The mean annual price at Xew Orleans and also at Galveston was 11 cents, at Savannah 10.S. and at Xew York 11.3 cents per pound. Thus it appears that in 1005-6 the value of cotton at the seaboard was twenty times the cost of transporting that product there from the farms, the freight chai plus the cost of hauling in wagons being 50 cents per 100 pounds. TWO CLASSES OF OOEAX FREIGHT TRA} Ocean freight charges are subject to more frequent changes than are railroad rates. On the ocean competition is practically free, for any man with a ship may compete for business. If the vessels at a certain port have a large amount of available space for cargo and the quantity of goods to be shipped is relatively small, freight rates are apt to be low. Such a condition may easily occur when pass- enger liners are in port, for their dates of sailing are fixed by a sched- ule previously arranged, and they must start on time whether their cargoes be largo or small. Quotations of freight rates on goods ied by steamship lines are published regularly in the leading ports on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the Umu - - The mean of the quotations for cotton to Liverpool for the first week of each month dining the year 1905-6 was 33 cents par 100 ix>unds from FEEIGHT COSTS AJSTB MARKET VALUES. 375 New Orleans and 17 cents from New York. The rates from Gal- veston and other leading Gulf ports are regarded as practically the same as those from New Orleans. Besides the regular lines of vessels, there are a large number of ships engaged in freight traffic which have no regular routes, but make contracts frequently for a single voyage at a time. On account of their wanderings throughout the commercial world these vessels sometimes called "tramps." ONE TEAK'S RECORD OF A '"TRAMP'5' STEAMER. An account of the first year's work of one of these "tramps" appeared in a daily paper in September. 1906. The A'essel in ques- tion was built in England and on its first voyage carried a cargo of coal from Cardiff, Wales, to Algiers. The next trip was in search of business and the ship went in ballast from Algiers to Port Arthur, Tex., whence a cargo of cotton and cotton seed was taken to Bremen, Germany. Again a voyage in search of freight was made, and at Cardiff a second load of coal was taken aboard; this time the desti- nation was Teneriffe, in the Canary Islands. Then a second voyage was made across the Atlantic without cargo, and this time also bus- iness was found at Port Arthur, Tex., where corn was leaded for Sharpness, England. Another voyage in ballast brought the ship to Bremen and the load of kaiiiit received there was taken to Savan- nah. Leaving Savannah and sailing up the coast, again in ballast, the vessel ended its first year of service as it entered the harbor of Baltimore. Here it was to receive a full cargo of grain for the Baltic Sea. Some ships are not so successful as this one in finding cargoes and occasionally lie idle for months at a time waiting for employment. AVERAGE OCEAN" RATE OX COTTC'X. The average ocean rate on cotton from the United States to Liver- pool for the year 1905-6 was about 32 cents per 100 pounds, exclud- ing terminal charges, the same as the annual mean of the quoted rates from Savannah to the United Kingdom. It will be noted also that the average railway rate from all local points to all ports,- as estimated above, was 40 cents, while the charge from local points to Savannah was 41 cents per 100 pounds. In regard to both land and water rates Savannah occupies a medium position. VALUES IN" EXGLAXD. The sum of the cost per 100 pounds for transporting cotton on country roads, on United States railroads, and across the Atlantic, as estimated above, is SS cents, and, with an allowance of 2 cents for transfer to ship at some United States ports, the entire cost of carry- ing may be taken as 90 cents per 100 pounds. 376 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The mean price of cotton in England for the twelve months ending June 30, 1906, was about 12 cents per pound; the annual mean of the cash prices for Upland middling cotton at this market at the close of each business day for the year mentioned was 12.1 cents. The difference in price between the four leading cotton ports of the United States and Liverpool was 1.1 cents per pound, while the cost of carrying the cotton across the ocean was about one-third of 1 cent per pound, leaving two-thirds of 1 cent for profits and other items, such as insurance, selling commissions, and cartage. The total cost of transportation from United States farms to Liverpool, including cost of transfer to ships at United States ports, was about 7.5 per cent of the value of the cotton in that city. SUMMARY OF FREIGHT CHARGES ON COTTON. The total cost of hauling the cotton crop of 1905 from farms to shipping points, at the rate of 16 cents per 100 pounds, as estab- lished by the investigation mentioned near the beginning of this article, would be $8,000,000; and the cost of carrying that portion of the cotton crop which was exported to Europe from farms in the United States, at the rate of 90 cents per 100 pounds, would amount to $33,000,000, of winch the cost of hauling from farms would be 86,000,000, freight charges to seaboard cities 815,000,000, and ocean transportation, including transfer to ship, 812,000,000. A summary of the transportation costs for cotton mentioned in the preceding paragraphs is given below: E*t' incited average costs of carrying cotton in the United States and to the United Kingdom during the year eliding June SO, 1906. _ Cents per Jnrom — 100 pounds. Farm? in 555 cotton-producing counties, by wagon, to local shipping points. . 16 200 local points in Texas, Indian Territory, and Oklahoma, by all-rail routes, to Galveston 54 347 local points in Mississippi. Louisiana, and Tennessee, by all-rail routes. to N ew Orleans 23 - local points in Georgia, South Carolina, Florida, and eastern Alabama, by all-rail routes, to Savannah 41 298 local points in Mississippi, by all-rail routes, to New York 48 402 local points in North Carolina, South Carolina. Georgia, and eastern Alabama — By all-rail routes to New York G5 By rail-and-water routes to New York 59 Local shipping point- to seaports, average lor United States 40 Gulf ports and New York, by regular steamship lines, to Liverpool 32 Savannah, by chartered vessels, to the United Kingdom 32 United States to United Kingdom, average for all ports 32 FREIGHT COSTS AND MARKET VALUES. 377 WHEAT. FROM FARMS TO LOCAL SHIPPING POINTS. The average cost of 9 cents per hundredweight for hauling wheat from farms to shipping points, as mentioned, at the beginning of this article, was obtained by the use of returns from 1,051 wheat- producing counties. The cost for the Xorth Central States is S cents per 100 pounds, but in Kansas. Ohio. Indiana, and Michigan the rate is 6 cents, and farmers in Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, and Nebraska do this hauling at an average cost of 7 cents per 100 pounds. In Missouri the mean cost is 9 cents per 100 pounds, in Xorth Dakota 10 cents, and in South Dakota 11 cents per 100 pounds. In the wheat region west of the Rocky Mountains the average cost is 10 cents per 100 pounds, the relatively high rate being largely due to the long distances over which the grain is moved. The average farm value of wheat, as given by the Department of Agriculture, is the price at the local shipping points, for practically all wheat is sold by farmers at a price which includes delivery at some local market or shipping point. The average farm value of wheat in the United States on December 1. 1905. was 74. S cents per bushel, and the average cost to the farmers of delivering this wheat at 9 cents per 100 pounds is 5.4 cents per bushel. Hence the actual value on the farm would be 69.4 cents per bushel. As the wheat crop of 1905, excluding seed, was about 622,000,000 bushels, the cost of hauling the crop from farms to places of local delivery may be given as 834.000,000, while the total value of the crop delivered at these markets and shipping points was 8465,000,000. RAILWAY CHARGES TO INTERIOR MARKETS. From the wheat regions east of the Rocky Mountains large quan- tities of the grain are gathered into such interior cities as Minneapolis, Chicago, and Kansas City. The mean of the railway freight rates on wheat from 562 local stations in Illinois and Nebraska to Chicago in 1905-6 was 16 cents per 100 pounds, the same as the mean rate to Minneapolis from 311 local stations in Minnesota, Xorth Dakota, South Dakota, and Nebraska. In estimating the mean charge to Chicago from all local shipping points, rates from Illinois and Nebraska were taken as typical of low and high rates, respectively. To Kansas City, from 456 stations in Kansas. Missouri, and Oklahoma, the mean rate is found to be about 14 cents per 100 pounds. Making allow- ances for the relative quantities of wheat received at each of these three primary markets during the year 1905-6, the average rate on wheat from local shipping points to primary markets in 1905-6 was 15.5 cents per 100 pounds, which, added to the average cost of haul- ing wheat from farms in the North Central States, makes a total cost 37S YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of transportation of 24.5 cents per 100 pounds, or 14.7 cents per bushel from farm to primary market. JDSS AND VALVES OF WHEAT. No attempt is made here to obtain an average market value for all wheat received at one or more leading markets. In the case of cotton, it was found that the price for the Upland middling grade at the leading United States ports and at Liverpool was approxi- mately the average for the entire crop. But important grad- wheat are too numerous for such a method of obtaining an average value. At one city the principal grade may be "No. 2 red winter." while "Xo. 1 northern" may predominate in another market. Then the various practices and standards of grading wheat at the different trade centers give rise to still more classes for which price quotations are made. MINNEAPOLIS AND CHICAGO. The mean annual price of Xo. 1 northern wheat at Minneapolis for 1905-6 was 86.3 cents, and the mean freight rate from 311 sta- tions in Minnesota. North Dakota. South Dakota, and Xebraska - ».6 cents per bushel. The average price of wheat at local ship- ping points in these four States on December 1. 1005. was 68.6 eents per bushel, so that the cost of this wheat at Minneapolis would be 7- _ cents, plus such items as elevator charges, fees for in.-pection and weighing, and dealers' profits, making a total cost of probably n<»t more than 80 cents per bushel, or about 6 cents less than the value of No. 1 northern. At Chicago the mean price of Xo. 2 red winter wheat for the rear named was S6.9 cents, and the average farm price in Xebraska and Illinois for all wheat on December 1, 1905, was 71. S cents, including of hauling from farms, while the mean freight rate to Chicago from local stations in those two States was 0.6 cents per bushel. V c >rdins to these figures all the marketable grades of Xebraska and Illinois wheat were worth, in the Chicago market, probably about S3 cents per bushel, or 3.0 cents less than Xo. 2 rati winter. RATES AND PRICES AT KANSAS CITY. In Kansas. Nebraska, Missouri, and Oklahoma the average value of wheat at local points December 1. 1005. was 70. S cents, and the mean freight charge from these stations to Kansas City was 8.4 cents per bushel. The cost. then, at Kansas City, would be 70.2 cents, plus minor charges. The mean annual value of Xo. 2 hard wheat at this market for 1905-6 was 81.1 cents. In this case, the only one of the three mentioned, there i> an approximate agreement in the prices used: the farm value and the price at the primary market seem to apply to grades of about the same average quality. FRSIOHT COSTS AND MARKET VALUES. 379 The average of the three prices just mentioned for Chicago, Min- neapolis, and Kansas City, allowing for the relative importance of each price in proportion to the quantity of wheat received at each market, is 85.1 cents per bushel, and the average farm value, includ- ing cost of hauling, of the crop in the States and Territory named, was 70.8 cents. The average freight rate being 9.3 cents, the average value on December 1, 1905, at the three primary markets for all marketable grades of the wheat of this region, would be probably not more than S2 cents. This would make only 3.1 cents difference between the average value of all wheat and the price of three of the better grades. RAIL AND WATER ROUTES TO SEABOARD. From the interior wheat markets to the seaboard there are two general routes, one eastward to Atlantic ports and the other leading south to the Gulf of Mexico. Along the eastward routes the rail- roads have to share their traffic with the waterways formed by the Great Lakes and the connecting rivers and canals. The Mississippi River is a potential although not always an active competitor for the traffic from the wheat regions to New Orleans. During 1904 and 1905 practically no wheat was carried by river from St. Louis to New Orleans. RATES FROM PRIMARY MARKETS. The freight charge from Chicago to New York or Boston for wheat intended for export was 15 cents per 100 pounds in 1905-6, by all-rail routes. During the same year boats on the Great Lakes were chartered to cany wheat from Chicago to Buffalo at rates ranging from 1.25 to 3 cents per bushel, and the railway charge from Buffalo to New York was 4.5 cents per bushel on wheat intended for export. The lake-and-rail rate, then, from Chicago to New York ranged between 5.75 and 7.50 cents per bushel. Shipments by way of the lakes and Erie Canal were sent at still lower rates. During the calendar year 1905 the mean rate by lake and canal to New York from Chicago was 5.53 cents per bushel, by lake and rail the rate was 6.40 cents, and the railroads charged 9.90 cents for carrying the wheat the entire distance. The all-rail rate from Chicago to Balti- more and Norfolk was 3 cents per 100 pounds less than the rate to New York or Boston and 1 cent below the charge to Philadelphia, on exported wheat. The mean all-rail rate on exported wheat from Chicago to the Atlantic seaboard may be taken as about 13 cents per 100 pounds, or 7.8 cents per bushel. On wheat intended for domestic consumption the rate to Boston from Chicago was 4.5 cents per 100 pounds above the export rate, and the mean rate on domestic wheat from Chicago to Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Norfolk, exceeded the mean export rate by 3 cents per 100 pounds, or l.S cents per bushel. 380 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DIRECT SHIPMENTS AT LOWER RATES. The average rate on wheat from local points in the interior to the Atlantic and Gulf coasts is less than the sum of the charge from those points to primary markets plus the charge from these markets to the seaboard. It ma}' be assumed that the cost of shipment to the coast from Kansas City, Omaha, and Minneapolis is not less than the average from local points in the wheat region surrounding those cities and is probably greater than the rates from many important shipping points lying near the seaports. The mean rate from local stations in the wheat region east of the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic seaboard is taken as 13.4 cents per bushel, which is the mean rate from Kansas City and Omaha to that coast, and the rate to the Gulf as 10.8 cents, the same as from Kansas City to New Orleans and Galveston. The average rate from local shipping points to both coasts, allowing for the relative quantity of wheat exported from each, would be 12.6 cents per bushel. SHIPS CHEAPER CARRIERS THAN WAGONS. Ocean rates were higher than usual during the year 1905-6, and the mean charge for carrying wheat by regular steamship lines to Liverpool from New York, a distance of about 3,100 miles, was 3.8 cents per bushel, or 1.6 cents less than it cost a farmer to haul the wheat 9 .4 miles from his farm to a neighboring railroad station. Some- times the rate on wheat from an Atlantic port in the United States to Liverpool is as low as 1.5 cents per bushel, or 3.9 cents less than the average cost of hauling from the farms. The cost of shipment in chartered vessels from Baltimore to ports in the United Kingdom for the }rear 1905-6 was about 7.8 cents per bushel on an average, a cost much higher than the rate charged by vessels of regular lines, and 2.4 cents more than the cost of wagon transportation. The mean rate by regular lines from New Orleans was about 6.8 cents per bushel and may be taken to represent the Gulf coast as the New York rate is in general typical of the rates from Atlantic ports. The large number of grain ships chartered at Baltimore during 1905-6 makes it fairly safe to take the cost of charters at that port as an approximate average for the whole coast and not far removed from charter rates from the Gulf to England. The average of the rates on wheat to Liverpool by regular lines from New Orleans and New York and by chartered vessels from Baltimore, not including costs of transfer, may be taken as 4.8 cents per bushel, or 0.6 cent less than the cost of hauling in wagons from farms to shipping points. PRN ES AT LIVERPOOL. The mean price at Liverpool for "No. 2 red winter" wheat for five months ending June 30, 1906, the season when this grade was most frequently quoted there, was 92.6 cents per bushel, and the cost of FREIGHT COSTS AND MARKET VALUES. 3S1 transportation to Liverpool from local points in the Middle West is esti- mated at 17.4 cents per bushel. Deducting this freight charge from the price just quoted, and allowing 1.5 cents for profits and minor costs, the value of this quality of wheat at local shipping points in Illinois. Minnesota. Missouri. North Dakota. South Dakota. Nebraska, Kansas, and Oklahoma would be 73.7 cents, or only 2.9 cents per bushel above the average value of all wheat at those points. THE PACIFIC COAST. The Pacific coast wheat trade has some features distinct from the trade east of the Rocky Mountains. The wheat exported from the Pacific coast to Europe is carried almost entirely in sailing vessel-. The rates quoted for chartering sailing ships for these long voyages showed but little variation during the year, the average charge to the United Kingdom from San Francisco. Portland. Tacoma. and Seattle being 16. S cents per bushel for wheat, not including costs of transfer. Owing to the small exports of wheat from San Francisco in 1905-6. the rates from that port have practically no effect upon the average just mentioned. The mean of freight charges to Tacoma. Seattle, and Portland from 459 local stations was 10.2 cents per bushel, which, added to the ocean rate, made the total transportation cost from these local points to Liverpool 27 cents per bushel. The mean Liverpool price for the year ending June 30. 1906. being 96 cents for white Walla Walla wheat, the value at shipping points near the farms in the Pacific Northwest would be CY^ cents, less minor costs of marketing the grain. These minor costs of marketing may be estimated as between 1 and 2 cents per bushel, thus making the value of this grade of wheat in local markets near the farms 67 or 6S cents per bushel, being but a slight variation from the actual average of all wheat at these slapping points, which on December 1. 1905. was 66.2 cents. The average local value for the year 1905-6 was a few cents less than the price on December 1. APPARENT DISCREPANCIES EXPLAINED. However, if the mean railway rate to the coast from local points in Oregon. Washington, and Idaho be subtracted from the mean price of Bluestem wheat at Portland. Oreg.. for the year ending June 30. 1906, which was 74.5 cents, the value of this variety at those local points would be 64.3 cents per bushel, from which minor costs of marketing are still to be deducted, and the net value would remain not far from 63 cents. There is an apparent discrepancy here, for the average value of all wheat on December 1. 1905, including grades inferior to Bluestem, was 66.2 cents per bushel, or about 3 cents higher than the value of Bluestem. A greater discrepancy occurs when the mean YEARBOOK Or THE HEP.. T OF AGEICULTURE. m club " _ cents per bush. i :ed to a value at local shipping points by subtracting the freight I icr bushel. TL i e due apparently to relatively high prices on the -ember, 1905. the month in which the December farm values were actually obtained, and from this he farm for wheat in Paeifk ist S - r December 1,1! cents higher than the average for the entire year. About the 1st of ember, 1905. Bluestem wheat at P rtlan :. I >:•_-.. was quoted at s, and the Tacoma price for northern club was 74.5 cents per bushel. The average value of these grades at local shipping .ated by deducting freight and other cost from the mean of the st quoted, is from 64.1 to 65.1 cents per bushel. 1.1 or 2.1 cents less than the average value of all at those poii: rained for December 1. The average cost of hauling wheat from farms in Washington. Ore-. a 12 cents per 100 pounds, or 7.2 seats per bu The . ■ rami price on December 1. 1905. for these three Sj being 66 .2 the net value on farms woul a cents per bushel. a The apparent increase in the consumption of wheat in the United States in the rive years ending June 30. 1906. and the accomparr decrease in exports was attended by a rise in local prices, which, if ibuted proportionally in all parts of the country, would ah forbid the exportation of any wheat at all. During the year ending June 30. 1902, the exports of wheat, including flour (in terms of gramj, from the United States amounted to 235.000,000 bushels and the average farm value, including cost of haulin_ J. 4 cent- bushel. For the next four years the annual exports and a v. : farm values were, respectively. 203.000.000 bushels and 63 cents per bushel. 121.000.000 bushels and 69.5 cents. 44.000.000 bushels and 92.4 cents, and i " 6 the exports Ave:. 3 I bushels and the farm value 74. S cents per bushel. The value of wheat sent to Liver- pool in this last-mentioned year and the freL ng the expressed hi averages applying to the Unite: - whole, were: Value of reheat and cost of carrying from T~ .* farms to United Kingdom. 1: Cents per bushel. Value on farms in Unite-; 3 : ^re hauling 69. 4 i hauling to local shipping points farm value, including cost of hauling Rail-way freight charges from local points to seaport 11. 6 Ocean freight charges to United Kingdom Minor costs of sale and shipment Value at port in United Kingdom FREIGHT COSTS AKB MAP.KET VALUES. 3S3 MAXIMUM FARM V.V1VE OF EXPORT WHEAT. The value in the United Kingdom as estimated upon a basis of a farm value in the United States of 74. S cents per bushel (including cost of hauling) is a few cents higher than the actual prices of United States wheat at Liverpool. The average import value of all wheat brought into the United Kingdom from the United States during the year 1905-6 was 05.0 cents, and the mean price at Liverpool during period for Xo. 2 red winter and "Walla Walla white grades was 04.3 cents per bushel. -. <>i F.XrORTIXG KANSAS WHEAT. For wheat shipped from Kansas for export th and frei rates were as follows for the year ending June 30. 1906: Value of wheat and cost of carrying from Kansas fa 5-6. Ce: ' Value on h r ■ hauling I o L >eal shipping pi 'int.- Farm value, including cost of hauling Rail v. . Gulf pot ts 10. 8 Ocesu . ol Min' - <.'\ shipment 1.5 Value a t Liverpool The corresponding value of wheat shipped from Minnesota to Liverpool by way of Xew York would be SO. 7 cents per bushel. Xone of these estimates of value hi Liverpool include selling costs and dealers' profits hi England, which of course are included in the prices quoted above for specific grades. The mean price hi Liverpool for Xo. 2 red winter grade being 02.6 for the season 1005-6. the value just estimated for Kansas wheat allows a margin of 2.5 cents for minor charges in the United Kingdom and for differences between the average price of all Kansas wheat and the price of the Xo. 2 red winter grade. S15IMAEY FOR WHEAT. For the sake of convenience the principal transportation costs and market values mentioned in the foregoing discission of wheat are collected in this statement: Wl 'pal values ami freight charnes mentioned in this art' VAl Cents per bushel. age value on farms in the United States before hauling. ! Average farm value, including cost of hauling. December 1. 1905 74. 8 3S4 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. • - per sheL Average price in Chicago. Minneapolis, and Kansas City, year ending June 30, 1906. for certain gra I Price of Bluest em. Portland, Oreg., November 2, 1905 "- Price of northern club. Tacoma. Wash., November 1, 1905 74.5 Average farm value, including cost oi hauling, Oregon, "Washington, and Idaho. December 1. 1905 Mean price No. 2 red -winter. Liverpool, live months ending Jam. .....92 Mean price Walla Walla white. Liverpool, for year 1905-G Mean price of Bluestem, Liverpool. 1905-G 97 FREIGHT COSTS FOR YEAR ENDING JUNE 30. 1906. Hauling from farm to local shipping points 5.4 Average rate from 1 .329 local shipping points in Illinois. Minnesota . Xorth Dak South Dakota. Nebraska. Kansas. Missouri, and Oklahoma to Chicago. Minne- apolis, and Kansas City Mean rat e on export wheat. Chicago to Atlantic ports " i Mean rate on export wheat. Missouri River to Atlantic ports 13. 4 Average rate on export wheat. Kansas City. Omaha. St. Paul, and Minneap<>". - X ew Orleans and Galveston 11.4 Average rate from all local shipping ports in above-named States t" Atlantic and Gulf ports 12.6 Average rate from 459 local shipping points in Oregon. Washington, and Idai. Portland. Tacoma. and Seattle 10. 2 Average rate from all local shipping points to all ports in the United Stales 11. 6 Average ocean freight rate. Atlantic and Gulf ports to the United Kingdom 4. S Average ocean freight rate. Pacific ports to the United Kingdom 16. S Average ocean freight rate, all United States ports fa the United Kingdom 9.6 OCEAX FREIGHT RATES AXD BRITISH IMPORTS. In the United Kingdom, where a large part of the wheat consumed is imported, the cost of ocean transportation is an important matter. During the calendar year 1905 the wheat, not including flour, im- ported into that country amounted to 1S2,000,000 bushels and the average cost of ocean freight was about 9 cents per bushel, thus making the total cost of carrying it on sea more than $16,000,000. The average of 9 cents per bushel was estimated from the mean annual freight rates from eight leading regions of supply to the United Kingdom. The rates quoted for all the countries except the United States and Canada were taken from the London Times and the Review of the River Plate (of Buenos Aires), while the other : were found in commercial papers and hi circulars issued by freight brokers at various ports. The mean annual rates on wheat from each of these regions to the United Kingdom for 1905 are given on the next page. No. 2 red winter at Chicago, No. 1 northern at Minneapolis, and No. 2 hard at Kansas City. FREIGHT COSTS AND MARKET VALUES. 385 Mean annual freight rates on wheat to the United Kingdom. t-. Cents per From— bushel. Canada : 4 United States. Atlantic and Gulf ports t> 5 Russia . Bla< k Si a p< at s 7 Roumania 7 British India 9 Argentina 11 Australia ■ 14 United States. Pacific ports & 17 Average d 9 remote Sources of England's wheat supply. The effect of applying to wheat the same rates as arc charged some other articles in ocean traffic would be alarming to the British people and to all other nations winch receive an important part of their wheat supply from over the sea : and the readjustment of prices brought about by such changes in transportation costs might have serious results for the agricultural interests in many countries of supply. The bread of England is made from wheat carried over vast distances and at rates lower than would have been dreamed of a few generations ago. To Liverpool from the Atlantic coast of the United States and also from the Black Sea the grain makes a journey of 3,000 miles, while twice that distance is traversed from the River Plate and from Bombay: large supplies are carried 10,000 miles from Australia: and 3,000,000 bushels in 1905 were taken by sailing vessels from Puget Sound, down the west coast of America and around Cape Horn, a voyage of 15,000 miles, or more than one-half of the distance around the globe. From these distant ports, from 3,000 to 15,000 miles away, the average charge for carrying wheat to England for the year 19C5, as mentioned in a preceding paragraph, was 9 cents per bushel, or only one and two-thirds times the cost of hauling over 9 miles of country roads in the United States. It bhe average cost of carrying- cotton the 3,00o or 4,000 miles from United States Atlantic and Gulf coasts to the United Kingdom were applied to transportation of wheat over the routes mentioned above. ranging in length from 3,000 to 15,000 mile-, the rate per bushel would be 19 cents instead of 9, and the margin between prices in England and in countries of supply would average 10 cents per bushel more than in 1905. <7 Rate from Boston used here. b Fur year ending June 30. 1906. 'Mean rate of eight quotations. d Weighted in proportion to imports from each region named. 1234 a 1906 25 386 YEARBOOK OF THK DEPARTMENT <»F AGRICULTURE. FUTURE CHANGES IX FREIGHT COSTS. Judging- from the changes during the past few generations, it is natural to expect that costs of freight on land and water may be lower in the future than at present. Improved methods of loading and unloading freight, economies in the disposition of cars and vessels so as to avoid more than at present the hauling of empty car- and the making of voyages in ballast, and an increase in the quantity of valu- able freight paying high rates per unit of weight would all tend to lower the cost of transporting farm product-. In hauling products from farms in wagons there are opportunities for a saving in cost. In many regions in the United States the improvement of a road, or a short rough section of a road, would allow much larger loads to be hauled than at present. If it were pos- sible to increase the average weight of a wagonload of cotton in the United States from 3 bales, as it now is, to -i bales, without increasing the cost of hauling the load, the saving on a crop equal to the one picked in 1905 would amount to $2,000,000; and if the average load of wheat, now 55 bushels, were increased by 20 bushels, the saving effected in ' ailing a crop like that of 1905 would be more than $8,000,000 NEW TOBACCO VARIETIES. By A. D. Shamkl. Physiologist in Charge of Tobacco Breeding Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry. HOW THE NEW VARIETIES WERE BRED. The four varieties of cigar-wrapper tobacco described in this paper have been produced by the writer in the breeding experiments of the Department of Agriculture. These experiments were first undertaken in the Connecticut Valley in the fall of 1903, at which time the writer began a study of the varieties of tobacco grown in the valley, made a large number of crosses of the native with standard foreign-grown varieties, and selected about 400 individual seed plants growing at that time in the fields. These hybrids and selections, together with others made later, about 750 in all, have been tested, under the super- vision of Dr. Herbert J. Webber, Physiologist in Charge of Plant Breeding Investigations, in the field, laboratory, and manufacturing establishments during the past three seasons, the inferior and unde- sirable types have been discarded, and the valuable types have been used for further tests. Out of all the many selections and hybrids made in 1903 two hybrids and two selections have proved to be valuable not only in the Connecticut Valley but in other sections of the United States adapted for growing cigar-wrapper varieties of tobacco. In the hybridization experiments considerable care and attention were given to the selection of varieties used as parents. The object of these experiments was to secure varieties of tobacco adapted to the soil, climatic, and trade conditions of the valley, producing the size, shape, and quality of leaves best suited to economical cigar- wrapper manufacture. The native Connecticut Valley varieties of tobacco produce long, large, and pointed leaves, from one of which it is possible to cut only from two to four good cigar wrappers. On the other hand, the typical leaf of the Cuban and Sumatra varieties of tobacco is short and round, from which the American cigar maker cuts from six to eight and even more wrappers. The Cuban and Sumatra varieties used as parents in these experiments were grown under shade in the Connecticut Valley to a limited extent in 1903, some of the plants of which bore leaves of the character that is most desirable for making cigar wrappers. These best plants were selected 387 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. for breeding and m ssed with the best plants of the native onecticut Havana Seed and Broadleaf varieties. There was usually found on each plant about a dozen flowers at the right s< _ of development fur - _. All of the other flowers on the same I head were cut off and thrown away. The flowers used for cr< - - Lag were then emasculated, and a small, one-quarter pound, light manila-paper bag - laced over each individual flower. In about forty-eight hours the bags were removed, the pollen to be used for pollination was dusted over the receptive stigma, and the I replaced. As the individual pods set from three to seven thousand ich, the possibility of raising a large progeny from every < is apparent. A large number of cj sses "ere made, in one case using the Con- ticut varieties as the mother parents and in the other instance using the imported varieties as the mother parents. In 1904 about one hundred plants were grown in the fipld from every cross-fertilized pod of seed. The results of this test made it possible to weed out a large number of the unprofitable hybrids at once and to save for planting in 1905 a comparatively few plants from a few of the best geny rows. Two of these plants were so clearly new and distinct types that they stood out strongly from all the rest of the plants in the fields. The progeny of these plant- have come true to seed in the - sons of 1905 and 1906 and are recognized as of such value that they have been named and their seed distributed to a limited extent for commercial growing. In all ^'-fertilized seed has been used every y.jar for planting, and no such violent breaking up in type has been observed at any time as is the case with hybrid vari- eties of corn cotton, and certain other en - The original selection of seed plants in the crop- of the Connecticut Valley grown from Florida Sumatra and imported Sumatra seed were made in the s a of 1903. with a view to securing improved uniform varieties adapted for growing under shade. In these fields the plants varied in type to a remarkable degree. Some of them were of a desirable type, while many were wholly worthless for _ .-wrapper produce In these fields the writer found individual plants of types not here- tofore known in Connecticut or Florida or other districts where this variety had been grown, which possessed certain characters that were extremely important from the standpoint of cigar-wrapper production and manufacture. The seed of many individuals of all ral types of plants growing in the fields under shade was saved under bags to protect the flowers from cross-pollination. The seed of these individual plants was sown in separate sections of tobacco . beds in 1904. and test rows of about 100 plants were raised in the field, a row of plants from every seed plant. In the season of NEW TOBACCO VARIETIES. 389 1904 seed of the best plants in the rows producing the best tobacco was saved under bag for planting on a more extensive scale the following season. In these tests two types of plants, one from Sumatra seed and the other from Cuban seed, possessing the qualities, vield, and other characteristics necessary for a superior cigar-wrapper variety adapted for growing under shade were observed. These varieties have been shown to be improvements on previous varieties adapted for growing under shade, and seed for growing them on a commercial scale has been distributed in the Connecticut Valley, Florida, and other tobacco-growing sections. In the following description of four new varieties of cigar-wrapper tobacco detailed descriptions and records of performance are omitted, these data being reserved for publication in technical bulletins of the Department. Short descriptions and statements of the value of these varieties are presented with a view to calling the attention of growers and breeders not only to their value but to the importance of breeding new varieties for the tobacco industry. In tests of these varieties by growers it is advisable that only a small area of any variety be grown until it is proved by experience that the variety is adapted to local conditions. It is also important that the growers save the seed of these varieties under bag, free from any possibility of cross-fertilization. The Department can not undertake to test the adaptability of these varieties in all of the different cigar-wrapper sections, so that it is necessary for the grower to use caution and test them carefully before planting them extensively on a commer- cial scale. TIIE UNCLE SAM SUMATRA TOBACCO. The original plants of this variety were found by the writer growing in a crop of tobacco under cloth shade grown by Mr. M. L. Floyd, near Tariffville, Conn., in the season of 1903. This crop was raised from seed brought to Connecticut from Florida and which originally came from the island of Sumatra, In this field of the so-called Sumatra variety of tobacco were found, upon careful investigation, 11 very dis- tinct general types of tobacco plants which were strongly enough dif- ferentiated by certain characteristics of habit of growth, shape and size of leaves, and quality to be designated as incipient varieties. Among these types was found one which most nearly approached the ideal of a cigar-wrapper plant, both as regards development of plant and character of leaves, ami strikingly different from every other type found in this field or in other fields. This was designated as "Type No. 3" for convenience in the breeding experiments, and was so known until it was considered of sufficient importance to be named. The original field in which the first plants of this valuable type 390 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. were found consisted of about 4o acres, and contained a total of about 50,000 plants. Out of all of this number only 28 plants of the type known as No. 3 were found. It might be said here that the writer in ail his experience in studying tobacco plants in other fields CTown under shade in the Connecticut Taller, in Florida, and i where, has never found a single plant which could be clearly class* with this type. On account of the few plants of this type found in the field and their very marked characteristics it was not considered likely that their seed would come true to type. However, on account of their valuable characters the seed of every plant was carefully ~ed under bag and great care was taken to prevent any possible —fertilization or ac- cidental injury. In a violent storm late in the -on one seed head. borne by one of the best individual plants, was broken off before the I had matured suffi- ciently to admit of its being saved, so that the I of only 27 plants ved for experi- mental purp« ■-• s. In the spring of the seed of each of the 27 plants was sown sepa- rately in the seed beds. and about 100 of the seedlings of every par- ent plant were trans- planted into test r in the breeding field of Mr J S Dewev near Granby, Conn. T< i the surprise and gratification of everyone concerned it was found in the breeding field that the progeny of every parent plant as grown in the test rows came uniformly true to type, not a single plant of a foreign or different type appearing in any of the test r In the opinion of the many t- growers, plant breeders, and others who visited this field there has never been under their observation so striking an example of the imiformity of the progeny of individual par- ent plants in any crop propagated by seed. The habit of growth of the plants, the shape, - lor, and venation of the leaves, the number of NEW TOBACCO VARIETIES. 391 sucker branches, the arrangement and characters of the seed pods in the seed head, and the number of leaves of the individual plants in every progeny row were remarkably uniform and true to the type of the parent plants. The best plants in thesetest rows were selected for seed production and the seed was saved under bag. The tobacco produced in the test rows and by the individual seed plants was har- vested separately in order to get an accurate laboratory test of the quality of the cured and fermented tobacco. After an examination of the fermented tobacco from the test rows and tests made for taste, burn, body, color, stretch, economy in cutting cigar wrappers, and other qualities, the seed produced by the most desirable plants in the five best rows was reserved for planting the following season. In 1905 tests of the progeny of individual plants were again carried out: seed was furnished the Bureau of Soils for a commercial field test in the Connecticut Valley and seed was sent to Florida and elsewhere for field tests. The results of these and other tests have proved beyond a doubt the value of this variety for growing commercially, together with the fact that the seed comes true to type year after year when saved under bag. The name "Uncle Sam Sumatra" was given to this variety — a section of a field of which is shown in Plate XXXIII, figure 2 — from the fact that it was found among plants grown in the United States from seed which was brought to this country originally from Sumatra. It is a cigar-wrapper variety of tobacco and adapted for growing under shade in the cigar-wrapper producing regions. The plants of the Uncle Sam Sumatra tobacco reach an average height of about 8 feet at the time of maturity. The plants bear an aver- age of about 26 leaves before topping. The leaves are bone in a characteristic slightly drooping position, as c -n be seen in the illus- tration (PI. XXXIII, fig. 1). The color of tie flowers and the size and arrangement of the seed pods are characteristic of this variety, very few pods being produced by the plants. Few and small suckers are produced, thus greatly reducing the labor of suckering the field crops. The plants grow vigorously, are resistant to unfavorable conditions, and are of early maturity. The leaves are characteristically round (fig. 11) and specially adapted for economical cigar-wrapper cutting. The cured leaves will average about 16 inches in width by 20 inches in length, although the size varies according to the cultivation and fertilization of the soil, the location of the field, and other conditions. The size and shape of the leaves are very uniform from the top to the base of the plants. The green leaves have a deep-green color and the cured leaves a beautiful cinnamon-brown color. The veins are small and fine and regularly arranged in the leaves. The burn is excellent, leaving a gray, consistent ash, and the flavor is neutral, there being no dis- agreeable taste. On cigars the tobacco has a good life and stretch, 392 YEAEBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. sufficient body or strength to withstand ordinary handling without injury, a dull gloss characteristic of the fermented tobacco, and a rich appearance desirable in all high-class cigar wrappers. The yield of the crops of this variety is high, being as much as 1,600 pounds of cured tobacco to the acre under favorable conditions. The percentage of the best grades of wrapper in these crops is correspond- ingly high and satisfactory to the grower and manufacturer alike. THE HAZLEWOOD CUBAN TOBACCO. The crops of tobacco grown in the Connecticut Valley under cloth shade from imported Cuban seed in 1903 were extremely variable with respect to the type of plants. This variation in type of the plants grown from Cuban seed was not so marked as in the case of the plants grown from Sumatra seed, but there was found . in the Cuban varieties a I large proportion of worthless A plants, apparent reversions or I freaks, which were almost a I total loss to the growers. M Five distinct general types of tobacco were found in the f crops of Cuban tobacco, and 340 plants of these types were kept for seed production, the seed being all saved under bag. Two of these types, ^B / numbered 11 and 13 tempo- 's'• ,.-' rarily for convenience in the V - tobacco-breeding series, were ^B ..•■'"" desirable for cigar-wrapper ;/ oroduction, the plants of which constituted about one- no. 12-Typical leaf of Hazlewood Cuban tobacco. ^^ rf ^ ^^ nmnbrf m the field in which the selections were made. Type Xo. 13 was specially desirable from a practical standpoint, the plants having the habit of growth, with freedom from suckers, and bearing the character of leaves necessary for producing a profitable yield of cigar wrappers. In the first seed selection of plants of this type, 32 typical plants were found after a careful examination of a field of about 48 acres grown under shade from seed imported from the island of Cuba. The seed of these plants, free from cross-fertilization, was carefully saved and tested the following year according to the methods employed in the tests already described. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. Plate XXXIII Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. Plate XXXIV. NEW TOBACCO VARIETIES. 393 The transmitting power of the parent plants of this type was found to be very marked, the uniformity of the-plants in the progeny rows in 1904 being very remarkable. In 1905 the bagged seed from the best plants in the best rows of 1904 was tested in a commercial field test in the Connecticut Valley by the Bureau of .Soils, in further progeny tests, and in field tests in Florida and other cigar- wrapper tobacco icgions. The results of these tests were so satisfactory that it was decided to give this type a varietal name and distribute limited quantities of seed to interested tobacco growers for use in 1906. The past season's tests have shown conclusively that this variety is valuable and an improvement on any of the Cuban cigar-wrapper tobaccos heretofore grown in the United States. This variety (PL XXXIV) was named the Hazlewood Cuban in honor of Mr. William Hazlewood, who brought to the LTnited States the original Cuban seed from which the variety was developed. It is adapted for growing under shade, and possibly to a limited extent outside, for cigar-wrapper production in the cigar-wrapper tobacco districts. The plants of the Hazlewood Cuban variety when grown under shade reach a height of about ~h feet at the time of maturity. The leaves have a partially erect habit of growth, the seed production is comparatively small, and the time of maturity is very early. The plants bear but few sucker branches (see Pi. XXXIV, fig. 1 ), differing in this very greatly from the ordinary Cuban varieties, in which the tendency to sucker production is usually very marked. The average number of leaves borne* by the individual plants varies somewhat with conditions, but is about 21 after topping. The yield of the crops of this tobacco has been heavy for Cuban tobacco, reaching under favorable conditions 1,400 pounds of cured tobacco to the acre. The percentage of the best grades of tobacco in these crops has been high. The leaves are about 18 inches in length by about 15 inches in breadth and are of a round shape adapted to economical cigar- wrapper cutting (fig. 12). The color of the green leaves is a very deep green, and of the cured leaves a velvety brown. The grain in the leaves is very marked, being evenly distributed from the tip to the base of the leaves. The veins are small and fine, the burn excellent, leaving a white to gray-colored ash, and the flavor is very ?ood, no obnoxious taste being present. The tobacco has sufficient body and stretch so thai when wrapped on cigars it stands han- dling without injury. When the plants are grown without shade the tobacco has a pleasant aroma and can be used for cigar-filler production. I'll I. BREWEB HYBRID TOBACCO. The Brewer Hybrid tobacco is the result of a cross of the Con- necticut Broadleaf variety with the Cuban variety. This cross was 394 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. made in 1903 in the Connecticut Valley, plants of the Connecticut Broadleaf variety grown by Mr. N.*S. Brewer, of Hockanum, Conn., being used for the mother parents and plants of Cuban tobacco grown in the Connecticut A'alley from freshly imported Cuban seed being used for the male parents. The object of making tins cross was to secure a hybrid combining the characters of habit of growth, adaptability to Connecticut Valley conditions, burn, and other qualities of the Connecticut Broadleaf variety with the size and shape of leaves, grain, and texture of the Cuban tobacco. Twenty-six crosses of this kind were made, even- one of which was successful, so that 26 seed pods were obtained. In 1004 the seed from all these pods was sown in separate compartments of the seed bed and the plants were transplanted to test rows in the experimental field. The plants in 6 of the test rows showed suffi- cient uniformity of characters to admit of further selection and breeding. The best plants of these rows were carefully selected for seed produc- tion and their seed was saved under bag. In one i >f the test rows the progeny of a parent plant numbered lc in the breeding records was found a striking plant, different from either parent or the other hybrid plants, but clearly approaching the ideal plant sought for. This plant was carefully tested in 1905 and found to come true to seed. The other progeny test rows this season showed considerable variability. Some of the rows were very much more uniform than others, but the important row was the progeny of the striking plant 1c. The best plants in tins row were selected for seed production and the seed was saved under NEW TOBACCO VARIETIES. 395 bag. In 1906 this seed was tested in a large number of localities, some of which were adapted to the production of this type of tobacco and others unfavorable to it. Under favorable conditions the crops were uniform and of desirable yield, and the tobacco of improved quality as compared with the parent Connecticut Broadleaf. While there is opportunity for further improvement of this variety by breed- ing and seed selection, its characteristics are sufficiently marked and desirable and the seed comes so true to type that it can safely be tested by tobacco growers who raise cigar-wrapper varieties of tobacco.- The name ''Brewer Hybrid" was given to this variety (shown in PI. XXXY, fig. 2) in honor of Mr. X. S. Brewer, of Ilockanum. Conn., the grower of the parent Connecticut Broadleaf variety, who has furnished unusual opportunities for experimental work with this variety on his farm. It is adopted for growing in northern cigar- wrapper districts and for the production of cigar wrappers. The plants of the Brewer Hybrid reach about 5 feet in height at the time of maturity, and the leaves have a slightly drooping habit of growth. (PI. XXXV, fig. 1.) The plants bear about the same number of suckers as the Connecticut Broadleaf variety, although the character has as yet a tendency to vary under different conditions. The plants mature in about the same length of time as the Connecti- cut Broadleaf variety. The leaves of the Brewer Hybrid are medium in size, averaging about 22 inches in length by 19 in width. The shape of the leaves is very round and especially well adapted for cigar-wrapper cutting (fig. 13). The grain is evenly distributed from the tip to the base of the leaves. The texture resembles that of Connecticut Broadleaf tobacco, but this tobacco when wrapped on cigars has a smooth, rich appearance not found in the Connecticut Broadleaf variety. The burn is good, leaving a gray ash: there is no bad flavor, and the stretch is particularly good, so that the tobacco on cigars stands handling very well. The color of the growing leaves is light green and of the cured leaves a bright cinnamon-brown. The fermented tobacco has the dull finish characteristic of Cuban tobacco. The yield of the crops is large under favorable conditions, reaching 1,800 pounds to the acre, and the production of high-grade wrappers in the crop is comparatively high. THE COOLEY HYBRID TOBACCO. The Cooley Hybrid variety of tobacco is the result of a cross between Connecticut Havana seed as the mother parent and Sumatra tobacco as the male parent. This cross was made in the summer of 1903, using Connecticut Havana seed plants grown by Mr. D. P. Cooley, of Granby, Conn., as the mother parents and Sumatra plants grown under shade in the same district tor the male parents. The object of this cross was to secure a variety adapted to the conditions 396 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of the Connecticut Valley, having the habit of growth, burn, and other characters of the Havana Seed tobacco, combined with the improved shape of leaves, venation, and other characters of the Sumatra tobacco. Eighteen flowers in carefully selected Havana Seed plants were cross-fertilized with Sumatra pollen, all of which set seed and were found to be successfully cross-fertilized. The resulting seed produced in the 18 seed pods was tested in progeny rows on the Cooley farm in 1904,8 of which were determined upon careful examination and testing to be promising for future breed- ing experiments. In these S rows 3 plants of particular merit were found and reserved for a special test in 190"), together with many other plants, all of the seed of which was saved under bag. It was found that the progeny of the 3 particular plants saved in 1 904 produ c e d strikingly charac- teristic and uniform types of tobacco in 1905. (See Plato XXXVI, fig. 2.) The habit of growth of the plants, the shape and size of the leaves, and the quality and other characters of the Fig. 14.— Typical leaf of Cooley Hybrid tobacco. , t i\ ■ v tobacco ot these progeny rows were so desirable that seed was saved from the besl plants in 1905 for special field tests in 1906, as well as for continued breeding experiments. The final tests have demonstrated that under conditions favorable for the growth of the plants the variety is a valuable acquisition to the tobacco industry, and it was consequently named, and preparations were made for the distribution of a limited quantity of the seed for commercial planting. - The Cooley Hybrid plants (PI. XXXVI, fig. 1) grow to a height of about 6 feet, bear on the average about 21 leaves before topping, Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. Plate XXXV. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906, Plate XXXVI. NEW TOBACCO VARIETIES. 397 have few small suckers, comparatively small seed production, and mature about the same time as the Connecticut Havana seed variety. The leaves (fig. 14) are about 22 inches in length by about 17 inches in width, having in the growing condition a deep-green color and after curing a fine light-brown color. The venation is fine and regularly arranged in the leaves; the texture is uniform from the tip to the base of the leaves; the burn is good, leaving a white ash, and the flavor is satisfactory, no sharp or disagreeable taste being present in the fermented wrapper. When the Cooley Hybrid tobacco is wrapped on cigars it stretches well and covers the cigar in a satisfactory manner. The yield of this variety under favorable conditions is about 1 ,750 pounds of cured tobacco to the acre. The yield of the best grades of wrappers is high, and this percentage can doubtless be increased by continued breeding and seed selection. NECESSITY OF BREEDING EXPERIMENTS. The object of the tobacco-breeding experiments undertaken by the Department of Agriculture is the production of improved varie- ties for the established tobacco-growing regions of the United States and for new sections of this country which are found to be adapted for tobacco culture. The great increase in the use of tobacco for the manufacture of cigars, smoking and plug tobaccos, and for other pur- poses has resulted in a demand which the areas now under cultivation adapted for the production of this crop have not been able to supply. This condition must be met either by extending and increasing the yield of the areas now cultivated in tobacco and developing new sections having the proper soil and climatic conditions for its suc- cessful culture or by depending upon increased importations of foreign- grown varieties. It is an established fact that there are great areas in the United States not now growing tobacco which have the soil, climatic, and other conditions suited for growing valuable tobaccos and which for the welfare of American agriculture should supply the demand of the manufacturers. One of the most important phases of the develop- ment of these undeveloped sections is the production of varieties of tobacco adapted to their soil and climatic conditions. The experi- ments of the Department of Agriculture during the past four years have demonstrated that the production and introduction of such varieties can best be effected by the use of careful and systematic methods of seed selection and breeding.0 "The writer in the work of growing and testing the new varieties of tobacco described in this paper has been materially assisted by the active help and interest of Mr. W. W. Cobey and Dr. W. W. darner, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, and of Mr. .1. B. Stewart, of the Bureau of Soils. 398 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICT7LTUEE. In the old and established tobacco-growing regions of the United States it is a matter of common observation that the varieties of tobacco which have been cominously cultivated in some of these sec- tions have become more and more subject to the attack of certain fungous diseases, insects, and other enemies. The loss to the growers due to these injuries has become such that unless relief is obtained the industry in these regions must be abandoned. Two typical illus- trations of this condition are found in the injury to tobacco plants in the Connecticut; Valley by the fungous disease Thielavia \ or root-rot. and the destruction of plants in many fields in Florida and Georgia by the nematod?. an enemy which threatens the success of this important tobacco-producing section. Varieties of tobac€o resistant or immune to the attacks of some of these enemies have been produced in the course of the breeding experiments conducted by the Department, demonstrating the practicability of suecessfully combating fungous diseases and the attacks of insects through the origination of resistant or immune varieties by breeding and seed selection. The variety of manufactured tobacco products due to the individu- ally different tastes of consumers has resulted in the demand by manufacturers for particular varieties and grades of tobacco adapted for use in their specialties. The great number of brands of cigars, smoking mixtures, and plug tobaccos is sufficient evidence of the demand for different kinds of tobacco suited to the individual wants of the consumer. This demand has been met in part by the use of varieties of tobacco grown in different sections of the country, blend- ing them in cigars or in smoking or plug tobaccos, and by the treat- ment of the tobacco while growing, or when undergoing the curing. fermenting, or manufacturing processes. The breeding experiments of the Department have proved conclusively that varieties of tobacco, adapted for particular purposes of manufacture by reason of their quality or other characteristics, can be produced by breeding, and can be propagated uniformly year after year by the use of proper methods of seed selection. An illustration of the practicability and value of the breeding of varieties of tobacco for special purposes can be found in the varieties grown in the Connecticut Valley. As the result of breeding, the Havana Seed variety yields a high percentage of light-colored cigar wrappers having a smooth, glossy finish, while the Broadleaf variety produces largely medium to dark-colored wrappers with a rough and dull finish. One of the possibilities in this very important phase of tobacco breeding is the production of varieties of cigar-wrapper tobacco yielding uniformly throughout the crop leaves of particular size an I shape adapted to the most economical wrapping of different sizes of cigars. Numerous other illustrations might be given to show NEW TOBACCO VARIETIES. 399 the necessity and importance to growers and manufacturers alike of producing varieties adapted for special purposes in all classes of tobacco. METHODS OF BREEDING. The methods of breeding employed by the writer in the production of new varieties of tobacco may be described under the general terms of hybridization and selection. Hybridization has been used for the purpose of combining in new varieties the essential and valuable characters of two established varieties by crossing, winch necessarily has been followed by careful and rigid selection of the best individual hybrid plants for seed production every year. The term "selection," as used in these experiments, may be defined as the method of pro- duction of new varieties by saving the seed of mutations or striking variations in the type of plants found in the established varieties without artificial cross-fertilization. Such mutations, or "sports," may be the result of breaking up in type or of variability resulting from their being grown under new climatic or soil conditions, methods of cultivation, accidental cross-fertilization, peculiarity of season or food supply, or other cause. From the fact that these breeding experiments were first under- taken and results secured with cigar tobaccos, the methods described will be those used in the production of new varieties of those tobac- cos; but the same methods are being successfully used and are appli- cable to the production of new varieties of all other tobaccos. Hybridization. — The success of hybridization as a means for the improvement of tobaccos depends largely upon the judgment of the breeder in the selection of parent varieties and plants for crossing. In the first place, the crossing of widely different varieties of tobacco has given few, if any, valuable results. For instance, the crossing of varieties of cigar tobaccos with varieties of smoking tobaccos has not produced, so far, at least, a single improved type for either cigar or smoking tobacco manufacture. The crossing of different varieties of cigar tobaccos, however, has made it possible to secure improved varieties of this class. The varieties grown in this country may be grouped in a general way into three great classes, viz, cigar, smoking, and plug tobaccos. The experience of the writer is that crosses bet veen the varieties in any one class may be beneficial, but that cross 5S between varieties of different classes are usually followed by failure. It is absolutely necessary that tobacco breeders have clearly in mind the type of plant desired before any crossing of varieties is undertaken. Promiscuous crossing of different varieties of tobacco is certain to be unproductive of any valuable results. The best results have been secured by using an established variety for one parent and then crossing the best individual plants of this variety 400 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. with other varieties which possess the characters lacking in the first. It is important that a large number of crosses be made in order that the breeder may have an opportunity to find ideal plants for propa- gation. In the Connecticut Valley, Broadleaf and Havana Seed are the two varieties which have been generally grown for cigar-wrapper production. The plants of these varieties produce large, pointed leaves, with coarse venation, which — on account of their size, shape, and venation — can not be economically used for cutting cigar wrap- pers. This tobacco, however, is adapted to the soil and climatic con- ditions of the Connecticut Valley, and has a good burn, taste, body, elasticity, and other valuable characters. The Cuban and Sumatra varieties of plants bear comparatively small, round leaves, with fine veins, but are not adapted for growing under the same conditions as the Connecticut Valley varieties. The crossing of the Connecticut Broadleaf and Havana Seed varieties with the Cuban and Sumatra varieties, followed by a rigid selection of seed plants for several gen- erations, has produced several valuable and improved varieties of tobaccos. As a rule the best results have been secured by using a native or established variety as the mother parent and a foreign- grown variety for crossing as the male parent. Selection. — Selection is the most practicable means for the pro- duction of new varieties of tobacco and is most likely to yield profit- able and permanent residts. Many of the established varieties may be traced to the selection of new types of plants in tobacco fields for seed production by tobacco grower-. A well-known illustration of this method of production of new varieties is the White Burley variety, originated by George Webb, of Brown County, Ohio, and now grown extensively in Kentucky, Ohio, and other tobacco- producing States. The history of the origin of this variety shows that Mr. Webb, a successful tobacco grower, noticed in his field of Red Burley tobacco a few plants having a characteristic light-green color and peculiar habit of growth. These plants were saved for seed, and upon finding that the cured leaves of these plants were more valuable than the ordinary Burley tobacco the grower used the seed extensively the following season. In a few years the value of this tobacco was recognized by manufacturers and growers, and the variety was grown on an extensive scale. It is now one of the most important varieties grown m the United States. The change of seed from one tobacco-growing region to different soil and climatic conditions, particularly from the South to the North, is likely to result in the breaking up of the type of the variety and the appearance of plants with characteristic- very different from the established type. These new types of plants can be propagated bo- using self-fertilized seed, and uniform varieties of tobacco can be NEW TOBACCO VARIETIES. 401 secured by continued selection of the best individual plants for seed production. The use of Florida-grown and imported Sumatra seed for growing in the Connecticut Valley during the past few years is a good illustration of the effect of a change of seed. The plants grown from tins foreign-grown seed were extremely variable, individual plants of new and unknown types of tobacco appearing in the fields. The seeds of desirable individual plants of these types were saved under bag, free from cross-fertilization, and several valuable new varieties have been secured adapted to the conditions in the Connecticut Valley and uniformly coining true to type year after 3Tear. It is a matter of common observation among tobacco growers that an occasional plant producing the ideal leaves and other characters desired by the growers and manufacturers is found in their fields. A lack of appreciation of the value of these plants for breeding purposes results in their being topped and thus lost for seed production and prop- agation. It is the belief of the writer after several years of careful observation along this line that if tobacco growers could be interested in carefully studying their crops from the time the plants are set out in the field until they are topped, for the purpose of finding these occa- sional plants of the ideal t}Tpe and saving their seed under bag, free from accidental cross-fertilization, for planting the following season, more progress could be made in the production of improved varie- ties of tobacco than by any other means. THE TESTING OF NEW VARIETIES. The value of new varieties of tobacco must be established by care- ful experimental tests as well as practical experience before they are introduced for growing on a commercial scale. This feature of the successful production of new varieties is of special importance with this crop, because the. value of varieties of tobacco depends not only upon their quality, yield to the acre, and economical use by manufac- turers, but also upon the reputation established by years of successful production for a particular market requirement. The consumer of tobacco does not easily change from one kind of tobacco to another, after finding a satisfactory article, and consequently the manufacturer is slow in making any change in the variety used for making particular brands of cigars, smoking mixtures, plug tobaccos, or other manufac- tured products. It is therefore important that the breeder make all possible tests of the value of new varieties before distributing the seed to tobacco growers. The new varieties of tobacco produced by the Department of Agri- culture are tested in the field for habit of growth and yield; in the laboratory for the quality of the cured and fermented product; and finally samples of the tobacco of these varieties are subjected to actual manufacturing tests by manufacturers. 3 A1906 26 402 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Field tests. — The held tests must necessarily be conducted in those section- and under those circumstances in which the variety is to be grown. The influence of soil and climatic conditions upon the behavior of the tobacco plant is such that the results obtained in one section of the tobacco-growing regions can not be depended upon for other sections having different conditions. In the tests of cigar- wrapper varieties a 1-acre field is considered large enough ro secure the necessary data as to the uniformity of the individual plants in the field, yield, and other characters that can not be determined by row tests in the breeding experimental fields. The area devoted to the field test, however, must frequently be modified by circumstances, but less than an acre is likely to be unsatisfactory, owing to the fact that in such cases not enough tobacco of any one grade can be secured for entire bales or packages. The larger the area that can be used for such tests, other things being equal, the more val- uable and reliable the results from the practical standpoint. In the field tests of new varieties of tobacco every phase of the cul- ture of the crop — from the time the carefully selected seed is sown in the seed bed until the tobacco is harvested, cured, and fermented — - should be so arranged as to give the crop the most favorable circum- stances possible for growth. In all cases, however, the amount of money expended for any and all operations must be governed by prac- tical experience of growers of other varieties of tobacco in the same class as the experimental crops. The results of these experiments, to be of value, must show the profit under practical conditions of field culture of the new varieties compared with the established varieties: or, in sections where tobacco has not been grown, the profit that may be expected by growers under normal conditions. A record of the actual cost of all of the operations in the production and handling of the crop, the yield, and the selling value of the product is necessary in order to determine the comparative or actual value of the new varieties. Laboratory tests. — The laboratory tests of new varieties of cigar tobaccos include a study of the tobacco during the curing and fer- menting process in the warehouse, and an examination of the color, burn, body, elasticity or stretch, and flavor and aroma of the fer- mented leaves. As an illustration of these tests the character of the burn of the Department's new varieties is tested in the smoking machine devised by Dr. W. W. Gamer,0 of Plant Breeding Investi- gations, supplemented by other tests, including the ordinary tests of the tobacco buyers. The elasticity and strength of the leaves are determined by the aid of a specially designed, apparatus for this pur- pose, and finally representative samples are made up into cigars and a See Bui. 100, Part IV, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, '-Methods of Testing the Binning Quality of Cigar Tobacco."- NEW TOBACCO VARIETIES. 403 submitted to experts for a test of the flavor, aroma, and other char- acters necessary for a desirable toba< MAxri-AcrrinxG tests. — The manufacturing tests of new varh are made by sending representative samples of the fermented tobacco to manufacturers for use in the products for which the varieties are adapted. The final test of the value of any tobacco is its useful in filling the demand of the manufacturer: therefore this test is of supreme importance from the standpoint of securing reliable infor- mation as to the desirability of growing a variety extensively. Tobacco manufacturers are, as a rule, anxious to test new varieties with a view to securing a more valuable tobacco for their established trade or for the purpose of supplying the demand for other products for the manufacture of which the established varieties are not adapted. It is a common practice, therefore, for manufacturers, through their buyers, to purchase small crops of new varieties and test them in comparison with their regular supply of tobaccos. In this way the tobacco breeder may get a practical test of new varieties, and if they prove valuable the demand of the manufacturer will encourage increased production. THE PRESERVATION OF TYPE. The production and introduction of new varieties of tobacco must be followed by continued effort on the part of the growers to preserve and improve the type, in order that the fullest and best results may be obtained. Without selection of seed plants year after year by the growers, the life of tobacco varieties is comparatively short. The accidental cross-fertilization of seed saved without protection, the use of inferior plants for seed production, and many other causes contribute to the deterioration, breaking up of type, and so-called running out of varieties. This fact is so well established that growers find it necessary frequently to secure seed from some new source rather than to use their own tobacco seed. In view of the fact that the profitableness of a variety depends to a considerable extent on the production of a uniform character of tobacco year after year for a particular purpose, the importance of preserving the type of the variety can not be overestimated. The uniformity of varieties of tobacco can be effectually controlled by protecting the seed of carefully selected plants from accidental cro-s-fertili/.ation and by seed separation. The best individual plants of the variety grown should be selected for seed production. The variability of the individual plants in the field offers an opportunity for the continual improvement of a variety by the intelligent selection of seed plants baring the habit of growth ami bearing the character of leaves most nearly meeting the ideal of the grower and the needs of the manufacturer. The flowers borne by these seed plants can be 404 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. successfully protected from cross-fertilization with the .plants in the same field, or of other fields or varieties, by inclosing the flower heads of the selected plants, before the flowers open, with alight but strong manila-paper bag. The tobacco flowers are perfectly self-fertile, and several years of extensive practical experience have shown that tobacco seed saved under bag — that is, self-fertilized seed — is equal if not superior to seed cross-fertilized within the variety. These paper bags should remain over the seed heads until all of the flowers have set seed, as showm by the development of seed pods; then they can be removed and the seed allowed to mature under natural con- ditions. In northern districts it lias not been found necessary to remove the bags, and they may be left over the seed heads until the seed is shelled. In southern districts it has not only been found advisable to remove the paper bags, but it is an advantage, before using the bags, to perforate them with small holes, as with a needle, to admit of a circulation of air without danger of cross pollination. The paper bags prevent the cross-pollination of the flowers under the bag by wind, insects, or other agencies. The methods of bagging the seed, seed separation, and, to a limited extent, the row test, outlined in this paper and more fully described in the Yearbook for 1904,a have been extensively adopted by tobacco growers of established varieties. The use of these methods of breed- ing as a means of preserving the types of new varieties of tobacco is of very great importance and should receive the attention of every grower. CONCLUSION. The experience of the writer during the past four years has shown that breeding experiments systematically carried out can be made of great practical importance to the tobacco industry. It costs no more to grow an improved variety of tobacco giving a higher yield of a better quality than to grow unimproved and irregular varieties. The tobacco plant is particularly susceptible of improvement and satisfactory for the work of the breeder in that it is both fully self- fertile and easily cross-fertilized. The large number of seed pro- duced by single plants, frequently a half million or more, makes the propagation of a valuable variety, once it is secured, particu- larly easy and rapid. The active interests of the manufacturers in the production of improved varieties adapted to their needs and the willingness of the manufacturers to pay increased prices for better qualities in improved varieties make tobacco breeding remunerative to the grower. aShamel, A. D., Yearbook of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1904, p. 435, "The Improvement of Tobacco by Breeding and Selection." OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING. I. GENERAL. By Wm. Hart Dexter, Ph. D., Assistant Dairyman, in Charge of Dairy Literature and Extension Work. DEFINITION. Strictly speaking, dairying is the business of conducting a dairy farm. Commonly, however, we use the word to include the varied industries which have to do directly with the production and handling of milk and milk products. The industrial salvation of this country depends ultimately on its agricultural resources. The profits of agriculture depend ultimately on the intelligent cultivation of the soil. Dairy farming is increasing in almost every section of the country, largely because it is recognized as one of the most economical forms of agriculture where the preservation of soil fertility is con- sidered. Taking this broad view of dairying, we find it one of the greatest wealth-producing industries in the land. Opportunities for dairying are found everywhere in the United States. The different sections of the country have characteristic peculiarities, but all need milk and its products. Success awaits the dainrman who fits his work to the conditions of the place in which he lives. He should know the value of a good dairy cow and how to treat her. He should recognize the necessity of cleanliness from the time the milk leaves the udder until the finished product is in the hands of the consumer. He should know and meet the needs of his market. OPPORTUNITIES IN VARIOUS LINES. The equipment and practice found on the dairy farm afford great opportunity for improvement. Better buildings as to construction and sanitation need not be expensive. The best machinery and utensils are available at moderate prices. Thorough and cleanly management in the stable and milk room is simple and cheap. The necessary refrigeration can also be provided without elaborate or costly fittings. The indispensable silo can be erected of such material as may be best suited to the climate. The maintenance and increase of soil fertility constitutes one of the greatest opportunities for dairying. A ton of wheat, worth $22, 405 406 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. removes from the soil $7.50 worth of plant food. A ton of butter, worth $500, takes less than 50 cents' worth of plant food from the soil. Land on the Pacific coast, reduced to such poverty by the con- tinued raising of wheat that it produced only 8 or 9 bushels of wheat per acre, has been so restored by dairying that it now produces from 20 to 40 bushels, and the land has doubled in value. Careful dairying goes hand in hand with the most helpful rotation of crops, encouraging especially the production of legumes. Diver- sified farming needs dairying for its best results. The improvement of the forage crops best suited to a given locality is the natural study of the dairyman. IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE. The improvement of dairy cattle offers great opportunity. The cows supplying Iowa butter factories are making an average of only 140 pounds of butter per year. By the weighing and testing of the milk of each cow those which fail to pay their board can be detected and rejected. The rearing of the heifer calves from the most profit- able cows is the simplest course for the improvement of the herd at least expense. In this selection regard must be had for dairy type of form and function. A pure-bred daily sire should be at the head of every dairy herd. It is entirely })racticable to add largely to the wealth of every dairy farmer in this way, and every dollar added to the average income from the dairy cow in the United States adds $20,000,000 to the nation's production of wealth. To assist in tins improvement of the dairy herds cooperative test associations have been organized. They were introduced ten years ago in Denmark, and are now found in most of the prominent dairy sections of Europe. In Germany these associations have been the means during the last five years of increasing the income of the dairy farmers by an average of $14 per cow per year. Similar associations in a few States of our own country, led by Michigan, have shown the practicability of increasing the income from dairy farming at least one-fourth without additional expense to the producer. Coopera- tion in the organization and management of these test associations is needed to promote their practical and general efficiency. The associations of breeders of j)ure-bred dairy cattle have a simi- lar opportunity to increase the value of their records of tests of dairy cows. By agreeing upon uniform rules under which these tests should be conducted, general standards of dairy performance would be established, and by the registration of all such records in a national office their general acceptance and use would be secured. IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY PRODUCTS. Opportunity for dairying appears also in the increased demand for pure milk, especially in the larger cities. This opportunity is for OPPORTUNITIES FOE DAIRYING. 407 intelligence and cleanliness in the production and for reliable purity in the product. The market-milk producer can now profit b}r im- proved methods for the care, distribution, and sale of milk of the best quality. There seems to be practically no limit to this market. On many dairy farms near cities and places of popular resort oppor- tunity for profit is afforded by the demand for ice cream. One great advantage in supplying cream is the saving of the skim milk for the feeding of farm stock and ultimately for the fertility of the soil. Farm dairy butter of the highest quality is always in demand at the highest prices. Uniformity of excellence must be maintained, and this requires patient attention to details. Success in this lino will follow the use of the improved methods which have been worked out in the creameries, with such modifications as may be required in the smaller operations of the farm. The new rapid method for the determination of water in butter will be of material assistance. Taints and defects must be promptly discovered and corrected. The farm separator must be kept clean. The furnishing of fancy farm-made cheese offers an opportunity for great profit. Recent investigations have shown that it is entirely practicable to produce in this country the finest grades of cheese of the Camembert and Roquefort types, heretofore only had by impor- tation from Europe. Prices for such goods are high, and the farm dairy can easily be equipped for their production. There is large opportunity for profit in dairying by the improve- ment and varied uses of the by-products from the manufacture of butter and cheese, such as casein, ash, and milk sugar. While some forms of these by-products require expensive machinery, others are entirely within the reach of the farm dairy. Under present condi- tions, however, the most profitable use of skim milk and whey is as food for farm stock and poultry. CONTROLLING MOTIVES. In fairly estimating the advantages of dairying one should con- sider the opportunities presented for the legitimate gratification of the strongest and best motives to action. The best dairyman is the one who is most effectively controlled by such motives. The desire for profit is strong. A Connecticut dairyman makes 22 per cent net profit annually on Ins investment. In Georgia one acre and one dairy cow have produced in one year, under careful manage- ment, a net cash profit of $28.75 in addition to $20 worth of manure contributed to the fertility of the soil. The dairyman's income is conveniently distributed throughout the year, enabling him to keep out of debt. Supplying home markets keeps money at home. There is no danger of overproduction with the world for a market. The desire for leadership is strong. It may be gratified in the 408 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. organization and management of dairy enterprises. There is oppor- tunity for leadership in plans of cooperation connected with cream- eries, test associations. State experiment stations, and the improve- ment of the condition of the rural community. The desire for knowledge is strong. The dairyman has opportuni- ties for the search after truth in scientific investigations concerning the soil, the culture of forage crops, the breeding and care of live stock, the chemistry and bacteriology of milk products, and the principles involved in the invention and use of machinery. The desire for pleasure is strong. The dairyman has opportunity for pleasures of the better sort, in the enjoyment of the poetry and beauty of rural life at its best. He may enjoy the improvement of the farm home. Love for animals finds pleasure in their daily care. The endeavor to supply the best of pure food gratifies love for Ins fe!lo\v-men. the highest of merelv human moth'es. II. NEW ENGLAND. By George M. Yn'hitakek, Dairy Inspector, Bureau of Animal Industry. PASTURES AND GREEX FORAGE. New England offers exceptional advantages to the dairyman. The leading crop in the feeding of cows is grass; and the soil and climate of New England are such that grass grows readily. The strong, retentive clay soil of the hillsides is excellent grass land, producing large crops of hay with ordinary care. Grass also grows naturally; and many hills, too rough and rocky for cultivation, will grow wild grasses if the ever-encroaching bushes are kept back. In these pastures of low-priced land many cows and young stock get their summer living at very little expense to the owner. The crop of second importance is the corn plant, which is grown more for forage than for the grain. It grows well in almost every section, and responds readily to cultivation and fertilization. It is frequently fed green from the field, as the pastures begin to dry, in order to keep up the flow of milk. Large amounts are cut for the silo, grain and forage both going into the pit. The geological formation in many parts of New England is such that an abundance of pure water gushes from thousands of mountain springs. There are likewise excellent oppor- tunities for getting ice of the best quality, winch almost every dairy- man puts up for his summer use. MARKETS. New England's second distinctive advantage is m excellent, well- located markets. Her surface is liberally dotted with manufacturing OPPORTUNITIES FOE DAIRYING. 409 towns and cities where reside a large part of her population. New England, with only one-fiftieth of the area of the contiguous United States, has one-fourteenth of the population. According to the census of 1900, Rhode Island is the most densely populated State in the Union, having 407 persons to the square mile. Massachusetts, though forty-fourth in territorial rank, is seventh in amount of population and second in density of population among the States and Territories of contiguous United States. Connecticut ranks fourth in density of population, while New Hampshire and Maine, though further down the list in this respect, have a number of large manufacturing cities and towns. But the superiority of New England's markets for dairy products is not told wholly in statistics of a large population located on a comparatively small area. The purchasing ability of tins popula- tion is large, as it is largely composed of well-to-do merchants, pro- fessional men, and skilled mechanics. Even the unskilled common laborers have steady employment at good wages and consume large amounts of dairy products. Such markets mean a quick demand for all dairy products. Aside from milk and cream, New England does not produce all the dairy products she consumes. Hence there is always a good demand for the fresher article produced near by. The New England dairyman has an advantage as to price. Even in the wholesale market New England butter is usually quoted at one or two cents above western. But many dairymen are located so that they can sell milk, cream, or butter in a near-by market or direct to consumers, thus getting the further advantage of a retail price. And few New England dairymen are located so far away from a center as to be out of reach of the milk car to the city, the cream gatherer for some butter factory or cream-shipping station, or the cheese factory. The producer of milk and its products in New England is closer to the consumer than in other sections. Not a few New England dairymen are so favorably located and have so much skill that they get an advance above the ruling price for an article of extra quality. DISADVANTACxES. The disadvantages of New England dairying are a comparatively sterile soil, cold winters, relatively short growing seasons, rough, rocky topography, and high freight rates on small shipments for short distances. But the quality of the market offsets these to a large degree. Thorough cultivation and plenty of applied plant food make the land under cultivation produce large crops. Four tons of hay per acre is frequently harvested, though this is above the average, and 6 tons is no uncommon production. High yields of ensilage corn are common. 410 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY. Dairying is the leading agricultural specialty in New England. Market gardening receives much attention near the cities and L towns, but many market gardeners keep a dairy herd to consume the refuse from the truck garden and to increase the size of the manure pile. Fruit growing is also a specialty with many, but even in those s - dairying is often a side issue of importance. Hence dairying is almost universal. All the leading breeds of dairy cattle are repre- sented by pure-bred animals of high quality. Some of the famous pure-bred dairy stock of the country is of New England ownership or origin. All of the leading national breeders" associations have many Xew England members, two have come to Xew England for secreta- ries, while prominent officers of others are Xew England men. Market milk is the leading feature of Xew England dairying. Milk cars for Boston every morning leave northern Xew Hampshire, cen- tral Vermont, western Massachusetts, and central Connecticut. Be- tween thirty-five and forty carloads of milk arrive at Boston daily, almost all being of Xew England origin. The supply of milk for the smaller cities is also a business of large dimensions. The increasing use of cream makes that product of second importance. Maine sends a carload of cream to Boston daily, while large quantities are received from other sections along with the regular milk sir. Much of this market cream is separated by the farmers either by Cooley process or the centrifugal separator, gathered by where it is run through a separator for standardizing, and then shipped to the city in bulk. In northern Xew England much butter is made. All the butter pro- duced in Xew England is consumed while it is comparatively fresh — in many instances while it is only a week or two old. Cheese pro tinn is no longer prominent in Xew England, although many fact still exist in Maine and Vermont, and many private dairies still manu- facture cheese. Among methods characteristic of the section perhaps the use of the Cooley creaming system is the chief. The Cooley system of c: gathering was of Xew England origin, and the apparatus has always been of Xew England manufacture, so that this particular method gained such a strong foothold there that the separator has not yet supplanted it. although many separators are now in use and the number is yearly increasing. NEEDS OF NEW ENGLAND DAIRYMEN. The needs of Xew England dairymen are chiefly those common to dairymen generally: (1) Improvement of methods: (2) elimination of cows that do not pay their board; (3) more attention to the little OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING. 411 details of cleanliness; and (-i) more of a spirit of cooperation and less cutthroat competition, particularly in the selling of milk. The needs of dairying which seem to be peculiar to New England are four. The first is an appreciation of the good markets in this section. People generally see at close range the hard work and perplexities of their own business, and have a vivid realization of them; hence it often happens that one is a poor judge of the relative advantages of his occupation. New England dairymen are no exception to this rule, and they lose sight of the broader and relative side of their business. More appreciation of the advantages of the situation would lead to better utilization of it. A second need of New England dairying is more attention to the pastures. Here can be obtained, at a merely nominal expense, large amounts of the very best cow feed. Yet it is the common testimony that on the whole the pastures of New England are retrograding; the coarse weeds, bushes, and encroachment of the forest are driving out the native nutritive grasses. The third need is more attention to growing legumes. The New England dairyman is to-day dependent upon the West for most of the nitrogenous element in his cow rations, this being bought in the by- products of the factories which handle grain either for grinding or the manufacture of "breakfast foods," glucose, and other articles. If the New England milk producer raised more clover, peas, and other legumes, he would be more independent ; his farm would be more nearly self-sustaining; it would increase in fertility, and his dairy products would cost less. Several dairymen have experimented with alfalfa, which in some cases has promised well for a few years, but no permanent successes are as yet reported. The experiment stations are doing good work in introducing vetches, rape, and soy beans; but in the common old-fashioned red clover farmers have a convenient and valuable legume. The fourth need is the doing of business, in most cases, on a larger scale, making it possible to practice some of the economies which come from wholesale methods of production and selling. Too many go to market with such small amounts of butter as to be compelled to accept whatever the village trader may offer. THE OUTLOOK. As long as business s prosperous and population continues to con- centrate in the cities and towns, requiring them to reach out farther and farther for supplies of fresh milk, the market-milk business will crowd back the making of butter and cheese, especially of the ordi- nary grades; and factories for their manufacture will be abandoned in order to sell milk or cream to the city. The outlook, therefore, for the market-milk business, as far as demand is concerned, is good. The 412 YEAEBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. question is that of price. The farm-labor situation is acute, the cost of grain feeds is high and increasing, and the awakening of health authorities to the importance of clean, sanitary milk is adding to the s of production. There seems to be no danger of the overproduc- tion of milk, cream, or fancy fresh butter. We may conclude with the statement of Prof. W. A. Henry: "The rn farms, for inherent beauty, for all that goes for home-making, for possibilities in the range of crops, and for good markets, are with- out a rival anvwhere in the world." III. THE NORTH CENTRAL STATES. By B. D. White. ,ng and Management Investigai RECENT PROGRI Wonderful progress has been made in the dairy industry during the past decade, and many changes have taken place, especially in the North Central States. Among the States which have become prominent in dairying recently are Michigan, Indiana, North Dakota, th Dakota. Oklahoma, and Missouri. Northern Oklahoma and souri are especially adapted to dairyi: In the last fifteen years the States of Illinois, Iowa. Wisconsin, and Minnesota have made great progress in dairying. In the last two [sands of farms have been taken up and put under culti- vation, and hundreds of creameries and cheese factories have been built and put in operation, manufacturing the milk or cream from hundreds of thousands of cows into prime butter or cheese. There is yet much untilled land not only in those States but in many others in the Middle West waiting to be converted into fine farms. FAVORABLE CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. There seems to be a belt particularly favorable to the dairy industry in the North Central States. This belt extends from Ohio west to the Missouri River slope and to the arid region east of the Rocky Moun- tains. Some profitable dairying, however, is carried on in all the and Southern States, but thus far it has not been made a common adjunct to general farming as it has in the North and E The northern climate seems to be conducive to dairying. The farther north we go the more dairying we find, until the pine-timbered region is reached. Even this is being converted very rapidly into dairy farms. Silage has come to be recognized throughout this sec- tion as the cheape-' le kind of roughage in a succulent and palatable form. Another northern condition favorable to dairying is the abundance of fine natural grasses and the adaptability of the OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING. 413 soil to clover, especially in the timbered sections of Wisconsin and Minnesota. The coolness of the nights in summer also makes it pos- sible to keep milk and cream easily, and this makes the work of dairy- ing more agreeable. Even the necessity of giving stock proper protection during the winter months tends indirectly to increase dairying, and especially winter dairying, which the northern farmers have found to be the most profitable. The reasons for the greater profit in winter dairying are not hard to find. Higher prices are paid during the winter months for milk and cream. Cows freshening in the fall will, if properly fed, give milk all winter, and when turned out to grass in the spring will give prac- tically as much milk as when fresh. Farmers have more time in winter to do the work required for dairying. Calves may be fed on skim milk during the winter months, and when turned out to grass in the spring need very little more care, and the skim milk may then be fed to the spring pigs. Under the system of winter dairying, cows go dry in July and August, at a season of the year when the farmers have the most work to do and the least time to give to the care of cows and calves. SOIL CONDITIONS. The soil throughout the dairy districts of the Xorth Central States is generally good, except in a few localities which are sandy: but on account of the large number of cows and other animals kept, the fer- tility even of the poorer soils is kept up, and such crops as are neces- sary for the maintenance of a dairy herd are raised. In sections where a portion of the land is too rolling or hilly to be fit for the growing of crops it is used for pasture, and only the lower land is used for tillage. In other localities, where lakes abound, the land near the shores for a certain distance is too wet for cultivation, but makes good pasture and is used for that purpose. In such localities also the stock is well supplied with water; hence both the high land and the low is used to good advantage for stock raisins; and dairying. Throughout the localities where dairying and stock raising are exten- sively carried on the fertility of the soil has not only been kept up, but in many sections it has been largely increased. ' dairy cows. It is with regret that one must say that a large percentage of cows throughout the Xorth Central States are yielding only a trifle more than 100 pounds of butter each per year. In some dairy States the average yield is less than 150 pounds per cow per year, when it is possible, under quite ordinary conditions and with grade cows of dairy breeds, to produce twice that amount. Evidently there is plenty of room for improvement. By proper selection, care, feeding, and breeding of dairy cows the output of dairy products can be doubled 414 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OE AGRICULTURE. without increasing the number of cows now in the country. On many farms the dairy herd could be made to produce an increased profit simply by testing all the cows and disposing of those which are proved to be unprofitable. The increase in the number of cows is noteworthy. Take Minne- sota as an example. The number of cows supplying creameries increased from 382,356 in 1901 to 458,466 in 1904. Considering the average cow worth $30, the assets of Minnesota dairymen were thus increased 2\ million dollars in these three years, besides the amount obtained from the sale of young stock. In Iowa the number of cows su]>plying creameries increased from 600,000 in 1905 to 650,000 in 1906. MILK. The center of butter production has been gradually moving west- ward, while market milk is relatively of less importance westward than in the East. Eastern cities are learning the value of milk and milk products for food. The agitation by boards of health for cleaner and purer milk seems to have stimulated the demand, and difficulty is experienced in most of the large cities in obtaining an adequate supply of milk and cream during the winter season, though prices are higher to the consumer than in former years. Condensing factories are using large quantities of milk, which in its condensed form is shipped to nearly every country on the globe. A considerable quan- tity of milk is being used in the manufacture of fancy brands of cheese. It has been estimated that skim milk is worth from 15 to 25 cents per hundred pounds for feeding purposes on the farm. It is difficult to estimate the total feeding and fertilizing value of skim milk to the farmer. Without it less stock will be raised on the average farm. With less stock there will be less manure, and the fertility of the soil will decrease year by year until the land has reached such a stage of poverty that it will no longer produce profitable crops. Farmers should receive at least 25 cents per hundred pounds for skim milk sold from the farm. Even where that price is received, the average farmer does not invest an equal amount, as he should, in commercial fertilizers. When more stock is kept and the skim milk fed to it, the fertility taken by the crops is replaced and the land kept in proper condition. The farmer of the North Central States is learning this lesson. The price obtained for milk in these States is not as high as in the East, but the net profit seems to favor the western farmer, as he is able to produce milk more cheaply on account of the abundance of feed which can be raised on his fertile soil. BUTTER. Western methods followed in the manufacture of butter are worthy of note. The system of delivering fresh sweet milk daily to the butter OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING. 415 factory, which was the common practice after the discontinuance of the gathered-cream system, has been largely changed. The farmers have bought separators, and they now skim the milk at home, feed the fresh warm skim milk to the stock, and deliver only the cream to the factory. This is the ideal system from the farmer's standpoint, but new obstacles have appeared which tend to lower the quality of the butter made. The farmers do not deliver the cream as often as they should, because many butter factories will accept cream which is no longer sweet. Many factories also solicit cream shipments from farmers, either direct to central plants or to receiving stations at points on railroads, from which it is forwarded to the central or churning plants, in some cases hundreds of miles from the source of supply. At these stations or central plants cream is received in any condition, without regard to age or quality. On account of the poor quality of butter made from such cream and the cost of transportation, the price to the farmer has been during the past season about 4 cents per pound less for butter fat than is paid at the creameries where the cream or milk is delivered sweet, so that it can be made into a first-class article of butter. A loss of 4 cents per pound for all the butter fat delivered to creameries for butter-making purposes in six of the largest dairy States would mean a loss of about 13 million dollars per year, or a loss of about 3} million dollars in such a State as Iowa, Minnesota, or Wisconsin. The manufacture of butter seems to be increasing rapidly, especially in the sections where the cooperative system prevails — in Wisconsin, northern Iowa, and Minnesota. The creameries in Wisconsin, as reported by the State authorities in 1900, made 60,000,000 pounds of butter, and in 1905, $8,500,000 pounds. The increased creamery production has not decreased the amount of butter made upon the farms, which, according to reports, in 1900 was 25,000,000 pounds, and in 1905. 34.500,000 pounds. In Iowa the product of butter has increased from 77.000,000 pounds in 1900 to 91,000,000 pounds, which sold for more than 820,000,000, in 1905. Minnesota shows an increase from 44,000,000 pounds in 1900 to 77.000,000 pounds in 1905. In other States proportional increases have probably been made. There has been increase during the last year in nearly every particu- lar. The number of smaller centralizing plants has increased, as have the number of the dairy farmers and the size of their herds. The per capita product of the cows has increased and with it the demand for cattle of the dairy breeds. From the increased production we are led to ask the question: What effect does the increased production have upon the price ? The 416 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. census reports give the total number of pounds of creamery butter made in the United States in 1899 as 420,126,546. The amount of butter of all grades exported for five fiscal years ending with 1900 was 114,923,530 pounds, at an average price of 15| cents per pound. The amount of creamery butter made in 1904 was 531,478,141 pounds, and the amount exported for the five years ending with 1905 was only 68,931,172 pounds, at an average price of 17^ cents per pound. The average price of extra creamery butter as quoted in New York for the five years ending with 1900 was 20.3 cents per pound, and for the next five A^ears 22.24 cents per pound, which indicates that the de- mand for butter at home has increased at a greater rate than the production, causing an advance in the price. At the present time a large proportion of the extra creamery butter sells at a premium of 1J to 2 cents per pound above the quoted prices. From present indications it would appear that the outlook for the dairy industry, especially the production of butter, in the North Central States is bright. The increased demand for milk and cream for direct consumption, with the increase in population, will have a great influence on the consumption of butter at home. Another hopeful sign is the probability of increasing exports to Cuba, which has been largely supplied by Denmark, and to European countries which have been largely depending upon other nations for their supply of butter. The butter exported from the United States has heretofore been principally of an inferior quality. The demand at home has taken all of the better grades at good prices. It is only natural to expect that a large percentage of the butter made in this country will hereafter come from the North Central and Southern States and that there will be an increasing demand for the best grades. CHEESE. Throughout the Xorth Central States there has been a steady increase during the last five years in the production of cheese, as well as butter, but the amount of cheese made is less than the amount of butter, except in Wisconsin, where more cheese is made. In 1900, 78,000,000 pounds, and in 1904, 109,000,000 pounds were made in fac- tories in that State. The percentage of increase in other States has in some cases been as large as that of Wisconsin, which is the largest cheese-making State among the North Central States. Recent investigations have led to the use of improved methods in the manufacture of cheese. Many of the causes for the poor quality of the cheese previously manufactured have been learned and cor- rected. By the cold curing and ripening of cheese a more uniform article is produced, and it is commanding an increased price as con- sumption and demand increase. OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING. 417 In some of the North Central States which have not yet undertaken the manufacture of cheese there are excellent opportunities for profit- able production to supply the increasing local demand. In localities where there is not enough milk for the profitable supply of a butter factory a cheese factory could be operated with success. It appears to require about 400 cows to produce the milk for a successful butter factory, whereas cheese can be made with profit from the milk of 200 cows. The cheese factory can usually afford to pay more for the milk than can the butter factory ; and for the last year cheese making has been more profitable for the dairy farmer in the North Central States than has the manufacture of butter. The success of the Wisconsin cheese factories has been largely due to the fine quality of cheese made, which finds a ready market in the West and South. The demand for cheese, as for butter, depends chiefly upon the quality. Quality should be the watchword of every farmer who produces the milk, as well as of the manufacturer of the cheese. Another important element in the outlook for the cheese industry is the evidently increasing appreciation of the food value of cheese. Americans have been slow to learn that cheese is one of the most economical, wholesome, and digestible of our concentrated foodstuffs. IV. THE SOUTH. By B. H. Raml. Expert in Dairying, in Charge of Southern Dairy Investigations. REVIEW OF THE INDUSTRY, BY STATES. A survey of dairy conditions in the South, extending during the last year to 103 towns in 10 States, affords the material for this sketch. South Carolina. — In South Carolina the dairy industry is, on the whole, developed to a very limited extent, although the northern sec- tion of the State is especially suited to this industry. The dairies of this section are, in the main, using very inferior stock, their build- ings and equipment are frequently very inadequate, and they have no system of marketing their product. In several places, however, the dairies were found to be profitable, the animals in good health, and such dairy farms are distinguished from others of the commu- nity by their generally improved condition. With but two excep- tions, none of the dairy farmers were using silage, and only a few of them are feeding liberally enough on green feed. That part of the State, with its especially fine climate, good lands, and abundance of 3 a1906- — -27 418 YEABBOOK OF THE DEPABTMEXT OF AGRICULTURE. cool water, will, with a proper development, eventually become a dairy section. The southern portion of South Carolina is usually low and in many parts very productive. Forage crops can be grown in great variety and cheaply, but the dairymen are for the most part confined to the towns and cilies and rely principally upon commercial foodstuffs. The re, as a rule, inferior to those in the northern part of the State and. while there is an abundant water supply, fre- quently artesian, the temperature is on an average much higher than in the northern portion of the St The principal menace to the industry in the southern part of this State may be said to be the existence of the cattle tick. Georgia. — In Georgia the conditions vary from the mountainous counties of the northern part of the State to the flat, level counties of the coast. In the northern counties there is an abundance of land that is not utilized, with natural pastures, an abundance of cool r, having in many cases a temperature of 54c or 55~ F. >n is above the Texas fever quarantine line, the cKm and it is well suited to the production of butter and cheese. In the .^ern part of the State there is vers* little dairying, except for the purpose of supplying milk to the cities. Silag g -rally in use. and the city dairymen as a rule rely largely on i Bed meal and hulls fur feeding: yet they are often prosper s. Florida. — In Florida little attention is given to dairying, and the dairies in the vicinity of the places visited — Lake City and Jackson- ville— are engaged in supplying to the towns milk at a high price and of a rather inferior quality. Inferior scrub cattle are generally in use, and no special provision is made for economical production of I i _e crops for feeding. Owing to the attention which is usually given to the production of fruit and vegetables, and to the large amount of swamp lands, the outlook for dairying is limited, t< the 1 Alabama. — The northern portion of Alabama is very similar to the northern portion of . being mountainous, well supplied with an abundance of cool water, thickly populated, and having numerous towns and a great variety of industries. Dairy products command a very high price and the conditions are excellent for dairying. In the vicinity of Birmingham one dairyman visited by the writer found his dairy very profitable: in the same vicinity, how- ever, under exactly the same conditions, others were found to be very one exception, no silos were found in use in that section of the State, and the buildings and stock were inferior. puthern portion of ti Stal - is the case in the southern portion of Georgia, the milk production is confined principally to supplying tl. There are a few dairymen in middle Alabama OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING. 419 that are making good profits, and have been in the business for a number of years, but, on the whole, the dairy industry of this section is uncertain. Feed can be raised very cheaply, however, and dairy- ing should be made profitable. Louisiana. — In Louisiana the principal interest in dairying is foimd in the vicinity of New Orleans, the greater portion of the State being devoted largely to the production of cotton, com, sugar cane, and rice. In the small towns near New Orleans, however, a considerable dairy industry is found. The cattle in that section usually run on the coast, where a variety of grazing is found almost the entire year. New Orleans offers a practically unlimited demand for dairy products. The cattle used are frequently very inferior, and while, especially at Hammond, the dairy industry is much more advanced than it is in any other place in the coast section, many improvements are needed. The dairymen need silos, they need to improve their herds, they need to produce more feed on their farms, and to abandon the excessive use of cotton-seed hulls. Several successful dairies in this vicinity indicate that, in spite of the disadvantages, the possibilities for the skillful dairyman in this section are eneourasrino;. Mississippi. — In Mississippi the pine "lands of the southern part show little agricultural development. In recent years the removal of the timber from the lands has left what are known as the stump lands, which are very cheap. The soil is light and rather sand}-, but pro- ductive when improved; and the development of a dainr industry in that section which is near Xew Orleans would be profitable. Fertil- izers are needed, which dairying would supply. In the central part of the State there are few dairymen of the better class, although there is a large production of hay, this section being favorable to the production of all kinds of forage crops. In the northern part of the State, in the vicinity of Memphis, Tenn., there are a number of dairies shipping milk to that city. The conditions there are somewhat similar to the conditions in the vicinity of Xew Orleans, except that the country is probably not quite so low. Some dairymen are mak- ing money, but many of them are not. There are very few silos in use, and the dairy buildings are usually inferior. The conditions in the State of Mississippi warrant the development of a good dairy industry. Texas. — In Texas there is a small creamery industry in some sec- tions. In many cases, however, the promoters of the creameries seem to have misled the farmers, who, having been disappointed in their venture, are not now very optimistic about the dairy industry. The conditions that exist in Texas are very similar to those of Mis- sissippi, and the dairy industry at present is in its infancy. There are some excellent herds of pure-bred dairy cattle near Marshall, San Antonio, Dallas, Fort Worth, El Paso, Houston, and other towns, 420 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. from which the equipment and practice of the dairy farms in these localities are gradually being improved. The opportunities for dairy- ing in Texas are almost unlimited. Arkansas. — In Arkansas many different conditions exist. In the northern part of the State magnificent pastures are seen and an abundance of cool water, with an excellent climate for all seasons; but there is very little dairying there, notwithstanding these favor- able conditions. In the southern part of the State we find level lands but a more limited supply of water, and much attention is given to the production of sugar cane. Between Little Rock and Memphis, however, there are a number of small towns that produce a considerable amount of milk and cream. The section of Arkansas, however, that offers the best opportunities for the dairy industry is the northern portion of the State, and there are few sections where better natural advantages may be had. Tennessee. — Tennessee may probably be called the dairy State of the South. It is above the cotton belt, and also above the Texas fever quarantine line. Mountainous conditions prevail in the eastern part of the State, and here the dairy industry is well developed in the valleys. In the Sweetwater Valley are found in use many silos, and many good herds, including some pure-bred stock of a high class. The central part of the State, with its natural bluegrass pastures and supply of pure water, is already the home of many herds of pure-bred dairy cattle, and produces market milk and butter of the highest grades. There is no State in the South in which the dairy industry is as highly developed as in Tennessee, and the outlook here is very favorable. North Carolina. — In the western portion of North Carolina the conditions are very similar to those of eastern Tennessee, although on the whole the dairy industry is not as well developed as in Tennes- see, and in many cases very inferior dairies are found, both in equip- ment and methods and in the kind of stock kept. In the eastern section of North Carolina the conditions are more like those in the coast sections of South Carolina and Georgia. THE SOUTH AS A WHOLE. In reference to the conditions that exist in the South as a whole, attention should be called to the following facts: In some cases herds are found producing as good results as are ordinarily made in any section of America. At other places dairy products are made as cheaply as in any of the dairy sections. Altogether there is an enormous demand in the South for dairy products; almost all of the butter and cheese is imported, some cream is shipped in from States a great distance away, and a great deal of condensed milk is OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING. 421 used as a substitute for milk because of the scarcity and the poor quality of the fresh milk put on the market. Silage is used to a very limited extent, but in a number of the different sections, on the coast of Florida especially, the silage is of good quality. Probably the greatest reduction in profits is usually caused by the use of inferior cattle, which are found in a large majority of the dairies throughout the entire South. On the cotton farm cotton is usually the all-absorbing crop, and little attention is given to feed crops. In many cases no more animals are kept upon the farm than are actually necessary to cultivate the cotton crop, and often there is not enough feed raised to supply even these. This system is of course exactly the reverse of dairy farming, in which the feed crops are converted into more easily marketable and more profitable products, and practically all the fertilizing ingredients of the feed (the manure) are returned to the soil, which continues to increase in productiveness. The labor is often irresponsible and this discourages many from going into dairying, even though the}* appreciate its advantages. The warm summers and the disorganized condition of the dairy mar- kets have also been discouraging. However, with the use of artificial ice, which is cheap, improved transportation facilities, and the mild winters, the thinking man is about convinced that the seasons are not unfavorable to the dairy industry. The demand for dairy products in the South has become enormous, and inasmuch as the markets have not usually been supplied with fresh products, the trade does not demand absolutely first-class arti- cles, although the prices are comparatively very high. "With the highly improved southern farms, the question of cheap feed is settled, for there is probably no section of America that can pro- duce cheaper feed. Especially is the great variety of legumes that thrive in the South worthy of notice, and these crops, with cotton- seed meal, settle the question of protein. While very little attention has been given to the development of the southern pastures, it is demonstrated on farms throughout the South that an unexcelled pasture can be maintained for at least eight months in the year. The old southern plantation with its haphazard system is being gradually transformed into a well-organized and diversified farm, and in the transformation dairying promises to be one of the most potent factors. It will occupy a portion of the cotton farms, and even if it is conducted in such a way that the dairy itself is not profitable, it will make the farm fertile and therefore profitable in other lines. While the southern dairyman therefore will have some difficulties • that are not found in the northern sections of the country, he also has many advantages over the northern dairyman in the milder climate, YEARBOOK OF THE DBPABTMSHT OF AGKICUIjTUKB. cheaper cost of buildings, the greater variety of forage crops, and good markets. The South will always he a great cotton country, but it will some day be also a great dairy country. T. THE PACIFIC COAST. By E. A. McDoxald. Dairy Inspector. Bureau of Animal Industry. TUBAL ADV.. DAEBYi: section of the United States offers greater returns to the intelli- dairyman than the Si - on the Pacific coast. Owing to the numerous streams which have their origin in the snow-clad peak the I ^nge, the Cascade Range, and the Sierra Nevada Range, there is a never-failing supply of fresh, pure water. In this equable climate young stock and beef cattle can run out the year round, while dairy cows require to be stabled only from two to four months, accord- ing to the locality. The soil on the western slope of the I ^nge incl nsive alluvial deposits, and that on the east side is com- posed largely of volcanic ash. Owing to the productiveness of these :ed that twice as many cows can be fed on these lands as can be fed on the same amount of land in the East . These advan* have not been fully appreciated. The early pioneers made their money so easily, growing from 40 to 50 bushels of wheat to the acre and from 80 to 120 bushels of oats, that they did not give thought to the fact that their land would some day become impoverished. The time has come when these farmers must recognize the value of diver- sified farming. During the last five years there has been a strong movement toward more intensive farming and a system of crop rota- tion which will restore and preserve the fertility of the sofl. The dairy cow has been called upon to perform a leading part in this wor has in other parts of the country. TRY LXI The following table shows the manufacture of creamery butter and factory cheese in the years 1897 and 1904 on the Pacific coast. Re- turns of farm-made products are not complete. Manufacture of crtemery butter and factory cheese on the Pacific coast, 1897 and 1904. l;-:r. Cfceeae. : * -. ■ " ; -i ■- 7 : . " . ;' . 7 :-- ■- : 7 '.-•* ..' 7 tmmdt - " 722 ":>:- :-• 4 "-'.. •;. 2,565.000 ! 5,080,599 I 2,235,592 ::.-.. ■.-.-. ■ ' .' :.•:.:: r: *,r "3;; ." j- - Oregon . CafifonB* Total 15,536,108^ 3&,6*>,«6 - 7,608,989 j OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING. 493 The grade of cows on the coast lias been verv greatly improved during the last ten years. Many of the prominent dairymen have been securing pedigreed pure-bred stock: others are simpl.v using pure-bred bulls to head their herds and breeding up from their best grade cows, so that the average herd shows good dairy characteristics. Here and there are found pure-bred herds of Jerseys, Holsteins, and Guernseys, and there are a few Ayrshires. The yield per cow has been gradually increasing. Many farmers weigh and test the milk of each cow, and in this way discover the profitable cows, bo that there is a general weeding out of the poorest cows of the herd. In every valley on the coast maybe found mixed herds, which have been bred up in this manner, and which are now lar^e producers. MOVEMENTS OF DAIRY PRODUCTS. Butter and cheese manufactured in Washington is mostly consumed m the home markets, a small amount being shipped to Alaska. But- ter and cheese manufactured in Oregon is only partly consumed in the home markets, the surplus dairy products being shipped to San Francisco and to the cities on Puget Sound. California, after supply- ing her own markets, ships her surplus to Alaska and foreign ports and, during the first three months of the year, California is'shipping more and more each year to the Eastern States. Washington is the only State on the coast which still handles a large amount of eastern butter. One reason for the demand for eastern products in Wash- ington is her trade with Alaska. Being nearest to Alaska and having more regular means of transportation, she naturally secures a laro-e percentage of that trade. The possibility of increasing our trade with foreign countries depends on our ability to produce as cheaply and to'" deliver the product in as good condition as do other countries. When the coast States have a surplus, South American countries and the Orient seem to be the natural outlet. There is a large demand throughout the Orient for tinned butter and condensed milk and cream and for cheese. The markets at present are largely supplied by Australia. Holland, Germany, and France, with a few shipments from Sweden. Price does not seem to be so important a factor as quality, and espe- cially uniformity. San Francisco has been making an effort to secure this trade with fair success, using a vacuum 1-pound tin. A Port- land firm has also shipped some tinned butter to the Orient with varying success. DAIRYING IX WASHIXGTOX. The State of Washington may be divided into four sections, differing from each other in rainfall, temperature, and agricultural products! The first division is the west side, or the section west of the Cascade 424 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OE AGBICr/LTVRE. Mountains, for the most part heavily timbered and characterized by a rainfall varying in different parts from 30 to over 100 inches, according to direction and distance from the mountain ranges. As in all other parts of the Pacific slope, by far the largest part of the rainfall is confined to the winter months, the summer months being comparatively free from rain. This section includes the fertile valleys along the numerous rivers and creeks, the tide lands, and the fresh and salt water deltas. The soil is rich in alluvial deposits. The climate is ideal for the dairy industry. The water supply consists of beautiful streams from the mountain sides which flow through these valleys. On account of the mild winters and proximity to the market centers, the west side is eminently adapted to dairying. The upland prairies of eastern Washington constitute the second section of the State. These prairies lie east of the Columbia River, extending to the mountains of Idaho and from the Blue Mountains on the south to the mountains of Stevens and Okanogan counties on the north. The Palouse and Big Bend prairies, which have a world- wide reputation for their immense yields of wheat, are included in this section. Except where land is far removed from the mountains dairying is profitable. The rainfall is sufficient, as the soil is a retentive clay loam. Since the coming of the hand separator there has been a gradual increase in dairy products. There is a tendency to diversified farming, making dairying an adjunct to the growing of whe The third section includes the Walla Walla. Yakima, and Wenat- chee valleys of central and southern Washington. These lands are all in the drier parts of the State, and their low altitude gives them warmer summers than are found elsewhere in the State. These are _ brush lands, and when irrigated are very productive. This is a great fruit and dairy section. Alfalfa is the principal forage crop, and yields under proper cultivation from 5 to 7 tons to the acre, making this section particularly adapted to the dairy industry. The farming areas of the fourth section are scattered widely. They are situated east of the Cascade Range, and are at a higher altitude than the land in the third section. The Kittitas. Colville. and Kalispel valleys are included in this section. Timothy, clover, root crops, and all the cereals are grown. The tendency of the farmers in this section is to diversified farming, with dairying as the leading branch. The Kittitas Valley will lead all the others in the amount of butter produced. The valleys of the State are so productive that, everything else being equal, butter and cheese can be produced at a less cost here OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING. 425 than in the Middle West or the Eastern States. Rich, succulent food, pure water, and a temperate climate are the essentials in the manu- facture of a "nutty," high-flavored, sweet butter. Nature has been lavish in her gifts to the State of Washington in this respect, and we may look forward to this State becoming a large producer of butter. There is also every reason to believe that the State will become noted for a high grade of butter which will command the highest price. Owing to the diversified industries of the State — consisting of fish, lumber, coal, and other minerals, the development of which will employ a large number of men — the rapid growth of her cities, the development of Alaska, and the growth of trade with the Orient, South America, and the islands of the Pacific, the State can always count on the demand for dairy products being greater than the supply. DAIRYING IN OREGON. The State of Oregon is in the same latitude as South Dakota and the New England States, but the Japan Current equalizes the tem- perature and gives Oregon an ideal climate. All kinds of forage crops are grown without irrigation, except in a very small area in southeastern Oregon. The State has five natural dairy divisions. The coast section lies between the Coast Range and the Pacific Ocean. The northern part of this section has become famous for its salmon. The annual value of the salmon industry is approximately $3,000,000. The profits in this industry have been so large that very little attention has been given to dairying, which is still in its infancy. Tillamook County is the great cheese section of the Pacific coast. It is an ideal dairy section. Six different streams traverse this county, taking their rise in the Coast Range and emptying into the Pacific Ocean, so that this valley has an abundance of pure fresh water. 'fhe Willamette Valley includes the counties on either side of the Willamette River, lying between the Cascade and Coast Range of mountains, a distance of about 100 miles. If the natural resources of this valley had been properly utilized they would have made it a greater butter producer than any other section on the Pacific coast; but the soil became so impoverished by continuous crop- ping with wheat that where 40 bushels were once produced 13 bushels per acre is now an average crop. How shall we redeem the land? There is but one reply: By the use of the dairy cow. This valley can be made to produce butter to supply ten times the popu- lation of the State. New blood, dairy literature, and farmers' institutes are the leaven which is changing the "mossback" into an intelligent dahwman. Here and there may be seen pure-bred herds of Jerseys, Holstein-Friesians, and Ayrshires. 426 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Southwestern Oregon has the most desirable climate in the State, having neither excessive rainfall nor excessive heat. Two beautiful rivers — the Umpqua and Rogue— and their tributaries traverse this section, which has already become famous for its apples. On the higher lands the dairy industry will flourish, and alfalfa will be the principal forage crop. The manufacture of butter has been increasing very rapidly. Almost every farmer has the foundation for a daiiy herd. Creameries with modern equipments are in opera- tion in several places. Northeastern Oregon constitutes the fourth section. Wheat and beef cattle are the principal agricultural products, and dairying is still to be introduced. The fifth section is the undeveloped part of Oregon. It lies to the southeast. One can travel through this section only by stage or private conveyance. Here are thousands of acres of rich, alluvial loam and volcanic ash, capable of being irrigated. It is certain that this section, which a few years ago grew only sagebrush and whose principal inhabitants were the jack rabbit and the coyote, is des- tined to become the home of thousands of prosperous dairymen. Portland, the metropolis of Oregon, located near the confluence of two great rivers— the Columbia and the Willamette — is the only city of any commercial importance in the State. This city must find ways and means of disposing of the vast resources of Oregon and of providing the implements of production for the development of this great State. DAIRYING IX CALIFORNIA. California has a soil and climate so varied that all fruits, both deciduous and citrus, can be grown to perfection. All kinds of cereals are grown with success. California has also great possibilities as a dairy State. The counties surrounding the bay of San Francisco comprise the best developed dairy district of California. It is from these counties that California is receiving one-third of its butter and San Francisco all of its milk. The production of butter in these counties is already up to the limit, as the city of San Francisco and the contiguous cities draw their milk supply from these counties, so that California will have to look to some other section of the State for her future supply of butter. The second section is an ideal section for the production of milk and for converting it into butter and cheese. This section includes all the counties north of the bay counties to the Oregon line, between the Coast Range and the Pacific Ocean. The soil is very rich and almost all of it is productive. The natural grasses are OPPORTUNITIES FOR DAIRYING. 427 clover and rye grass. The size of the average herd of dairy cows is 20, and the produce averages about 200 pounds of butter per cow. This section has been the greatest butter producer in California, but the production has apparently reached the limit. In the third section, including the counties south of the bay coun- ties, extending along the coast to the Mexican line, we find varied conditions. With irrigation and proper management the section about San Luis Obispo should become a large butter producer, as it is better adapted to the dairy industry than to any other branch of agriculture. The butter from this valley is shipped to Los Ange- les and San Francisco. Los Angeles County is credited with the manufacture of over 2,000,000 pounds of butter per year, which would indicate that this county is especially adapted to the dairy industry. This, however, is not the case, for, while there are some good dairy herds in this country, a large proportion of the cream comes from outside the county. The country along the coast from Los Angeles to San Diego enjoys an equable climate well suited to fruit growing with irrigation, but the small rainfall will always hin- der this section from becoming great in dairying. The hope of southern California is in what is known as the Imperial Valley. This valley contains 500,000 acres of very rich land, which is being irri- gated from the Colorado River. When irrigated, this land will grow large crops of alfalfa. There are two drawbacks to this section, the heat and the flies. Dairying will undoubtedly be carried on to a considerable extent, but the difficulty of securing labor will be a seri- ous disadvantage. This valley will probably become a great live- stock section. The fourth section includes the San Joaquin Valley. To this sec- tion and the Sacramento Valley. California must look for the great increase in dairy products. A large portion of the San Joaquin Valley is irrigated by means of artesian and pumping wells, assisted by irriga- tion ditches which draw their supply from the rivers near their sources in the Sierra Range. The conditions of soil and climate are ideal for the growth of alfalfa. Grass starts with the fust fall of rain and con- tinues through the winter, so that there is green grass throughout the year-. Xear Stockton is one of the largest and best of pure-bred dairy herds. Nature has provided all the conditions for an ideal home for dairy cattle and the owners are utilizing these conditions in the most practical manner. The barns are strictly modern, well ven- tilated, and with every convenience for the comfort of the cows. We now pass to the fifth section, the Sacramento Valley. This entire section has been noted for its immense yields of wheat and bar- ley, but continuous cropping with wheat has impoverished the soil 428 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. so that where 30 bushels were once grown now from 8 to 10 bushels is all the land will produce. The dairy cow will be called upon to reclaim these impoverished lands, with the aid of irrigation, and they will be made to blossom with the alfalfa flower. The surface of this wonderful valley has only been scratched. One can not esti- mate the possibilities of the increase in the dairy industry. The scarcity of labor is a great hindrance to the development of this valley. If California could secure labor at a reasonable wage, the State could easily triple its production. CONCLUSION. Sufficient data have been given to show that the Pacific coast States will become large producers of dairy products. Owing to the unparalleled growth of the cities and the varied industries, it may be that the supply will not increase more rapidly than the demand, but a reasonable conclusion to be drawn is that there will be a sur- plus within a few years. The markets of China and Japan, the coun- tries of South America, and the islands of the Pacific Ocean are the natural outlets, and everything should be done to secure these mar- kets for the dairymen of the Pacific coast. LIME-SULPHUR WASHES FOR THE SAN JOSE SCALE. By A. L. Quaintaxce. In Charge of Deciduous-fruit Insect Investigations, Bureau of Entomology. ORIGIN AXD EARLY USE. The lime-sulphur-salt or so-called California wash has been for many years the principal treatment for the San Jose scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus Comst.) in orchards in California and elsewhere on the Pacific slope, and within the last five or six years it has become prac- tically the standard treatment for this insect in the East. Originally developed as a dip for the control of scab on sheep, it was first used as an insecticide on fruit trees, according to Quayle,0 in 1886 by a Mr. F. Dusey, of Fresno, Cal., who experimented with a sheep dip prepared by Mr. A. T. Covell. The wash proved very efficient, and with modifications came quickly into favor. Lime-sulphur prepa- rations, either dry or in the form of washes, have long been more or less used by orchardists in the control of insects and fungi, but these preparations are not comparable to the boiled lime-sulphur-salt wash, and practically the usefulness of the latter as a scalecide was an inde- pendent discovery. Since first used on fruit trees the wash has been variously modified in formula, and it has been shown to have a con- siderable range of usefulness, both as an insecticide and as a fungicide. HISTORY OF USE IX THE EAST. Upon the discovery of the San Jose scale in eastern nurseries and orchards, attention was naturally drawn to the treatments which had been found so effective on the Pacific coast. In the fall of 1894 Messrs. C. L. Marlatt and D. W. Coquillett,6 of the Bureau of Ento- mology, carried out an extensive test of washes in a scale-infested orchard in Maryland, among which were the lime-sulphur-salt wash, as used in California, and the Oregon wash, both being used at ordinary strength and at double strength. Examination of the treated trees about a month after applications had been made indicated that these washes had been fatal to only a very small percentage of the scales, and these conditions had not changed by late April of the following a Bui. 166, Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta. (1905). b Bui. 3, n. s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., pp. 56, 71 (1896). 429 430 YEABBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. spring, when further observations were prevented by the application of a soap treatment to ihe orchard under experiment, and there was thus no opportunity to observe the later action of the wash. The negative results from these tests, attributed to the heavy rainfall in the East as compared with the drier climate of California, discouraged further experiment on the part of entomologists, and no further tests in the Eas: appear to have been made until the spring of 1900. when the lime-sulphur-salt wash was again tested by Mr. Maiiatt,a he having in the meantime assured himself by personal investigation of its effectiveness in California, a matter which his earlier experiments had somewhat led him to doubt. These experiments in 1900, by the Bureau of Entomology, gave excellent results, attributed in part by Mr. Marian to the favorable weather conditions following applications, and really marked the beginning of the series of extensive experiments with this wash by various State and experiment station entoi: and others in the East. During the fall of 1901 the wash was adopted by Dr. S. A. Fori - in his scale control work in Illinois, as a result of an investigation of its effectiveness in California and Oregon, in which latter State the rainfall is quite as heavy as in the East. Definite experiments were planned by Doctor Forbes in the spring of 1902. and carried out by Mr. E. S. G. Titus, at that time his assistant. Also, in the fall of 1901 experiments with the wash were inaugurated by Prof. F. M. Webster in Ohio c when entomologist of the Ohio agricultural experiment station, and carried out by Messrs. A. F. Burgess and Wilmon Newell. In the spring of 1902 experiments were begun in Connecticut by Dr. YV. E. Britton/ in Georgia by Mr. W. M. Scott/ by the writer' in Maryland, and possibly by others. The general results of these tests, made in widely separated localities and under different climatic conditions, pointed strongly to the probable effectiveness of this in destroying the scale even in a climate of heavy rainfall, as in the East. During the year or so foDowing the entom f many of the Eastern States, confronted with the scale problem. 1 experiments with the wash under their respective conditions, the favorable results from these and previous tests led to its speedy adoption by many orchardists in preference to the mineral oils and soap washes previously largely used. Its adoption was the more rapid for the reason that the mineral oils, on the whole, had proved unsatisfactory on account of frequent injury to the trees. a Annual Report of the Entomologist, Annual Reports, I". S. Dept. Agr.. p. 31 (1900); Bui. 30. n. a., Div. Ent... I". S. Dept. Agr.. p. 34 .1901 |. bfiui. 71. 111. Act. Exp. Station (1902). 'Bui. 37. n. b., Div. Em.. U. S. Dept. Agr.. p. 33 (19 - d Bui. 40. n. s., Div. Ent.. V. S. Dept. Agr.. p. - e Bui. 37. n. a., Div. Ent.. U. S. Dept. Agr.. p. 4S I 1902.. /Bui. 37. n. s.. Div. Ent.. U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 37. and Bui. 40, p. 36. LIME-SULPHUR WASHES FOR SAX JOSE SCALE. 431 It is of interest in this connection to note that, following the recom- mendations of an agricultural journal, the wash had heen used in the control of the scale in the spring of 1901 by Mr. X. P. Oreeley/' of Bur- lington, X. J., who successfully treated a 14-acre peach orchard; by Mr. C. E. Hathaway.6 of Somerset, Mass.; and by Mr. S. S. Stouffer, of Sharpshurg. Md., who treated several thousand peach and apple trees, and had constructed an excellent steam cooking plant. An examination of this last orchard by the writer during the summer of 1001 proved to him that most satisfactory results had been obtained. At the present time the general effectiveness of the wash, when properly made and applied, in controlling the scale under eastern conditions may be considered as established. It is especially satis- factory on the peach, plum, and pear, and mainly so on the apple, although some orchardists have not secured satisfactory results in controlling the scale on apple. It is held by some that the dense pubescence which more or less covers the terminals of apple twigs of many varieties prevents the thorough treatment of these parts, with the result that the "lice" from females which have thus escaped treat- ment are forced to migrate to the young fruit, where they settle and breed, so that at picking time apples from sprayed trees are often badly marked with the scale. The unsatisfactory results which have at times been reported as following the treatment of large trees, owing especially to infestation of the fruit, are due partly to the condi- tions above mentioned, but more especially to lack of thorough appli- cations, as such work offers serious practical difficulties. INGREDIENTS OF THE WASH. As the name indicates, the wash is made of lime, sulphur, and salt with water; the salt, however, is often omitted. These are boiled together for a sufficient length of time, during which boiling chemical action between the lime and sulphur takes place, producing in solution the insecticidal properties of the wash. As generally understood, the word " lime " refers to burned or quick- lime, known chemically as calcium oxid (CaO), and it is this form that is used in the preparation of the wash. The limestone, or car- bonate of lime, from which lime is obtained varies greatly in purity, thus affecting the purity of the resulting quicklime, which in addi- tion may be more or less contaminated with the ashes from the fuel used in burning it. An important impurity of limestone is magnesia (MgO), existing as magnesium carbonate, and replacing the lime (CaO) a Farm Journal, Vol. XXVI. p. 24 (1902). b Farm Journal, Vol. XXVI. p. 03 (1902). 432 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. up to 21 .7 per cent . when the rock is said to be a dolomite. Magnesian and dolomitic limestones are those in winch magnesia occurs in smaller proportions than just indicated. Mechanically mixed with limestone may be varying amounts of impurities, such as sand, clayey and car- bonaceous matter, oxids of iron, etc.. giving rise to different kinds of limestone, depending upon the proportion of the respective substances present. In the following table are given analyses of several samples of lime, all from the State of Maryland, indicating the variations in the compo- sition of lime to be found in a single State, though it should be remem- bered that Maryland is unusually rich in limestone: Analyses of lime CaO from Maryland limestones.0 [Prof. H. J. Patterson and Dr. n. B. McDonelh analysts.] Mary- land labo- ratory. Description of sample. Insolu- able matter. Iron and alumi- num oxids. Lime Magnesia Undeter- mined.* Total. 1043 1044 1732 1790 Woodsboro lime Cavetown lime Wrigbtsville lime G roves lime Howard County lime Oyster shell lime, fresh burned. . P(T Cent. Percent. Per cent. 1. 85 3.10 91.10 2.75 4.83 73.90 .15 1.50 07.44 25.00 2.40 47.10 6.02 1130 75.40 5.79 2.71 Per cent. 0.92 17.94 30.91 25.16 2.00 Per cent. 3.03 .58 .34 3.28 5.92 Per cent. 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.49 a Bui. 61, Md. Agr. Exp. Sta. I Mostly water and carbonic acid gas. According to composition, limes have been classified by Gillmore as: (1) Good or fat limes, containing as a rule less than 10 per cent of impurities. (2) Poor or meager limes, containing from 10 to 2.5 per cent of sand or other impurities. (3) Hydraulic limes, with from 30 to 35 per cent of various impurities. (4) Hydraulic cements. The so-called fat limes slake readily with water, forming a creamy mixture, whereas the poor or meager limes, containing considerable magnesia, slake more slowly, forming a poor mixture. Hydraulic limes and cements need not be here considered. In the preparation of lime-sulphur washes the fat limes containing less than 10 per cent of impurities should be used, giving a better wash and one more free from sand and grit, which rapidly wears out the valves of the pump and the caps on the nozzles. With formulas containing an excess of lime there is little danger of an insufficient amount, even though impure lime be used, but in a formula where equal quantities of lime and sulphur are used, in case of very impure lime the quantity of this ingredient may be insufficient to unite chemically with the sulphur. LIME-SULPHUR WASHES FOR SAX JOSE SCALE. 43$: Sulphur may be regarded as the important ingredient of the wash,. as the compounds formed by its union with the lime are the active agents in destroying insects, and its insecticidal effect will be largely determined by the proportion of sulphur employed. Sulphur occurs naturally in large quantities in the form of sul- phids, as pyrites or sulphates, as gypsum, and native in volcanic, regions in vast beds, more or less mixed with gypsum and various- earthy materials. The sulphur is separated from the ore or its. impurities by a process of fusion, and the melted sulphur thus secured, which is caught in molds, is the ordinary brimstone of com- merce. Brimstone is not sufficiently pure for all purposes, and is refined by sublimation, which consists in heating the brimstone in suitable retorts until it vaporizes. The sulphur vapor passes into a condensing chamber, and that which first comes over is condensed by coming in contact with the cold walls of the chamber and deposited in a minutely divided condition. This deposit is scraped from the walls of the chamber before the latter become hot, and constitutes the so-called flowers of sulphur. After a few days' continuous use the condensing chamber becomes sufficiently hot to cause sulphur to fuse or melt and run to the bottom of the condenser, where it is collected and run into molds, producing stick, or roll, sulphur. This, when finely ground, is designated flour sulphur, two grades being commonly found on the, market, light and heavy flour, depend- ing on the grinding and bolting processes. In the process of sub- liming, the impurities in the brimstone do not pass over into the condensing chamber, and the flour and flowers of sulphur are equally pure, differing practically only in fineness, though the latter may be somewhat more acid. Either the flour or flowers of sulphur may be used in the preparation of lime-sulphur washes, and in the writer's experience they are equally satisfactory. There appears to be no basis in fact for the preference of some orchardists for flowers of sulphur as against flour sulphur, and as the latter is somewhat, cheaper it should be preferred. Ground brimstone has been utilized to a limited extent in lime- sulphur washes, but exact data are lacking as to its suitability for this purpose. When comparatively free from impurities and finely ground and bolted, as in the preparation of flour sulphur, it would appear to be quite as suitable as the latter, and by its use the cost of the wash could be considerably lessened. The so-called "crystalline" sulphur that has recently come into limited use in some parts of the South is brimstone obtained directly from the mines, being melted in the earth by means of superheated water and then pumped out into bins, where it is allowed to cool.. 3 a 1906 28 434 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It is put on the market in lumps just as it breaks under the pick, and in this condition it is much too coarse for use in making lime- sulphur washes, since even after prolonged boiling much free sulphur remains in the residue and is wasted. Common salt, or sodium chlorid (XaO), has been considered a necessary ingredient of the wash, its function, however, not being definitely ascertained. It was a constituent of the wash when used as a sheep dip, and its usefulness seems not to hare been questioned for some years. Pierce,0 as a result of careful tests in California, was not able to detect anv advantage from its use in washes against peachleaf-curl and recommended its omission. Kecent experiments in various eastern States, representing a considerable range of lati- tude, with washes made with and without salt, support the con- clusion that its use is not at all essential. Numerous entomologists recommend its omission, while others leave its use optional. Chem- ical studies of washes made with and without salt show that its presence does not affect the chemical nature of the wash. It has been claimed that the use of salt, by raising the specific gravity of the wash, raises its boiling-point, insuring a better union of the lime and sulphur; also that it causes the wash to adhere to the trees better, and that it renders the precipitate more flocculent, so that it remains in suspension longer. The penetrating power and causticity of the wash may also be increased by the salt, it being a matter of common remark among sprayers that a wash in which salt is used is noticeably more caustic to the face and hands than one from which it has been omitted. Notwithstanding these supposed advantages from the use of salt, the actual tests in the majority of cases have shown that it is not possible to distinguish between the insecticidal effect of washes made with and those made without salt. Its use is, therefore, not considered necessary. VARIATIONS IX FORMULAS. The original sheep-dip formula, namely, lime SO pounds, sulphur 100 pounds, salt 10 pounds, sugar 20 pounds, and water 160 gallons, first used on fruit trees, has been variously modified, often on mistaken conceptions as to the insecticidal properties of the several constituents. Some believed that lime was the active ingredient, and that the others were necessary to get the lime into solution. Until recently the necessity for the salt appears not to have been questioned, and practi- cally nothing was known of the chemistry of the wash until the studies "Bui. 20, Div. Veg. Phys, and Pathol., U. S. Dept. Agr.. p. 155 (1900;. LIME- SULPHITE WASHES FOR SAN JOSE SCALE. 435 of Mr. J. K. Haywood, a of this Department, in 1900 and subsequently, and of Prof. R. W. Thatcher,'' begun in 1903. Definite field experi- ments to determine the necessary quantity and proportions of ingre- dients were first reported by Pierce in 1900, c in connection with his studies of peachleaf-curl in California, and similar tests in the control of the San Jose scale under eastern conditions were begun but four or five years ago. Recently, however, a large amount of experimental work has been done and there is at present a considerable literature on the subject. Experiments have been made with washes containing the usual ingredients in varying proportions ; with various methods of preparation; with self-boiled washes, etc. In general it has been shown that all of the stronger well-boiled washes are about equall}T effective in killing the scale, and it has been difficult to decide upon one as against another. Numerous formulas have thus come to be recommended, which, while undoubtedly effective in killing the scale, differ more or less in the proportion of ingredients and mode of prepa- ration, and this has had a tendency to confuse prospective users and has not alwa}^s been conducive to economy. With an insecticide and fungicide coming so generally into use, it would appear highly desir- able, if practicable, that a standard formula and method of prepara- tion be adopted, based on greatest economy consistent with effective- ness. Present recommendations of a number of State and station entomologists and of the Bureau of Entomology are given in the table on page 437, calculated on a uniform basis of 100 gallons of wash. The quantity of lime per 100 gallons of wash is seen to vary from 25 to 80 pounds, ranging, in the majority of formulas, however, from 30 to 50 pounds. The variation in sulphur (the more expensive ingredient) per 100 gallons is considerably less, namely, from 25 to 40 pounds, ranging mostly between 30 and 35 pounds, which quantity is sufficient to insure a satisfactory wash. In numerous formulas salt has been omitted entirely or its use left optional. When rec- ommended, the amount varies from 10 to 33J pounds. The period of cooking varies from thirty minutes to two hours. There is also much diversity in details of preparation (not shown in the table) as to the treatment of ingredients, the order of placing them in the cooking vessel, and the use of hot or cold water in the final dilution. During the last two years the Bureau of Entomology has devoted some attention to field experiments with lime-sulphur washes in order to determine an efficient and economical formula and to secure information on other questions pertaining to its practical use. As a part of this investigation an extended chemical study of lime- oBul. 30, n. b., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 35 (1901); Jour. Am. Chem. Soc, Vol. XXVII, p. 247 (1905). 6 Bui. 56, Wash. Agr. Exp. Sta. (1903) ; Bui. 70, Wash. Agr. Exp. Sta. (1906). c Loc. cit. 436 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. sulphur washes has been made by Mr. J. K. Haywood, of the Bureau of Chemistry. a In the field experiments the same formulas were tested in three distinct latitudes, namely, in Georgia, at Fort Valley; in Maryland,6 at Laurel. Jessups. and Patuxent: and in western New York, at Youngstown. in 1905. and at North East. Pa., in 1906, It was thought that by making tests of identical formulas in a north- ern, a middle, and a southern State possible differences in results due to climatic or other conditions would be more readily explained. The experiments have included the treatment of scale-infested apple, peach, and Japan plum trees, and unless otherwise indicated applications of sprays were made shortly before growth of trees had begun in spring. Peach and plum trees treated were average 5 to 7 year trees and the largest apple trees were S or 9 years old. In general satisfactory results were obtained from all of the well-boiled washes containing not less than 15 pounds of sulphur to 50 gallons of water, with a slight balance in favor of the stronger washes, espe- cially for first treatment of badly infested trees. Washes containing somewhat less than 15 pounds of sulphur to 50 gallons of water were not satisfactory in killing the scale. Some conclusions reached by these tests are: (1) An efficient and economical formula is lime 20 pounds, sulphur 15 pounds, water to make 50 gallons, and boiled for one hour. (2) Salt is not a necessary ingredient of the wash. (3) The self-boiled lime-sulphur-caustic-soda wash is reasonably efTective and should be used when it is not practicable to provide a cooking plant for making the boiled wash. The self-boiled lime- sulphur wash is much less efficient and is wasteful. i4> Applications in late fall give good results, but not so good as applications in spring. From general observations careless preparation and lack of thor- ough application are considered the principal causes of unsatisfactory results in the use of the lime-sulphur wash. "Bui. 101, Bureau of Chemistry. The Lime-Sulphur-Salt Wash and Its Substi- tutes. & Experiments in Maryland in cooperation with the Maryland Agricultural Experi- ment Station. LIME-SULPHUR WASHES FOR SAX JOSE SCALE. 437 Lime-sirf phitr-salt wash formulas recommended in various xStates and hi/ the Bureau of Entomology. Quick- lime. Alabama California: Agricultural experiment sta- tion. State horticultural commis- sion. Connecticut : Storrs agricultural experi- ment station. Agricultural experiment sta- tion. DelawE re Georgia: State board of entomology. . Experiment station Illinois Kentucky Maryland Massachusetts. Michigan Missouri (agricultural experiment station). Ohio: State department of agricul- ture. Agricultural experiment sta- tion. Oregon. Tennessee Pennsylvania New York: Agricultural experiment sta- tion. State entomologist New Jersey North I Virginia Washington. . Bureau of Entomology. U. S. De- partment of Agriculture. : Lbs. 42 50 .50 50 SO 40 42 30 50 40 331 40 30 33$ 30 or 40 331 42 44 40 40 33i 40 30 25 40 Flour or flowers of sulphur. Lbs. Salt. Water. Time of cooking. Lbs. Galls. 33J 33J 40 35 40 32 36 30 35 30 331 30 30 331 30 33J 36 34 30 i 30 331 16J 2.3 0 n 30or0 20 or 0 ; lOorO 0 331 34 20 or 0 30 ' 25 j 0 30 I 0 100 35 minutes, or until of a dirty yellowish-green color. 100 1 to 2 hours. 1 2 hours, or until sulphur is thor- oughly dissolved. 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 30 to 45 minutes. Three-fourths to 1 hour. 30 minutes. 40 minutes to 1 hour. 35 to 40 minutes, or until mix- ture is yellowish-green color. 1 hour. 35 minutes. 1 hour. 1J hours or longer. 1 hour or more. 2 hours. 100 1 hour. 100 45 minutes at lsast. 100 \ 1 hour, or until mixture is of a deep blood-red color. 100 1 hour. 100 1 hour. 100 , 1 hour. 100 30 minutes at least. 100 Boil until mixture becomes deep amber color. 100 30 minutes. 100 40 minutes. 100 30 minutes to 1 hour. 100 1 hour. CHEMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. Considerable attention has been given to the chemistry of lime- sulphur washes, notably by J. K. Haywood,0 of the Bureau of Chem- istry of this Department, and by Prof. R. W. Thatcher,6 of the Washington Agricultural Experiment Station. These investigations aBul. 30, n. s., Div. Ent., U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 35 (1901); Jn. Am. Chem. Soc, Vol. XXVII, p. 247; Bui. 101, Bu. Chemistry, U. S. Dept. Agr. b Bui. 56, Wash. Agr. Exp. Sta, (1903); Bui. 7(5, Wash. Agr. Exp. Sta. (1906). 438 YEABBOOK OF THE DEPABTMEXT OF AGBICULTUBE. have thrown light on several important questions connected with the preparation and use of these washes, explaining results noted in practical experimentation and indicating in precise terms the conditions of its economical preparation. EFFECT OF DIFFERENT PERIODS OF BOILING. Analyses of washes boiled for different lengths of time show that the sulphur is not sufficiently dissolved by 15 minutes' boiling, and that 30 minutes is nearly but not quite long enough, while boiling for 45 minutes to 1 hour dissolves practically all of the sulphur pres- ent. Analyses of the self-boiled lime-sulphur wash show that only about one-twelfth of the sulphur present is dissolved, there being, therefore, a great Waste of sulphur. In a properly prepared self- boiled lime-sulphur-caustic-soda wash about 80 per cent of the sul- phur present is put in solution, whereas if such a wash in addition be heated for 15 or 20 minutes about 95 per cent of the sulphur is dissolved. USE OF DIFFERENT GRADES OF SULPHUR. Analyses of washes made with flour sulphur and flowers of sulphur show that there is no essential difference between them as to their solubility with a given period of boiling, practically all sulphur going into solution with 1 hour's boiling. In washes made with the so-called crystalline sulphur, the amount of free sulphur remaining after 1 hour's boiling varies widely, depending on the size of lumps of the sulphur employed, there being, however, in all cases quite too much waste to render its use advisable. Crystalline sulphur, when finely ground, largely goes into solution after thoroughly boiling from lh to 2 hours. Generally the latter period will be found preferable. OMISSION OF SALT: EFFECT OF REHEATING. Repeated analyses have shown that salt has no effect whatever on the chemical composition or physical character of the wash, thus con- firming the conclusions as to its uselessness in practical field tests. Reheated lime-sulphur washes do not differ chemically or physically from freshly prepared washes of ordinary strengths. A very strong wash, as. for example, one yet undiluted, upon cooling forms many crystals, which, however, dissolve upon reheating. PBEPARATIOX OF THE WASH. The recommendations made at the present time for the prepara- tion of the lime-sulphur washes vary more or less as to the handling of the ingredients preparatory to cooking, but these variations appear to be of little if any importance as affecting the character of the finally prepared wash. The satisfactory results obtained from the LT.UE-SULPHUR WASHES FOR SAX JOSE SCALE. 439 use of washes prepared in various ways indicate that it is quite imma- terial whether the lime be first slaked in whole or in part and the sul- phur added, or the sulphur be added to the cooking vessel followed by the lime, or all ingredients be added together. Manifestly the practice least troublesome should be followed. More importance, however, must be attached to the period of cooking, concerning which recommendations are not uniform. If cooking is insufficient, free sulphur will remain in the wash imcombined with the lime and, according to present belief, will be largely wasted. If cooking is continued longer than necessary to effect a chemical combination of sulphur and lime, there is simply a waste of labor and fuel, but perhaps no other objectionable effect. The period of cooking will vary somewhat, depending upon the heat maintained'and the kind of sulphur used.* Practically, as chemical studies show, there will be no difference between the flour and the flowers of sulphur in regard to the time required to bring into solution. Sulphur in coarser par- ticles, or lumps, as the so-called crystalline sulphur, will yield to boil- ing much more slowly: and even after prolonged cooking there may remain in the wash a considerable quantity of free sulphur. If salt is to be used in the wash, evidently it should be added early during the process of cooking, since one of its supposed functions is to increase the specific gravity of the wash, thus raising the boiling-point. THE METHOD REO >MMEXPF.n. Numerous methods of preparing the wash, as followed by practical orchardists. have been investigated by the Bureau of Entomology, or tested by it in the course of its experimental work. The following formula and method of preparation have uniformly resulted in a sat- isfactory wash, and are quite simple: Lime pounds. . 20 Sulphur < flour >>r flowers) do 15 Water to make gallons. . 50 Preparation. — Heat in a cooking barrel or vessel about one-third of the total quantity of water required. When the water is hot add all the lime, and at once add all the sulphur, which should previously have been made into a thick paste with water. After the lime has slaked, about another third of the water should be added, preferably hot, and the cooking should be continued for an hour, when the final dilution may be made, using either hot or cold water as is most con- venient. The boiling due to the slaking of the lime thoroughly mixes the ingredients at the start, but subsequent stirring is necessary if the wash is cooked by direct heat in kettles. If cooked by steam no stirring will be necessary. After the wash has been prepared it must be well strained as it is being run into the spray pump barrel, or tank. .440 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. COOKING. The ingredients of the wash, in proper proportion, are boiled to-' gether in water, by which means chemical action between the lime and sulphur is brought about, producing in solution the insecticidal properties of the wash, the extent of chemical action depending directly upon the length of time cooking continues. From 45 minutes to an hour of vigorous boiling will put practically all of the sulphur into solution, and preference should be given to the latter period. A properly cooked wash is a heavy, caustic, orange-yellow liquid, with1 a strong sulphurous odor. Upon standing, the sediment settles to the bottom, leaving the liquid relatively clear. Sometimes the wash is dark green when the lime is thoroughly mixed with the liquid portion,' but when the wash is allowed to settle the supernatant liquid is the usual orange-yellow. This is probably due to the presence of iron and manganese sulphids in the lime. Prolonged boiling tends to produce small quantities of other sulphur and lime compounds, but these are of practically no importance. Aside from the waste of fuel, prolonged cooking is much preferable to insufficient cooking. The residue or insoluble matter left in vessels after cooking should be frequently examined. If, with sufficient cooking, it shows up yellow, it indicates the presence of free sulphur, and more lime is needed. The presence in the residue of both lime and sulphur indicates that more boiling is needed. The kind of apparatus employed in cooking is immaterial, but it should be efficient, convenient, and economical. Scarcely any two cooking plants are alike, and there is afforded opportunity for the exercise of considerable ingenuity in their construction to best meet individual conditions. OUTFITS FOR COOKING ON A SMALL SCALE. For small orchards, of 50 acres or less, it may not be considered advisable by owners to fix up a steam cooking plant, but the writer believes it would be economy to do so where orchards of 25 acres or more are to be treated, especially if the trees are large ones. If but small quantities of wash are needed, as for the treatment of a small home orchard, an ordinary kettle or hog scalder will be satisfactory. It may be placed on bricks on the ground and the fire built beneath, as in the ordinary heating of water. The kettle should hold 35 to 40 gallons, and preferably more if a barrel spray pump is to be kept sup- plied; and it will be necessary to make final dilution of the wash in the spray-pump barrel. With some such facilities for cooking, one barrel sprayer can be kept busy most of the time. For larger orchards, if a steam outfit is not considered advisable, large iron kettles holding from 60 to 80 gallons should be placed in a brick furnace, one or more kettles being used, according to size of orchard and the number of spray gangs which it is proposed to run. LIME-SULPHUR WASHES FOR SAX JOSE SCALE. 441 With a battery of three or four large kettles and with proper water facil- ities from 150 to 200 gallons of wash may be prepared every hour. An important objection to this method of cooking is that the wash, when prepared, must be dipped from the kettles and poured into the spray barrel or tank, entailing an important loss of time; and to prevent burning, while cooking, the wash must be constantly stirred. Time and labor saving conveniences, however, may often be provided which will considerably lessen these difficulties. Thus in Plate XXXVII, figure 1, is shown a convenient single-kettle furnace. The water is forced from a spring by means of a ram into barrels slightly above the level of the kettle, to which it is supplied in pipes by gravitation. From the kettle the cooked wash is poured into a trough which delivers it directly through a strainer into the spray tank. K&T£>4A* //^/C£:7~ Fig. 15.— Two plans for conducting steam into barrels: A, pipe entering from above, and terminating in double T. with perforations in the arms; B, pipe entering barrel near base, and forming a circle. (From Waite.) STEAM COOKING OUTFITS. In most of the larger commercial orchards which are infested with San Jose scale steam plants have been provided for cooking the wash, and these vary much in detail. The steam boilers used for supplying steam vary from 3 or 4 horsepower to 12, 15, or 20 horsepower — the smaller usually of the upright type, the larger mostly horizontal and stationary, though some portable boilers are in use. Boilers of 3 or 4 horsepower, such as are used for feed- cooking purposes, are suitable when but 2 or 3 barrels of wash are to be prepared at a time, and will in addition keep 1 or 2 barrels U2 YEAEBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of water hot. A boiler of 12 or lo horsepower will furnish sufficient steam for cooking simultaneously S to 10 barrels of wash, keeping hot the necessary amount of water, and operating the pump for supplying the water tank with water. In general, 1 horsepower will be required for each cooking barrel or similar vessel, but there should be allowed an excess of power amounting to 25 or 30 per cent for heating water, pumping, etc. The general arrangement of three cooking plants is shown in Plate XXXYIII. An outfit such as shown in the middle figure of Plate XXXYIII lacks much in con- venience, as is at once apparent. The plant shown at figure 2 of Plate XXXVII is an especially convenient one, and might well serve as a model for persons contemplating the construction of a steam cooking plant with a capacity of 6 or 8 barrel.-. Fig. 16. — Top view of plant for cooking lime-sulphur wash, showing piping plan when steam is supplied from above barrels; also water inlet and pipe for drawing off the wash. (From Waitf>. In the construction of steam cooking plants attention should be given to the following requisites: (1; The platform should be strong and roomy and of sufficient height to permit the wagons to be driven alongside and the spray tanks to be filled directly from the cooking vessels by gravitation. _ The >team boiler should be of sufficient size to allow approx- imately 1 horsepower for each cooking barrel or equivalent, with a 2.5 or 30 per cent excess of power for heating water and pumping water into the water-supply tank. The arrangement of pipes should be such that these will be as little in the way as is consistent with their use. Valves should be provided which will permit the operation of one or more cooking vessels independently of the others. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. Plate XXXVI Fig. 1. — A Single Kettle Furnace. [Water is supplied by a rani tn barrels, from which it runs by gravity to kettle. The prepared wash is delivered by trough to spray tank. ( Original. )] -.-* ■ : " '"'. '---a.- Fis. 2. — A Well-arranged Plant for Cooking the Wash on a Large Scale. (After R. I. Smith.) Plants for Cooking Lime-sulphur Wash. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, :906. Plate XXXVIII. Plants for Cooking Lime-sulphur Wash. [Top Beure.-A western New York outfit. Middle figure.-An inconvenient cooking plant the wash being dipped from barrels by hand. Bottom r.gure.-An outfit with two large tanks for i king, with boiler between.] LIME-SULPHUR WASHES FOE SAX JOSE SCALP:. 443 (4) There must be an ample supply of water, preferably so situated that water may be supplied to cooking barrels and spray tanks by gravitation. When barrels are used as cooking; vessels one of two plans of piping is followed. In the first the main steam pipe, which should be of the same size as the outlet at the boiler, extends along the base of the barrels, with a smaller steam discharge pipe leading directly into each barrel, terminating in a single perforated coil (fig. 15, B, and PI. XXXVII, fig. 2). In the other plan the steam is conveyed above the barrels, to which it is supplied by smaller vertical pipes, reaching to within a few inches of the bottom of the barrels, terminating in a double T. with arms of perforated pipe (fig. 15, A, and fig. 16). While the 50-gallon barrel makes a convenient unit as a cooking ves- sel, some orchardists prefer large round or square tanks (PL XXXVIII, bottom figure) in which a large amount of wash can be made up at once, often sufficient for the day's use. By this means it is claimed a saving in fuel and labor is effected. In using large tanks, however, there should be an abundance of perforated pipe along the bottom to secure proper distribution of the steam. In portions of the country where individual orchards are small, but situated close together, a central cooking plant may often be used in cooperation, or by an individual who supplies the wash during the spraying season to the orchardists of the community. The practi- cability of this plan has already been demonstrated. TIME OF APPLICATION OF THE WASH. Lime-sulphur washes, as herein considered, are suitable only for the treatment of trees which are in a dormant state, being much too strong for application to trees in foliage. Experiments indicate that the best results follow applications in spring, just before the growth of the tree begins. These late applications insure a maximum amount of wash on the trees when the young 'dice " begin to appear later in the season from females which may have escaped treatment. The later effect of the wash is quite as important as its direct insecticidal action on the insects when applied. In large commercial orchards, however, it is necessary to begin spraying operations at the first suit- able time in spring, or even during favorable periods in the winter, on account of the large amount of work to be done. The unfavorable weather conditions often prevailing during spring and the urgency of other work have led some orchardists to spray in late fall and early winter. The value of fall applications in killing the scale and their effects on the trees have been investigated to some extent by ento- mologists, principally in Maryland a and New York,6 and by the " Bui. 90. Md. Agr. Exp. Station (1903). b Bui. 273, X. Y. Agr. Exp. Station (1905). 444 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Bureau of Entomology. In general it appears that fall treatment of trees will keep the scale in cheek, though more or less of injury may result to ;-orac fruits, as peach and plum, by the destruction of fruit buds and terminal shoots, varying with the time of application, ripe- ness of the wood. etc. If spring applications can not be made, late fall or early winter applications are advised; the possible injury to the tree will be in a measure balanced by its increased vigor in growth, due to control of the scale. EQUIPMENT FOR SPRAYING. Spraying outfits for applying the lime-sulphur washes are those used for spraying generally. Barrel spray pumps are much used by the smaller orchardists. and tanks holding 100 to 300 gallons, fitted with large hand pumps with double vertical or horizontal cylinders, are used by the larger orchardists. (See PI. XXXIX. fig. 1. Lese generally, gasoline or other power outfits are employed. Whatever the outfit used, provision should be made for keeping the wash in the barrel or tank thoroughly agitated: the hose should be of ample length and should be fitted with a bamboo extension rod to reach the higher portions of the trees and to protect the sprayers as much as possible. At the junction of the hose and extension rod a stopcock should be provided whereby the spray may be shut ofT when desired, as in passing from one tree to another. In spraying high trees some form of elevated platform should be provided on the wagon, as shown in Plate XXXIX, figure 2, thus facilitating thorough applications to the tops of the trees. The spray nozzle is one of the most important parts of the outfit, and many of the nozzles in use by orchardists are practical handicaps to good work. Orchardists are urged to give more attention to this part of their spraying equipment. The Yermorel and nozzles of that type are best, and should always be provided with a plunger for remov- ing any temporary obstruction in the outlet orifice. In spraying the lime-sulphur wash caps should be used with an orifice one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter, and a supply of caps should be kept on hand to replace the worn ones when the spray becomes too coarse. In the operation of ^praying a pressure should be maintained of not less than 75 pounds, and preferably much higher. To maintain this with a barrel or tank hand pump with two leads of hose, each with two or more nozzles, requires constant hard work in pumping. The tendency will be to allow the pressure to lighten, with a consequent falling off in efficiency of the spraying. While there is some differ- ence in ease of working of the different makes of hand pumps, the danger of working with too low pressure will always be present, and especially if careless labor is employed. Power outfits are. therefore, advised where their operation is practicable and the orchard interest Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 15 Plate XXXIX. — A Gasoline Power Outfit Used in Western New York. (Original.) Outfits Used for Spraying Lime-sulphur Wash. LIME-SULPHUR WASHES FOR SAX JOSE SCALE. 445 warrants their purchase. In treating the San Jose scale thorough spraying is particularly important, and especial pains should be taken to coat every part of the tree thoroughly, from the topmost twigs to the ground. "When quite dormant, trees may be thoroughly drenched without danger of injury, and excessive spraying is preferable to deficient spraying. During windy weather thorough spraying is often impossible, and under such conditions, or if for any other reason the first treatment has not been satisfactory, a second application is very desirable to reach the places that have been missed during the first treatment. The caustic, disagreeable character of the wash is frequently com- plained of by orchardists and orchard workers. Much may be done to remove the objections to its use by spray gangs by supplying the men with rubber coats and gloves. The use of vaseline on the face is advisable in working during windy weather, and clear glass goggles may be used to protect the eyes. Lime-sulphur wash is very hard on the pumps, and these should be thoroughly cleaned at the close of each day's use. SELF-BOILED WASHES. The expense of establishing cooking plants and of their operation constitutes an important objection to the lime-sulphur wash, and some attention has been given by entomologists to the devising and testing of washes made simply by the heat generated by the slaking of the lime, or by the additional heat following the addition of caustic soda. SELF-BOILED LIME-SULPHUR WASH. This wash is prepared without direct heat by placing in a barrel or other suitable container 40 pounds of good stone lime and adding 15 pounds of flour or flowers of sulphur which has been worked into a paste with water. The lime is started slaking by the addition of 10 or 12 gallons of hot water, and the mixture should be stirred occa- sionally as the slaking proceeds, the barrel or vessel being kept cov- ered as much as possible. After the lime is all slaked, water is added to bring up to 50 gallons of wash. In the experiments of the Bureau of Entomology this wash has not been satisfactory. Sufficient heat is not generated during the slaking of the lime to bring into solution a sufficient quantity of sulphur. SELF-BOILED l-IME-SULPHUR-CAUSTIC-SODA WASH. To prepare this wash, place in a suit aide barrel or other vessel 30 pounds of good quicklime and start slaking with sufficient hot water to prevent air-slaking. As soon as the slaking is well under way add 15 pounds of sulphur previously worked into a paste with water, and stir thorousdilv. Hot water is added from time to time in sufficient 446 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. quantity to bring the mixture up to a thin paste. After slaking has ceased add 5 or 6 pounds of commercial caustic soda, stirring until the soda is dissolved. To this should be added sufficient water to bring up to 50 gallons of wash. RANGE OF USEFULNESS OF LIME-SULPHUR "WASHES. In the foregoing discussion the wash has been considered more par- ticularly with reference to its value in destroying the San Jose scale. There are numerous other insects which may coexist on fruit trees with the San Jose scale, and the wash is very useful in destroying some of these, as well as in reducing fungous diseases. Without doubt most of the scale insects of the subfamily to which the San Jose scale belongs (Diaspinre) will be controlled by the wash. This has been shown to be the case for Forbes scale (Aspidioius forbesii) , West Indian peach scale (Diaspis peniagona), the scurfy scale (Chionaspis furfura),. and the oyster-shell scale {Lepidosa plies ulmi). Unfortu- nately, however, it appears to be ineffective on Lecanium scales, such as the terrapin scale {Eulecanium nigrofasciatum) . Its value in destroying the winter eggs of aphides affecting the foliage and twigs of the apple has been demonstrated by Prof. J. M. Aldrich,a and observations by Mr. Fred Johnson, of this Bureau, in western New York in 1905, indicate that it is quite effective in destroying the eggs of the pear tree Psylla (Psylla pyri). There is no doubt of its efficacy in destroying the pear-leaf blister mite (Eriojiliycs pyri), which winters in the adult condition behind the bud scales of its host plant, and also the so-called "silvering mite" of the peach (Phyllocoptes cornutus). In California Mr. W. T. Clark6 has shown that the lime-sulphur wash is entirely satisfactory as a remedy for the peach twig borer (Anarsia lineatetta), which on the Pacific slope is a very serious enemy of the peach. It has been demonstrated by Pierce and others that the lime- sulphur wash is practically a specific for peachleaf-curl, and recent experiments at the New York Agricultural Experiment Station6 indicate that it may be substituted for Bordeaux mixture as the dormant-tree treatment for apple scab. Its usefulness in a similar way for scab on pears is very probable. But few dormant-tree sprays have a greater range of usefulness than lime-sulphur wash. In prac- tice, one thorough application in spring shortly before the buds open is calculated to control effectively not only the San Jose scale, but other scales, excepting lecaniums, and to an important degree the insects and fungous diseases above mentioned on their respective host plants. a Bui. 40, Idaho Agr. Exp. Sta. (1904). 6 Bui. 144, Cat. Agr. Exp. Sta. (1902:. cBul. 262. N.'Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. NATIONAL FORESTS AND THE LIMBER SUPPLY. By Thomas H. Sherrard, Assistant Forester, Forest Service. The problem of securing the most effective use of the land concerns the people of the United States as never before. The readjustment of the stock-growing industry to benefit an overcrowded range and the new agriculture — which in the East takes expression in diversified farming, large drainage projects, and more intensive methods and in the West in the great movement for extended irrigation of arid lands and in dry farming — are but phases of its solution. And in no way is the question more urgent than in the use of our forest resources. From pioneer days almost to the present time every energy was bent to conquer the forest and to win homes from the wilderness. Conversion of the forests into farms and the use of wood in building homes was an essential part of the wonderful development of the nation, but the spirit of destruction, which grew out of the long battle with the forest, survived long after the reason for it was past. The hardships and difficulties resulting from an inadequate supply of wood and water were first encountered when settlement reached the great treeless plains of the Middle West, and long before a timber famine had been thought of in the East. Almost everywhere a point has now been reached where development of the country is made, not in the face of the forest but with its essential aid. ECONOMIC PHASES OF THE FOREST PROBLEM. Early legislation and the propaganda of theorists and sentimental- ists are mainly interesting as a matter of history, for they were alike without effect upon the action of the owners of timberland, but certain economic conditions have now become powerful checks to forest destruction. The north woods of Maine and New York, once so prominent in the lumber activity of the nation, long ago dropped out of sight as lumber-producing regions, although the bulk of the pulpwood used in the manufacture of paper is still drawn from them. The region of the Lake States, which was for many years the undisputed center of the lumber industry, gradually 3*ielded its supremacy to the South and West. As early as 1800 lumber companies which had cut over their holdings in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota were compelled either to go out of business or to turn elsewhere for available timber. Then followed the rush to the southern pineries and the great virgin forests of the Pacific coast. During recent years the production of 447 448 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. lumber in the southern pine belt has been enormous, and so great have been the inroads upon the available supply of southern pine that it is a question of only a few years, hastened by the construction of the Panama Canal, when the great production of lumber will shift to the Pacific coast. The old process of exhausting the supply of timber in a region and then seeking new fields is very nearly over. Already the industry is turning back on its tracks. A quality of timber is eagerly sought in the Lake States which a few years ago was passed over as utterly worthless, and certain sawmills have depended for a part of their supply upon the recovery of logs which have sunk in the waterways in process of transportation. In the South the whole pine region is being gone over in close search of the old field pine. This inferior and once despised growth of timber is now bought up at prices greatly in excess of those once paid for the magnificent timber of the virgin forests. Great improvement in logging and sawmill machinery, signal suc- cess in reducing the waste in manufacture, wonderful railroad exten- sion, concentration, and systematic organization of producers to reach the consumer most effectively through the markets, have all combined to cheapen the cost of production and increase the profit in the lumber business. Yet the price of lumber has never before been as high as in the year 1906. This increased price is in spite of an increased production which it taxes the railroads to transport. The price of stumpage is far more stable than that of lumber, and responds very tardily to fluctuations in the lumber market. The usual policy of disposing of Federal and State timber for prac- tically nothing has acted powerfully, particularly in the West, to keep the selling price of stumpage far below its legitimate value. It is not surprising that it has always been impossible for the bulk of the owners of timber to have a broad view of the lumber industry and close acquaintance with the lumber market, for most of the cost of producing lumber lies in logging and manufacture, and the margin of profit has varied widely. The price of stumpage has always been artificially depressed, and has lagged far behind the constantly increasing value of lumber. ACQUIRING LUMBER UNDER LAND LAWS. The act of June 3. 1S7S. generally known as the timber and stone act, provides for the purchase of public timber land at the uniform price of 82.50 per acre. The purpose of Congress in enacting this law was to make it possible for settlers, miners, and other actual users of timber to. satisfy their needs. Records of the General Land Office show that in 1904 over 55,000 entries had been made under this act. covering an area of nearly S, 000, 000 acres. Probably 10,000,000 acres of carefully selected public timberland has by this time passed into the control of private owners under this law alone. It is well known that most of the entries under this law have been NATIONAL FORESTS AND THE LUMBER SUPPLY. 449' made, indirectly, by nonresidents for speculation. And the great bulk of the entries have almost immediately passed into the hands of timber syndicates, with profit to the original entrymen amounting to no more than bare wages. Thus the law has reacted greatly to the disadvantage of the very classes whom it was intended to help, and the bona fide settler and miner and the small sawmill man have seen the public timber rapidly withdrawn and pass into the hands, of speculative syndicates. The same law permits the cutting of timber for domestic purposes from mineral lands. The area classed as mineral land in the tim- bered portions of the public land is very great, and the construction put by the courts upon the provision of the law that the timber might be used for domestic purposes has been so broad as to include practically every purpose for which timber can be used. This act has never been repealed. Abuses have grown up under the other laws which provide for the disposition of public land. More land has been disposed of under the "homestead law'' than under all other land laws combined. Entries of timberland under the homestead law are common, notably so under the commutation clause, which permits a brief period of residence on condition of a cash payment. Thus the land laws, while they have provided for the rapid dis- posal of public timberlands, have tended strongly to the segregation of large holdings of timberland for speculative purposes. PURCHASE OF NATIONAL FOREST TIMBER. The acquisition of timberland under the land laws has been cited in order to contrast it emphatically with the purchase of timber itself for immediate use under the National forest laws. The act of March 1, 1891, which gave to the President the power to set aside National Forests, did not provide for their administra- tion, and therefore effectually locked up timber from use. That of June 4, 1897, enlarged the powers of the Secretary and provided for a protective force. At first the National Forests had no appreciable effect upon the lumber industry. The Forests largely comprised inaccessible tim- ber, and its purchase was not encouraged. Consumers of wood and other forest products, who were dependent upon the Forests, were confronted with impractical and troublesome regulations. Unneces- sary delay in the transaction of business worked added hardship and fostered a feeling of hostility toward National Forests among those who came into closest contact with them, and who should have been made most sensible of their benefits. During succeeding years vast areas of timberland were taken up under the land laws, and cheap timber was on the market in immense quantities. It was not until the large withdrawals of land by the creation of new National Forests in 1903 and 1904 that bodies of timber attractive 3 A1906 29 450 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICTXTURE. to private enterprise were included. By these withdrawals entries under the timber and stone act and the lieu land law were checked. At the same time the rapid extension of railroads and the great increase in settlement and industrial development in the West were operating to enable the lumberman to enter regions once remote from market. In February, 1905. the administration of the National Forests was transferred to the Department of Agriculture, and the policy of the - - legitimate use of all resources of the Forests has been definitely adopted. Under the enlarged powers of the Secretary, regulations governing the cutting of timber have been greatly sim- plified, and annoying delays in the transaction of business wiped out. An especial effort is made to facilitate applications for the free use of timber and for small purchases. The effect upon the use of the timber of the National Forests was instantaneous. Money receipts from the sale of timber for the fiscal year ended June 30. 1905. were $50,000. During the present fiscal year (1907) receipts from timber sold will probably exceed half a million dollars and contracts for the sale of timber, extending from one to five years, will reach a value of over 1£ million dollars. The money return which the Government realizes from these sales is in striking contrast to that received from the sale of timberland under the land laws. Under the timber and stone act timberland could be bought for $2.50 per acre, and under the lieu land law it could be acquired in exchange for denuded and worthless land without money payment. Timber from the Forests is now purchased by the thousand board feet, and payment is made upon the actual scale of the logs when cut. The cut varies from 5.000 to 20.000 feet per acre. - ■ at. at the comparatively low stumpage rate of $2.50 per thousand feet, the Government receives from five to twenty times as much for the timber as erred under the timber and stone act and retains the fond. To cite a single example: A sale of 12,000,000 feet of timber was recently made on a National Forest in Wyoming, at a rate of $5 per thousand feet. The proceeds from the sale of the timber alone will be $4 The timber averages s.000 feet per acre and covers 1.500 acres. Had the sale been made under the timber and stone law it would have yielded but $3,750 for both timber and land. It might be argued that the Government is not in the lumber business and that it should dispose of its remaining timberlands as rapidly as possible, leaving it to private enterprise to exploit them. But public opinion is emphatically in favor of a more conservative use of what remains of the National Forests than would be possible were they turned over to lumber companies, whose sole concern would be their quick conversion into cash. The Government has been forced into the lumber business solely that a supply of forest products may be guaranteed to future generations. The ratio of the present yield of timber cut from the National Forests to that of the whole country , or even to that of the Western NATIONAL FORESTS AND THE LUMBER SUPPLY. 451 States, is insignificanc. Probably 65 per cent of the total stand of merchantable timber within the Forests is located on the Pacific coast, where for a long tune the enormous supply of privately owned timber will satisfy most of the demand. This more accessible private timber surrounded the Forests as the meat of an apple surrounds the core. But this belt of private timber has been entirely eaten away in many places, while in others it is locked up for purposes of speculation. The thing to remember, then, is that this immense body of public timber is there as a great reserve against the time when private timberlands will be depleted, and for use as a weapon against monop- oly. Already, even on the Pacific coast, actual operators, who are not speculating in timber, but who, if they are to meet the demands of commerce, must have logs to supply then mills, are turning to the National Forests. The advantages in the purchase of timber from the National Forests to the actual operator, and especially to the sawmill man of small means, are many. There is no large initial investment required in acquiring timberlands and no possibility of annoying litigation over defective title to lands. The purchaser is entirely relieved of taxes and the cost of protection. The Government assumes the entire risk of loss by fire or other causes. EFFECT OX THE PRICE OF LUMBER. The first effect of National Forests upon prices, particularly where there is still a great deal of available timber, is to raise the price of stumpage toward its intrinsic value by withdrawing the excess supply of low-priced timber from the market. On the other hand, as the supply of timber dwindles and values are forced upward by holding for speculation, the effect of the Forests will be to check advance in prices and make them lower. In the Rocky Mountain States and Territories the major part of the small remaining supply of timber is in the National Forests, and here their beneficial effect upon the lumber supply may be more plainly seen than on the Pacific coast. The demand for timber from the Forests throughout this region has come very generally from small sawmills which supply towns and ranches located off the railroads and from mines which use the timber for their own development. NATIONAL FOREST MANAGEMENT. Iii the virgin forest, growth is just about balanced by decay. In the western forests, however, natural deterioration is greatly aug- mented by forest fires. Destruction of merchantable timber is usually the measure of the damage done by forest fires, but, great as this injury is, vastly more actual loss in forest wealth is caused by the fires which year after year burn, practically unnoticed, in the grass and undergrowth of the forest. While these ground fires do not con- sume the large trees, seedlings are destroyed outright, growing trees receive injuries winch result in their early decay, and the forest floor, 452 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. composed of a mold of needles, twigs, and :. sses is burned away. Thus the wonderful recuperative power of the forest is lost. That the damages done by fires can be reduced has been proved on the National Forests by actually reducing them. The great need is that there should be more men on the protective force. From the foresters standpoint, mature timber should be cut in orde: i the small trees more light and a chance to grow and to make way for reproduction. From the standpoint of national econ- omv. the mature timber on the Forests should be utilized as needed fur the development of the West, provided the local supply is not reduced below the point ui safety. The whole weight of the move- ment in favor of National Forests is squarely against a reckless use of the timber resources, but it is emphatically in favor of the legitimate use of timber. The points of vital importance are that the remaining supply of timber must be used with the utmost economy and that in everv case reproduction must be absolutely assured. No live timber is cut on the Forests until it has been determined by careful study on the ground that lumbering will not injure the forest. In eveiw sale of timber, rules to insure careful logging are made a con- dition of the sale. It is often found advisable to remove only the larger, mature trees and to leave the smaller ones, which, although of merchantable size, can be lumbered more profitably when larger. Seed trees are left, whenever necessary, to insure a second crop. In felling timber, vigorous measures are taken to prevent the destruc- of promising young trees and to prohibit their use in logging. In order to protect cut-over areas against fire, the brash, or "slash." is piled and burned, and in dry seasons, when the danger from fire reatest, the cutting areas are watched or. if necessary. 1 _ - - tended. Waste in logging is effectually prevented by rules framed to apply to the particular class of timber to be cut. and the cut- ting of low stumps and the - .11 the merchantable material in irtly unsound logs is enforced by close supervision. Graz- ing is regulated so that the range is not overcrowded to the injury ot the Forest, and if necessary t-> encourage reproduction it is pro- hibited altogether. In these and in many other ways the forest is safeguarded. Far beyond the present influence of the National Forests upon the lumber supply will be their importance in the future. The United 51 tea is now facing a serious decrease in the available supply of timber. That from the National Forests will aid greatly to bridge over the period of inevitable lack of mature timber which will last from the time the old trees are gone until the young trees are large enough to take their places. The definite result, therefore, of the sale of timber from the Forests will be to sustain the lumber business, to maintain a steady range of timber values and thus to lessen spec- ulation, and. far more important still, to render possible the unin- terrupted development of the great industries dependent upon wood. APPENDIX. ORGANIZATION OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. a Secretary of Agriculture, James Wilson. The Secretary exercises personal supervision of public business relating to the agricultural industry. He appoints all the officers and employees of the Department with the exception of the Assistant Secretary and the Chief of the Weather Bureau, who are appointed by the President, and directs the management of all the Bureaus, Divisions, and Offices embraced in the Department. He exercises advisory super- vision over agricultural experiment stations which receive aid from the National Treasury, has control of the quarantine stations for imported cattle, of interstate quarantine rendered necessary by sheep and cattle diseases, and of the inspection of cattle-carrying vessels, and directs the inspection of domestic and imported food products, under the meat inspection and pure-food laws. He is charged with the duty of issuing rules and regulations for the protection, maintenance, and care of the National forest reserves. He also is charged with carrying into effect the laws pro- hibiting the transportation by interstate commerce of game killed in violation of local laws and excluding from importation certain noxious animals, and has authority to control the importation of other animals. Assistant Secretary of Agriculture. Willet M. Hays. The Assistant Secretary performs such duties as may be required by law or pre- scribed by the Secretary. He also becomes Acting Secretary of Agriculture in the absence of the Secretary. Chief Clerk, S. R. Burch. The Chief Clerk has the general supervision of the clerks and employees; he is charged with the enforcement of the internal regulations of the" Department; and is, by law, superintendent of the buildings occupied by the Department of Agriculture. He represents the Department on the Government board of the Jamestown Expo- sition, Norfolk, Va. Appointment Clerk. Joseph B. Bennett. The Appointment Clerk prepares all papers involved in the making of appoint- ments, transfers, promotions, reductions, details, furloughs, and removals, for the entire Department, and decides all questions relating to the civil-service regulations affecting the same. He has charge of all correspondent'" of the Department with the Civil Service Commission, and of all certifications and communications issued by the Commission to the Department; and he reports to the Commission all appointments and other changes in the service. He keeps the personal records of all employees of the Department, and is custodian of their oaths of office and efficiency reports. He is also custodian of the Department seal. Solicitor, George P. McCabe. The Solicitor acts as the legal adviser of the Secretary, and is charged with the preparation and supervision of all legal papers to which the Department is a party, and of all communications to the Department of Justice and to the various officers thereof, including United States attorneys. He examines and approves, in advance of issue, all orders and regulations promulgated by the Secretary under statutory authority; represents the Department in all legal proceedings arising under the vari- ous laws intrusted to the Department for execution, and prosecutes applications of employees of the Department for patents. He is also a member of the Board of Food and Drug Inspection. « The organization of the Department here given is in accordance with the act approved March 4, 1907, making appropriations for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1908, and shows changes in personnel to April 1, 1907. 453 454 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Chief of Supply Division. Cyrus B. Lower. The Supply Division has charge of purchases of supplies and materials paid for from the general funds of the Department. Weather Bureau (corner Twenty-fourth and M Btreete NW.). — Chief, Willis L. Moore; Assistant Chief, Henry E. Williams: Chief Clerk, Daniel J. Carroll: Editor of M<>,dhly Weather Review, Cleveland Abbe: In charge of Division of Meteorological Records, Frank II. Bigelow; In charge of Instrument Division. Charles F. Marvin; In charge of Forecast Division. Edward B. Garriott; In charge of Special Research and Forecaster. Alfred J. Henry: In charge of River and Flood Service and Forecast"-, Harry C. Frankenfield; In charge of Weather Bureau accounts. Edgar B. Calvert. Chiefs of Division: Climatological. James Berry: Publications. John P. Church: Telegraph, Jesse H. Robinson: Ocean Meteorology, James Page: Supplies, Frank M. Cleaver: Librarian. Herbert H. Kimball. The Weather Bureau has charge of the forecasting of weather; the issue of storm warnings: the display of weather and flood signals for the benefit of agriculture commerce, and navigation; the gaging and reporting of river stages: the maintenance and operation of Beacoast telegraph lines, and the collection and transmission of marine intelligence for the benefit of commerce and navigation: the reporting of tem- perature and rainfall conditions for the cotton, rice, sugar, and other interests: the display of frost and cold-wave signals: the distribution of meteorological information in the interests of agriculture and commerce: and the taking of such meteorological observations as may be necessary to establish and record the climatic conditions of the United States, or are essential for the proper execution of the foregoing duties. Bureau of Animal Industry. — Chief, A. D. Melvin; Assistant Chief, A. M. Farring- ton; Chief Clerk, F. B.Jones; Chief of Inspection Division, Rice P. Steddom; Chief of Quarantine Division, Richard W. Hickman: Chief of Pathological Division, John R. Mahler; Chief of Bioehemic Division. M. Dorset: Chief of Dairy Division. Ed. H. Webster: Chief of Division of Zoology . B. H. Ransom: Superintendent of Experiment Station. E. C. Schroeder; Animal Husbandman, George M. Rommel: Editor. James M. Pickens. The Bureau of Animal Industry makes investigations as to the existence of dan- gerous communicable diseases of live stock, superintends the measures for their con- trol and extirpation, makes original investigations as to the nature and prevention of such diseases, and reports on the condition and the means of improving the animal industries of the country. It supervises the interstate movement of cattle, and inspects live stock, meats, and meat-food products intended for interstate and for- eign commerce. It conducts feeding and breeding experiments. It has charge of the inspection of import and export animals, of the inspection of vessels fox the trans- portation of export animals, and of the quarantine stations for imported animals. It also has supervision of the manufacture, interstate commerce, and export of renovated butter. Bureau of Plaxt Industry. — Pathologist and Physiologist, and < kief Beverly T. Calloway: Pathologist and Physiologist, and Assistant Chief, Albert F. Woods: Chief Clerk, James E. Jones: Editor. J. E. Rockwell; Pathologist in charge of Laboratory of Plant Pathology. Erwin F. Smith; Pathologist in charge of Investigations of I>iseases of Fruits, Merton B. Waite; Physiologist in charge of Plant Lift History Invest 'no- tions. Walter T. Swingle; Physiologist in charge of Cotton and Tobacco bra ding Investigations. Archibald D. Shamel; Physiologist in charm of Corn Breeding Investi- gations, Charles P. Hartley; Physiologist in charge of Alkali and Drought Resistant Plant Binding Investigations, Thomas H.Kearney; Physiologist in charge of Bacteriology and Water Purification Investigations, Karl F. Kellerman: Bionomist in charge ofBionomic Investigations of Tropical and Subtropical Plants, ('rat or F. Cook; Physiologist in charge of Drug and Poisonous Plant Investigations and ]'S 214 Thirteenth street SW.).— Chief ', Milton Whitney; CMef Clerk, A. (i. Rice; In charge of Soil Laboratories. Frank K. Cameron; In charge of Soil Sii/T()/, Jay A. Honsteel; In charge of Alkali Reclamation Investigations. Clarence W. Dorsey; In charge of Tobacco Investigations, George T. McNess; In charge of 456 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Soil Management, Frank D. Gardner; Tn charge of Fertility Investigations, Oswald Srhreiner. The Bureau of Soils is intrusted with the investigation, survey, and mapping of soils; the investigation of the cause and prevention of the rise of alkali in the soil, and the drainage of soils; and the investigation of the methods of growing, curing, and fermen- tation of tobacco in the different tobacco districts. Bureau of Entomology. — Entomologist and Chief, L. O. Howard; Entomologist and Acting Chief in absence of Chief, C. L. Marlatt ; Chief Clerk, R. S. Clifton; In charge of Breeding Experiments, F. H. Chittenden; In charge of Forest Insect Investigations, A. D. Hopkins; In charge of Cotton Boll Weevil Investigations, W. D. Hunter; In charge of Cereal and Forage-plant Insect Investigations, F. M. Webster; In charge of Deciduous-fruit Insect Investigations, A. L. Quaintance; In charge of Apicultural In- vestigations, E. F. Phillips; In charge of Gipsy and Brown-tail Moth Work, D. M. Rog- ers; Engaged in White Fly Investigations, A. W. Morrill; In charge of Gipsy Moth Laboratory, E. S. G. Titus; Engaged in Silk Investigations, C. J. Gilliss; Assistant in charge of Editorial Work, R. P. Currie; Librarian, Mabel Colcord. The Bureau of Entomology obtains and disseminates information regarding injurious insects affecting Held crops, fruits, small fruits, truck crops, forests and forest products, and stored products; studies insects in relation to diseases of man and other animals and as animal parasites; experiments with the introduction of beneficial insects and with the fungous and other diseases of insects; and conducts experiments and tests with insecticides and insecticide machinery. It is further charged with investigations in apiculture and sericulture. The information gained is disseminated in the form of general reports, bulletins, and circulars. Museum work is done in connection with the Division of Insects of the National Museum, and insects are identified for experiment stations and other public institutions and for private individuals. Bureau op Biological Survey. — Biologist and Chief, C. Hart Merriam; Administra- tive Assistant and Acting Chief in absence of Chief, H. W. Henshaw; Assistant in charge of Economic Investigations, A. K. Fisher; Assistant in charge of Game Preserva- tion, T. S. Palmer; Assistant in charge of Geographic Distribution, Vernon Bailey. The Bureau of Biological Survey studies the geographic distribution of animals and plants, and maps the natural life zones of the country ; it also investigates the economic relations of birds and mammals, and recommends measures for the preservation of beneficial and the destruction of injurious species. It is charged with carrying into effect the provisions of the Federal law for the supervision of interstate commerce in game and the importation and protection of birds, and certain provisions of the law for the protection of game in Alaska. Division of Accounts and Disbursements. — Chief and Disbursing Clerk, A. Zap- pone; Assistant Chief, Edgar B. Calvert; Auditor, Everett D. Yerby; Cashier, M. E. Fagan. The Division of Accounts and Disbursements audits, adjusts, and pays all accounts and claims against the Department; decides questions involving the expenditure of public funds; prepares advertisements and schedules for annual supplies and letters of authority; writes, for the signature of the Secretary, all letters to the Treasury Department pertaining to fiscal matters; issues requisitions for the purchase of sup- plies and requests for passenger and for freight transportation; prepares the annual estimates of appropriations, and transacts all other business relating to the financial interests of the Department. Division of Publications. — Editor and Chief. Geo. Wm. Hill; Editor and Assistant Chief, Joseph A. Arnold; Associate Editor, B. D. Stallings; Assistant in charge of Document Section, R. B. Handy; Chief Clerk, A. I. Mudd; Assistant in charge of Indexing, Charles II. Greathouse; Assistant in charge of Illustrations, Louis S. Williams. The Division of Publications exercises general supervision of the Department print- ing and illustrations, edits all publications of the Department (with the exception of those of the Weather Bureau), has charge of the printing and Farmers' Bulletin funds, and distributes all Department publications with the exception of those issued by the Weather Bureau and those turned over by law to the Superintendent of Documents for sale at the price affixed by him. It issues, in the form of press notices, official information of interest to agriculturists, and distributes to agricultural publications ORGANIZATION OF THE DEPARTMENT. 457 and writer? notice? and synopses of Department publication?, and has charge of all correspondence -with the Government Printing Office. Bureau of Statistics. — Statistician and Chief, Victor II. Olmsted; Associate Statis- tician. C. C. Clark: Assistant Statistician. Sal C. Murray: Chief Clerk, E. J. Lundy: Chief of Division of Foreign Marlats. George K. Holme?: Chief of Division of Domestic Crop lit ports. F. J. Blair: Crop Reporting Board: Victor H. Olmsted, Charles C. (lark. Nat C. Murray, George K. Holme?, and one member selected from month to month from the corps of field agent? and of State statistical agents. The Statistician collect? information as to the condition, production, etc.. vi the principal crops and the status of farm animals through State agents, each of whom - --isted by a corps of local reporters, through separate corps of county, township. and cotton correspondents, through traveling agents, and through a special foreign correspondent, assisted by consular, agricultural, and commercial authorities. He record?, tabulates, and coordinates statistics of agricultural production, distribution, and consumption, the authorized data of governments, institutes, societies, boards of trade, and individual experts: prepares special statistical bulletins upon domestic and foreign agricultural subjects, and i??ue? a monthly crop report for the information of producer? and consumers. Special bulletins are published giving information of domestic and f >reign trade and of the conditions under which foreign trade may be extended. Investigations are made of land tenures, cost of producing farm products, country-life education, transportation, and other lines of rural economic?. Library. — Librarian. Josephine A. Clark: Assistant Librarian. Claribel R. Barnett. The Librarian has charge of the Library and supervise? the arrangement and cata- S Log of bonk?, the preparation of bibliographic? and similar publications, and the purchase of new books. The mailing lists for the distribution of Department publi- cations to foreign countries are under the supervision of the Librarian. Office of Experiment Stations. — Director. A. C. True: Assistant Director and Editor of Experiment station Record, E. W. Allen: Chief of Editorial Division, W. H. Beal: f pf Division Stations, W. H. Evans; Special Agent, Alaska, < GeorgesoD : S pedal Agt nt, Hawaii. Jared G. Smith: Special Ag> nt, T'orto Rico. D. W. May: Chief of Nutrition Investigations. ('. F. Langworthy; Chief of Irrigation -and Drai7iage Livestigatioiis. Elwood Mead: Fanners' Institute Specialist. John Hamilton: E pert in Agricultural Education. D. J. Crosby: Chi •" Agricultural Experiment Stations [for stations under Hatch and Adams acts; 1810,000, 1905; $794,660. ISO • 10.000.09 37.000.00 139. 500. 00 37.000.00 67.500.00 70.000.00 63. 840.00 - 155.640.00 25.000.00 10.000.00 37.000.00 " 112.900.00 _ .ia. :>> 307.500.00 2.50000 34.000.00 43.500.00 135.000.00 388.000.00 44. 420. 00 - 793. 180. 00 ;. 4 395. 930. 00 902. 210. 82 1.052.500.00 15.000.00 - 00.00 16 MX Of 25.000.00 170.000.00 42.500.00 35 00.0 20.320.00 170.000.00 1907}- Nutrition Investigations Public Road Inquiries Cotton Boll Investigatior s Publications, Department of Agriculture Sugar Investigations Purchase and Distribution of Valuable Seed- a and Expenses. Bureau of Animal Industrv Ticks. 1907 and 1908 Bureau of Animal Industry (deficiency act Irrigation Investigations.*. Tea Culture Investigations Arlington Experimental Farm Building, Department of Agricultur- . BOB H 20,00ft • 35.000.00 250.000.00 210.000.00 7.500.00 290.000.00 "- 20.000.00 i : 190.000.00 / 132. 250. 00 7.500.00 242.930.00 - '.0.00 1.456.538. 00 67. .500. 00 10,000.00 20.000.00 250.000.00 . . 00.00 74.500.00 8.500.00 20,000.00 950.000.00 1S5.000.00 -:5. or. 20.000.00 230.000.00 S 132. 250. 00 M 3.946.980.00 107.500.00 ':. - ■ -■ 4.'00.>SOO.OO 5.719.700.00 TVEATHEE BtTBEAC. Salaries, Weather Bureau Fuel, Lights, and Repairs. Weather Bureau... Contingent Expenses, Weather Bureau General Expenses, Weather Bureau Buildings. Weatb : Land Lines, Weather Bureau Salaries, Station Employees, Weather Bureau. ISO, 44). 00 . .. . 10.000.00 1.064.300.00 27 «T0. 00 191.340.00 10.000.00 10.000.00 1.093. .565. 00 53.000.00 35.000.00 £94,690.00 • •■ ..-.,r, i ,009 a 630.000.00 53.000.00 .54i.5oO.00 Total, Weather Bureau. total 1.337.740.00 1.392.990.00 :j.O0 7.112.690.00 a Includes $4,900 for Foreign Markets Investigations. "> Includes $11,300 for rent and repairs; $.5,000 for Ozark Mountain investigci- served from sale of fruits and vegetables; also appropriations heretofore made under the names of Botanical Investigations. Vegetable Pathological Investigations, Pomoiogical Investigations. Experimental •.nd Forage Plant Investigations, Sugar Investigations. Tea Culture Investigations, and Arlington Experimental Farm. 'Included under Bureau of Plant Industry. & Includes $300,000 for enforcement of Food and Drugs Act. t Expeus'3 of Offiesof Experiment Stations and inc. 5 from sale of Experiment Station card indexes in 1S07. / Does not include $300,000 for the Yearbook and $185,000 in general printing fund. a Does not include $300,000 in general printing fund. INSTITUTIONS FOR AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 459 AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND OTHER INSTITUTIONS IN UNITED STATES HAVING COURSES IN AGRICULTURE. « THE College instruction in agriculture is given in tlie colleges and universities receiving the benefits of the acts of Congress of July 2. 1862, and August 30. 1890. which are now in operation in all the Stales and Territories, except Alaska. Hawaii, and Porto Rico. The total number of these institutions is 65, of which 63 maintain courses of instruction in agriculture. In 21 States the agricultural colleges are departments of the State universities. In 15 States and Territories separate institutions having courses in agriculture are maintained for the colored race. All of the agricultural colleges for white persons and several of those for negroes offer four-year courses in agriculture and its related sciences leading to bachelors' degrees, and many provide for graduate study. About 55 of these institutions also provide special, short, and correspondence courses in the different branches of agriculture, including agronomy, h< >rt iculture. animal husbandry, p >ultry raising, cheese making, dairying, sugar making, rural engineering, farm mechanics, and other technical subjects. The officers of the agricultural colleges engage quite largely in conducting farmers' institutes and various other forms of college extension. The agricultural experiment station- with very few exceptions are departments of the agricultural colleges. The total number of persons engaged in the work of education and research in the land-grant colleges and the experiment stations in 1906 was 5.<;:>7: the number of students in these colleges, 63,471 ; the number of students (white) in the four-year college courses in agriculture. 2.770; in short and special courses, 4,764. There were also 1.70 8 students in agriculture in the separate institutions for negroes. With a few exceptions, each oi these colleges offers free tuition to residents of the State in which it is located. In the excepted i ases scholarships are open to promising and energetic students: and. in all. opportu- nities are found for some to earn part of their expenses by their own labor. The expenses are from $125 to $300 for the school year. Ag icultural colleges and other institutions in the I nited States havvrJ) courses in agriculture. State or Territory. of institution. Location. President. Alabama ' Uabama Polytechnic Institute. Agricultural and Mechanical College for Negroes. Arizona University of Arizona Arkansas University of Arkansas California University of California Colorado The State Agricultural College of Colorado. Connecticut Connecticut Agricultural Col- lege. Delaware Delaware College State College for Colored Stu- dents. Florida ' University of Florida Florida State Normal and In- dustrial College. Georgia Georgia State College of Agri- culture and Mechanic Arts. Georgia State Industrial Col- lege. Idaho I niversity of Idaho Auburn. . Normal.. Tucson Fayette vitte Berkelev Fort Collins Storrs. Newa rk . Dover. . Gainesville.. . Tallahassee. . . Athens Savannah . . . Moscow. Illinois.. Indiana . Iowa Kentucky. Louisiana. University of Illinois Purdue University Iowa State College of Agricul- ture and the Mechanic Arts. Kansas State Agricultural Col- lege. Agricultural and Mechanical College of Kentucky. The Kentucky Normal and In- dustrial Institute for Colored Persons. Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College. Southern University and Ag- ricultural and Mechanical lege. Urbane . . . Lafayette. Ames Manhattan. . . Lexington Frankfort C. C. Thach. LL. D. W. 11. Councill, Ph. D. K. C. Bahcock. Ph. D. .T. N. Tillman, B. LL. B. I. Wheeler. Ph. D..LL. D. 15. <). Avlesworth, LL. D., Litt. D. R. W. Stimson. A. M. G. A. llarter. Ph. D. W. C. Jason, M. A. Andrew Sledd, Ph. D..LL.D. N. B. Young. M. A. II. ('. White. Ph. D..LL.D. R. R. Wright, LL. D. J. A. MacLean, Ph. D., LL. D. E..1. .Tames. Ph. D., LL. D. W. E. Stone. Ph. D. A. B. Storms. D. D.. LL. D. E. R.Nichols. A. M. J. K. Patterson, Ph. D., LL. D. J.S.IIaihawav. M. A..M. D. Baton Rouge T. D. Boyd, LL. D. New Orleans II. A. Hill. a Including only institutions established under the land-grant art of Jury 2. 1862. 460 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ether institutions in the United States having courses in agriculture — Continued. State or Territory. :' institution. Location. President. Maine Maryland I Michigan Minnesota Mississippi :ri Montana ^ka la Mexico ■ North I Ohio Oklahoma Oregon I vania . . I sland . . South < South Dakota. Verm' : Virginia -" West Virginia. Wiaoox Wyoming The University of Maine nd Agricultural College Princess Anne Academy. East- ern Branch. Md. Agr" Coll. Massachusetts Agricultural Col- - Michigan State Agricultural College. The University of Minnesota .. . ppi Agricultural and Mechanical College. Alcorn Agricultural and Me- chanic ihe V: Missouri n Institute The Mont gc culture and Mechanic Arts. The D .ska... : iversity The New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts. . rs Scientific School, the Jersey State College for the Benefit of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts. The New Mexico College of Ag- riculture and Mechanic Arts. . University The North Carolina College of Agriculture and Mechanic- Arts. The Agricultural and Mechan- ical College for the Colored - North Dakota Agricultural Col- lege. Ohio State University ma Agricultural and j.anical Co; j> Agricultural and Xormi.. Oregon State Agricultural Col- The Pennsylvania Sta( Rhod< I . :' Agri- culture and Mechanic Arts. Clemson Agricultural College of Sout b The Colored Normal. Indus- trial. Agricultural, and Me- chanical ' - South ina. rri -ultural Col- - : T-'T.nessee Agricultural and Meci. -■ Prairi- Normal and Industrial College. The Agricultural Col'. » Utah. rmont and Stat The Virginia Agricultu- Miy/hanica! College and Poly- •;Tute. The Hampton Normal and Ag- ricultural Insti: The State College of Washing- ty The West Virginia Colored In- stitute. :" Wyoming Orono College Park Princess Anne Amherst Agricultural Col- lege. St. Anthony Park Agricultural Col- lege. Lorman Columbia Jefferson City. . .. Bozeman Lincoln Reno Durham New Brunswick . G. E. Fallows, Ph. D.. LL.D. R. W. Silvester. M. .-. F. Trigg. M. A. K. L. Butterfield. A. M. J. L. Snyder. Ph. D. C. Northrop. LL. D. J. C. Hardy. LL. D. L. J. Rowan. B. S. R. H. Jesse. LL. D. B. F. Allen. LL. D. J. M. Hamilton, M. S. E. B. Andrews. LL. D. J. E. Stubbs. D.D..LL. D. W. D. Gibbs. M. S. W. II. S. Demarest. Agricultural Col- Luther Foster. M. S. A lege. Ithaca West Raleigh Greensboro.. Agricultural Col- lege. Columl . J.G.Schurman. B.Sc.LL.D. G»T. Winston. LL. D. Still water...- I J I ID :lege. ... Clemson College . Orangeburg Brookings Knoxville College E Prairie View Logan Burlington ;rg Hampton Pullman Morgantown. " .ie Laramie. J. B. Dudley. LL. D. J. n. Worst, LL. D. W. O. Thompson, D. D., LL.D. A. C. Scott. LL. M. I. E. Page, M. A. T. M. Gatch. Ph. D. J. A. Beaver. Howard Edwards, LL. I>. P. H. Mell. Ph. D..LL. D. T. E. Miller. LL. D. R. L. Slagle. Ph. D. Brown Avres. Ph. D.. LL. D. H. II. Harrington. LL. D. E. L. Blantinu. ento- mol ■_ Chemistry; soils: fertilizers; agronomy; nortieultux' estry; diseases off plant! investigations; -. ry; dairy- ing; entomology; farm ma - ■ . . issippi, Agricultural W. L. Hutchinson Fertilizers: agronomy: horticulture; biolog ling: animal husbandry: dts dairying: enter . g g ong. Missouri (College), Colom HL J. Waters Chemistry: soil survey: botany: agronomy: i : dis- ■ i >f plants and wis ing: dairying; entomology. Missouri t Fruit . Mountain Grove: Paul Evans Horticu]: Montana. Bozeman: F. B. Linfield Chemistry: meteorology: botany; agronomy: dry farming; horticulture; animal husbandry; poultry rying: entomology: irrigation and drain _ Nebraska, Lincoln: E. A. Burnett Chemistry; botany: tore; plant and annuals; for- estry; animal husbandry; dairying Nevada, Bene: J.E.Stubbs Chemistry: botany, soils: meteorology; agronomy; horticul- ture; forestry; pi g - animal hns- jry: entomology; irriga* New Hampshire. Durham: TV. D. tUTibs Chemistry; botany: agronomy: ' forestry; animal husbandry ing; entomology. Xew Jersey i State . Xev; Brunswick: Hnemistry; oyster culture; botany; E. B. voorhei s [ foods, and commercial f- . Domy; horticul- Xew .' w Brunswick: | tare; plant breeding: akota Ohio Oklahoma a sylvania Porto Rico Rhode Island Carolina ta Tennessee Utah Vermont Virginia Washington. . Wist Virginia. sin Wyoming C. A. Cary. Alabama Polytechnic Inst it ate G. W. Carver, Director Agricultural Experiment Station.. C. C. Georgeson, Agricultural E\ : Station R. H. Forbes, Director Agricultural Experir W. G. Vincenheller, Director Agricultural Ext», Station. E. .1. Wickson. University of California EL M. Cot troll. Director of Farmers' Institutes J. F. Brown. Se-eretary State Board of Agriculture .1. G. Schwink. Secy Connecticu: Daii ... ..iaiion. 11. C. C. Miles. Secretary Connecticut Pomotog - . . Director of Farmers' Institute... . . H. Hayward, Director Agricultural Experiment Station. R. W. Clothier, University of Florida EL C. White. President State College of Agrieult v.- Jordan, Director of Farmers' Institutes J. G. Smith, Agricultural Exp: n II. T. French, Director Agricultural E nation- Frank 1L Hall. BecretaryFarmers' Institutes W. C. Latta. Purdue University J. C. Simpson, Secretary State Board of Agricultr. .1. II. Miller. Superintendent of Farmers' Inslitm. - Hubert Vreeland. Commissioner of Agrieuliure -::missioner of Agriculture A. W. Gilman - culture \V. L. Amoss, Director of Farmers' Institutes J. I*. EUswortl - : Board of Agrieult L. R. 1 - tendeht of 1 0-. C. Gregg i i statutes E. K. Lloyd. Director of Farmers' Inst tut - Gk o. P. Ellis. - -Tate Board of Agriculture F. B. Linfield, Director Agr. E1 E. A. Burnett, Director Agricultural 1 J. E. Stubbs, President N - N. J. Ba - Board of Agriculture Franklii - taryStat rd of Agricutti .lohn D. Tinslcy. Superintendent of Fa F . E . Da S. L. Patterson. Commissioner of Agriculture E.E.Kaufman. P.: raters' Institutes T. L. Calvert. Secretary State 1 C. A. Mi Secret of Agriculture .'.With .tor Agricultural Experiment Station A. L. Martin. Deputy Secretary of Agriculture D. W. May, Agricultural Exper John J. Dunn, Secret Stat of Agrieult J. X. Harper, Director Agricultural E A. E. Chamberlain. Superintendent of Farmers" Institutes. W. W. Ogilvie. Commissioner of Agrieult ure .1 . W. Carson. Director of Far::. P. A. Yoder, Director Agr. Exp Hon 5 Stat attun 0. W. Koiner. Commissioner of Agriculture . oltural Exp 3t .lion E. E. Elliott. Agricultural College H. E. V> : Agriculture G. B. MeKerrow. Director Farmers' Institutes B.C. BniTum. Director Agricultural Experiment Station.. stitute. ■ T tic son. ville. Berk-ley. N. Stonington. Hartford. Milford. Newark. - ville. Atlanta. Honolulu. w. Spring- Lalay nes. Mauha-' Frankfort. Baton Rouge. - -ta. Boston. lynd. Agricultural man. . Conoc - Trent - ville. Raleigh. - '"JS. Guthrie. Corvallis. Harri> - Clemson Coll Howard. 1 :lle. - • ion. - Wood stock. Richmond. Blacksl>urg. Pullman. •■ ■ Madison. Lara:: AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF FARMERS' INSTITUTE WORKERS. President. E. A. Burnett, director of Agricultural Experiment Station. Lincoln. Xelir.; secretary-treasurer, John Hamilton. Farmers' Institute Specialist, I . 8. Department of Agriculture. Washington. D. C. * STATE OFFICIALS IX CHARGE OF AGRICULTURE. 465 STATE OFFICIALS IN CHARGE OF AGRICULTURE. a Commissioners of Agriculture. State or Territory. Name of official. Alabama Arkansas Florida Georgia Idaho Kentucky Louisiana Maine Montana New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Pennsylvania Philippine Islands. Porto Rico South Carolina Tennessee Texas Virginia Washington J. A. Wilkinson Guy B. Tucker B. E. McLin T. G. Hudson Allen Miller, Com'r of Immigration, etc Hubert Vreeland Charles Schuler A . W . Oilman J . A . Ferguson J. W. Raynolds, Secretary of State Chas. A. Wieting S. L. Patterson W. C. Gilhreath N. B. Critchfield, Secretary of Agriculture W. C. Welborn, Chief, Bureau of Agriculture Lawranee II. Grahame, Commissioner of the Interior. E.J. Wa t son W. W. Osilvie R. T. Milner Geo. W. Koiner Sam II. Nichols. Secretary of State Post-office. Montgomery. Little Rock. Tallahassee. Atlanta. Boise. Frankfort. Baton Rouge. Augusta. Helena. Santa Fe. Albany. Raleigh. Bismarck. Harrisburg. Manila. San Juan. Columbia. Nashville. Austin. Richmond. Olympia. Secretaries of State Boards of Agriculture. California J. A . Filcher Colorado V M. Hawley Connecticut J. F. Brown." Dela wa re Wesley Webb Ha waii C. S. Holloway Illinois W. C. Garrard Indiana I Chas. Downing Iowa J. C. Simpson Kansas F. D. Coburn Maryland ! Wm. T. P. Turpin, Supt. of Immigration. Massachusetts J. L. Ellsworth Michigan i Addison M. Brown Minnesota E. W. Randall, Sec. State Ag'l Society. . . . Missouri George B. Ellis : Nebraska W. R. Mellor Nevada Louis Bevier New Hampshire j N. J. Bachelder New Jersey ! Franklin Dye North Carolina T. K. Bruner Ohio ' T. L. Calvert Oklahoma C. A . Mc Nabb Oregon F. A. Welch Rhode Island John J. Dunn South Dakota | C. N. Mcllvaine Vermont ' George Aitken ; West Virginia T. B. Garvin Wisconsin John M. True Wyoming C. T. Johnston, State Engineer Sacramento. Fort Collins. North Stonington. Dover. Honolulu. Springfield. Indianapolis. Des Moines. Topeka. Centerville. Boston. Agricultural College. St. Paul. Columbia. Lincoln. Carson City. Concord. Trenton. Raleigh. Columbus. Guthrie. Salem. Providence. Huron. Woodstock. Charleston. Madison. Chevenne. . a Officials of Territories and island dependencies are included. So far as learned, Arizona, Missis- sippi, and Utah have no State official charged with agricultural interests, but letters addressed to the Secretary of State would probably receive attention. NATIONAL DAIRY ASSOCIATIONS. Name of organization. National Association of Dairy Instructors and Investigators. Association ol State and National Food and Dairy Departments. National Dairy Union National Creamery Buttermakers' Association.. Boston Cooperative Milk Producers' Association. Five States Milk Producers' Association 3 A1906- -30 Secretary. Post-office. C.B.Lane U. S. Department of Agri- culture. Washington, D.C. R. M. Allen Lexington, Ky. Charles V. Knight 1.54 Lake street. Chicago. E. Sudendorf 154 Wa shington street, Chi- cago. V> . A. Hunter 10 Florence street, Worces- ter Mass. H. T. Coon Homer, N. Y. 466 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. AMERICAN NATIONAL LIVE STOCK ASSOCIATION. President. Murdo Mackenzie. Trinidad. retary. W. M. Tonilin?on. Denver. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF LIVE STOCK HERD BOOK SECRETARIES. President, C. EL Thomas, Independen • cretarv. Charles F. Mill?. Spring- field, 111. NATIONAL WOOL GROVv^RS" ASSOCIATION. President. Francis E. Warren, Cheyenne; secretary, George S. Walk nno. THE CORN-BELT MEAT PRODUCERS- ASSOCIATION. President. A. L. Ames. Buckingham. Iowa: secretary. II. C. Wallace. Des Moines, Iowa. PROTECTION AGAINST CONTAGION FROM FOREIGN CATTLE. An act of Congress of August 28, 1894, prohibits the importation of cattle and cattle hides, but by the act of March 2, 1895, making appropriations for the Department of Agriculture, it is provided that the prohibition may be suspended by the President whenever the Secretary of Agriculture shall certify to the President what countries or parts of countries are free from contagious or infectious disi - - mestic animals. The President, by proclamation of Noveml >er 8, 1895, lifted the embargo with reference rway, Sweden, Holland, Great Britain. Ireland, the Channel Islands, and the countries of North. Central, and South America bo as to admit cattle under sanitary regulations prescribed by the Secretary of Agriculture: also from all countries - . - Lmit hides under regulations prescribed by the Secretary of the Treasury. STOCK BREEDERS" ASSOCIATIONS.^ s and addresses of stock association secretari-s. with breeds and n f registered stock in United States, December 31, CATTLE. Number registered. . Male. i Female. OgOS... Thos. McFariane.. Union Stock Y Chicago, 111. ■ 112,780 71.907 5.403 14.601 249.800 n - \ - ■ 13.717 11,080 : - 3.500 • J 6.000 14.199 5.500 10.000 6,480 ■ (c) L. P. Sisson N. 11. tj. Richards.. 1 ;. Guernsev Hereford in Friesian. . Polled Durham Red Polled C. W. Gray Chicago, 111. Wm. n. Caldwell.. Peterboro, N. II. C.K.Thomas 225 W. 12th st. - City, Mo. Frederick L. BrattleT>oro. Vt Houghton. J.J.Hemingway.. 8 W. 17th st., New York, N. Y. Bines.. Indianapolis, Ind H. A. Martin Gotham. Wis Shorthorn : Brown John W. Groves... Union Stock Y Chicago. 111. m Lea Nashville, Tens 391. 600 185 3.150 100 1.500 a Under the provisions of paragraph 473 of the act of J ". amended March 3. 1903. any animal imported specially for breeding purposes shall be admitted, free, provided that no such aninial shall be admitted free unless pure bred, of a recognized breed, and duly registered in the book of record estab- lished for that breed. The Secretary of the Treasury, upon the advice of the Secretary of Agriculture. April 24. 1903. regulations for the importation of animals under this law. and designated the recognized breeds and the books of record established for these breads. * Owing to a change in date of making up the books of breeders' associations no new figures could be obtained to show the numbers of registered stock for December 31, 1906. The numbers in the table are for December 31, 1905. c No data. LIVE-STOCK ASSOCIATIONS. 467 Names and addresses of stock association secretaries, with breeds and numbers of registered lir< stock in Urdted States, December 31, 190S — Continued. HORSES. Breed. Cleveland Bay. . Clydesdale Coach, French. i'T'IK-h . Coach, German Coach, G e r m a n (Oldenburg). Draft, Belgian Draft, French Hackney Morgan. . . Pcreheron . Percheron Saddle Horse, American. Shetland Pony Shire SulTolk Thoroughbred Secretary. R. P. Stcricker... K. B. Ogilvie Chas. C. Glenn.... Duncan E. Wtllett J. Crouch C. E. Stub lis. J. D. Connor, jr. . C. E. Stubbs A. II. Godfrey H. T. Cutis Geo. W. Stubble- field. Charles C. Glenn.. I. B. Nail Trotter, American. Jacks and Jennies. Mortimer Levering Charles Burgess. . . Alex. Galbraith James E. Wheeler. Wm. II. Knight... J. W. Jones Post-ollic V. 80 Chestnut ave., W. Orange, N. J. Union Stock Yards, Chicago, 111. Columbus, Ohio Maple ave. and l tar- rison st., Oak Park, IU. Lafayette, Ind Fairfield, Iowa Wabash, Ind Fairfield, Iowa Tichenor Grand Bldg 61st and Broadway, New York City. Middlebury, Vt Union Stock Yards, ;o, 111. Columbus, Ohio Louisville, Ky Lafayette, Ind Wenona, 111 Janes viUe, Wis 571 Fifth a vc, New YorJk, N. Y. 355 Dearborn St., Chi- cago, IU. Columbia, Tenn Number registered.' Number living. Male. Female. Male. Female. 1,236 502 1, 050 400 a 12 ,370 (6) (*>) 130 4 125 4 1,656 360 246 23 1,500 I'll 225 14 2,056 9.000 c 726 266 5,000 c 1,542 2.055 c i,s4 265 c 1,416 (■5.021 1,640 c 2. son 1.460 c3,765 1-9,000 c2,100 12, 000 928 d 2, 529 102 3,549 913 94 2,300 6,062 159 a 4£ 3,500 2,148 88 ,309 2,000 B 2,500 (6) 150 42,597 c 152, 700 (b) (») 1.000 750 750 51 i0 SHEEP. Cheviot Cotswold Dorset Horn Hampshire Down Leicester Lincoln Merino (Delaine) Merino (Delaine) Meiino (Delaine) Merino (Delaine) . Merino (French). Merino (German) Merino (Spanish) Merino (Spanish! Mr! ino (Spa dish Merino (Spanish) Merino (Spanish) Oxford Down . . . Sh ropshire Southdown SulTolk F. E. Dawlev F. W. Harding... J. E. Wing Comfort A. Tyler. A. J. Temple Bert Smith II. G. McDowell.. George A. Henry. R. P. Berry J. B. Johnson D wight Lincoln. . E. M. Moore E. N. Ball Wesley Bishop. .. J. II. Earll J. P. Ray C, A. Chapman. .. W. A. Shafor Mortimer Levering Frank S. Springer Geo. W. Franklin. Fayetteville, N. Y... Waukesha, Wis Mechanics!) urg, Ohio Notta wa , Mich Cameron, 111 Charlotte, Mich Canton, Ohio R. F. I). 8. Beliefem- taine, Ohio. R. F. D. 3, Eighty- four, Pa. 24S WTPitee st., Can- onshurg, Pa. Miiford Center, Ohio. Orchard Lake, Mich. Ann Arbor, Mich R. F.D.I, Del- ware, Ohio. Skaneatejes, N. Y... R. F. D. 3, E. Bloom- field. N. Y. Middlebury, Vt Hamilton, Ohio Lafayette, Ind Springfield, 111 Des Moines, Iowa . . . a 10,700 a 36. 610 5.573 3,538 5, 754 3,703 12, 844 5. 437 8.246 a 9, 401 000 14,300 <-5,054 6,805 162 12,530 16,69! 7.916 1 . 275 ('11.259 11,599 191 37,700 33,384 11,912 1.500 575 | 2,650 a 14,000 a 217,850 c 32, 798 100,000 134,000 a 19,983 a 1,013 1,000 3,000 2, 972 i, 100 2.800 9,080 4,567 5,900 a [.:■ 2,500 8.000 c 1,500 c3,OQ0 1,500 m 105 400 2,842 280 100 Cm (ft) 20,000 5,000 (6) 175 4.300 8,035 1 . 875 290 (") (ft 40,060 a 10.201) a 550 a Total of males and females. h No data. <■ Estimate for 1904. d Includes geldings 468 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Names and addresses of stock association secretaries, with breeds and numbers of registered lire stock in United States, December SI, 1906 — Continued. _ Number registered. Number living. Breed. Secretary. Post-office. Male. Female. Male. Female. Berkshire Frank S. Springer. 510 E. Monroe st., O88.0S0 "33.000 Springfield. 111. Ed S. Hill Freeville. N. \ Columbus, Ohio 1,225 2.115 8,912 275 600 Chester White Ernest Freigau 2.000 J. C. Hiles Cleveland, Ohio 3.403 9.000 1.800 6.200 proved. Duroc Jersev T. B. Pearson Thorntown, Ind $.026 18.450 («) M Duroe Jersev Robert J. Evans... Peoria. Ill 21,800 55.000 a 30.000 Hampshire (Thin E. C. Stone Armstrong, HI 294 540 155 3S7 Rind). Poland China YV. M. McFadden.. Union Stock Yards, Chicago. 111. 52.331 130. 620 27,000 68,000 Poland China A. M. Brown Drawer 10, V\ inches- ter. Ind. 32.000 72.000 10.000 23.000 Poland China Geo. F.Woodworth Marvville, Mo 39.008 93, 2.34 2.000 IS. 000 Poland China H. P. Wilson Gadsden. Tenn 091 1.030 400 GOO E. N. Ball Ann Arbor, Mich White Bear Lake, c 1 2,860 949 3.640 fl 2,000 200 Yorkshire Harrv G. Kruni 3.200 Minn. a Total of males and females. l> Xo data. <■ Estimate for 1904. SANITARY OFFICERS IN CHARGE OF LIVE STOCK INTERESTS. State or Territory. Name and post-office. Official position. Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut . . . Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts. Michigan Minnesota Mississippi. . . . Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada C. A. Cary. Auburn State veterinarian. J. D. Carter. Prescott Secretary live-stock sanitary commission. J.C. Norton, Phoenix Veterinarian. R. R. Dinwiddie. Fayetteville State veterinarian. Charles Keane. Sacramento ' Do. L. B. Sylvester. Denver ] President State board of stock inspection commissioners. Charles G.Lamb. Denver State veterinary surgeon. Heman O. Averill. Hartford Commissioner for domestic animals. Alex. Lowber. Wilmington Secretary State board of health. H. P. Eves, Newark Instructor in veterinary science. Delaware College. Thomas J. Mahaffy. Jacksonville Veterinarian. State board of health. Thos. G. Hudson. Atlanta Commissioner of agriculture. Victor A. Norgaard. Honolulu Territorial veterinarian. George E. Noble. Boise State veterinarian. H. ET Wadsworth. Springfield Secretary board of live-stock commis- sioners. 3, M. Wright, 1S27 Wabash ave.. State veterinarian. Chicago. A. W. Bitting. Lafayette Do. Paul O. Koto. Forest City State veterinary surgeon. John D. Baker. Peabody! Live-stock sanitary commissioner. F. T. Eisenman. Louisville State veterinarian. W. H. Dalrvmple, Baton Rouge Veterinarian State exoerirnent station. F. O. Beat. Bangor I John M. Deering, Saco [-Board of cattle commissioners. Frank S. Adams. Bowdoinham J G. Allen Jarman. Chestertown Chief veterinary inspector. Wade II. D. Warfield. Baltimore Secretary livestock sanitary board. Austin Peters. Boston Chief of cattle bureau of State board of agriculture. Willian-fttf. Morris. Cass City State veterinarian. H. H. Hinds, Stanton President State live-stock sanitary com- mission. B.H. Ward. St. Paul Secretary State live-stock sanitary board. C. E. Cotton. Minneapolis Veterinarian live-stock sanitary board. H. M. Bracken. St. Paul Secretary State board of health. J. C. Robert, Agricultural College Professor of veterinary science. D. F. Luckey. Columbia State veterinarian. Geo. B. Ellis. Columbia Secretary State board of agriculture. M. E. Knowles. Helena State veterinarian. W. G. Preuitt. Helena Secretary live-stock commission. Charles A. McKimm. Lincoln State veterinarian. I. W. u'Rourke, Reno Do. FORESTRY ASSOCIATIONS AXD SCHOOLS. Sanitary officers in charge of live stock interests — Continued. 469 State or Territory. Name and post-office. Official position. New Hampshire. New Jersey New Mexico New York. North Carolina... North Dakota N. J. Bachelder, Concord E. B. Voorhees. New Brunswick. W. C. Barnes, Las Vegas Harry F. Lee, Albuquerque C. A.'Wieting, Albany W. H. Kellv. Albany. Tait Butler. Raleigh S. L. Patterson, Raleigh W. F. Crewe. Devils Lake Ohio Paul Fischer. Columbus T. L. Calvert. Columbus Oklahoma ' C. J. Davis, Guthrie Thomas Morris. Guthrie Oregon William McLean, Portland j Wm. H. Ly tie, Pendleton Pennsylvania [ Leonard Pearson. Philadelphia.. Porto Rico Thos. A. Allen, San Juan Rhode Island John S. Pollard, Providence John J Dunn, Providence South Carolina Louis A. Klein, Clemson College.. South Dakota Thos. H. Hicks, Milbank Tennessee R. H. Kittrell. Nashville Texas J. H. Wilson, Quanah Utah John Austin, Heber Citv Vermont Virginia Washington . . West Virginia. Wisconsin Wyoming. H. S. Wilson. Arlington J. G. Ferneyhough, Blacksburg. S. B. Nelson. Pullman J. B. Garvin, Charleston David Roberts. Janesville John M. True. Madison William F. Pflaeging, Cheyenne. George S. Walker, Cheyenne Secretary board of cattle commissioners. President State board of agriculture. Secretary cattle sanitary board. Secretary sheep sanitary board. Commissioner department of agriculture. Chief veterinarian. State veterinarian. Commissioner of agriculture. State veterinarian. Do. Secretary State live-stock commission. Territorial veterinarian. Secretary live-stock sanitary commission. State veterinarian. Sheep inspector. State veterinarian. Veterinary inspector, health office. Veterinarian State board of agriculture. Secretary State board of agriculture. State veterinarian. Do. State live-stock commissioner. Secretary live-stock sanitary commission. President State board of sheep commis- sioners. Cattle commissioner. State veterinarian. Do. Secretary board of agriculture. State veterinarian. Secretary State sanitary board. State veterinarian. Secretary State board of sheep commis- sioners. FORESTRY ASSOCIATIONS. American Forestry Association. — President, Hon. James Wilson. Secretary of Agri- culture; vice-presidents, Edward Everett Hale. F. E. Weyerhaeuser, James YV. Pinchot, B. E. Fernow, John L. Kaul; secretary. Thomas E. Will, Washington, D. C. International Society of Arboriculture. — President, Gen. William J. Palmer. Col- orado Springs, Colo.; vice-president. Henry John Elwes, F. R. S., Colesborne. Chel- tenham, England; secretary. J. P. Brown, Connersville. Ind. Society of American Foresters. — President. Gifford Pinchot. Washington, D. C; secretary, George B. Sud worth. Washington, D. C. SCHOOLS OF FORESTRY. Yale University. Forest School. Xew Haven, Conn. — A two-years graduate course, leading to the degree of Master of Forestry. Under the direction of the officers of the Yale Forest School, a two-months summer course. July and August, is conducted at Milford, Pike County. Pa. Prof. Henry S. Graves, Director. Biltmore Forest School. Biltmore, X. C. — Course covers entire year; daily lectures in all branches of applied forestry, elements of botany, mathematics, geology, law. and political economy; practical work, especially lumbering operations, on the domain of the Biltmore estate: forest investigations. Dr. C. A. Schenck. Director. University of Michigan. Forest School, part of the general Department of Literature. Science, and the Arts. Ann Arbor, Mich.— A two-years graduate course leading to the degree of Master of Science in Forestry. Filibert Roth. Professor of Forestry. Harvard University. Forest School, Cambridge, Mass. — A four-years undergraduate course, in connection with the Lawrence Scientific School. R. T. Fisher, in charge of curriculum. % Pennsylvania State College, Forest School, State College, Pa. — A four-years tinder- graduate course, in connection with the State Department of Agriculture. Courses in forestry are now given at the University of Maine. Orono, Me.. Gordon E. Tower, in charge; the Michigan State Agricultural College. Agricultural College, 470 YEARI THE DEPAEIAIENT OF AGEK'ULTUBE. Mich.. E. E. Bogus Sfa ra, H. P. Baker, in charge: Unrwere Lincoln, Nebr., Fraiik G. Miller, in charge; M sippi Agricultural m I College. Agricultuj s M ge L. Clothier, in ch. :_ iversity oi l Akerrnan. ..do CoBege. Colors i Purdue I I.'.d.. Pr :..! h Iter, in charge ; V Park. Minn.. Prof. Samuel j liege, Beren. E Flaneiy. in ch g h Dakota School el ineau. N. Dak.. J. Allen - A i afly at the Massachusetts State Agricultural College. Amherst, by Fl .land Agricultural College . . ' by Fred Maryland: at th n, by Edward M. GrifhiL - nsin: and at C I College, 1 ; high P. Baker, restry at - fa I i State < II ge. NATIONAL BEE KEEPERS' ASSOCIATION. -idem. L. kson, Mich.; secretary , J. A G Junction, Colo.: general m .1 treasurer. X. E. .' NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OP ECONOMIC ENTCXOLOGISTS. President, H. A. Morgan, Knoxville, - --.jy. A. F. 15 .: street. Reading ASSOCIATION OF OFFICIAL AGKTCCLTirRAL CHEMISTS. Pre hn P. Street. New retary, H. W. "Wiley Depar NATIONAL KOETICCLTCTtAL AND ETNDEED SOCIETIES. Name of organization. > - American Apple Grew*- American Association of Xur- American Carnation Society . . . ." American CranV - American Institute Farmers' Club American Institute. Horticultural Secti American Nursery :ation.. ri an Pomo!' _ American Retail Nurserymen's Protecii sociation. Amen - ietf - the N anthemuni Society of America D:. Georg A. J. Rider 1Ym. A. Ear Leonard Barron - H. Meehan. J-ohn Crgiff Guv A. Ko. Rochester. X. Y. X.J. York, X. Y. Ithaca. X. Y. Wm. J. ■ :i Xurseryr: Internatioi. -ippi Valley Apple Growers' Association.. : r! Valley Horricultun-. If .n! League of Commission Merchants of I Xational Xot Growers' Association Xorthwesrern Fr.: lotion - -ociat ion . . . Peninsula llorrjcnitur?. IS American Florists "and Ornamental Iloriicult:;- Southwestern Xu r '•- ssoeiation rvmen Wrr: A. Warren Patch. J ames H andl v A. Warren Patch. C V. Huffman.. Wm. j . - vlor E. J. Holman Louis. • 1 Home v.- • Y. I • . 111. P. F. I Bostoa. Pouiarj. N. Y. :on place. I -V. . --. T. Leaver.- STATE HIGHWAY OFFICIALS. STATE HIGHWAY OFFICIALS. 471 State. Name and title. Post-office. California Connecticut Delaware District of Colum bia. Illinois Ii-wa Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota New Hampshire. New Jersey New York , North Carolina.. Ohio Pennsylvania Rhode Island Vermont Virginia Washington N. Ellery, commissioner department of highways James H. MacDonald, commissioner, State highway depart- ment. Francis A. Price, State highway commissioner for Newcastle County. C. B. Hunt, engineer of highways, Dist rict of Columbia Dr. E. J. James, chairman A. N. Johnson, highway engineer, State highway commission. Prof. A. Marston, dean, division of engineering T. II. McDonald, assistant in charge of public roads, State College. Paul D. Sargent, commissioner of highways William Bullock Clark, State geologist , Walter W. Crosby, chief engineer highway division, geolog- ical survey. William E. McClintock, chairman A. B. Fletcher, secretary State highway commission Horatio S. Earle, commissioner Frank F. Rogers, highway engineer, State highway depart- ment. Gustave Scholle, president George W. Cooley, engineer, State highway commission Arthur W. Deaii, State engineer, highway department Elisha C. Hutchinson, chairman R. A. Meeker, supervisor State commission of public mads.. . Frederick Skene, State engineer and surveyor Samuel L. Patterson, chairman State highway commission... Sam Huston, commissioner State highway department Joseph W. Hunter, State highway commissioner R. D. Beeman, assistant commissioner John II. Edwards, chairman State board of public works Charles W. Gates, State highway commissioner P. St. Julien Wilson, State highway commissioner Joseph M. Snow, State highway commissioner Sacramento. Hartford. Wilmington. Washington. Springfield. Do. Ames. Do. Augusta. Baltimore. Do. Boston. Do. Lansing. Do. Minneapolis. Do. Concord. Trenton. Do. Albany. Raleigh. Columbus. Harrisburg. Do. Providence. Montpelier. Richmond. Olympia. STATE OFFICIALS IN CHARGE OF PROTECTION OF GAME." Maryland Massachusetts... Michigan. Minnesota Missouri Montana Nebraska New Hampshire.. . Newr Jersey Alabama John II. Wallace, jr., State game commissioner Arizona W. L. Pinney, secretary fish and game commission California Chas. A. Vogelsang, chief deputy board of fish commissioners. Colorado D. E. Farr, State game and fish commissioner Connecticut E. Hart Geer, secretary commission of fisheries and game Delaware A. D. Poole, president Delaware Game Protective Association. Idaho W.N. Stephens, fish and game warden Illinois Dr. John A. Wheeler, State game commissioner Indiana Z. T. Sweeney, commissioner of fisheries and game Iowa G. A. Lincoln, State fish and game warden Kansas D. W. Travis, State fish and game warden Maine L. T. Carleton, chairman commissioners of inland fisheries and game. Oregon Milton Dennis, State game warden Dr. George W. Field, ehairman commissioners of fisheries and game. Chi rles II. Chapman, game and fish warden Carlos Avery, executive agent, hoard of game and fish com- missioners". Joseph II. Rodes, game and fish warden William F. Scott, State game, and fish warden George L. Carter, chief deputy game and fish commission Nathaniel Wentworth, chairman board of fish and game com- missioners. Benjamin P. Morris, president board of fish and game com- missioners. New Mexico W. E. Griffin, game and fish warden New York James B. Whipple, forest, fish, and game commissioner North Carolina T. Gilbert Pearson, secretary Audubon Society North Dakota Wr. N. Smith, game warden, district No. 1 William McKean, game warden, district No. 2 Ohio < leorge C. Blankner, secretary commissioners of fish and game. Oklahoma Eugene Wat rous, Territ orial game and fish warden Oregon | J. W. Baker, game and forestry warden Pennsylvania ' Dr. Joseph Kall.fus, secretary board of game commissioners. . Rhode Island ' John II. Flanagan, chairman commissioners of birds South Carolina B. F. Taylor, president Audubon Society Montgomery. Phoenix. San Francisco. Denver. Hadlyme. Wilmington. Boise. Springfield. Columbus. Cedar Rapids. Pratt. Augusta. Baltimore. Boston. Sault Ste. Marie. St. Paul. Sedalia. Helena. Lincoln. Hudson. Long Branch. Santa Fe. Albany. Greensboro. Grafton. Sanborn. Columbus. Enid. Cottage Grove. Harrisburg. i 'ri n idence. Columbia. a Corrected to May 1, 1907 472 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. State officials in charge of protection of game — Continued. State. Name and title. Post-office. Utah H. B. Cromar, State fish and game commissioner Henry G. Thomas, fish and game commissioner Salt Lake City. Stowe. Bellingham. Huntington. Vermont Washington West Virginia ORGANIZATIONS FOB PROTECTION OF BIRDS AND GAME. Name of organization. American Ornithologists' Union, Committee on Protection of North American Birds. Bird Protective Society of America ; Boone and Crockett Club League of American Sportsmen National Association of Audubon Societies National Association of Game and Fish Wardens. New York Zoological Society North American Fish and Game Protective Asso- ciation. Secretary. A. K. Fisher, chair- man. Edward C. Pease Post-office. Madison Grant G. O. Shields, presi- dent. William Dut cher , president. George L. Carter. . . . Madison G rant E. T. D. Chambers... Department of Agriculture, Washington, I'. C. 28 Stafford Building, Buf- falo, N. Y. 11 Wall street, New York, N. Y. 1209 Broadwav, New York, N. Y. 141 Broadway, New York, N. Y. Lincoln, Nebr. 11 Wall street, New York, N. Y. Quebec, Canada. AMERICAN BREEDERS' ASSOCIATION. President, James Wilson, Washington, D. C; vice-president, L. H. Kerrick," Bloomington, 111.; secretary, W. M. Hays, Washington, D. C; treasurer, Oscar Erf, Manhattan, Kans.; chairman animal section, A. P. Grout, Winchester, 111.; secretary animal section, C. B. Davenport, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y. ; chairman plant section, Chas. W. Ward, Queens, N. Y.; secretary plant section, N. E. Hansen, Brookings, S. Dak. FARMERS' NATIONAL CONGRESS. President, John M. Stahl, Chicago, 111.; first vice-president, B. Cameron, Stagville, N. C; second vice-president, Joshua Strange, Marion, Ind.; treasurer, W. L. Ames, Oregon, Wis.; secretary, George M. Whitaker, Washington, D. C; first assistant secre- tary, Luther H. Tucker, Albany, N. Y. ; second assistant secretary, John H. Kimball, Port Deposit, Md. ; executive committee, president, secretary, and treasurer, E. W. Wickey, East Chicago, Ind.; Levi Morrison, Greenville, Pa.; A. C. Fuller, Dows, Iowa. PATRONS OF HUSBANDRY. OFFICERS OF NATIONAL ORAN'CK. Master, N. J. Bachelder, Concord, N H.; overseer, T. C. Atkeson, Morgantown, W. Va, ; lecturer. G. W. F. Gaunt, Mullica Hill, N. J.; treasurer, Mrs. E. S. McDowell, Rome, N. Y.; secretary, C. M. Freeman. Tippecanoe City, Ohio; executive commit- tee, E. B. Norris, Sodus, N. Y.; C. J. Bell, East Hardwick, Vt.; F. A. Derthick, Mantua, Ohio; N. J. Bachelder, ex officio, Concord, N. H. "Deceased. WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS IN 1906. 473 KEVIEW OF WEATHER CONDITIONS DURING THE CROP SEASON OF 1906. By James Berry, Chief of Climatological Division, Weather Bureau. The accompanying illustrations (see figs. 17 to 19 and Plates XL to XLII) and tables (pp. 490 and 491) show how the temperature and rainfall over the United States during the crop season of 1906, from week to week, compare with the normal conditions of corresponding periods of former years. The diagrams exhibit the depar- ture from normal by districts, and the maps show, respectively, the departures from normal temperature, the total precipitation, and the departures from normal precipi- tation during the crop season. January. January, 1906, was exceptionally mild over much the greater part of the country, the average temperature being above the normal in all districts, with the exception of the central portions of the middle and southern Plateau regions and extreme south- ern Florida, where it was slightly below, and in portions of the Gulf States, where it was about normal. The excess in temperature throughout the central and northern portions of the country was unusually marked, ranging from 6° to 13° per day. In the Missouri, upper Mississippi, and Red River of the North valleys, the Lake region, and southern New England the temperature excess generally was more than 9°. On the Pacific coast the temperature excess was slight, except in Washington and over the interior portions of central and northern California, where it was more than 3° per day. The precipitation exceeded the average in the upper Mississippi, lower Missouri, and lower Arkansas valleys, the northern portion of the upper Lake region, the greater part of the South Atlantic States, the western portion of the central Plateau region, and in California, except in the vicinity of San Francisco and in the extreme southern part of the State. Over areas extending from western Arkansas to southern Illinois and from western Florida to southwestern Virginia the precipitation was unusually heavy, amounts ranging from 6 to more than 9 inches being reported from these dis- tricts. Generally throughout New England and the Middle Atlantic States, the lower Lake region, upper Ohio Valley, eastern Tennessee, in the central and west Gulf States, southern Plateau region, and on the north Pacific coast the precipitation was below the average, being decidedly deficient in New England and the lower Lake region and in portions of the central and west Gulf districts. LITTLE SXOW OX THE GROUND. At the close of the month the districts east of the Rocky Mountains were wholly free from snow, with the exception of a comparatively small area extending from the upper Missouri Valley eastward to Lake Huron, including a small part of the upper Mississippi Valley. There was practically no snow in New England, except in shel- tered places in the northern portion. February. As a whole, February, 1906, averaged colder than usual in the Middle and South Atlantic and Gulf States, Ohio Valley, and portions of the lower Lake region and the upper Mississippi Valley. The deficiency in temperature was most marked in the upper Ohio Valley and in the central Gulf States, where it amounted to 6° per day. Generally throughout the South Atlantic and Gulf States and in the Ohio and central Mississippi valleys the deficiency amounted to more than 3° per day. Over the north- ern portion of the Lake region, along the New England coast, and over the south- eastern Rocky Mountain slope the month averaged slightly milder than usual; it was decidedly milder than usual throughout the Rocky Mountain and Plateau regions and in the upper Missouri Valley, where the temperature excess ranged from 3° to 12° per day, being most marked in Montana. From the 1st to the 3d the maximum temperatures on the central and southern California coasts equaled or exceeded the records of former years for the- first decade of February; on the 19th and 20th unseasonably high maximum temperatures occurred in central Nebraska, the upper Michigan Peninsula, and in northern New England, and on the 23d and 24th the maximum records were broken at numerous stations in the lower Lake region, lower Ohio Valley, and New England. 474 YEAEE'-'K OF THE DEPABTMEHT OE AGRKULTUEE. if I 1 ^ - : sq — -A-r- zzz i / t . ', • " " • - 5 - •-/"^^.y. \-Ru41c5i. I ?. J - -• - ; I - 5 < ^^ =1=1 & M^ V U' -- -' :r ': ~ - - -■ - a, zs z 3 /> : ^ j: " ; J ;^?7|3 /tf /7 .z? ■ ■ 7^ 7 V" ^ ■■ ^ ■ ' . , ~ n=x z^v .■— — y ■~ZL = j — ■. - '- -' " ___: -- - -C. 1 -JtlI: 1' z~ 5 :0 -7 1- fj . =E ■^ ._ . .,.,-• / ~^i ~~^z = — ' — -i — ~ ■ . -• ..^^ — ^f 3/6 ■JUv-lC. : _'__. ->"<£// f. 0 n zi 1VZ ~ r J L ; ^T7— ; B3S -3; ZEE^^S \>r*' r ' " - - j • . •_<.Vc-t-5, -- 17. — 1 or - Eu ;ouri Valley WEATHER AXD CROP COXDITIOXS IX 1906. 475 1 4 0 Jlpr S <"' Jlpril. JtC,<2l/. rfjamte*. t/rclr/ Jill/?ttst. Sept. ^ 9 \I6 23 :<:■ 7 1+ \2I 2« 4 // /« C' z 5 |/^ 23|50 6 13 ;•«> 2? 3 \/0 \/7 8* / t ' • \ \ - l '■i » i V \ ft \ A , 1 i -- - * V -£ / \ i\ A ■ • ■ Zi i 7^ '^C^ , *r\\ I V TA K ^ k r i - d 7A 7^ ^1 •^ ■ ' I \ ^ ^ , <\ I 1 ri ■ | ' Z^ST v .' < :• 7 - \ i 1 / ^ \ ' V 1 \' • i ■ l ; \ / ,1 : i 1 1 ' I l ! '. i / yt -I \ -/a > 1. r:: i / 1 i /.3z 1 i Co 1SS + 5 0 5 -,'C iviJVte Jlpril. JW&a/. (Tu^ve-. t7j&9/. JlltqitSi. Sept. 9 \IS\Z3\30 7 /-? 2/ ?*' ■? |// |/*J2J z a \/6\zs\io 6 /J|2' i ,4 1 :'' i ; ' ' i ' ! 1 , 1 1 'I ' '1 1 | ' M 1 1 ' ',' ' 1 i 1 '; I ' 1 i 25 7T t , \ . \ i tx 1 ' ' *i - IT ZI i ~-\ ■-V I \ / 0. J\ i', [A '>r < _y V' \ i i i y\ ,' _J(vT .- -. M 'V -". . ■■ f "Jiv \\ "7" 7-i l ^ lZ ~\\ i V_.' \ / k' \ /I \ ' .< ^ 1 V /i \ VI • s' - I 1 1. ' i j I ■ lra '-' 1 ' T, , , 1 i r« I . i | I i i K w 0 JaxJPb Jlpril. JK.-&?/ Ji-Lly. Jluu/usl. Se'/ ^ 9 \/6 Z3 ^J 7 ■'- 2/ 28 & // |//12J Z \9\16 \23\50 6 s :-■ 2? 3 /.^ /•/ 2< / \ 1 1 1 4 _ 1 1 / 1 1 1 1 I i i 1 1 1 i J • ' ! i ;• i 1 1 1 a \ 1 - 7~ i (Ml I n ? ' i "M r \ 74^ ,1 ' l I * >' s 1 — — ~z. \ \ '\ ^r-; / f 1 /" ^t^\ ^-~ ■ \ / ZI' ' 1 "ZZ . rhJ ! _ / i r^, -/- =P- — ^ — /_ >H ~L ^ ^^^J t^=^i- 2 , • ' , *— - 1 1 ' — / r^. 1 7—i. — *- V- Arr | ; I1 / r ■ \' /l / ■ Vi/J-> J 1 'i i ■ < 1 Wr ' ' ;l l, / V y~ it j • y' 1*9 /.0S[ ' V i i may 3 1 0 Jlpril. Jllay. J'UTt &. tfeclg/. JlusQzisi, Sept. 9 '6 23 \30 1 j ' 7 '-■; ?/ let TT7T ft ^^ z -; H : .-' i - 6 j/3 r.;;.'7 3 « '7 Z<» / -H- ■ I • i i 3 ' — : \ .- ^ ., , — —\ 1 ■-1 - P ^ r 5 3./Z ^ \ V 1 .■ 1 > I l , 4fc -^ — . "v' — i V 7 - ^s — : 1 1- Tt ?7i,b£7-A .^J \ • ) . , yf 1 A I f 1 - \J / - ■" ■ •• / ,/ ! ! . \\ V 1 \ 1 ii \ - ' - i / 1 ' ■ i \ ■- ,- ; " . '.t . ' . 1 I ,* ! I • 1 ■ . ■ i 1 1 1 !'• 1 • 1 1 II] i -1 if I H g -April, -./'..-: | i r». j , .^'\; '. r » 1 1 ''•' \ '■ i ..__ . . , \ .,'. • n m ™ p , i- • ! 1 A1 \/;i \ ! /+ ..." \ 1/ l i ' 1 ■ ' > > ; 1 >• r.s z i 1 •a 1 2- Jl'pr 2 =» Ek&uM ■Jlprii. ■J/tcty. _''7-- ■' -/ 1 1 ^ \/ , , ; . \ V ^ i v ' 1 | 1 1 ii 1 - & 0 \_Jlp >JiZ,aj/ c^/ 'July. '.-" — y ti ;; I " -- i t ; ' '.I 1: 1 1 '•' ' ■ ! \- 1' / . l ' \ / 1 1 Si / . ', k/ . ••' v ! ; ST|~ 1 1 1 1 i rre77z'f>€-raZuj'c,i7islec??-ees, "Precip: ,~\ : .'.- :-- ."«.-., ~-~ .: :: ' . : Fig. 19.— Temperature (decrees Fahrenheit) and precipitation inches') depart 19u6 from the normal of man] I The Lake region, the .ssippi Valler. V alley, and Tennessee. ■aaaa :f the Ohio Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, >9°6 Plate xl. Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. Plate xli. Yearbook U. S Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. Plate xlii. WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS IN 1906. 477 COLD WAVES. The first well-defined cold wave of the winter of 1905-6 advanced from Manitoba to the Atlantic coast States from the 1st to the 3d of February, with temperature 30° below zero at Winnipeg, Manitoba, on the 1st and 24° below zero at Sault Ste. Marie, Mich., on the 2d. On the morning of the 3d the temperature was below zero in the interior of New York and New England. The line of 10° was traced through the Dis- trict of Columbia and southwestern Virginia and the line of freezing temperature through northwestern Florida. From the 3d to the 6th a cold wave advanced from the Rocky Mountains over the central valleys and the Middle Atlantic and New England States, carrying the line of zero temperature to Kansas, the Ohio River, and the interior of New York and New England. From the 13th to the 15th a cold wave swept from British America to the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, with zero temperature in the States of the lower Missouri Valley on the morning of the 14th and a fall in tempera- ture of 20° to 30° in the interior of the Atlantic and east Gulf States by the morning of the 15th. A moderate cold wave overspread the central valleys and the eastern and southeastern States during the 26th, 27th, and 28th, attended by heavy snow from the middle Mississippi Valley over a great part of the Ohio Valley and in southern portions of the Middle Atlantic States, and by frost to the middle and east Gulf coasts and northern Florida. Generally the precipitation was below the average, the month being exceptionally dry in the lower Lake region, Ohio Valley, and over the greater part of the interior of the Atlantic coast and Gulf districts. From the northern portion of the central Gulf States northeastward to the lower Lake region the deficiency in precipitation ranged from 2 to more than 4 inches, the most marked deficiency occurring in Tennessee and the adjacent portions of Arkansas, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina, and Kentucky. Over a large part of the eastern Rocky Mountain slope and in the upper Missouri Valley the total precipitation for the month amounted to less than one-fourth of an inch and was decidedly below the average. In the lower Missouri Valley, por- tions of the central Mississippi Valley, along the immediate Atlantic coast from New Jersey to South Carolina, and in southern Florida, the precipitation exceeded the average, the excess being quite marked in eastern North Carolina, southern Florida, and portions of the central Missouri Valley. More than the average precipitation also occurred over the southern portions of New Mexico, Arizona, and California, in parts of central and northern California, and in western Oregon and southern Washington. At the close of the month the area covered with snow was generally confined to the extreme northern districts, although portions of the central Mississippi and Ohio val- leys and the Middle Atlantic States were covered to considerable depths. The amount of snow on the ground in northern New England was much less than usual at this time of the season. March. The prominent features of March, 1906, were abnormally low mean temperature during the first and second decades, lack of sunshine, and generally excessive precipi- tation, although the latter was much below the average on the north Pacific coast and in portions of the west Gulf States, and portions of the Lake region and South Atlantic States received less than the average. Damaging freshets occurred in California and in portions of the northern Rocky Mountain region, upper Mississippi Valley, and east Gulf States. There was very general complaint of excessive cloudiness and moisture and of low temperatures in nearly all districts east of the Rocky Mountains. The month averaged colder than usual throughout the country, with the exception of a comparatively small area embracing the southern portions of California, Arizona, and New Mexico and extreme western Texas, where the temperature was normal or slightly above. The month was decidedly cold in the middle and northern Rocky Mountain regions and eastward over the central valleys and the greater part of the Lake region and Atlantic coast and Gulf districts. The region in which the greatest deficiency occurred extends from Idaho southeastward over the middle Rocky Moun- tain slope and the lower Missouri, central Mississippi, and lower Ohio valleys, including the western portion of Tennessee and the northern portion of the central Gulf States, the average daily temperature in these districts ranging from 6° to 10° below the normal. Along the immediate coast from Florida to southern New England the tem- perature was generally below the normal, but the departures were not marked. FROSTS AND LOW TEMPERATURES. The cold wave of the closing days of February caused heavy frost in extreme north- ern Florida on the morning of March 1. From the 1st to 5th a moderate cold wave advanced from the British Northwest Territory to the east Gulf and South Atlantic 478 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. s, attended by zero temperature in the extreme Northwest, by falls in tempera- ture of 10° to 20° in the central valleys and the Eastern State?. and~by heavy frost on the East Gulf coast and at Jacksonville. The second decade of the month was excep- tionally cold, "with heavy snow, from the middle and northern Plateau and Rocky Mountain regions over the States of the Missouri and up] d'pi valleys and the northern Lake region. During this period temperatures 20° to 30° below zero occurred in the up] M -- iri Valley: zero temperatures were reported from Wyoming, the middle Miss ::i Valley, Minnesota, and upper Michigan: and at the close of the le the interior of Texas, the middle and east Gulf coasts, and extreme northern Florida were visited by heavy frost. From the 21st to 23d a moderate cold wave advanced from the British Northwest Territory eastward over the northern districts. No well-defined cold wave appeared after the 23d. The t- >tal precipitation exceeded the average in the Middle Atlami. Stat I »hio. tipper Mississippi and Missouri valleys, middle Rocky Mountain slope, middle and southern Plateau region. California, and portions of the central and east Gulf B and Lake region. The monthly precipitation ranged from 6 to more than 12 inches in central and southern Mississippi, central Alabama, and norther: a while the Ohio Valley and the greater part of the Middle Atlantic States and New England received from 4 to more than (i inches. There was much less than the average precip- itation in the greater part of Texas and over a narrow area extending thence to south- rn Virginia. On the P;. the precipitation was abnormally heavy in California, the greater part of that S iving from 4 to 12 inches, while Oi and Washington received much less than the average. At the dose of the month very little snow remained on the ground in the districts : the Rocky Mountains, except incite upper Michigan Peninsula alone the e of Lake Superior, where the depth ranged from IS inches to more than 2 fe t. The Crop Seasox. April-September. Summary by Weeks. By weeks, ending with Monday, from April 9 to October 1. the weather conditions may be summarized a* foil April 'j. — Although there was much cloudiness, generally favorable weather condi- tions prevailed, especially during the latter part of the week, in the central and northern distri 'he Rocky Mountain-. There was, however, to., much rain in portions of the Missouri and upper Mississippi valleys. In the southwestern dis- tricts, from Oklahoma an -ward over the Plateau region, the week . ad stormy. Frosts occurred . :ih as the northern portions of the central and east Gulf districts. This week averaged warmer than usual in the Lake region, central valleys. Middle Atlantic, and central Gulf States, and on the north and middle Pacific coasts. The -- in temperature ranged from r day in the central valleys, tl part of the Lake region, and along the immediate coasts of Washington, Oregon, and northern California, the most marked departures occurring in Minnesota and North L>akota. In northern New England and the Florida Peninsula, and over an area embracing the central and southern PL - uthern California, the south- eastern Rocky Mountain slope, and erature averaged below the normal. The precipitation was much above the average over tin- - Plateau r< g rn Rocky Mountain slope, the lower Missouri and upper Mississippi valleys, and over the greater part of the Lake region, amounts ranging from 1 inch to 2 i: being reported r part of these districts. In the Atlantic and Gulf coa«t districts, the northern Plateau region, and on the Pacific coast t: itation was below tin- . uly light showers occurring in the Middle Atlantic States and on the north Pacific coast, with practically no rain over a large part of the South Atlantic and eat in central and northern California, and over much of the northern Plateau region. SEVERE LOCAL STORMS. 7 16. — While this * ged milder than usual throughout nearly the whole country, the latter part was decidedly cool, with light to heavy frosts on the 15th and 16th as far south as the northern portions of tin- Southern States. Oomph much rain were received from the Middle Atlami. 1 portions of the Missouri Valby. The mild temperatures and generally light precipitation in the Southern • favorable. In the Missouri and upper Mississippi valleys there was much sunshine, especially during the fore pan of the week, while in the Middle Atlantic ■ the duration of sunshine was below the av. i Violent and destructh i the 12th and 13th in portions of the an, upper Mississippi, and Ohio valleys and west Gulf Sta WEATHER AND CHOP CONDITIONS IN 1 479 The precipitation was very heavy in New England and the Middle Atlantic Sta - where amounts generally ranging from 1 inch to 4 inches were reported. 1! rains also occurred in portions of the central Missouri and Red River of the N valleys, and more than the average nil over a large part of the Lake region, middle Rocky Mountain slope, anil local areas in the South Atlantic States and Texas. In the Ohio Valley and portions of the tipper Lake region and upper Mississippi Valley and generally throughout the Southern States and the Plateau and Pacific regions the precipitation was below the average, no appreciable amount being reported from western Texas, southwestern New Mexico, the southern portions of Arizona and California, northern California, the greater part of Oregon, eastern Washington, north- ern Idaho, and western Montana. . — During this week much the greater part of the country experienced very favorable temperatures, although some complaint of cool w< ather during a part of the week was received from portions of the west Gulf and Atlantic coast districts. There ample sunshine, except in the central and west Gulf States, where much of the ■work was cloudy or partly cloudy. There was an absence of rain over a large part of the central valleys and east Gulf States and New England, with only light showers in the Lake region and Middle Atlantic States, while heavy rains occurred in Texas. The need of rain was beginning to be felt in Tenni - and Florida. F g rieral occurrence at the beginning or close of the wi-vk in the Lake region. Ohio Valley, and the interior portions of the Middle and South Atlantic States. low temperatures: local droughts. "/ SO. — While the temperature conditions to the eastward of the Rocky Moun- tains were generally favorable, there was much complaint of cold nights during the fore part of the week in the districts east of the Mississippi River, light frost? occurring as far south as the Carolinas and the northern porti - G< rgia and Alabama, with heavy frosts and freezing temperatures in the higher portions of the more northerly districts. Over the middle and southern Plateau regions the temperatures were asonably 1 ally during the middle of the week, when heavy frosts were general. The droughty conditions reported in the previous week in Tennessee and portions of the east Gulf States continued, the area needing rain being materially increased, at this time embracing North Carolina and a i - ble part of the upper ssippi and lower Ohio valleys. Severe local - nrred in a number of the s, and also in Tennessee and northern Georgia, from the 26th to the 2S;h. As a whole, there was ample sunshine. May 7. — This week averaged warmer than usual in the middle and north Pacific listricts and over the western p irti< >nsof the middle and northern Plateau regions: averaged warmer than usual in the west Gulf States and in all districts east of the Mississippi River, with the exception of the upper Mississippi Valley, the western portion of the upper Lake region, and the interior of northern New England. In the middle and south Atlantic coast districts and in northern California, the temperature - ranged fn »m i>D to 9° per day. and it exceeded 3° per day in southern New England, the upper Ohio Valley, eastern Tennessee, and in the central and west Gulf districts and north Pacific coast region. In the southern Plateau region and over the eastern .- Mountain slope and the Missouri and upper Mississippi valleys the week aver- colder than usual, the deficiency in temperature being less than 3° per day most of the area comprised by the districts mentioned, but ranging from 3° to (i° per day over ;; a Rocky Mountain slope and the upper Missouri Valley. Light to heavy frosts were general in the middle Rocky Mountain districts and throughout the Lake region and central valleys. HEAVY RAINS IN' PORTIONS OF THE COTTON REEL. The rainfall was above the average over the greater part of the Southern States. being exceptionally heavy in the central and northern portions of Alabama and V sippi and in Arkansas and northeastern Texas, where amounts ranging from 2 to ] than S inches fell. Moderate to heavy rains occurred in eastern Nebraska, porti northwestern Iowa, the central portions oi Illinois and Indiana, the northern portions of Minnesota and Wisconsin, and at some stations in southern New England and the Middle Atlantii - In the lower Missouri and upper Ohio valleys, the greater part of the Lake region, the eastern portion of the Carolinas. and the Florida Peninsula, along the immediate Gud a >ast. in western Texas, and generally throughout the Plateau and Pacific coast regions, the precipitation was below the average, no appreciable amounts of rain falling in the southern Plateau and Pacitic coast regions, except light showers in southeastern California. Excessively heavy rains proved damaging over 480 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the northern portions of the central Gulf States. The droughty conditions in the pre- vious week were very largely relieved. The greater part of Florida and portions of South Carolina and Missouri, however, continued to need rain. There was much cloudiness in the Lake region and in portions of the Gulf States. The weather condi- tions on the Pacific coast were favorable, except cool nights in Washington and Oregon. UNUSUAL WARMTH IX THE UPPER MISSOURI VALLEY. May 14- — This week averaged wanner than usual on the north Pacific coast, through- out the Plateau and Rocky Mountain regions, and in the Missouri and Red River of fhe North valleys. The average daily - st marked in the more northerly of these districts and ranged froni 6° to 9° from the upper Missouri Valley westward to the rn portions : Oreg a and Washington and northern Nevada. On the southern California coast, in the west Gulf States, and in all districts east of the Mississippi River the week averaged cooler than usual, being abnormally cool in the lower Lake reg Ohio Valley, and the Middle and South Atlantic and east Gulf States, where the defi- ciency in temperature generally ranged from 6° to 11° per day. being most marked over the interior portions of the South Atlantic and east Gulf States and over the western por- tion of northern Xew England. Unusually high maximum temperatures occurred in the upper Missouri Valley on the 10th and 11th. when temperatures ranging from 90° to 96° were reported. P zing temperatures, or temperatures below freezing, occurred in the upper Mis-- souri Valley, over the greater part of the Lake region, in the upper Ohio Valley, in the interior porti< »na of the Middle Atlantic States, and in northern New England. Killing - were general from the 8th to the 11th throughout the central valleys and Atlantic districts, and light frosts occurred as far south as the interior portions of the cen- tral and east Gulf St. - DRY WEATHER PREVALENT. The rainfall w the average in nearly all districts east of the Rocky Moun- tains. : being practically rainless over the greater part of the central an>. Gulf States and in Tennessee and in portions of the lower Ohio and central Mississippi valleys. The northern portion of the upper Lake region and the interior portion of the Middle Atlant: - received only light - and in places no appreciable amount. There was more than the average over the southern portion of the upper Lake region and also in the middle Plateau region and portions of California. Showers, m one-fourth to 1 inch, occurred in the north Pacific coast region, buv . the precipitation in that region was below the average. The w much drier than usual, being practically rainless in the central and west Gulf States, Ten- . and in portions of the Middle Atlantic St. Ohio and central Missis- sippi valleys, in all of which districts rain was needed. DECIDED TEMPERATURE EXTREMI> May 91. — This week averaged cooler than usual in the central and northern Pacific coast districts and over the western portions of the middle and northern Plateau s. the deficiency in temperature ranging from 3° to 8° per day over the interior portions of central and northern California and from 3° to 5° per day in western Nevada and in Oregon and the adjacent portions of Idaho and Washington. On the immediate west Gulf coast and in extreme southern Florida the week averaged slightly cooler than usual, but elsewhere east of the Rocky Mountains and over the southern Plateau raged warmer than usual, being decidedly warm over the middle wtain slope and throughout the central valleys. Lake region, and Middle Atlav where the average dailv temperature excess eeneralfv ranged from 6° The maximum temperature records of former years for the second decade of May were led at a number of stations in the upper Mississippi Valley on the 17th and 1 Sth. and at some st. - uthern Xew England and the Middle Atlantic States on the nd 19th. Freezing temperatures occurred in the middle Plateau and northern untain regions and in the extreme northern districts eastward of the upper iri Valley, and light to fa - irred in the Dakotas and Minnesota and generally throughout the 1 \ n and northern Xew England on the 19th and 20th. As a whole, the week was drier than usual, a large part of the Atlantic coast and - and portions of the central valleys and the Lake region receiving no appreciable amount of rain. There was also a general absence of rain in the southern Plateau and south Pacific coast regions. On the north Pacific coast the rainfall was WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS IN 1906. 481 considerably above the average, more than an inch being reported from the coast dis- tricts of northern California, Oregon, and Washington. Heavy rains occurred in north- ern Texas and portions of Oklahoma and Indian Territory. Minnesota, eastern North Dakota, Montana, and portions of South Dakota, Iowa, and southern Florida received more than the average. A large part of the central valleys and Middle Atlantic States. had now experienced a period of more than two weeks without appreciable rainfall, and droughty conditions, more or less serious, prevailed over practically the whole territory east of the Mississippi River and also in portions of the Missouri Valley and west Gulf States. May 28. — On the Pacific coast and in the middle and northern Plateau and Rocky Mountain regions the week averaged much cooler than usual and the precipitation was exceptionally heavy for the season, especially in California, over the greater part, of which State the weekly rainfall ranged from 1 inch to nearly 4 inches, the heaviest, that had occurred during the last decade of May in more than twenty years. The week was also unseasonably cool and wet in the Dakotas, Minnesota, and Wisconsin, freezing temperatures occurring in the Red River of the North and upper Missouri valleys,, with exceptionally heavy rains in southern Minnesota. In the lower Missouri, cen- tral Mississippi, and Ohio valleys, and in the lower Lake region and Middle Atlantic States the greater part of the week was much warmer than the average, but the last two days were unseasonably cool, and light frosts occurred in the central Missouri and upper Mississippi valleys and upper Lake region. HEAVY RAINS ON THE PACIFIC COAST AND IN FLORIDA. Throughout the Pacific coast and middle and northern Rocky Mountain regions and also in the upper Missouri, upper Mississippi, and Red River of the North valleys the rainfall was much above the average, and over the greater part of central and northern California it was unusually heavy for the season, ranging from 1 to nearly 4 inches. The total fall at San Francisco was 2.6 inches, which was the heaviest that had occurred at that place in the third decade of May since 1884. While portions of the central Mississippi and lower Ohio valleys and lower Lake region received very light rainfall, good rains fell over most of the country east of the Rocky Mountains. Depths rang- ing from 1 to more than 3 inches fell in New England, while southern Georgia and the greater part of Florida received from 2 to more than 4 inches, the total fall at. Jacksonville, Fla., exceeding 13 inches. Portions of central and northern Texas also received more than the average, but in eastern Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, and in portions of Missouri, southern Illinois, and the western portions of Kentucky and Tennessee the rainfall was very light. The drought conditions which had become severe in the preceding week were wholly or partially relieved over the greater part of the area affected. Drought continued, however, in portions of the central and west Gulf States, and in portions of the lower Missouri, central Mississippi, and lower Ohio valleys. June 4. — The week ending June 4, 1906, as a whole, was unseasonably cold in the Plateau regions and over the greater part of California, and the fore part of the week was also unseasonably cold in the northern districts eastward of the Rocky Mountains; and in the east Gulf States. Light to heavy frosts occurred in exposed places in the Lake region and upper Ohio Valley, and also in portions of the middle and northern Rocky Mountain and Plateau regions. The rainfall was below the average over a large part of the Gulf States and through- out the Lake region, but was ample and generally well distributed in New England, the Middle Atlantic States, the lower Ohio and central Mississippi valleys, and over the northern portion of the west Gulf States. Throughout the northern Plateau region and the greater part of the northern and middle Pacific coast districts the rainfall was phenomenally heavy for the season, especially in Idaho and the eastern portions of Oregon and Washington. LOCAL STORMS AND DROUGHT. Damaging local storms occurred in portions of the New England and Middle Atlantic- States on May 31 and June 1. Drought continued in northern Missouri, extreme southern Illinois, southern Arkan- sas, and in portions of Florida, Louisiana, and Texas, being especially severe in the southeastern part of the last-named State. June 11. — In the northern Rocky Mountain region, the middle and northern Plateau- districts, and the northern and middle Pacific coast districts, the week ending at 8 a. m.^ June 11, 1906, averaged cooler than usual, and was the fourth consecutive week in which the temperature in these districts had been abnormally low. The deficiency 3 a 1906 31 482 YEARBOOK OF THE HBPABXMKHI OP AGBK'ULTURE. in temperature - - le and northern bh regions and the interior of nonhern California. Over the s- 'inheastern B Mountain slope, the ] Valley, weat Gttlf Staf ..:d of --ppi River, with ti: week was warn rature ex :nuch B named. I res occurring in the Lake region, Ohio Valley, and pon- - Middle A Unseasonably high maximum temperatures occurred n Gulf States at sfc « from New leans, La., 1 - ratures equal : -ling the 1.:. orded m the first d ne. Freezing I curred over limited areas in the I rrion. where, however, the minimui^ aged from 343 to 40°. 71X1 "ATIOX The ereater part of Nehraaa ~a and p nonhern Illinois, north- rthern Virginia i s ."din southeastern Texas and in per e central Guli ■ m Kansas and pen ions of the a y and up: red from fa rains and fresh - . ler than I northern Cali- fornia, on the north I a nearly all Ifoun- ficieney in temperature r. _ fthedistri \ - memo, central 1 southern :' the Lake a, and the interior . f the Middle Allan" 3 /.and. Over the eastern Rocky Mountain slope, southern Plateau I I fornia, on the and in extreme eastern M.. -aged _ tly warmer than tisu. . lay. y high maximum temperatures occurred in the Rio Grande V \ - ranged f r 110°. Uaaeaaoi minimum temperatures occurr- I a til - "the Lake region, upper Ohio Valley, nonhern portion of the Middle Atlar and in Xew England, numerous stations reporting the lowest readings yet recorded in the second d- ase. heavy Kama ix the atiaxt: General]; _ , thvataceoac - ater part of the east Gulf States, the ra: :.iuch _ Florida, and eastern Ala'oama. in portions 9 front 4 1 more than 11 inches was ad Oregon. north . n Kansas northward the eastern porf -rage rainfall. From the west Gulf Lake region the precip: Plateau r a ver a large part of T an area exten< _ Arkansas north- to Minn- - rainfall. ■■and in places by hail. Lake : and Middle Atlantic St. - COOL WEATHER EH THE IXTEV. —1 ek ending . 25 avenged w mer than usual Atlantic. Gulf, and Pacr - - :n which rage daily temperatui -- Sacn here it amounted to 7°. Over tlv ice region the average daily temperature lor the week was nearly normal. ; week aver:.. : than usual, being decidedly cool <>n the northerr. and from the upper Ohio Valley westward to the central and nonhern F Throughout the central valleys and middle 8 main region th- • daily temperature deficiency amour r more, and in the northern B ntain region and the upper ■uaaottii Valley it ranged imrn 9° to 12L the mffl marked depar- tures from the normal occurring in th< M raska. Wj - and eastern Montana. WEATHER AND CBCBP CONDITIONS TX 1D per day. the most marked depart ures occurring over the middle E< >eky M< luntain slope. Over the west- ern portions of the Plateau districts and in the Pacific coast States, except along the central California coast, the week averaged warmer than usual, being decidedly warm over the interior of central and northern California and in Washington and Or g where the temperature excess ranged from 3° to 12° per day. Unusually high maximum temperatures occurred in the middle and north Pacific coast regions, readings ranging from 100° to 10S° occurring in central and northern California, and from l00° to 104° in portions of Oregon and AVashington. At Rosebtirg, Oreg.. the maximum of 102° on the 12th was 2° higher than any maximum previ recorded at that station in the second decade of July. The minimum temperature- on the morning of the 16th in the upper Mississippi Valley were unusually low. 52° at Des Moines. Iowa, corresponding to the lowest minimum temperature previously recorded at that station in the second decade of July. HEAVY RAINS IX THE GULF STATES. Over most of the Gulf States the rainfall exceeded the average and in many places was excessively heavy, although scattered areas received less than the average. North- ern Florida and portions of Georgia. Alabama, Louisiana, and Texas received amounts ranging from 2 to more than 6 inches, the heaviest occurring in northern Florida, where a fall of more than S inches was reported. The Middle Atlantic States and portions of the Mississippi and Central Missouri valleys and upper Lake region also received i than the average precipitation, but. as a whole, there was less than the average in the central valleys. Lake region, and northern portion of the Middle Atlantic States. Light showers, giving from 0.1 to 0.5 inch, occurred on the north Pacific coast and over the southern Plateau region. Droughty conditions existed to a considerable extent in the southern portion of the upper Lake region, in parts of the lower Missouri and central Mississippi valleys, and in the northern portion of the Middle Atlantic States. As in the preceding week, local storms were comparatively few and caused very little damage. July 23. — Generally throughout the Plateau districts and in the Lake region. New England, and the Middle Atlantic States, the temperature during this week was ah rye the normal, the excess ranging from 3° to 6° per day in the northern Plateau region and from 2" to 4° in the Lake region. Xew England, and the northern portion of the Middle Atlantic States. In the lower Missouri, central Mississippi, and Ohio valleys and the South Atlantic States, and on the Pacific (.oast, the temperature was nearly normal. In the central Missouri Valley and the central and west Gulf States the week was cooler than usual, the average daily deficiency generally ranging from 1° to 5°. In the Middle Atlantic States. Ohio Valley, and Tennessee, and over the greater part of the Gulf States, the precipitation during the week was in excess of the av being unusually heavy in portions of the Middle and South Atlantic and Gulf States. Kansas, eastern Nebraska, and portions of the Lake region and upper Mississippi Valley also received more than the average rainfall, but over the greater part of the Lake region and upper Mississippi Valley there was less than the average. DROUGHT IX rORTIOXS OF THE COKX BELT. Northeastern Missouri and portions of Iowa. Illinois. Indiana, and the Dak needed rain, drought being quite severe in northeastern Missouri and the central- western counties oi Illinois, but elsewhere in the principal agricultural States ( was ample moisture, heavy rains having occurred from the central and west Gulf coasts northeastward to the lower Lake region, in the Middle and South Atlantic Suites, and in southwestern Missouri and central Ksmtem. Damaging local storms attended the heavy rainfall in the South Atlantic anu Cult States, and hailstorms caused considerable damage in Kansas. The general weather conditions on the Pacihe coast were favorable, although very high temperatures occurred in central and northern California, western Idaho, and the eastern portions of Oregon and Washington. July SO. — Throughout the central valleys and Atlantic coast districts and over the greater part of the Lake region and Gulf States this week averaged cooler than usual, WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS IN 1906. 485 the mean temperature being considerably below the normal in the central valleys and over the northern part of the middle and west Gulf districts. In the Rocky Mountain and Plateau regions and in the Pacific States, except on the immediate coast, the week was hot and generally dry. East of the Rocky Mountains both the maximum and minimum temperatures were lower than usual, the maximum not exceeding 80° at some stations in the Lake region and on the New England and middle Atlantic coasts, and being below 90° elsewhere, except in the Gulf States and at a few stations in the central Mississippi and Missouri valleys, where they ranged from 90° to 9S°. Some high maximum readings, ranging from 100° to 112°, were reported from the northern and southern Plateau regions and from the interior of central and northern California, the highest occurring at Phoenix, Ariz., where the previous maximum record for the last decade of July was exceeded by 1°. DROUGHT IX CENTRAL VALLEYS; TOO MUCH RAIN IN GULF STATES. Much of the South Atlantic and east Gulf States and portions of the central and west Gulf State;? suffered to some extent from heavy rains, while moisture was gener- ally needed in the upper Missouri Valley and over a considerable part of the lower Missouri, central Mississippi, and Ohio valleys, drought being serious in the greater part of northern Missouri. The area now affected by drought in the central valleys was less than in the previous week, but in the upper Missouri Valley the area needing rain apparently was greater. A few severe local storms occurred, mostly in the South Atlantic States and upper Missouri Valley, but as a whole the week was comparatively free from storms of this class. TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS FAVORABLE. August 6. — During the week ending August 6 the temperature averaged much above the normal in the central valleys. Lake region, and Middle Atlantic States, in which districts the preceding week for the most part was decidedly cool, while the tempera- ture was generally deficient in the Rocky Mountain and Pacific coast districts, where in the preceding week it was mostly above the normal. Generally the temperature conditions throughout the country were favorable. The Atlantic coast districts, with the exception of northern New England, suffered from excessive moisture, while portions of the lower Missouri, central Mississippi, and Ohio valleys continued in need of rain, drought being very severe in portions of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana. Drought was also prevalent on the north Pacific coast, and forest fires were burning in Oregon. The week was comparatively free from local storms. Light frost occurred on July 31 and August 1 in the upper Michigan Peninsula. DROUGHT LARGELY RELIEVED IN CENTRAL VALLEYS. August 13. — Except in the northern Plateau and north Pacific coast regions, where the week was very hot. the temperature conditions were very favorable. The droughty conditions prevailing in portions of the lower Missouri, central Missis- sippi, and Ohio valleys in the preceding week were relieved, except in northwestern Missouri. Parts of the South Atlantic and east Gulf States and scattered localities in Tennessee were beginning to need rain, while dry weather and sunshine would have proved beneficial in the Middle Atlantic States. Ohio Valley, and portions of Texas. Portions of the lower Missouri and upper Mississippi valleys, upper Lake region, and Middle Atlantic States Buffered from excessive rains. Droughty conditions in Wash- ington were relieved in part, but in Oregon drought continued, only light showers having occurred in northeastern counties. Notwithstanding the heavy rainfall over a large part of the country, the week was comparatively free from storms of a damaging character. HIGH TEMPERATURES PREVALENT. August 20. — The States of the Missouri Valley and the northern Rocky Mountain region experienced the warmest weather of the season during this Aveek. and the mean temperature was decidedly above the normal throughout the central valleys and Lake region. Very high maximum temperatures, ranging from 95° to more than 100°, occurred in the- upper Missouri Valley, some damage having lieendone by hot. winds in North Dakota. From the west Gulf coast to southeastern California and on the north Pacific coast the week averaged somewhat cooler than usual. 486 YEARBOOK OF THK DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Light frost occurred in elevated district? in Utah, also in Maine and New Hampshire on the morning of the 16th, and minimum temperatures nearly low enough for frost were reported from the higher districts in the eastern and northern portions of New York. The Missouri Valley, the lower Lake region. New England, the northern part of the Middle Atlantic States, and the greater part of the Gulf States and upper Lake region received less than the average rainfall during the week, no appreciable amount having occurred over the northern part of the Middle Atlantic States and southern New England. There was also a general absence of rain over a large area extending from west em Texas northward to eastern South Dakota. Heavy rains occurred in Virginia. North Carolina, portions of South Carolina, the interior of the central and east Gulf States. Ohio Valley, and portions of the upper Mississippi Valley, in which districts amounts ranging from 1 inch to more than 4 inches fell. The Plateau regions, espe- cially the central and southern, received much more than the usual rainfall, nearly 2 inches being reported from Yuma. Ariz. There was no appreciable rainfall on the Pacific coast, except in extreme northwest Washington. The central Missouri Valley, northern New England, a large part of the Lake region. and local areas in the east Gulf States needed rain; elsewhere cast of the Rocky Moun- tains there was sufficient moisture, portions of North Carolina having suffered from excessive rains. Rain was badly needed on the north Pacific coast. Local storms of considerable severity occurred in the Ohio and upper Mississippi valleys. August 27.- This week was cooler than usual in the valleys of the Red River of the North and the upper Missouri, throughout the Rocky Mountain and Plateau regions, and in California, and there was a slight deficiency in temperature in por- tion- of Oklahoma and north central Texas and over the greater part of the Florida Peninsula. Generally throughout the Plateau and Rocky Mountain regions and in the upper Missouri Valley the average daily temperature deficiency ranged from 3° to more than if0, the most marked departures occurring over portions of Montana and Idaho. Over the western portions of Oregon and Washington the temperature aver- aged slightly above the normal. From the lower Missouri Valley southward to the west Gulf coast and in the districts east of the Mississippi River, with the exception of Florida, the week was warmer than usual, being decidedly warm in the upper Mississippi and Ohio valleys and Lake region and over the interior portions of the Middle Atlantic States and New England, where the average daily temperature excess ranged from 0° t o 9°. UNUSUALLT HEAVY RAINS IX MONTANA, UTAH, AND NEW MEXICO. During the week there was less than the average precipitation in New England, the lower Lake region, portions of the upper Lake region and upper Mississippi and central Missouri valleys, and over a large part of the central and west Gulf States, although limited areas in all these districts received good rains, the average amount falling in some places. There was also less than the average rainfall in the upper Ohio Valley, the eastern portions of Kentucky and Tennessee, the western portions of Virginia and North Carolina, and on the north Pacific coast. The Middle and South Atlantic States, lower Ohio and central Mississippi valleys, lower and upper portions of the Missouri Valley, and the northern portion of the west Gulf States received more than the average rainfall, very heavy rains having fallen in portions of the Middle and Smith Atlantic States, lower Missouri Valley, and in portions of South Dakota. Kansas. Missouri, and Arkansas. There was also more than the average pre- cipitation throughout the States of the eastern Rocky Mountain slope and in the middle and northern Plateau regions, more than an inch of rain being reported from portions of Utah, New Mexico, and western Montana, where such rainfalls are very unusual. Dry weather continued on the north Pacific coast, where rain was also much needed. Rainfalls unusually heavy for that region, ranging from one-half inch to more than an inch, occurred over a large part of the Plateau districts. TOO MUCH RAIN IX MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES. Septembers. — While the fore part of this week was unseasonably cool in the central valleys and Lake region, as a whole the temperature conditions in the districts east of the Rocky Mountains were favorable. Light frosts occurred in the Dakotas and Minnesota, upper Michigan, and northern New England. Over the southern Plateau region the temperature averaged unusually low. and light to heavy frosts occurred in Utah and Arizona. WEATHER AXD CHOP CONDITIONS IX 1906. 487 Excessive moisture proved unfavorable in the Middle Atlantic State-, while the central Gulf States and parts of the Missouri Valley and New England needed rain. Elsewhere east of the Rocky Mountains the rains were generally well distributed, ample, and not harmful. Little or no rain fell on the Pacitic coast and drought con- tinued in Washington and Oregon. The week was almost wholly free from local storms of severity. UNUSUAL WARMTH THROUGHOUT THE COUNTRY September 10. — Throughout nearly the whole country the week ending September 10 was unusually warm, the mean temperature ranging "from (>° to more than 12° above the normal from the Lake region westward to Idaho. In California, southwestern Texas, and northern New England the week averaged slightly cooler than usual. Light frosts occurred during the fore part of the week in parts of the upper Lake region and northern Xew England, and during the latter part of the week in the southern Plateau region, eastern Oregon, and Idaho. NEEDED RAINS ON NORTH PACIFIC COAST. The week was practically rainless in most of the northern districts east of the Rocky Mountains and also over the middle and southern Plateau regions and in California. Heavy rains occurred in Texas, Tennessee, portions of the east Gulf States, and over limited areas in Missouri, Arkansas, and eastern North Carolina, causing local damage in portions of Texas and Alabama. Rain was much needed in northern Xew England, portions of the Lake region and upper Mississippi Valley, and in the northern Rocky Mountain region. Good rains terminated the drought in western Washington and showers afforded needed relief in Oregon. September 17. — This week was abnormally cool in the Plateau and Rocky Mountain regions, but in the districts to the eastward it averaged much warmer than usual, although cool during the latter part in the more northerly districts. Light frosts occurred on the 13th and 14th in the Dakotas, Minnesota, and upper Lake region, and on the loth at a few places in the lower Lake region and northern Xew England. Freezing temperatures occurred over a large part of the Plateau and northern Rocky Mountain regions. Parts of Xew England, the Lake region, Ohio Valley. Tennessee, and central and east Gulf States needed rain: elsewhere the rainfall was generally ample. Good rains fell on the north Pacific coast and generally throughout the Plateau and Rocky Moun- tain regions, and very heavy rains occurred in Oklahoma, western Kansas, Nebraska, eastern South Dakota, southern Minnesota, and western Iowa. September 24- — Over most of the country this week averaged warmer than usual, the temperature excess being very decided in the districts east of the Mississippi River and from Minnesota westward to the north Pacific coast. The week was some- what cooler than usual from the central Missouri Valley westward over the middle Rocky Mountain region, including the northern portion of the southern Plateau region. Xo freezing temperatures were reported from stations within the United States, the lowest, 34°, being reported from the Yellowstone National Park. Wyo., and Northfield, Vt.. and no frost occurred in the districts east of the Rocky Mountains. but light to heavy frosts occurred in the higher portions of Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and Xew Mexico. Heavy rains occurred in the east Gulf States, in portions of the Carolinas. Tennessee, and Kentucky, in southern Xew England, and over an area extending from Oklahoma northward to eastern South Dakota. In these districts amounts ranging from 1 inch to more than 3 inches are reported. There was more than the average over local anas in the Lake region and central and west Gulf States. In the Middle Atlantic States and Florida and generally throughout the Lake region, central valleys, and west Gulf districts, the rainfall was below the average, areas of considerable extent in Texas and the central Mississippi Valley receiving no appreciable amount. There was a general absence of rain throughout the Plateau regions and in southern California. Light showers giving from one-fourth to one-half inch occurred in the middle and northern Pacific coast districts. DAMAGE BY HIGH WINDS. On the 17th the Carolinas suffered considerably from the high winds accompanying the tropical storm off the south Atlantic coast on that date, and heavy rains and high winds in Minnesota on the 20th caused much damage. 488 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DAMAGING STORM IN" CENTRAL AND EAST GULF DISTRICTS. October 1. — During this week the rainfall was very heavy from the central and east Gulf coasts northward to the upper Mississippi Valley and upper Lake region, over which region the total rainfall accompanying the tropical storm on the 27th and 28th generally ranged from 2 to more than 8 inches, nearly 14 inches having fallen at Pen- sacola. The central and east Gulf districts sustained severe losses as a result of high winds and excessive rains accompanying this storm. The temperature conditions were generally favorable, being above the normal over nearly the whole country. Freezing temperatures occurred, however, in portions of the Rocky Mountain and upper Lake regions and in northern New England, with light to heavy, but generally harmless, frosts in the northern districts from the Mis- souri Valley eastward during the latter part of the week. REVIEW OF THE SEASON. The season from March 1 to October 1, 1906 (215 days), closed with a decided short- age in precipitation in the central valleys and west Gulf States and over a large part of the Lake region and south Atlantic coast districts. A marked deficiency also existed on the north Pacific coast. In California and generally throughout the Plateau and Rocky Mountain regions the seasonal precipitation was much above the normal. An excess was also shown over the interior portions of the south Atlantic and east Gulf districts and on the middle Atlantic coast. For the period from March 1 to this time the seasonal temperature was above the normal over the greater part of the country east of the Mississippi River, the high mean temperatures during the last six weeks having overcome the seasonal deficiency exist- ing over a large part of this region in the earlier part of the summer. The aver- age daily excess was most marked in the upper Lake region and on the southern New England and middle Atlantic coasts, where it ranged from 1° to 2° per day. The seasonal temperature was also in excess of the normal on the north Pacific coast, on the immediate coast of extreme southern California, and in the upper Missouri Valley. It was below the normal in central and northern California and throughout the middle and southern Plateau and Rocky Mountain regions, the departures ranging from 1° to 2° over the middle Rocky Mountain slope and middle Plateau region. October. The mean temperature for this month was below the normal over most of the country from the southeastern Rocky Mountain slope to the south Atlantic coast, the defi- ciency being most marked in the Gulf States, where it generally ranged from 3° to 5° per day. A slight deficiency was also shown over the Ohio and lower Missouri valleys, the western portion of the upper Lake region, and northern New England. Over the greater part of the Lake region, however, and in the upper Mississippi and Middle Atlantic States the mean temperature differed but slightly from the normal. In eastern North Carolina, southern Florida, and the upper Missouri Valley, and gen- erally throughout the Plateau and Pacific coast regions the mean temperature was above the normal, the average daily excess ranging from 3° to 5° over the northern Plateau and the greater part of California. The lowest minimum temperature, 6°, occurred at Devils Lake, N. Dak., and the next lowest, 8°. at Flagstaff, Ariz. In the Plateau region, upper Missouri Valley, and- western portion of the upper Lake region the minimum temperatures generally ranged from 12° to 20°; in the lower Missouri, upper Mississippi, and Ohio valleys and the greater part of the Lake region and New England, from 20° to 30°; over the northern portion of the Southern States, from 30° to 40°; and along the south Atlantic and Gulf coasts, from 40° to 50°, except in extreme southern Florida and on the west Gulf coast, where they were above 50°. Freezing temperatures extended as far south as the west- ern portion of southern Texas and the northern portions of Alabama and Georgia. The precipitation during October exceeded the normal over the middle Rocky Mountain slope, central Missouri Valley, and the greater part of the central Gulf States, and also in the knver Lake region, Middle Atlantic States, and portions of the South Atlanl ic States and New England. The total fall was heaviest on the west Gulf coast, where it ranged from 6 to 10 inches, while amounts ranging from 4 to more than 7 inches were reported from portions of the lower Lake region, Middle Atlantic States, and southern New England. In the lower Missouri, upper Mississippi, and Ohio valleys, in Florida, and in portions of New England and the South Atlantic States, there was less than the normal precipitation, the deficiency being marked in the lower Missouri and upper Mississippi valleys and in Florida. There was more than the usual amount in portions of western Washington, but elsewhere on the Pacific coast there was a marked deficiency, as compared with the October normal. WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS IN 1906. 489 HEAVY SNOW IX COLORADO AND WYOMING. From the 19th to the 23d a severe storm prevailed in the Rocky Mountain region, the snowfall in Colorado and Wyoming being exceptionally heavy. November. "While the weather was unusually dry in California, the north Pacific coast experi- enced unusually stormy weather during the greater part of the first half of the month, the heavy rains causing damaging freshets in Oregon and Washington. Another marked feature of the month's weather was the stormy period from the 19th to the 21st in the Mississippi and Ohio valleys, very heavy rains occurring in eastern Arkansas, northern Mississippi, the western portions of Tennessee and Kentucky, and the south- ern portions of Indiana and Illinois. In the Atlantic coast and east Gulf districts weather conditions were mild, with much less than the usual rainfall. The mean temperature was above the normal over most of the country east of the Rocky Mountains, the average daily excess being less than 3° per day, except over portions of the upper Lake region and Middle Atlantic and central Gulf States, where it ranged from 3° to 5° per day. In Tennessee and portions of the central Mississippi and lower Missouri valleys and in the middle Rocky Mountain region and northern California the mean temperature was nearly normal. Generally throughout the Plateau regions and in southern California the month averaged colder than usual, the deficiency in temperature ranging from 3° to 4° per day over an area covering portions of California, Nevada, and Utah, and in portions of eastern Oregon and Washington. The precipitation during this month was much below the average in the Atlantic coast and Gulf districts, except in extreme southern Florida and on the southern Texas coast, where it was much above the average. The total amount in the coast districts from southern New England to central Florida was generally less than 2 inches, and over a large part of this regio.. there was less than 1 inch, making the deficiency range from 1 inch to more than 2 in. hes. There was also less than the usual rainfall in the lower Lake region and upper Ohio Valley, over portions of the central Missouri Valley, and in Oklahoma and California. The precipitation was excessively heavy in the lower Ohio and central Mississippi valleys, where it ranged from 6 to 18 inches, the largest amounts being reported from eastern Arkansas, northern Mississippi, and western Tennessee. Generally throughout the Plateau and north Pacific coast regions the precipitation exceeded the average, a large excess being indicated over the south- ern Rocky Mountain region and the greater part of Oregon and Washington. At the close of the month the upper Michigan Peninsula and portions of northern Minnesota. North Dakota, and Montana were covered with snow ranging in depth from 1 inch to 11 inches. Stations in portions of Nevada and Utah reported depths at the close of the month ranging from 4 to 12 inches. Average daily departures from normal temperatures {degrees Fahrenheit) saisoa of 1906. Section. New England Middle Atlantic States South Atlantic States Florida Peninsula Eastern Gulf States Western Gulf States Ohio Valley and Tennessee. Lower Lake Region Upper Lake Region North Dakota Upper Mississippi Valley.. . Missouri Valley Northern Slope Middle Slope Southern Slope Southern Plateau Middle Plateau Northern Plateau North Pacific Coast Region Middle Pacific Coast Region South Pacific Coast Region From For week ended- to Apr. 2. April — Ma J inclu- sive. 9. 16. . '3' 30. 4. 14. 21. 28. + 1.4 -0.1 + 1.1 + 3.0 -1.1 + 1.0 -4.0 +3.2 -0.7 +0.0 + 1.8 +3.5 + 5.8 + 1.0 + 5.8 -5.1 » +5.2 + 1.4 -0.7 +0.4 +6.1 + 1.1 + 1.9 +6.5 -7.5 +3.5 -1.4 -1.2 -2.7 + 1.7 -0.3 + 1.3 +3.0 -0.7 +0.7 -0.3 -2.3 + 1.0 +3.2 -1.1 +2.9 + 3.9 -8.4 +2.5 -2.1 -1.5 +0.0 + 0.4 -2.3 +3.4 + 1.7 -4.8 +2.0 + 0.8 -1.2 +2.8 +3.9 0.0 +3.9 +2.3 -6.9 + 5.8 + 3.9 + 1.2 + 1.9 + 4.4 + 2.5 +0.5 +0.0 -5.9 +4.1 + 4.4 + 2.0 + 3.2 +3.7 +5.3 +3.4 -0.1 -3.4 +6.4 -0.9 +3.0 + 5.3 + 1.0 + 9.3 +6.3 -4.0 + 2.7 +0.7 -8.3 +0.1 + 3.9 + 1.4 +3.0 +5.3 -1.0 -1.4 + 5.5 + 1.3 + 1.7 +2.2 +0.4 + 5.5 + 4.6 -7.3 + 3.7 +7.0 +0.1 +2.4 + 1.3 + 2.1 + 9.3 + 1.7 -3.0 +6.1 +3.1 -0.0 +0.9 -1.7 + 0.7 + 4.2 +2.7 -2.2 + 1.5 +6.3 -0.5 -0.7 -2.5 + 0.5 -3.5 + 4.0 -1.5 -1.0 + 1.7 -0.7 + 1.2 -3.5 +0.8 +3.7 -4.7 -2.5 +0.3 +0.7 -5.3 + 1.4 -1.2 + 1.4 + 7.2 -3.8 + 1.4 + 3.5 -0.3 -4.5 + 1.4 +2.0 +2.0 + 7.8 +0.2 +2.2 + 6.6 -3.3 -5.2 + 1.9 + 3.7 + 1.0 + 5.3 + 1.9 +2.6 + 1.9 -3.4 -2.3 + 1.7 + 3.0 + 2.0 +3.0 -3.0 +0.3 +0.3 -5.3 -6.7 + 2.0 -0.5 + 1.0 + 5.0 -5.0 + 1.0 -1.2 — 2.2 -4.8 490 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. partures from normal temperatures idegret? Fa'' ■ sea/ton of 1906 — • I For week ended- - JUD<^ Julv- :■•. 23. -2.2 —1.2 Soot/- les —0.6 Florida Peninsula +0.3 -0.5 -- ! Ohio Valley and Tennessee ... _ _ Region —3.5 Region. —1.1 - " Upper Mississippi Valley —1.2 ' —1.6 —4.1 -0. 5 T>e 0. 0 Southern Flatten -0.3 Middle Plateau -6.2 -.teau . Pacific Coast Region.. —0.3 Middle Pacific-Coast Region. . — 4.7 South Pacific- C oast Region . . -4.0 - -. " -0.3 +3.5 +3.9 +5.4 +5.1 -0.3 4-2.1 -: - -2.1 +3.0 -3.7 -0.3 -3.7 -3.2 -2.0 0.0 -3.7 -3.9 -3.4 -0.7 -1.5 -1.1 -o.l -5.2 -4.0 -1.0 — 5.0 -1.9 ; +0.9 -1 2 -0.7 +3.0 -0.3 -2.0 -2.3 -3.7 - -3.1 -1.4 +1.0 -0.3 + 1.9. +0.4 : -3.3 I -3.1 -3.5 -9-0 -6.9 -7.9 -9-4 —6.5 -0.3 -0.S i -4.5 -4.3 + 1.0 - - -r0.9 +3.8 +3.2 0.0 I - +2.8 I _ ' | -3.5 -1.7 -0.1 , -3.0 - 1 -32 -1.0 -3.3 -3.4. -1.9 -2.0 -0.3 ■. -0. 5 , -2.8 | -2.8 -3.1 -3.3 + 1.0 -5.7 -4.9 -2.4 -7 - -8.0 • - -1.3 +5.9 +5.3 -. - -1.1 -2.5 -0.7 -1.9 -0.6 -1.2 + 1.0 -1.5 -1.0 -3.5 -2.7 -5.3 -2.7 -0.7 + 1.8 +6.1 i +3.5 +3.3 -2.4 +0.5 -0.3 -1.1 -1.4 -0.4 + 2.8 4-2 0.0 -02 -1.8 0.0 -1.3 -0.2 + 1.2 ! -0.3 +0.5 -1.4 -1.9 -2.5 -0.7 -1.1 -1.2 -3.2 -l.C -( : 0.0 —2.2 -L7 4-1 + 1.3 + 1.0 + 1.1 -1.7 For week ended- August— .-!■•:-- :': T- Octo- ber. Xew England — 1.0 Middle Atlar.- 4-3.4 South Atlantic Stat es —0.3 - .7 Florida Peninsula — 1.> Eastern Guif States -•'-• -2.0 - Guli States - : - —2. 1 Lower Lake Region —4.2 +1.8 Upper Lake Region +2.9 —1.2 akoxa -3.0 — : ... 4-2.7 +0.7 +0.8 -1.7 - :••- —2.9 Middle Slope. -0.7 -2.2 pe -2.0 -2.3 Southern Plateau —1.7 — L2 Middle Plateau -1.' -:.- Xorth I 'ac-ine Coa*t Region. . —0.7 Middle Pacific Coat: South Pacific Coast Region. . - 0. 2 -1.2 - 1.7 - L9 - 2.3 0.0 - l.i. - 0.1 - . a ■ - 4-10.3 - - 1.3 - 1.3 - 1.5 - 1.0 - 1.9 + 2.2 - +3.8 -1.5 -0.7 -3.2 +5.8 -' + 5.9 -6.0 +0.4 — 5.7 +0-8 ; -0.3 -3.8 — o. o ' ! -3.2 - + 1-7 - '. 0.0 0.0 +0.8 -0.2 -0.8 -0.5 +0.3 0.0 -3.0 -0.3 +3.8 + 1.4 -1.0 i - 0.3 - 1.4 - 1.5 + 1.3 + 2.0 - 11 - . + 6.6 - " - 9-0 - 3.0 - 1.0 0.0 - + 0.7 + 0.3 - 0..3 -1.8 -4.5 —3.5 J-1.0 -ro.0 +4.1 ■ - +6.5 +0.3 +6.8 -5.1 + 1.3 -3.7 -7.0 -1.6 -1.3 - - " • + 1.3 ' + 3.0 - - + 8.0 ! + 6.4 ! - 4.1 - 3.3 j 0.0 -0.7 - 1.7 - + 1.3 -2.0 -- -0.3 +2.8 + 1-1 +4.0 - hi + 1.8 +1.6 -4.1 +0.5 + 1.0 -- +2.8 +3.8 - " WEATHER AND CROP CONDITIONS IN 1906. 491 Departures from normal precipitation (inches and hundredths) season of 1906. Section. New England Middle Atlantic States South Atlantic States Florida Peninsula Eastern Gull states Western Guli St ites Ohio Valley and Tennessee. Lower Lake B egion Upper Lake Region North Dakota Upper Mississippi Valley. . . Missouri Valley Northern Slope Middle Slope Southern Slope Southern Plateau Middle Plateau Northern Plateau North Pacific Coast Region Middle Pacific Coast Region South Pacific Coast Region From Jan. 1 to Apr. 2. inclu- sive. -0.61 - 1. aa -1.21 +2.36 -1.07 -:;. 72 -3.40 -2.82 + 0. IS -0..-.0 +0.66 +0.41 +0. 39 -0. 39 -1.22 +0.72 + 1.45 -0. 25 -5.20 + 5.S7 For week ended— April- May— -o. 59 -8.58 -o.so -0.48 -1.05 -0. 57 -0. 22 + 0.12 +0.12 -0.11 + 0.32 +0.13 -0.02 +0. 59 +0. 85 +0. 30 + 0.29 -0.27 -0. 66 -0.03 -0. 16 + 1.22 + 1.16 + 0.09 +0.70 -0.20 -0.18 -0. 16 +0.32 +0.01 +0.30 -0.27 +0.14 -0.14 +0.21 -0.28 -0.04 +0.03 -0.20 -0.82 -0. 54 -0.28 -Ox; -0.58 -0.(9 -0. 27 -0.97 -0.31 -0.77 -0.37 -0.S8 -0.50 -0.71 -0.65 -0. 26 -0.28 +0.58 +0.06 -0.09 -0.28 -0.73 -0.46 -0.28 30. -0.37 -0.58 -0.51 -0.41 -O.tS -0.70 -0.52 -0.45 -0.35 -0. 32 -0. 53 -0.11 +0.26 +0.33 -0.48 0.00 -0.23 -0.08 -0.18 +0.66 +0.31 7. 14. +0.17 -0. 49 +0.13 -0. 63 + 0.06 -0.52 -o.eo -0.25 + 1.08 -0.66 +0.89 -0.89 • +0.17 -0.86 -0.21 + 0.14 -0.05 -0.13 -0. 05 0.00 -0.20 -0.28 -0.02 -0.76 -0.02 -0.26 -0.40 -0.S1 -0.34 -0.32 -0. 05 -o.o; -0. 02 + 0.34 -0.33 -0.26 -0. 73 -0.13 -0.50 -0.28 -0. 06 +0. 17 -0. 06 -0.72 -0.77 -0.22 -0.61 -0.23 -0.78 -0.74 -0. 52 +0.56 -0.49 -0.64 -0. 16 -0.18 -0.51 +0.06 -0. 16 +0.O.) +0. 48 + 0.32 -0.07 + 0.95 +0.20 + 1.48 +3.20 + 0.37 -0.45 +0.22 -0. 45 +0.02 + 1.28 + 0.76 + 0.25 -t-1.14 +0. 16 0.00 -0.06 +0. 51 + 0.50 +0. 26 + 1.79 +-1.(0 Section. For week ended - June- July- New England Middle Atlantic Slate:; South Atlantic States Florida Peninsula Eastern i lull States Western Gull States Ohio Valley and Tennessee. Lower Lake Region Upper Lake Region North Dakota Upper Mississippi Valley... Missouri Valley Northern Slope Middle Slope Southern Slope Southern Plateau Middle Plateau Northern Plateau North Pacific Coast Region Middle Pacific Coast Region South Pacific Coast Region 4. 11- + 0.16 + 0.81 9.09 +0. 13 -0.41 + 0.14 -0. 76 +1.18 -0.61 -0.69 +0.19 -0.81 -0.08 + 0.14 -0.80 + 0..-4 -0. 52 +0.41 +0.40 + 1.42 -0.43 -0.07 +0.04 -0.66 + 0. 12 +0. 23 -0.32 -0.56 + 1.41 -0.53 0.00 -0.07 +0.18 -0.01 +1.67 -0.02 -0. 03 + 0.38 + 0.08 + 0.03 +0.10 -0.02 18. + 0.53 +0. 52 + 3.56 + 2.07 + 0.63 -0. 76 -0.18 +0.10 -0. 59 -0.39 -0.89 -0.14 -0.25 +0.10 -0. 70 -0.06 -0.04 -0.08 +0.61 + 0. 22 -0.01 25. +0.22 + 0. 42 -0.59 + 0. 16 -1.08 -0.12 -0.08 -0.29 -0.14 -0.46 -0.09 +0.34 -0. 02 -0. 12 -0.31 -0.08 -0.09 -0.24 -0.39 -0.09 0.00 +0.09 -0.31 -0.50 -1.41 +0.02 +0.14 -0.47 -0.19 + 0.36 + 0.86 + 0.17 +0.20 -0. 22 -0.05 -0.56 -0.12 + 0.12 + 0. 15 + 0.20 + 0.07 0.00 +0. 22 + 0.14 +0. 51 +0. 96 -0.02 + 0.04 + 0.02 + 1 . 03 -0.63 -0.74 -8.65 -0.80 -0.36 -0.34 + 0.08 + 0.47 + 0. 24 -0.04 -0. 25 -0.03 0.00 16. 23. 30. -0.22 ■ +0.12 +0.33 -0.13 +0.85 +0.32 -0.03 i -0.42 -0.09 -0.20 -0. 40 +0.03 + 0.10 + 1.00 +o.4i ; -0.04 I -0.02 -0.12 -0.08 | 0.00 i 0.00 I -0.22 + 0.02 + 0.49 -0.07 + 1.08 + 0.34 + 1.32 +0.31 -0. 19 -0. 40 -0.28 +0.19 -0. 27 -0.10 + 0.11 -0.19 -0. 06 -0.03 -0.16 0.00 0.00 + 0.27 + 0.39 + 0. 42 + 2.36 +0.01 + 0.37 -0.02 + 0.24 +0.37 -0. 16 -0.01 -0. 43 -0.0S +0.S6 -0.22 -0.21 +0.16 -0.07 -0.16 0.00 0.00 Section. For week- ended— August - September- G. New E ugla nd +0.11 Middle Atlantic States +0. 35 South Atlantic States +0.38 Florida Peninsula +0. 91 Eastern Gulf States —0. 71 Western Gulf States -0. 40 Ohio Valley and Tennessee.. . — o. 59 Lower Lake Region —0.36 Upper Lake Region —0. 14 North Dakota +0. .53 Upper Mississippi Valley +0. 03 Missouri Valley +1. 27 Northern Slope + 0. 55 Middle Slope +0.01 Southern Slope +0. 22 Southern Plateau +0. 48 Middle Plateau +0. 05 Northern Plateau +0.02 North Pacific Coast Region. . —0. 14 Middle Pacific Coast Region . . 0. 00 South Pacific Coast Region. . . -0. 02 13. 20. -0.35 -0.87 + 1.07 -0. 12 -0.73 -0. 24 + 0. 40 -0.76 -a 26 +0. 25 +0.67 -0. 15 +0.40 + 0.34 +1.08 -0.38 + 0.17 -0.43 -0.09 -0.05 +0.97 +0.48 +0.67 -0.57 +0.23 +0.02 +0.20 -0.28 + 1.85 -0.46 -0.15 + 0.24 -0.09 + 0. 18 + 0.24 +0. 11 -0.04 -0.09 0.00 -0.01 -0.02 0.00 -0.22 +0.43 +0.01 +0.7S 0.00 -0.06 -0. 09 +0. 20 +0.74 + 0. 45 + 0.02 + 0.54 + 0. 64 + 0.61 +0. 65 +0.20 +0.43 + 0. 11 -0. 25 -0. 02 +0.02 3. 10. 17. +0.08 -0. 54 -0.43 +0.46 -0.82 -0.34 +0. £0 -0.47 -0. 76 -0.80 -0. 92 -1.37 -0.31 +0.78 -0.36 -0. 65 +0.30 -0. 51 -0.25 -0.13 -0. 26 -0. 13 -0.69 -0. 66 -0. 28 -0.79 +0.07 -0. 32 -0.30 +0.42 +0. 03 -0.51 + 0.01 -0.10 -0.49 + 1.42 -0.08 -0.22 + 1.09 +0.92 -0.22 + 1.86 +o. 19 + 0.10 -0.22 | -0.19 -0.19 +0. 12 +0.14 -0.16 + 0.1.6 -0. 13 -0. 05 + 0.23 -0.39 + 1.C0 +0. 62 -0. 05 -0. 03 -0.03 0.00 0.00 +0.02 492 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE LIVE-STOCK INDUSTRY IN 1906. By A. D. Melvix. Chief of Ou I _~ Iu spite of ilie violent agitation which prevailed during a considerable year against conditions at some of the large pa a •--. and which seriously affi the trade in certain classes of meat products, it can truly be said thai 1 respects a highly successful year for the live-stock: industry. The public prejudice against the lower grades of meat products reacted in favor of the better grades, and the prices obtained for the latter reached a very remunerative point for the producer. DECREASE IX PMC] As regards the cattle trade, prices have risen all along the line. The average price of native cattle at the Chicago stock yards for the year was $S . - _ t J "5 in 1905. This is an increase of 55 very 100 pounds of live weight, or 11 per Texas cattle rose from (4-20 to $4-45, and western cattle made the highest gain of any. their average going from | - £4.40. Another ii ftheprospei of the cattle trade may be cited in connection with the public sales of pure-bre-.- cattle in the United States during 1906. which totaled ■ ! — an advance of fully 10 per cent on 1905: and there was also a considerable increase i average price per head. Hog growers had a phenomenally successful year. The hogs sold at Chics _ the year, according to a good market authority, realized $15,000,0 than was received in 19.>een made at practically all i - Itthments. ranging from flight modifications to almost < rrniBBh li Weekly reports on sanitation are received. taw required inspection only at booses doing export beef business. The ne-sr law requi: ion for all bstersaate a-- well as export business in the case of farmers and retail butchers and ; plying their customers. THE LIVB-STOCK INDUSTRY IN 19W. 495 (6) Previously there had been no control over transportation of moats ami moat food product?. Under the now law there is complete control over interstate trans- portation. Every shipment must be covered by a certificate showing either that the meat has boon inspected and passed or tlmt it is exempt from inspection. Instead of no authority over trade labels, the Department is now empowered to prevent fraudulent and misleading labeling of meat products. I 7 i From no control over processes of preparation of moat food products and the use of chemicals, preservatives, etc., the Department has complete control over such mat- te:-. Careful chemical examinations are made to enforce this feature of the new law. - Formerly it was possible to withdraw animals that had been rejected at ante- mortem inspection and have them slaughtered elsewhere for local use. This is no longer permitted. All animals must be slaughtered and properly disposed of at the establishment for which bought and where the inspection takes place. It should be remembered, however, that the Federal jurisdiction is limited to inter- state and foreign commerce, and that this inspection can legally be applied only to establishments doing an interstate or foreign business. As a matter of fact, the Depart- ment insists upon inspecting the entire output of each establishment at which its inspectii rs. have tended to confirm the view that human and bovine tuberculosis can not I as two distinct - - - that tubercle bacilli of persons and of animals are not distinct and separate varieties but vary only as a result of adapting themseh the different environments encountered in different - : animals, and that to protect persons against infection with tuber :n anima:- jsary. Whether regarded from the standpoint of protecting human health or of promoting the welfare of the li industry, it is highly important for our farmer.-, stock rs, and dairymen to eliminate tuberculosis from their h : For many years hog cholera has been a cause of hi the farmer and a puzzle to the rs ago the Bureau of Animal Industry d that the cause of the most acute and virulent forms of the disease is a virus that can through the finest lilter and is invisible under the microscope. This has been confirmed by later experiments by the Bureau and by Eur - During the past year t : ■ i of the Bureau have been directed toward developing a vaccine -urn which will prevent and cure the 1 remedy has been worked out in an experimental way. and efforts are being made to adapt it to practical and . This method lias been patented by Dr. Marion Dorset, chief of the Division of the Bureau, in such a way as to allow anybody in the United States the right I its - • :ree of royalty. e valuable work in the investigation of internal paras: - the Bureau in 1906. The pcevale;. has done great damage to the ■ industry in the eastern half of the Unit - s, and has caused th fanners to abai ;> raising. By carefully studying one of the most trouble- some of these parasites the stomach worm. . u) and establishing THE LIVE-STOCK INDUSTRY IX 190<3. 497 the principal facts in its life history, the Bureau has placed before sheep raisers infor- mation (Circular No. 102. Bureau of Animal Industry) which will enable them very largely to prevent its ravages. Experiments indicate that it is entirely feasible to. raise lambs free from this and some other injurious parasites. ANIMAL BREEDING AXD FEEDING EXPERIMENTS. The experiments in breeding horses in Colorado, conducted cooperatively by the Bureau of Animal Industry and the Colorado Experiment Station, have attracted considerable attention. The object is to develop from native stock a strain of carriage horses. The stud is headed by the stallion Carmon 32917. American Trotting Register. The first crop of foals came during the spring of 1906, and while it is early to pass an opinion on them, they show the stallion to be a good investment as a sire. Experiments in breeding Morgan horses were begun in Vermont in 1906 by coopera- tion between the Bureau and the Vermont Experiment Station, with the object of) preventing the loss of the Morgan blood, preserving the type, and at the same time increasing the size over that of the old Morgan. Xine mares have been purchased, and a stallion will probably be added. During the year experiments were also begun by the Bureau, in cooperation with the Wyoming Experiment Station, in breeding range sheep. In spite of the great development and prosperity of the sheep industry of the West, breeding methods are not systematic, and most breeders are continually crossing, the result being a lack of uniformity in the stock and. to a certain extent, a failure to attain as high a standard as might otherwise be possible. The requirement of the range is a breed of sheep that will yield a profitable clip of wool, produce good mutton lambs, and that will stand flocking in large numbers. It is believed to be possible to combine these character- istics in one breed of sheep, and this is the object of the experiments. The Bureau being urged to undertake experiments to counteract the supposed decline in fecundity of Poland-China sows, made a careful study of the pedigree records: for several years, with the surprising result that the average litter was found to have increased from 7.04 pigs in 1882-1886 to 7.52 in 1898-1902. Similar studies for the Duroc-Jerseys showed the rate to be practically stationary at about 9.25. The following cooperative experiments are also under way and are progressing satis- factorily: Animal nutrition, studied with the respiration calorimeter (Pennsylvania); oeef production in the South (Alabama); poultry breeding and management (Maine), and turkey breeding with the object of developing resistance to the disease known as blackhead i Rhode Island). The Maine poultry experiments have shown that the egg-laying capacity of hens may be increased by selective breeding and proper feeding. Several of the hens have laid more than 200 eggs in one year. The success of this work means a substantial addition to the income of the farmers of the country. During the year the Bureau of Animal Industry began experiments near Washington, D. C, in feeding poultry to test the relative values of moist mash, dry mash, and so-called self-feeding hoppers. PEDIGREE REGISTRATION. The regulations of the Department of Agriculture with regard to the pedigree regis- tration of animals imported for breeding purposes were radically changed during the y^ar, new regulations having been issued as Bureau of Animal Industry Order Xo. 136, effective July 1. The tariff laws of the United States permit a citizen to imporl animals free of duty for breeding purposes if they are purebred, of a recognized breed, and duly registered in the books of record established for the breed, the Secretary of Agriculture being authorized "to determine and certify to the Secretary of the Treasury what are recog- nized breeds and purebred animals.'' To carry out these provisions the Secretary of Agriculture certifies certain pedigree-record associations to the Secretary of the Treasury, and only animals which are recorded in these books are entitled to free entry. Foreign books of record are certified only as the associations controlling them may be affiliated with American associations, except in cases where a recognized foreign breed may have no book of record in the United States, in which case the foreign book is certified direct. It follows, of course, that in practically all cases only animals registered in American books can be imported free. The Department closely supervises the certified American associations, requires them to submit annual reports, and examines their books when nec< ssary. The certification of the Secretary of Agri- culture adds considerable prestige to an association doing business in this country,. and two States (Wisconsin and Iowa) have passed laws requiring stallions standing as purebred to be registered in a studbook so certified. 3 a 1906 32 498 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF A0BICULTTJ . THE HAIRY INDUSTRY. Results of great practical value to the dairy industry were accom] of the Dairy Division during I • experiment, begun in 1905 and concluded in 1906, consisted in niai: - :' butter under different conditions and carrying it in Btc months at different temperatures. The conclusion was that light Halting :Uid [ow peratures and the use of sweet cream give much the best results foi - _ itter. Further experiments with the - _ I about 3,000 pounds of butter made in 191 • still in progress. The quality and character of butter received at some of the principal mark*.-: - studied and defects reported to the makers and creamery owners. En a I ning this work was looked upon rather skeptically by the butter merchants, but are heartily in favor of its continuance because of the consequ- vement in butter and because it helps to establish confidence between the butter merchant and the butter maker. Over a thousand creameries h. — I I in this way. - of them to their material advanl - .ting butter tubs with paraffin was found " ; i method ting mold, and a simple and rapid method of determining the WJ " nt of but: Both these methods were described in publications issued during the year. The determination of water in butter is a matter of much interest and the butter maker and dealer, and the methods previously in use have requu give apparatus, skill to operate it. and several hours to make a determination. !■ use of the new method, requiring apparatus g[butafewdollac intelligence may make moisture determinations, the time required being i: to twenty minn Investigations in cooperation with the Storrs I Conn. ) Experiment Station regarding the manufacture of European varieties of cheese have demonstrated that the Oamem- beri and Roquefort types of cheese can be made successfully and profitably in the United States. Experiments in the manufacture and storage of Amelia have shown the value of cold curing to meet the growing demand i A splendid object lesson in the value of sanitary i was given at tL dairy show in February. 1906. Milk and cream were shipped hundreds of mil- - kept for weeks with no means of preservation other than cleanliness and cold. Recent improvements in milking machines have led to their introduction and • tical use in some of the larger dairies of the country. Over a thousan . machines are reported to be in use, and there are indications cal use in the near future and 1 important tor in the industry. The Dairy Division has made a careful study of the milldng machin- boili the practical and the scientihc standpoint, and a preliminary 3 published. These investigations are being continued. The Dairy Division has also made and is making . - ury build- such as creameries, cheese factories, barm icehouses, mi (.•rating plants, etc. A limited nun - a drawn of th< • typ. s of buildings for individuals in various parts of the country, with a vis- ing the conditions necessary to be met and fulfilled in buildings for thee The inspection of renovated butter and of the h - . nder the law of May 2. 1902. has resulted in a marked improvement in the quality of this product. The general sanitary condition of fact • nateriaily past years, and there have been fewer violati A careful preliminary survey of dairy conditions in the South J ■. first step in the direction of improving and developing the dairv industry ii on. In some cases - were found prodw ing - - expected in any section of America. At other places milk was | eaplv as in any dairy section of the country. On the whole, there was an er: for dairy products. Almost all butter and cheese some cream being shipped a great d • Condensed milk an market throughout all the southern cities. Silage is us nt in the South. One of the great drawbacks to dairying in the South • of cattle found there. It is probable that th - tality of dairy - - le in large pan to the presence of the cattle tick and the infection of 1 t need throughout the South ion in unproved methods of dairy breed- ing and feeding and milk production. The invest.. - • there is a great desire on the | nthern people to know more about They are anxious for something that will enable them to £.-t away from the om • system. The action of . in appropriating 20,00 - : this work during the fiscal year 1907 indicates that its importance is begin: : realized. The prospects are very good, and there is every reason to I ■ work will be the means of developing a splendid dairy ind'ustry in ihe South. PLAXT DISEASES IX 1U06. 499 PLANT DISEASES IN 1906. By \V. A. Ortow Plank Pathologist, Bureau of Plant Industry. This article summarizes reports on the distribution and prevalence of plant diseases received during the year in this Department and the several State experiment stations, whose cooperation is gratefully acknowledged. Especial assistance has been given >>y the following collaborators of this Department in their respective experiment stations: G. E. Stone. Massachusetts: H. H. Whetzel. New York; J. lb S. Norton, Maryland: A. D. Selby, Ohio; J. L. Sheldon. West Virginia: F. L. Stevens. North Carolina: E. Mead Wilcox. Alabama; L. H. Pammel. Iowa; F. D. Heald. Nebraska; H. b. Bolley, North Dakota: W. Paddock, Colorado; lb Kent beanie. Washington.' Comparisons may be made with conditions in previous years, which are recorded in the eight preceding yearbooks. The data available does not include some sections of the country, and the distribution of the diseases is not fully known, particularly in the case of the less important ones. POME FRUITS. Apple. — Bitter-rot (Glomrrella rufomaculans (Berk.) Sp. & von Schr.) was less destructive than last year, though it occurred generally throughout Virginia and West Virginia and in North Carolina, South Carolina. Tennessee, and Kentucky. There was less in Maryland. Ohio, and Indiana. It was reported from Delaware, New Jersey, and Nebraska. Black-rot and Canker \Sph.acropsis malorurn PkA were reported everywhere from New Hampshire to Alabama, and from Nebraska. Blackspot canker (Gloeosporium walicorfias CorcQey) occurred about as usual west of the Cascade Mountains in Washington and was found by Doctor Heald in western Nebraska. Blight {Bacillus amylovorw (Burr.) De Toni) was much more severe than usual in Delaware, New Jersey. Maryland. New York. Virginia, West Virginia. Tennessee, Kentucky. Missouri, and Arkansas. The loss in Nebraska was estimated at SI0.000. It continues to spread in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming, and in the Sacramento Valley of California. It was much less severe than last year in Alabama, Georgia, and North Carolina, and was comparatively slight in New England. Blotch \Phyllosticta sp. >, a disease hitherto unstudied, has been described by W. M. Scott, of this Department, in Farmers' Bulletin 283. It occurs in Maryland. Virginia, West Virginia, and Arkansas, and has often been confused with seal) by growers there. Spraying experiments by Mr. Scott resulted in the control of the disease. Brown-rot I 8<-l rotinia 'jnnti'jtna I Pers. | Schrt. i was observed on apples in Nebraska, Missouri, and West Virginia. Crown-gall was increasingly serious in Colorado. Utah, and Washington, and very common in Maryland. Kentucky. North Carolina, and neighboring Stales. Fly-speck CLcptothyrium pomi (Mont. & Fr.) Sacc.) and Sooty blotch ( Phyllochora ■j - reported from Alabama. West Vir- ginia, New York, Indiana. Nebraska, and Washington. It was more prevalent in ia, Iowa, and New Jersey, and less bo in Maryland and Ohio. Little Peach has spread at only a moderate rate in Michigan and New Y< rk. Powdery mildew Sphacrotheca pannosa AVallr. i. was reported more abun- dant in New York and in Colorado. Pustular spot [SelmaUl carpophibn Lev. was less common this vear in Ohio. Rosette occurred to a considerable extent in southern Missouri and in Georgia. Rust /'/;>/ pmni P., was reported as occurring to a slight extent in Ohio and North Carolina. PL AST DISEASES IX 1906. 501 Yellows occurred from New England through New Jersey. Maryland, and Virginia to western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee, and west to Indiana and southern Illinois. The past year there has been an outbreak of unusual virulence in western Maryland and adjacent pans of Virginia and West Virginia, almost completely destroy- ing many orchards. Plum.- — Black-knot (Plourightia morbosa (Schw.) Sacc.) occurred about as usual even-where, from New England to North Carolina. Alabama. Tennessee, and Ken- tucky, and to Indiana and Minnesota, especially on the damson and wild plums. Black-spot I Clados poriu.m earpophtUum Thiim. » was more injurious in Iowa. Brown-rot I Sderotiniafructigena < P. | Schrt. | occurred as usual over most of the east- ern and central United States. It was worse than usual in West Virginia. Ohio. Indi- ana, and Iowa, and serious in western Washington. Leaf-spot [Cylindrosporium padi Karst. i caused early defoliation, followed in some cases by fall blossoming in West Virginia and Missouri. It injured 20 to 80 per cent of the crop in Ohio, but was reported less prevalent in Indiana and Iowa. Plum-pockets (Exoascus pruni Fckl. i was reported as occurring to an unimportant extent in North Carolina. Xew Jersey. Ohio, Iowa. Nebraska. Wisconsin, and North Dakota. Rust (Puecinia pruni P.) was reported from Georgia and Missouri as unimportant. SMALL FRUITS. Blackberry. — Anthracnose (Gloeosporium renetvm Speg.) prevailed to the usual extent in Ohio and Indiana. Crown-gall was reported from one locality in Ohio. Leaf-spot (Septoria rabi Westd. > was reported from Ohio, Indiana. Nebraska, and West Virginia. Rust {Gymnoconia interstitialis (Schl.) Lagh.) was common and in some cases destruc- tive in California, Florida. Indiana. Missouri. New Jersey. Ohio, and West Virginia. Cranberry. — Anthracnose did considerable damage in some localities in Massa- chusetts. Erobasidium raccinii (Fckl. I Wor. caused serious injury in Massachusetts. Scald was more severe in New Jersey on account of excessive rains. Currant. — Anthracnose {Gloeosporium ribis (Lib.) Mont. & Desm.) was reported from Ohio. Cane-blight (Xectria cinnabar ina (Tode) Fr.) was reported from Ohio. Leaf-spot (Cereospora angulata Wint.) was reported from West Virginia, Ohio, and Iowa: (Septoria ribis Deem.) from Vermont. New Jersey. Ohio, and Nebraska. Con- siderable defoliation resulted in both cases. Powdery mildew (Spuerotheca mors-uvae (Schw.) B. & C.) was reported from Ohio, Nebraska, and Washington. Rust | Cronartium ribicolum Dietr. | was reported for the first time from New York by F. C. Stewart. Gooseberry. — Leaf-spot (Septoria ribis Desm.1) was reported slight in Ohio. Indi- ana, Nebraska, and West Virginia. Powdery mildew Sphaerotheca mors-uvae 'Schw. B. & C.) was prevalent in New Jersey. Ohio. Indiana. Nebraska. North Dakota, and Washington. Grape. — Anthracnose ■Sphaceloma ampelinum De By.) was reported from New Hampshire. West Virginia, and Ohio. Black-rot (Guignardia bidwetlii i Ell.") V. & R.) was almost absent this year from the Lake Erie region of New York and Pennsylvania, but in central New York and the Sandusky region of Ohio there was great loss, as was also the case in southwestern Michigan, where the loss was estimated at 30 to 40 per cent. It was more prevalent in Connecticut. Delaware. Maryland. Florida, and Indiana, and injurious in New Jersey, North Carolina. West Virginia. Kentucky. Missouri, and Nebraska. Downy mildew (Plasmopora riticola (B. .i- G. I Perl, oc De T. i did a slight amount of damage in Vermont. New Hampshire, New York. Maryland. Ohio. West Virginia, Kentucky. Missouri, and Nebraska. Powdery mildew ( UncintUa necator iSchw.^ Burr.) was very injurious in Florida, and of occasional occurrence in Colorado. Iowa. Ohio. West Virginia, and Pennsylvania. Persimmon. — Anthracnose I Gloeosporium diospyri E. was less injurious in Connecticut than last year. It was quite prevalent in Delaware. Maryland, Xew Jersey, and Penn- sylvania. Leaf spots Phyllosticta phaseolvna Sacc. and Iaa Iseola Sacc.) occurred in Wesl Virginia. Powdery mildev,- E ysiph ;■ ilygom D< prevalent in Ohio. Rust | t romyces o/ P. Lev. 1 from Indiana. Xew Jersey. Ohio. West Virginia. Pennsylvania, and Kentucky and was abundant in California. Beet. — Curly-top of sugar beets did considerable injury in local areas in California, but was less prevalent in Colorado, Utah, and Texas. Leaf-blight | ( 'ereospora bcticola Sacc.) appeared later than usual, but was neverthe- destructive to sugar beets from Nebraska eastward, particularly in fields pre- sly planted to sugar beets. It was more noticeable in Colorado than formerly. Phyllosticta bctac Chid, was reported from Colorado and Xorth Carolina. Rhizoctonia root-rot occurred to a slight extent in Colorado. Iowa, and Michigan. Cabbac.e. — Black-rot i Bacterium campestris (Pam.) Erw. Sm.) appears to have been generally prevalent, and in some cases quite injurious, according to reports from Delaware. Indiana. Iowa. Nebraska, Kentucky. Louisiana. Maryland. New Jersey, New York, North Carolina. Ohio. South Carolina. Vermont, and Washington. PLANT DISEASES IN 1906. 503 r Club-root (Plasmodiophora brassicae Wor.) is everywhere increasing. It was reported this year from New Hampshire, New York, Xew Jersey, North Carolina, Ohio, Ver- mont, Washington, and West Virginia. Root-knot (Ifeterodcra radicicola (Greef.) Mill.) was sent in from Texas. Wilt (Fusarium) continues to do injury in old gardens in North Carolina. Cantaloupe. — Anthracnose (Colletotrichum lagenarium (Pass.) Ell. & Hals.) pre- vailed in Indiana. Nebraska, New Jersey, and West Virginia. Downy mildew (Pseudoperonospora cubensis (B. & C.) Rost.) injured the crop to a slight extent in Ohio and Vermont. Leaf-blight | Altcrnarki brassicae var. niyrescens Pegl.) was again the cause of marked injury, especially in the large cantaloupe-growing sections. It was reported from Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Indiana. Maryland, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Tennessee, and West Virginia. Root-knot (Hetcrodcra radicicola (Greef.) Miil.) was reported from North Carolina. Wilt (Bacillus tracheiphilus Erw. Sm.) was reported from Massachusetts, Ohio, and Indiana. Wilt (Fusarium) was reported from Arizona. Cauliflower. — Black-rot {Bacterium campestris (Pam.) Erw. Sm.) was injurious locally in Louisiana and Ohio. Celery. — Leaf-blight (Cercospora apii Fres.) occurred in Florida, where 80 per cent of the crop was injured; also in Delaware. Georgia, New Jersey. New Hampshire, Ohio, and Nebraska. Leaf-spot (Septoria petroselini Desm. var. apii Br. & Cav.) was reported from Dela- ware, New York, and Ohio. Collards. — In North Carolina collards were attacked by Allernaria brassicae (Berk.) Sacc, Peronospcra parasita (Pers.) De By., Bacterium campestris (Pam.) Erw. Sm., Fusarium sp. and Plasmodiophora brassicae Wor. Cucumber. — Anthracnose (Colletotrichum lagenarm m I Pass, i Eli. & Hals.) occurred in Ohio, where the injury is estimated at 25 to GO per cent of the crop, and in New Jersey. North Carolina, West Virginia, Nebraska, and Wisconsin. Downy mildew (Pseudoperonospora cubcnsis (B. & 0.) Rost.) occurred in Florida to a serious extent. The disease prevails through the winter there and attacks the young plants. Some injury was reported from Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Jersey, while in Maine, New Hampshire, and Ohio there was a serious epidemic in August . Wilt (Bacillus tracheiphilus Erw. Sm.) was reported from Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Norfolk, Va. Eggplant. — Fruit-rot and Leaf-spot (Phyllosticta hortorum Speg.) was prevalent in New Jersey and on Long Island. Ginseng. — Alternaria blight has been destructive in New York as in preceding years, causing some plantations to be abandoned. Prof. H. H. Whetzel, of Cornell University, reports complete control through spraying with Bordeaux mixture. Root-rot and Stem-rot (Rhizoctonia sp.) were reported by Whetzel from New York, Virginia, and Wisconsin. Another disease of the stem due to Phytopthora caetorwm (Cohn. & Lei).) Schrt. has been found by J. M. Van Hook of the Ohio station in both Ohio and New York. Lettuce. — Drop (Sclerotinia libertiana Fckl.) was very injurious in the Atlantic States, especially in cold frames and greenhouses. Florida growers suffered losses in many cases of 70 to 100 per cent, and the disease was severe in Georgia, North Caro- lina, Delaware, Ohio, and Alabama. Leaf-mold (Botrytis cincrea P.) was reported from Florida and North Carolina as of minor importance. Leaf-spot (Septoria consimdMs Ell. & Mart.) was reported from New York and North Carolina. Root-knot (Heterodera radicicola (Creel, i Mai.) was the cause of complaint in Texas. Rosette (Rhizoctonia sp.) and Tipbnrn were also mentioned in Ohio. Onion. — Anthracnose ( Virmicularia circinans Berk.) did considerable injury in New York. Downy mildew (Peronospora schleideniana De By.) was reported froni Colorado, New York, Ohio, and Vermont. It appears to have been less prevalent than last year. Smut ( Urocystis cepulae Frost) was reported from Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Ohio. In Ohio the formalin soil treatment continues to prevent the disease, but some thousands of dollars were lost on untreated fields in the Scioto Valley. Pea. — Powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni DC.) caused injury in New Hampshire, especially on late peas, and in Iowa. Ohio, Nebraska, and West Virginia. Ascochyta blight (Ascochyta pisi Lib.) was somewhat less injurious in Ohio but worse in Xew York, injuring 50 to 80 per cent of the crop in some fields. It was also reported 504 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. from New Jersey. J. M. Van Hook has shown in Bulletin 173 of the Ohio Station that the epidemic in that State the past three years has been largely due to seed infection. Potato. — Brown-rot (Bacterium solanacearum Erw. Sm.) occurred to a slight extent in the District of Columbia, Maryland, Ohio, Indiana. Nebraska, and Washington. Dry-rot (Fusarium oxysporum Schlecht). Reports of local losses came from New York, Ohio, and Vermont this year. Early blight (Altemaria solani (E. & M.) J. & G.) was somewhat less prevalent on the early crop in Florida and other South Atlantic States, but was more injurious northward on the main crop. Most of the injury to potatoes this year from New Eng- land and New York to Wisconsin was due to this disease, as the dry season favored it. The crop in Wisconsin is estimated to have been reduced 4 to 6 million bushels by it. Its occurrence was noted in Utah and Washington. Great loss, estimated at 50 per cent of the crop, was reported from Wyoming. Leaf-blotch (Cercospora concors (Casp.) Sacc), a new disease of minor importance, has been found in Vermont for two years and is described by Prof. L. R. Jones in the Report of the Vermont Station for 1906. Late-blight (Phytophthora infestans De By.) was for the first time in six years held in check by dry autumn weather. It was somewhat harmful in Florida in May and developed on Long Island and in New England in June and July. Dry weather later prevented its spread and the losses in the great potato sections were small compared with those of previous years. All potato diseases were controlled in Maine by the general spraying practiced there during the past few years and good results were reported in other states. Late blight was reported injurious in western Washington. Scab (Oospora scabies Thax.) was in most cases reported less injurious the past sea- son. In Maine and in other States where the danger of soil infection has not been considered, an increase has been observed. The estimated injury in Nebraska was 15 per cent. Rhizoctonia disease (Corticium vagum B. & 0. var. solani Burt.) caused heavy losses in portions of Colorado and Wyoming and was reported from Arizona. It was less common this year in Florida, Ohio, and the Eastern States. Salsify — Root-knot (Heterodera radicicola (Greef .) Mul.) was injurious in one locality in North Carolina. White rust (Cystopus tragopogonis Tul.) was reported from Nebraska. Squash — Bacterial wilt (Bacillus tracheiphilus Erw. Sm.) was reported from New York. A Fusarinm wilt occurred in Arizona. Sugar Cane — Dr. N. A. Cobb has issued from the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Experi- ment Station, Bulletin No. 5 on Fungus Maladies of the Sugar Cane, an important monograph. The prevalence of the diseases mentioned for 1906 is given by Doctor Cobb as follows: Eleau caused small losses, estimated at less than 1 per cent. Pineapple disease ( Thielaviopsis ethaceticus Went.) prevailed about as usual, causing losses varying from 1 to 10 per cent. Rind disease ( Melanconium sp.) was less prevalent, though losses in some cases amounted to 25 per cent. Root disease {Ithyphallvx coralloides Cobb.) destroyed 10 per cent of the crop in the worst districts, but, following the discovery of the parasite, good results have come from the treatment advised. Root disease ( Marasmitis saccharii Wak.) was somewhat more prevalent, the loss being estimated as high as 10 per cent of the ratoon crop. Leaf-splitting disease ( Mycosphaerella striatiformans Cobb.), a serious trouble, has been found by Doctor Cobb to be due to the fungus named. Sweet potatoes. — The following diseases were reported from the States named. Their actual distribution is no doubt more general. Black-rot {Ceratocystis fimbriate Ell. & Hals.), Alabama, Ohio, Tennessee. Dry-rot (Phoma batatae Ell. & Hals.), Alabama, Tennessee. Leaf-spot (Phyllosticta bataticola Ell. <& Mart.), North Carolina. Soft-rot (Rhtopus nigricans Ehrb.) Alabama, North Carolina, Maryland, very bad. Soil-rot (Acrocystis batatas Ell. & Hals.), Alabama. Stem-rot (Xcctria ipomoeae Hals.), Ohio. White-rot (Peniciltium sp.), Alabama, serious. White-rust (Pytopus ipomoeae-pouduranae (Schw.) Farl.), Georgia. Tobacco. — Bed-rot (Rhizoctonia sp.) prevailed as usual in Ohio, the estimated loss being 7 per cent. Dr. A. D. Selby, at the Ohio station, finds soil treatment with for- malin to assist in its control. Broom-rape (Orobanche ludoviciana Nutt.i occurred in very local areas in Ohio. Mosaic disease was troublesome in the Chemung Valley. New York, but less common in Ohio. Root-rot (Thielavia basicola Zopf. ) was quite injurious to tobacco seedlings in Con- necticut and to a lesser extent in Ohio. PLANT DISEASES IX 1P06. 5(35 Wilt, bacterial. — The Granville wilt in North Carolina was estimated as 40 per cent more destructive than last year, causing a loss of $20,000. Tomato — Anthracnose ( CoUetotrichum phomoidcs (Sacc.) Chest.) was reported from New Jersey, New York, Ohio, and North Dakota. Blight (Bacterium solanacearum Erw. Sm.) was reported from New Jersey, North Carolina, and Alabama. Leaf-mold (Cladosporium fulrum Cke.) caused complaint in Xew Hampshire. Leaf-spot iSeptoria lycopersui Speg.) was prevalent in Delaware. Maine, Maryland, Nebraska, Xew Jersey. New York, and "West Virginia, i Altemaria solcnu (E. & M.) J. & G.) was reported as of minor importance in Maine, Ohio, and West Virginia. Point-rot was more destructive than usual in California and in Xew York and Ver- mont, but less so in Ohio. It was reported from Alabama. Maine, and West Virginia. Root-knot (Heterodcra radicicola (Greet. ) Mul.) was injurious in Arizona and Florida. Western blight was much less prevalent in Utah this year, but was bad in Washington, causing losses of 35 to 90 per cent, and in Colorado. Wilt ( Fusarium sp.) caused losses of 25 per cent in portions of Arizona and Louisiana. It is widely prevalent in Florida, but losses are avoided there by rotation of crops. It was less abundant in California. Turnip. — Black-rot [Bacterium carnpestris (Pam.) Erw. Sm.) caused unimportant injuries in Ohio. Club-root ( Plasmodiophora brassicae Wor. ) was this year reported on this host only from Ohio and Xew Jersey. Watermelon". — Anthracnose (CoUetotrichum lagenarium | Pass. > Ell. & Hals.) was epidemic in the Ohio Valley, especially in West Virginia. It was reported also from Xebraska. Indiana, Ohio, Rhode Island, and South Carolina. Downy mildew (Pseudoperonospora cubensis (B. & C.) Rost.) was observed in Ohio. Leaf-spot (Cercospora citrulina Cke.) was reported to occur to a slight extent in West Virginia. Wilt | Xeocosmospora vasinfeeta var. nivea Erw. Sm.) occurred as usual in the South Atlantic States from Florida to Virginia. Barley. — Mildew \Erysiphe graminis DC.) was reported injurious to beardless barley in one locality in Xew York. Rust [Puccinia graminis P. I was as usual widely distributed, but not injurious to the crop. Covered smut (Ustilago horde i (P.) Kell. & Sw.) prevailed as usual in Iowa. Min- nesota. North Dakota, and neighboring States. Loose smut (Ustilago nuda (Jens.) Kell. & Sw.) was widely distributed and inju- rious. The loss was estimated at 7 to 10 per cent in Wisconsin and Minnesota and appears to be increasing. Yellow-leaf (Helminthosporium gramineum Rbh.* was more prevalent in Iowa, attacking probably 1 per cent of the crop. Corn. — Leaf-Might (Helminthosporium inconspictntm C. & E.) was locally abun- dant in Maryland, Ohio, and West Virginia. Mold (a sterile fungus) injured 5 to 50 per cent of the mature crop in North Carolina. Rust i Puccinia sorghi Schw. I is widely distributed, but seldom injurious. One case of severe loss was reported from Vermont. Smut ( Ustilago zeae (Beckm.) TJnger) occurred everywhere. The average loss for the whole country was 1 to 2 per cent of the total crop. It was especially"prevaki:T last year in North Dakota. The losses in Xebraska were estimated at 2 to 10 per cent. Millet. — Smut i Ustilago crameri Kom.) was of slight occurrence in Ohio and Min- nesota. Oats. — Rusts {Puccinia graminis P. and P. coronata Cda.) occurred about as usual or a little less, the late varieties as usual suffering most. Smut ( Ustilago avenae (P.) Jens.) occurred everywhere as usual, but appeared to be relatively worse in the South I 12 per cent in Xorth Carolina). In the northern Mississippi Valley seed treatment is more generally applied. The loss in Wisconsin was estimated at 5 per cent. Reports of loss come" from western Washington also. Rice. — Black smut i Tilhtia horrida Tak.) was reported from two localities in Lou- isiana. Blast was almost absent in South Carolina this year, the season being very wet. It occurred locally in Texa*. Green smut (Ustilaginoidea rirens (Cke.) Tak.) has been known to occur in this country for five years, but only to a slight extent. It appears, however, to be on the increase. Rye. — Ergot (Claciccps purpurea (Ft.) Tul.) was reported from Ohio and Minnesota. YEARBOOK of THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Bust3 Puccinia rubigo- Wint. and P. ornminis P. I, though everywhere present, do no serious damage. Sorghum. — Blight sorgJri Burr, | caused hisses estimated in Iowa and Ohio at about 5 per cent. Reported from Nebraska. Smut Sphacdotha Link. | Clint, has assumed serious proportions in Kan- 1 'klahoma. and the Texas Panhandle and is rapidly spreadir ig S 'iana (Kuhn* Clint.i was widely distributed, but not in serious quantity. Wheat. — Leaf-bligr.- - reported from Nebraska. Leaf-rust -tractive in the northern Valley and the southern Great Plains region, the injury being estimated by Prof. H. L. Boiley at 10 per cent in North Dak Stem-rust Puccinia graininii P. I was less injurious than usual in nearly all the -. Scab Fisarium culrnor ■ - - * to have been, much alent this year. Loose smut T'stilago tritici (P. J< Mely distributed and increasing in the no and Middle Western St Stinking smut TUletiafoetaru B. & < . Tul. I was widespread and abundant, cially where seed wheat was not treated. T:.- estimated loss in Arizona wa per cent: in Indiana. 2 per cent: in Washington. 10 to 15 per cent. FORAGE CROPS. Alfalfa. — Bacterial blight, a new disease, reported by Pi 1. W. Paddock, in I Bulletin 28 Ethel loi -.ai'-n. was hrst seen there in 1903. but is now more abun- dant, and has also appeared in Utah and Ka: Anthracnose CoUetotrichum tri/olii B. & E. was reported from Tennessee. Dodder ' ■■•/to epithymum 1 me quite widely distributed with the extension of alfalfa culture, but its dangerous character nize 1 and control measures adopted. Leaf-spot 'P- ported more injurii "•" Jersey, and Wyoming. Most States where alfalf. rtthis it not as a serious one. Boot-rot was w..r-e than usual in northern Texas, where the injury was considerable. but less common in Arizona. Bust Uomyces striatal- was reported from Nebraska. •"£R. — Anthracnose CoUetotrichum trifolii B. & E. is generally distril Tennessee and is common in West Virginia. Gloeotporvum eautivorum Kirch, was -eported from West Virginia. Dodder Cuscuta epithymum Murr. t occurred on clover much as on alfalfa. Black-spot I'hyllachora Id.), a minor disease, was mentioned only in a. Kentucky, and West Virginia. Leaf-spot Maerosporium sarcinae/onrte Caw.) tras injurious to young clover in Virginia. Boot-knot • IPterodera radicicola Greet". Mull, i has been found by Dr. J. L. Sheldon to be widely distributed in the Ohio valley oi West Virginia. East Cromyces trifolii A- & S. Wint. unor trouble in Indiana, Iowa. Kentucky. Man-land, and West Virginia. pea. — Boot-knot and Wilt Hetarodera radicicola Mull. < and mospora vasinfecta var. tracbeipkila Erw. Sm. > prevailed as usual in sandy soils from North Carolina to Florida and west I FIBER PLANTS. — Angular leaf-spot and Blackarm Bacterium malvaccarum Erw. Sm.) was generally distributed through the cotton belt, though less prevalent than in Anthracnose ' 'oUetotrichum gossypii Swth. i was injurious locally in States, especially in western Georgia. Texas root-rot was w< .r-e in central and northern Texas than • very heavy losses. Wilt Xt.oeosmospora vasinfecta was reported from West Virginia, New Jersey, and Iowa, and as much more prevalent in Nebraska. Catalpa. — Leaf-spot (Phyllosticta catalpae E. & M.) was reported from West Virginia as destructive to foliage of young trees. Cedar. — Rust ((ri/mnosporangium macropus Lk.) was reported from Nebraska. New Jersey. Iowa, and West Virginia. Cottonwood. — Crown-gall was reported from Wyoming. (15th Report Wyoming Expt. Sta,. p. 33.) Rust (Melampsora populina (Jcq.) Lev.) was reported from Nebraska, Iowa, and North Dakota. Chestnut. — Anthracnose (Marsonia ochrolcuca (B. & C.) Humph.) was reported from West Virginia. Dogwood. — Leaf-spot (Septoria cornicola Desm. i was reported from Nebraska. Elm. — Black-spot (Dothidilla ulmi (Duv.) Wint.) was reported from Nebraska and New Jersey; and Gnomonia ulmea (Sacc.) Thiim., from Nebraska. Honey locust. — Black-leaf < Lcptostroma hypophyllum B. & Rav. ) was reported from Nebraska. Horse chestnut. — Leaf-spot (Phyllosticta pariae Desm.) was reported from West Virginia. Kentucky coffee tree. — Leaf-spot (Cercospora gymnocladi Ell. & Kell.) was reported from Nebraska. Maple. — Leaf-spot (Rhytisma acerinum (P.) Fr.) was reported from Iowa. Kentucky, New Jersey, and Nebraska. Mulberry. — Leaf-spot (Cercospora moricola Cke. ) was reported from Nebraska. Pecan. — Powdery mildew ( Microsphacra alni (Wallr.) Salmon) was reported from Georgia and Florida as of little importance. Rosette was reported from South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, and Alabama as a seri- ous disease. Scab (Fitsicladium effusum Wint.) was more injurious this year in South Carolina, Georgia, Florida. Alabama, and Louisiana. Pine. — Rust (Coleosporium senecionis (P.) Fr.) was reported from Connecticut, Minnesota, and Georgia. Seedling: blight (Cladosporiitm hcrbarum (P.) Lk.) was reported from Nebraska. Privet. — Anthracnose (Gloeosporium dngulatum Atk.i was reported from Ohio. Sassafras. — Red heart-rot (Fomcs ribis (Schum.) Fr.) has been found by Dr. P. Spaulding to be common around St. Louis, Mo. Willow. — 31ack-spot (Rhytisma salicinum Fr.) was reported from Nebraska. Rust {Melampsora so.) was reported from Iowa and West Virginia; M. farinosa (P.) Schrt. on Salic amygdaloides, from Nebraska. ornamental plants. Aster. — Wilt (Fusarium sp.) was more prevalent in Massachusetts. Yellows was more prevalent again in Vermont and Massachusetts. Carnation. — Rust i Oromyces caryophyllinus (Schrank.) Schrt.) occurred to a slight extent in Iowa and North Carolina. Spot (AUernaria sp.) has been reported from Maryland, the District of Columbia, Pennsylvania, and Connecticut. Stem-rot (Fusarium sp.) was reported from North Carolina and New York, and (Rhizoctonia sp.) from Ohio. Stigmonose was found in Indiana and Rhode Island. Chrysanthemum. — Leaf-spot (Scptoria chrysanthemi Cav.) and Rust (Puccinia chrys- anthemi Roze.) were prevalent in North Carolina and New Jersey. Petal-rot {Botrytis vulgaris Fr.) was found by Dr. P. Spaulding to be quite prevalent on exhibition plants in St. Louis. The same fungus also destroyed Poinsettias in greenhouses. Hollyhock. — Leaf-blight (Cercospora althaeina Sacc.) was reported from West Vir- ginia and Nebraska. 50S YEAEBOOK OE THE DEPARTMENT OE AGBICULTUBE. Rust Puccinia malcaeearurn Mont.) was destructive in New York. Massachusetts, New Jersey. Pennsylvania, and West Yirginia: also on Malta sp. in Colorado. Lilac. — Powdery mildew < Micros phaeria alni (Wallr. i Salmon) was reported from New Y rk. Iowa, Kentucky, and West Yirginia. Peony. — Leaf -spot Cladosporium paamiae Pass. | was reported from New Jersey. Rose. — Leaf-blotch AeHnonema rosae Lib. Fr. was reported from Pennsylvania, Kentucky. West Virginia, and Nebraska. Powdery mildew < Sphaerotheca pannosa Wallr.) Lev. i was very prevalent through- out the Eastern. Southern, and Central States and was reported from Colorado. Bust Phragmidium subcorticima (Schrank) Wmt. i was reported from California, "inrmia. and Nebraska: and P . turn from Iowa. Yiolet. — Leaf -spot Q "corpora viola* Sacc. did scime injury in North Carolina. Marsonia violae Pass. Sacc. I was reported from Connecticut for the first time. Yirginia creeper. — Leaf-spot Cercospora ampelopsidis Peck. | was reported from Nebraska. Powdery mildew Undnula neeator Schw. | Burr.' was reported from Nebraska. THE PRINCIPAL INJURIOUS INSECTS OF 1906. Prepared in the Bureau of Entomology. In accordance with the plan adopted in 1905. the records of the principal injurious insects of the year 1906 are arranged in relation to food plant or host. The reports for the subject covered by each division or section of the Bureau have in each ca*e been prepared by the expert in charge and cover not only the records made directly by the Department, but all the records available for the year. In connection with these annual reports it should be noted that for the great mass of injurious insects the conditions are substantially uniform one year with another. In the case of certain insects, however, there are notable local outbreaks here and there which, as with some of the big grain pests, may become very widespread and amount to a considerable disaster to the crop. Any unusual local abundance or new form of injury, or any new pest, is very apt to be reported to this office or to the ento- mologist of the experiment station. On the other hand, familiarity with any pest, and with the remedy for it. soon leads to a cessation of reports: yet this does not" neces- sarily indicate any diminution in the numbers of the pest nor its disappearance. The list could be very greatly extended if all the injurious insects of the year were included, but an attempt has been made to limit it to insects which have been rather more prominent than ordinarily. The insects affecting the great staples, such as the Hessian fly. chinch bug. boll weevil, corn worm, or bollworm. San Jose scale, and codling moth, must necessarily be the cause, one year with another, of the greatest monetary loss, and no new u unless it at once affects a great staple, wdl ever compete with these in this respect. Such newcomers, however, are likely to appear at any time, a- is illustrated by the boll weevil. The past year has witnessed minor losses from a number of insects which have not previously been of serious economic importance. Such are the Mexican bean weevil, the asparagus miner, the splitworm of tobacco, an Oriental moth attacking shade and fruit trees in Connecticut, a sawfly injurious to the leaf stems of maple, and a related species affecting the foliage of fruit tr- Insects Injurious to Cotton and Other Southern Field Crops. The area infested by the cotton boll weevil {Anthonomu* grandis Boh. was greatly increased during 1906. The eastern limit of infestation was extended to within about 20 miles of the Mississippi River, and on the north a considerable portion of southeastern Oklahoma has become infested. While the damage inflicted was not as heavy as during previous seasons, the resultant loss probably exceeded that of 1905 by about $2 D00, making an estimated total of approximately >'20.000.000. In the central and southern portions of Texas unusually dry weather during the growing d greatly reduced the number of weevils. On the whole, the season of 1906 was one of rather abnormal freedom from weevil damage. The total loss due to the ravages of the bollworm | Ileliothis obsoleta Fab. I probably did not exceed that of the preceding year and. as usual, was confined mainly to T Oklahoma, and Louisiana. The injury to cotton in the two northern tiers of counties of Texas westward from Lamar and Delta to Clay and Jack counties was exceptionally severe. PRINCIPAL INJURIOUS INSECTS OF 1900. 509 The cotton-leaf caterpillar {Alabama argillacea Hbn.) was abundant in Louisiana and portions of Texas. The defoliation of cotton late in the season, however, is beneficial rather than injurious in territory infested by the boll weevil. The cotton aphis (Aphis gossypii Glov.) appeared very generally upon cotton in the spring, but the injury inflicted was less severe than in 1905 owing to the increase of its natural insect enemies. The cotton square borer ( Uranotes melinus Hbn. ) seems to be increasing in numbers from year to year. This species is distributed over the entire cotton belt, but its in- juries have been most felt in Texas and Oklahoma, and particularly in the northern portion of the territory infested by the boll weevil. The garden webworm (Loxostegc similalis Guen.) did considerable damage to young cotton in certain localities in northern Texas. Replanting was necessitated in some instances. The cotton red spider ( Tttranychus gloveri Bks.) was reported injuring cotton in cen- tral Alabama. The cotton leaf-beetle (Luptrodes varicornis Lee.) was reported from South Carolina and Georgia, where it inflicted slight local injury on cotton. The cutworm (Autographa rogationis Guen.) injured the stand of cotton in certain localities in northeastern Texas by cutting off the young plants in the spring. The cotton leaf-bug (Calocoris rapidus Say) was very abundant throughout Louisiana and eastern Texas, where it probably injured cotton to some extent by sucking sap from the cotton bolls. The tobacco thrips (Euthrips nicotianx Hinds) did considerable injury to cigar- wrapper tobacco grown under shade in Florida, southern Georgia, and eastern Texas. The injury was less, however, than during 1904, owing to greater precipitation during the past season. The budworms of tobacco (Ileliothis obsoleta Fab. and Chloridea virescens Fab.) rank with the thrips in amount of injury to cigar-wrapper tobacco in Florida. The splitworm or leaf-miner of tobacco (PhthorimAa operciddla Zell.) has come to be of economic importance during the past two years, owing to the infestation by it of cigar- wrapper tobacco. Its injuries have been confined principally to a single county of Florida. Insects Injurious to Cereal and Forage Crops. The Hessian fly (Mayctiola destructor Say) was not excessively abundant, except locally in the east, and on the Pacific coast, where it destroyed the wheat crop in some sections. Indeed, over large areas it scarcely appeared at all. In the central Atlantic States this was due to late seeding of wheat, made necessary by the extremely wet weather of August. In the spring-wheat regions of the Northwest the absence of the pest was due to the prevalence of parasites, notably Polygnotus, one or two species of which seem to control this pest so far as it is controlled by natural agencies. This parasite was introduced from North Dakota to western Kentucky and Tennessee in the spring of 1905. During 1906 it was abundant in the sections where it was introduced, and was repeatedly observed ovipositing in the eggs of the Hessian fly. The peculiar breeding habits of these insects render them of the utmost value, and this experiment indicates that they may be readily introduced from one section of the country into another perhaps thousands of miles distant. The chinch bug (Blissus leucopterus Say) was excessively abundant in northern Texas, southwestern Kansas, and northern Ohio. The long and short-winged forms again appeared in the timothy meadows of northeastern Ohio and attacked grass lands in Florida . The slender, red seed-corn ground beetle (Clivina impressifrons Lee.) did great dam- age in many sections in the corn belt by devouring the seed after it was planted and before it had sprouted. The alfalfa fields in many sections of the arid regions of the West were seriously injured by several species of grasshoppers. In Wyoming one species (Melanoplus differentialis Thos.) was, in some instances, almost swept out of existence by a para- sitic fly (Sarcophaga georgina Wied.). This fly deposited its eggs on the bodies of the grasshoppers and the maggots hatching from the eggs entered the bodies of the grass- hoppers and destroyed them. The wheat jointworm (Isosoma tritici Riley) continued excessively abundant in some parts of Ohio, Indiana, and Michigan, though several parasites appeared to be subjugating the pest. A new factor in its control was indicated by the gnawing of the insect galls on the stems of wheat and the destruction of the larvpe in the field, supposedly by the short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda). It has been determined by breeding experiments that the passing of the grain through the threshing machine 510 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGEKT'LTUKE. result- in the death of nearly all the larv;e. This enables the farmer, by cutting his grain hers of the pest and thus prevent their ing in his 1 Th- -ai hi- A ■ - unusually and destructively abundant dtryland. as -well as I In Maryland, where the injv. inter ick. The fall army w-™ I erda 8. and A - fields -man milb" and sorghuni in Texas, sugar cane in Louisiana in Wyoming. It was abundant in some par- ina. yet determine'. 1 hundreds of acres of wheat durine late fall in Montana. ghnm webworao A oia] sorghiflla Riley i attacked sorghun her similar insect (J _■ Ya.. and attacked the heads of timothy at Arlineton. Ya. Tv, . \ .iphorvts pa yll. and 5. venatu* Say> did oa injury I \ Va. larvae oi Sphenoph observed dne wheat in - lina and Kansas, a: -te. .it-head ai 1 the he;, othy in meadows in southern Minnesota, and tl nny w<..rm | H. umptoKfa B did serious injury- in some « rginia an I y Tw c ." rrneades tessellata Harr and C. puncti§era Walk, attack.?' ... while a " "tacked corn, and a : lena | j at. Carnaedes rubefaclaife Grote seri S i _rain aphis Toioptera grainmum Rond malty infested wheat thegxau r.oma during the fall. Its unusual - • d rendered - ]x»or. Manv Texas En - on account of the ted. The » van granaria Buck, and if. eerealis Kak. < i mmon staTJk tacked wheat in considerable 1 generally, but to a less degree, about Ind. The smaller - '-onaria L> ibundant in stems of wheat on th Uureau at . Pa. Exsni The common spread southward to Cincin- rd itself in several ..rolina. these repre- . ,ve been invaded by the apei The more injurious in 1906 than • ed. and is now particularly I principal aspa:. a -- grow:: .. it bids f. ;ne a pest of considerable ed in Virginia and in California. and tJ al but unknown damage by this species The - i>frmophagus] pcctoralis Shp. was identified species has not hithert* rders. Th ne likelihood of its pern . dishnient - ithern Texae and else -.btropical. The pea aphis [Macrot phora] destructor Job repined inju- irginia, and 111. and i:. Txas. ebworm {LoxoUcge L. was reported des . - eet fields in portions of Colorado. ilis Guen. were observed in T jured. The siout hern beet web worm \Pachy- - concerned in injuiy- to table in Texas, where it occurred with the garden webworm which it resembles in the man- : injury. The beet api. - erally present in the be*. - the beet leaf-miner (P : Lint. : i' .ah. PRINCIPAL INJURIOUS INSECTS OF 1006. 511 The rhubarb flea-beetle (Psylliodes pvnctulata Mel?.) was very generally destructive to young plants of sugar beet in California, Utah, and Colorado, its ravages extending into British Columbia, where it caused the loss of many thousands of dollars in hop fields. It was also injurious to hops near Sacramento, Cal. Cutworms devastated fields of sugar beet in Michigan. The little negro bug (Corimclacna pulicaria Germ.) was very injurious to celery in northern Ohio. A somewhat similar species, Cosmopepla carni/cx Fab., was injurious to potato in northern Maine. The striped cucumber beetle (Diabrotica vittata Fab.) is always troublesome and the year 1906 was normal. The western 12-spotted cucumber beetle (D. soror Lee.) was reported the most destructive sugar-beet pest in portions of southern California. D. balteata Lee, which was injurious to vegetables in 1905 in Texas, again did damage in that State, particularly to horse beans and vetches. The related D. picticomis Horn accompanied it but did less injury. The striped cabbage flea-beetle ( Phyllotrcta vittata Fab.) was unusually troublesome in New York State, including Long Island, extending its ravages to Maryland and the District of Columbia. The larva was also somewhat injurious to roots of radish and turnip. The water-cress sowbug (Mancascllus brachyurus Harger) attracted very considerable attention because of its troublesome numbers in water cress grown for market in por- tions of Virginia. West Virginia, and Pennsylvania. The usual amount of damage by cabbage "worms" was reported throughout the country. The cabbage looper (Autographa brassiae Riley), which has not been gen- erally injurious in its more northern range for a number of years, was somewhat abund- dant about the District of Columbia, particularly in Virginia, and was the cause of considerable damage to lettuce grown in greenhouses. The potherb butterfly (Ponlia napi L.) was destructive to cabbage, turnip, and other erueifers in Montana and Alaska. The harlequin cabbage bug ( Murgantia histrionica Hahn), always a pest in the South, after an absence of about six years in the latitude of the District of Columbia, reappeared in noticeable numbers in near-by points in Maryland and Virginia. Root maggots wore the subject of less complaints than in the preceding four or five years. The seed-corn maggot (Pcgomya fusciccps Zett.) was injurious to turnips in Alaska, to cabbage in South Carolina, and to sea kale introduced from England, where the species is also injurious. The imported cabbage maggot (Pcgomya brassiest Bouche) was the subject of considerable correspondence, but injury appears to be considerably lessened since 1905. Great injury, however, occurred in various portions of Alaska. Elsewhere the insect was noticeably abundant in northern Ohio and Minnesota. The imported onion maggot (Pcgomya cepctormn Meade) was also less injurious than in the two or three previous years. The chief injury reported occurred in Indiana. The black onion fly ( Trilo.ra flea Wied.) was injurious to onions in por- tions of Illinois and Minnesota, and was associated with the onion maggot. In portions of Illinois also there was another maggot on onions, Lonchxa polita Say), while in Ohio the barred onion maggot < Cho.topsis)cnea Wied.) was destructive. The tarnished plant bug (Lygus pratensis L.) appeared on the whole to be only moderately numerous, but was injurious to onions grown for seed in Indiana, to potato, celery, ornamentals, and pear buds in Maine, and was concerned in injury to beets in California and cabbage in Alaska. The onion thrips ( Thrips tabaci Lind.) was injurious to onions in Texas, Massachu- setts and Indiana. Injury by the melon aphis (Aphis gossypii Glow) was somewhat general throughout its range. As usual, the greatest losses were to cantaloupe, although other melons, cucumbers, cotton, some ornamental plants, and others were badly affected. Many complaints were received from Texas, Florida, Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and California, somewhat general injury was incurred in Ohio and Illinois, and local injury was done in New York. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee. In portions of southern California cantaloupes were almost completely destroyed. In Oklahoma 60 per cent was lost in some localities. The pickle worm (Diaphania nitidalis Cram.) appeared in injurious numbers about the District of Columbia for the first time in about ten years. It was also destructive in Arkansas. The common stalk borer (Papaipcma nitela Guen.) was less complained of than in the previous two or three years. Local injury, however, to a variety of vegetable crops and ornamentals was reported in New York, Pennsylvania. New Jersey, Con- necticut, Michigan, Missouri, Illinois, Iowa, and Mississippi. Wheat was attacked about Lawrence, Kans., and Richmond, Ind. The variegated cutworm (Peridroma saucia Hbn.) was destructive in California, doing mischief in greenhouses in Minnesota, and injuring vegetable crops and berries in Alaska and Mexico. 512 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Injun," by white grubs > Ladmosterna spp. i was very general in the northern United States from Xew England to Iowa and Wisconsin. The usual crops — potatoes, straw- berry beds, beets, and other vegetables — were affected, and much complaint was made of damage to lawns. Injun.- to the roots of strawberry and to young orchard was reported in Oregon. Wirt worms were more injurious than in most years, complaints being most noticeable from California. The principal injury was caused to garden vegetables and sugar corn. Insects Injurious to Deciduous Fruits. The codling moth | Car)x>cap$a pomondla L. ) has been for some years notably inju- rious in orchards in the Middle West, especially in the Ozark regions. The apple maggot yRhagoUtis pomondla Walsh) is apparently becoming increas- ingly troublesome in some of the Xew England States, as Maine. Xew Hampshire, and Vermont, and has been the subject of frequent communications during the summer and fall. It was also quite abundant in the vicinity of Douglas. Mich., attacking principally the summer and early fall varieties of apples. The green fruit-worm Xylina antennata Walk, i was reported seriously destructive to apple orchards in southern Illinois, boring into the young fruit and destroying in orchards a considerable percentage of the crop. The apple leaf-hopper | Empoasca mali LeB.i has been more than usually abundant in the vicinity of Washington. D. O. and was the subject of complaint from the proprietor of a large nursery in Pennsylvania. The spring canker-worm [Pahacrita vernata Peck was much complained of in northern Virginia, central and western Pennsylvania, and eastern Ohio, where it appears to have been even more troublesome than in 1905. The fall canker-worm (Ahophila pomctaria Hair. | was received along with the pre- ceding species from localities in western Pennsylvania, where, in the practical absence of remedial measures, it seems to be increasing in destructiveness. The forest tent caterpillar | Malacosoma disstria Hbn. ) and its near relative. M. plu- viatu Dyar. were reported as very abundant and destructive in Washington State, attacking apple, plum, cherry, and rose. A tussock moth | Orgyia sp. i was also very destructive in Washington State, causing ub defoliation of orchards. The yellow-necked apple-tree caterpillar (Datana mmistra Dru. I became quite abundant in appie orchards in northern Virginia, adjacent portions of West Virginia, western Pennsylvania, and Maine. The red-humped apple-tree caterpillar tSddzura condnna S. & A.) along with the preceding, was very abundant in apple orchards in Maine, the two species causing considerable alarm from their depredations. The trumpet leaf-miner | Tistheria rnalifolidla Clem. i. which became very abundant in the vicinity of Washington. D. C. during the two previous years, was almost equally numerous in 1906, though it was not the subject of as much complaint as previously from near-by States and elsewhere. The apple' bud-borer I Epinotia pyricolana Murt . I was decidedly in evidence in young apple orchards in Virginia and Maryland in the environs of Washington. D. C, doing material injury by boring down the terminal shoots, thereby causing an undesirable branching. A climbing cutworm, Prodaria sp.. was troublesome in apple orchards in northern Virginia and adjacent territory in West Virginia, young trees being practically stripped of foliage and the branches of older ones more or less denuded. Injury was most severe in orchards which had been in sod for the past two or three years. The pear psylla [PsyUa pyri L. I was reported seriously injurious to Kieffer pears in one locality in Virginia. This species was abundant in Virginia and Maryland in 1894, but has not since attracted much attention. The plum curculio (Conotrachdus nenuphar Ubst.) was the subject of a very large amount of inquiry from various portions of the territory over which it is distributed. The peach 1 orer Satin inoidea critiosa Say | maintains its place with the plum curculio as one of the two principal enemies of the peach. Frequent inquiries come, especially from the South and Southwest, concerning this insect, particularly from persons who have recently gone into peach culture. E ■ ppe prunifolldla Chamb. became destructive to peach at Saugatuck. Conn., fold- ing the leaves along the edge and also at the tip. A new sawfly enemy of the peach | Lyda sp. I is reported to have been quite injurious .ecticut. The slugs feed on the foliage, stripping the trees more or less completely. PRINCIPAL INJURIOUS INSECTS OF 1906. 513 A plum aphis (Aphis setarix Thos.) became unusually abundant in the spring in parts of the South. Numerous complaints were received from southern Louisiana, in the vicinity of New Orleans and Lake Charles; also from Alabama, Georgia, and Ken- tucky. The insect occurred mostly on the plum, but in one instance the peach was at lacked. An unusually serious attack on the peach by the scurfy scale (Chionaspis furfura Fitch) was noted in Georgia in a block of three or four- year-old trees, the insect rivaling in destructiveness the San Jose scale. Judging from the injury caused by this insect there are doubtless two or more broods in that section each year. The species is reported uncommonly abundant in certain orchards in the Hudson River Vallev in New York State. The oyster-shell scale (Lepidosaphes ulmi L.) continued seriously injurious in Mary- land and Pennsylvania. The terrapin scale (Eulecanium nigrofasciatum Perg.) has become very trouble- some in a few peach orchards in western Maryland, and its occurrence in unusual numbers was noted in New Jersey. The San Jose scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus Comst.) continued to attract much atten- tion, especially in regions recently invaded by it. It was observed in new localities in apple-growing regions of the Ozark Mountains, and the orchardist of that section will undoubtedly have to contend with it in the near future. Another scale insect became prominent as a pest of deciduous fruits, namely, Howard's scale (Aspidiotus howardi Ckll.). This insect was reported abundant and destructive in orchards on the west slope in Colorado, infesting pear, prune, plum, almond, and apple, as well as certain shade trees. The grape root-worm (Fidia viticida Walsh) became a very serious pest in the Erie grape belt in Pennsylvania, and was somewhat more destructive in the Chautauqua grape belt in western New York than for the preceding year or so. The grape berry moth (Polychrosis viteana Clem.) was seriouly destructive in the same territory as that mentioned above for the grape root-worm, as well as in northern Ohio. The grapevine leaf-hopper ( Typhlocyba comes Say) continued a serious grape pest in the Erie grape belt. The grape curculio (Craponius insequalis Say) was quite as destructive in West Virginia as during 1905. The rose-chafer ( Macrodactylus subspinosus Fab.) is apparently again on the increase, as indicated by the numerous complaints made. Specimens were received from many localities in the East-Central States — for example, Maryland, Virginia, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and New York. Serious injury or total destruction of grapes, cherries, apples, and peaches was noted by correspondents. Amphicerus punctipennis Lee. was received in grape canes from Miami, Fla. The species is also recorded from Tiger Mills, Tex., and Riverside, Cal. Insects Injurious to Citrus and Other Tropical Fruits. There is little change from year to year in the amount of damage from scale and other common enemies of citrus fruits. The black scale (Saissetia olex Bern.) and the red scale (Aonidiella aurantii Mask.) continue to be the prominent pests in southern California, and the white fly (Aleyrodes citri R. & H.) and the purple scale (Lepi- dosaphes beckii Newm.) in Florida. Work under a special appropriation for the white fly is under way in Florida, and this insect will be studied in the coming year through- out its range on the Gulf coast. Very good reports are still coming of the South African parasite of the black scale in southern California, but the work of this parasite has not by any means eliminated the black scale as an important pest. Insects Injurious to the Nut Industry. The pecan crop of Texas was reported generally short. Only two insects, however, were especially prominent as pests. The pecan huskworm (Enarmonia caryana Fitch) was injurious in portions of Georgia and South Carolina, and, on the authority of Mr. F. C. Pratt, did injury also to walnuts at Boerne, Tex. Shortage in the pecan crop in other portions of the South was attributed to this pest. The pecan weevil (Balaninus caryse. Horn) was somewhat unusually abundant. The chestnut crop in some sections also showed a shortage, but the chestnut weevils (Balaninus rectus Say and B. proboscideus Fab.) were not complained of so frequently as in previous years. Loss in one locality in Pennsylvania, however, was estimated 3 a 1906 33 51-4 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. at 40 per cent, a gradual growth beginning with 5 per cent loss experienced five years previously. A red spider. Tetranyehus bicolor Bks.. was the occasion of complaint among chestnut growers in portions of Pennsylvania and Connecticut, and this pest, together with "blight." was doubtless responsible for other losses of which there was complaint. Insects Injurious to Shade and Ornamental Trees. The brown-tail moth {Euproctis chrysorrhoa L. i has extended its western range to the vicinity of Amherst. Mass.. and seems to be proceeding in a westerly direction more slowly than it has been spreading to the northeast. It is now found more than halfway up the Maine coast and has been reported from Eastport. It occurs in the two lower tiers of counties in Xew Hampshire in considerable numbers and has been collected in the White Mountain region. The gipsy moth (Ocneria [PortJutria] dispar L.) has been found during the year near Stonington. Conn., and several colonies have been located in Rhode Island. It occurs very generally in the southern tier of counties of Xew Hampshire, and recent scouting in Maine has shown the establishment of the species at several points in the south- western portion of that State. Its western limit still seems to be in that part of Massa- chusetts which lies in the longitude of Worcester. As a result of the widespread interest which the occurrence of these two species occasioned in Xew England and neighboring States, certain other caterpillars were the subject of considerable complaint. Prominent among these was the black walnut caterpillar iDatana inUgcrrlma G. & R. . which attracted attention in Xew York. It was also injurious to walnut at Bristol. Tenn.. and at Roekford. HI., and to pecans at Staunton. Ya. The hickory tussock moth i Halisidota caryx Harr. | was destructive to elni in Massachusetts and was the subject of complaint also in Xew Y'ork. The sugar maple borer iPlagionoivs speciosus Say'i continued to be a serious pest in Xew York, and some complaints were made of its injuries in Ohio. The white-marked tussock moth i Hemerocampa Uucostigma S. was. on the whole, remarkably scarce, small colonies only occurring. Among the localities infested were the District of Columbia. Lynn. Mass.. Xew Wilmington. Pa., and Xew Y"ork City. The imported willow curculio ( Crypt orhynchus lapathi L.) was destructive to willow and poplar, especially in nurseries in various parts of Xew Y'ork State. The cottony maple scale {Pulvinaria innumerabiiis Rathv.), which was bo abundant in 1905 practically disappeared as a pest in Xew Jersey. The false maple scale (Phenacoccus acericola King! was abundant in several cities in Xew Y'ork. and especially in the vicinity of Xew Y'ork City. The catalpa sphinx f Ceratomia cataJpx Bdv. | was very destructive to the foliage of catalpa. reports of defoliation having been received from Xew Jersey, where the pest is generally distributed, and from portions of Ohio and Alabama. In Maryland and Virginia the species was abundant, but not so troublesome. The elm-tree borer [Saperaa tridentata 01. 1 was the cause of considerable complaint, injuries being especially noticeable in the vicinity of St. Louis. Mo., and Evanston. 111. A new oriental moth ( Cnidocampa flavesctns Walk, k whose original home is in Asia. was observed on a variety of shade, orchard, and wild trees in the vicinity of Dor- chester. Mass. As its habits as thus far studied in this country show that it is capable of subsisting on all sorts of vegetation, such as bush fruits and rose, there is danger of the permanent introduction of this species into America as a pest. The maple leaf stem-borer < Priophonts acericaulis McG. I was injurious to maple shade trees in the vicinity of Xew Haven. Conn., and probably elsewhere. The species has not hitherto been noted as a pest and was only recently described because new to science. The currant leaf-hopper iErnpoasca malt LeB.( was very abundant on shade trees in the District of Columbia, doing particular damage to the hop tree. It also attacked violets grown in a greenhouse in Yirginia. The greenhouse red spider ( Tctranyehv.s bimaculatus Harv. | was extremely trouble- some, both in greenhouses and fields and on shade trees, its injuries extending from York and the District of Columbia to Illinois. General complaint of mite injury to shade trees was also made in Xew Jersey and is probably attributable to this species. PRINCIPAL INJURIOUS INSECTS OF 1906. 515 Insects Injurious to Forests and Forest Products. The Black Hills beetle (Dcndroctonus ponderosse Hopk.) continued its depredations to such an extent in the Black Hills Forest Reserve of South Dakota that as yet it has not been practicable, owing to the lack of sufficient funds and other facilities, to accomplish anything of importance toward carrying out the recommendations for its control. The radical measures adopted in the vicinity of Colorado Springs and the Pikes Peak Forest Reserve, Colo., under the same recommendations, have, on the other hand, apparently brought the pest under complete control in that locality. The mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus monticola Hopk.) was the direct cause of the death of a considerable amount of lodgepole pine in the higher elevations of the Yosemite National Park and in other localities in the Sierra Nevada Mountains in California. It was also reported in destructive numbers in Oregon, Idaho, and Utah. The destructive pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis Zimm.), while continuing to be a menace to the pine forests of the South, was not more than usually abundant in the South Atlantic and Gulf States. For the first time since the disastrous outbreak of 1891-92 it was found as far north as Virginia. Investigations in the southeastern part of that State indicated that it had been present in limited abundance for several years, apparently without much, if any, increase in numbers. The spruce beetle (Dendroctonus piceaperda Hopk.) was not reported in destructive abundance in any section of the country. It was found in small numbers attacking spruce in New Hampshire, northern Michigan, and the Black Hills of South Dakota, and the western form was reported as causing some injury to the Engelmann spruce in Colorado and Wyoming. The Douglas spruce beetle (Dendroctonus pseudotsugse Hopk.) was reported as destructive to the red fir or Douglas spruce in many widely separated localities in the Rocky Mountain region. The larch beetle (Dendroctonus simplex Lee.) was found attacking larch or tamarack in small numbers in the upper peninsula of Michigan. Although not at present a serious enemy of the tree, it may prove to be of importance in connection with the depredations of the larch sawfly. The western pine beetle (Dendroctonus brevicomis Lee.) was found attacking pine in the Yosemite Valley and other localities in California, and reported from Oregon. In Idaho the recommendations of this Bureau for its control have been adopted by certain of the larger lumbering concerns. The two-lined chestnut borer (Agrilus bilineatus Web.) was found in Massachusetts attacking and hastening the death of oak trees which had been defoliated by the gipsy and brown tail moths. The white-pine weevil (Pissodes strobi Peck) occurred in its usual abundance in the Eastern States. It was found also in Michigan, in young white pine reproduction, and appears to be increasing in abundance there. "Cerambycid borers (species at present unknown) were reported as injuring telephone poles in Maryland and West Virginia. They attack the poles near the surface of the ground, and so weaken them as to cause them to break. Cedar heartwood borers ( Trachykele blondeli Mars, and T. opulenta Fall) were identi- fied as the cause of serious injury to the heartwood of various western cedars. The injury has been long known, but the insect causing it has been unknown until this year. Powder-post beetles (Lyctus spp.) continued to be a source of frequent complaint from dealers and manufacturers of hardwood products. L. unipunctatus Hbst. was the most common species infesting oak and hickory spokes, handles, etc. ; L. plani- collis Lee. was found attacking ash lumber in the South, and L. parallelopipedum Mels. injuring persimmon shuttle blocks in Georgia. The red-shouldered powder-post borer (Sinoxylon basilare Say) caused serious injury to last and shuttle blocks of persimmon wood in Georgia and Ohio. The larch sawfly (Holcocneme [Nematus] erichsonii Hartig) was unusually abundant and destructive in the upper peninsula of Michigan. Complaint of injury was received in 1905, but it appears that the area over which the larch was defoliated was consider- ably more extensive in 1906. Defoliation of the larger trees over a large part of the upper peninsula was complete, but as yet none appear to be dying from this cause alone. The fir tussock moth (Notolophus oslari Barnes) was the cause of extensive defoliation of the tops of white fir (Abies concolor) in Mariposa County, Cal., and was also found in considerable abundance attacking the same tree in Colorado. It is supposed that the repetition of this injury is responsible for the dead tops common on fir throughout a large portion of the Rocky Mountain and Sierra Nevada regions. Dalcerides ingenita Hy. Edw., a species of slug caterpillar, was reported seriously defoliating "live oak scrub" near Payson, Ariz. The habits of this insect were not known previously. 516 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Insects Injurious to Stored Products. The Mediterranean flour moth \Eph($tia kududeUa Zell. |, that scourge of the flour mill, greatly increased its range, having been reported from four times as many locali- ties as in any previous year. Its injuries were particularly noticeable in new- localities in California. Oregon. Maryland. Ohio. Michigan. Pennsylvania. New York, nsin. and Illinois. It was doubtfully reported from South Dakota. Iowa, and West Virginia. The European grain moth (Tinea granella L. has apparently become established in thL? country, as considerable correspondence was received in regard to its occur- rence in seed storehouses and mills in portions of Connecticut. Michigan. Xew York, and Canada. It bred in corn seed and dry stalks, and in ground buckwheat. The spider beetle ' - L. > caused serious damage to a case of uniforms of heavy felted cloth in an Ohio locality, and was also found in some numbers in flour in a flour mill at Ontario. Canada. Hadrobri rmatus Say. another ptinid beetle new as a household pest, made its appearance at Toledo. Ohio, and Hamburg. Mich., working somewhat after the manner of the powder-pnst beetles {Lydut spp. . in white ash and basswood flooring, the former wood being comparatively new and the latter very old. The cigarette beetle yLasioderma serric appears to be increasingly destruc- tive year by year, many complaints having been received during 1906. It affected tobacco of ail kinds, and its injuries were well distributed throughout the eastern United States and extended westward into Arizona. It also injured herbarium specimens at St. Louis. Mo., and was troublesome in upholstered furniture in the District of Columbia. West Virginia, and New Jersey. Inskctg and Ticks as Animal Parasites and as Conveyors of Disease. The insect and tick parasites of domestic animals and man vary but slightly as regards abundance from year to year. The following observations, however, on some of the ae pests are of inte: The cattle tick (Boop/nhu amsuioftu Say does not vary decidedly in numbers from vear to vear. In 1906 the usual loss from Texas fever, 'estimated at $40,000,000 - 10,000,000, may be attributed to it. Trie lone star tick i Amblyomma americanum L. ranks next, though its importance is immeasurably less because it does not transmit disease. In 1906 it was very minier- ous. especially in regions where sheep and goats are kept. The tropical horse tick I Dermacentor nitens Aud. was discovered in this country for the first time by an agent of the Bureau of Entomology, and its occurrence over a considerable area in southern Texas was determined. The gulf coast tick Amblyomma ntaculatum Koch . which has previously attracted no attention, was found very commonly along the coasts of Texas and" Louisiana infesting cattle, horses, dogs, and man. The tropica] tick I Amblyomma cc Koch was observed in Texas as far north as Beeville. The dog Rhipicephalus Rhipictphalus sp. was found commonly over a large area in southern Texas. Its close relationship to disease-transmitting species gives it considerable inr A fa - Tabanus opacus Ooq. caused much annoyance to horses and cattle in Wyoming. The screw worm Chrysomyia macellaria Fab. . always a source of trouble in Texas. was annoying to stock. The same is true of the horse bot *Ga$trophilus equi F. which was observed in the same State everywhere as far west as Ozona. Miscellaneous or Unclassified Insect Pests. insects injurious in greenhouses and in flower gardens. The violet gall midge Contarinia [I>iplosis] violicola Coq.) has become a very serious pest in the extensive violet-growing industry in the Hudson River valley region of Xew York. The rose leaf-beetle yXodonota pinicficollis Say was injurious" to ruses in the vicinity of the District of Columbia. The rose leaf-hopper ( Typhlocyba rosx B was quite troublesome during the year and caused considerable complaint bear rk on rose bushes in and about the District of Columbia, as also in Xew York State. The red-banded leaf-hop; >:phala eoccinta Forst. was injurious to ornamental plants in Central Xew York and in the District of Columbia, China aster, roses, and hibiscus being particularly injured. Lilac bushes at Stony Brook. X. Y.. were reported badly damaged by a giant scarabseid beetle. Xylory'cUs satyr.;.? Fab. The greenhouse leaf-tyer (Phlycixniaferrugalis Hbn. | was a pest in greenhouses in Michigan. SOIL AREAS SURVEYED AND MAPPED. 517 STRAWBERRY INSECTS. The strawberry crown girdler (Otiorhynchus ovatus L.) was very destructive in King County. Wash. , to strawberry plants. An estimated loss of about $55,000 was made for that county. It was observed on ornamental plants about Chicago, 111. The straw- berry leaf-roller (Ancylis comptana Frohl.) was abundant in Maryland and Virginia near the District of Columbia, and was complained of in Illinois and Missouri. The strawberry sawfly (Harpiphorus maculatus Nort.) was injurious in Massachusetts. MISCELLANEOUS. The Rocky Mountain locust (Melanopliis spretus Thos.) was very destructive in por- tions of South Dakota. One correspondent reported the total destruction of nursery plantings, the damage aggregating $800. A red spider (Tetranychus sp.) was reported as causing much damage to hops in portions of the State of Washington, one grower reporting an almost total loss. The calloused bill-bug (Sphenophorus callosus 01.) was destructive to chufa, and was concerned in injury to timothy in Virginia near the District of Columbia. Of pests related to insects, a sowbug (Porcellio Isevis Latr.) was injurious to mush- rooms grown commercially in the District of Columbia and Kansas. Many complaints were also received of slugs and their injuries to plants of various kinds. Angleworms also were present in troublesome numbers in gardens, on lawns, on golf links, and in some cases in large fields. AREAS SURVEYED AND MAPPED BY THE BUREAU OF SOILS. By A. G. Rice, Chief Clerk, Bureau of Soils. The following statement shows the location and extent of soil surveys made up to December 31, 1906. The Bureau prepares and issues a lithograph map, drawn on a scale of 1 mile to the inch, for each area surveyed, indicating in colors the distribution of the various soil types. The accompanying sketch map (fig. 20) gives the location of these areas. Fig. 20. — Areas covered by the Soil Survey. The statement gives a list of the areas surveyed with the number of square miles in each, and the total area surveyed in each State and Territorv. The total for the United States is 128,198 square miles, or 82,046,720 acres. 518 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Areas of soil surveys in the United States to December 31, 1906. Square miles. Alabama: Blount County 625 Dallas County 992 Fort Payne area 509 Huntsville area 506 Lauderdale County 708 Lee County ." 629 Macon County 621 Mobile area 461 Montgomery County 780 Perry County 762 Sumter County 893 Arizona: Buckeye sheet 43 Phoenix sheet 243 Solomonsville area 108 Tempe sheet 163 Yuma area 340 Arkansas: Fayetteville area . Miller County Prairie County... Stuttgart area . . . California: Bakersfleld area Fresno area Hanford area Imperial area Indio area Los Angeles area .... Sacramento area Salinas sheet San Bernardino area . San Gabriel area San Jose area Santa Ana area Solidad sheet Stockton area Ventura sheet Willow area Colorado: Arkansas Valley area. Grand Junction area . Greeley area San Luis area 569 026 656 251 195 628 216 ,084 234 570 924 189 755 259 313 275 155 521 240 375 945 168 687 628 Connecticut : Connecticut Valley. Delaware: Dover area Florida: Escambia County. . Gadsden County. . . Gainesville area Leon County Georgia: Bainb ridge area. Cobb County Covington area. . Dodge Ounty... Fort Valley area. Spalding County. Waycross area. . . Idaho: Boise sheet Blackfoot area. Caldwell sheet . Lewiston area. 662 548 485 67S 364 346 225 489 186 205 609 1"55 428 244 308 Illinois: Clay County 460 Clinton County 491 Johnson County 339 Knox County 717 McLean County 1, 159 O' Fallon area 68 Sangamon County 866 St. Clair County 650 Tazewell County 645 Winnebago County 526 7,486 Square _ , miles. Indiana: Boonville area 264 Greene County 535 Madison County 435 Marshall County 445 Newton County 393 Posey County 387 Scott County 197 Tippecanoe County " " " 499 Indian Territory: Tishomingo area 2,102 6,933 2,428 505 2,370 2,424 1,135 Iowa: Cerro Gordo County 567 Dubuque area 440 Story County 576 Tama County 720 Kansas : Allen County 504 Brown County 573 Garden City area 335 Parsons area 398 Riley County 634 Russell area 270 Wichita area 465 5,921 Kentucky: McCracken County 242 Madison County 437 Mason County * 225 Scott County 280 Union County 361 Warren County 533 Louisiana: Acadia Parish 636 Caddo Parish 898 De Soto Parish 825 East Baton Rouge Parish 451 Lake Charles area 202 New Orleans area 410 Ouachita Parish 605 Tangipahoa Parish 788 Maryland: Calvert County 217 Cecil County 376 Harford County 418 Kent County . .* 293 Prince George County 480 St. Mary County 363 Worcester County 463 Massachusetts: Connecticut Valley Michigan: Allegan County 828 Alma area 282 Cass County 500 Munising area 407 Oxford area 210 O wosso area 270 Pontiac area 307 Saginaw area 984 Minnesota: Blue Earth County 749 Carlton sheet 413 Crookston area 779 Marshall area 233 Mississippi: Biloxi area 615 Cry stalsp rings area 231 Jackson area 737 Mayersville sheet 193 McNeill area 198 Montgomery County 405 Pontotoc County . . ". 498 fimedes area 463 Yazoo sheet 463 3,155 3,179 2,07S 4,815 2,610 809 3,788 2,174 3,803 SOIL AEEAS SURVEYED AND MAPPED. 519 Areas of soil surveys in the United States to December 31, 1906 — Continued. Square miles. Missouri: Crawford County 747 Howell County 919 O'Fallon area 552 Putnam County 523 Saline County 748 Scotland County 410 Shelby County.". 511 Webster County 605 5,045 Montana: Billings area 107 Gallatin Valley area 325 432 Nebraska : Grand Island area 440 Kearney area 792 Lancaster County 857 Sarpy County 227 Stanton area 323 2,645 New Hampshire: Merrimack County 923 New Jersey: Salem area 493 Trenton area 810 1,303 New Mexico: Carlsbad sheet 80 Roswell sheet 49 129 New York: Auburn area 161 Bigflats area 223 Binghamton area 229 Long Island area 845 Lyons area 515 Madison County 649 Niagara County 547 Syracuse area 416 Tompkins County 493 Vergennes area . ." 160 Westfield area 260 4, 798 North Carolina: Alamance County 365 Asheville area 497 Cary sheet 63 Chowan County 178 Clayton sheet 214 Craven area 897 Duplin County 824 Hickory area 98S Kinston sheet 257 Mount Mitchell sheet 197 Newbern sheet 46 New Hanover County 192 Parmele area 236 Perquimans and Pasquotank counties 461 Princeton sheet 248 Saluda area 190 Statesv ille area 784 Transylvania Countv 372 7, 309 North Dakota: Cando area 283 Carrington area 720 Fargo area 406 Grand Forks area 3R. Jamestown area 496 Ransom County 856 Williston area 585 3, 660 Ohio: Ashtabula area 340 Cleveland area 509 Columbus area 472 Coshocton area 551 Meigs County 443 Montgomery County 480 Toledo area 103 Westerville area 476 Wooster area 169 4,143 Square miles. Oklahoma: Oklahoma County 720 Oregon: Baker City area 158 Salem area 284 442 Pennsylvania: Adams County 534 Chester County 760 Lancaster area 269 Lebanon area 669 Lockhaven area 278 Montgomery County . . 496 3, 006 Porto Rico: Arecibo to Ponce 330 Rhode Island. State 1, 085 South Carolina: Abbeville area 1, 006 Campobello area 515 Charleston area 352 Cherokee County 361 Darlington area 599 Lancaster County 486 Orangeburg area 709 York County 669 4,697 South Dakota: Brookings area 484 Tennessee: Clarksville area 547 Davidson County 501 Grainger County 307 Greene ville area 664 Henderson County 499 Lawrence County 618 Madison County 561 Pikeville area 440 4,137 Texas: Anderson County 1,069 Austin area 705 Brazoria area 845 Henderson area 581 . Houston County 1, 192 Jacksonville area 100 Lavaca County 995 Laredo area 155 Lee County 666 Luf kin area 99 Nacogdoches area 97 Paris area 548 San Antonio area 484 San Marcos area 515 Vernon area 277 Waco area 495 Willis area 215 Woodville area 100 9, 138 I'tah: Bear River Valley 334 Provo area 3/3 Salt Lake sheet 249 Sevier Valley 235 Weber County 310 1,501 Vermont : Vergennes area 227 Virginia: Albemarle area 1,110 Appomattox County 340 Bedford area 632 Chesterfield County 478 Hanover County 475 Leesburg area 419 Louisa County 505 Norfolk area 303 Prince Edward County. 430 Yorktown area 598 5. 590 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPAETME^ -Kl< ULTUEE. Areas of soU surreys in ■ her 31. li- .ued. Square mflea mflea ^ ■' j.---.z.z~. .- i Wisconsin: >--- i - ■■-it-'.;- .. '-..-.--■ .-.t i:f- -. —-—^r-. .' Portage County - i^jr.i- =:.- - j_- R&f.-iae County 326 Walla Walla area 201 -riorarea 182 Yakima sheet 85 Viroquaarea 50* i West Yngnria: Vt. ?~~-~ ■'.'■--■—-.?.. ... •■ Lanmiearaa Wheeling ares. 315 Total. PROGRESS IN FOOD AND DRUG INSPECTION AND CORRELATED INVESTIGATIONS. By H. W. Wiley. Chief of Burea The passage of the food and drugs act, June 30, 1906, a: obtain sach legislation for more than a quarter of & undoubtedly u est advancement in the field of investigations covered by the work • I Chemistry during 1906 and marks what may almost be called a reformation in many industries connected with the production of foods and medical and pharmaceutical preparations. Much work had been done in the Bureau in the direction of revealing the conditions that necessitated this L - publication of analyse- purchased in the open market, the disclosure of discrepancies between the lal>el and the product, the compilation of State food and drug laws showing need of uni- formity and the difficulties and injustices suffered by dealer, consumer, and the honest manufacturer alike when interstate commerce was conducted under such varying conditions. Cooperation with the Post-Office Department in excluding fraudulent medicinal preparations from the mails had revealed an evident need of regulation of such preparations which were often harmful as well as fraudulent. Although the law did not become operative until January 1. - effect was noticeable soon after the passage of the act. The great majority of manuiac* have shown that they are anxious to comply with the law and have h make the necessary changes in their products and labels. It is apparent that as far as most of the reputable manufacturers and dealers are concerned the law will be largely self-operative, and as a rule the decisions of the Department are ace without protest. Careful inspection will, of course, be necessarv. Ik- rder to protect these interests from unfair competition with such dealers or manufacturers as might, by misbranding and otherwise misrepresenting their goods, undersell the honest merchant. To this end a number of laboratorie- tion in which this work wifl be largely conducted, are being established in addition to the six laboratories at Chicago, Philadelph: rk. Boston. JXem - and San Francisco, at which ports imported foods have been inspected during the pa^ I years. The improvement in the labeling of imported goods, the statements made as to colors and preservatives, etc.. show continuing improvement under this inspe The improvement to be expected from the regulation of th . ^nd phar- maceutical preparations is already evidenced by the steps taken to produce pure products and to eliminate misrepresentations and false claims as set forth in the 1.. Other progressive activities set in operation by this law include the attention being given to the establishment of much needed standards for the various products sub- ject to the act and the work of the council on pharmacy and chemistry, in whk h Bureau has cooperated, which has called to account many remedies which have in the past masqueraded under false colors. In the same way a vast amount of research work has been inaugurated and - phases of it completed looking to the determination of the effect of pr - and coloring matters on health and digestion ; the effect of cold storage, especially on : birds, and eggs; and the bacteriological-chemical studies of milk, ice cream, etc.. for the better protection of public health and the establishment of re. lations governing such products. During the past year the study of the er: servatives made at the hygienic table of the Bureau has been devoted to the special investigation of certain points which the previous work indicated as being of special significance or needing further elaboration, the same preservatives be: -das in the more general studies, i. e.. boric acid, sulphurous acid, and sulphites. The physiological effects of formaldehyde, benzoic acid, and copper sulphates have ROAD LAWS ENACTED IX 1906. 521 also investigated along the lines followed in the bulletins on borax and salicylic acid (No. 84. Parts I and II) already issued. The results with these additional preservatives are now almost ready for publication. In nearly all of the laboratories of the Bureau investigations are in progress which bear upon the subject of food and drug control, the establishment of standards, the character of goods on the market, and methods for the improvement of processes and products. Among these may be mentioned the following: An investigation, in the miscellaneous laboratory, of concentrated feeding stuffs as eold on the American market, including the analysis of approximately 400 cattle foods to determine their composition and whether or not they are adulterated. Also the study of the composition of mineral waters in the United States has been continued, providing valuable data in connection with the enforcement of the food and drugs act as affecting this class of products. Illustrative of the efforts made to improve proc- esses may be mentioned the investigation of materials and methods used in canning foods. The most striking investigation looking to the improvement of the quality of. raw- materials is perhaps the experiment made with wheat grown in semiarid regions and under irrigation, or in localities having a heavy rainfall. The work at its present stage appears to indicate that, of all the factors influencing the composition of wheat, water plays a predominant part, the wheats grown under semiarid conditions being much higher in nitrogen. Both pot experiments and field work have pointed toward the same conclusion, i. e., an excess of water is accompanied by a decrease in nitrogen con- tent, which opens up the possibility of determining the amount of irrigation which should b« practiced to produce a crop of wheat containing the maximum nitrogenous content and making the largest yield. In thus outlining the progress made along a few of the lines of activity opened up or made more vital by the demands of the new law. it is important to emphasize the fact that their complete and satisfactory accomplishment can only be effected by conserva- tive methods; but the effect of the institution of such work and the enactment of such a law has been far-reaching in its practical and beneficial effects even in its initial stages — beneficial alike to consumer, producer, and our commercial status as a Nation. REVIEW OF ROAD LAWS ENACTED IN 1906. By M. O. Eldridge, Chief of Records, Oftice of Public Road*. The legislatures of only about one-fourth of the States were in session during the year 1906. Notwithstanding this fact, some very important road laws were enacted. The legislatures of twelve States adopted 81 bills relating to road improvement and administration. A brief synopsis of the most important of these measures is pre- sented herewith. Iowa. — An act approved February 14, 1906. authorizes the use of the split-log drag in maintaining earth roads. Dragging must be done under the direction of the road superintendents, who may allow not to exceed 50 cents per mile for each dragging or $5 per mile for dragging the road for one year. Another act, approved March 10. 1906. provides that all persons who use wagons on public roads with tires not less than 3 inches in width for hauling loads exceeding 800 pounds in weight shall receive a rebate of one-fourth of their highway tax. provided such rebate shall not exceed $5 per annum. Kentucky. — Any county in this State owning turnpike roads is authorized by an act approved March 21, 1906. to collect tolls on such roads, provided the same is agreed to by a majority of the legal voters of the county. The fiscal courts are required to appropriate to each road on which tolls are collected all the money so collected for the purpose of keeping the road in repair. Where the capital stock of turnpike roads is owned by the commonwealth of Kentucky and any county or counties, the share owned by the State may be transferred to the county, according to an act approved March 17, 1906. provided the county agrees to maintain the road and to collect no tolls thereon. If agreed to by a two-thirds vote of the people, a special tax of not to exceed 25 cents fin each $100 worth of assessed property may be levied for the construction and repair of roads in the various counties of this State, according to an act approved March 21. 1906. In working out this tax the road overseer may allow $1 for each day's work and $2.50 per day for each two-horse team and wagon. New Jersey. — The salary of the State commissioner of public roads is increased by an act approved April 2,*1906, from $1,500 to $5,000 per annum: the allowance for 522 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. hi? expenses is also increased from $1,500 to $4,000 per annum, and the salary of the State supervisor, who shall be a competent civil engineer, is fixed at $2,500 per "annum. According to a law approved June 26. 1906. roads constructed by the boards of chosen freeholders of the counties, with or without State aid. may be maintained bv the township, town, or borough in which they are located, under the direction of the State commissioner of public roads. Another law provides that the purchase or condemnation of toll roads which have been permanently improved with stone or gravel may be paid for, one-third by the State and two-thirds by the county. Ten per cent of the two-thirds may be paid by the township or municipality in which the road is located. The county mav borrow money temporarily to pay its share for such roads. Xew York. — The issuance of $50,000,000 in bonds, provided for in section 12. article 7. of the constitution, was legalized May 16. 1906. Funds realized from the sale of those bonds are to be expended under the Higbie- Armstrong State aid law . in the permanent improvement of the public highways, the State paying one-half of the cost, the counties 35 per cent, and the townships or property owners 15 per cent. The bonds are to be issued in two classes, A and B. Class A bonds are to run for a period of 50 years and bear interest at 3i per cent and be redeemable from a fund maintained by the State. An annual tax of 0.0055 mill upon each $1 worth of property for every million dollars worth of bonds outstanding is provided to pay the interest and to create a sinking fund with which to redeem Class A bonds. Class B bonds also bear interest at the rate of 3h per cent and are to be paid in 50 equal annual installments by the county and townships wherein the proceeds have been applied to the improvement of highways. The counties and towns which do not desire to avail themselves of funds derived from the sale of these bonds may pay their share of the cost of State aid roads in cash. Interest and principal on Class B bonds are paid by a tax which is levied on a basis of 70 per cent upon the county and 30 per cent upon the township. The sum of $5,000,000 was appropriated for 1906 out of moneys realized from the sale of these bonds for the purpose of improving the highways accord- ing to the State aid laws. The town law relating to highway commissioners is amended according to an act approved May 10. 1906, so as to provide that towns which have adopted the money system and have more than one highway commissioner, may reduce the number <:'f commissioners to one. if agreed to by a majority of the voters at a special meeting. The highway law was amended May 10. 1906. so as to provide that supervisors and the highway commissioner or commissioners of towns receiving State aid shall annu- ally report to the State engineer, on forms provided for the purpose, all expenditures for road and bridge purposes, sources of revenue, machinery and tools on hand. The highway commissioners and supervisors are required to use, for keeping accounts of moneys collected and expended, such forms as may be prescribed by the State engineer. Ohio. — The county commissioners are authorized by law. approved March 3. 1906, to issue bonds for the purpose of reimbursing boards of road commissioners appointed by the county commissioners for indebtedness in connection with road improvements carried on by virtue of any legislative act. Such bonds may be issued for such amounts and such length of time and for such rate of interest as the county commissioners may determine. The commissioners are authorized to levy an annual tax on all property within the precinct or road district out of which to pay interest and principal. Revised Statutes of Ohio in relation to the National Road were amended March 29. 1906, so as to provide that the county commissioners in any county through which the National Road (Old Cumberland Road) passes are authorized to require township trustees to maintain portions of the road which pass through their township. Rhode Island. — An act passed February' 20, 1906, provides for the issuance of scrip or certificates of indebtedness in the name of the State to the amount of $600,000. They are to mature in at least thirty years and bear interest at the rate of not to exceed 3 per cent. Of these bonds. $200,000 are to be issued and sold before January 1. 1907, and the balance on or before January 1. 1908. in such installments as the State treas- urer may determine. The amount necessary to pay the annual interest and provide for a sinking fund to pay off the bonds is to be included in the annual appropriation bill for State expenses. The funds derived from the sale of these bonds are to be expended under the direction of the State lx>ard of public roads in the construction of a system of State roads, the State paying the whole cost, as provided by law. Yirglxia. — On March 6. 1906, a law was approved which provided for the estah- lishment of a State highway commission, consisting of a State hiehway commissioner, appointed by the governor, who shall be a civil engineer and a citizen of the State, EOAD LAWS EXACTED TX 1906. 523 and the professors of civil engineering of the University of Virginia, the Virginia Mil- itary Institute, and the Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College. The highway commissioner is to receive a salary of $3,000 per annum and traveling expenses, and an assistant to the commissioner is to receive $1,800 per annum and traveling expenses. Clerks and other assistants are also provided for. The sum of $16,000 was appropriated for the use of the commission from July 1. 1906, to February 28, 1908. The commis- sion is to collect and disseminate useful information on road building, to prepare plans and specifications for the improvement of roads throughout the State when requested by local authorities to do so, and to direct the construction of such roads. The commission is further authorized to furnish as many convicts from the State prison as may be necessary to build the roads according to the specifications of the commissioner and under the direction of an engineer appointed by him, provided the local authorities agree to furnish all necessary material, tools, and teams. The State highway commissioner is authorized to have general supervision of the construction and repair of the main traveled roads throughout the State and to recommend to local authorities and to the governor needed improvements in the public roads. The pro- fessors of civil engineering at the universities and colleges mentioned are required to aid the commissioner when not actually engaged in their academic work by inspecting road work and giving such information as may be desired. Another act, approved March 6. 1906, provides for the use of State convicts in the improvement of public roads and in the preparation of road-building material through- out the State. Such convicts when engaged in this work in any county are placed under the direction of a civil engineer and road builder appointed for the purpose by the State highway commissioner. The sum of $25,000 is appropriated annually out of which to pay the transportation of the convicts to and from the penitentiary and for guarding, clothing, and feeding them when engaged in this work. The law relating to the establishment, construction, and permanent improvement of public roads was amended March 17. 1906. providing among other things that the county superintendents of roads, road district boards, road subdistrict supervisors, and the State engineer shall have control, supervision, and management of the public ruads. The bill also provides that the regular county levy and district levy may be used in defraying the county's and district's proportion of the expense of constructing roads for which State aid has been obtained. Rules and plans for making roads in the counties are subject to the approval of the State highway commissioner. The boards of supervisors of the various counties, according to an act approved March 14. 1906. are authorized to enact such local legislation as may be necessary for the protection of roads and bridges. According to an act approved March 8. 1906, bonds may be issued by any county for the purpose of permanently improving roads and bridges, provided the same is agreed to by a majority of the qualified voters of the county. The maximum amount of such bond issue shall not exceed 10 per cent of the total taxable valuation, and the bonds shall be payable in not to exceed thirty-four years. A tax of not to exceed 90 cents on each $100 worth of property must be levied to create a sinking fund and to pay the interest thereon. All roads built from such bond issues must be constructed according to the directions of the State highway commissioner. Counties in which no special road law is in force may be divided by the board of supervisors into road subdistricts. The qualified voters of such subdistricts are author- ized to meet and elect a chairman, secretary, treasurer, and one or more road surveyors and to assess a subdistrict road tax of not to exceed 50 cents on each $100 of taxable valuation. These funds are to be expended under the direction of the road surveyor of the subdistrict and according to such instructions as he may receive from the State highway commissioners, the county supervisors, or the subdistrict meetings. The surveyor is also required to furnish such information to these authorities as may be requested from time to time. The State highway commissioner is required to furnish plans of split-log and other drags to supervisors of subdistricts and to instruct them in their proper use. An act relating to turnpike companies was so amended, March 17, 1906, as to provide that when the collection of tolls on turnpikes has been suspended for a period of four months on account of the bad condition of the same, three disinterested supervisors shall be appointed by the circuit court to make an examination of the road, and if it is reported by them to be in bad condition the circuit court is authorized to require the turnpike company to forfeit its franchise and charter. Chapter 43 of the code of Virginia was so amended on March 19, 1906, as to provide that taxes levied for road purposes by the boards of county supervisors shall not be levied on property located in incorporated cities and towns which maintain their own streets. 524 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. PROGRESS IN FARM MANAGEMENT IN 1906. By W. J. Sfillman. Agriculturist in Charge of Farm Management Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry. Progress in the development" and extension of agricultural industries and efforts looking toward the adoption of improved methods of farming have been hampered in all sections of the United States during the past year by a lack of farm labor. The amazing development of transportation and manufacturing industries has absorbed the available labor, and the farmer has been compelled to operate with an insufficient supply. Especially in Xew England and in the Southern States the labor is drifting toward the cities. The State of South Carolina has been making efforts to remedy this difficulty by securing immigration. The State of Maryland is taking steps in the same direction. Modification of our immigration laws has been suggested as a means of ameliorating this condition. It is believed that the present interest in agricultural education will lead to the development of schools of a type that will open the door of opportunity on the farm, and thus hold a larger proportion of the rural population, to some extent remedying the difficulty. Because of insufficient labor many farmers have been compelled to abandon types of farming which require much labor and to seed much of their land to grass, thus reducing the amount of labor needed, but at the same time reducing the income from the land. One of the most notable movements in connection with progress in farm management during the past year has been the tendency toward diversified farming in the cotton belt. The primary factor in this movement is the injury done to the cotton crop by the boll weevil. Diversified farming in that section is taking the direction of an increase in trucking and fruit growing, dairying, hay production, the raising of hogs, and to some extent the production of beef. The development of trucking and fruit interests has been greatly hampered because of difficulties connected with the marketing of perishable farm products. On account of the absence of statistics relating to acreages of such crops the farmer has no idea of the acreage of any particular crop it is safe for him to plant. Because of lack of organization for marketing such products, he does not know where to send his material when it is ready for market. The further fact that the producer has no adequate protection against unfair treatment from consignees has discouraged many farmers from engaging in trucking. In some sections icing charges and high freight rates leave no profit to the producer. If these difficulties could be remedied there would undoubtedly be an enormous increase in truck farming throughout the South. The present effort to eradicate the cattle tick in the South causes renewed interest in all types of cattle fanning. If the effort is successful, it will undoubtedly result in a large extension of cattle raising just at a time when range cattle in the West are decreas- ing rapidly, because of the occupation of range land by settlers on the one hand and the extension of sheep grazing on the other. The elimination of the cattle tick would also doubtless cause a large increase in the dairy industry in the South. The increased price of wool for the past few years has caused renewed interest in sheep raising in all sections of the country, and the number of sheep on American farms is increasing. There are still some sections of the country which have not yet been farmed suffi- ciently long to deplete the original fertility of the soils, and in these sections single-crop systems of farming, especially grain farming, prevail very generally. In at least one notable instance this type of farming has been continued too long and has resulted in marked deterioration of the soil. Just at the present time the owners of the vast wheat fields in the Sacramento Valley are seriously considering a change in their system of farming with a view to building up the fertility of the soil. In the Plains region the change to a more diversified system of farming has made more progress, and where formerly corn and wheat were practically the only crops, alfalfa, sorghum, Kafir corn, and other forage crops are becoming more important, and the amount of live stock on the farms is increasing. In the Dakotas. where grain farming has been the rule, much interest is manifested in dairying, and that industry is beginning to show very satisfactory development in that section. The recent demonstration of a cheap and effective method of eradicating Johnson grass will doubtless render it possible for that valuable hay grass to be utilized in crop rotations in the South somewhat as timothy is now utilized in the North. Taken in connection with the eradication of the cattle tick, which is now in progress, this fact can not fail to have an important influence on the development of live-stock farming in the cotton belt. PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN 1906. 525 Alfalfa continues to occupy an important place among those crops which are increas- ing in area on farms in the eastern half of the United States. Its successful culture is having an important influence in modifying cropping systems and types of farming, and where it has become established it has considerably increased the income from the land. PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN 1906. By Quincy R. Craft, Forest Service. The fuller utilization of forest products which characterized the operations of lum- bermen in 1906 marked the greatest gain of the year in private forestry. In the work of the National Government and the States remarkable advance was made in the creation, protection, and use of public forests. Eminent success in systematic effort to prevent damage by fire was attained by private owners, the States, and the Federal Service. That forest preservation has come to be regarded as a matter of deep concern to every citizen is manifest. News of improved methods and their results is published widely by the press, and commented on in wise and vigorous editorials. The reprinting of forest reports entire by the trade journals is now common. In 16 States 30 forest asso- ciations are engaged in active propaganda, and the General Federation of Women's Clubs is advancing forestry locally and giving it prominence at State and National meetings. Private forestry has grown until not only are professional foresters employed regu- larly by a number of the larger firms, but firms of consulting and contracting foresters supervise cutting operations and guarantee to the owners renewal of the trees desired in the forest. Large users of forest products tend more and more to apply sound methods to the raising of wood crops and to their careful utilization. BUSINESS FORESTRY IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE NATIONAL FORESTS. Within three decades after the first Federal recognition of forestry, and sixteen years from the date when the first "timberland reserve" was created, there have been estab- lished (May 1, 1907), in the interest of the whole people, 150 million acres of National Forests, effectively protected against fire and trespass, and thrown open on advan- tageous terms to the use of the public. Forests have so large a place in the national life that in some measure every citizen shares the benefits which attend successful effort to preserve, restore, or establish them. Yet it will always be the Western indus- tries which will most profit from the presence of the existing National Forests, upon whose resources — mainly wood, water, and range — they are largely dependent. The Government always favors settlers and home builders and prior users, both by grant- ing free use of timber and by encouraging small sales. The business of the National Forests must increase largely; for so vast are the resources of timber and minerals, and the opportunities for various business enterprises and for the development of power and irrigation, that the utilization of the Forests can be said to have only fairly begun. Throughout the year marked progress has been made in securing the most prompt, simple, and precise business methods, and in bringing the forest officers in the field and, through them, the public into closer touch with the aims of the Government in its forest policy. On January 1, 1906, the area of the National Forests was 97,773,617 acres, and on December 31, 1906, 127,154,371 acres; but the receipts increased in greater proportion— from $273,660 in 1905 to $1,004,185 in 1906. In addition, 15,000 permittees (near-by settlers and ranchmen) were granted timber free of charge to the value of $75,000. The progress of National Forest administration in business matters is indicated by the following table-. The results of business forestry . Fiscal year (July 1 to June 30). Area of Na- tional Forests, June 30, 1906. Total gross revenue. Total ex- penditure. Deficit. Expend- iture per acre. Deficit per acre. 1901-2 A ares. 59,966,090 62, 962, 849 63,027,884 85,693,422 100, 999, 138 $25, 431. 87 45, 838. 08 58, 436. 19 73,276.15 767, 219. 00 $325, 000. 00 300, 013. 50 379, 150. 40 508, 886. 00 979,519.00 $299, 568. 13 254, 175. 42 320, 714. 21 435, 609. 85 212, 300. 00 $0. 00.34 .0048 .0060 .0059 .0091 $0. 0050 1902-3 .0040 1903-4 0051 1904-5 .0050 1905-6 .0020 526 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In disposing of timber on the National Forests, even* effort has been made to meet the local conditions in each Forest and in the different parts of each Forest where the character of the timber and the market require special consideration. This has been done not only by varying the size of the trees which are cut under the sales in accord- ance with the kind of timber and the situation, but also by supplying the needs of the people in each vicinity with the particular kind of timber required by them in their industries. The institution of a charge for grazing in the Forests, with the adoption of regula- tions to prevent damage to the range, and with satisfactory allotments of territory, both between the cattle owners and sheep owners and between individual owr. the same kind of stock, were important accomplishments of the year. Planting operations are at present centered in S nurseries within or near a* many different forests. There are now on hand a total of 6.000.000 seedlings, and 750 . will be planted in the spring of 1907. Four of the nurseries have been established long enough to grow seedlings of size for planting. Three, those at Fort Stanton and near Las Vegas. X. Mex.. and near Pocatello. Idaho, have recently been established. In addition to these many small nurseries have been placed at rangers" headquarters. some of which will be enlarged into planting stations. Better facilities for communication, through public and private telephone lines now being constructed and the improvemen: :he greatest assistance in the conduct of forest business, and especially in the control of tires. The use of the forests by the public will also be stimulated by the marking of roads and trails, g the direction and distance to the nearest I irn, ranch, or camping ph. The record of 1906 has continued the business success of the Government policy, and thus given encouragement to the development of the technical sidr When. through studies now under way. a better knowledge of the growth and habits of our western trees is secured and the forests have been brought, through the utilization of ground at present unoccupied, to greatly increased product iveness. still larger benefits may be expected. MOVEMENT WESTWARD AXP SOUTHWARD OF THE LUMBER IXPI "- Where lumbering methods remove only mature trees or an annual cut equal to the aggregate growth of the forest tributary to the mill, forest products, like field crops. must increase as operations extend. The din of the lumber camp and the mill . and the whistle of the locomotive and steamboat hurrying their product to market, will then announce not the passing of the forest but its pre n through use. When, on the other hand, lands are denuded and left waste, deeper penetration into the woods with the enlarged capacity which comes of skill and invention can only hasten the exhaus- tion of supply. Too much wasteful exploitation has made heavy inroads in the forest which once lied almost unbroken from the Atlantic to the prairies. In obedience to the law of supply and demand, lumber prices have gradually advanced in the past twenty years, in some a much as 10S per cent. Yet these advances have not kept pace with those of stumpage values, and do not. therefore, fully reveal the changed condition in the timber supply. These changes show conclusively that it is high time for the introduction of conservativ .ethods in the management of "ands everywhere. There are now a million acres of private woodland on which f orestry is being applied under plan* prepared during the past four years by the F Service: but this is only a beginning. The scope of this management must be increased many fold. To supplement and complete the statistics of forest products there is great need for accurate knowledge of the standing timber in the country and its stumpage value. S and species are now used which formerly were left as unmerchantable, so that all former estimates are out of date. Any future estimate of timber should leave out of consid- eration the present merchantable value of timber, and should aim to show the actual stand of timber regardles- ecies. or quality. The inadequacy of former esti- mates is shown by a single instance in which the coniferous cut since 1S80 has exceeded by 80 billion feet the total estimated stumpage of those woods at that time. And this is not only because of the scarcity of better grades and larger sizes, but also because of the improvement ...rgely brought about through the application of forestry. PRIVATE FOREST LAXDS THE MATS" SOURCE OF SUPPLY. The Nation can and should maintain forests in isolated and mountainous regions where their principal value is for the protection of watersheds, the sources and the many industries dependent upon an equable supply of water and a sufficient - But on private lands the practice of forestry can be expected only where it PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN 1906. 527 92.00 insures profit in perpetuating a source of timber supply. . Since four-fifths of the for- ests of the country, and. in general, those most productive and accessible, are in the hands of private own- ers, the future timber 1894 1895 1896 IS97 1898 I&99 I900 1901 1902. 1905 1904 1905 1906 supply rests chiefly with them. Timber- land owners are realiz- ing this fact. In the eastern part of the country forests under management are now so numerous that some one of them can be visited for inspection by a few hours of rail- way travel. On the Pacific coast the neces- sity of protection from fire is especially felt; and a lumber company in northern California is successfully carry- ing out a plan for fire protection on a tract of 70.000 acres and at a nominal cost. At no previous time have the prospects for success in private for- estry been so good. Depleted supply en- courages conservative use, and increased knowledge of the less familiar forest trees, of improved methods of management, of sea- soning and kiln-drying methods, and of mar- kets, enables the lum- berman or landowner to lay his plans with a confidence hitherto impossible. More and more is the entire tree being utilized, by cutting the trunk nearer the ground and higher into the crown ; by the use of modern equipment which secures the min- imum of waste at the mill; and, in the hard- wood regions, by the construction of char- coal blast furnaces and chemical plants to uti- lize the bark, limbs, edgings, slabs, and even the sawdust in the manufacture of charcoal, wood alco- hol , and acetate of lime. 90 85 80 75 70 65 (0 55 < J J 50 O 0 47 '45 hi O a. a. 40 16. 50 15 11.50 IO ,--" J / / / / / f WH TE PINE F OUGI 1 UF per: WHO LE5A l_E P RICE BU ^FAL -O, r- .Y. / / / / { Y ELLC Wv P OPL/ kP, I'Xf V AN D u >. 12' -16' IST/ AMD 2D = FO. 3. NE *W > 'ORK ren- TONS rvooi > / ts r an D 2D. t / /IX S'Ar UDUP 'C-I6 /F.a J. NE W Y DRK/ sou- ■HER M YE1 .LOW PINE "A Fl tAT C •RAir ) FLO DRIN ;/ s. DE JVEI (ED PRICE v y 22^ /ANI/ *, ST >CK WH >LES M.E NEVV YOF K Pf SICE 53.50 44.00 29.50 22.25 1891 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 I904 1905 1906 -Rise in prices per thousand feet of different kinds of lumber, 1894-1906. MORE EFFECTIVE CONTROL OF FOREST FIRES. The first essential at all times to successful forest management is protection from fire. There are reasons for believing that decided gains have been made toward solving 528 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. this perplexing problem. Reports from State fire wardens, from National Forest supervisors, and from those engaged in systematic effort to prevent fires from gaining headway on private lands, give renewed confidence as to the effectiveness of the measures employed. In Michigan the loss during the year was estimated at $460,000, and in Idaho, Washington, and Oregon it was also heavy; but throughout the country in general, loss from this cause, of timber standing and in the mill, has been com- paratively light. In the National Forests the area burned over was 115,416 acres, or 0.12 of 1 per cent of the 97,000.000 acres from which reports were received. Thus, even as compared with the excellent record of 1905, when the area burned over was 0.16 of 1 per cent, a gain in efficiency of one-fourth was made. RAILROADS AND MINE OWNERS APPLY FORESTRY. For four years railroads have been cooperating with the Government in investigating the present tie supply, the possibilities of planting trees for ties, and methods for prolonging the life of ties through mechanical devices to lessen wear and through preservative treatment. Studies in seasoning and preservation have enabled railroads in the Northwest to use lodgepole pine as tie timber, and have stimulated the building of treating plant? by railroads in the Mississippi Valley. Other roads, through the advice of the Forest Service, have begun planting on a large scale. One of these, the Pennsylvania, is the first to appoint a forester to supervise the care and planting of the company's forest lands. Already 500,000 trees have been planted ; and 681 acre? i >f land near Altoona, Pa., wdl be stocked with chestnut and white oak in the next two years. The Santa Fe Railway has recently purchased 8,330 acres near San Diego. Gal . , on which to grow timber for its own use. A tract of 2.600 acres will be planted to eucalypts. The Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company will plant 378 acres in Carbon and Schuylkill counties. Pa., with chestnut. European larch, and Scotch pine. The Delaware and Hudson Company was led by the results of a cooperative study with the Forest Sen-ice to appoint a forester to look after the extensive woodlands of the company and attend to the planting work. The Philadelphia and Reading Coal and Iron Company has been investigating how mine props may be made to last longer through impregnating with creosote by the "open-tank" treatment. Mine props cost this company alone nearly a million dollars a month. The results of this treatment are so satisfactory that plans have been made for the erection of a plant, with a capacity of about 800 cubic feet a day, with which to continue the treatment on a commercial scale. This work has shown the economy of the open-tank treatment and encouraged its wider use. SOME PROJECTS OF THE FOREST SERVICE. A planting plan was recently prepared for a tract of 800 acres on an island in the Cimarron River in Oklahoma. The owner desires a crop of posts and poles of quick- growing and durable wood, and for this purpose in that region black locust was recom- mended. It is designed that the tract shall eventually form a pleasure resort for the city of Enid, from which it is 20 miles distant. Unusual interest in forest methods has recently been manifested by companies engaged in redwood lumbering in California. A plan prepared for a tract of 15,000 acres, which provides for planting eucalypts on cut-over redwood lands, has been put into execution. The eucalypts, besides growing one or more crops while the redwood is maturing and thus hastening the returns on the investment, will in the competition for growing space assist the redwood to form long, branchless trunks. Where the tempering influence of the coast fogs is felt, conditions are ideal for the growing of eucalypts suitable for lumber, and, because of the lack of other hardwood timber, a good market is promised. The indications are that similar plans will be adopted by other companies. An improved system of map files has been introduced with a central equipment, known as the Forest Atlas. By this means maps containing all available data, topo- graphic, political, industrial, and geological, are filed flat in compact form in dust-proof and fireproof cases, indexed for ready reference. Forest and grazing conditions are noted in the fullest detail. At the headquarters of every forest supervisor will be filed atlas sheets relating to the Forests under his administration. During the year the Forest Service has made examination of 54 timber tracts, located in 25 different States, aggregating 2,288,132 aeres; and of 70 woodlots with a total of 6.255 acres. Through an investigation of the piling used in wharf construction, data have been secured showing the enormous loss resulting from marine borer attacks and the ineffi- ciency of present protective measures and the possibility of cheapening and improving them. PROGRESS OF FORESTRY IN 1906. 529 Timber tests for several months have been chiefly concerned in determining the strength and other physical properties of Douglas fir, western hemlock, loblolly pine, Norway pine, and tamarack, in such forms as car sills, bridge stringers, and other structural timbers. Tests of eucalypts indicate that they can be used as substitutes for hickory and oak for many purposes. In cooperation with the Northern Pacific Railway, experimental sections of track are being laid to study the influence of different methods of handling timbers. Tests are to be made of the rate of seasoning of timbers cut during different months, to deter- mine the relation between the season of cutting and rate of absorption of preservatives, and to determine the comparative durability of seasoned, treated, and green timbers in use in the track. The species used are Douglas fir, western tamarack, western hem- lock, and giant arborvita?. Studies of the requirements and adaptability of wood for specific uses promise a saving in the substitution of new woods. Further economy has been found possible in the use of sound dead and down timber on the National Forests. The lumbermen and the Forest Sendee have been brought into closer touch through cooperation in compiling a report seeking to assist in the standardization of grading rules and detailed classified statistics of forest products. Experiments in turpentining have shown that the economy effected by the cup and gutter system may be increased by reducing the wound made in chipping. Trees shallowly chipped according to the new method produce at least as much resin and of better quality for a much longer period with remarkable saving as a result. FORESTRY IX THE STATES. Forest work carried on by the States made greater advance during 1906 than in any previous year. More than 20 States now have forest officers, and 10 have State forest reservations (fig. 22). In "Wisconsin the State forests, comprising 254.072 acres, are scattered through 17 counties, situated north of a line from St. Paul to Green Bay. Isolated lands are being sold and lands purchased contiguous to the main body on the headwaters of the "Wisconsin. Within the boundary of the Catskill Preserve* in Xew York there are 92,708 acres of State lands and 483.412 acres privately owned: the total area of the Adirondack Preserve is 3,313,564 acres, of which the State now owns 1 .347,280 acres. The Hawaiian reserves include an area of 300.000 acres, of which the Territory owns nearly half, but all is managed under plane prepared by the Superintendent of Forestry. In 5 States — Connecticut. Xew Jersey, Pennsylvania. Michigan, and "Wisconsin— the removal of mature timber from State forest lands is now permitted, a provision which is a fundamental principle of forestry. In Nebraska, Iowa. Maine, and Mississippi additional data concerning State forest conditions have been secured through studies conducted by the professor of forestry at the State college or university. It is the duty of the State forester in Maryland and Massachusetts to give a course of lectures each year at the State agricultural college, and in Wisconsin at the State university. The University of Texas is still engaged, with the Forest Service, upon a study of the State's forest resources: in a similar cooperative study, the Missouri State Experiment Station has just completed an investigation of the timber resources of the Ozark region; the Kentucky legislature last March provided for a commissioner of forestry, and appropriated 82,000 to be expended in a cooperative study of the State's forests. A year and a half have enabled the State forester of California to organize fire patrol in 10 counties, as well as to interest a large number of associations and clubs in fire pro- tection and to prepare a large planting plan for a eucalyptus plantation on cut-over redwood land at F< >rt Bragg. Fire wardens to the number of 367 have been appointed, and 30 miles of fire lines, from 30 to 60 feet wide, have been cleared, encircling the Redwood Park. The chief progress during the year in Connecticut was the organization under the new law of a fire-warden service of 300 members. This service was instrumental in extinguishing 64 fires at an average cost of $7.50 and in largely reducing the loss through forest fires. The feeling of increased security from fire resulted in more forest planting in Connecticut than was ever done before in a single year. Under the direc- tion of the State forester, 150.000 trees were planted by the State and private owners. The Delaware State Experiment Station, in cooperation with the Forest Service, is making a study of forest conditions on which to base recommendations for a State forest policy and plans of management for different stands of timber and different classes of land. 3 A1906 34 530 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. . - - - State forest reservations. Area and location of State Forest rese- Name and J - Total Connecticut. Hawaii Middlesex Countv 2. Union Tract. Tolland County Indiana Maryland . . Mich.. Minnesota. Kew Jersey York. Pennsylvania. 1. Kaipanau, Oahu _'. Hamafau Paii. Hawaii 3. Hi!o, Hawaii 4. Koolan Maui, Maui 5. Halelea. Kauai C. Kealia. Kauai 7. Ewa, Oahu 6. Honuaula. Hawaii 0. Kau, Hawaii 10. Waianae-kai, Oahu 11. Lualualei, Oahu 12. Hana, Maui te reservation. Clark County * Countv ." 2. State reserve, Baltimore County State reserve. Roscommon and Crawford counties 1. Burntside I ranty 2. Pillsbury Tract, Cass County " State Park, Clearwater, Becker, and Hubbard counties s Landing Tract, Atlantic County. 2. Bass River Tract, Burlington County. 3. Blairstown Tract, Warren Count- .... Acres. 1,060 300 913 16. 133 12.771 14,300 10.990 1 ' " • 665 35,960 3,150 3,743 ISA 3,500 40 20.000 1,000 21 . 80S - 1.550 551 Wiaoi Min. 1. Adirondack Preserve. Clinton. Essex, Franklin. Fulton, Hamilton. Herkimer. J. la, St. Lawrence, Saratoga. Warren, and Washington counties 1.34", 230 2. Cal -, Delaware, Greene, Sullivan, and Ulster counties . " ■ State reserves, Adams,Bedford,Cameron,Center,Clearfield. Clinton, Cumberland, Dauphin, Llk, Franklin, Fulton. Huntingdon, Juniata, Lackawanna, Lycoming. Mifflin. Monroe, Pik<-, Potter nion, and V. ming counties " Fore>- Ashland, Bayfield, Burnett, Dout.' Florence. Forest. Gates. Iron. Langlade, Lincoln. v nette. Oneida, Polk, Price, ...is, and Wash- burn counties A errs. 1,360 117,532 2,000 3,548 :9,ooo 42,800 2.474 1,439,988 830,000 I In the Territory of Hawaii a - : y supplies plant mate-rial free - and other public purposes and at a low price for private use. District foresters and district Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906. Plate XLIII Fig. 1. — Transplant Beds of Nursery at Saranac Inn, N. Y. Norway Spruce, 3 Years Old, Foreground; Scotch Pine to the Left. Fig. 2. — Scotch and White Pine, 5 Years Old, in the Lake Clear Plantation. Successful Example of Planting Denuded State Land. PE OGRESS OF FORESTRY IN 1906. 531 fire wardens have been appointed, who report regularly to the superintendent of forestry. The* Indiana forest commission has been engaged on a study of the natural and planted forests of the State. The results, which have been published and distributed, should greatly stimulate the practice of forestry. Trees have already been planted on 300 acres of the State reservation, and 57,000 more trees are to be transplanted from the State nursery this spring. The Kansas commissioner of forestry is gathering statistics of forest planting through annual reports from those to whom stock lias been furnished. The commissioner of forestry of Louisiana, in the enforcement of the forest law passed in 1904, gives first attention to the suppression of fires. The class Ln forestry in the University of Maine made a study of forest conditions in Indian Township, Washington County, a tract of 24,072 acres of State land, securing data lor a map and an estimate of the stand of timber. Facts concerning the growth of largi '-tooth and Trembling aspen and gray birch were also secured. A study of wood- lot management, now in progress, aims to learn the best methods of marking trees and the cost of cutting and yarding logs and of piling and burning the brush. On July 1 a forester was appointed by the newly created Maryland board of for- estrv. A portion of the autumn was spent in making a reconnaissance of the forest lands of the State. Forest work in Massachusetts is carried on along three general lines — education, the installation of typical plans of management, and the gathering of technical data. Effort is being made to assist landowners in transforming large areas now practically idle on account of mismanagement into profitable woodlots. Fifty-five students took the course in forestry at the agricultural college last year. Marked progress was made in Zdichigan in improvements, surveys, fire lines, and planting on the State forest reserve. Forty acres were seeded to western yellow pine last spring and 200,000 conifers were planted. Two and a half million seedlings are now on hand in the nursery. Through the splendid efforts of a volunteer patrol the excellent fire law of Minne- sota was made effective in keeping forest fires well under control. The damage for the year is placed by the State iire warden at §10,000. Two experimental forest nurseries and a study of actual profits in the eastern part of the State will increase the knowledge of the possibilities in forestry in Nebraska, the leading tree-planting State. New Hampshire occupies a unique position in that besides the State forestry com- mission, reorganized and active, it has a forest association, which maintains a State forester. A State fire warden and 70 township wardens have been appointed in New Jersey under the law which became effective July 1, 1906. The fall season was remarkably exempt from serious fires. At the beginning of the year 1907 a State forester was appointed, who will give assistance to private landowners, give courses of instruction to teachers and farmers, and cooperate with the State fire warden and with the Forest Park Reservation Commission. Under the law of 1905 the superintendent of forests of New York was able to patrol the State preserves efficiently during the dry season at small expense. To supply stock for planting in the preserves the State maintains 3 large nurseries for conifers in Franklin County and 1 for hardwoods in Ulster County, in the Catskills. The three Adirondack nurseries combined have a capacity of a million 3-year-old trans- plants per annum. One of these, the Saranac Inn Nursery (PI. XLIII, fig. 1), was established by the State in 1903 and the others, Axton ajtd Wawbeek, were first established by the Cornell College of Forestry and were placed in charge of the State forest commission in the spring of 1906. Five plantations, embracing an area of 1.500 acres, have been planted. (PI. XLIII, fig. 2.) In 1905 and 1906, 50 acres of pines and spruces were planted by the seed-spot method, with encouraging results. Broad- cast sowing last March of white pine, red spruce, and balsam was not satisfactory. An interesting experiment is being conducted with 5 species of Siberian conifers — pines, fir. and larch — to determine their fitness for planting in the North Woods. In Ohio the department of forestry at the State Agricultural Experiment Station was engaged in cooperative work in planting with the farmers of the State. Planta- tions aggregating 500 acres were thus established. The State nurseries of Pennsylvania were doubled in size in 1906 and now compri.-e 6 acres at Mont Alto, the location of the State forestry academy, and 2 acres in Hunt- ingdon County. Last spring 160.000 white pine seedlings were set out, and 400 pounds of white pine seed is to be planted this spring. The last legislature voted to expend §400,000 annually for five years in purchasing additional State forest lands. In Vermont planting of waste lands is being encouraged by the commissioner of forestry, who estimates that there are 4,000,000 acres of land now unproductive, but 532 YEARBOOK OE THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. suited to the growing of timber. These, if rightly handled, he asserts, would give an annual income of from $1 to $2 per acre. From the State nursery at Burlington plant material will be supplied at cost. Through cooperation with the New York forest commission the assistance of a trained forester is secured. The appropriation of §25,000 by the Washington State legislature was exhausted at the beginning of the forest-fire season of 1906. The action of the lumbermen of the State in coming promptly to the rescue of the State fire warden with individual sub- scriptions of funds ample to defray the expenses of patrol until the next session of the State legislature is one of the encouraging evidences of a practical belief in forest protection. Over 300 fire wardens have been appointed in "Wisconsin, whose services were secured at a cost for the season of $1,530. They report 160 fires, which burned ever 76.125 acres. Sixty per cent of the fires were cans <1 by settlers in clearing and burn- ing for pasture. With lessened danger that their investments will be swept away by fire, lumbermen have begun to limit the diameter to which they cut, and to buy young growth and protect it from fire. Since Rhode Island, during the past year, passed a forest law and appointed a for- ester, all of the New England States — indeed, all but three of the original thirteen — with an area equal to that of the National Forests in the Western States, are equipped with State officers charged with the welfare of their forest interests. Westward this chain extends, including Ohio and Indiana, and the three Lake States which for twenty years have furnished one-third of the lumber produced in the country. FOREST LEGISLATION. Only a few of the State legislative assemblies were in sessinn during the winter of 1905-6, and in consequence there was but little additional legislation enacted. The laws passed are briefly summarized as follows: United States. — Agricultural settlement was permitted in restricted portion of Yellowstone Reserve (34 Stat., 62). Appropriations for agricultural experiment sta- tions in the States and Territories were increased to §30,000 each, the added income to be used at discretion in forest experiments (34 Stat., 63). A grant was made to Edison Electric Company of easement to occupy land in San Bernardino, Sierra, and San Gabriel National Forests for power plants (34 Stat., 163). Cutting, chipping, and boxing trees on public lands was prohibited (34 Stat., 208). Appropriation or destruc- tion of American antiquities was prohibited, except under certain conditions (34 Stat., 225). The Secretary of Agriculture was empowered to list lands within National Forests as agricultural for entry under homestead laws (34 Stat., 233). Recession by California of Yosemite Valley and Mariposa Big Tree Grove was accepted (34 Stat., 831). Lands were granted to Wisconsin for forest reserves (34 Stat., 517). The President was empowered to set aside game preserves in Grand Canyon (34 Stat., 607). Iowa. — Taxes on "private reserves," under certain conditions, were fixed at $1 per acre, fruit-tree reserves included. Secretary of the State horticultural society was designated to be State forester, and authorized to have deputies (Ch. 52, addi- tional to code, Ch. 1, tit. 7). Kentucky. — The State board of agriculture, forestry, and immigration was em- powered to act as forestry commission. This board is permitted to expend $2,000 to further forest interests, this money to be spent in cooperation with the Federal Gov- ernment, if the latter provides a like sum (Ch. 90, repealing S. 37 and 38, Ch. 4, Ky. Stat.). Maryland. — The State board of forestry was created; the appointment of a forester was provided for; this official was authorized to have general protective power over parks and forest reserves, to cooperate with corporations and individuals, and to appoint fire wardens, the latter to force service from inhabitants, when necessary, to fight fire. An appropriation was made of §3,500 annually for 1907 and 1908, and pen- alties are to be paid to the forest-reserve fund. Counties are empowered to spend money in forest protection and to recover from land owners for expenses in fire fight- ing. Fire warnings are to be posted; criminal and civil liability was provided for unlawful fire building; offenders are also to be liable to the State and county for fire- fighting expenses; locomotives not burning oil are to be equipped with fire-prevent- ing appliances, under penalty (Ch. 294). New Jersey. — State board of forestry was authorized to cooperate with munici- palities, corporations, and individuals for control of forest land, for establishment of GAME PROTECTION IN 1906. 533 an arboretum, and for experiments in forest culture (Ch. 25). The commissioners are to fix price and contract for the purchase of forest reserve land. Municipalities are empowered to use their land for forest purposes, to sell timber, to contract with State board of forest park commissioners for control and management of land, lands so used being declared devoted to public use (Ch. 146). The State fire warden is to be appointed by the State board, and the fire warden system was established. Com- pulsory service of male inhabitants and property, with remuneration, was authorized. Provision was made for. and allotment was made of, fire-fighting expenses; fire warn- ings are to be posted; large fires are to be reported to the State warden; the season for brush burning was limited; fires must be watched; back firing is allowed under certain conditions. Process, appeal, and execution in fire cases were provided. Money was appropriated (Ch. 39, acts 1902) to be used solely for fire fighting (Ch. 123, repealing or amending a number of former acts). New York. — State forester is authorized to appoint a secretary. Salaries of sub- ordinate officers are fixed (Ch. 206, amending S. 154, 172, and 224a, Ch. 20, laws 1900). Commissioners are empowered to appoint a chief fire warden and five inspectors (Ch. 519, amending S. 224a, Ch. 20, laws 1900). Ohio. — A department of forestry at the agricultural experiment station was created, to cooperate with the Federal Government. The State forestry bureau connected with the State University was abolished (P. 54). Rhode Island. — Office of State forester was created forester to publish informa- tion .and to recommend legislation (Ch. 32). GAME PROTECTION IN 1906. By T. S. Palmer, Assistant, Biological Survey. The record of game protection in 1906 is noteworthy in several respects. New leg- islation, while small in volume as compared with that of 1905, included several impor- tant measures. The question of Federal control of the protection of migratory game birds again attracted widespread attention and was the subject of much discussion. More than the average number of cases based on game laws were decided by courts of last resort. In the establishment of game preserves under private, State, and Federal auspices notable progress was made. The destruction of quail by the severity of the two preceding winters resulted iu large shipments of these birds from Alabama and the Southwest in the effort to restock some of the Northern and Eastern Stat< s. Experiments were continued also in introducing new game birds, and English pheas- ant eggs and gray partridges were imported from Europe in unusually large numbers. LEGISLATION. Game legislation in 1906 was remarkable for the unusual number of bills under con- sideration by Congress and the small number of changes in State laws. The Federal laws enacted comprised acts authorizing the Secretary of the Interior to lease 3,500 acres of land in South Dakota as a buffalo preserve, prohibiting trapping or trespass on bird refuges, establishing a game refuge on the Grand Canyon National Forest in Arizona, and prohibiting hunting in the greater part of the District of Columbia. An appropriation of $15,000 was made for the erection of a fence for a buffalo inclosurc on the Wichita Game Preserve in Oklahoma. Only 15 States and 8 provinces held regular legislative sessions during the year, and the number of new laws enacted was about 60, including 7 in Canada, while the total number of bills introduced in the United States and Canada exceeded 150. The most important measures adopted were entire new game laws in Mississippi, laws pro- tecting nongame birds in Iowa, and radical amendments to the sale laws in Massachu- setts. The failure of all general game bills and the passage of 18 local measures in Maryland showed that the system of county laws is still preferred, but the local acts passed tended in general toward greater uniformity in seasons. The only changes in hunting license fees were the establishment of a $25 nonresident license in South Carolina and a $20 nonresident license in Mississippi, both good only in the county of issue. In Vermont the nonresident license was extended to include birds, and in Maryland minor changes were made in the license laws of the counties bordering the Patuxent River and of Somerset County. Important sale restrictions were adopted in Mississippi and Massachusetts. In the former State the sale of all protected game was prohibited and in Massachusetts sale of imported quail Avas prohibited except in November and December, sale of imported ducks except during the open season, and 534 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE. the sale at any time of prairie chicken? and sharp-tailed grouse. For the first time in Mississippi a game-warden service was installed by providing lor the appointment of county wardens to look after the enforcement of game laws in place of sheriffs and local peace officers. Among the numerous bills which failed to pass were some measures of special inter- est. Ten of the 11 bills introduced in Kentucky failed to receive favorable considera- tion, and in Massachusetts only 10 of the 30 bills introduced became laws. Bills to prohibit the use of automatic shotguns in hunting game in the District of Columbia, Georgia. Massachusetts. Mississippi. Xew Jersey. Xew York. Ohio. Rhode Island, and Virginia were introduced, but none received favorable action. The general game bill in Maryland contained a provision making it lawful to kill cats found searching for birds. Three special cat bills were introduced also in Massachusetts. One of these declared a cat to be property if it wears a collar with the name and residence cf the owner, another provided a penalty for abandoning cats, and a third made it an offense to harbor cats known to kill game or wild birds. Among the 10 bills which failed in Virginia were two to create the office of State game commissioner and others providing for a $100 nonresident license and a $1 resident license. DECISIONS OF THE COURTS. The decisions rendered by courts of last resort in cases affecting game were more numerous than in 1905. and although none of the questions decided were especiaily novel. several, affecting sale, duties of common carriers, and rights of hunting and fishing clubs, were of considerable interest. Probably the most important decision of the year was that rendered in February by the court of appeals of Xew York (People ex rel. Silz v. Hesterberg. 76 X. E.. 1032) involving the sale during the close a . tain game birds imported from Europe. In this case the contention of the State, first maintained in 1S75. that imported birds were subject to the restrictions of the local laws to the same extent as birds captured in the State was upheld. The decision is important also in being the first construction of a higher court of section 5 of the Lai- ey Ac: relative to imported game. In line with the same decision was one rendered by the supreme court of New Y'ork in October in the case of People v. '\Yaklorf-Asu.ria Hotel Co. ("Forest and Stream." LXYII. p. 6S7l In Arkansas the supreme court of the State held (Wells-Fargo Express Co. v. State. 96 S. Y\~ ., 189) that the fact that an express company did not know the contents of a package containing game was no defense in a prosecution for transporting game out of the State, particularly as com- mon carriers were authorized by the law of that State to open and examine any pack- age suspected to contain game. An important decision confirming the rights of the Big Lake Shooting Club, at Big Lake. Arkansas, was rendered by the United States circuit court of appeals (Harrison v. Fite. 148 Fed., 781). This club, controlling a preserve of some 25,000 acres in Mississippi County. Ark., obtained from the United States circuit court an injunction, which was sustained by the circuit court of appeals, preventing one Harrison and 36 others from shooting on the club's preserve In Colo- rado, a decision in a suit by the State for the possession of deer hides, following Horn- beke v. White i 76 Pac. 926;. held that a person having them must establish affirma- tively that his possession is lawful (People v. Johnson. 68 Pac. 184). In Louisiana a decision of interest to club members was rendered in the case of Burns v. Crescent Gun and Rod Club i 41 So.. 249 '. in which it was held that the club owning land bor- dering a navigable stream could be enjoined from preventing persons not members of the club from fishing in such stream. The comprehensive game law enacted in Mis- souri in 1905 was the subject of more or less litigation and at least three cases were carried to the higher courts. In one of these. State ex rel Rodes r. 'Warner | 94 S. \Y., 962 I, it was held that the provision directing fines to be paid into the State game fund was in conflict with the constitutional provision that all fines be paid into the county school fund and to this extent was void. In the others the provisions relating to resident licenses gave rise to two opposite constructions, the St. Louis court of appeals holding that a person was not required to obtain a license to hunt in the county of residence I Ex parte Helton. 93 S. W.. 913 I and the Kansas City court of appeals hold- ing that such a license was necessary (State v. Koock. 96 S. W., 721). In Xorth "a the marking provision of the Lacey Act was construed by the Federal court in United States p. Thompson (147 Fed., 637). In Oklahoma one of the first decisions affecting game rendered by the supreme court sustained the right of the Territory to impose fines on any carrier, or its agents, for reception and possession of game for trans- portation (Cameron v. Territory. 86 Pac, 68). Among the numerous case? in the lower courts are three worthy of mention. One was a decision of the circuit court of Muskingum County. Ohio, based on technical errors, but indicating the opinion of the court that the game law. prescribing an open GAME PROTECTION IN 1906. 535 season for quail " from the 15th day of November to the 5th day of December," should be construed as excluding November 15 and including December 5. The other two were Pennsylvania cases in which juries acquitted a defendant charged with killing a bear in close season on the ground that his action was required by self-defense, and also a game warden charged with. homicide for killing a game-law violator who resisted arrest. ADMINISTRATION AND ENFORCEMENT OF LAWS. Officials. — Changes occurred in the personnel of several of the State game commis- sions, including the State warden of Maryland and the warden of the first district of North Dakota, the secretary of the Delaware Game Protective Association, and the president of the North Carolina Audubon Society. The board of game commissioners of New Jersey lost one of its members through death. In Canada the office of game inspector was established in Prince Edward Island. Changes among the deputy wardens were numerous, but whether or not the total force of officers on duty was increased is uncertain through lack of statistics of former years for comparison. A census of 30 States and Territories showed that about 20 States maintained regular salaried wardens, the number of deputies varying from one in Iowa to 65 in New York and 88 in Wisconsin. The number of deputies serving without salary varied from 3 in Wyoming to 800 in Colorado. The total number of wardens on duty in these States during the latter part of the year, as shown in the fol- lowing table, was 370 under salary, 489 paid per diem, and 4,914 serving without salary; in all, a total of 5,773. Table showing number of game wardens on duty in 30 States in 1906. State. Sala- ried. Per diem. With- out salary. Total. State. Sala- ried. Per diem. With- out salary. Total. 63 350 SOO G 03 362 806 142 7 17 1G0 100 251 300 40 234 269 119 218 514 New Jersey 24 167 67 450 78 26 165 40 132 463 200 38 191 12 6 142 1 G7 Colorado Now York North Carolina.. 65 S 44 515 52 78 an 10 15 26 150 10 8 40 9 39 75 250 29? 229 244 5G 210 510 Pennsylvania 8 4 16 1 173 44 1 Utah 22 154 479 Washington 34 235 Maryland 5 1G 24 8 4 38 Wisconsin Wyoming Total 88 3 88 Minnesota Montana Nebraska 25 3 31 370 439 4,914 5,773 a County wardens; there are many deputies not listed as the information was not obtained in time. Convictions. — Convictions resulting in heavy fines were reported in at least 10 States. The following cases illustrate the character of offenses for which fines of $100 or more were imposed: In Colorado, for killing a mountain sheep $300 fine and $140 costs; in Illinois, possession of game in close season $100, killing 4 quail in close season $100 and costs, two nonresidents hunting on resident licenses $100 and costs, illegal shipment of quail $200; in Michigan, for illegal shipment of venison $100 and costs and 60 days in jail; in Minnesota, illegal possession of 2 saddles of venison $115 and costs, shipping deer from the State in excess of limit two fines of $100 and $147; in New Jersey, for possession of 4 blue jays $100 and costs, possession of 5 robins $100 and costs, possession of 4 robins and 1 thrush $100 and costs, possession of 5 birds $100 and costs; possession of 6 birds $120 and costs; in New York, for violation of the anti-hounding law $200 and costs, illegal possession of 4 deer $200, illegal possession of quail $110 and costs or total of $290, possession of grouse and quail out of season $600; in five cases, offenses not specified, fines of from $100 to $550: in Oklahoma, for shipping 30,000 quail $350 and costs; in Oregon, for serving birds out of season $100; killing deer contrary to law two fines of $100 each, three of $125, and one of $250; in Pennsylvania, for removing wild turkey chicks from the nest $250; in Vermont, for killing deer contrary to law seven fines ranging from $100 to $177 each. In a number of cases the defendants were committed to jail in default of payment and in a few instances received a jail sentence in addition to a fine. Among the cases resulting in imprisonment were the following: In Illinois two defendants each of whom had killed a prairie chicken were committed to jail for 10 days for failure to pay fines, 536 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. one defendant was committed to jail for killing a pheasant, throe for hunting without a license, one for hunting before sunrise, and another for killing quail out of season. In Michigan two defendants received a Bentence of 60 days in jail and §100 fine each for attempting to ship venison out of the State, and another fur shipping venison to market. In New Jersey one defendant was sentenced for 10 days for illegal possession of a blue jay, and another 10 days for killing one partridge; in North Carolina one defendant was imprisoned 30 days for hunting on land without permission in David- son County; in Oregon one offender received a sentence of 12^ days for trapping beaver, and two other defendants were committed to jail in default of payment of fines for kill- ing deer out of season: in Pennsylvania two aliens were sentenced for 370 and 400 days, respectively, for hunting without licenses and killing song birds; and in Texas two men were sentenced to jail, one for 10 days and the other for 30 days, for illegally trapping and shipping quail. Aliens. — The violation of the game laws by aliens was the subject of special comment in the reports of several State game commission-, particularly those of Maine. Penn- sylvania, and West Virginia. In Pennsylvania the commission reported that they had 14 officers shot at during the year, 7 shot, 3 of whom were killed, 3 very seriously wounded, and one other although not serving under a commission of the board was killed while in performance of game protective duty. All of this work was done, so far as could be determined, by unnaturalized foreigners. As a result of these condi- tions the commission recommended the adoption of a law similar to that passed in New York in 1905 prohibiting aliens from carrying firearms, as a matter of greater protection to the game and also as a measure of public safety. Indians. — An invasion of "Wyoming by Indians from Colorado during the summer resulted in serious consequences to the game. Two bands of Utes, each about 500 in number, entered the State in the latter part of July and the first week in August and penetrated some distance northward in Converse, Weston, and Crook counties. The Indians were well armed and stripped the country of game wherever they trav- eled, slaughtering hundreds of sage hens, scores of antelope, and many deer. The game wardens and local authorities were utterly powerless to prevent these depre- dations, and it was only by the aid of Federal troops that the Indians were finally rounded up and returned to their reservation. Tusk hunters. — The demand for elk tusks was responsible, as in former years, for the destruction of many elk. In Washington a few Indians from the Quinault Reser- vation were engaged in killing elk for tusks in the Olympic Mountains, but through the efforts of the Indian agent the practice was promptly stopped. On November 20 an important seizure was made at Los Angeles, Cal., of a carload of trophies, com- prising the heads, skins, scalps, and horns of many elk killed in Wyoming and on the border of the Yellowstone National Park, and shipped from Idaho to a taxidermist in Los Angeles. Two of the shippers were arrested while unloading the car. At the preliminary hearing it was shown that they belonged to a party of four notorious tusk hunters who had been operating in western Wyoming, north of Jackson Hole, and along the southern border of the park. In default of bail they were committed to jail to await the action of the Federal grand jury in April, 1907. ORGANIZATIONS FOR THE PROTECTION OF GAME. The year 1900 was notable in the concerted efforts made by game protective asso- ciations and other organizations. New State associations were formed in Alabama, Idaho, Texas, and West Virginia. In January the National Association of State Com- missioners and Wardens held a meeting at St. Paul. Minn., at which official repre- sentatives from 14 States were present. This meeting gave opportunity for conference and interchange of views, and proved an important factor toward securing trreater uniformity of action on the part of State officials. The widespread interest in bird protection was strongly exemplified by a bequest made to the National Association of Audubon Societies which became available during the year through the death of Albert D. Wilcox. Mr. Wilcox had become deeply interested in the work of bird protection and left the association a specific bequest of -S100.000, at the same time giving it one-half of a much larger residuary legacy. The total amount of the bequest to the association was 8322.770, the income of which is to be devoted to educational work, promotion of legislation for the protection of birds and game, maintenance of warden service, and cooperation with State officials and local organizations in efforts to secure better enforcement of laws. HUNTING ACCIDENTS. The number of persons killed each year in hunting accidents is apparently increas- ing, and the unnecessary loss of life from this cause in 1906 was appalling. An effort was made by the Department to collect reports of such fatal accidents for the purpose GAME PROTECTION IX 1906. 537 of ascertaining not only the number and the cause?, but also the possibility of devis- ing a method of reducing the number of similar accidents in the future. The reports showed that more than 100 persons lost their lives during the year, and of these at least eight were women and a dozen or more children under 15 years of age. These accidents occurred in 25 State- and the District of Columbia, but were most frequent in Michigan and Wisconsin. Contrary to expectation, comparatively few were caused by persons being mistaken for deer or other big game. Several were caused by .22- caliber rifles and a number of others by ordinary shotguns. Many of the accidents were due simply to gross carelessness in the use of firearms such as pulling a gun out of the boat by the muzzle, or looking down the barrel of a loaded weapon; others to handling of firearms by boys who had not been taught or who failed to observe the most elementary precautions. In a few instances these accidents were attributable directly to violation of the game laws. It is worthy of note that in States which prohibit the killing of does, or of deer with horns less than 3 inches in length, accidents were comparatively few. while in Michigan and Wisconsin, where there are no restrictions of this kind, more than the usual number of accidents occurred. It seems, therefore, that certain classes of accidents may be reached by legislation requiring a hunter to pause long enough to make sure that an object mov- ing in the undergrowth is a deer with horns of sufficient length to come within the law. This delay is oftentimes sufficient to prevent the fatal mistake of wounding or killing a man for a deer. Legislation providing severe penalties for shooting pe by mistake has not thus far accomplished the desired object. Although such laws have been on the statute books of Maine. Michigan, and Minnesota for several years. apparently no conviction has thus far been obtained. Action was begun in at least one case in each State this year, but these cases are apparently still pending. The experience of the year seems to indicate that restrictions on the* use of the .22 caliber rifle and the more general adoption of measures prohibiting killing deer with horns below a certain limit promise better results in preventing accidents'than in declaring such accidents homicide, punishable by severe penalties. COXDITIOX OF GAME. Big game. — Statistics of the number of big game annually killed are now obtain- able from several States, and form a fairly satisfactory basis for estimating increase or decrease from year to year. In Maine the number of moose shipped through Bangor was 185, a slight falling off from the record of 216 in 1905. The deer shipments, how- ever, showed a decrease of about 20 per cent. 3.572. as compared with 4.791 during the previous year. In Vermont the commissioner reported that 634 deer were killed, an increase of about 125 over the number shot in 1905. In New York about 60 deer were killed on Long Island during the four days of open season, and in the Adirondack?, notwithstanding the fact that the season was shortened a month, the number of deer carried by the transportation companies increased about 200. These shipments com- prised 2.413 carcasses. 108 saddles, and 102 heads, as compared with 2.196 carcasses. 108 saddles, and 180 heads transported in 1905. In Pennsylvania the number of deer killed was estimated at 600 to 650. In Michigan estimates placed the number cap- tured at 12,000. In Wisconsin. Minnesota, and Texas deer were reported plentiful. In Wyoming the State warden estimated the number of head of big game killed at 4.798. Detailed reports showed that about 20 per cent of this number . 1^011) comprised 598 elk. ] 82 deer. 184 antelope, and 47 mountain sheep. Reports from two of the Canadian Provinces indicated that 99 deer were killed under license in Manitoba, and the total number killed in Ontario approximated 10.000. Quail. — Quail suffered less during the winter than in previous years, but several States found it necessary to increase their supply by importing birds from tbe South and West. Most of these birds seem to have done well, and in many sections quail were reported in normal abundance. Grouse and woodcock. — Ruffed grouse were reported plentiful in Xew England (except Vermont) and. in Xew York. Xew Jersey. Pennsylvania. Virginia. Xorth Carolina. Michigan. Wisconsin, and Minnesota. Prairie chickens continued to increase in Illinois and Nebraska, but in other parts of their range seemed to be decreasing. In the Rocky Mountain region, particularly in Montana. Utah, and Idaho, the grouse seemed to have suffered from the wet spring. In Wyoming and Colorado, however, sage hens were reported plentiful. Woodcock were fairly common in Vermont. Con- necticut, and Xew York, but comparatively scarce in Pennsylvania and the Middle West. Wild foul. — The fall flight of ducks proved a disappointment in nearly all parts of tine country, and the number of birds seemed to be much less than in either 1904 or 1905. Only a few places reported ducks in their usual abundance. In some instances, 538 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. no doubt, the apparent decrease was due to unfavorable weather conditions, which caused the birds to hasten on their way south without stopping as long as usual, but whether the flight of 1906 was actually or apparently much smaller than those of the two previous years can only be determined by future observations. GAME FOR PROPAGATION. Restocking with both big game and certain game birds attracted much attention in several of the Eastern States. The restocking of the Adirondacks with elk, which began in 1901, chiefly by private efforts, has now progressed beyond the experimental stage. A number of animals were liberated during the year and the total number of elk is now estimated at more than 300. The effort to reestablish beaver also progressed satisfactorily. Under the appropriation of §1,000 made by the legislature several were obtained and arrangements were made to secure additional animals from the Yellow- stone National Park. The total number in the State park now exceeds 40. The experiments with moose have not been so successful, but an appropriation of $2,150 was made to continue the work in the hope of ultimately establishing the species in its former haunts. In Xew Jersey the deer liberated in former years have increased steadily, and are now found in at least one-half the counties of the State. Only 8 additional animals were liberated during the year. In addition to the deer 60 rabbits and 50 Canadian hares were distributed in various parts of the State. In Pennsylva- nia 30 female deer were purchased by the game commission for stocking the State game preserve. The State warden of Tennessee, through private subscription, pure! a herd of about 400 deer belonging to the Belle Meade Farm and liberated them in the vicinity of Nashville. Under the provision of the State law affording complete pro- tection for two years, it is hoped that these deer may be able to establish themselves and form a nucleus for restocking other sections of the State. Owing to the severity of previous winters, quail were in great demand for restocking depleted covers, particularly in Massachusetts. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland. Indiana, and Illinois. The demand was greatly in excess of the supply, and several of the States tailed to Becure birds in adequate numbers. The Massachusetts Fish and Game Protective Association, however, liberated 4.41(i; the fish and game commission of Xew Jersey 7. 208. the game commission of Pennsylvania about 3,700, and the game commissioner of Illinois secured several thousand. Most of these birds were trapped in Alabama and the Southwest, and the manner of their capture caused much criticism by residents in the States where the trapping was done, and some complaints on the pan . if consignees. More than 60,000 birds were shipped from a few points in Alabama, where the birds were trapped in such wholesale numbers as to deplete the local stock, and were shipped without the attention to details necessary to insure their safe arrival. In consequence an undue proportion of the birds perished in transit or died soon after arrival. In Texas the wholesale trapping led to several arrests and the imprisonment for several weeks of thr< >eof the principal trappers. Attempts to secure a supply of birds from Mexico met with indifferent success. The important experiment inaugurated by the game commissioner of Illinois in 1905 of establishing a State game propagating farm made substantial progress. One hundred and sixty acres of land have been leased 23 miles south of Springfield. 111., where pheasants, quail, and other birds are raised in large numbers for distribution in the State. In .Tidy. 1906. the commissioner reported that 3.000 healthy pheasant chicks had been hatched from a consignment of 5.500 eggs imported from England, and there were then on the farm about 8.000 young English and ring-necked pheasants besides a number of blue quail, a few wild tur- keys, and prairie chickens. Experiments in rearing quail in captivity were made by a number of individuals. In some cases, particularly in Kansas and Oregon, a number of birds were reared, but elsewhere failures were frequent. The American Breeders' Association appointed a special committee on breeding wild birds for the purpose of coordinating the efforts now being made by individuals and State authorities to encourage the propagation of game birds. This same line of work received recognition from the Carnegie Institu- tion, of Washington, which made a grant of $500 to Prof. C. F. Hodge, of Clark Univer- sity, Massachusetts, to enable him to continue his experiments in propagating ruffed grouse and other game birds in captivity. IMPORTATIONS OF LIVE ANIMALS AND BIRDS. During the calendar year 489 mammals. 381,324 birds, and 5,604 eggs of s:amo birds were imported into the United States under permit. Among the mammals were 3 beaver and 234 squirrels; and of the birds 326,990 were canaries, 9,774 game birds, and 14.500 miscellaneous species. In comparison with the importations of 1905 these GAME PROTECTION IN 1906. 539 figures show a decrease of about 800 mammals and increases of about 65,000 birds and 3,271 eggs. Among the game birds were 3,772 pheasants, 2,644 partridges, 113 caper- cailzie, 122 black game, 28 willow grouse, 19 hazel grouse, 2,359 quail, 340 ducks, and 377 miscellaneous birds. Among the rarer game birds were 4 Manchurian, 4 black- backed kalege, 3 Setchuan, 3 Mongolian, and 12 Prince of Wales pheasants, 4 brush turkeys, and 4 rufous tinamous. The Mongolian and Prince of Wales pheasants com- prised the second importation of these species ever brought to the United States. Among the rarer miscellaneous birds worthy of mention were 4 keas, 6 weka rails, and 4 kiwis from New Zealand, 6 black-footed penguins, and 49 shama thrashes. The opening of the new bird house of the New York Zoological Society was occasion for the importation of a large number of European birds and a number of rare species from other parts of the world. The most notable features of the importations of game birds were the unusually large number of European partridges brought over in the attempt to introduce the species in several localities, the importation of 5,500 eggs of pheasants by the State game commissioner of Illinois for propagation on the State farm near Springfield, and the continued imports of capercailzie and black game. In the consignment of pheasant eggs only 18 were broken in transit and unpacking, 1,809 proved unfertile, and over 3,000 healthy chicks were hatched, Capercailzie and black game have been imported in steadily increasing numbers during the past four years. In 1903, 65 capercailzie were imported for the Algonquin Park in Ontario; in 1904 about 100 capercailzie and 25 black game were liberated on the preserve of the Cleveland Cliffs Iron Company, on Grand Island, Mich. ; and in 1905, 117 capercailzie and 74 black game were imported, many of them intended for the same preserve. In 1906, the total number of the two species imported increased to 235, and these birds were consigned chiefly to preserves in the Adirondacks. In addition to the birds br< night to the United States, 22 capercail- zie and 35 black game, imported direct from Copenhagen to British Columbia, were liberated at various points in that province. Seventy-six birds were purchased in Copenhagen and 74 reached Vancouver safely in October, but 17 died from the effects of the long journey. Of the 57 surviving the trip, 22 were capercailzie and 35 were black game. Of these, 19 black game were liberated on Vancouver Island, 16 black game near Nicomen. on the Fraser River, and 8 capercailzie on the North Arm of Burrard Inlet, 14 miles from Vancouver. The total cost of the experiment was $1,695. The black game have apparently not done as well as the capercailzie, but it is hoped that the latter species at least will ultimately become acclimated. So far as known, no injurious species were introduced into the United States, but the English sparrow, still extending its range in the Southwest, was reported for the first time from Southern California at Newhall, in Los Angeles County. a PRIVATE AND STATE PRESERVES. The private preserve promises to become the most satisfactory means of providing good hunting and at the same time one of the most effective means of preserving and increasing the supply of game in the region in which it is situated. Private preserves owned or leased by individuals or associations continue to be established wherever conditions are favorable and suitable land can be obtained. Statistics of the indi- vidual preserves created in 1906 are incomplete, but reports show that such preserves were established in at least 20 different States. In North Carolina the Audobon Society purchased Royal Shoal Islands and the islands known as the Legged Lump, in Pamlico Sound, as a refuge and breeding ground for gulls and terns. In Pennsylvania definite and satisfactory progress was made in the creation of State game preserves under the provisions of the act of 1905. Three parks, each containing from 3,000 to 4,000 acres, were located in the forest reserves in Clearfield, Clinton, and Franklin counties. Each park is to be surrounded by a fire line or path 8 to 10 feet in width, and along this path a single wire is stretched from tree to tree, on which are fastened notices calling attention to the purposes of the inclosure and prohibiting trespass within its limits for any purpose. The work on the preserves in Clearfield and Clinton counties was completed, and the corners of the preserve in Franklin County were located and the cutting of the fire line begun. Reference should be made also to two provincial game preserves established in Canada. One of these, comprising 16 sections, was set apart in Alberta, about 30 miles northeast, of Edmonton; the other, known as the Gaspesian Preserve, was estab- lished by the Province of Quebec, on the Gaspe Peninsula. The latter preserve com- prises about 2,500 square miles, and is comparable with the largest preserves on the "Condor, IX, p. 28, 1907. 540 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. continent, such as the Laurentides National Park in Quebec, the Algonquin Park in Ontario, the Canadian National Park in Alberta, and the Yellowstone National Park. NATIONAL PARKS, REFUGES, AND RESERVATIONS. More progress was made in the establishment of refuges for birds and game than during any previous year. By Executive order dated February 10, 1906, Indian Key, an island of 90 acres at the mouth of Tampa Bay, Florida, was set aside under the charge of the Department of Agriculture as a preserve and breeding ground for native birds. An item of $15,000 included in the agricultural bill provided for erecting a fence for a buffalo inclosure on the Wichita Game Reserve in Oklahoma. The con- tract has been let, and the work of constructing the fence is now in progress. Congress authorized the lease of a tract of not more than 3,500 acres of public land in Stanley County, near Pierre, S. Dak., for the benefit of the Phillips herd of buffalo, and on June 29 authorized the establishment of a second game refuge in the Grand Canyon National Forest, in northern Arizona. This game refuge, as created by proclamation of November 28, comprises 2,267,300 acres. In this connection may also be mentioned the act of June 30 prohibiting upland hunting in the District of Columbia, which practically renders the District a game and bird refuge. Reports from all of the preserves previously established showed satisfactory progress. The results were especially noteworthy on the Pelican Island Reservation, in Florida, and on the Breton Island Reservation, off the mouth of the Mississippi River. On Pelican Island nesting began unusually early, 600 nests having been constructed by November 18, 1905, and many young hatched before the close of the year. In Feb- ruary, during a period of cold and inclement weather, 600 or 700 of the young birds perished, but about 150 young survived. On April 15 the old birds again began to nest, and succeeded in raising about 400 young, so that the total number of birds reared on the island exceeded that of any previous year since the reservation was established. The Breton Island Reservation comprises some 8 islands, and near by, along the Lou- isiana coast, are 17 islands included in the Audubon Reservation, the latter controlled and maintained by the State Audubon Society of Louisiana. These two reservations together make up one of the greatest sea-bird breeding areas in the world. Here an immense number of laughing gulls, Forster terns, black skimmers, and royal terns were raised, estimated at 100,000 in all. The severe hurricane which passed over the reservations in September killed some of the birds, and materially changed the con- ditions on certain of the islands. Grand Cochere, one of the best breeding grounds, was reported submerged and waves broke over Breton Island, carrying away the house of refuge, but at the same time causing the destruction of the raccoons and other animals which infested the island and interfered with the nesting of the birds. In the Yellowstone National Park, as shown by the report of the superintendent, the buffalo herd has steadily increased from the 2 bulls and 18 cows purchased in 1902 until it now numbers 57. Arrangements were completed during the summer for moving all the young buffalo of this herd to the mouth of the Lamar River, at the mouth of Rose Creek, where hay will be raised and the animals gradually turned loose under conditions where they can readily obtain feed at all times. The old buffalo will be kept as heretofore at Mammoth Hot Springs, and this division of the herd will act as a safeguard against the spread of disease which might break out in either hand. About 1,500 antelope came down to the feeding grounds near the haystacks in the vicinity of Gardiner, and at the same point 1,200 elk were seen and counted one evening during the latter part of the winter. In spite of the heavy fall of snow, the percentage of loss of big game was very small, and the animals came through the season in good condition. FARMERS INSTITUTES. 541 FARMERS' INSTITUTES. Farmers' institutes were held during the year ended June 30, 1906, in all of the States and Territories excepting Alaska, Florida, Nevada, New Mexico, and Wash- ington. The following table gives a summary of the work for the year: Statistics of farmers' institutes for season ended June 30, 1906. Meetings. Total attend- ance. Speak- ers on State force. Funds for institutes. RX,dtingsPr0- State or Territory. Total num- ber. One day. Two days or more. Num- ber of ses- sions. Appropri- ated for year ended June 30, 1906. Appropri- ated for rear ended June 30, 1907. Pub- lished. Num- ber of copies. 35 21 31 83 40 24 IS 21 4 21 103 250 00 155 25 22 50 49 125 335 105 110 27 21 28 55 24 24 18 17 4 5 118 12S 1 22 50 37 125 259 98 108 8 3 28 16 4 8 10 108 132 69 27 24 12 76 7 2 85 21 42 272 123 83 40 42 8 105 667 918 402 522 122 44 102 125 153 934 238 220 8,590 1,307 7,150 22,801 16,675 4,895 7,200 4,500 300 7,875 79,428 129,894 66,959 27,300 13 3 6 37 23 60 11 34 9 13 109 46 5 21 S600. 00 608. 85 400. 00 9,000. CO 4,000.00 1,S25.00 725.00 2,500.00 33. 45 1,000.00 30,281.55 12,500.00 8,096.06 2,000.00 1,750.00 2,000.00 5,000.00 6,000.00 3,000.00 15,000.00 20,238.40 3,000.00 S600.00 No.... No No. . . . 6,000.00 Yes . . . Yes... No 12,500 10,000 600.00 2,500.00 "*i,"666.'66' 17,150.00 10,000.00 7,425.00 2,500.00 15,000.00 2,000.00 5,0(10.00 6,000.00 3,000.00 7,500.00 18,000.00 3,000.00 Yes... No 5,000 Georgia Yes... No. . . . 1,000 Yes... No. . . . 20,000 No. . . . Kentucky Louisiana 2,657 6,967 10,762 19, 125 122,573 51,211 10,000 20 27 8 69 42 105 21 Yes... 2,500 Maryland Massachusetts Yes... Yes... Yes... No.... 15,000 9,500 Minnesota Mississippi 35,000 71 1G0 10 40 259 90 43 245 31 44 220 1 1 54 59 35 27 45 3S til 71 15 33 111 95 17 2 40 63 1 54 17 5 25 40 38 7 89 1 7 115 1 26 245 29 4 163 1 42 30 2 5 133 515 34 116 1.062 195 162 1,225 149 109 987 1 2 74 119 68 35 73 76 65 224 243 64 7,890 72,894 3,000 11,611 134,989 25, 950 20,310 81,816 7,460 10,350 165,553 50 300 11,149 10,000 6,000 4,500 6,680 7,962 19,500 4,4S0 32,200 3,401 25 38 12 14 64 21 47 27 9 8 56 3 4 15 14 11 39 17 ■1(< 11 29 24 1 5,000.00 8,607.00 2,100.00 3,000.00 20,000.00 5,500.00 6,379.07 17,629.89 660.00 2,500.00 20,500.00 4,000.00 6,000.00 1,600.00 3,000.00 20,000.00 3,500.00 6,000.00 22,000.00 Ves... No. . . . 5,000 New Hampshire.. New Jersey New York North Carolina... North Dakota Ohio Yes... No 2,000 Yes... Yes... Yes... Yes... No.... 15,000 30,000 10,000 15,000 2,500.00 20,500.00 No. . . . Pennsylvania Yes... No 50,000 10C. 00 4,524.40 6,500.00 2,500.00 540. 00 2,000.00 5,000.00 5,000.00 3,966.12 2,000.00 1,107.59 Yes... No. . . . 2,000 5,000.00 5,000.00 2,500.00 South Dakota Tennessee Yes... Yes.. . No. . . . COO 5,000 Utah 1,500.00 Yes... Yi'S. . . No.... 7,000 3,000 5,000.00 4,000.00 12,000.00 1,000.00 West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming 81 81 11 .50 81 4 31 7 Yes... Yes... No 60,000 Total 3,365 1,998 1,367 10,999 1,262,272 1,197 264,672.38 232,375.00 315, 100 a No report received. ■-- YEARBOOK OF THE DEPAETMENT OF AGBICULTUEE. STATISTICS OF TEE PRIXCTPAX CROPS. 3 sis.] CORN. Cm ■ •?. : 1< 1874 41,036,918 850,148,500 58.4 496,271,255 64 76 53 67 30, 025, 036 1ST.", 44.841.371 29.5 1.321,069,000 J 484,674,804 40 47 41 45 50,910,532 1876 49,033,364 26.2 1,283,827,500 34.0 436.108,521 40 43 43 56 72,652,611 1877 50,369,113 26.7 1,342,558,000 34.8 467,63.5,230 41 49 35 41 87,192.110 1878 51,585,000 26.9 218,750 31.7 440,280,517 30 32 33 36 87,884,892 1879 85,450 29.2 1,547,901,790 37. 5 580,4- 39 43 } 32? 364 99,572.320 62,31' 27.6 1.717.434.543 39.6 679,714,499 35 1 42 114 45 93,648.147 1881 64,262,025 18.6 1.194.916.000 63.6 .^2,170 53| 63} 69 76} 44, 340. 683 1882 65.6" 24.6 1.617.025,100 48.5 • 7.175 491 61 .53} 56f 41,655.653 1883 68,301 22.7 1,551,066,895 42.4 51,485 54 J 63} 524 .57 46. 258, 606 1884 25.8 1,796,528,432 35.7 640,7 34 J 40} 44f 49 52.-" 1885 73. 130. 150 26, 5 1,936,176.000 _ • 635.674,630 36 ■i-i 34} 36| 64, 829, 617 75,694,208 22.0 1,665,441,000 36.6 610,311,000 3.5 J 3S 36+ 39i 41, 0 1887 72,392,720 2D.1 1,456,161,000 44.4 646, 106, 770 47 5'i 54 60 25.360,869 188S 75.6.. 26.3 1,987,790.000 34.1 677.. 56 1,580 334 35| ■•m 35* 70.841.073 1889 78,319,061 27.0 2.112.^92,000 28.3 597,918,829 29* 35 32| 35 103. 41 8. 709 1«90 71,97 2.1.7 1. 4 f 9. 970, 000 50.6 754,433,451 47? 53 55 694 32.041,529 1891 76,204.515 27.0 2, 080, 154, 000 40.6 835,439,228 39* 59 40} olOO 76. 002, 285 1892 " 26,668 23. 1 164.000 39.4 642,146,630 40 m 36J 39* 444 47.121.S94 1893 72 16,465 22.5 1.619,496,131 36.5 591.62.3.62". 34} 36J 3S4 66,489,529 1894 -.269 19.4 1,212,770,052 45.7 .354.719.162 44| 47* 471 554 28, " - 1895 "..830 26. 2 2,151.138.580 25.3 544.985.534 25 26] 274 294 101, 100, 375 1896 81,027,156 2^.2 2,283,875,165 21.5 191.006,967 23f 23 234 178,S17.417 1*7 £0. 095. 051 23.8 1.902,907,933 20.3 501,072,952 25 27 V 32? 37 2:2.055.543 1898 77,721,781 24.8 1,924,184,660 28.7 552.023,428 33} 38 32} 31a 177.2.55,046 1S99 82,li 25.3 43, 933 30.3 629,210,110 30 3U 36 404 213.123.412 1900 83. 320, 872 25.3 2,105,102,516 35.7 751,220,034 35} 40} 42| 58J 181,405,473 1901 91,349,928 16.7 1,522,519,891 60.5 921,5.55,768 62* 67* 50I 64 J 28. 02 1902 94.043.613 26.8 ••iS.312 40.3 1.017,017.349 43J 57} 44 46 70.039,261 1903 88,091,993 25.5 2,244,176,925 12.5 968,801 41 434 47} 50 222,061 1904 92.231,581 26.8 180,934 44.1 1,087,461,440 43i 49 4S 644 90,293,483 190.3 94,011,369 28.8 J. (07,993,540 41.2 1,116,696,738 12 50i 474 50 119,893,833 1906 96,7". 30.3 _ " 416,091 39.9 1,166,626,479 40 46 a Coincident with "corner." Visible supply of corn in the United States and Canada, first of each month for tenyears.a Month. Bushels. Julv 21, 501, 000 August 20, 01S. 000 September ' 37. 528. 000 October > 45. 412, 000 November > 52. 9S0. 000 December 49. 559, 000 January I 4S. 292. 000 February 1 53, 522. 000 Ma rch . .". 52. 457. 000 April 52. 228. 000 May ; 34. 734. 000 Jurie > 28. 288. 000 a Those figures represent stocks available at 62 of the principal points of accumulation east of the Rocky Mountains, stocks in Manitoba elevators, and stocks afloat on lakes and canals, as reported by Bradstreet's. 544 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. le supply of corn in the United States and Canada, etc. — Continued. :•-:-■■. 1903-i. 1904-5. 1905-6. 1906-7. July September October. . . November December. February . March April May June Bushels. 9, 013. 000 3, 823, 000 4.607,000 22 - 552 i 11,. 53-5. 000 15,180,000 16,901,000 7,039,000 Bushels. 13,410,000 ■ ■ 12.147.000 ! 16,669,000 : 72 Bushels. _ - 8. 014. 000 10,703.000 5,119,000 : 15.351.000 \ 16. 752. 000 ! Bushels. 9,571,000 10.101,000 8,080,000 5.183,000 10. 230. 000 17.830,000 22.010,000 24.531.000 17,653.000 7. 074. 000 7,366,000 Bushels. i 5, 133. 000 8,404,000 14,097,000 _ •_" 00 17.011.000 Acreage, production, value, and distribution of can United States in 1906, by States. r Territory. Crop of 1906. Stock in farmers' hands Shipped out of county Acr g Production. \ alue. where grown. Acres. Bushels. Dollars. Bui'- Per cent. Bushels. 12.350 450.950 - - ■ - 19 4,570 New Hampshire . . i ; --- 2 25 0 56.491 44. 799 2.005.430 1,778 '. 1.183.204 1,067,112 501.358 515.771 25 29 0 0 Rhode Island 10.011 331.364 212.073 _ 34 3.314 55.595 2.22-3.800 1,334,280 . 29 22.238 050.000 277.749 _- -o.OOO 10.(-_ _ 13.384. 150 5.343.613 3 9.750 , -A. 561 35 42 453.700 1.512.343 Pennsylvania 1,44 57.900.239 30. 139. 324 - -2.108 45 4.057,217 196, 472 a - • " 394, 160 22.0 ' 325 2.475.-547 9.903.521 2,943 io. -a n 50 47 2.357.664 Maryland 6,162,191 Virginia 1,85 45.1-- 52 24,85 -- 19.882.9.50 44 4,061 : :rginia 750.000 22.725.000 12. -: -i.OOO 36 1.130.250 North Carolina 2,731 •- 41,7 _ E1.855 18,39 44 1.2.53.905 South Carolina 1,935 . 11.233 ' -.0.200 11,093 - 47 472.225 Georgia 4,33* 52. 0 " 34.-- 24.471.300 47 1.501.998 25 3.325.000 782 -"5.000 141.645.000 - ■ 767 4. 262, .500 55.241.550 201,756 2.543.750 GO. 907. 350 113,257 37 43 44 - "" Ohio 41.077.050 Indiana - •- 347. 1 124,981,051 41.401 48 142. 3-39. 530 1.475.000 54.575.000 24.013.000 _ - -0.000 40 3.274.500 Wisconsin ■- n 60. 105. 732 43.350 23,441,235 39 1,803,172 Minnesota 1,492 ' 50.1: 277 17.050.754 18.053.740 36 6.017.913 15 i.OOO 373.275.000 119,44$ .4.750 49 97.051.500 7.075.000 150.000 ._• 522,500 4.170.000 - 538, 550 -■..300 - _ • 75 1. 042.500 43 25 29.707.925 1 • South Dako: 1.875.000 12.500 18,215 25 32.034.375 51 12. .5*2. .500 ' .5.000 . 782 - 72.430.925 - 6, 000 48 122. 393. 425 Kansas ".i.OOO 195.075.000 62.424.000 79.250 39 ' '71.750 ■5.072 105. 437. 370 44. 283. 098 47.4' 45 12. 652. 485 75 3 . 86. 4. - . 40.021.589 39.757.300 46 12. 904. 337 Vlabama 10,587 " 149,392 30.623.011 21. 532. 220 45 956.988 ppi 2,204,822 40.789.207 24.-- 17.947.251 44 315,784 Louisiana 1,52 _ 217,633 15. 730. 580 9.1" 72 35 202. 176 Texas J4.657 155.- 1,782 •r2.391 50.0- "_. 36 6.232.191 Indian Territory . - - 193,264 21.917.844 i S2, 104 43 23. 972. 042 Oklahoma 1,998 737,326 19.721.198 30. 896, .543 47 21.035.944 -S 2. 2- : " - ->2.569 24 -17.207 23.7- 45 1,584.077 Montana 3.980 93.132 60.536 13.970 15 0 Wyoming - --- - 25 40.271 13. 051 20 0 lo 113.159 3.157.136 1.578.568 24 189.428 . loco 40.211 1.182.203 851,186 295. 5-51 25 59.110 Arizona 3 - 220.129 187.110 66.039 30 2.201 11.126 5.231 356.032 263.464 32 71.200 29.007 20 20 3.560 Idaho 0 Washington 11.444 158, 614 43.258 15 S.G52 Oregon • 499.091 324.409 59.801 12 4.991 California- .57. 15S 1,9 1 . 330. 525 339.118 17 259. 326 Unit'vl States 7.581 . -.-.410.091 . 13 '78,958 44.3 079.543,770 STATISTICS OF CORN. 545 Average yield per acre of com in the United States, 1897-1906, by States. State or Territory. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. Bush. 37.0 34.0 35.0 32.5 31.0 31.5 31.0 31.5 36.0 29.0 33.0 18.0 24.5 13.0 9.0 11.0 8.0 32.5 30.0 32.5 31.5 33.0 26.0 29.0 26.0 17.0 24.0 30.0 18.0 23.0 21.0 12.0 14.5 17.0 18.5 Bush. 40.0 41.0 43.0 40.0 34.0 37.0 33.0 37.0 37.0 25.0 31.0 22.0 29.0 14 0 10.0 9.0 9.0 37.0 36.0 30.0 34 0 35.0 32.0 35.0 26.0 19.0 28.0 21.0 16. 0 31.0 26.0 15.0 18.0 18.0 25.0 Bush. 36.0 39.0 36. 0 36.0 31.0 39.0 31.0 39.0 32.0 22.0 32.0 20.0 20.0 13.0 9.0 10.0 10.0 36.0 38.0 36.0 25.0 35.0 33.0 31.0 26.0 23.0 26.0 28.0 27.0 " 21.0 20.0 12.0 16.0 18.0 18.0 Bush. 36.0 37.0 40.0 38.0 32.0 38.0 32.0 33.0 25.0 24 0 '26.0 16.0 27.0 12.0 7.0 10.0 8.0 37.0 38.0 37.0 36.0 40.0 33.0 38.0 28.0 16.0 27.0 26.0 19.0 26.0 20.0 11.0 11.0 17.0 18.5 Bush. 39.4 3a 5 40.0 40.5 32.1 39.0 33.0 36.9 35.0 30. G 34 2 22.2 23.0 12.0 6.9 10.0 9.0 26.1 19.8 21.4 34.5 27.4 26.3 25.0 10.1 22.6 21.0 14 1 7.8 15.6 14 2 10.9 10.9 13.7 11.6 12.0 7.3 8.1 25.0 39.5 17.1 31.6 18.0 19.4 23.0 17.5 20.8 31.0 Bush. 21.7 23.3 21.8 31.3 28.4 31.5 25.0 34 5 30. 1 28.0 32.4 22.0 26.5 13.9 10.4 9.0 8.6 38.0 37.9 38.7 26.4 28.2 22.8 32.0 39.0 19.4 18.9 32.3 29.9 27.0 21.9 8.4 11.5 12. 5 8.1 24.9 25.8 21.3 22.0 19.8 16.5 22.0 20.2 20.1 24.7 23.0 23.4 30.5 Bush. 30.2 21.0 23.4 24 0 30.1 22.4 25.0 24 0 31.2 27.5 28.7 21.8 22.6 14.7 10.3 11.7 9.9 29.6 33.2 32.2 33.5 29.3 28.3 28.0 32.4 25.2 27.2 26.0 25.6 26.6 23.5 14 8 18.4 20.6 24. 2 27.7 23.3 20.9 24 1 19.4 19.8 24 0 22.4 21.4 34 5 23.1 25.8 30.7 Bush. 39.7 27.3 35.9 36.0 34.1 38.9 27.3 38.0 34 0 30.4 33.4 23.3 25.3 15.2 12.4 11.9 10.7 32.5 31.5 36.5 28.6 29.7 26.9 32.6 26.2 21.2 28.1 32.8 20.9 26.9 25.0 15.0 19.1 19.9 22.6 32.4 28.1 21.6 22.2 32.5 20.5 22.7 23.8 33.2 29.3 24 7 28. 8 28.6 Bush 34 3 37.0 34 7 37.5 32.5 42.7 31.5 35.8 38.9 30.4 36.9 23.4 29.8 13.9 10.9 11.0 10.1 37.8 40.7 39.8 34 0 37.6 32.5 34 8 33.8 27.5 31.8 32.8 27.7 29.7 24 6 14 8 14 3 13.7 21.3 32.7 25.3 17.3 19.4 26.9 23.8 25.3 27.0 36.2 27.2 24 2 23.0 32.0 Bush. 37. 0> 37. 5 35.5. 39.7 33. 1 40.0 34 9 36.3 40.2 30.0 35.0 24 3 30.3 15.3 12.2 12.0' 11.0 Ohio 42.6 39. 6 30. 1 37.0 41.2 33. 6. 39.5. 32.3. 27.8 South Dakota 33.5. 34 1 28.9 33.0 28.1 16.0- 18.5 17.2 22.5 33.6 19.0 20.0 23.0 22.0 17.0 20.0 26.0 19.0 15.0 34 0 19.0 22.0 32.9 16.0 18.0 12.0 19.0 27.0 20.0 28.0 16.0 18.0 21.0 23.6 23.4 27.0 Colorado 27. 9- 29.4 29.5 Utah 22.0 21.0 20.0 20.0 32.0 Idaho 28.3;. 18.0 25.0 31.5 12.0 24.0 26.0 23.0 22.0 27.0 20.0 23.0 25.0 25.2 27.6- 34 9 General average 23.8 24.8 25.3 25.3 16. 7 26. 8 25.5 26.8 28.8 30. a. Average value per acre of corn in the United States, based upon farm value December 1 , 1897-1906, by States. State or Territory. Maine $17. 39 New Hampshire : 15. 30 Vermont I 15. 05 Massachusetts ! 15. 28 Rhode Island ! 16. 74 Connecticut i 15. 43 New York j 12. 40 New Jersey j 1 1. 97 Pennsylvania j 22. 24 Delaware 8. 70 Maryland I 9. 90 Virginia I 6. 84 West Virginia ' 9.80 North Carolina ' 5. 59 South Carolina j 441 Georgia 5. 28 Florida 4 40 Ohio ' 8.12 Indiana I 0. 30 Illinois o. 83 3 a 1906 35 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. $19. 20 $18.00 $19. 80 $29.94 $16. 06 $19. 93 $32. 16 $23. 67 18.86 19.11 20.72 30.03 17.01 13. 23 19.66 25.53 IS. 92 10.92 20.00 29.20 14 82 14 51 26.21 23.60 19. 00 18. 30 20.52 30.78 23. 16 15.84 25.92 26.25 21.70 10.43 21.44 24.40 22. 15 24. 38 28. 04 23.08 19. 24 19.50 20.90 29.25 23. 31 15. 01 28.40 i:0. 32 14 19 13. 95 15.04 23.70 16.75 15.00 17.47 19.21 14 80 15. 00 14.85 24 35 19.32 13. 08 22.04 19.09 14 80 13. 12 11.25 21.70 20.94 17.78 20.06 21.01 7.75 7.48 9.12 17.10 13.72 13.48 14.90 1429 10. 8.5 11.52 10.06 19.84 16.52 14 04 16.70 17.71 7.70 7.60 7.84 13. 10 11.44 11.55 13.75 12.40 10.73 11.70 13.50 14 95 14.31 14 40 10. 19 15.79 0.02 0. 11 6.84 8.76 8.34 8.97 9.42 K.90 4.60 4 50 4 48 5.80 7.18 7.11 8.68 8.07 4 32 5.00 5.70 8.20 6.57 a 07 8.45 7.70 4.50 5.30 4 80 7.65 6.02 7.23 8.02 6.67 9.99 10. 80 12.58 14 88 15. 90 13.91 14 95 16.25 9.00 10.26 12.16 10.89 13.04 11. 95 12.91 15. 47 7.50 9. 30 11.84 12.20 13.93 11.59 14 23 15.12 1906. $23. 68: 24.00 20. 95- 23. 82- 21. 18 24 0O 20.59 19.24 20. 90 12. 60- 15.75 13.37 16. 66. 10.40 8.91 8.04 6.82 10. 61 14 26 13.00- - TEABBOOK OF THE DEPAETMEXT OF AGBICT7LTTTEE. :Jue per acre of corn in th>: " -' ' based upon farm value December lt I ned. I: i.i:. : — .: :t DM b ma A'iL. : ;.. ; Itari um ^ ynming. Colom lo Azfa o na I ;. -. * v. . ■ i- - C tEA i nda : : Z2it Xote. — S-nbsiamiallj- the international trade of the -b-c rid. It eioul . that the world's export and import totals for any will are t&ese: (1 1 Different periods of time covered in the "year" of the ~ r ---:'■ -•* - '- - ----" " " "• i" ' - --i- r. -„:.-. ;.-_:.- ..:;- . ... -•■_:. .-. : ;■ .• count r rent practices and varying degrees of failure in'rec siding gin and ultimate destination: (5t different practices of recording reexported goods: . -is of ::-•:.'':- r . - .. r: r- '':.. r. .: :.. .7 - _-- '.::-• : *.-• ;. : -free uei.1. The exports given are domestic exports and the imports given are im | as it is feasible and consistent so to express the facts: no statement is for net While there are some inevitable omissions from such a table 1 some duplications became of ieshipments that do not appear as such in official rej EX . . "J r. ~ r. . A U5t ria-HnngB ry '. ■ .-- ::.. . 1 ..-■ .-. •. _'■"■ :;.- -. r. _"- . . : Russia - U .-..:-•- : Stan - : _' : : : ._- - • l-UOi. STATISTICS OF CORN. 547 International trade in com, including com meal, 1901-1906 — Continued. IMPORTS. Country. Year be- ginning- 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. Bushels. 1905. Bushels. Bushels. Bvshels. Bushels. Austria-Hungary Jan. 1 8, 647, 130 5,874,971 11,130,274 14,090,377 18,511,369 Belgium Jan. 1 14,954,812 14,5S3,O0S 3), 323, 863 19,4'4,330 24, 169, 780 Cape of Good Hope Jan. 1 2, 833, 220 1,943,886 3.471,281 1,236,927 2,171,601 Cuba Jan. 1 1,486,138 1,150,176 619, 326 696, 517 0988,03-9 Denmark Jan. 1 11,988,644 12,365,050 8,772,022 9,284,777 10,859,257 Egypt Jan. 1 426, 907 55. 266 142,537 53,017 1,279,749 Jan. 1 11.611,509 8,674.931 11,347,114 10,124.353 11.121.S06 Germany & Jan. 1 46,978,877 35,454,243 37,527,343 30,450,853 36, 538, 366 Italy Jan. 1 9,985.324 8,216,902 15,092,527 8, 365, 123 5,904,844 Jan. 1 963,047 142,102 496.028 c 476, 182 c 1,454, 327 Netherlands Jan. 1 IS. 635, 890 15.817,237 20,160,078 16,547,198 16,234,785 Norway Jan. 1 743,642 637,387 765, 246 555, 991 541,949 Portugal Jan. 1 434,416 759,967 366,605 531,889 2, 607, 130 Jan. 1 351, 7S6 135, 822 457,715 025,526 161,218 Jan. 1 2,637,703 99:;, 272 1,484,490 2,761,426 1,904,186 Jan. 1 5S5, 747 191,958 189,357 234, 9S6 491,035 Switzerland Jan. 1 2,130,011 2,404,644 2,611,202 2.704.457 2,498,380 Jan. 1 ■< 1,042,166 1,306,038 2,197.476 1,422,985 d 1,642, 166 United Kingdom Jan. 1 105,S19,438 89,371.445 101,284,919 86,076,697 84,156,490 6, 939, 000 10.415,000 18,652,000 15,313,000 17,852,000 Total 249. 7S5, 407 210.483,315 257,091,403 221,026,611 241,088,477 a Average, 1901-1901. * Not including free ports. <• Preliminary figures, d Ayerage, 1902-1904. Average farm price of corn per bushel in the United States, December 1, 1897-1906, by States. State or Territory. 1S97. 1898. 1S99. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. Cents. 47 4.") 43 47 54 49 40 3S 34 30 30 38 40 43 49 48 55 25 21 21 27 25 24 17 24 32 21 17 22 35 36 46 45 45 41 Cents. 48 46 44 49 64 52 43 40 40 31 35 35 37 43 46 48 50 27 25 25 34 28 24 23 27 36 23 22 26 27 29 41 39 41 34 Cents. 50 49 47 51 53 50 45 40 41 34 36 38 45 47 50 50 53 30 27 26 36 30 24 23 30 33 26 23 25 37 39 47 46 44 36 Cents. 55 56 50 54 67 55 47 45 45 38 41 49 50 57 64 57 60 34 32 32 37 33 29 27 32 42 29 31 32 40 49 58 58 50 47 Cents. 76 78 73 76 76 75 72 66 62 57 58 59 65 73 84 82 85 57 55 57 52 52 45 52 67 46 45 54 63 61 65 77 74 75 SO 76 76 81 90 72 74 77 90 90 60 58 57 68 Cents. 74 73 68 74 78 74 67 56 58 49 51 52 54 60 69 73 77 42 36 36 52 50 40 33 33 45 41 30 34 42 47 67 61 66 66 43 39 49 72 59 59 78 101 67 62 65 lie, 77 Cents. 66 63 62 66 81 67 60 57 57 49 51 53 64 61 69 69 73 47 36 36 46 43 38 38 34 42 35 28 36 56 49 57 54 58 48 39 "38 51 62 58 54 75 90 70 57 55 67 74 Cents. 81 72 73 72 84 73 64 58 59 49 50 59 64 62 70 71 75 46 41 39 52 46 36 33 44 40 36 33 41 49 50 60 56 57 52 40 39 53 68 57 54 78 91 72 70 66 61 78 Cents. 69 69 68 70 71 71 61 55 54 47 48 53 53 64 74 70 66 43 38 38 46 42 33 34 37 36 31 32 33 43 50 64 65 61 49 37 32 55 68 75 47 69 97 70 66 60 59 70 Cents. 64 64 59 60 64 60 59 53 52 42 45 55 55 68 73 67 62 Ohio 39 36 36 44 41 34 32 38 39 29 29 32 42 47 64 61 60 50 32 20 38 52 43 43 58 26 43 59 60 48 64 30 40 65 50 38 58 29 66 55 40 56 47 65 59 50 72 85 Utah 55 60 59 63 74 56 55 53 56 42 60 62 5r> 64 60 59 57 61 55 65 67 General ayerage 26.3 28.7 30.3 35.7 60.5 40.3 42.5 44.1 41.2 39.9 548 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Wholesale prices of corn per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906. New York. Date. No. 2. I Low. High 1902. January February March. ." April May June July August September. . . October November. . . December 1903. January February March April May June July August September. .. October November. .. December 1904. January February March April May June July August September. . . October November . . . December 1905. January February March April May June July August September... October November. .. December 1906. January February March April May June July August September. . . October November. .. December . . . as. 66 66! 65 654 eel 68| 65| 634 67* * 671 61! 57 55 .->.->} 50; 51 52! 56 561. 58J 531 51} •J'.", m 511 53 543 52i 55' 47; 53! 55| 56J .v>; ■>4; 53 51J 51 52 51 52 57f 59! 60 59 58* 52 50| 47 47* 52 .-,.-,■' 58 563 55 563 54} 52f 50 Baltimore. Mixed. Low. High as. 72} 71} 71i 73 73 71J 73 69! 72* 70} 67 64 US! 59 56* 53i 55 60| 60 60} 59f 54 52f 53J 56 63 57 56 60 50! 55| 62J 603 623 69 54! 524 54J 543 52! 58} 024 054 023 61 62?, 024 533. 51J 493 52 56J 58 (ill 60 58 581 504 56 53 as. 58! 60} 63 63* 66| 67J 67 59 64 65 47 434 51! 52! 4~1 481 51 544 5X> 58" 56 53 40 4 461 4!'! 40; 50} :,oi 511 50J 50J 534 504 44i ■14 45 4 48 483 50 J 58 56 56 51 42 42 47:; 45i 40 40 :,:, 55 553 54} 53* 511 40 50 as. 69J 684 68 69 70 72 77 67 69 69 68 55} 60 55 52f 52! 55* 59 61 60 60 55 544 40 i 50 54.1 52| 52^ 54 53f 53J 5X4 58f Cincinnati. No. 2. Low. High .50.4 50! 54 524 56J 04" 65 03'. 63 63 01 51'. 49f 54} 573 58 57! 55! 54 :: 54' 52 51 J as. 62 61 62 604 64 634. 634 58 60 60 45 44 45'. 40 40 45' 48J 50 524 48 45', 45! 444 45', 454 46 50i 514 524. 55 554 56£ 4.5 4 454. 46 48 474 40 54 57 54 544 554 454 44 42 43 47 514 514 534 50*. 48 48 47', 43" Chicago. No. 2. Detroit. 1 St. Louis. No. 2. Low. High. Low. High as. 684. 644 64 67*. 67} 664 69 64 634 62j 60 50 48| 48 47 40 47 1 54 53 544 53 40 46 46 404 474 51 54 564. 51 554 574. 57" 59 58J 52 40 48*. 52 504 544 57 594 574 504 56J 53" 47 40, 444 48 524 554 54 554. 54J 504 50 4X4 48 as. 564 56f 56 56| 594, 61 56 54 57 55 52| 43! 45; 424 41| 41| 44 47} 40 504 4.51 43* 41| 41 42J 40 40 40,4 471 53} 47} 51} 51 50 50 434 42 42! 454 46 48 51f 53| 53 513 50 454 42 41 413 50 434 47'. 50^ 404 48| 47" 44J 44 40 as. 044 61} 61Ji 644 64| : 71* 88 60 621 ' 014 58 | 57} 481 45 45i 453 40 52 53 53 52! 40 44! 43 :; 47J 544 504 50; 50 594 50 :,^< 54| 43J 45J 4x4 40 4 044 56j 59 57 54 4 54! 51 50} 45 454 44" 4X 50 54! 53 51 50 47} 47} 40 Cts. 57 59 59 594. 634. 63} 66 66 55! 574 60 47 47 404 414 404 404 51 544 51" 474 404 44" No. 2. Low. High as. 67! 62 614 644 654 664 67 67 594 60" 664 704 474 454 48 55 55J 554 56! 514 4s\ 484 No. 3. 42 454 444 4X4 51 4.X.4 49 514 53-1 52 474 444 45 4.5.4 48! 404 494 54" 57} 5.5.4 544 55! 44J 44; 44! 45" 43} 4X4 50! 52 53 •"'-'1 49 48} 40! 4X4 51! 50 | 54 I 57} 58 57 55* 59 | 55* 454} 45! 46! 47 52 53 4 55 55 54 52 49! 4o-; 404 as. 59 58! 59 59! 62* 62 61 54 56! 56 44! 40! 4U 41 39 39j 41' 48 48 48 45 414 414 414 43! 44J 44 i 48 48 47 I 48! 51J 51 ! 514 484 42J 43! 44 46 46} 48 50! 51 ! 511 514 50" 414 41* as. 69} 63 63 67 66 67 66 61! 60! 58* 49" 494 444 44! 45 42 4 47 1 55 51! 514 50 45 433 45 40 1 514 54" 50. 52! r,r, 54 54* 57 4" 45 47 49 40 4 53 56 58. 54! 544 534 5l| 40 4 41! 39! 40} 4.34 40 48 50* 46! 46" 44 41 39! SI. 30 SI. 45 1. 1. 1.' San Fran- cisco. No. 1, white (per cwt.) . Low. High. 43! 424 444 511 51 554 544 51 47- 40 454 45" 1.30 1.30 1.174 1.17! 1.17! 1.20 1.25 1.55 1.474 1.30" 1.25 1.25 1.274 1.25" 1.30 1.37! 1.424 1. 40" 1.40 1.40 1.50 1.40 1. 374 1.25" 1.25 1.321 1. 324 1. 324 1.324 1.40" 1.40 1.40 1. 324 1.30 1.30 1. 324 STATISTICS OF _, WHEAT. 549 Condition of the corn crop of the United States, monthly, 1892-1906. Year. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Year. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Year. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. P.ct. P.ct. P.ct. P.ct. P.ct. P.ct. P.ct. P.ct. P.ct. P.ct. P.ct. P.ct. 1392 81.1 82.5 79.6 79.8 1897.... 82.9 84.2 79.3 77.1 1902. . . 87.5 86.5 84.3 79.6 1S93 93.2 87.0 76.7 75.1 ; 1898.... 90.5 87.0 84.1 82.0 1903... 79.4 78.7 80.1 80.8 1894 95.0 69.1 63.4 64.2 1899.... 86.5 89.9 85.2 82.7 1904... 86.4 87.3 84.6 83.9 1895 99.3 102.5 96.4 95.5 ■ 1900.... 89.5 87.5 80.6 78.2 1905... 87.3 89.0 89.5 89.2 1896 92.4 96.0 91.0 90.5 1901.... 81.3 54.0 51.7 52.1 1906... 87.5 8S.1 90.2 90.1 WHEAT. Wheat crop of countries named, 1902-1906. [Substantially th3 crop of the world.] Country. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. NORTH AMERICA. Bushels. 670.063,000 Bushels. 637,822,000 Bushels. 552,400,000 Bushels. 692,979,000 Bushels. 735,261,000 Canada: 468.000 26, 904, 000 54,7.50,000 13, 524, 000 877,000 4.000,000 471,000 22.583,000 41,381.000 15,598.000 1,238,000 4,000,000 371,000 13, 030, 000 40,397,000 16,447,000 968,000 4.000,000 418,000 22,195,000 57,519,000 26,930,000 2.379,000 4,000,000 420,000 Ontario 22,806,000 63.181,000 Saskatchewan 38,207.000 3,896.000 Other 4,000,000 100, 523, 000 85,271,000 75,213,000 113.441,000 132.510,000 Mexico 8,477,000 10, 493, 000 9.393,000 5,000,000 5,000,000 Total North America 779. 063. 000 733,586,000 637.006,000 811,420,000 872,771,000 SOUTH AMERICA. 56,380,000 10,641,000 7. 1*4,000 103,759,000 10,114,000 5, 240, 000 129,672.000 17,948.000 7,565.000 150,745,000 20,000.000 6,000,000 134,931,000 Chile 15, 800, 000 4,606,000 Total South America 74.625,000 119,113,000 155,185,000 176,745,000 155,337,000 EUROPE. Austria-Hungary: Austria Hungary proper 49,655,000 170,884,000 12,017,000 2,384,000 46, 19S, 000 161,958,000 14, 664. 000 3,901,000 53, 734, 000 137,078.000 9,841.000 3,753.000 54,531,000 157,512,000 13,077.000 3, 016, 000 58,255,000 197,408,000 10,343,000 Bosnia-Herzegovina 2,693,000 Total Austria-Hungary... 234, 940, 000 226,721,000 204,406.000 228,136,000 268,699,000 14,521,000 35,000,000 4.528,000 79.000 327.841,000 143,315,000 8,000.000 136.210.000 200.000 5. 105. 000 265.000 10,400.000 7(1.220. 000 12,350.000 35,551.000 4.461,000 130. 000 364,320,000 130, 626, 000 8,000,000 184,451,000 200,000 4,258,000 307.000 8, 000. 000 73.700,000 13,817,000 42,242.000 4,302,000 133,000 298. 826, 000 139. 803. 000 8.000,000 167,635.000 200.000 4, 423, 000 212,000 6, 500. 000 53. 738, 000 12,401,000 40,736,000 4,083,000 130,000 335,453.000 135,947.000 8,000,000 160,504,000 200.000 5.109.000 329, 000 5,000.000 103,328,000 13,000,000 55, 076, 000 4, 400, 000 130,000 France 324. 725, 000 144, 754, 000 8,000.000 Italy 168, 000, 000 200,000 4, 700, 000 300. 000 8,000.000 113,867,000 550 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Wheal crop of countries named, 1902-1906 — Continued. Count ry. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. EUEOPE — continued Russia: Russia proper Bushels. 463, 2-58.000 20.349.000 77.069.000 Bushels. ' 4.54. 19.255.000 77,941,000 Bushels. 519.964,000 21.241.000 81,132.000 Bushels. 451,327,000 20.239.000 96.S17.000 Bushels. 35S.000.000 19 000 000 73 000 000 Total Russia ( European i. 560. 676. 000 i 551.792.000 622,337,000 5tiS.3S3.000 450.000.000 11.409.000 133.523.000 4. 757.000 4.200.000 25.000,000 10.SS5.000 5.538.000 4.000.000 26.000.000 11,676.000 95,377,000 5.135.000 4,000.000 23.000.000 11.262.000 92.0.54.(100 5,529,000 4,000.000 20.000.000 13.211.000 154.090.000 6.227.000 4.000.000 22.000.000 Sweden S wit zerla ad Turkey '..European | Kingdom: ■ Britain — England Wales Ireland 55.216,000 1,856,000 1.391.000 1,602.000 46.524.000 1,528, 1.093.000 1.176.000 35. 624. 000 1.499.000 919.000 1.040.000 57.424.000 2,130,000 1.204.000 1.430.000 57.5S3.000 2. 0 1,308,000 1.400.000 Total United Kingdom. . . 60. 065, 000 50.321.000 39.OS2.000 62,188.000 62,354,000 Total Europe 1.796.254.000 1.830.590.000 1,744,844,000 1.802.772.000 1.S25. 733.000 ASIA.. British India, including native 9 where reporting Cvprus 227, 380, 000 297.601.000 2.477.000 359.936.000 2.176.000 2S3.063.000 2.000.000 319, 586. 000 2.000.000 Japanese Empire: Japan Formosa 20. 243. 000 107. 000 9. 600. 000 179.000 19.7.54.000 190.000 IS. 437.000 200 000 IS. 000.000 200.000 Total Japanese Empire. . . 20. £50. 000 9.779.000 19.944.000 18.637.000 is. 200. 000 Persia 13.600.000 16.000.000 16.000.000 16.000.000 16.000.000 Russia: 15.S97.000 30. 796, 000 20.995.000 48, 670. 000 12.S22.000 31,590,000 25.491.000 42.411.000 21 000 000 Sil^eria 35.000.000 Total Russia 1 Asiatic 4-1.693. 000 69,665,000 44. 412. 000 67.902.000 56. 000. 000 35.000.000 33,000,000 33.000.000 33.000.000 33 000 000 Total Asia 343.920.000 428.522,000 47.5. 468, 000 420.ro2.000 444.7 AFRICA. Algeria Egypt Sudan (Anglo-Egyptian Tunis 33,896,000 2.0110.000 12.000.000 4.000 300.000 4.127.000 34.03.5.000 1.7.5.5.000 11.000.000 4.000 294.000 7. -523. 000 25.4S4.000 2.000.000 12.000.000 7,000 486,000 10.519.000 20.000.000 2.000.000 12.000.000 4.000 5.729.000 28.000.000 2.000.000 12.000.000 400.000 4.409.0CO Total Africa 52.327.000 54.611.000 50.496.000 40.216,000 46.813.0CO TRAXASIA. Australia: Queensland 1.746.000 15.275.000 12. .510. 000 - 5. 000 963.000 994.000 6.000 1.63.5.000 50.000 6. 5.5,5. 000 1.017.000 905.000 . "14.000 28.196.000 29. 425. 000 13.626.000 1.935.000 792,000 2.217.000 16. 983. 000 21.606.000 12.454.000 2.077.000 ■ 1 1 173 oro - rath Wales 21 3"il 000 24. 1 ■ 20 77° GOO South Australia Western Australia Tasmania 2,381,000 S01. 000 ToMl Australian Com- l monwealtb 753, 000 12.768.000 76.4SS.000 56.215.000 70 6S1 000 Xew Zealand. 4.174.000 7. 6Q3. 000 8,140.000 9,411,000 7 013 000 1 43.927.000 20.461.000 84.C2S.000 6.5. 626. 000 77. 694. 000 Grand total 5.090.116.000 383,000 3.147.627.000 3,317,381,000 3. 423, 134. 000 a Includes government of Chernomorsk. STATISTICS OF WHEAT. 551 International trade in wheat, 1901—1906.* EXPORTS. Count rv. Yea r be- ginning— 1901. 1902. 1903. Argentina tan. 1 Australia Jan. 1 Austria-Hungary Jan. 1 ium.. ....... Jan. 1 British India Apr. 1 Bulgaria Jan. 1 Canada Jan. 1 Chile Jan. 1 Germany 6 Jan. 1 rlaiius Tan. 1 Roumania Jan. 1 Russia 'an. 1 Servia Jan. 1 United States July 1 Other countries Bushels. "3.22.1.924 20.2lO.O5S 13,773,674 4.901.652 26. 117. 530 57.350 3. 410. 976 37.427.119 83, 408, 574 2. 186, 913 154. 856, 102 ; Bushels. 23. 696. 306 8, 9ft'. 282 518, S 8 12.4' 7,375 19, 542. 525 8,624, 508 32. 9S5. 745 918,661 3. 019. 553 36,979,823 33,750,616 111,977,478 114,181,420 9.054.9S9 ' Bushels. 61,778,175 1,172,838 603. 379 11,751,205 ■ L, 979, 146 39,740,530 30,611,933 1,841,636 44. 230, 169 4,547,909 1904. Bushels. 33,071,653 117,282 80, 475. 855 - 14.700.315 2,718,470 _ 40,681,553 26,107,148 " i i 5,294,121 Bushels. 105. 391. 256 24,648,182 '.453 35,171,216 " J. 1.17 6.050.111 53,052,451 63.066.299 176,789,611 3, 422. 554 34, 973, 291 3.1< - Total 424. 059,656 418,572,590 435,946,057 504,268,487 Belgium Jan. 1 Brazil Jan. 1 Denmark Jan. 1 Finland Jan. 1 France Jan. 1 Germany b Jan. 1 Greece..' Jan. 1 Italy Jan. 1 Japan Tan. 1 Netherlands Jan. 1 Portugal Jan. 1 Spain Jan. 1 Sweden Jan. 1 Switzerland Jan. 1 United Kingdom Jan. 1 Other countries i 4. 209, 246 5.070.715 1.504 ■ • •' 78,418,416 - 38,444,603 190. 833 48, 145. 253 3. 392, 04S 5. 273. 16S 6,321,228 14,253,502 129.557.0V2 13. -•93.372 57.002. 144 5.501.214 4.329.013 11. US 9.029.614 76,225,923 27J 4 •■:. 274. 04S 192. 298 47,293,883 336, 955 2. 556. 594 7.510.655 S -- ' 150. S93. 534 15,741,532 - I 17,365,172 i ■-- 6. 109, 739 43,115,829 2,748,269 22 - _ - _ i 23,58 i 7.112.130 ■ . 878 • 74,2 5. 132. 775 " -■ i - - '■■ 50. 510. 097 282,29* S. 192. 527 8,082,561 17.220.343 • 21,296,518 -J.991 7,873,514 3,447 4.215 6, 7 1 ; 5. 753. 503 • ■ 2 281,022 61,992,589 4. '.72. 573 32.517.7S5 7.255.222 16,158,553 1S1.579.S27 9. 409. 308 Total 414.111.705 441. 410.347 477.7- 292 11,732 527.170.S14 a See "General note" p. 546. b Xot including free ports. International trade in icheat flour, 1901-1906.a EXPORTS. Country. Year be- ginning—I 1901. Argentina Jan. Australia Austria-Hungary Jan. Belgium Jan. British India Vpr. Bulgaria Jan. Canada Jan. Chile Jan. Germany *> Jan. Netherlands Jan. Roumania Jan. Russia Jan. Seryia Jan. United States July Other countries Total. Barrels. 806.959 987. 89S 208.906 302. 473 146.246 1,086.648 3.959 325. 498 Si J. 566 269.970 728.631 8.849 17,759,203 1,105,783 24,800.132 Barrels. 439. 125 336. 949 1,114,607 316. 272 410.330 154. 697 1,287,766 27 -" _ - 82.21S 214,505 4. 402 9,716,484 1.209.7S6 Barrels. 809.636 62,214 1,095,357 358.132 463,098 211.311 - S87 ■ 295.698 106.207 277 557 1.025.773 38.827 16,999,432 • Barrels. 1.052. .500 589.426 ! 2:32. 315 1.321.469 95,099 616. 939 1*1.372 135.900 1.172.442 28 S. S26. 335 . 258 28 Barrels. 1.628.271 1,573,663 1 512. 329 214. 5S7 991,701 199. 777 484.511 970. SOS 21.79S 13.919.048 5.169,334 26,186.055 24.454.171 18,265,101 2S. 9.54. 384 a See ''General note " p. 546. b Xot including free ports. 552 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. International tra in vital flour. 1901—1906 — <" Not including free ports. STATISTICS OF WHEAT. World'' s visible supply of wheat, first of each month, for ten years. a 553 Month. Bushels. 88,378,000 77,390,000 87,075,000 119,162,000 139,321.000 156,010,000 157,008,000 151,717,000 140,571.000 132.037.000 111,233.000 June 103, 845, 000 July August September. October November. December.. January February. . March April May. 1897-98. 1898-99. I 1899-1900. I 1900-1901. Bushels. 86,773,000 70,101,000 66,511,000 83.090,000 106. 886, 000 135,846,000 147,197,000 146,458,000 151,124,000 144,950,000 139,521,000 136.952,000 Bushels. 140.299.000 134, 525, 000 142,595.000 162.877,000 191,189,000 203.477,000 200,388,000 190,535,000 181,527,000 184.141,000 175.776,000 159,405,000 Bushels. 149.839,000 150,193,000 164,629,000 188,200,000 200.892.000 203.237,000 200,534.000 197.851,000 192,749,000 187,817,000 171,753,000 152.51S.000 Bushels. 135.092.000 132,379.000 141,071,000 159.465.000 169, 854, 000 202.108,000 200.990.000 202.278,000 191,877.000 179,789.000 155.480,000 131.255,000 Month. July August September October... November December. January. . February. March. . . . April May June 1902-3. Bushels. 103.671,000 93.944,000 102,364,000 133.370.000 163,491,000 179,483,000 174, 640. 000 168.170.000 163.658,000 149.748.000 127,088.000 112.963,000 1903-4. Bushels. 95, 820. 000 87.566.000 96.907,000 132. 972. 000 145.018,000 101.S91.000 107.712.000 159,464,000 152.035.000 147.859.000 145.840,000 133,190,000 1904-5. 1905-6. 1906-7. Bushels. IIS. 073. 000 103,740,000 115.183,000 144,400,000 170,240.000 186,891,000 178.710.000 171.124.000 165,370.000 155.744,000 141,734.000 123,770,000 Bushels. 114, 106, 113. 138. 157. 189, 192, 188, 193. 183. 159. 139, 302.000 838,000 511.000 759.000 735.000 323.000 690.000 030. 000 520.000 687.000 406,000 154.000 Bushels. 124,081,000 'i 41 ,"459 .'666 170.474,000 195.739,000 215.930,000 208,351,000 193.548.000 198, 020, 000 a From Broomhall's Corn Trade News. Visible supply of wheat in the United States and Canada, first of each month, for ten years. EAST OF ROCKY MOUNTAINS.* Month. July August . . . September October... November December. January. . February. March. . . . April May June 1897-9S. 1S9S-99. Bushels. 27,090,000 23,793,000 20.302,000 31.508.000 42.609,000 49. 859. 000 54,173,000 51,105,000 45,021.000 40.577,000 31.039.000 27.479,000 Bushels. 009,000 430,000 499.000 857.000 930,000 914,000 057,000 648.000 0S5.000 747.000 258.000 092,000 1899-1900. 1900-1901. 1901- Bushels. 46,544,000 49,155.000 48.087,000 60,040,000 77,195.000 84.687,000 89.252,000 87.473.000 83,935.000 77.113.000 70,764.000 57,617,000 Bushels. 59.063.000 60, 398. 000 69.003,000 76.071.000 82.238.000 89.591,000 88. 456, 090 80.324,000 79.300.000 73.879.000 60. 298. 000 47, 109, 000 Bushels. 37,819.000 40, 924, 000 42,242.000 53,790,000 64,616.000 85,631.000 94.900.000 88,800,000 82,790.000 73,576,000 54. 610, 000 37,676,000 1904-5. 1905-6. 1906-7. July August . . . September October.. . November December. January. . February. March April May June Bushels. 26,786.000 31,436.000 33,579,000 44,217,000 67,490.000 78. 352. 000 80,769,000 81,348,000 76,336,000 67.954.000 52, 585. 000 36, 040, 000 Bit 24, 21, 22. 33] 49. 59, shels. 142,000 480,000 824,000 043.000 269,000 050,000 961,000 818.000 459.000 639.000 307. 000 685,000 Bushels. 21,131,000 19,508,000 20,905.000 29. 230. 000 41,252,000 54.387,000 56. 892, 000 54. 597, 000 52,907.000 46, 865, 000 40.158.000 28,532,000 Bushels. 20. 476. 000 21.314.000 21,705.000 28,894,000 53,745.000 62, 402, 000 71.634.000 73,151,000 70, 530. 000 66, 599. 000 54, 856. 000 40.347.000 Bushels. 33.810.000 39.633.000 43.611.000 56. 907. (K)il 45. ii94. 000 51.862.000 56,137.000 54,344.000 51.338,000 49,813,000 52.482,000 a The figures for stocks east of the Rocky Mountains represent 62 principal points of accumulation, including Manitoba elevators and stocks afloat on lakes and canals, as reported by Bradstreet's. 554 YEABBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTUBE. 1risible supply of wheel in the United States and Canada, first of each month, for ten years — Continued. PACIFIC COAST. Month. 1897 1898-99. 1899-1900. 1900-1901. 1901-2. July Bushels. 1,112.000 , 2, 247. 000 4.051,000 6,251,000 7,391,000 1 6,944,000 6.661.000 5.318.000 4,424.000 3, 406. 000 8.051,000 _ 6,000 Bushels. 2,935,000 2,608,000 3, 065. COO 4,071,000 5,621,000 0.269,000 5,923,000 5, 030, 000 5, 104, 000 4,321,000 4.455,000 3.635,000 Bushels. 3,409,000 4,188,000 6, 282, 000 8, 858, 000 11.0S5.000 10,678,000 9, 022. 000 8,923,000 7,814.000 7,207,000 7,09 o. ! 1 Bushels. 5,903.000 5.770.000 7.1S3.000 10. 208, 000 9, 983, 000 10, 057. 000 8,686.000 8,717,000 6, 972. 000 6, 325, 000 5.0S4.000 4,672,000 Bushels. 3,228,000 3, 935. COO September 4.260,000 6,235.000 November December January February March April Mav June 7.262.000 7. 878. 000 7.186,000 6,521,000 5, .542. 000 5,428.000 3, 685. 000 3,139,000 Month. 1902-3. 1903-4 1904-5. 1905-6. 1906-7. July September October Bushels. 2.725.000 2. 345. 000 3.024.000 4, 737. OCO 4,719.000 5,361.000 4, 992. 000 4,373.000 3,435,000 3, M0, 000 3. 6S3, 000 2.546.000 Bushels. 1,775.000 1 . 400, 000 1.798,000 3, 227. 000 3. U7.000 3,591,000 3, 282. 000 2,689.000 2,930,000 2,472,000 2,078.000 2. 078. 000 Bush ft*. 1.668,000 1.351, OCO 1,582 4,106,000 3,874,000 8.733,000 3,458,000 3,051,000 1,673 2,486,000 1.860,000 1,461,000 Bushels. 839,000 581.000 1,130,000 3,156,000 4.486.000 5.^66,000 5.511.000 5, 295. 000 4 v 18,000 4.621.000 3. 017. OCO 3,349.000 Bushel*. 2,586,000 1,898.000 1, 943, 000 3.431.000 3,459.000 December January February March May 2,689.000 2.047,000 2,059.000 1.744,000 1,661, COO 1,731,000 Statement showing th amount of wheat in farmers' hands, the visible supply of the United s and Canada, and of tht world, on March 1. 1892-1907. Year. Stocks in Visible supply farmers' hands of the United Visible supply in United States and of the world! States. Can Bushels. 1892 171,070,881 1893 135 _ 1894 114. 059, 560 ] 895 71 1896 123, 045, 290 1897 88. 149, 072 1898 121 1899 198. 050. 4: 0 1900 ' 158, 745, 595 1901 128,098,074 1902 173, 702. 5S3 1903 164, 047. 100 1904 132, 60S, 382 I'd.-, 111. 054. 050 1906 158, 403, 478 1907 206. 64 1 . 70S Bushels. 68.007,000 110.693,000 105.863,000 110.546.000 98,834,000 63,521,000 49,445,000 .56. 189, 000 91,749.000 31 J 72. 000 88,332.000 79,771,000 58, 389, 000 54,580.000 75,42 .53,OS2.000 Bushels. 181,400,000 229.300,000 222. 400, 000 212,400,000 0191.900,00 155. .500, 000 140, 6C0. 000 151,100,000 LSI.- 500. 000 192. 700.000 191, 900. COO 163.700,000 1.v\ikj0,C00 165.400.000 193."- 19S, 020, COO STATISTICS OF WHEAT. 555 Condition oj the wheat crop of the United States, monthly, 1888-1907. Decem- ber of Winter wheat. Spring wheat. Year. When When April. May. June. inly. har- June. July. August. har- vested. vested. p. a. P. ct. P. ct. P. ct. P. ct. P. ct. P. ct. P. ct. P. ct. P. ct. 1888 95.9 82.0 73.1 73.3 75. 6 77.4 92.8 95. 9 87.3 77.2 1889 90.8 95.3 94.0 81.0 96.0 80.0 93.1 78. 1 92.0 7ti. 2 89.4 73.5 94.4 91.3 83.3 94.4 81.2 83.2 83.8 1890 79.8 1891 98.4 96.9 97.9 96.6 96. 2 96.7 92.6 94.1 95. 5 97. 2 1892 85.3 ■ 81.2 84.0 88.3 89.6 87.6 92.3 90.9 87.3 81.2 1893 87.4 : 77.4 75.3 75. 5 77.7 a 74.0 86.4 74.1 67.0 1894 91.5 ; 86.7 81.4 83.2 83.9 a 83. 7 88.0 68.4 67.1 1895 89.0 •81.4 82. 9 71.1 65.8 a ;:,. 4 97.8 1.12. 2 95.9 189G 81.4 77. 1 82. 7 77.9 75. 6 a 74. 6 99.9 93.3 78.9 1897 99.5 : 81.4 80.2 ; 78.5 81.2 a85.7 89.6 91.2 86.7 1898 86.7 77.9 86.5 ; 76.2 ! 90.8 67. 3 85.7 65.6 a 86. 7 a 70. 9 100.9 91.4 95.0 91.7 96.5 83.6 1S99 92. 0 1900 97.1 1 82.1 88.9 i 82. 7 80.8 a 09. 6 87.3 55. 2 56.4 1901 97.1 91.7 94.1 87.8 88.3 a82.8 92.0 95. o 80.3 1902 8G. 7 78.7 76. 4 76.1 77.0 a 80.0 95.4 92. 4 89.7 1903 99. 7 97.3 92.6 82.2 78.8 a74.7 95. 9 82.5 77.1 1904 86.6 76. 5 76. 5 ' 77.7 78.7 93.4 93.7 87.5 66.2 1903 82.9 91.6 92. 5 85. 5 82.7 93.7 91.0 89.2 87.3 1906 94.1 89.1 90.9 82. 7 85.6 93.4 91.4 86.9 83.4 1907. 94. 1 89.9 82.9 . o Includes both winter and spring. Acreage, production , valw . juice*, am! , tpoi is of icheat 'n the United States, 1S6C-1906. Aver- age Chicago cash price per bushel. Domestic Aver- exports, in- Year. Acreage. age yield per Production. price per Farm value, Dec. 1. December. May of following cluding flour, fiscal year be- acre. el, Dec. 1. ginning Low. High. Low. High. July 1. Acres. Bush. Bushels. Cents. Dollars. Cts. Cts. a?. Cts. Bushels. 1866 15, 424, 496 9.9 151,999,906 152. 7 232,109,630 129 145 185 211 12, 646, 941 1867 18,321,561 11.6 212,441,400 145.2 308,387,146 126 140 134 101 25.2S4.S03 1868 18, 460. 132 12.1 224, 036, 600 108.5 243, 032. 746 80 88 87 96 29,717,201 1869 19,181.004 13.6 260.146,900 i u. .) 199.024.9iin 63 76 79 92 53,900,780 1870 18,992,591 12.4 235, 884. 700 94.4 222,766,969 91 98 113 120 52, 580, 111 1871 19,943,893 11.6 230, 722. 400 114.5 264,075,851 107 111 120 143 38,995,755 1872 20, 858, 359 11.9 249.997,100 111.4 278.522.068 97 108 112 122 52,014.715 1873 22,171,676 12.7 281,254,700 106. 9 300,669,528 96 ion 105 114 91,510.398 1874 24,967,027 12.3 308, 102. 700 86.3 265.881.167 78 83 78 94 72,912.817 1875 26,381,512 11.1 292, 136, 000 89.5 261,396,926 82 91 89 100 74,750,682 1876 27,627,021 10.5 289,356,500 96.3 27s.:l;i7.23S 104 117 130 172 57, 043, 936 1877 26, 277, 546 13.9 364, l'J4.14ii 105. 7 385,089.444 103 108 98 113 92,071,726 1878 32, 108, 560 13.1 420. 122, 400 77.11 325,814.119 81 84 91 102 150, 502, 506 1879 32,545,950 13.8 448,750.630 110.8 497,030.142 12'7 133^ 112.'. 119 180, 304, 180 1880 37,986,717 13.1 49S, 549. 868 95.1 474.201,850 931 109} 101 112? 180,321,514 1881 37,709,020 10.2 383, 280, 090 119.2 456, 880, 427 1241 129 123 140 121,892,389 1882 37,067,194 13. 6 504, 185, 470 88.4 445, 602, 125 9i; 94} 108 113? 147,811.316 1883 36, 455.593 11. 6 421,086.160 91.1 383,649.272 94? 99> 85 94} 111,534,1S2 1884 39, 475, 885 13.0 512,765,000 64.5 330, 862, 260 69J 76* 853 90} 132, 570. 366 1883 34, 189, 246 10.4 357,112,000 77. 1 275, 320, 390 82? 89 72* 79 94,565,793 1886 36, 806. 184 12.4 457,218,000 68.7 314,22(1,020 75* 79J 80} 88} 153, 804, 969 1887 37,641,783 12.1 456, 329, 000 68.1 310,612,960 75* 79| 811 891 119, 625. 344 1888 37, 336, 138 11. 1 415.868.000 92.6 385,24S,030 90* 105* "i 95* 88,600,742 1889 38,123,859 12. 9 490,560,000 69.8 342.491,707 76| 8O.1 89} 100 109, 430. 467 1890 36,087,154 11.1 399,262,000 83.8 334. 773. 678 m 923 98? 108 106,181,316 1891 39,916,897 15.3 611,780.000 83.9 513,472,711 89jf 931 80 85} 225,665,812 1892 38, 554, 430 13.4 515,949,000 62.4 322,111,881 l.'.l'. 73 08} 76} 191,912,635 1893 34, 629, 418 11.4 396,131,725 53.8 213,171,381 591 64£ 52* 60| 164, 283, 129 1894 34,882,436 13.2 460,267,416 49.1 225,902.025 •52} 63| 60} 851 144,812,718 1895 34,047.332 13.7 467,102.947 50.9 237.938,998 53^ 64} 57* 67? 120.443,968 1896 34,618,646 12.4 427,684,346 72. il 310. 602, 539 74J 93| 0SJ 971 145,124.972 1897 39,465,066 13.4 530, 149, 168 80.8 428,547,121 92 109 117 185 217,306.005 1898 44.055,278 15. 3 675,148,705 5S. 2 392, 770, 320 62J 70 681 79£ 222, 61S, 420 1899 44,592,516 12. 3 547, 303, 846 58.4 319,545,259 04 69| 63? 67i 186.096,762 1900 42, 495, 385 12.3 522, 229. 505 61.9 323,515,177 69J 74? 70 75J 215.990,073 1901 49,895,514 15.0 748,460,218 62.4 467, 350, 156 73 79i 72? 76} 234.772.516 1902 46,202.424 14.5 670,063,008 63.0 422,224,117 VIS 771 74} 80? 202.905,598 1903 49, 464, 967 12.9 637,821,835 69.5 443,024,826 77} 87 873 101J 120.727,013 1904 44,074,875 12.5 552,399,517 92.4 510, 489, 874 115 122 89£ 113} 44,112,910 1905 47,854.079 14.5 692, 979, 489 74.8 518, 372, 727 82£ 90 801 87} 97,609,007 1906 47,305,829 15.5 735, 260, 970 66.7 490, 332, 760 q 75 556 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Acreage, production, value, and distribution of wheat in the United States in 1906, by States. State or Territory. Maine Vermont New York • New Jersey Pennsylvania Delaware Maryland Virginia West Virginia North Carolina , South Carolina Georgia Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri North Dakota South Dakota Nebraska Kansas Kentucky Tennessee Alabama Mississippi Texas Indian Territory Oklahoma Arkansas Montana Wyoming Colorado New Mexico Arizona Utah Nevada Idaho Washington Oregon California United States . Crop of 1900. Acreage. A cres. 8,038 1,388 467,509 111,093 1,642,553 121,745 806,401 744, 546 384,241 582,091 318,281 316, 107 2,117,750 2, 322, 750 1,976,200 1,041,600 288.040 5,119,412 585, 660 2,144,250 5, 992, 000 3,131,000 2, 376, 560 5,422,508 818, 624 871,418 98, 639 1,761 1,228,364 240, 849 1,333,133 177,338 137, 389 30,352 254,355 44,826 15,542 178,417 27,604 336, 736 1,204,201 712,411 1,572,144 47,305,S29 Production. Bushels 199, 342 30 9,350 2,033 29, 073 1,947 12, 902 9,306 4,879 5,297 2,960 3,161 43, 202 48, 080 38, 535 13, 644 4,690 55, 801 9,212 31,734 77, 896 41,955 52, 288 81,830 11,542 10, 892 1,085 17 14,126 2,890 18, 663 1,915 3,297 871 8,266 1,120 391 4,888 869 8,231 25,075 14,215 26, 883 735, 260, 970 Dollars. 201,335 26, 619 7,667,148 1,626,402 22,095,623 1,383,023 9,160,715 7, 538, 528 3,952,687 4,926,236 3, 256, 045 3,224,291 30,673,491 33, 656, 648 26,589,771 9,824,371 3, 377, 387 36,271,034 5, 895, 820 21,262,383 49,074,480 25, 592, 794 29, 804, 554 47,461,754 8,426,097 8, 496, 326 1,019,927 15,321 10,877,163 1,791,917 10, 265, 124 1,436,438 2,110,295 635, 904 5,373,250 930, 140 403, 408 3, 177, 607 739,097 4,938,979 15, 546, 660 9,443,222 20,162,746 490,332,760 Stock in farmers' hands March 1, 1907. Shipped out of county where grown. Bushels. 69, 770 9,595 3, 646, 570 609,901 11,629,275 681,772 3, 483, 652 2,978,184 1,610,354 1,748,019 651,209 727,046 15,120,735 12,501,040 9,633,975 3, 820, 589 1,735,602 16,740,477 3, 132, 154 7,299,027 24,926,720 12,167,066 16,732,381 21,275,959 2, 308, 520 3,049,963 217,006 0 1,836,404 462,430 4, 665, 966 497,965 1,220,014 348, 441 2,479,961 280, 162 86, 165 1,955,450 260,858 2,634,122 4,262,794 2, 843, 119 4,301,386 206,641,798 Per cent. 35 31 39 30 40 35 27 32 33 33 22 23 35 26 25 28 37 30 34 23 32 29 32 26 20 28 20 0 13 16 25 26 37 40 30 25 22 40 30 32 17 20 16 28.1 Bushels. 0 0 2.898,556 406,600 7,268,297 1,051,877 7,870,474 2, 512, 843 683, 181 370, 792 59,201 94, 832 22,465,092 25,002,081 19,267,950 4,775,736 422, 173 39,619,130 2,303,054 15, 550, 101 66,211,600 32.725,212 35,556,311 63,009,570 3,347,353 3,049.963 10,850 0 3,672,808 1,410,192 12, 318, 149 114,915 857,307 43, 555 4, 133, 269 44, 826 15,666 1,564,360 34,781 4,609,713 19,558,701 7,818,578 14,517,177 427,252,826 Acreage, production, and farm value on December 1 of winter and spring ivhcat in the United States in 1906. Winter wheat. Spring wheat. State or Terri- tory. Acreage. 2 a . •r* c o o < PI Average farm price, Dec. 1. Farm value, Dec. 1. Acreage. 2 "» . a u be a < Produc- tion. Mi 2 °> Fa rm value, Dec. 1. Acres. Bu. Bushels. Cts. Dollars. Acres. 8,038 1,388 Bu. 24.8 22.3 Busheh. 199, 342 30, 952 Cts. 101 Dollars. •>m -«5 86 26, 619 New York 467, 509 111,093 1,642,553 121,745 806,401 744, 546 384, 241 582,091 318,284 316, 107 2, 117, 750 20.0 18.3 17.7 16.0 9, 350, 180! 82 2,033,002; 80 29,073,188 76 1.947.920 71 7,667,148 1,626,402 22,095,623 1,383,023 9, 160, 715 7,538,528 3,952,687 4,926,236 3,256,045 3, 224, 291 30, 673, 491 New Jersey Pennsylvania Maryland 16.0 12. 902.4161 71 Virginia 12.5 12.7 9.1 9.3 9,306,825 81 4, 879, 861 ! 81 5,297,028! 93 2.960.041 110 West Virginia i North Carolina . . . South Carolina . . . Georgia 10.0 3,161,070 102 20.4 43,202,100 71 .. Ohio STATISTICS OF WHEAT. 557 Acreage, production, and farm value on December 1 of winter and spring wheat in the United States in 1906 — Continued. State or Terri- tory. Winter wheat. Spring wheat. Acreage. ti ■ Indiana Illinois Michigan Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri North Dakota. South Dakota. Nebraska Kansas Kentucky Tennessee Alabama Mississippi. Produc- tion. Acres. Bu. Bushels. 'Cts 2,322,750 20.7 48,080,925 1,976,200! 19.5 38,535,900 1,041,600! 13.1 13,644,960 62,440, 18.4 1,148,896 65,660j 22.3; 1,464,218 2,144,2501 14.8 31,734,900 2,041,560 23.2 47,364,192 5,131,800 15.3. 78,516,540 818,624! 14.! n,. 342, 598 871,418' 12.5 10,892,725 98,639 ll.O! 1,085,029 1,761 10.0 17,610 Texas..." 1,228,364 11.5 14,126,186 Indian Territory . 240,84912.0 2,890,188 Oklahoma 1,333,133 14.0 18,663,862 Arkansas 177,338 10. S 1,915,250 Montana Wyoming ' Colorado New Mexico Arizona Utah Farm value. Dec. 1. Acreage. Dollars. Acres. Bu. 33,656,648 26,589,771 9,824,371 827, 205 937, 100 1 21,262,383' 225,600 15.7 5,119,412 10.9 520,000 14.9 Produc- tion. \> si Farm value, Dec. 1. Bushels. \Cts. Dollars. 3,541,920: 72 2,550,182 55,801,591 65 36,271,034 7,74S,OO0 64 4,958,720 57 26,997,589 58j 45,539,593 731 8,426,097 8, 4%, 326 1,019,927 15,321 10,877,163 1,791,917 10,265,124 1,436,438 5,992,000 13.0 77,896,000 3,131,000 13.4 41,955,400 335,000 14.7 4,924,500 290,708, 11.4; 3,314,071 63 49,074,480 61 25,592,794 57 2,806,965 58 1,922,161 Nevada Idaho Washington. .. Oregon ' 364,251 22.3 California ' 1,572,144 17.1 167,545 327,315 25.4 24.1 4,255,643 7,888,292 8,122,797 26,883,662 United States. 29, 599, 961 ; 16. 7 492,888,004 2,553,386 4,890,741 5,361,046 20,162,746 68. 3 336, 435, 081 17, 705, 868 137, 3S9 24.0 30,352 28.7 254, 355 44,826 15,542 178,417 27,604 169, 191 S7li,S8H 348, 160 32. 5 25.0 25.2 27.4 31.5 23.5 19.6 17.5 297,336 871,102 266,538 120, 650 391,658 888, 626 869, 526| 975,988 186,966 092, 800 242, 372, 966 63. 5 153, 897, 679 2,110,295 635,904 5, 373, 250 930, 140 403,408 3,177,607 739, 097 2, 385, 593 10,655,919 4,082,176 Average yield of wheat in certain countries, in bushels per acre, 1896-1905. Year. United States. Russia. Ger- many. Austria. Hungary. France. United King- dom. 1S96 .• 12.4 13.4 15.3 12.3 12.3 15.0 14.5 12.9 12.5 14.5 9.0 7.3 9.8 9.1 8.1 7.9 11.1 10.6 11.5 10.2 (6) 26.4 25.3 27.2 28.4 27.9 23.5 30.3 29.3 29.4 28.6 (b) 15.9 13.2 18.0 18.9 15.5 16.7 19.0 17.7 19.5 19.6 (b) 19.4 11.7 17.1 17.8 16.9 15.1 20.7 19.0 16.3 18.4 («) 20.0 15.1 21.1 21.2 19.2 18.5 20.2 22.8 19.3 20.8 34.7 1897 30.0 1898 35.8 1899 33.8 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 29.5 31.9 33.9 31.1 27.8 33.9 13. 5 9. 5 27.6 17.4 17.2 19. 8 32- 2 a Winchester bushels. b Bushels of 60 pounds. 558 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Average yitbt per aire of wheat in the United State?. . by States. State or Territory- 1399. 1900. 1901. 1E02. 1903. 1904. . 1905. 1506. Maine New Hampshire. Vermont Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania Delaware Maryland Virginia West Virginia North Carolina . . . South Carolina . . . Georgia Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa iri North Dakota South Dakota Nebraska Kansas Kentucky Tennessee Alabama Mississippi Texas d Territory. Oklahoma Arkansas Montana Wyoming Colorado New Mexico Arizona Utah Nevada Idaho Washington Oregon California Bush. 16. 5 10.0 17.0 20.0 21.4 • I 19.7 21.5 la 2 12.0 13.4 8.0 B.7 I 16.9 13.0 7.9 15.6 12.5 13.0 13.0 9.0 10.3 • 14.5 15. 5 13. G 11.2 10.0 10.0 19.0 10.5 32.5 25.0 24.0 24.0 13.0 21.0 24.3 22.0 23.5 17.0 10.0 Bush. 19.5 19.0 22.5 20.0 21.2 17.4 17.5 13.3 15.3 14.1 13.8 - 10.6 10.0 1 6. 9 15.6 11.0 - 18. « 15. 3 14.4 12.4 16.4 14.2 15.4 13.2 12. 0 13.9 Bush. 22. 5 17. 2 22.0 IS. 3 18.5 14.5 - ■ 14.1 8.4 9.3 6.5 6.8 14.2 9. > 10.0 3.4 15. 5 13.4 13.0 9.9 - ■ 10.7 10.3 9.3 9.1 B.7 " 1L1 Bush. 19.5 16.3 23.5 2L8 17.7 19.1 13.5 20.3 19.5 11.9 9.8 9.6 9.0 9.1 6.0 5.3 13.0 " 15. 5 10.5 12.5 4.9 6.9 12.0 17.7 13.0 9.9 9.5 9.G IS. 4 Bush. 23. 9 Bum. Bush. 23. 3 23. 0 ■ ■ 2a 9 25.1 14.9 11.0 29.5 _ : i 23.8 31.7 2S.0 29.0 31.0 24. 2 20.5 9.1 13.3 8.6 25.7 If • 23.7 ■ 15.3 mi 13.0 24.2 22.7 19.2 14.1 19.0 10.1 2 17. G __ 21.0 14.6 2a 9 24.5 _ ■ 23.5 13.8 10.3 13.1 16.8 17.1 ; 17.2 10.9 10.9 8.7 8.8 ■ . 15.3 i ■ 17.6 11.1 12. 9 13.1 17.1 13. 5 12.1 10.8 8.8 8.9 16.4 8.8 2a s 24.5 24.1 21.5 21.8 20.5 25.1 21 2 I - 21.1 13.0 . 16.8 16. 0 15.8 16.5 14.7 5.7 5.3 5.6 6.0 17.1 1^0 17.9 18.1 13.9 12.7 19. 9 15.9 12.2 20.9 ia4 as ■ . 6.0 8.0 I 9.0 12.3 11.1 9.1 2:15 13.0 17.1 lv7 21.2 27. 1 22.1 22. 2 io!o ltt9 J ■ 14.0 15.6 10.2 12.5 ■ " 10.2 5.1 - 13.7 iao ■ - 15.5 13.1 12.4 ■ 1 12.7 I 15.7 14.1 N4 7.1 9.1 &0 13.4 12.0 14.9 7.0 _■ _ 20.9 In 4 25.3 22.'. 27 21.1 20.3 11.2 11.3 13.3 14.1 14.9 13.4 10.2 10.1 8.6 8.1 11.5 - 15.5 12.8 11.6 17.7 - 13.6 12.4 11.4 11.5 10.3 8.8 10.7 14.1 11.7 10.1 23.9 22.1 22.8 12 ■ 25. 5 . I 22.9 Iao 10.8 Bu->h. 24 - 22.3 21.0 16.4 17.1 13.3 16.3 11.4 12.3 I 17.1 13.3 16.0 ■ ! 13.3 14.2 12.4 14.0 13.7 13.9 11.3 7.2 9.6 10.8 S.9 iao a2 7.9 23.8 25.4 25.0 24 A 2 27.0 23.2 24 ia6 9.3 General average 13. 4 > 15. 3 12. 3 12. 3 15. 0 12.9 12.5 14.5 20.0 - 17 : 16. 0 16.0 12.5 12.7 ai 9.3 10.0 - - 20.7 13.1 10.9 15.7 14.8 13.0 13.4 22.0 15.1 14.1 12.5 11.0 iao 1L5 12.0 14.0 10.8 24.0 32.5 25.0 ZS . 23 4 31.5 24.4 20.8 20.0 17.1 15.5 Averane value per acre of wheat in tl v I upon farm value December 1, 1897-1906, by States. State or Territorv. 1897. 1398. 1599. 1900. -1901. 1904. 1905. 1906. Maine $17. New Hampshire 17. Vermont 17. Connecticut 20. New York 19. New Jersey 17. Pennsylvania 17. re 20. Maryland 1". Virginia 11. West Virginia 11. North Carolina 7. South Carolina 10. Georgia 9. Ohio 14. Indiana 11. Illinois 7. Michigan 13. -in 10. Minnesota 10. Iowa 9. Missouri 7. North Dakota 7. South Dakota 5.i Nebraska 10. ( 4. $20.47 $17. 55 ■«23. 13 r24.99 S24.23 - tests rJI 17 48 20.25 16. 34 18.70 15.00 H i 1 20.49 19. 35 -■ . m 17. ei) 15.26 - ■ 17.05 ■■ i 13.27 14.42 12.32 16.40 m 12.70 10.88 14.13 12.10 12.16 11.43 14. »3 14. 43 14.64 S3 - J 12.31 11.53 12.32 15.23 13.45 21 9.13 14.21 13.13 12. 33 " 11.32 11.38 W 10.71 9.59 12.21 10.58 •- 14.20 13.37 11.36 "4 9.31 5.30 - 57 7.96 4.50 7.31 11.12 10.03 10. 12 99 9.80 6.60 i .rto - " 6.31 ■ 1 11.01 10.95 10.29 52 " ■ 5.49 1 37 7.13 4.88 10.23 6.83 3.48 27 9.96 9.09 8.62 5.71 6.56 10. 21 n 10.23 •■> ■ 6.66 • ■ 5.88 5.95 11.09 7.38 10.20 93 11. 15 9.09 - 12.14 10.96 12. 65 14.02 ■ 9.83 27 3.71 11.06 10.88 1 • n 15.01 14.49 6.30 • . 12.14 10. 56 6.30 13.94 12.96 13.31 j - 7.88 12.21 11.94 10.58 14.61 9.43 - . - - 9.92 10.48 11.61 11.22 15. 13 11.73 01 ■ : 7.37 _ 7.74 9.04 11.14 7.08 8.68 7.15 9.20 9.75 6.96 7.69 10.48 10.08 10.07 65 ' '• a 14 1 •■ 10.97 11.54 11.23 9. 30 9.92 . 7.34 - - -• 7.07 9.22 8.00 9.56 9.66 8.19 "_• 6.20 ■ ■ 4.00 6.84 6.95 8.56 1 '■ ■ ■ 1 OO 7.71 5.05 6.36 9.23 10.23 • 17 11. S3 12. -: 12.54 STATISTICS OF "WHEAT. 559 Average value per acre of v heat in (he United States, based upon farm value December 1, 1897-1906, by Staffs— Continued. State or Territory. 1897. 1898 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. Kansas $11. 47 Kent ucky I 12. 10 Tennessee 10. 04 Alabama 10. 10 Mississippi 9. 90 Texas 14.06 Indian Territory Oklahoma 14. 44 Arkansas 8.82 Montana 22. 10 Wyoming 17. .50 Colorado 16.80 New Mexico 18.00 Arizona 13. 32 Utah 14.28 Nevada 21.87 Idaho 15.40 Wa shington 15. 98 Oregon 12. 24 California 8. 30 S7.10 9.53 8. 84 10.80 11.54 10.00 7.75 6.38 17.11 16.35 14.73 14. 76 15. 12 27.55 15. SI 13.07 12.71 6.55 $5.10 6.01 6. 79 6. 76 6.01 i 7.55 $9.73 8.97 7.82 8.45 8.06 11.78 7.05 5.50 15.68 12.(» 13.51 8.42 9.79 I 10.97 i 13.68 12. 10 11.58 10. 18 8.74 I 10.07 6. 57 16.23 13.38 13.33 14.28 11.53 11.49 17.15 9.57 11.99 7.59 5.97 S10.92 8.71 7.99 [ 7.66 7.57 i 6.94 8.42 10.33 17.70 16.91 10. 15 15.48 I 18.53 14. 36 22. 09 12.93 13. 07 11.37 7.80 S5. 73 6.88 5. 47 5.5S 6.80 0. 03 7.50 0.44 0. 10 16. 12 19.04 13. .50 14.71 19. 04 10.11 25.56 15.44 14.44 13.37 58.33 6.80 5.96 8.65 7.44 10.45 8.28 9.39 5.40 18.61 1.5. 47 17.56 13.80 23.53 18.08 27.32 1.5. Ni 14.04 13. 9S 9.74 411.06 12. 43 12.77 11.85 8. 89 11.77 13.82 j 10.88 | 10.20 21.2s 1 19.89 22. 7.5 13. 57 28 K 22. 88 24. 10 IS. 34 17.77 1.5.37 < 9.50 9.83 6.55 9.70 10.26 7. s3 7.70 5.66 7.11 10. 90 18.29 17.50 19.98 20. 21 17.69 20.79 18.49 16. 13 7.03 $8.75 10.29 9.75 10.34 S.70 8.85 7.44 7.70 S. 10 1.5.30 20.95 21.13 20.7.5 17.81 2... 77 14.00 12.91 13.20 12. 82 General average 10. S6 8. 92 7.61 9.37 9.14 8.66 11.5s 10. S3 10.37 Averegi farm price of wheat per bushel in the United States, December 1. 1897-1906, by States. State or Territory. Maine I New Hampshire 1. 10 Vermont 1. 04 Connecticut 1. 00 Now York .90 New Jersey 93 Pennsylvania 91 Delaware 94 Maryland 93 Virginia 92 West Virginia 89 North Carolina 94 South Carolina 1. 18 03 Georgia Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri North Dakota... South Dakota... Nebraska Kansas Kentucky Tennessee Alabama Mississippi Texas Indian Territory Oklahoma Arkansas Montana Wyoming Colorado New Mexico Arizona Utah Nevada Idaho Washington Oregon." California Is-v S0.S9 .92 .90 .88 .72 .73 .68 .69 .70 .66 .71 .78 .94 .98 .66 .03 .60 .64 .59 .54 . .52 .59 .51 .50 .47 .50 .62 .67 .90 .83 .68 General average 1899. 1900. SO. 91 .95 .95 so.eo .92 .78 .82 .77 74 .72 .70 .71 .72 .77 .82 1.01 .95 .71 .70 .i.4 .69 .04 .03 .59 .63 ..58 .58 .53 .69 .79 .89 .84 .64 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. SO. 97 SO. 92 " "i."6y . 94 .72 .71 .71 .73 .77 SI. 04 l.'lo" .7v) .70 .73 .7.5 .72 .79 .82 .92 1.02 .98 .71 .68 .59 .69 .64 .61 . 55 .58 58 .57 .49 . 55 .74 .70 .93 .85 .77 .01 .58 .07 .02 .si . ,5 .86 1. 05 .70 .98 .70 . 05 .81 .82 .79 .78 .79 .84 .85 .97 1.01 .96 .80 .78 .75 .77 .72 .69 .'•2 .71 .63 .1.2 .54 .59 .81 .84 .95 .93 .584 .619 i .624 I .630 j .695 1.09 1.10 l.OS 1.08 1.06 1.09 1.09 1.19 1.26 1.26 1.10 1.00 1.01 1.08 .98 .87 .90 .96 .81 .79 .87 .86 1.09 1.11 1.15 1.01 1.10 .98 .93 1.01 .89 .90 .91 1.06 1.13 .86 .92 .80 . 80 .81 SI. 00 SI. 01 1.02 1.11 1.07 .82 .82 .81 .79 .70 .71 .71 .79 .69 .07 .71 .87 .91 1.01 .95 .90 .71 .72 .70 .90 1.17 .67 .77 .66 .68 .82 1906. .82 .80 .70 .71 .71 .81 .81 .93 1.10 1.02 .71 .70 .69 .72 .72 .65 .04 .07 .63 .01 .57 .58 .73 .78 .94 .s7 .77 .62 .55 .75 .04 .73 . 65 .83 1.03 .85 .60 . 62 .66 .75 .667 560 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Wholesale prices of wheat per bushel in leading cities of the, United States, 1901-1906. Date. ]901. January February March April May June July August September October November. .. . December 1902. January February March April May June July August September October November December 1903. January February March April May June July August September October November December 1904. January February March April May June July August September October November.. . . December 1905. January February March April May June July August September. . . October November. .. December . . . New York. No. 2, red winter. Low.llligh. .79J.S0.83J .s.v; .851 .82 .82 . 88 i .87-; .70: .71; .731 .73? .76 • 76| .78-1 ■MS .78* .79" .81J .85 .80] .833 .si,' .821 .833 .S9J .92*. .94 1.01 1.04 1.06 1.04 1.00 1.00 1.08 1.13} 1.17} 1.16 1.18 1.20} 1.1U .91'. -Qi i 1.03| .90 • 842 .858 .88' .90 .923 .Nl> .82 J .841 .84| . 85 1 .793 .80* .77| • sol .83* . 89j .84 • 83J .8(1', .89" .87 ■ 89| .89[ .89*. .9ir .92 .99 Baltimore. Chicago. Southern, No. 1, north- No. 2, red. ern spring. Low. High SO. 73,' .76 .77; .7(1'. ■ 78 J .72 .693 .72 .78'. .70T .74J .78*. . s 1 3 .80 .76 .75 .81 .76 .703 .66} .68 .69 .71} .71} .77| .78} .79 .78} .76J .79 .78} .80* . 82| .85" 1.01 1.15 1.11 1.101 1.20 1.15} 1.16 1 . 203 1.25} 1.26} 1.253 1.24} 1.253 1.25* 1.212 1.15 1.11} 1.14} 1.09} .9lj .'112 .99 .98} 1.01 .94 .99 .98*. . 99 ' .82 .82 .88? 1.03} 1.13 1.08} 1.083 1.01 1.01', .98 .83 .83} .73 .75 .76 . 753 . 7(1' .76" .78 .85| .85 . 85 '. .87* .83 .813 .74} .723 .75* .77* .77" .83 .81 .81 .83 . 82 '. .82 .81 .83 .83) .86 .87 . 88 .94 1.12 1.05} 1.05 1.08 1.03} .89 1.09} 1.14 1.18 1.15} 1.15 1.19* 1.17 1.141 1.09* 1.071 1.031 .92 .84 .84} .861 .85} .87 Low. High, .71810.761 .743 .74 • 721 .693 .70 .72| .71} .71{ .6S} .70 .67* .691 .711 .81} .86 .88} .851 .873 .92 .94* 1.02 1.16 1.1.5 1.15 1.15 1.18 1.15 1.12 .88. .S9J 1.07^ 1.12 1.03 .88 .86 .85 .82* .76} .741 . 751 .77} .713 .77 .il .711 .733 . 79* . 80* .761 .76 .763 .76} .753 .79 .76 .95 . 751 .771 .77| .84 .90} .93 ,88 .86} .87 .93 1.10 .98| .96" 1.011 1.00 1 06 1.20 1.22 1.22 1.20 1.22 1.21 1.24 1.183 1.18 1.13 1.20 1.20 1.15 .95 .92} .92 .90 Detroit. No. 2, red. St. Louis. Minneap- olis. Low. High $0. 78 . 78* . 78.7 .74" .741 .c.7:; .661 .68} .70* .70 .73 .79 .86 .84} .77} .77* .80" .79 .72 .68* .703 .72 75} .771 .773 .79 .74} .75} .76 .773 .76* .78* .79 .823 .84 .89 .92 .94} .97; .98 1.021 1.01 .97 .98 1.111 1.16 1.16 1 . 15 1.19 1.17* 1.07* .96 .97 1 . 00 .8(1 .81 .82 .80 .87J .86 SO. 82} .80} .80 .78 .77} .77} .71 .7(1', .73} .71" .79} .'JO1 .93* .S7} .853 .87} .88 .81* .82 .73 .74 .763 .80: .83 . S3' .81 .79 .773 . 79* .82 .80 .84 .84 .87} .9(1 .'.'1 .95 1.12 1. 01', 1.0J 1.12* 1.13 1.07 1.16 1.23 1.21 1.22 1.20 1.23 1.24 1.21 1.07} 1.08 1.09 1.05 .84 .853 .90} .90} No. 2, red winter. No. 1, north- ern. Low. High, .72 $0.77 .73} .753 .74 .71 .73'. .633 .61} .661 ■ 70J .70* .72J .81 .86* .83} .761 .77} .76* .76" . 65* .63" .66 .673 .69 .69 .73} .73* .70" .691 .72 .76 .77} .791 .84 .85 . 85* .90" .89* .94" .98 .97 .98 1.00 .91 .91 1.08} 1.13} 1.12* 1.13 1.14 1.16} 1.111 .98 .95 .92 .83* .82} .82 .88 .89 .923 .753 .76} .76 .7.5} . 703 .73" .72* .73} .80 .88} .92* .89* .863 .83} .84} .80 .78 .68} . 68* .72 .71 .74} «0.73 .73 .73 .70} • 701 .621 .60} .(1(1 .661 .do .68} .713 .732 .72} .70* .702 .74 • 73J .762 .74} .66* .68' .1X1 .76} .77* .75} .731 .76} .83} .82 .85 .90* .94 .97 1.12 1.08. 1.08 1.10 1.103 1.12 1.14} 1.21 1.21 1.18 1. 18* 1.20 1.19* 1.17 1.12 1.13* 1.06 .9.5* .88 .90 .95 .95 1.01 Low. High San Fran- cisco. No. 1, Cali- fornia (per cwt.). Low. High $0.77} .712 .742 .74} .74} .743 .693 .71* .69J ■68J .7l| .77 .79* • 75j • 75J .772 .78 .77 .80 .79: •71} .731 .74* .74| • 73J .75| .74| .741 .76 .79} .83} .832 .82 .78} .772 . 80* .843 .90 .94* .90| .93} .93* .942 1.03* 1.12 1.112 1.062 1.061 1.08* 1.073 1.05 .912 .952 1.04 1.01} .83* .75} • 782 .79 .773 .78 .77- .77; • 80J • 88J .89} 1.00 .913 .86 .82J • 83J $0,971 .95 .95 1.00 .97* .96} .95 .97} .96} . 95 .982 1.01} 1.05 1.07* 1.10" 1.10 1.11} 1.11} 1.133 1.12} 1.12* 1.181 1.32} 1.371 1.30} 1.433 1.35 1.35 1 . 32* 1.32* 1.32* 1.45 1.37* 1.30} 1.38? 1.333 $1.01} .98J 1.02} 1.05 1.01} 1.00 1.00 .98| .97} . 98J 1.01J 1.06} .91.1 1.05 1.01* .983 .982 .97} 1.02 1.242 1.24* 1.22" 1.192 1.14} 1.13* 1.123 1.111 1.08| 1.24 1.09', 1.091 1.11 .80 •871 .84* .81" 1.35 1.35 1.36} 1.27* 1.26J 1.233 1.233 1.37 1.40 1 45 1.45 1.45 1.45 1.50 1.50 1.45 1.45 1.50 1.50 1.45 1.40 1.40 1.40 1.35 STATISTICS OF OATS. 561 Wholesale prices of wheat per -bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1901-1906- Continued. New York. Baltimore. Chicago. Detroit. St. Louis. Minneap- olis. San Fran- cisco. Date. No. 2, red winter. Southern, No. 2, red. No.l, north-' N j em spring. | No. 2, red winter. No.l, north- ern. No. 1, Cali- fornia (per cwt.). Low. High. Low. High. Low. High.1 Low. High. Low. High. Low. High. Low. High. 1906. January .89* ,90| .85 .88J .93 • 91| .81 .77J .77 .97 .96J .891 .92) .95 .97 • 92| .814 .81" .84 .84*. .81 .83 .86? .871 .75? .71 .68 .74 .73*. .73f .86? .86? .84? .88? .89-3 .91 .81? .75 •74J ■ 75| .75*. .75 .81J .79} .74.1 .77" .801 .81? .75? .735 .77 a. 71 o.71| a. 721 .85} -85 .83Ji .84 .79*1 .81 .83*1 .85* .87}! .89} . 85f . 86 .84 ■ .74? .88 .86*. .86 .89 .93* .89" .85* .92*. .88 .89 .90 .88 .80 ■ 71" .68J .69 .74 .74 .74 .96 .94 .98 .98* .82 .72j .75* .77} .76} .76} February March April May July .77| .721 -75 .79 .72 ; .75} 0.735 -74f .78} a. 74} .77*1 784. a. 75 ! .76| .781 September October ./8* .83| .SOJI .84 J .801 .83 November December . o No. 2. red. OATS. Oat crop of countries named, 1902-1906. [Substantially the crop of the world.] Country. 1903. 1905. NORTH AMERICA. Jj$ lishfls United States 9X7. 843. 000 Canada: New Brunswick. Ontario Manitoba Saskatchewan. . Alberta Other Bushels. 784.094.000 Bushels. 894, 590, 000 Bushels. 953,210,000 5,481,000 109,780.000 35, 565. 000 7,196.000 3.S96.000 43.000.000 5,974,000 113,337,000 34,077,000 9.453.000 5.351.000 43.000.000 Total Canada 204, 924, 000 I . Mexico Total North America 1, 192. 7S0, 000 211,192,000 EUROPE. Austria -Hungary: Austria Hungary proper Croatia-Slavonia Bosnia-Herzegovina Total Austria -Hungary. . Belgium Bulgaria Denmark Finland France Germany Italy Netherlands Norway Rouma'nia Russia: Russia proper Poland Northern Caucn sia Total Russia (European) . 13,000 995,299.000 125.473,000 82; 807, 000 6,301,000 3.001.000 128.330,000 87,334,000 7, 330, 000 5,612,000 217,582,000 228,606,000 5. 316. 000 105,393,000 37,434,000 11,095.000 5,786,000 43,000,000 5.659,000 108,890,000 46,917,000 19,819,000 9,814,000 43,000,000 208.024.000 234,099,000 IS, 000 17.000 1,102,638,000 1.187,332.000 109,611,000 123,880,000 62,775,000 78,009,000 4,907,000 6,075,000 3,829.000 2,935.000 181,122,000 210.899.000 45,588,000 10,000.000 40,822,000 15,190,000 276.948,000 514,452,000 13,000,000 19,241.000 6,674.000 21,905.000 48,345,000 11.3S9.000 41,176,000 17,046,000 300,366,000 542,432,000 16,000.000 20,112,000 9,091,000 33,108,000 37,499,000 11.179.000 38. 183, 000 16,995.000 257,811,000 477,852.000 14,000.000 18, 592. 000 6,922,000 12, 608, 000 807,888,000 63,167,000 16,112,000 650,405,000 1,006,102,000 58,745,000 44,393,000 18,933.000 14,593,000 728,089.000 11,065.088,000 33,786.000 10,263.000 32.659,000 15,000,000 269,581,000 451,017,000 16,000,000 16,045,000 9,868,000 18,974.000 767,550,000 61,933,000 22,228,000 Bushels. 964, 905. 000 5, 875, 000 111,756.000 52,291.000 24,721,000 14.209.000 43,000,000 251.852,000 17,000 1, 216, 774, 000 154,551.000 87, 733, 000 6,200,000 3,836,000 252,320,000 40,000,000 18,793.000 38.000,000 16.000,000 258,454,000 580, 875. 000 18,000.000 18.000,000 81000,000 26, 165. 000 851,711,000 544,873,000 66,424,000 21,968,000 633. 265, 000 3 A1906- -36 562 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Oat crop of countries monad, 190^-1906 — Continued. Country. 1902. . 1904. 1905. 1906. eueope — continued. Bushels. 4.044,000 23.349.000 57.323.000 Bushels. 4,398.000 22.942.000 59.641.000 Bushels. 3,167.000 18,500.000 51,578.000 Bushels. 3,50,000 22.305.000 58.488.000 Bushels. 42 000 Spain 32 000 ■ United Kingdom : Great Britain- 89,809.000 36.760.000 7.924.000 65, 570. 000 85. 400.000 36,379,000 6,832,000 58,816,000 "28,000 37.034.000 7.661.000 60.142.000 76.453.000 36.390.000 7.264.000 60,754.000 ^4 102 000 35 107 000 Wales 8 063 000 Ireland 60 000 000 Total United Kingdom . . . 200.063.000 187.427.000 191,565.000 180.861.000 187.272.000 Total Europe 2. 353. 34*. 000 2.270.168.000 2,402.661.000 2.201.006.000 2.214.049.000 ASIA. Cyprus 236.000 481.000 417.000 400.000 | 400.000 Russia . Central Asia 9.433.000 34.07S.000 11.342.000 60.352.000 8.014,000 51.101,000 14.279.000 . 70.672,000 9.806.000 69.872.000 Total Russia (Asiatic) 43.511.000 71.694.000 59.115.000 M .-51.000 '. " • "8.000 Total Asia . 43.747.000 ! 85.351.000 80.078.000 AFRICA. Algeria Cape of Good Hope 8.732,000 1.750,000 9,000 324. 000 7.976.000 2.503.000 6.000 1.631,000 6,631,000 2.000.000 43.000 4,635,000 6.000.000 2.000.000 8.000,000 2. 000. (Win Natal Tunis 9.000 i 9.000 2.032.000 j 2.411.000 Total Africa 10.815.000 12.116.000 13.309.000 10.041.000 12.420.000 AUSTRALASIA. Australia : Queensland 44.000 709,000 6.937.000 4S4.000 164.000 1.756.000 1,000 363.000 4.542,000 640,000 173,000 1.808,000 73.000 1.292.000 13.858.000 931,000 267.000 1.673.000 16.000 673. 000 6,353.000 573.000 233.000 6. 000 911,000 7.460.000 897.000 293.000 1.216.000 | 1.238.000 Total Australian Corn- 10.094.000 7.527.000 18.094.000 9.064.000 10.805.000 15.519.000 22.452.000 15.5S3.000 J 15.012.000 13.108.000 25,613.000 29,979,000 33.677.000 24.076.000 23.913.000 Grand total 3.626.303.000 3.379.737.000 ' 1 3.611.817.000 3.507.806.000 3.547.234.000 Visible supply of oats in the United States and Canada, first of each month, for ten years." Bushels. July 12,912.000 August 9. 604. 000 September 13, 784. 000 October 15, 573, 000 Noyember 20,096.000 December IS January 16. 148. 000 February 20. 245. 000 March. 17, 925. 000 April 15. 609. 000 May 14. 402. 000 .Tune 10. 421, 000 1898-99. 1899-1900. 1900-1901. 1901-2. Bushels. S. 716. 000 4. 971. 000 7,360.000 9.286,000 11,352,000 9.460.000 10.893.000 13.231.000 14.782,000 15. 725, 000 13,971.000 13.661.000 Bus\i. 10.262.000 I ■• no 10,973,000 13. 12; . 000 13. 254. 000 11.789.000 12, 004, 000 11,876.000 12, 449. 000 14, 176. 000 13, 845. 000 12,301,000 Bushels. 12.716.000 13.853.000 17.140.000 20.528,000 • 16,175.000 16,800.000 15. 823. 000 16.824.000 14.989.000 Bush: 15.275.000 " •• ■ 10.603.000 14.445.000 12.899.000 10.109.000 vXOOO 8.537.000 _ 7.000 6. 606. 000 5. 010. 000 4,571,000 « These figures represent stocks ayailalsle at 62 of the principal points of accumulation east of the Rocky Mountains, stocks in Manitoba eleyators, and stocks afloat on lakes and canals, as reported by Bradstreet's. STATISTICS OF OATS. 563 Visible supply of oats in the United States and Canada, first of each month, for ten years- Continued. July August... September October... November December. January.. February . March April May June 1902-3. Bushels. 2, 420, 000 2, 988, 000 5, 159, 000 11,241,000 10,661,000 10,401,000 8, 794, 000 8,727,000 12,437,000 12, 432, 000 9,992,000 7,160,000 Bushels. 6, 686, 000 8,623,000 11,714,000 10, 876, 000 13, 332, 000 13, 995, 000 13, 785, 000 14, 774, 000 15,241,000 15, 377,. 000 12, 955, 000 8,296,000 1905-1). Bushels. 6,766,000 4,044,000 19, 607, 000 31,553,000 33,693,000 34, 103, 000 31, 343, 000 26,095,000 22, 570, 000 22, 667, 000 19, 395, 000 11,325,000 Bushels. 11,174,000 8,007,000 20,597,000 28,018,000 37, 526, 000 40, 206, 000 39,301,000 35,791,000 31,726,000 28,006,000 22,033,000 12,785,000 Bushels. 10,020,000 7,607,000 13,241,000 15,969,000 17, 275, 000 20,011,000 19,766,000 18, 034, 000 15, 664, 000 14,435,000 14,815,000 Condition oj the oat crop of the United States, monthly, 1889- 1906. u ffi u £> .Q & Year. 6 a 3 >> 3 en 3 60 3 i CD Year. i "3 OQ 3 60 3 a & a Year. 6 a 3 >> 3 3 Eh 3 a ft 5 Hs >-> ■«! CO ^ ^ < m * Hs ■< 02 P.ct. P.ct. P.ct. P.ct. P.ct. P.ct. P.ct. P.ct. P.ct. P.ct. P.ct. P.ct. 1889.... 93.8 94.1 92.3 90.0 1895.... 84.3 83.2 84.5 86.0 1901.... 85.3 83.7 73.6 72.1 1890.... 89.8 81.6 70.1 64.4 1896.... 98.8 96.3 77.3 74.0 1902.... 90.6 92.1 89.4 87.2 1891.... 85.1 87.6 89.5 90.7 1897.... 89.0 87.5 86.0 84.6 1903.... 85.5 84.3 79.5 75.7 1892.... 88.5 87.2 86.2 78.9 1898.... 98.0 92.8 84.2 79.0 1904.... 89.2 89.8 86.6 85.6 1893.... 88.9 88.8 78.3 74.9 1899.... 88.7 90.0 90.8 87.2 1905.... 92.9 92.1 90.8 90.3 1894.... 87.0 77.7 76.5 77.8 1900.... 91.7 85.5 85.0 82.9 1906.... 85.9 84.0 82.8 81.9 Acreage, production, va lue, prices exports, etc., o / oats of the United States, 1866-1906. Av- Chicago cash price per Domestic Acreage. Av- erage yield per acre. Produc- tion. erage farm price per bush- el, Farm value, Dec. 1. bushel , No. 2 exports, including oatmeal, fiscal year be- ginning July l.o Imports during Year. December. May of following year. fiscal year begin- ning Dec.l. Low. High. Low. High. July l.o Acres. Bush. Bushels. Cts. Dollars. Cts. Cts. Cts. as. Bushels. Bushels. 1866 8,864,219 30.2 268,141,077 35.1 94,057,945 36 43 59 78 825,895 778, 198 1867 10,746,416 25.9 278,698,000 44.5 123,902,556 52 57* 122, 554 780,798 1868 9,665,736 26.4 254,960,S00 41.7 106,355,976 43 494 56! 62* 481,871 326,659 1869 9,461,441 30.5 288,334,000 38.0 109,521,734 40 4*1 46*. 53* 121,517 2,266,785 1870 8,792,395 28.1 247,277,400 39.0 96,443,637 37! 41 47| 51 147,572 599,514 1871 8,365,809 30.6 255,743,0001 36.2 92,591,359 30| 33 34! 42* 262,975 535,250 1872 9,000,769 30.2 271,747,000 29.9 81,303,518 23* 25J 30 34 714,072 225,555 1873 9,751,700 27.7 270,340,000 34.6 93,474,161 34 40* 44 48* 812,873 191,802 1874 10,897,412 22.1 240,369,000 47. li 113,133,934 51| 54* 571 64* 504,770 1,500,040 1875 11,915,075 29.7 354,317,500 32.0 113,441,491 29* 30*. 28? 31* 1,466,228 121,547 1876 13,358,908 24.0 320,884,000 32.4! 103,844,896 31f 34* 37* 45! 2,854,128 41,597 1877 12,826,148 31.7 406,394,000 28.41 115,546,194 m 27 23 27 3,715,479 21,391 1878 13,176,500 31.4 413,578,560 24.6; 101,752,468 198 20* 24? 30* 5,452,136 13,395 1879 12,683,500 28.7 363,761,320 33.1 120,533,294 32| 36! 294 34* 766,366 489,576 1880 16,187,977 25.8 417,885,380 36.0 150,243,565 29* 33* 36J 39* 402,904 64, 412 1881 16,831,600 24.7 416,481,000 46.4 193,198,970 43* 46! 48! 56* 625,690 1,850,983 1882 18,494,691 26.4 488,250.610 37.5 182,978,022 34f 41* 38! 42! 461,496 815,017 1883 20,324,962 28.1 571,302,400 32.7 187,040,264 29| 36* 30! 34* 3,274,622 121,069 1884 21,300,917 27.4 583,628,000 27.7 161,528,470 22* 25} 34* 37 6,203,104 94,310 1885 22,783,630 27.6 629,409,000 28.5 179,631,860 27 29 26* 29* 7,311,306 149,480 1886 23,658,474 26.4 624,134,000 29.8 186,137,930 25| 27J 25* 27* 1,374,635 139, 575 1887 25,920,906 25.4 659,618,000 30.4 200,699,790 28$ 30* 32* 38 573,080 123,817 1888 26,998,282 26.0 701,735,000 27.8 195,424,240 25 26* 21* 23* 1,191,471 131,501 1889 27,462,316 27.4 751,515,000 22.9 171,781,008 20 21 24! 30 15,107,238 153,232 1890 26,431,369 19.8 523,621,000 42.4 222,048,486 39| 43* 45* 54 1,382,836 41,848 1891 25,581,861 28.9 738,394,000 31.5 232,312,267 31* 33* 28* 33* 10,586,644 47,782 1892 27,003,835 24.4 661,035,000 31.7 209,253,611 25* 3l| 28! 32J 2,700,793 49,433 1893 27,273,033 23.4 638,854,850 29.4 187,576,092 27* 29* 32* 36 6,290,229 31,759 1894 27,023,553 24.5 662,036,928 32.4 214,816,920 28! 29* 27J 30! 1,708,824 330,318 1895 27,878,406 29.6 824,443,537 19.9 163,655,068 16§ "4 18 19* 15,156,618 66,602 a In years 1866 to 1882, inclusive, oatmeal is not included. 564 YEABBOOK <"»F THE PEPABTMEXT OF AGBICTLTUBE. Afrragr. production, value, prices, expotti ftke United States, 1866-1906 — I i Acreage- Acres. Bu-th . Btuhele. Or. Dollar *. a*. CU. Ctt. Bushels. Bu-htlt. .- .- ' ' ■' a " i 18.7 132,485,033 18f 18? S'.725.0« 131.204 ■ 1 ; 27.2 », 767,80! 21.2 147.974.719 -- 23* . - 73.880,307 - II .' 775 U 28.4 " 25.5 186,4' 26 27$ - 27! 33.-534.362 a 26.341.380 30.2 79 177 713 24 198,167,975 .- 23 21} 23f 45.048,857 - 29.6 2s ■ 25.8 9,233 21* V>1 - 31 4- 268,931 . - : 1 i -• •• • ".-. 39.9 293,658,777 42 4- 41 49j 13,277,612 ■ 71 HOJ 28,653,144 34.5 " ■ . v: 30.7 303,584,852 32 33f 8,381,805 ; 28.4 ; 34.1 267,661,665 344 3S 44} 1,960,740 ~ 32. 1 894,595,552 31.3 279.900.013 .- 32 m 32 8,394,692 : . 340 53,2 29.1 277 -57,537 - 32? - 48,434,541 40.025 ■■ _ 31.2 964.904,522 31.7 306,2'-. 33 34 H. production, value, and distribution of oats in the United States in 1906. by 8i Crop Stat nitory. Acreage. Production. Value. Stock in farmer.- hands %^2?* March 1. 1907. .^f?™^ where grown. nipshire . Uaad... Connecticut rk ' Pennsylvania . . . West V - . b roliiL'i . . - G :. . . - : n Iowa I H - South : Ska Kentix ■ see is L- : Indu -'.-■ Wye t iiqg A rj m '.'6. . . .. California 112.817 12,29 - ej 1.604 9,976 1.245.62* 62,512 1,161, 186 ■ 31.834 i 102.000 - ' . 191,259 216.922 1,475.000 1.780.000 2,215.728 4,165,000 1.245.711 1,275,000 : -V a 206.063 I 146. 573 i 90.374 _ . 914.440 21 : . 730 350.000 184,571 196.802 50.103 :. . i ■ 172 767 284,660 - Bushels. ■ 424.212 2,862,72 214.472 ! 341.179 40.2 .'.819 31.816.496 95. 991 2.85- 2.101.200 3,169 724 3.5.- . - 3.3'- 394.240 48,380.000 50,19 107, 7 43. 747. SCO ■ .000 72.011.160 140.777.000 - 503 40,485 '000 73 --■.000 . - .000 3.151.320 3,167 ' . ! . -.' 31.822.512 7.44' 571 12.040.000 "■ " 8,3 I 1.979.068 5,962,394 424.507 2,0S •• 252 ■ ■ .534 • 1*1. 508 ■ 5.1' DoUort. 1,777,094 ! 1.230.972 94.308 21.149 143. 295 16.093.514 i 12.090.26S 177 1.229.213 840,480 1.553.165 2.01- -. - -■ 15,965 16. 062 72 33,4 '■• 14. 4' • " 28.4' r 19.443.013 38,009.790 21 10.931.114 11.6rr2.5O0 18,791,500 S -:800 : 1,6K ' 1,292 1.6:" i i 218.802 , "230 . -J.903 3.371.200 I -■■ 157 m n2 791.627 220.744 20.437 924.255 4.137.248 ■ ." Bushels. 1.494.374 US. 779 1.173,718 77. 210 14.569 ! I 19.714.554 " ■ U 13.99i.25S . I " 283.004 914. 763 819,468 665.642 ' 504,344 --■ ■ 37.717.22-5 i; - i 60,534,110 ■ : . " 72 22 i . '. 73 1.329.106 ' ■ ' 292 •". ' - 4,334.400 945.926 3.230.701 514.558 ■■ 106.127 ■ ."' 718,88 63, 224 11 - 2,089,79 2,982,667 773.445 United States. - .522 306,292.978 384 Per cent. 37 28 41 36 31 28 49 44 34 35 32 39 21 16 15 10 38 30 35 40 43 43 43 53 49 45 39 30 28 17 18 15 20 30 •i6 25 38 26 40 25 . 35 2.5 40 28 I 15 Bushelt. 0 0 2.145 0 .';.4i2 - • 10, 365 1,39 ■_' 10.559 72 " 114.345 - -2.600 20: 07 49.571.210 10.499.400 14.660.800 25.20?. 906 45. 04*. 640 1.4- 7.692.266 13. f/. - i ' : . 31.079 . ' 0 ' " .- 1,41 3.4 -■ -• •" t.406 72 1.490.598 ■ _ ' 25,29 1.5- 2 B5 414 : To. 098 1,4 - STATISTICS OF OATS. 565 Average yield of oats in certain countries, in bushels per acre, 1896-1905. Yen r. United States. Russia. Ger- many. Austria. Hungary. France. United Kingdom. 1896 25.7 27.2 28.4 30.2 29.6 25.8 34.5 28.4 32.1 34.0 C) 19.2 15.7 16.5 23.6 19.5 14.0 21.8 17.7 25.7 20.7 41.8 39.9 47.1 48.0 48.0 44.5 50.2 51.3 46.3 43.8 (6) 23.1 21.5 27.3 30.2 25.3 25.6 27.6 28.4 24.3 27.6 (6) S1.4 24.3 30.2 33.3 28.1 28.1 34.0 34.5 25.6 30.7 (a) 27.0 23.1 29.0 27.8 25.7 23.5 29.2 31.6 27.2 28.6 (a) 39.2 1897 40.1 1898 43.6 1899... 41.8 1900 41.2 1901 40. G 1902 ... 45.9 1903... 44.2 1904 . 42.1 1905... 41.7 Average 29.6 19.4 46.1 26.1 30.0 27.3 42.0 a Winchester bushels. t> Bushels of 32 pounds. Average yield per acre of oats in the United States, 1897-1906, by States. State or Territory. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 190G. Bush. 31.0 35.0 33.0 32.0 32.0 29.0 31.0 25.0 28.2 22.0 24.0 12.0 20.0 13.0 15.5 14.0 9.0 32.0 30.2 32.0 26.0 34.0 26.0 30.0 22.0 23.0 22.0 31.0 24.0 18.0 10.0 13.0 14.0 18.0 25.0 Bush. 36.0 33.0 38.0 32.0 27.0 28.2 27.5 19.6 23.3 22.0 19.5 16.1 19.5 14.3 17.2 16.6 15.4 30.9 29.2 29.0 32.8 36.1 36.3 34.0 17.0 30.7 26.8 32.1 18.0 22.4 18.7 16.8 18.5 18.1 29.7 Bush. 35.0 35.0 37.0 33.0 26.0 28.0 31.0 24.0 33.0 20.0 23.0 14.0 23.0 12.0 12.0 9.0 9.0 36.0 32.0 38.0 34.0 36.0 32.0 33.0 25.0 30.0 26.0 30.0 29.0 18.0 14.0 10.0 10.0 18.0 25.0 Bush. 37.5 32.6 34.9 36.8 30.9 31.0 27.9 29.6 31.1 21.0 24.0 14.8 21.0 13.9 15.5 15.0 11.3 38.0 32.7 38.0 36.7 32.0 25.2 34.0 27.4 10.3 21.5 21.8 31.6 21.3 16.6 14.4 14.0 18.0 38.0 Bush. 35.0 29.5 33.0 31.0 29.4 28.7 21.6 16.0 18.9 18.5 18.8 14.9 18.7 14.4 15.8 14.8 13.1 31.5 28.6 28.2 29.0 29.1 32.1 29.8 11.2 32.6 28.8 19.8 18.6 19.7 17.5 14.5 15.2 13.4 16.3 25.0 20.7 12.3 42.0 41.0 33.8 31.6 35.0 33.0 43.0 38.3 47.5 31.5 30.4 Bush. 39.0 35.0 40.0 32.2 36.2 34.5 40.0 32.2 36.5 22.6 26.7 17.5 28.6 12.7 13.1 11.1 13.6 41.1 35.4 37.7 39.9 39.9 39.0 30.7 32.5 38.4 34.8 34.6 33.5 22.2 17.3 10.9 15.4 15.2 23.2 32.6 47.8 20.0 41.9 36.0 26.8 19.1 31.7 35.5 34.8 42.1 46.2 28.7 30.5 Bush. 39.5 31.1 38.2 31.7 28.1 31.2 34.0 25.4 28.6 22.2 20.6 13.8 21.7 11.4 14.0 13.6 13.2 30.6 24.4 26. 6 30.5 32.8 32.3 24.0 22.1 27^4 38.6 29.5 26.2 20.1 18.5 15.8 15.0 15.9 35.5 30.0 26.4 18.6 46.4 29.4 33.3 22.6 35.5 36.4 28.6 41.5 47.9 33.8 34.8 Bush. 36.6 33.2 37.9 34.0 25.4 33.5 34.1 32.5 33.9 28.2 29.7 21.1 26.4 15.8 17.1 14.8 12.9 40.9 33.1 32.0 32.5 35.0 39.2 32.0 22.7 37.4 39.0 30.7 17.8 24.0 21.1 14.9 19.2 18.4 32.0 32.2 21.2 22.7 37.7 30.2 35.4 19.6 30.1 37.6 37.0 39.3 44.9 23.1 34.1 Bush. 39.5 32.8 39.4 32.0 29.4 34.5 34.2 32.0 34.0 31.2 27.7 17.8 24.1 15.3 16.3 15.1 12.0 35.8 35.3 35.5 35.6 39.0 37.5 35.0 27.2 38.9 39.0 31.0 27.1 25.5 20.2 16.5 18.5 16.0 31.4 36.0 33.0 20.3 41.3 39.9 35.0 29.5 31.2 39.8 37.2 39.4 50.0 24.1 28.0 Bush. 35.8 34.5 37.2 34.0 29.3 34.2 32.3 26.6 27.4 24.5 25.4 18.0 20.6 16.2 18.5 15.5 14.0 Ohio 32.8 28.2 29.5 30.7 37.4 32.5 33.8 22.8 32.5 36.4 29.5 23.6 21.5 21.5 17.2 18.0 17.2 34.8 34.2 34.4 17.0 42.0 35.0 34.0 35.5 22.8 40.6 31.2 35.8 38.8 19.0 38.0 30.0 27.0 24.0 22.2 39.0 34.2 32.8 30.1 20.5 43.2 39.5 40.4 34.6 34.4 Utah 35.0 39.7 34.0 35.9 43.7 38. S 36.3 48.0 32.0 18.0 43.6 41.9 27.0 33.0 34.0 37.0 30.0 31.0 36.6 34.4 18.5 24.6 40.7 43.2 33.8 California 31.5 General average 27.2 28.4 30.2 29.6 25.8 34.5 28.4 32.1 34.0 31.2 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Avero per acre of oats i ." ted States, based upon farm value December 1, 1897-1906. by States. 1 rritacy. 1897. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. Manv $9.92 1130 10 56 10 56 9. 86 ■ ' 7. -50 7.61 5.06 a 24 4« 6.00 • 5.88 477 6.40 5.74 i ! ' H 6.46 4 94 480 4 IS ' - 3.96 5.32 486 280 5.59 6 16 M 6 75 $12.24 12.54 1130 1L84 9.99 10 15 as3 6.08 6.99 6.60 5. 65 1 " 5. 85 5.29 7.74 - n a32 7.42 a • a so ao6 7.62 191 - ■ 5.63 642 196 605 5.24 6.89 7.77 6.88 a32 $1130 1165 1169 12.54 9.62 1136 10.23 7.92 9.57 100 6.90 462 105 492 164 432 450 9.00 7.36 836 9.52 ; -- 7.04 627 600 a io 198 6.60 6.38 176 430 100 7.20 7.50 $14 25 12.39 12.56 1198 11.74 10 85 193 9.18 9.33 6.30 7.44 148 7.14 6.26 7.44 7.15 1 65 9.88 7.52 ■ M 9.54 7.36 6.05 6.80 6.30 130 116 123 160 5.81 6.34 6.44 7.20 1L40 $17.50 1134 16 50 17.05 1188 15.50 10 37 7.52 150 a33 7.71 6.26 ao4 7.34 9.80 9.92 9.43 12.28 10 87 1L28 11.89 1L35 10 91 10 73 482 10 76 9.79 7.33 aoo ao8 7.87 9.28 9.58 ao4 9.78 1L50 1015 7.01 1112 19.68 16.90 1196 2LO0 16.83 3110 1185 16 63 10 71 1138 $17. 55 1140 17.20 14 m 1157 14 14 14 40 12.56 12.41 9.49 ins 7.35 11.73 *« i. id 188 130 1115 9.91 1156 1117 1L97 1153 ! " 9.10 1137 10 09 165 iaoo 7.99 100 7.85 7.60 11.37 12.06 1125 120 11 OS 1100 11 67 12.99 2178 1168 24 36 2121 22.64 1L77 1155 $17. 77 14 93 1181 1153 12.65 14 04 1194 1192 1158 a n 124 193 9.98 193 126 7.48 7.92 1L02 7.81 151 1198 11.15 9.69 196 7.07 149 1L19 7.97 a 24 7.77 a53 7.65 7.31 15.62 1150 198 118 1124 14 70 1165 14 01 2L65 17.84 19.45 1168 1120 14 87 1179 $16. 47 1160 1168 1130 11.94 14 74 12.96 1100 12.88 1L56 1169 9.07 11.62 122 1126 114 7.74 1109 9.93 9.60 1172 9.80 1119 aoo 7.72 a 98 9.75 7.67 5.87 9.60 7.80 aos 9.98 3 -* 14 08 12 24 7.63 9.76 17.34 11.78 1128 1L17 22. 27 17.67 2131 19.65 19.31 1186 19.44 $11 55 14 10 ■ ■ 1176 12 35 14 49 12.65 1L84 12.24 12.48 9.97 194 9.40 7.19 1% aoo 124 1L10 9.53 9.94 1168 1153 9.00 140 a 16 a 95 a 97 7.44 7.59 158 7.88 a42 9.25 7.20 12.56 1L88 9.57 a53 17.76 1136 14 35 17.11 19.97 17.51 19.34 1155 2150 1136 14 28 $1175 15.18 1100 \'i--i.' - nnntt - . 14% TMwMlp T^lftTHi . . 1119 14 36 V:,rk 12.92 1111 10.41 9.31 ■.- 1 9.65 7.74 ■ ,i ^■aroliTifl . 7.94 South Carolina 1154 168 9.52 Ohio 1182 9.02 9.14 1113 1L59 MiniM'jjMiUi 8L77 9.13 7.52 178 Sooth Dakota 9.10 Willi ■ ill ■ 7.67 7.32 117 182 ■ ■ t i_ ■ i 1 ; - ; - : naiana • ■" 182 7.74 14 27 1194 ' V iv - - i _ 9.63 5.61 1186 12.25 14 56 1L55 11.02 16.80 1L20 - a a 61 14 21 12. « 14 68 15.91 ■ ■ 1170 1 - 1O80 16.50 6.46 14 82 12.00 1L34 10 56 1160 12.92 -i. :•: 12.30 14 57 7.77 16.38 16 07 14 10 14 45 1180 14 64 1176 7.59 1L32 161 Wyoming 19.01 1180 1118 17.99 Hah " qgton ":•;£• ■ OaBfionria 22.36 19.66 24 S3 17.50 17.71 14 53 1138 rare . 7.23 - :. 7.63 10.29 1160 1 1115 9.89 / oats per bushel in th-e United States, December l. 189", 8tak '- - ■ It " 1891 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. Maine . :■ — ' 1 BMtbl CcnU. 32 • 32 33 34 34 27 30 S 23 26 29 30 37 45 42 53 20 19 Cent*. 34 ■ 35 37 37 36 31 31 30 30 29 29 30 37 45 48 54 24 23 Cents. 38 39 37 38 37 37 33 33 29 25 30 33 35 41 47 48 50 25 23 Cenit. 38 38 36 38 38 35 32 31 30 30 31 37 34 45 48 49 50 26 23 Cents. 50 52 50 55 54 54 47 45 45 41 42 43 51 62 67 72 39 38 Cents. 45 44 43 45 43 41 36 39 34 42 38 42 41 51 59 53 61 32 28 Cent*. 45 48 44 49 45 45 41 43 37 40 40 43 46 52 59 55 60 36 32 Cents. 45 47 44 45 47 44 38 40 38 41 36 43 44 52 60 55 60 32 30 Cents. 43 43 40 43 42 42 37 37 36 40 36 39 39 47 55 53 52 31 27 Cent?. 44 44 43 44 R)WMfc» Tk1«ti<1 45 42 fa* 40 38 38 38 38 43 40 rjrolmi. 49 57 Florida Ohio Indiana. 56 68 33 32 STATISTICS OF OATS. 567 Average farm price of oats per bushel in the United States. December 1, 1897-1906, by States — Continued. State or Territory. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. Bush. 18 23 19 19 16 19 26 18 15 18 27 28 43 44 38 27 Bush. 23 27 24 21 24 23 26 21 20 22 27 28 41 42 38 28 Bush. 22 28 23 22 19 24 27 23 22 22 32 32 43 50 40 30 Bush. 23 26 23 24 20 23 32 24 24 23 31 35 44 46 40 30 Bush. 40 41 39 34 36 43 33 34 37 43 41 45 64 63 60 60 46 50 57 36 48 50 60 60 51 70 44 35 34 44 Bush. 28 33 30 27 25 28 27 29 25 30 36 42 55 51 50 49 37 34 41 36 50 51 68 75 47 70 48 49 41 51 Bush. 32 36 34 30 29 32 31 29 27 30 41 42 54 51 46 44 35 34 44 35 50 41 62 61 49 68 45 38 44 54 Bush. 30 33 28 26 25 34 24 25 25 33 40 37 54 52 45 44 38 36 43 46 39 46 57 74 47 63 50 43 47 57 Bush. 28 30 27 24 24 30 23 23 24 28 35 39 51 50 45 40 33 29 42 43 41 41 58 64 44 52 42 41 43 51 Bush. 31 33 31 27 27 33 27 25 26 31 38 41 51 49 45 Texas 41 32 28 33 33 35 32 41 29 35 40 41 41 34 39 40 42 44 35 42 47 43 48 42 44 Wyoming Colorado 40 45 52 65 Utah 33 38 40 44 45 64 32 35 35 49 36 40 40 50 38 38 41 47 40 40 41 46 43 41 43 52 General average 21.2 25.5 24.9 25.8 39.9 30.7 34.1 31.3 29.1 31.7 Wholesale prices of oats per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906. New York. Baltimore. Cincin- nati. Chicago. 1 Milwau- kee. Duluth. Detroit. San Fran- cisco. Date. No. 2. No. 2, No. 2, No. 2, No. 2, No. 1, white mixed. mixed. mixed. white. white. (perewt.). Lowj High Low High Low High Low High Low High Low High Low High Low | High 1902. Cts. as. as. Os. as. as. as. Os. as. as. Os. as. Os. as. Jan 464 53 48 52 46 50 38* 46* 441 49 40* 47i 45 50*11.25 $1.40 Feb 48 50 47 49*. 46 48 40} 44i 1 42} 47 38* 431 46 47* 1.27*1 1.42* Mar 46} 52 47*. 49 454 47 40} 45* 44 47 40 43 46 48}l 1.25 | 1.40 Apr .... 46* 49* 47* 49 44 46* 41 44*' 43} 47} 40 46* 46 48* 1.27* 1.45 May 45* 48 47* 48*. 44 46 41 49* 441 46 42* 45* 46 48* 1.35 1.50 June 444 55 47* 55 43 52 39 48* 43 54 28} 34 464 57 1.35 1.50 July.... 55 64} 54 60 32} 57 30 56 51* 58 304 34* 57 61 1.20 1.35 Aug 34* 65 31 59 27 31 25 31 331 58 27* 30 34} 60 1.15 1.30 Sept 32 35 29 32 28* 31* 26* 27J1 31* 35 29 31* 36} 39* 1.17* 1.30 Oct 33 34* 29* 33*. 30 32 27} 30 32 34 29* 32 38* 41} 1.15 1.32* Nov 34 36 32* 35*. 29* 34 274 29* 30* 34 28* 32 41} 48 1.20 1.35 Dec 36 38} 35* 40 33 39 29* 32 1 32* 34 31 32 48* 51 1.25 1.40 1903. Jan 38* 44 39* 42* 35 39 31} 34* 33* 36} 32* 34* 36 38 1.22* 1.35 Feb 42*. 43} 39* 41 37* 39* 334 36 36 36} 34 35* 38 40 1.22* 1.374 Mar. 42 44* 40 41* 37 39 31} 34| 36 36 31 34* 38 39 1.22* 1.32* Apr 38 42 38 414 33* 37 32* 35} 36 36} 32* 33* 364 38* 1.20 1.324 May...- 38 39* 37* 39 33 37* 33* 38} 36 38 33* 35* 37 39 1.20 1.30 June 39} 43* 38* 44 36 43* 35* 43J 36* 40* 35 40 39 45 1.17* 1.274 July.... 40 43 36* 44 31* 41* 33* 45 364 41 32* 37* 36 41* 1.17* 1.30 Aug 38 404 34* 39 33 35J 33* 36} 37 38* 34 35* 35* 36} 1.17* 1.324 Sept 38 42 39 41* 35 39 35* 38 37 40 35} 38* 3V* 40 1.17* 1.324 Oct 40* 42 40 41 36* 39 34* 38* 37* 39 35 37* 38* 39} 1.20 1.324 Nov.... 40 42 38* 40* 35* 37* 331 38* 36* 38* 32* 35} 36* 38* 1.25 1.324 Dec 40*. 42* 39 40*. 37 39 34i 38 : 37* 38 34} 35* 37* 39 1.25 1.324 568 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Wholesale prices of oats -per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906 — Continued. Date. 1904. Jan . . Feb.. Mar.. Apr. . May . . June.. July.. Aug . . Sept . . Oct... Nov . . Dec. 1905 Jan. . Feb.. Mar. . Apr. . May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct . . Nov. Dec. 1906. Jan . . . Feb... Mar. . . Apr. . May.. June.. July.. Aug.. Sept. . . Oct... Nov.. Dec... New York. No. 2, mixed. Low High Cts. 42J 46 46 43i 45! 443 41 35! 34| 34J 35 34i 3."..'. 36 35| 34J 34? 34A 33 j 29 29 32? 34? 36 36 34 34 J 36| 37 39 40 34', 34 1 37! 37? as. 45J 55! 55! 47 47 46 45 43 36 36 35 36! 37j 37 37?. 36 35! 30" 36! 33" 33?. 37,j 36 37 37J 36 36! 37" 39 47. 43 A 39" 37? 3SJ. 39? 3?) Baltimore. No. 2, mixed. Low High as. 41 43 45! 43 43! 43! 43! 34! 33 33 33 35! 36J 37. 35 33? 33? 33? 33 27?, 28" 32 34 34 34? 34" 34$ 35! 37! 38? 3SJ 33?" 34" 37 37 Cincin- nati. No. 2, mixed. LowHigh as. as. 43! 38 41! 47J 162 47,? 453 47,? 47," 35 34 351 36 37 304 3(3 1 352 34? 362 36! 322 32? 35" 34] 36i, 41 40 412 41 40 32* 33" 31 1 31 32] 32] 32] 3l| 30* 301 32*, 28 25 26 29 31? 33" 37 37,? 37,] 38 39 45! 42! ' 34 39J 30 37 , 31! 373 35 38! 35 39! 36 322 32 32 33 33 37 422 44i 44? 43" 424 44" 412 402 34?" 33* 331 333 33? 33? 34? 32?, 32? Chicago. No. Low High 34 32 30 32 33? 35? as 36! 39| 38 36| 391 39| 38! 31! 29§ 28J, 29 2y£ 29? 293 28] 2V, 33!l 30J 27 25} 25 27! 29" 29? 34 29! 33? 29* 33? 28* 35 30* 3/ 32* 43 m 41 303 34 29* 36 80 30? 32i 30.? 33 38 33 41! 46 423 411 44f 421 45 40 334 31! 32J 32 31 323 33J 32 32 333 341 29? 30" 30? 31? 32] 32 30] 29| 32] 34] 42] 39J 32 341 34] 351 35| Milwau- kee. No. 2, white. Low High as. 35 40 39 37 41 38 37 31| 29! 28! 294 29" 31! 32 32 32 313 33 33 27J 28 29 31 31! No 3 30 29 29 30J 32 333 33 29 29 32 32 324 as. 41 444 44" 433 45 44 41 42 33! 33 32 32 32! 33 34! 33! 34 34! 35! 34 30 32 32 33! white 32 31! 32i 333 35! 43 40 35! 34 34! 343 354 Duluth. No. 3. Low H igh as. 35! 38| 38i 37J 40 40 36 321 30 273 29 28J (a) 283 28|; 28! 28! 28| 301 27!! 25! 251 29 284 2sl 291 31 1 33] 31] 30 291 31 i 32 31 1 as. 39! 421 401 41 43 42! 38 38 32| 30| 29| 29| 30 m 29] 312 34? 41" 38 31 33 33 32; 34 Detroit. No. 3, white. Low High I Cts. 39 ! 423 44 42! 45 424 414 33": 32 313 32 324 33! 33ii 334! 33 j 33 333 35 27 j 261 29J 323 323 33 32! 32 j 33J 35! 37i 38 32 i 33 36 364 35 as. 42! 48i 46! 451 45! 46! 44 43! 33! 34 32! 1 3341 1 San Fran- cisco. No. 1, white (per cwt. 1. Low High 25 SI. 37! 25 1.372 27? 1.372 274 1.40 324 1.50 40 I 1.50 1.50 1.50 1. 52! 1.55 1.60 1.60 34! 1-45 343 1.45 34! 1.45 341 1.45 343, 1.45 34![ 1.65 37 35! 30! 1-374 1.47! 323 1.37! 1.45 1.00 1.60 1.60 1.68 1.672 1.80 35 33] 34 35 371 43? 42 39 362 362 382 37 1.374 1.50 1.45"! 1. a No grade of oats in Duluth for 1905. BARLEY. Barley crop of countries named, 1902-1906. [Substantially the crop of the world.] Country. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. NORTH AMERICA. United States Bushels. 134,954.000 Bushels. 131,861,000 Bushels. 139,749,000 Bushels. 136,651,000 Bushels. 178,916,000 Canada: New Brunswick 110.000 22, 580, 000 12,222.000 308.000 488,000 3,000,000 108,000 25,147,000 8,982,000 687,000 1,111,000 3,000,000 96,000 25,342,000 11,530,000 617,000 1,659.000 3,000,000 100,000 25,030.000 14,507,000 922,000 1,830,000 3,000.000 102,000 Ontario 26,049,000 Manitoba 18,085,000 1,358,000 Alberta 2,242,000 Other 3,000,000 Total Canada 38,708,000 39,035,000 42,244,000 45,389,000 50,836,000 6,045,000 9,061,000 7,355,000 6,000,000 6,000.000 Total North America 179.707,000 179,957,000 189,348,000 188,040,000 235.752,000 STATISTICS OF BARLEY. 569 Barley crop of countries named, 190g-1906 — Continued. Country. EUROPE. Austria-Hungary: Austria Hungary proper Croatia-Slavonia Bosnia-Herzegovina . Bushels. 73,788,000 62,350,000 3,259.000 3.208,000 Total Austria-Hungary. 142,005,000 Belgium Bulgaria Denmark Finland France Germany Italy Netherlands. Norway Roumania . . . 4,974,000 11,000,000 23,287,000 3,628,000 41,948,000 142, 392, 000 6,000,000 4,652,000 2,143,000 24,586,000 Russia: Russia proper Poland Northern Caucasia. 274,899,000 22,185,000 35.530,000 1903. 1904. Bushels. 73,873,000 64,577,000 3,839,000 4.145,000 Bushels. 66,815,000 49,915,000 2,285,000 3,496.000 146,434.000 122,511,000 3,923,000 12,773,000 23,340,000 5,233,000 43,345,000 152,653,000 8,000,000 3,823,000 3,255,000 29,716,000 5,003,000 12,911,000 22, 708, 000 4,916,000 38,338.000 135,409,000 7,000,000 3,606,000 2,496,000 11,567,000 1905. Bushels. 70,469,000 62,452,000 2,804.000 3.236.000 139,021,000 4,518.000 12,080,000 21,146,000 5,000,000 40,841,000 134,204.000 8,000,000 4,013,000 3,464.000 26,383.000 289,699,000 290,766,000 272,694,000 20,819,000 ! 17,705,000 22,732,000 39,980,000 | 31,254,000 43,430,000 Total Russia (European). Servia . . Spain . . Sweden. United Kingdom: Great Britain- England Scotland Wales Ireland 332,614,000 i 350,498,000 I 339,725,000 | 338,856,000 3.495,000 81,279.000 12,283,000 3.424,000 64,359,000 13,570,000 3,162,000 53, 800, 000 13,452,000 3,670,000 45,974,000 12, 858, 000 56,679,000 8.394,000 3,518,000 8,273,000 50, 628, 000 7,739,000 2,981,000 6.0/6,000 48,511.000 7,408,000 3,077,000 5,478,000 48,778,000 8,257,000 2.906,000 7,181,000 Total United Kingdom . Total Europe ' 913, 750, 000 ASIA. 76,864,000 J 67,424,000 ! 64,474,000 ! 67,122,000 931.770,000 841,078,000' 867.150,000 Cyprus. Japanese Empire: Japan Formosa 1,374,000 3, 969, 000 3,122,000 3,000,000 74.078.000 13.000 59,737,000 38,000 80.795.000 ! 58.000 ! . 436, 000 50,000 Total Japanese Empire . Russia: Central Asia Siberia 3,775,000 : 80,853,000 , 486. 000 Bushels. 76,024,000 69,747,000 3.007,000 3.000.000 152,384,000 5,000,000 12,882.000 22,000.000 5,000,000 37,004,000 142,901,000 8,000,000 4,000,000 3,000.000 33,539,000 Total Russia (Asiatic). . Total Asia AFRICA. 3,008,000 2,828,000 2,759,000 4,213.000 2,262.000 4.268,000 3,145.000 4,965,000 6, 972, 000 8.110,000 70,710,000 Algeria . Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. Cape of Good Hope Natal Tunis 47.912,000 200,000 800.000 8,000 3,201.000 Total Africa. 52.121,000 AUSTRALASIA. Australia: Queensland New South Wales. . Victoria South Australia Western Australia. Tasmania 286, 000 107,000 716,000 251,000 37,000 173.000 38, 496, 000 216,000 949,000 4,000 11,322,000 50,987,000 4,000 19,000 579,000 327,000 48,000 207.000 Total Australian Com- monwealth 1,570,000 1,184,000 New Zealand Total Australasia. 883,000 1,172,000 2.453.000 2,356,000 Grand total 1, 229, 132, 000 1, 235., 786, 000 90,505.000 , 88,596,000 36,125,000 251.000 850,000 6,000 14,815.000 52.047.000 35,000.000 327,000 8.50,000 7,000 7,119,000 43,303,000 527,000 180,000 1.256,000 503,000 55,000 219,000 342.000 275,000 902,000 35S.000 39,000 168,000 2,740.000 2,084,000 1,104,000 3.248.000 1,176,915,000 1,190.337,000 243,020,000 23,351.000 37,319.000 304.290,000 4,848,000 91,185.000 14,952,000 51,543,000 7,803.000 3,116,000 7, 000. OIK) 69,462.000 910, 447. 000 73,000.000 50,000 73.050.000 5,136,000 2,614,000 7. 750. 000 83,800,000 40,000.000 300,000 850.000 6.000 7,863,000 49.019.000 04,000 115,000 1,096,000 522.000 51.000 97.000 1,945,000 1,056,000 3.001.000 1, 282, 019, 000 570 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1'isibh supply of barley in the United States and Canada, first of each month, for ten years.11 Month. July August. . . September October... November. December. January. . February. March.... April May June 1897-98. Bushels. 1,574,000 1,051,000 1,578,000 2,630,000 4,267,000 6,318,000 5,115,000 3, 455, 000 2,571,000 1,492,000 1, 159, 000 815, 000 Bushels. 587, 000 584, 000 548, 000 2. 125, 000 3, 777, 000 4,406,000 4, 372, 000 4,017,000 3,067,000 2,626,000 1,913,000 1,555,000 1899-1900. 1900-1901. Bu 1, 1, 1, 3, 4, 3, shels. Bushels. 059,000 1,038,000 694,000 702,000 055,000 1, 158, 000 739,000 2, 779, 000 925,000 5,396,000 695, 000 6,053.000 122, 000 5,395,000 303,000 4,331,000 138,000 3,903,000 712,000 2, 879. 000 720,000 1,761,000 267,000 1,351.000 1901-2. Bushels. 528,000 335,000 956,000 3,610,000 4, 813, 000 5, 416, 000 4,580,000 5,244,000 5,065,000 4,075,000 2,146.000 1,836,000 Month. July August . . . September October... November December. January . February. March April May June Bushels. 847,000 217,000 419. 000 2,460,000 5,064,000 5,680.000 4, 389, 000 3,843,000 3,107,000 2, 426, 000 1,493,000 1,133,000 Bushels. 602,000 471,000 1,024,000 5,017,000 7, 313, 000 7,975,000 6,907,000 6, 338, 000 5,441,000 1,975,000 3, 969, 000 3,105,000 Bushels. 2,046,000 1,656,000 1,694,000 6,551,000 9, 329, 000 9, 620, 000 10, 403, 000 8, S01, 000 6, 952, 000 4,674,000 3,354,000 2,231,000 Bushels. 2,557,000 1,031.000 1,358,000 5,524,000 8,509,000 10,217,000 10,657,000 8,526,000 7, 686, 000 6,567,000 4,251,000 2,053,000 1906-7. Bushels. 1,620,000 1,814,000 1,244,000 3, 520, 000 4,476,000 5, 156, 000 4, 698, 000 4, 137, 000 3, 034. 000 3,708,000 3,441,000 o These figures represent stocks available at 62 of the principal points of accumulation east of the Rocky Mountains, stocks in Manitoba elevators, and stocks afloat on lakes and canals as reported by Bradstreet's. Condition of the barley crop of the United States, monthly, 1891-1906. Year. June. July. Au- gust. Sep- tem- ber. Year. June. July. Au- gust. Sep- tem- ber. 1891 P. ct. 90.3 92.1 88.3 82.2 90.3 98.0 87.4 78.8 P. ct. 90.9 92.0 8S.8 76.8 91.9 88.1 88.5 85.7 P. ct. 93.8 91.1 84.6 69.8 87.2 82.9 87.5 79.3 P. ct. 94.3 87.4 83.8 71.5 87.6 83.1 86.4 79.2 1899 P. ct. 91.4 86.2 98.8 93.6 91.5 90.5 93.7 93.5 P. ct. 92.0 76.3 91.3 93.7 86.8 88.5 91.5 92.5 P. ct. 93.6 71.6 86.9 90.2 83.4 88.1 89.5 90.3 P. ct. 86.7 1892 1900 70.7 1893 1901 85.8 1894 1902 89.7 1895 1903 82.1 1896 1904 87.4 1897 87.8 189S 1906 89.4 Acreage, production, value, prices, exports, etc., of barley of the United States, 1866-1906. Av- Chicagocashpriceper Av- erage farm price per bushel, No. 2. Domestic exports, fiscal year Imports, fiscal year begin- Year. Acreage. erage yield Produc- tion. Farm value, Dec. 1. December. May of following bush- year. beginning ning el July 1. July 1. Dec.l. Low. High. Low. High. .4 cres. Bush. Bushels. Cts. Dollars. as. as. as. as. Bushels. Bushels. 1866 492,532 22.9 11.283.807 70.2 7.916,342 59 70 85 100 3,247,250 1867 1,131,217: 22.7 25,727,000 70.1 18.027,746 150 180 227 250 9.810 3,783,966 1868.... 937, 498j 24. A 22,896,100, 109.0 24.948. 127 140 170 149 175 59,077 5,069,880 1869. . . . 1,025,795! 27.9 28, 652. 200 70. 8 20. 29S. 164 74 85 50 62 255,490 6,727,597 1870. . . . 1,108,924 23.7 26, 295, 4(>o! 79. 1 20, 792, 213 68 80 72 95 340,093 4,866,700 1871 1,113,735 24.0 26,718,500] 75.8 20.264,0151 55J 64 55 71 86, 891 1 5,565.591 1872.... 1,397,082 19.2 26,846,4001 68. 6 18, 415, 839 60 70 71 85 482,410 4,244.751 1873.... 1,387,106 23.1 32,044,491 86.7 27,794,229 132 158 130 155 320. 399 4,891,189 STATISTICS OF BARLEY. 571 Acreage, production, value, prices, exports, etc., of barley of the United States, 1866-1906 — ■ Continued. Av- Chicago cash price per Av- erage farm price per bushel, No. 2. a Domestic Imports, fiscal year begin- Ye* ir. Acreage. erage yield per acre. Produc- tion. Farm value, December. May of following fiscal year bush- year. beginning ning el July 1. July 1. Dec.l. Low. High. Low. High. Acres. Bush. Bushels. Cts. Dollars. Cts. Cts. Cts. Cts. Bushels. Bushels. 1874 ... 1,580,626 20.6 32,552,500 86.0 27, 997, 824 120 129* 115 137 91,118 6,255,003 1875 ... 1,789.902 20.6 36,908,600 741 27,367,522 81 88 62* 72* 317,781 10,285,957 1876 ... 1,766,511 21.9 38, 710, 500 63.0 24, 402. 691 63| 68* 80 85 1, 186, 129 6, 702, 965 1877 ... 1,614,654 21.3 34, 441, 400 62.8 21,629,130 56} 64 461 52* 3,921,501 6, 764, 228 1878 ... 1,790,400 23.6 42, 245, 630 57.9 24,454,301 91 100 64 73 715,536 5, 720, 979 1879 ... 1,680,700 24.0 40, 283, 100 58.9 23,714,444 86 92 75 80 1, 128, 923 7, 135, 258 1880 ... 1,843,329 24.5 45, 165, 346 66.6 30,090,742 100 120 95 105 885,246 9, 528, 616 1881 ... 1,967,510 20.9 41,161,330 82.3 33, 862, 513 101 107 100 100 205, 930 12, 182, 722 1882 ... 2,272,103 21.5 48,953,926 62.9 30, 768, 015 79 82 80 80 433,005 10,050,087 1883 ... 2,379,009 21.1 50, 136, 097 58.7 29, 420, 423 62 67 65 74 724, 955 8, 596, 122 1884 ... 2,608,818 23.5 61,203,000 48.7 29, 779, 170 53 58 65 65 629, 13C 9, 986. 507 1885 ... 2,729,359 21.4 58,360,000 56.3 32,867,696 62 65 58 60 252, 183 10,197,115 188(5 ... 2,652,957 22.4 59, 428, 000 53. 6 31,840,510 51 . 54 57 57 1,305,300 10, 355, 594 188/ ... 2,901,953 19.6 56, 812, 000 51.9 29,464,390 80 80 69 77 550,884 10,831,461 I8KK ... 2,996,382 21.3 63,884,000 59.0 37,672,032 1,440,321 11 368,414 1889 ...1 3,220,834 24.3 78,332,976 41.6 32, 614, 271 58 58 1,408,311 11,332,545 1890 ... 3,135,302 21.4 67,168,344 62.7 42, 140, 502 973, 062 2, 800, 075 3,035,267 5,078,733 3,146,328 1891 ... 3,352,579 25.9 86,839,153 52.4 45,470,342 1892 ...[ 3,400,361 23.6 80,096,762 47.5 38,026,062 65 67 65 65 1,970,129 1893 ...1 3,220,371 21.7 69,869,495 41.1 28,729,386 52 54 55 60 5,219,405 791,061 1894 ... 3,170,602 19.4 61,400,465 44 2 27, 134, 127 53* 55* 51 52 1,563,754 2,116,816 1896 ...! 3,299,973 26.4 87,072,744 33.7 29,312,413 33 40 25 36 7, 680, 331 837, 384 1890 ... 2,950,539 23.6 69, 695, 223 32.3 22,491,241 22 37 24* 35 20,030,301 1,271,787 189/ ...! 3,719.116 24.5 66,685,127 37.7 25, 142, 139 25* 42 36 53 11,237,077 124,804 1898 ... 2,583,125 21.6 55, 792, 257 41.3 23,064,359 40 50* 36 42 2, 267, 403 110,475 1899 ... 2.878,229 25.5 73,381,563 40.3 29, 594, 254 35 45 36 44 23,661,662 189, 757 1900 ... 2, 894, 2S2 20.4 58,925,833 40.8 24,075,271 37 61 37 57 6, 293, 207 171,004 1901 ...1 4,295,744 25.6 109, 932, 924 45.2 49, 705, 163 56 63 64 72 8,714,265 57,406 1902 ... 4.661,063 29.0 134, 954, 023 45.9 61,898,634 36 70 48 56 8, 429, 141 56,462 1903 ... 4,993,137 26.4 131,861,391 45.6 60,166,313 42 61* 38 59 10,881,027 90,708 1904 ... 5,145,878 27.2 139, 748, 95* 42.0 58,651,807 38 52 40 50 10,661,655 81,020 1905 ... 5.095,528 26.8 136,651,020 40.3 55,047,166 37 53 42 55* 17,729,360 18,049 1906 ... 6.323,757 28.3 178,916,484 41.5 74, 235, 997 44 56 "■ Prices from 1895 on are for No. 3 grade. Acreage, production, and value of barley in the United States in 1906, by States. State or Territorv. Acreage. Average yield per acre. Production. Average farm price Dec. 1. Farm value Dec. 1. Maine New Hampshire Vermont New York Pennsylvania . . . Maryland Virginia Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri North Dakota. . South Dakota . . Nebraska Kansas Kentucky Tennessee Texas Oklahoma Montana Wyoming Colorado Acres. 7,661 1,507 12, 810 86, 193 8,518 1,436 2,398 21,775 8,486 25,298 70,000 728,000 1,128,265 556,000 1,048 013,000 790,000 120,000 359,000 673 1,045 4,001 15,666 14,313 3,000 18,531 Bushels. 31.5 21.4 32.8 26.3 25.0 31.0 28.6 30.0 29.4 30.0 26.1 30.7 28.0 28.3 24 2 25.8 29.0 28.0 23.5 26.0 23.0 24.5 29.8 33.0 31.4 41.0 Bushels. 241, 322 32,250 420,168 2, 266, 876 212, 950 44, 516 68,583 653,250 249, 488 758, 940 1,827,000 22, 349, 600 31, 591, 420 15, 734, 800 39,882 15, 815, 400 22,910,000 3, 360, 000 8, 436, 500 17, 498 24, 035 112, 724 466, 847 472, 329 94,200 759, 771 Cents. 05 64 62 55 55 47 56 46 52 42 49 45 35 35 48 33 32 31 33 55 60 61 33 56 04 54 Dollars. 156, 859 20, 640 260,504 1,246,782 117, 122 20, 923 38, 400 300, 495 129, 734 318, 755 895, 230 10,057,320 11, 056, 997 5, 507, 180 19, 143 5, 219, 082 7,331,200 1,041,600 2,784,045 9,624 14,421 08,762 154,060 264, 504 00,288 410, 276 572 TEAEBOOK OF THE PEPABTMEXT OF AGBICULTfEE. production, and value of barley in the United States in 1906. by State*— Can. State or Territory. Acr- - Average yield per acre. Prod action. Average farm price Dec. 1. Farm value Dec. 1. Ac- hod 13.404 12.000 7.089 47.028 59:862 1.425.000 1 29 42.2 44.0 36.8 41.0 36.5 35-0 27.2 Bushels. 15.012 ' " - 528.000 260.875 1.C-- " ■ 2 1 2.095.170 - 7-0.000 Cents. ! 54 58 - 54 Dollars. 9.45S ^°9.893 285. 120 180.004 ington 964.074 1.089. 4S8 20. 930. 400 United Stains 23,757 178 N B4 41.5 74. 235. 997 Average yield per acre of barley in the United States. 1897—1906, by States. - 1 :e or Territory. > ■• ■>■'-. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. Mai- Bush. 2-5.0 22 • .- ■ 34.5 25.0 24.5 Bush. 27.0 23.5 30.0 24.5 .* : 25.2 19.4 Bush. 29.0 25.0 31.0 30.0 :•■ : 24.0 21.0 Bush. 27.4 22.7 29.1 .- • 28.0 22.0 19.0 Bush. 27.5 21.5 • 29.6 Bush. 29.4 21.2 29.7 Bush. 29.9 19.8 29.2 Bush. 32.7 20.7 33.1 Bush. 29.0 20.8 31.5 Bush. 31.5 21.4 32.8 V--- Y-rV 14.0 17.2 18.0 24.9 24.9 25.4 24.5 22.8 27 2 25 : 23.6 1 : 28.2 22. 4 16' 0 15.9 19.4 16.8 13.5 22.0 39.0 32.5 B " 31.7 35.0 33.0 40.2 43.5 30.6 26.0 28.5 21.0 27.0 18.3 32.3 2S.0 28.6 33.8 28.6 26.3 25.0 31.6 29.2 31.1 16.0 2-5.9 21. S 36.0 37.0 24.4 16.1 25.2 32.1 34.3 46.3 43.7 31.9 ! 26.6 21.3 25.9 24.4 23.3 22.8 28.2 25.2 27.7 25.3 23.4 18.3 21.6 31.4 26.6 31.9 21.4 20.6 24.4 26.9 40.2 21.3 3S.3 23.1 32.8 37.5 34.6 34.4 37.9 33.2 25.7 26.8 22.6 21.8 24.7 27.5 29.2 27.1 24.1 30.0 28 -. 23 - 20.3 28.1 28.0 27.4 21.6 20.6 22.0 31.0 30.1 29.9 30.1 37.1 23.6 33.6 38.3 35.9 37.4 34.8 28.7 22.7 25.7 25.0 31.0 28.0 - - 28.0 30.0 27.0 29.9 27.0 26.0 23.0 28.0 30.0 27.5 22.0 24.0 21.6 24.0 26.0 33.0 31.7 33.0 21.0 44.0 37.0 34.0 40.0 40.0 31.0 21.5 26.3 25.0 31.0 a Ohio a - 19.0 25.0 21.5 28.0 25.5 24.0 19.0 22.5 20.0 22.0 17.5 20.0 18.0 25-0 28.7 23.4 27.3 25.2 29.1 28.4 26.0 20.0 . - 23.0 27.1 28.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 - 25.0 29.0 24.0 30.0 25.0 26.0 18.0 24.0 23.0 26.0 17.0 21.0 11.0 18.0 27.0 .-. 25.6 23.9 25.5 22.4 26.4 20.8 8.2 14.3 17.6 21.5 -• 14.7 24.6 30.0 20.4 30.0 30.7 28.0 Iowa iri -■ 24.2 25.8 290 28.0 23.5 . 23.0 SM.S 29.8 M mtana 380 36.0 350 33.0 31.4 32.5 30.5 33.8 28.0 32.0 24.8 29.0 41.0 - 42.2 Utah . 31.0 35.0 45.0 32.5 23.0 37.0 35.0 39.8 29.1 10.5 33. 0 35.0 35.0 .- " ; 26.0 36.5 - ■ 33.4 > - 16.7 44.0 lington Oregon California 36.8 41.0 36-5 35.0 27.2 24 r 21.6 25.5 20.4 25.6 29.0 26.4 '- ~ :■ * 2S.3 ot value per acre of barley in the U States, based upon farm \ oJ .her 1, n rr-i state or Terntorv. 1900. 1901. 1902. titit 1904. 1905. Maine New Hampshire . Vermont Vi;;. :"--:5---?. . P.i.: -.-: '.-..--.. . . New York i ~".=j.~i.~::-. . . . Maryland Virginia Ohio 13.50 13.11 22.77 15.12 10.50 9.55 13.63 14.10 16.17 17. OS 12.10 8.54 S17. 11 16.25 16.12 -■: 4' 20.30 12.00 10.29 16.99 ;$1S.43 $19.99 15.21 17.20 15.90 15. 13 19. 54 18. 12 17. 80 21.56 11.22 9.50 121.23 $23.22 $19.72 $20.48 16.63 15.53 15.18 13.70 17.52 21.8-5 21.18 20.34 11.69 12.(3 12.t 1S9S ■ - 1899 • " 1900 . " 1901 ... 1902 36.9 1903 .. i 1904 1905 35.9 \verage 25.1 13.3 33.1 22.3 22.4 B i :-: • 3 Winchester bushels. : UBds. Wholesale :irley per bushel in hading citi.es of tin Dmtt 1908-1906. Cincinnati. Chicago. ?t. Lords. ' _■ . ' - - .: _• San Fran- Date. EltT;. - spring. Ha Malting. medium to choice. - - Low. High. Low. High. Low. High. Low. High. Low. High. 1902. Cents. Cents. 67 70 Cent*. ■ ■ ■• 61 64 64 48 41 38 35 35 36 45 47 46 46 48 49 47 47 a 46 43 42 37 40 40 38 38 35 36 38 38 37 38 38 38 37 40 40 40 43 Cents. 65} 64 67 70 ". 71 73 65 63 60 58 70 56 55 55 56 54 53 57 63 . 61} 61} 61 61 54 60 59 59 I 54 53 52 50 48 49} 50 50 CenU. Cents. 59 66 56 >-.:■• 54 51 51 a 56 50 41 35 a; 32 30 30 35 -. 40 40 40 40 34 54 40 35 33 30 32 36 34 33 33 32 a 30 33 32 32 33 33 36 37 36 39 Cents. - . B -. il 67 52 63 62 69 60 60 -- 00 > ■- 0 52 :' 55 '" a 57 " 0 ••• 54 - . ■- *_ 50 53 56 47 46 if 45 45 44 44 46 46 $0-80 .90 M E n 67 ! 69 70 74 69 69 . -: 95 1.02} 60 • 1.03} : .-. 92} 1.01J Julv 92} 1.00 55 55 55 55 55 56 56 55 55 55 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 62 62 62 52 67 50 62 i- 61 61 50 61 50 61 50 61 48 4S 57 96} 1.15 . 1.25 LIS} 1.30 -'-■ - -: 1903. No. 1 feed. L15 - Llli 1.05 1.05 .90 • 97} : :■-: : :>H i.iii L10 1.07} 1 r-; L«f .95 1.05 1 " : .-.- : j L16i Mav 1.UJ . :> JulT L10 1.13* 61 62 60 60 - . ■ - 62 62 71 69 69 69 69 69 69 69 69 69 55 - 1.16J 54 65 50 64 49 63 48 65 50 65 4S 64 1 1.16} 1.15 LIS 1904 L13i L15 1.15 April : :- Mav : M 1.06i July 1 03} 59 59 45 ! 54 44 1.10 1.12} 55 55 55 52 a 52 52 54 54 62 60 60 58 58 58 58 58 58 i m L13j _ 1905. 45 45 47 53 ■<53 51 48 i aj : -■ : :>: 1 ■ May l ■ June. . . L35 STATISTICS OF RYE. 575 Wholesale prices of barley per bushel in leading citus of the United States. 1902-1906 — Continued. Date. Cincinnati. | Chicago. Extra No. 3. spring. No. 3. Low. High. Low. High. St. Louis. Malting, medium to choice. Low. High. Minneapolis. San Fran- cisco. No. 1, feed (per cwt.). Low. ' High. Low. High. July August September. October . . . November. December. . 1905 January . . . February . . March April May June July August September. October... November . December. . 1906. Cents. 54 54 54 54 54 54 Cents. 58 58 58 58 58 58 52 61 52 61 56 62 07 62 Cents. 40 37J 374 36* 374. 37 Cents. 52 50 52 53 55 53 51 53 53 55j 58 54 53 55 56 56 56 Cents. Cents. 46 45 45 a 414 a46" a 47 a 41 a36 46 45 46 49 534 52" 534 o42 a 47 <• 51 a45 <»38 57 58 58 58§ Cents. 35 30 32 32 34 34 Cents. 48 48 47 $1.10 1.021 1.05" 1.10 j 1. 224J 1.22J $1.30 1.10 1.13| 1.30 1.27J 1.27J a Feed barley. RYE. Rye crop of countries named, 1902-1906. [Substantially the crop of the world.] Country. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. NOETH AMERICA. Bushels. 33,631,000 Bushels. 29,363,000 Bushels. 27,242.000 Bushels. 28,486,000 Bushels. 33, 375, 000 Canada: Ontario Manitoba Other 3,620,000 51,000 800,000 3,064,000 51,000 800,000 2,065,000 130.000 800,000 1,769,000 179.000 800,000 1,369,000 104,000 800,000 4,471.000 3,915,000 2,995,000 2,748,000 2.273,000 Mexico 100,000 136,000 67,000 60,000 60,000 38,202,000 33, 414, 000 30, 304, 000 31,294,000 35,708,000 EUROPE. Austria-Hungary: 82, 482, 000 49,458,000 3,049,000 257,000 81,130,000 47,355,000 3,386,000 396,000 91,685.000 43,880.000 2,038,000 360,000 98, 192, 000 54,089,000 2,537,000 374,000 99,246,000 51,962,000 2,409,000 Bosnia-Herzegovina 395,000 Total Austria-Hungary... 135,246,000 132,267,000 137,963,000 155,192,000 154,012,000 22. 374, 000 8,000,000 18,779,000 8,841,000 47,051,000 373, 768, 000 3,200,000 13,971,000 776,000 6,958,000 21,756,000 7,750.000 19, 305, 000 10,598,000 57,951,000 389, 923, 000 4,000.000 13,973,000 857,000 7,145,000 21,988.000 7,772,000 16,546,000 10,362,000 52,141,000 396,075,000 3,000,000 13,517,000 717,000 2,201,000 21,349,000 7,541,000 19,245,000 9,000.000 58,116,000 378,204,000 4,000,000 13,742,000 982,000 7,344,000 22, 000, 000 Bulgaria 10,818,000 19,000,000 Finland 10,000,000 51,095,000 378, 948, 000 Italy Netherlands Norway Roumania 4,000,000 14,000.000 800,000 8,900,000 576 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGBICUI/TUKB. Rye crop of countries named, 1902-1906 — Continued. Country. 1902. 1903. 1904. 190.x 1906. ECROPE— continued. Russia: Bushels. S10.537.000 75.2-57.000 ■'4.000 Bu-'hels. 803.290.000 69.100.000 7.49-8.000 Bu< 893,205.000 76.606.000 8.179.000 Bu~ n, ooo -S.OOO "■3.000 Bushel*. 56S.200.000 Poland.'. * 6.400.000 Total Russia ^European). S'i4. 448.000 829,894,000 CC7.OQ0.000 70S. 709, 000 638,400,000 Servia 1.084.000 i 1,091.000 1.031.000 Spain 36,187,000 22.511.000 14.1S5.OO0 Sweden 22.293.000. 23.9X1.000 20.708.000 Crrted Kingdom 2.000.000 2.000.000 2.000.000 Total Europe ASIA. Russia: Central Asia Siberia 1,103.000 1.560.000 26.500.000 31.S2S.000 24.393.000 26.247.000 2.000.000 2.000.000 1.584.970.000 1. 594.381. 000 1.078.196.000 1,437.420.000 1.373.008,000 1.489.000 23.080.000 1.066.000 30,982,000 1.088.000 29.300.000 690.000 28.043.000 000. 000 29,900.000 Total Russia v Asiatic) ! Total Asia 24.569.000 32.048.000 30.448.000 28.733.000 30. 500. 000 24.569.000 32.048.000 30.44S.000 28.733.000 30.500.000 ArSTEA.LA.SIA. Australia: Queensland New South Wales Victoria Western Australia Tasmania Total Australian Com- monwealth. New Zealand. 28,000 40.000 21.000 33.000 05.000 Total Australasia. 98.000 118.000 152.000 118.000 164.000 Grand total 1,647.S45.000 1,659.961.000 1.739.100.000 1,497,565,000 1,439,980,000 7.000 35.000 22.000 5.000 9.000 2.000 83.000 31.000 4.000 11.000 1.000 35.000 32.000 5.000 12.000 2.000 39.000 15.000 3.000 13.000 51.000 30.000 5.000 11.000 70,000 78.000 131,000 85.000 99.000 Visible supply of rye in the United States (nwi Canada, first of each month, for ten years." Month. 1897-98. 1898-99. 1899-1900. 1900-1901. 1901-2. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bu*~: Julv 2.404.000 9SS.O0O 904.000 806.000 August 1,946.000 305.000 638.000 725.000 753.000 iber 2.499.000 721.000 1 1,056.000 1.804.000 3.004.000 3.832.000 894.000 1.200.000 962.000 1.906.000 1.210.000 1.513.000 2.440.000 November . -3.000 December 3.932.000 1.212.000 -■2.000 1.754.000 Januarv 4.430.000 1.573.000 -"<.000 "1.000 3.257.000 Febrnirv 4.291.000 1.570.000 1.734.000 1,530.000 .70.000 March 4.099.000 1.724.000 1.000 1.532.000 - 72.000 April -2.000 1.0.58.000 1.500.000 1.333.000 . ..V.OOO Mar 3.039.000 1.335.000 1.441.000 1.112.000 1.910.000 June 1.520.000 • 975.000 1.206.000 938.000 950.000 Month. 1902-3. 1903-4. 1904-5. 1905-6. 1906-7. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Julv 442.000 926.000 938.000 920.000 1.544.000 Aueust 328.000 S67.000 96S.000 823.000 1.480.000 September 903.000 800.000 1.233.000 1.081.000 29.000 1,362.000 1,828.000 2.159.000 "4.000 2.3-54.000 . .73.000 1.088. 000 1.259.000 ".000 1.744.000 -.3.000 1. "40.000 1.717.000 1,483,000 1 -.80.000 2.055.000 2.525.000 2.504.000 . 2.59.000 1.901.000 1.554.000 1.O2-.000 2.251.000 . " 3.000 2.990.000 . - ".000 2.723.000 2.452.000 1.793.000 1.906.000 -4.000 2.038.000 ■ 1.000 -71.000 April 1.037.000 May 1.8"9.000 1.554.000 1.336.000 1.954.000 1.416.000 2.027.000 1.180.000 1.064.000 1.734.000 a These figures represent stocks available at 62 ot the principal points of accumulation east of the Rocky Mountains, stocks ir. Manitoba elevators, and stocks afloat on lakes and canals, as reported by Bradst reefs. STATISTICS OF RYE. 577 Acreage, production, value, prices, and exports of rye of the Vnited States, 1866-imit:. Year. 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881. 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1SSS 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 Aver- age Acreage. yield per acre. Acres. Bush. 1,548,033 13.5 1,689,175 13.7 1,651,321 13.6 1,657,584 13.6 1,176,137 13.2 1,069,531 14.4 1,048,654 14.2 1,150,355 13.2 1,116,716 13.4 1,359,788 13.0 1,468,374 13.9 1.412,902 15.0 1.622,700 15.9 1,625,450 14.5 1.767,619 13.9 1,789,100 11.6 2,227,894 13.4 2,314,754 12.1 2,343,963 12.2 2, 129, 301 10.2 2, 129. 918 11.5 2.053.447 10.1 2,364.805 12.0 2,171.493 13.1 2,141,853 12.0 2,176,466 14.6 2, 163, 657 12.9 2,038,485 13.0 1,944,780 13.7 1, 890, 345 14.4 1,831,201 13.3 1,703,561 16.1 1,643,207 15.6 1,659,308 14.4 1,591,362 15.1 1,987,505 15.3 1,978,548 17.0 1,906,894 15.4 1,792,673 15.2 1,730,159 16.5 2,001,904 16.7 Production. Bushels. 20,864,944 23,184,000 22,504,800 22, 527, 900 15,473,600 15, 365, 500 14,888,600 15.142,000 14,990,900 17,722,100 20,374,800 21,170,100 25,842,790 23, 639, 460 24.540,829 20. 704, 950 29, 960, 037 28,058,582 28,640,000 21,756.000 24,489,000 20,693.000 28,415,000 28,420,299 25,807,472 31,751,868 27,894,037 26, 555, 446 26,727,615 27,210,070 24,369,047 27, 363, 324 25, 657, 522 23,961,741 23, 995, 927 30,344,830 33, 630, 592 29,363,416 27,241,515 28,485,952 33,374,833 age farm price per bush- el, Dec.l. Cents 82.2 100.4 94.9 77.0 73.2 71.1 67.6 70.3 77.4 67.1 61.4 57.6 52.5 65.6 75.6 93.3 61.5 58.1 51.9 57.9 53.8 54.5 58.8 42.3 62.9 77.4 54.2 51.3 50.1 44.0 40.9 44.7 46.3 51.0 51.2 55.7 50.8 54.5 68.8 61.1 58.9 Farm value, Dec. 1. Dollars. 17,149,716 23, 280, 584 21,349,190 17,341,861 11,326,967 10, 927, 623 10,071,061 10, 638, 258 11,610,339 11,894,223 12,504,970 12,201,759 13,566,002 15,507,431 18,564.560 19,327,415 18,439,194 16. 300, 503 14,857.040 12, 594, 820 13,181,330 11,283.140 16,721,869 12,009,752 16, 229, 992 24,589,217 15,103,901 13, 612, 222 13,395,476 11,964,826 9, 960, 769 12, 239, 647 11,875,350 12,214,118 12,295.417 16,909,742 17,080,793 15, 993, 871 18, 748, 323 17,414.138 19,671.243 Chicago cash price per bushel, No. 2. December. Low. High as. cts. 132 1064 66 67 62 57! 70 93 67 65! 55! 44 73J 82 96* 57 56J 51 58! 53 55* 50- 44 644 86 46 45 474. 32 37 ; 453 524 49 45? 59 48 50J 73 64 61 157 118 77i 74 63J 70 81 99| 68r 73 56J 44J 81 91! 98 58! 60 53 61 54! 61! 52 45! 68! 92 51 47! 49 35s 42! 47 55! 52 49f 65| 49| 524 75 68 65 May of following year. Low J High as. 142 173 100 78 81 75 68! 91 103 61! 70 54 47 73! 115 77 62 60! 68 58 54! 63 39 49! 83 70J 50! 44! 62! 33 323 48 56! 53 51! 54I 482 69s 70 58 as. 150 185 115! 83! 91 93 70 102 107! 70! 92! 60 52 85 118 83 67 62! 73 61 56! 68 41* 54 92 79 62 48 67 364 35! 75 62 561 54 58 50! 78 84 62 Domestic exports, in- cluding rye flour, fiscal yea r beginning Julvl. Bushels. 234,971 564,901 92, 869 199,450 87, 174 832, 689 611, 749 1,923,404 267, 058 589, 159 2,234,856 4,249,684 4,877,821 2,943,894 1,955,155 1,003.609 2,206,212 6,247,590 2,974,390 216, 699 377, 302 94, 827 309,266 2,280,975 358, 263 12,068,628 1,493,924 249, 152 32,045 1,011,128 8, 575, 663 15,562,035 10,169,822 2, d82, 012 2, 345, 512 2,712,077 5,445,273 784,068 29, 749 1,387,826 Acreage, production, and value of rye in the United States in 1906, by States. State or Territory. Yermont Massachusetts Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania Delaware Maryland Virginia West Virginia North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri 3 A1906 37 Acreage. A cres. 1,754 3,977 10, 569 138, 081 78,363 346, 265 1,037 19, 704 16,407 11.336 15,427 4,015 14,206 52,000 65,000 64,324 400,000 267,427 88,448 52,711 18,000 Average yield per acre. Bushels. 17.4 15.0 18.0 17.6 17.2 17.4 15.0 14.7 13.4 12.2 11.0 8.5 8.3 19.5 17. C 17.0 14.5 17.0 19.3 18.6 15.8 Production. Bushels. 30,520 59,655 190,242 2. 430, 226 1,347,844 6,025,011 15,555 289,649 219,854 138,299 169,697 34,128 117,910 1,014,000 1,105,000 1.093,508 5,800,000 4.546,259 1,707,046 980, 425 284,400 Average farm price Dec. 1. Cents. 62 65 66 65 61 64 64 60 70 70 85 125 105 57 58 56 59 58 50 50 60 Farm value Dec. 1. Dollars. 18,922 38, 776 125,560 1,579,647 822, 185 3,856,007 9,955 173, 789 153, 898 96,809 144, 242 42,660 123,806 577,980 640,900 612, 364 3,422,000 2,636,830 853,523 490.212 170. 640 578 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Acreage, production, and value of rye in the United States in 1906, by States — Continued. State or Territory. North Dakota - South Dakota. Nebraska Kansas Kentucky Tennessee Alabama Texas Oklahoma Arkansas Montana Wyoming Colorado Utah Idaho Washington . Oregon California . . . United States 2,001,904 Acreage. Average yield per acre. Production. Average farm price Dec. 1. Farm value Dec. 1. Acres. Bushels. BusheU. Cents. Dollars. 23,200 18.7 433.840 47 203. 905 33,084 18.8 621.979 45 279.891 95,000 21.0 1,995,000 44 877,800 64,142 16.0 1,026,272 50 513, 136 10, 675 15.2 162,260 70 113, 582 10,036 13.0 130,468 74 96,546 1,673 12.5 20.912 105 21,958 4,728 14.6 69,029 85 58,675 2,9.55 13.9 41,074 57 23.412 1,971 12.0 23,652 83 19.631 2,021 20.5 41,430 66 27.344 428. 19.0 8,132 72 5,855 2,179 20.0 43,580 56 24.405 3,775 24.0 90,600 65 58,890 1,575 25.2 39,690 60 23,814 2,678 19.6 52,489 65 34, 118 10.049 17.2 172, 843 74 127,904 62,684 12.8 S02.355 71 569,672 2,001,904 16.7 33, 374, 833 58.9 19,671,243 Condition of the rye crop of the United States, monthly, 1888-1907. Year. Decem- ber of previous year. April. May. June. July. August. When har- vested. 1888 Per cent. 96.0 97.2 96.4 99.0 88.8 89.4 94.6 96.2 94.9 99.8 Per cent. 93.5 93.9 92.8 95.4 87.0 85.7 94.4 87.0 82.9 88.9 92.1 84.9 84.8 93.1 85.4 97 9 82.3 92.1 90.9 92.0 Per cent. 92.9 96.5 93.5 97.2 88.9 82.7 90.7 88.7 87.7 88.0 94.5 85.2 88.5 94.1 83.4 93.3 81.2 93.5 93.0 88.0 Per cent. 93.9 95.2 92.3 95.4 91.0 84.6 93.2 85.7 85.2 89.9 97.1 84.5 87.6 93.9 88.1 90.6 86.3 95.3 89.9 Per cent. 95.1 96.7 92.0 93.9 92.8 85.3 87.0 80.7 83.8 93.4 94.6 84.9 84.0 93.5 90.3 89.3 89.1 92.9 91.3 Per cent. 91.4 95.4 86.8 89.6 89.8 78.5 79.8 84.0 88.0 89.8 93.7 89.0 76.0 83.6 90.5 87.2 91.8 92.6 90.8 Per cent. 92.8 1889 91.6 1890 85.4 1891 95.1 1892 88.5 1893 82.0 1894 86.9 1895 83.7 1896 82.0 1897 90.1 1898 89.4 1899 98.9 98.2 99.1 89.9 98.1 92.7 90.5 95.4 96.2 82.0 1900 84.2 1901 84.9 1902 90.2 1903 84.1 1904 86.9 1905 90.8 1906 90.5 1907 . . Average yield of rye in certain countries, in bushels per acre, 1896-1905. Year. United States. Russia. Ger- many. Austria. Hungary. France. Ireland. 1896 <«) 13.3 16.1 15.6 14.4 15.1 15.3 17.0 15.4 15.2 16.5 10.9 9.3 10.5 12.8 12.5 14.0 12.5 12.2 13.7 10.1 22.7 21.8 24.2 23.6 22.9 22.4 24.5 26.3 26.3 24.9 TO 16.3 13.9 17.7 18.7 13.0 16.9 18.2 18.2 19.3 20.2 TO 18.2 13.5 16.9 17.7 15.1 15.8 19.1 18.2 17.1 19.2 TO 18.7 13.4 18.3 18.2 16.9 16.7 14.3 18.1 16.6 18.5 TO 25.4 1897 21.6 1898 25.8 1899 25.8 1900 25.6 1901 27.4 1902 28.0 1903 26.9 1904 26.0 1905 27.0 15.4 11.8 24.0 17.2 17.1 17.0 26.0 a Winchester bushels. 6 Bushels of 56 pounds. STATISTICS OF RYE. 579 Average yield per acre of rye in the United States, 1897-1906, by States. State or Territory. Maine New Hampshire. Vermont Massachusetts. . Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania... Delaware Maryland Virginia West Virginia. .. North Carolina.. South Carolina. . Georgia Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri North Dakota... South Dakota... Nebraska Kansas Kentucky Tennessee Alabama Texas Oklahoma Arkansas Montana Wyoming Colorado Utah Idaho Washington Oregon California General average 16. 1 Bush. 13.5 18.0 16.0 19.5 19.0 18.5 17.0 19.0 17.0 11.0 11.5 8.8 6.6 7.4 18.0 13.0 15.5 15.0 16.0 17.2 16.0 12.0 14.5 16.5 17.0 14.0 13.0 10.0 9.6 12.0 Busk. 18.0 17.5 19.1 16.7 18.0 17.5 15.5 16.1 14.5 11.2 11.2 9.1 8.5 8.0 17.4 15.5 14.8 15.3 15.3 20.5 19.0 13.1 15.0 16.6 18.8 15.6 13.0 10.5 11.1 12.0 Bush. 15.0 15.0 17.0 16.0 18.0 16.0 15.0 15.0 1900. 14.0 9.0 10.0 7.0 5.0 6.0 16.0 13.0 15.0 14.0 15.0 18.0 18.0 13.0 15.0 15.0 16.0 11.0 10.0 9.0 8.0 10.0 11.0 ! 11.4 11.0 15.0 12.0 18.0 19.5 19.5 15.0 12.2 18.0 14.4 9.0 14.0 17.0 Bush. 17.2 17.1 16.6 16.9 17.0 15.1 15.9 15.3 16.0 11.0 15.0 16.5 10.5 10.5 8.9 7.5 7.0 16.6 15.1 17.2 14.6 15.8 19.5 18.0 14.0 5.2 10.6 14.2 15.2 13.1 11.0 7.8 16.5 11.5 16.8 17.5 16.3 16.1 13.0 1901. Bush. 18.3 15.9 18.0 14.9 15.0 15.9 15.3 14.4 11.1 12.0 8.5 7.7 7.6 16.9 14.5 17.0 14.0 15.9 19.3 18.4 14.2 13.8 14.4 15.0 14.3 14.0 11.3 8.0 11.1 14.8 8.7 26.7 24.0 16.1 14 2 15. 0 17.5 15.7 12.8 15.3 1902. Bush. 16.9 15.2 17.4 17.5 16.4 16.0 13.5 14.0 9.6 8.1 8.2 7.6 6.3 17.5 14.5 19.1 17.9 18.9 22.3 17.4 18.2 20.2 18.8 20.3 12.0 13.4 11.0 10.0 9.9 16.0 12.3 25.0 18.0 15.9 12.4 20.2 17.8 13.4 12.0 17.0 1903. Bush. 19.4 13.7 17.0 15.2 13.8 15.6 14.8 13.7 12.2 11.5 8.8 7.6 7.9 15.3 12.6 16.5 15.5 16.6 18.4 16.9 12.8 15.7 20.2 14.2 16.2 11.6 13.4 10.6 14.2 17.9 9.7 24.6 18.0 18.3 16.1 18.5 21.0 14.2 12.3 1904. Bush. Bush. 16.9 17.0 16.9 14.8 17.5 15.5 11.8 14.8 15.7 12.5 9.9 7.5 8.3 16.1 14.6 17.6 13.2 16.2 17.7 17.2 14.4 18.5 16.5 15.8 13.2 13.7 11.7 10.4 13.1 9.4 11.1 19.9 19.5 19.1 16.0 19.7 19.0 14.4 7.6 15.4 15.2 15.0 15.5 18.0 16.0 18.0 17.0 10.0 14.5 11.8 11.8 9.5 8.1 7.7 18.0 15.4 18.0 16.0 16.5 18.2 17.5 15.5 19.5 19.0 18.0 15.7 15.0 12.1 11.7 14.0 12.1 12.0 20.0 23.0 19.0 18.0 25.0 18.5 15.0 13.0 Bush. 17.4 15.0 18.0 17.6 17.2 17.4 15.0 14.7 13.4 12.2 11.0 8.5 8.3 19.5 17.0 17.0 14.5 17.0 19.3 18.6 15.8 18.7 18.8 21.0 16.0 15.2 13.0 12.5 14.6 13.9 12.0 20.5 19.0 20.0 24.0 25.2 19.6 17.2 12.8 16.5 16.7 Average value per acre of rye in the United States, based upon farm value, December 1, 1897-1906, by States. State or Territory. Maine New Hampshire. Vermont Massachusetts. . . Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania Delaware Maryland Virginia West Virginia... North Carolina.. South Carolina.. Georgia Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan Wisconsin. .. Minnesota Iowa Missouri North Dakota... South Dakota... Nebraska Kansas 1897. 1898. j 1899. $15. 12 13.12 11.08 10.52 10.80 8.75 7.75 7.57 $12. 60 12.15 10.54 12.64 11.52 8.96 8.25 7.65 1900. $14.10 14.02 10.13 12.68 11.05 8.46 8.74 8.11 7.82 7.83 7.98 8.58 5.50 5.15 4.77 6.09 5.87 5.82 6.20 6.72 5.28 5.82 5.25 a 76 5.68 8.67 5.45 7.87 6.81 7.84 6.72 7.21 7.92 7.83 8.80 9.13 5.46 a 67 6.24 7.55 6.82 6.51 7.05 8.08 6.30 6.58 7.28 7.01 6.56 6.58 7.20 7.74 6.36 7:79 7.56 8.19 5.76 7.60 7.20 7.38 5.28 6.16 6.50 7.14 5.22 5.40 5.55 2.13 5.78 5.64 5.55 4 13 5.44 6.39 aos 5.68 5.60 5.77 4.62 a 54 1901. $14.64 12.56 12.96 9.24 8.85 9.54 a 87 &06 a 77 7.80 a 63 ass 8.06 9.30 7.68 9.69 7.28 a 27 9.46 9.20 9.51 5.93 6.19 6.90 7.87 1902. $iaoi 12.16 laos 10.15 10.00 a48 a 37 a 12 6.34 5.51 6.97 a 59 6.93 9.27 6.67 9.55 8.77 9.45 9.59 7.31 a 74 a 69 7.71 7.31 5.40 1903. $12. 61 10.00 12.07 9.27 8.83 9.67 9.03 8.08 8.05 & 17 7.39 a 13 9.01 a 87 6.68 ass 7.90 a30 a28 7.44 7.04 6.75 a 08 5.25 7.13 $12. 51 li94 13.35 10.80 12.25 11.01 a 61 11.25 11.62 9.63 a 61 9.45 a 47 11.91 10.07 12.32 9.50 11.18 11.33 10.32 9.22 11.10 9.41 a 69 a58 1905. 1906. $9.75 12.25 U32 10.72 11.88 11.05 6.60 9.43 a38 8.26 a 17 i 9.64 a39 11.16 9.24 10. SO 9.44 9.73 9.65 9.27 9.61 9.75 9.31 8.64 a48 $10. 79 9.75 11.88 11.44 10.49 11.14 9.60 a 82 9.38 a 54 9.35 10.63 a 72 11. 12 9.86 9.52 8.56 9.86 9.65 9.30 9.48 a 79 8.46 9.24 aoo 580 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICUL/TURE. Average value per acre of rye in the United States, based upon farm value, December 1, 1897-1906, by States — Continued. State or Territory. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. $6.89 5.80 11.33 8.64 $7. 15 5.56 1L65 8.52 $7.00 6.03 8.32 8.20 S&2S 7.48 a 03 1L05 $9.& &36 R32 10.32 10.36 7.74 16.02 19.20 a ge 9.23 10.05 10.85 10.36 7.30 $a3i a 03 10.50 7.52 7.52 a9S 16.00 9.00 a90 7. 56 12.12 1L39 9.78 9.00 fa 00 9.92 1L45 10.51 a95 a 15 15.50 12.42 1L16 10.46 12.02 15. 12 ia77 9.47 $10.96 9.24 12.48 11.27 5.83 9.77 15.32 7.80 12.41 10. 72 14.77 15. 01 12. 82 5.93 $10.65 &32 1134 11.90 7.50 1L16 noo 14.26 10.64 1L70 1100 12.95 12.15 10.01 '10 64 Tennessee Texas Oklahoma 9.62 13.12 12.41 7 92 Arti»nqfl<; . a46 7.41 a 14 &28 g •.. Montana 13.53 Wyoming 1168 Colorado Utah 7.80 7.20 aoo 8.97 6.72 8.16 9.07 9.10 11.20 15 60 Idaho 15 12 Washington Oregon California 12.09 8.85 7.93 10.44 10.37 6.30 9.60 7.70 11.70 9.45 9.82 7.54 12.74 12.73 9.09 General average 7.18 7.23 7.36 7.73 a 51 a63 a39 10.46 10.07 9.83 Average farm price of rye per bushel in the United States, December 1, 1897-1906. by States. State or Territory. 1897. 1891 1899. 1900. 190L 1902. 1901 1904. 1905. 1906. Cents. 82 84 60 61 59 48 50 43 Cents. 84 75 58 63 60 50 50 47 Cents. 84 81 62 79 64 56 55 51 Cents. 82 82 61 75 65 56 55 53 Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. New Hampshire Vermont 80 79 72 62 59 60 58 56 61 65 78 111 106 55 53 57 52 52 49 50 67 43 43 46 55 67 74 104 93 70 89 60 80 62 ' 67 62 66 57 77 80 75 58 61 53 62 58 66 68 85 113 110 53 - 50 49 50 43 42 48 43 41 36 45 62 73 105 76 47 73 50 56 '■1 60 64 73 '.' 65 73 71 61 64 62 61 59 66 71 84 107 114 58 53 52 51 50 45 44 55 43 40 37 44 69 74 108 74 50 84 63 69 61 66 65 72 97 77 74 82 79 73 70 71 73 76 74 77 87 126 102 74 69 70 72 69 64 60 64 60 57 55 65 80 79 120 86 62 88 77 40 66 .: 75 79 89 78 65 79 74 67 66 65 66 65 71 TO 86 119 109 62 60 60 59 59 53 53 62 50 49 48 54 71 77 114 85 62 93 65 62 56 65 56 70 81 7, 62 Massachusetts 65 Connecticut 66 65 61 64 64 46 50 51 60 86 92 44 42 44 42 41 37 36 44 36 15 32 40 53 58 118 72 54 46 52 64 102 98 45 43 44 43 43 38 40 47 36 34 34 37 55 53 105 71 57 53 62 75 109 112 55 48 47 52 48 42 40 50 37 37 38 42 70 67 104 82 52 58 64 76 105 103 55 50 47 « 49 42 41 51 41 39 40 43 63 68 103 67 60 70 70 85 125 105 Ohio 57 Indiana Illinois 58 56 59 58 50 50 60 47 45 Kansas 44 .50 70 74 Alabama Texas 105 B6 57 Arkansas 65 74 72 83 66 72 Utah 52 60 50 46 48 4* 54 52 56 65 60 Washington Oregon California 02 59 65 58 70 60 70 n 58 61 58 65 74 71 General average 44.7 46.3 51.0 51.2 55. 7 50.8 54.5 618 61.1 58. 9 STATISTICS OF RYE. 581 Wholesale prices of rye per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906. Philadelphia. ! Cincinnati. Chicago. Date. January... February. . March April May June July August September. October.. . November. December. . 1902. January... February.. March April May June July August September. October... November. December . . January... February . . March April May June July August September. October.. . November. December.. January. . . February . . March April May June July August September. October November. December. . January. .. February.. March April May June July August September. October. . . November. December. . 1903. Low. Cents. 69 68 65 64J 64 58 56 57] 55] 56 54 57 til 61 59 58 56 58i High. No. 2. Cents. 71 70 69 67 66 85 79] 72" 63 65f 70 73} 68 66* 65 63 58.i 58 58 60 56 55| 55] 62 60 61 59 -,s>. 59 ■)»}. r.s.i 58] 61 i 65j 63 60| 60 58 60j 80 72 96 91 87] 87] 90 J m 83" 75" 66 693 76] 76 73 73 67 65 63 62] 62 61] 60 56] 62 62] 65 65 Low High. Low. High. Cents. 66 64 63 62 60 54 55] 51 52] 52 51 51 55] 57} 56 55 54 57 56 55 59] 61 58 59 80 81] 84 80 80 80 60 56 56 67 70 70 Cents. Cents. 71]' 56 67 65 I 64 I 63] 59 [ 58 56 55] 53 54 56 I 59 58] -,sl 58" 58 58 57] 60 63 63 62 62] 64 81 80 78 80 80 78 76] 83 87 87 86 86 86 87 86 83 83 83 60 66 74 74\ 64 62 tit; tiS1, 72" :-2i 56 54] 54] 54] -)f>5 .721 48 49 4S 48] 48 48 48| 485 48 48 49 49 50] 53 53 51] 50] 51 56 66 69 63] 63 62 69] 75 76 73 ~4] 74' 75 73 70 75 58 57] 60 67 (V, 64 Duluth. iSa,n Francisco (percwt.). Low. Cents. 67] 60] 58 57] 58 58 61] 54 50] 50] 51] 49f 503 51] 51] 51 50] 53j 51] 53] 60 56] 58] 52] 75] 78 78] 78] 84 79 75 60 72 73] 72i 68 65 63 621. 62" 62 60 56A 63" m 65 65 Cents 54 53 52 52 54 55} 51} 46 47i 47" 49 48 54] 58 63 64 65 55 55 62 72 77 74 71 72] 73 73] 74 70 70 57] 55> 59 63 62 62 High. I Low. Cents. Cents 64 77] 57] 54] 56 57 56] 58 51 49 49 49J 49" 49 49 49 \ 50] 50 52 50 52] 55] 54 54 52] 57 73 71 68i 69' 67 80 75 77 791 80 74 60 61 59 57 57 57 57 ! 53 56 59] 61 61 92] 85 95 95 85 90 85 105 102] 110 105 110 105 115 112] 115 112] 117 110 117] 110 115 110 115 110 116J 115 120 117] 125 120 130 125 130 125 130 125 130 125 130 127 135 130 135 130 135 130 135 130 135 125 130 125 132] 127] 140 137] 140 137] 145 140 147] 142] 150 145 160 150 160 150 165 155 165 160 175 140 150 147] 152] 150 152] 145 152] 145 147] 145 1.50 1 ;:•;;;;: 582 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTTOE. BUCKWHEAT. Condition of the buckwheat crop of the United States, monthly. 1SS7-1906. When When When Year. Aug. Sept. . har- vested. Year. Aug. Sept. har- vested. Year. Aug. Sept. har- vested. P.cl. P.ct. P. ct. P.ct. P. ct P.ct P.ct. P.ct. P.ct. 1887 93.3 89.1 76.6 1894.... 82.3 69.2 72.0 1901.... 91.1 90.9 90.5 1888. 92.5 93.7 79.1 1S95.... So. 2 S7.5 1902. . . . 91.4 S6.4 80.5 1889 95.2 92.1 90.0 1S96.... 96.0 93.2 S6.0 1903. . . . 93.9 91.0 83.0 1890 90.1 90.5 90.7 1897.... 94.9 95.1 90.8 1904. . . . 92. S 91.5 1891 97.3 96.6 92.7 1898. . . . 87.2 88. S 76.2 1905.... 92.6 91.8 91.6 1S92 92.9 89.0 85.6 1899.... 93.2 75.2 70.2 1906.... 93.2 91.2 1S93 88.8 77.5 73.5 1900.... -" 80.5 72. S Acreage, production, value, and prices of buckwheat in the United States. 1866- Average Year. Acreage. Average yield per acre. Production. farm price per bushel, Dec. 1. Farm value, Dec. 1. Acres. Bushels. Bushels. Dollars. 1866 1.045.624 21.8 22.791,839 67.6 15.413,160 1867 1.227.826 17.4 21.359.000 78.7 16.S12.070 1868 1.113.993 17. S 19.863.700 78.0 15. 490. 426 1869 1.028.693 536.992 16.9 IS. 3 17.431.100 9.841.500 71.9 70.5 12. -534, 851 1870 6.937.471 1871 -. 413.915 20.1 S. 32S. 700 74.5 6, aw 1S72 448, 497 18.1 S. 133. 500 73.5 5. 979. 222 1S73 454.152 17.3 " S7,7O0 75.0 ' £78,629 1S74 452.590 17.7 S. 016. 600 72.9 " -43.645 1875 575.530 17.5 10.0S2.100 62.0 6. 254. 564 1S76 666.441 14.5 9.66S.800 66.6 6. 435. 836 1877 649.923 15.7 10.177.000 66.9 6,808 18 1878 673. 100 18.2 12. 246. 820 52.6 6.441.240 1879 639.900 20.5 13.140.000 59.8 7,856,191 1880 822.802 82S.815 847,132 857.349 914. 394 917. 915 910.506 912. 630 S37.162 S49.364 S61.451 815.614 7S9. 232 763. 277 754. S9S 717,836 678. 332 670. 148 637.930 811.164 B94 389 804.393 793. 625 760. US 789.208 J 11.4 13.0 8.9 12.6 13. S 12.9 11.9 13.2 14.5 14.7 15.0 14.1 14.9 16.1 20.1 18.7 20.9 17.3 16.6 15.0 18.6 18.1 17.7 18.9 19.2 18.6 14.617.535 9.4S6.200 11.019.353 " S.954 11.116.000 12.626.000 11.S69.000 10..44.000 12.050.000 12.110.329 12. 432. 831 12.760.932 12.143.185 12.122.311 12.668.2O0 15.341.399 14,089.783 14.997.451 11.721.927 11.094.473 9.566.966 15. 125. 939 14.529.770 14.243.644 15.008,336 14.585,082 14.641.937 59.4 86.5 73.0 S2.2 58.9 55.9 54.5 56.5 63.3 50.5 57.4 57.0 51.8 58.4 55.6 45.2 39.2 42.1 45.0 55. 7 55.8 56.3 59.6 60.7 62.2 5S.7 59.6 ■ 1881 S. 205. 705 1882. 1883... .. 6. 303. 980 I«JW .. 6.549.020 7.057.363 1886 6.465.120 U87 6. 122. 320 188S 7,623 43 1889 -- 6. 113. 119 1890 7.132.872 1S91 7.271.506 1892 6.295.643 1893 7.074.450 1894 7. 040. 23S 1895 - 6.936.325 1896. 5.522.339 1S97 6.319.188 1898 5.271.462 1899 . 6. 1S3. 675 1900 5.341.413 1901 - r 23. 317 1902 ... 64, 704 1903 ... - 650,733 1904.. 9.330.768 1905 . ■ -5.499 1906 • "27.443 STATISTICS OF BUCKWHEAT. 583 Acreage, production, and value of buckwheat in the United States in 1906, by States. State. Maine New Hampshire . Vermont Massachusetts.. Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania. . . Delaware Maryland Virginia West Virginia... North Carolina. . Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri Nebraska Kansas Tennessee Average Acreage, yield per acre. Acres. 22,783 1,874 | 7,706 2,359 3,350 321, 552 11, 598 252,000 1,331 8,124 18,078 21,131 5,603 13,000 4,315 3,787 52,000 20,842 4,538 9,000 1,501 861 1,348 527 Bush. 28.0 22.0 21.0 20.0 17.0 19.0 18.0 19.0 17.0 18.0 19.0 18.0 14.0 19.0 16.0 19.0 13.0 15.0 14.0 12.0 18.0 15.0 17.0 16.0 Production. Bushels. 637,924 41, 228 161, 826 47,180 56,950 6. 109, 488 208, 764 4. 788, 000 22, 627 146, 232 343,482 380,358 78,442 247,000 69,040 71, 953 676,000 312,630 63,532 108,000 27,018 12,915 22, 916 8,432 Average farm price Dee. 1 Farm value Dec. 1. Cents. 59 73 58 68 75 61 60 57 61 60 58 65 64 57 64 75 55 62 54 76 74 62 74 83 Dollars. 376, 375 30,096 93,859 32,082 42,712 3, 726, 788 125,258 2,729,160 13.802 87,739 199,220 247, 233 50,203 140,790 44,186 53,965 371,800 193, 831 34,307 82,080 19,993 8,007 16, 958 6,999 United States. 789.208 18.6 ' 14,641,937 59. 6 8, 727, 443 Average yield per acre of buckwheat in the United States, 1897-1906, by States. State. Maine New Hampshire . Vermont Massachusetts... Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania Delaware Maryland Virginia West Virginia . . . North Carolina.. Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri North Dakota... Nebraska Kansas Tennessee Oregon 1897. General average 20. 9 Bush. 35.0 27.0 24.0 19.0 17.0 22.0 16.0 21.0 19.0 19.0 14.0 19.0 11.0 18.0 14.0 13.0 17.0 18.0 17.0 17.0 15.0 14.0 18.0 18.0 1899. ! 1900. Bush. 26.5 20.0 21.4 20.0 19.0 16.8 21.0 17.2 16.5 12.2 17.3 20.5 19.5 20.0 18.4 14.0 14.2 15.5 15.0 16.0 15.8 12.8 18.0 14.0 17.3 Bush. 22.0 20.0 23.0 20.0 19.0 13.0 21.0 20.0 18.0 13.0 14.0 17.0 17.0 16.0 16.0 15.0 11.0 15.0 17.0 16.0 14.0 16.0 12.0 17.0 Bush. 30.0 22.0 25.0 17.0 16.0 14.0 16.0 14.0 13.0 15.0 13.0 17.0 13.0 16.0 14.0 15.0 14.0 14.0 15.0 15.0 13.0 16.0 14.0 13.0 16.6 15.0 Bush. 31.7 21.0 25.1 18.9 18.0 18.8 19.0 19.5 17.8 17.5 15.9 20.6 15.6 16.1 13.1 11.0 14.1 12.4 14.5 13.5 6.0 11.5 11.5 7.9 14.2 1902. 1903. 1904. Bush. Bush. Bush. 30.4 29.8 32.5 20.0 19.6 25.1 25.0 24.0 26.3 14.4 13.7 16.2 18.4 17.5 16.3 17.7 18.3 18.8 22.5 18.1 20.8 18.1 16.5 18.8 15.2 15.2 12.1 17.0 16.3 18.2 16.6 18.6 17.0 22.5 17.2 19.1 14.5 12.1 14.7 13.9 16.6 16.9 17.6 16.8 16.1 15.5 15.3 17.9 13.0 15.5 15.4 16.0 15.6 17.7 13.9 15.2 15.1 16.0 15.1 14.8 16.0 14.8 13.5 10.0 12.7 13.5 14.7 19.0 14.7 12.0 18.4 14.0 18.0 14.7 15.5 1905. Bush. 30.0 23.0 19.0 20.0 16.0 19.0 21.0 20.0 17.0 19.0 18.0 19.0 15.0 17.0 17.0 16.0 16.0 15.0 14.0 13.0 16.0 1906. 14.0 11.0 16.0 Bush. 28.0 22.0 21.0 20.0 17.0 19.0 18.0 19.0 17.0 18.0 19.0 18.0 14.0 19.0 16.0 19.0 13.0 15.0 14.0 12.0 18.0 15.0 17.0 16.0 18.1 I 17.7 18.9 19.2 18.6 584 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tgevahupt i States, based upon farm ralue December 1, U 7-1 Stmt*. 189 1904. 1905. 1906. Maine New Hampshire . Vermont.. Massachu> I Connecticut New York New .Terser Pennsylvania Delaware . . . Maryland Yirginia Wesi Virginia. . . North Carolina . . Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan s nsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri N rtfaDftk " Nebraska Kansas Tennessee 1 9.40 10.00 M . 1 • . . 14.00 11.97 i ' 11. 34 u - 10.80 • -. -" " " " ' I B • :. :■ a 9. 35 9.44 • ■ i 6.05 . 7.35 • M ■ . -■ • H 11.44 12.50 . M 10.40 " I 9.44 9.52 r 2» "" 7.14 • . I - " :-. ::..-. ■ . Si 10.01 11.55 U ■ 11.53 11.70 i n ■■ 10.92 7.99 ■ . > ? ■ 4.56 :: y 10.44 14.40 I r N -' - 6. 39 9.44 i . :: ;•: - • - - - I : ■■- ■ " • 11.17 i a - 13.11 14.35 ." i 14.73 11.47 ■ . H " I E : s? -- . ■ u s U M r ■ U. IS LOG - £ :; ;- 11.30 :: :: .: ,': 9.69 14.30 :: '.» . : . 11.30 9.69 i ■ - if - • I . ::■ :; :; General average • i *: '- :• r - ! :.: ••. . ■■ 11-59 ". s 1. S ■ : > :: :•; :. ■ • i : s. . .4 - a ■ u r ■ ■ i 9.12 :. : v -ember 1. 1897—1906t - 51 - • i > • 1899. :h: . .-• : .*.■-. yyy. -y> 44 55 46 S 40 49 42 36 9 50 49 49 m 49 S3 • • 45 49 1 m 47 46 61 '■- 45 H 44 40 53 B - -- 51 51 52 . 40 49 ■ ■ Ocnis. 44 v a a ■ 54 49 I 54 " 49 ■ ■ a 55 63 52 58 49 52 50 a ■ a a "" ■ ■• 61 E H - - 69 m 55 .■: •- " •• . 60 51 \ 1 60 • 'r a ■ - 74 n ■ 64 61 60 . 60 • • a 70 • ■ • 59 " • n 59 - - 63 ■f ■y ■' : H 53 71 "■ 53 69 a ■ - ' -. -. •: ■ 63 64 JJ n 72 TO n 61 63 60 85 • » 71 ■ n ■ n 73 ' 63 • 63 . 66 . S • 53 ' '" 70 ■- 63 69 68 Qeatc ■• .* 75 New York New Jersey 60 -.: •..: ••• West \ irginia a i Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan Wisconsin •- - . 54 Iowa -ri 76 51 - 1 63 "4 Tennessee . . Oregon Z s > 74 g S3 General average £ 1 45.0 ".' s ■ >• J •.. • > s . STATISTICS OF POTATOES. 585 POTATOES. Potato crop of countries named. 1901-1905. [No statistics for Switzerland, Portugal, Argentina, Transvaal, Egypt, and some other less important potato-growing countries.] Country. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. NORTH AMERICA. Bushels. 187,598,000 | Bushels. 284,633,000 Bushels. 247,128,000 Bushels. 332,830,000 Bushels. Canada: Ontario Manitoba New Brunswick. Other" Total Canada . Mexico Newfoundland a . Total North America. SOUTH AMERICA. Chile. EUROPE. Austria-Hungary: Austria Hungary proper Croatia-Slavonia Bosnia-Herzegovina . 18, 688, 000 4,949,000 4,206,000 30,000,000 57,843,000 336,000 1,350,000 247,127,000 10,000,000 13,350,000 3,568,000 4,288.000 30,000,000 17,202,000 4,907,000 4,835,000 30, 000, 000 15,967,000 14,819,000 3,919,000 4,910,000 5,550.000 5,693.000 30,000,000 30,000,000 51,206.000 | 56,944,000 55,436,000 55,422,000 347,000 1,350,000 539,000 1,350,000 337,536,000 305,961,000 11,616,000 10,349,000 437,110,000 | 428,229,000 158,494,000 ' 141,538,000 17,512,000 ' 13,059,000 2,893,000 I 1,793.000 527,000 1,350,000 6 400,000 1,350,000 390,143,000 517,913,000 0,131,000 6,532,000 357.121,000 i 398,298.000 165,386,096 j 110,402,000 19,337,000 I 9,311,000 2,322,000 2,450,000 Total Austria-Hungary. 616.009.000 , 584.619,000 Belgium i 101 , 082, 000 Denmark 22, 002, 000 Finland 16, 325, 000 France 411, 055, 000 Germany 1 . 788, 950, 000 Italy • Malta Netherlands. Norway Roumania... 29.000.000 264,000 94,910.000 24,320,000 3,819,000 83,198,000 27,168,000 15,298,000 441,534,000 1,596,969,000 29,000,000 361,000 94,756,000 17,735,000 4,659.000 544,166,000 520,461,000 86, 580, 000 25,256,000 19,212,000 450,262,000 1,576,361,000 29, 000. 000 • 628, 000 73,394,000 22,851,000 5,246,000 91,632.000 24,214,000 15, 465, 000 451,039,000 1,333,326,000 29,000,000 733,000 94,421,000 17,253,000 3,001,000 581,822,000 168,221,000 6 15,000,000 2,485,000 767,528,000 57,159,000 29,953,000 16,500,000 6 438,000,000 1,775,579,000 29,000,000 387,000 87,043,000 25,832,000 3,733,000 Russia: Russia proper Poland Northern Caucasia . 566,926,000 723,435,000 287,712,000 ! 288.447.000 10,801.000 16,154.000 675,330.000 | 705,170,000 I 686,502,000 194,829,000 : 179,997,000 I 331,529,000 17,441,000 ! 8,741,000 14,857.000 Total Russia (European!.1 865,439,000 1,028,036.000! 887,600,000 1 893,908,000 Servia . . Spain 6. Sweden. 1.237,000 84.000,000 43.793.000 1,402,000 84,000.000 51.377.000 1,527,000 | 718,000 84,000,000 84,000,000 59,317,000 51,314,000 United Kingdom: Great Britain 137, 060, 000 | 119. 250, 000 Ireland , 125,896,000 j 101,761,000 108,779,000 88,227,000 133,961,000 98, 635, 000 Total United Kingdom... 262.956,000 j 221,011.000 197,006,000 232,596,000 Total Europe 4,365,161,000 4,281,123,000 |4, 062, 406, 000 3,843,081,000 Japan 10, 153, 000 Russia (Asiatic) 14,273,000 7.41S.000 13,142,000 9,824,000 19,364,000 11,274,000 18,800,000 Total Asia. 24.426.000 ! 20.560.000 ; 29.188,000 30,074.000 Algeria 1,673,000 i 1.851,000 1,596,000 1,655,000 Cape of Good Hope d 1.600, 000 | dl, 600,000 dl. 600,000 I 1,942,000 Natal 316,000 433,000 345,000 451,000 Total Africa . 3,589,000 3,884,000 3.541,000 4,048,000 1,032,8SS,000 1,232,000 84,000,000 74,819,000 140,474,000 127, 793, 000 268,267,000 4,691,920 000 6 10,000, 0(H) 18,865,000 28,865,000 6 1,700,000 02,000,000 466,000 4,166,000 o Estimated from returns for census year. 6 Average production. c Average, 1896-1900. d Estimated from statistics for 1899 and 1904. 0S*:' YEABBOOK OF THE DEPABTMENT OF AGBICTTLT"CRE. Potato crop of count™ * named. 1901-1905 — Continued. 1905. LU8KAUUU ,. L~--i-i.LL L Victoria ... r-_:u:i .-. :-:r_. u . . . Western Australia . I -, g — --.-' --. monveatth Ham Beatond : 7i. .-.-L=-.Ti..i.i:-:. . flaafeeb. 74? 0 . I 0 5.397,00 ■-- 0 304 0 9U» - 562.000 214.000 i .-. 0 .i ■ 122.000 i H7 a e.mooo •- o .-. a 105 •' '1 I 659.000 2.118.000 262 0 I 1". 0 170.000 • 0 ::• ■■ :o: i; .r4 >:»: :-: :•:■■ :o :: -■:•- >:• Bushels. 718.000 1.820.000 - 7.000 210.000 4.127.000 11,984 a a ■ •• 1: '" D 11.071.000 - -.: :•:•: - nr M 7.7&r •:>: r HI " 5.025.000 16.0%, 000 irand total 4.699.938,000 4,673,9" 0 .13.000 4.295.279.000 5. 0f». 492,000 Acreage, production, value, prices, exports. ttatoesofikt " --ales. 1866-1906. r- Chicago price per - bushel Burbank. 1 : \ .•-..: Imports valoe Dee. 1. during -' - Deoer May of fol- lowing fiscal vear be- fiscal year be- ■ ginning ginning Julv 1. July 1. 1 Low. High. Low. High. ~s:\<~,>- '.'::. DoOart. Butkels. Bushels. ■ ',..; :;;■ - , ■ - ■ ' ::_ is ■ . ' ■■-■_-- •J - - . -■ 378.605 209,555 1 ■■-.- .... i " i ". _ . M f) . i - j -.-i • II ■- -• •-> ;>,i 75.336 - ■■- r - - ... " 74 za . - 1 • 1 • 553. 070 ■ - ' " 621.537 96.259 _ -. ' : " : ■ ' " . 12 515,306 ■ - • •_- - - . . . Klffj i:' I ' " i ' ■ -- : 22 53 609.642 M ] \ -i lies " - ! -_ - - 827 00 -"■ - 77,31 '-. 74 272 '. " 1 " 744.409 . ■-■ : "■ ■■<- - :- :., i.- o •• " 72 . ■-- 625.342 :■"-. . . . : '< 803.111 3.002.578 . - - -. - -.- 53.6 '. 783 43 58 40 70 572.957 1.341.533 .' - ..-■ 1 .'-" . " " -- - 73.984.901 IS 24 10 23 BH MB 175.240 " i'J ' ■ ' " _ -j. J- ' 72 182,350 18 26 19 26 926.646 246.178 - '4 ' : 1.059 30 62 60 B 605.187 1.171.378 ... ... .. ' "-'. . <■ 41.4 . .. 30 36 33 52 53 ■ 530.420 s.a ■ . 35 46 27 39 155.861 J 1 ■ ' -• 4 : ' 11.167 40 48 35 00 741.483 371,911 " J " . - - . ;i" • - 14 "h.470 IS 82 38 100 '.■ 184 7,656.162 J ■ "i" O : 134.111.436 42 48 4. 60 843.075 358.505 • u vs 151.'- • 60 66 95 116 484,042 3. 166, 581 ■ 4^ ■. ; . r 45.3 13 -3.392 32 38 20 25 23 1S1.199 ' 'Ji .' ..... --- ■ " !■..: -.1 .'s: 55 66 4* 73 1.000.326 .->• . . . . 3.01-3,130 002.2 :: 1 157.347.392 40 43 STATISTICS OF POTATOES. 587 Condition of the potato crop of the United States, monthly, 1889-1906. Year. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Year. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. P. ct. P. ct. P. ct. P. ct. P. ct. P. ct. P. ct. P. ct. 1889 95. 1 94.3 81.7 77.9 1898 95.5 83.9 77.7 72. .") 1890 91.7 77.4 65.7 61.7 1899 93.8 93.0 86.3 81.7 1891 95. 3 96.5 94.8 91.3 1900 91.3 88.2 80.0 74.4 1892 90.0 86.8 74.8 67.7 1901 87.4 62.3 52.2 54.0 1893 94. 8 86.0 71.8 71.2 1902 92.9 94.8 89.1 82.5 1S94 92.3 74.0 62.4 64.3 1903 88.1 87.2 84.3 74. 6 1895 91.5 89.7 90.8 87.4 1904 93.9 94.1 91.6 89.5 1896 99.0 94.8 83.2 81.7 1905 91.2 87.2 80.9 74.3 1897 87.8 1 77.9 66.7 61.6 1906 91.5 89.0 85.3 82.2 Acreage, production, and value of potatoes in the United States in 1906, by States. State or Territory. Maine New Hampshire . Vermont Massachusetts. . Rhode Island... Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania . . . Delaw'are Maryland Virginia West Virginia North Carolina . . South Carolina . . Georgia Florida Ohio Indiana . . . Illinois Michigan.. Wisconsin . Minnesota. Iowa. Missouri North Dakota . . . South Dakota. . . Nebraska Kansas Kentucky Tennessee Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas Indian Territory. Oklahoma Arkansas Montana Wyoming Colorado New Mexico Utah Nevada Idaho Washington Oregon California United States 3,013, 150 Acreage. Average yield per acre. Production. Average farm price Dec. 1. Farm value Dec. 1. A cres. Bushels. Bushels. Cents. Dollars. 109,516 210 22,998,360 50 11,499,180 19.329 112 2, 164, 848 60 1, 298. 909 26,300 101 2,656.300 55 1,460,965 29, 149 114 3, 322, 986 65 2, 159, 941 6,360 108 686,880 80 549,504 31,931 98 3,129,238 72 2, 253, 051 420.406 105 44, 142, 630 49 21, 629, SS9 67,353 120 8,0S2,360 66 5, 334, 35S 253. ,97 94 23, S56, 918 57 13,598,443 7,600 97 737,200 59 434,948 28,75] 93 2,673,843 56 1,497,352 55,656 75 4.174,200 67 2,796,714 34, 376 97 3, 334, 472 61 2,034,028 23, SI2 /O 1, 785, 900 74 1,321,566 9,065 82 743, 330 105 780,496 8,627 77 664, 279 110 730, 707 3,946 85 335,410 110 368,951 157.072 110 17,277,920 48 8,293,402 75,483 89 6, 717, 987 57 3,829.253 150,638 97 14,611,886 62 9,059,369 285,000 95 27,075,000 34 9,205,500 245,000 97 23,765.000 30 7,129,500 131. 7S2 92 12.123,944 37 4,485,850 140,000 95 13.300.000 43 5,719,009 85,228 S4 7, 159, 152 57 4,080,717 25. 171 98 2, 466, 758 46 1, 134, 709 35,422 100 3,542,200 35 1,239,770 84,530 87 7,354,110 52 3,824,137 85,000 79 6,715,000 70 4, 700, 500 34, 736 82 2,848,352 61 1, 737, 495 22,420 80 1, 793, 600 62 1,112.032 9,258 75 694,350 93 645,746 5,628 85 478,380 87 416, 191 12.000 62 744,000 75 558,000 31,097 77 2, 394, 469 87 2,083, 1SS 12, 247 76 930, 772 75 698, 079 10, 498 85 892,330 80 713, 864 20,837 80 1,666,960 67 1,116,863 14,099 152 2, 143, 048 61 1,307,259 4,202 115 483,230 65 314, 100 46,968 125 5,871,000 45 2,641,950 1,426 121 172. 546 90 155,291 11.987 165 1,977,855 50 988,928 2, 974 175 520,450 70 364,315 11.900 175 2.0S2.500 41 853,825 34, 199 129 4,411.071 56 2, 470, 536 40,083 101 4.04S.383 56 2,267,094 50,291 125 6, 286, 375 w 4,651,918 3,013,150 102.2 308,038,382 51.1 157.547,392 5SS YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICrLTTTRE. ■age yield per acre of potatoes in the United States, 1897-1906. by States. State or territorv. 1898. | 1899. 1900. 190L 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. Maine New Hampshire. Ht__ Massaehc- Rhode Island ConnecticuT NevY rk New leraey Pennsylvania Delaware laad rv.a . -ia N rth Carolina... 5 :-.'- ■' :-: -.':- . . Ohio TnriiflTia ] Michigan W:>: raisin M-V'r>::i Iowa Mia- ori North Dakota Sonth Dakota... MHffiiii Kins u WmLuA] ^T^-Ji-T AJal una M ----- T L: nuaaw Texa.5 I- :. ■.:. . ~: -; . Oklahoma Arkansa s Montana Wyoming Colorado Near Mersieo Utah id a Mah~ zington Oregon C afilonria 59 51 70 62 110 54 62 s s 61 56 • 65 52 75 42 31 - 13 99 106 60 -_ H 94 69 4* O 40 55 59 64 60 150 " 90 14- 135 140 :■- : ■: 130 >: 105 97 123 ::»: 73 75 54 49 J ■..■•"- 139 127 132 134 142 w •- S3 -" '- 64 66 13 57 56 m 69 71 76 96 H 103 H 100 82 103 :• 94 95 51 44 56 61 60 64 74 63 MM 141 120 125 1 . ■"• 126 101 134 " -4 •> 81 B9 58 4* 55 :•» 80 61 78 '■« 60 76 83 n 103 81 n 93 52 73 66 72 70 54 69 H 70 62 130 : . 124 144 115 119 150 . > 90 77 -: 78 59 116 110 104 2 ■_ ■ "" 130 120 94 109 :-4 -■: 66 : . 55 60 71 52 70 64 62 54 31 35 >: 75 '•? 32 17 110 45 33 -- 35 4 67 62 60 54 63 55 4: 157 113 50 114 141 ::•> 117 90 101 "■ 80 73 96 64 69 :•» 90 .-4 101 118 -. 115 n :> 105 "4 137 138 : 50 E9 65 66 85 97 "- 153 MR :■:•: n 157 212 149 136 103 IIS Zhul 196 9S ::■» H 125 96 «> 99 91 -4 70 >4 80 67 81 73 82 v- - n 7! :■> 64 56 K f4 V- -4 '• 73 - 50 67 70 78 70 176 167 145 177 117 160 145 107 130 215 135 ::- 119 137 K 93 115 106 84 99 vi 101 78 » 70 102 93 ::.» 121 126 102 136 96 111 *: ::■: «•: 83 71 61 ?: 70 n 69 85 77 143 161 159 62 137 131 139 120 S 129 I -■' 175 120 .-? n 125 92 70 93 90 93 95 84 77 83 65 75 78 80 " . 67 -..«■ >- >: 82 95 96 93 f- 85 80 80 110 64 64 76 "" 65 120 170 160 75 132 120 140 142 110 165 210 112 101 114 106 105 120 94 97 93 75 97 "" »: 77 85 110 »"■ ■ 95 97 92 95 S4 ■> 100 D ! H 80 75 -■ 85 80 152 115 125 121 165 175 175 129 101 125 General average 64.7; 752 8S.6 < 80.8 655 96.0 84.7 110.4; 87.0 | 102.2 ft value of potatoes in the United States, based upon farm value December 1. : - 1906. by States. ?tate or Territorv. 1898. 1899. 1900. :-■: :?-..] : <■ : » Maine $52.51 New Hampshire 45. ■ V-rrziiz: .'. -.- • 44. :: V_--i _z_ :>---; f.f s :'.. 11 Rhode Island. 106. 7-: Connecticut 4>-60 55.00 rk 41.54 30.66 53.94 .rakiia a. St re 39.00 33.81 Maryland 50.32 30.74 Virginia 42. 70 37. 40 Irginta 36.40 33.48 North Carolina 42.24 41.54 Sonth Carolina c&. 25 65.00 Georgia 52.00 40.50 Florida 90.00 76.80 Ohio 26.04 25.01 Indiana 19.22 29.11 Illinois 23.56 32.20 $58.38 $61.74 $100.50 $84.50 $109.76 58.43 53.53 V :- -.; ■; a. ■■:. 53.60 57.60 54.52 •. - • ~- ;.; : 14 Es.a ■•• : '.' i. .---.14 123.00 102.50 ;-J s 67.16 H •■ ■ a : 4: - - 4 4- V4 42.33 41.40 50.15 80.52 '.« .-. 36.55 30.74 47.12 47.31 ■■ i- 26.52 -• > -- * 4 -V 47.04 :- ■-. 29.70 4" _■ 41.60 42.00 36.91 34.22 "- ■- 43.50 53.76 37. 44 4- >. 44.20 4* - \ s: 37.62 i- <- 4- :•> 4- S» 4- :- . -- •: 77.00 ■' -4 i? :? 52.36 67.84 52-20 -.- -; -■' 5- -.; -•: - .i 41.36 103.32 30.53 a 4. 45.90 :•: '.: ;: •:.« 31.54 27.90 41.41 50.16 » X 37.72 32.55 49.56 51. S4 75.60 -.: :- >4 4- 104.12 , 69.12 50.22 70.15 57.24 44.52 :•: --'r n 4: -- r.; >: 4- 111.25 -.: ". 4 • 69.75 5S.50 -4.83 55.10 4" I 51.04 ■■. :.: H06.9I 67.20 74.10 V 4 70.56 51.45 79.20 52.08 50.25 59.17 55.50 86.10 54-70 93.50 52.80 50.73 60.14 STATISTICS OF POTATOES. 589 Average value of potatoes in the United States, based upon farm value December 1, 189r, 1986, by States— Continued. State or Territory. Michigan Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri North Dakota. . . South Dakota... Nebraska Kansas Kentucky Tennessee Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas Indian Territory. Oklahoma Arkansas Montana "Wyoming Colorado New Mexico Utah Nevada Idaho Washington Oregon California 1897. $30.96 37.62 32.86 28.20 26.46 32.67 30.08 31.74 26.40 31.49 29.20 51.70 48.38 54.40 57.00 S21.33 23.52 21.25 24.00 29.04 29.58 20.16 24.05 35. 70 29.44 29.64 61.42 53.28 58.50 67.08 $21.12 26.78 24.00 23.00 33.20 27.81 21.06 23.50 42.75 31.11 28.60 48.72 62.22 48.60 58.24 46. 20 62.40 82.50 54.32 70.20 44.40 98.55 44.80 45.36 64.00 51.45 40.70 57.20 78.00 41.58 45.24 41.85 139. 50 64.80 42.14 40.42 52.25 44.73 74.73 76.25 46.20 33.32 60.00 91.80 75.64 72.00 56. 35 74.97 General average 35.37 31.11 34.60 S2.5. 22 28.84 24.30 26.64 32.55 25.48 26.28 32.34 34.56 35.00 31.32 56.58 54.78 55.30 54.56 41.04 71.02 67.32 45.92 21.66 56.64 87.36 63.92 54.52 49.50 55.12 $.55.08 50.25 45.56 30.08 18.02 53.90 38.25 34.65 27.04 30.45 39.56 73.03 71.30 60.60 67.50 78.12 69.30 57. 96 114.61 112.40 108. 00 59.00 68.40 128. 31 90.72 71.37 63.00 77.77 1902 $29.52 37.95 30.38 33.32 44.80 34.65 32.56 36.99 62. 10 42.40 39.68 46. 50 63.48 53.30 56. 10 54.40 74.69 48.96 70.50 65.27 51.00 58.32 70. 65 133.56 55.13 51.68 56.65 68.44 19Q3 $38.22 33.64 39.04 42.00 50.16 40.32 48.06 41.60 49.30 49.64 42.24 64.32 72.16 45.50 58.96 60.20 76.44 55.30 77.44 95.19 87.00 73.08 83.19 81.90 73.60 52.20 53.50 85. .SO $35.09 35.28 29.58 38.08 46.08 35. 52 28.80 31.20 44.80 45.65 44.02 60.39 09. 70 63.70 66.96 51.75 65.45 57.75 87.23 99.82 58.83 48.36 65.76 85.15 87.57 67.20 51.33 86.43 1905. 1906. S37.52 42.16 41.00 39.20 45.10 36.10 36.48 34.41 55.89 45.05 46.40 70.40 93.50 58.24 59.52 62.32 67.76 47.45 70.80 95.20 91.20 66.75 56.76 98.40 67.20 05.32 66.00 110.55 I S32.30 29.10 34.04 40.85 47.88 45.08 35.00 45.24 55.30 50.02 49.60 69.75 73.95 46.50 06. 99 57.00 08.00 53. 00 92.72 74.75 56. 25 108.90 82.50 122. 50 71.75 72.24 56.56 92.50 34.78 ! 50.27 45.22 51.99 49.90 53.07 52.29 Average farm price of potatoes per bushel in the United States, December 1, 1897-1906, by States. State or Territorv. Maine New Hampshire. Vermont Massachusetts. . . Rhode Island Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania Delaware Maryland Virginia West Virginia. . . North Carolina.. South Carolina.. Georgia Florida Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri North Dakota... South Dakota... Nebraska Kansas Kentucky Tennessee Alabama Mississippi , Louisiana Texas Indian Territory. Oklahoma Arkansas Montana 1897. f 1898. .90 .70 .90 .97 .90 .67 .78 .66 .65 .68 .70 .65 .64 1.05 1.00 1.20 .62 .62 .62 .43 .38 .31 .47 .63 .33 .32 .46 .55 .67 .73 .94 .82 .85 .95 80.46 .49 .42 .63 .64 .55 .42 .01 .58 .69 .53 .55 .54 .62 1.00 .75 1.20 .41 .41 .46 .27 .24 .25 .30 .44 .34 .28 .37 .51 .46 .57 .83 .72 .75 .86 IS! 19. 1900. $0.42 .46 .36 .57 .50 .46 .40 .51 .43 .51 .51 .56 .52 .66 1.04 .83 1.24 .43 .43 .41 .32 .26 .25 .23 .40 .27 .27 .25 .45 .61 .65 .87 1.02 .81 .91 SO. 49 .53 .40 .66 .70 .70 .45 .60 .53 .60 .54 .59 .51 .65 1.00 .77 1.00 .40 .38 .41 .26 .28 .30 .37 .35 .49 .36 .49 .48 .50 .58 .82 .83 .79 .55 .55 .71 .53 $0.67 .79 .64 .90 .93 .94 .71 .85 .76 .78 .77 .74 .85 .72 1.10 1.06 1.29 .85 .90 .93 .68 .67 .07 .94 1.00 .49 .85 1.05 1.04 .87 .86 1.09 1.15 1.01 1.25 1.24 1.26 1.26 .73 $0.65 .69 .58 .81 .75 .73 .59 .61 . .57 .51 .52 .58 .51 .67 .96 .90 1.22 .44 .41 .42 .41 .33 .31 .34 .35 .33 .44 .27 .45 .53 .64 .93 .92 .82 .85 .64 .77 .68 .50 1904. $0.56 .65 .50 .71 .82 .78 .56 .69 .62 .56 .60 .64 .66 .74 1.04 .94 1.26 .61 .66 i .72 .49 .58 .61 .75 . 70 .48 .54 $0.48 .56 .47 .71 .76 .72 .54 .61 .54 .53 .51 .55 .54 .70 1.01 1.07 1.29 .47 .45 .47 .29 .28 .29 .28 .48 .32 .30 1905. 1906. .65 .26 .85 .56 .68 .55 .64 .62 , .96 .99 .88 .85- .91 .91 .88 .93 | .86 .75 .98 .77 .79 .75 .44 .61 $0.61 .72 .71 .84 .89 .91 .70 .75 .65 .59 .58 .56 .58 .68 1.03 1.12 1.20 .63 .56 .67 .56 .62 .50 .49 .55 .38 .38 .37 .69 .53 .58 .88 | .85 .91 .93 .82 .88 .73 .59 I SO. 50 .60 .55 .65 .80 .72 .49 .66 .57 .59 .56 .67 .01 .74 1.05 1.10 1.10 .48 .57 .62 .34 .30 .37 .43 .57 .46 .35 .52 .70 .61 .62 .93 -87 .75 .87 .75 .80 .67 .61 590 YEAEBOOK OF THE DEPAETMEXT OF AGRICTTLTrEE. Average farm price of potatoes per bushel in the United States. Decembe -1906, by States — Continued. State or Territorv. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1903. 1904. 1905. ~~~--.~.~z. . . Colorado Mexico. Utah I i Idaho Oregon tO. 55 .56 .78 .30 .73 .32 .28 .40 .49 3eneu) .-- r .j . $0.65 SO 61 SO 6$ SI. 00 SO 61 SO 57 SO 62 .54 .78 .31 .90 .54 .39 .47 -J .90 .51 - M SI "■: . m 4L4 39.0 L14 1.18 !a 18 .60 .45 .56 .91 .63 O .84 .37 .47 .61 .38 .45 .70 .55 .53 "" .58 43.1 :■:. ' 47.1 .37 n .65 .63 •' ML 66 :: .45 «V .90 4 .50 . .70 .41 - .56 GO .56 " .74 6L 4 45. 3 6L7 Wholesale prices of potatoes in leading cities of the United States. 190-2-1906. ;::-::zn_:. Chicagc Milwaukee. St. Lonis. Date. -r rr Bw .- - . per bushel. Per bushel. Bui-bank, per bushel. Low. High. Low. 1902. $2.20 2.10 Mir ~ 2.10 Vpr' 2. 4-5 Mav . ." Tmi i *> 10 Julv .90 Au;.:;: 90 SrTt-~'." rl. 95 1.25 - 1. 50 Decanter. January February.. March ArrL y.'r June July - - October X:-e:_". er. ^ ■-:-:. . : January - ' - -":"• ■ March..*... April Tone July Auir:- Beptonter. October December.. :-•-.. lammy. . . Februarv.. March..*... April June July August October. . . November. Deeenl er. 1.65 L50 1.50 1.35 1.65 1.50 1. 75 1.50 1.20 1.20 : - 2.40 2.60 3.00 aoo 2.40 2.40 1.05 1.35 L35 1.50 :. v 1.60 1.70 L65 1.90 aoo 2.25 L95 : > : v 2.10 2.10 1.95 2.70 .3.75 aso - " 2.00 L50 1.35 1.20 1.20 1.20 2.55 2.85 4 ;. ia 4 s: 4.50 aoo :. >: L65 L50 1.50 1.35 Per bushel. "•* .35 .2.5 2-5 .25 .25 .45 .45 .45 .50 .60 .55 -Ll .43 .40 .32 .30 .60 .55 .50 .55 .75 .75 . -: Cents. 70 - 95 115 ::.-... Low. High. Low. High 80 ■ v 100 100 60 95 91 102 :;•; Uf ::- CemU. -. 72 70 70 50 40 30 28 :> 30 34 35 n :: Cents. -" 85 •• 103 103 90 85 50 40 40 43 - Cents. Cents. a 30 25 26 H '. •■ BS n •- 78 :• • b SI 90 :•> 83 84 90 105 105 n 41 44 50 54 51 DO 50 55 51 54 50 53 42 54 45 63 65 125 40 65 55 n 67 so 65 68 s5 69 73 90 96 95 94 120 115 125 105 115 120 » » 52 33 . 42 45 30 36 43 30 36$ 45 42 50 38 40 175 70 45 48 60 73 80 66 STATISTICS OF HAY. 591 Wholesale prices of potatoes in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906 — Con. Cincinnati. Chicago. Milwaukee. St. Louis. Date. Per busbel. Burbank. per bushel. Per bushel. Burbank, per bushel. Low. High. Low. High. Low. High. Low. High. 1906. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. $0.55 $0.65 55 66 45 58 58 82 .45 .62 47 57 35 50 53 61 .45 .75 43 68 35 62 51 70 April .60 .85 57. 63 50 62 65 68 . .55 .75 48 73 45 75 60 88 June .90 1.05 60 87 50 80 65 125 July August September .75 .90 40 87 35 75 .58 .80 35 50 37 60 .55 .60 45 58 35 55 43 62 October .50 .60 40 47 25 40 48 .45 .45 .58 .47 41 40 48 43 25 25 40 40 45 40 55 December 46 HAY. Acreage, production, value, prices, and exports of hay of the United States, 1866-1906. Year. 1866 1867 186S. 1869 1870 1871 1872. 1873 1874 1875. 1876. 1877 1878. 1879 1880 1881 1882. 1883 1884 1885 1886. 1887 1888. 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 Acreage. Acres. 17,668,904 20,020,554 21,541,573 18,591,281 19,861,805 19,009,052 20,318,936 21,894,084 21, 769, 772 23,507,964 25, 282, 797 25,367,708 26,931,300 27,484,991 25,863,955 30,888,700 32,339,585 35,515,948 38,571,593 39,849,701 36,501,688 37,664,739 38,591,903 52,947,236 50,712,513 51,044,490 50,853,061 49,613,469 48,321,272 44,206,453 43, 259, 756 42, 426, 770 42,780,827 41,328,462 39,132,890 39,390,508 39,825,227 39,933,759 39,998,602 39,361,960 42,476,224 yield per acre. Tons. 1.23 1.31 1.21 1.42 1.23 1.17 1.17 1.15 1.15 1.19 1.22 1.25 1.47 1.29 1.23 1.14 1.18 1.32 1.26 1.12 1.15 1.10 1.21 1.26 1.19 1.19 1.18 1.33 1.14 1.06 1.37 1.43 1.55 1.35 1.28 1.28 1.50 1.54 1.52 1.54 1.35 Production. Aver- age, farm price per ton Dec. 1. Tons. 21 77s 627 26 277 000 26 141 900 26, 420 000 24 525 000 22 239 400 23 812 800 25 085 100 25 133 900 27 *73 600 30 867 100 31 629 300 39 608 296 35 49.; 000 31 925 233 35 135 064 38 138 049 46 864 009 48 470 460 44 731 550 41 796 499 41 454 458 46 643 094 66 829 612 60 197 589 60 M7 771 59 S23 735 65 766 158 54 874 408 47 078 541 59 282 1.58 GO 664 876 66 376 920 56 65o 756 so 110 906 so 59(1 877 59 S57 576 61 305 940 60 696 028 60 531 611 57 145 959 Dolls. 10.14 10.21 10.08 10.18 12.47 14.30 12.94 12.53 11.94 10.78 8.97 8.37 7.20 9.32 11.65 11.82 9.70 8.19 8.17 8.71 8.46 9.97 8.76 7.04 7.87 8.12 8.20 8.68 8.54 8.35 6.55 6.62 6.00 7.27 8.89 10.01 9.06 9.08 8.72 8.52 10.37 Farm value Dee. 1. Dollars. 220,835,771 ,300 .589 . 933 .743 ,939 ,024 ,241 ,222 ,377 ,991 79 ,015 ,S04 ,811 ,131 ,170 ,834 ,139 . 752 .437 , 440 ,499 ,374 ,569 ,113 ,427 ,8s2 ,678 , 185 ,145 ,390 , 060 , 926 ,53$ ,191 . 036 .376 ,107 ,959 ,539 268 263 268 305 317 308 314 300 300 27., 26,4 285 330 371 415 371 383 396 389 363 413 408 470 473 494 490 570 468 393 388 401 398 411 445 506 542 551 i 515 592 Chicago prices No. 1 timo- thy per ton, by carload lots. Domestic exports, fiscal December. Low. ! High. May of follow- ing year. Low. High. Dolls. Dolls. ' Dolls. Dolls. year be- ginning July 1. 9.50 8.00 14.00 15.00 16.00 11.50 9.00 10.00 11.00 9.50 13.50 11.00 9.00 9.00 12.50 11.00 10.00 10.00 12.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 10.50 11.50 13.00 12.00 10.00 10.50 10.00 15.50 10.50 8.50 14.50 15.50 16.50 12.25 10.00 11.50 12.00 10.50 14.50 11.50 10.00 10.50 15.00 11.50 10.50 11.00 12.50 8.50 8.50 8.25 11.50 14.00 13.50 12.50 12.00 11.50 12.00 18.00 9.00 9.75 9.00 14.00 17.00 15.00 12.00 12.50 15.50 10.00 11.00 17.00 10.50 9.00 12.50 13.50 12.00 10.00 10.00 11.50 8.50 9.50 9.50 10.50 12.50 12.50 13.50 12.00 11.00 11.50 10.00 10.75 11.50 15.00 19.00 16.50 13.00 17.00 17.50 12.00 12.50 21.00 11.00 14.00 15.50 14.00 13.50 10.50 10.25 12.00 9.00 10.50 10.50 12.50 13.50 13.50 15.00 15.00 12.00 12.50 Tons. 5,028 5,645 6,723 4,581 5,266 4, 557 4,889 7,183 7,528 7,287 9,514 8,127 13, 739 12, 662 10, 570 -13, 309 16,908 11,142 13,390 13, 873 18,198 21,928 36,274 28,066 35,201 33,084 54,446 47, 117 59,052 61,658 81,827 64,916 72, 716 89,364 153,431 50,970 60,730 66,557 70, 172 592 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Acreage . production, and value of hay in the United States in 1906. by States. Average Average Farm Stat* or Territory. Acreage. yield per acre. Production. price Dec. 1. value Dec. 1. Ac Ton*. Ton*. Dollars. Dollars. Maine 1.329.835 1.20 1.595.802 10.25 16.356.970 New H ampshire 625.725 1.15 719.584 12.50 8.994.800 --"1.530 582.832 1.20 1.31 1.044.636 763. 510 10.00 17.00 10.446.360 MassaohusetT n 12.979.670 61.980 489.599 1.06 1.17 65.699 572. 831 17.40 15.00 1.143.163 Oomvctanrt 8.592.465 4.717.641 424.525 1.28 1.32 6.038,580 560.373 12.10 15.95 73.066.818 New Jersev 8,937.949 3.072.021 74.03$ 1.30 1.25 3.993.627 92.548 13.40 15.00 53.514.602 1,388, 222 Maryland -> :*:-: 1.26 353.167 13.50 4.7i.,7.7.54 Virginia *23 _" 1.25 534,066 15.50 ^.:'7$.023 • irginia 517.384 1.40 724.338 14.00 10.140.732 North Carolina 125.633 60,682 88.054 1.54 1.46 1.65 193. 475 8$. 596 145,289 15.00 15.25 15. 75 2.902.125 1.351.089 Georgia 2. 28$. 302 Florida 20,000 1.50 30.000 15.00 450.000 Ohio 2.850,000 1.22 3.477.000 12.00 41.724.000 Indiana 2.375.000 1.10 2,612,500 12.50 32.656.250 Illinois 2. 638 .98 2. 585. 274 12.50 32.315.925 Michigan 2.650,000 1.28 3.392.000 10.35 35.107.200 ■ft isconsin 2.300.000 1.35 3.105.A00 9.00 27.945.000 858.465 3.500.000 1.70 1.35 1.459,390 4.725,000 5.50 7.00 &.'"- 33,075.000 2. 728. 349 177.368 221.422 1.350.000 1.724.154 447.202 339.446 .78 1.45 1.50 1.40 1.28 1.35 1.51 2. 128, 112 257, 184 332.133 1.890,000 2.206.917 603.723 512. 563 10.00 4.50 4.50 . 5.60 6.25 13.25 13. 4.5 21.281.120 1.157.328 1.494.598 10.584. 000 13. 793. 231 7.999.330 Tennessee 6.893.972 Alabama 56.350 1.95 109.882 13.30 1.461.431 Mississippi 43.873 1.90 83.359 11.4-5 954. 461 T/om'siana 21,488 1.93 41.472 11.50 476.928 Texas 379.836 1.80 683,705 8.50 5.811.492 46.140 298.969 1.40 1.40 64.596 5.50 5. 75 355, 278 OVIahoma 2. 40*i. 703 Arkansas 70.932 1.60 113.491 9.9t 1.12.3.561 Montana 373.827 1.85 691.580 8.90 6.155.062 W voming 188.327 2.25 423.736 I . .00O .-. 1.200.000 1.637 G-L Bd in the oil led. Quantity r.f iinters produced as foBo« 196,223 n 1902, 500-pound bales. 194.496 in 1903, 241,942 »n 1904, eOfl :«3- < Ex| " /E.v t Less than one-half bale. - rage pi ition as nnoffieially estimated. - * Exports and mill consumption. STATISTICS OF COTTON. 597 Cotton crop of countries named, 1901-190.5 — Continued. Country. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. ASIA — continued. Dutch East Indies a Bales. 9,160 Bales. 8,267 Bales. 12,632 3 Bales. 15, 367 1 14 15,255 16, 262 70,000 71,509 /6,098 Bales. 13,280 b 1 Federated Malay States French India a 7,815 25,762 70,000 e 64, 000 /6,098 11,139 19, 152 70,000 « 64, 000 6,098 13, 693 17,012 70,000 56,282 /6,098 c 15, 255 12,370 70,000 6 72,000 /6,098 Japan Russia, Asiatic: 426,000 56,000 370,000 56,000 476,000 53,000 506,000 49,000 45,000 482,000 426,000 529,000 555,000 612,000 60,000 60,000 60,000 60,000 60,000 Total Asia 4,697,767 5,004,811 4,961,604 5, 038, 995 5,608,979 AFRICA. British Africa: 1 119 449 609 125 121 3 1,805 598 001 59 45 1,658 208 East Africa 6 GO 3 22 Gold Coast 0 Natal 6 31 Nigeria — Southern, Colony (in- cluding Lagos) a Southern, Protectorate a 16 ■ 606 2,680 °01 Northern, Protecto- rate a 258 Sierra Leone <* 2 144 Uganda " °01 22 27 752 4,415 5,447 Egypt 1,320,307 1,209,746 1,348,759 1,316,212 1,250,173 French Africa: <> Dahomey 289 8 " 289 Madagascar O) 1 2 c'8 Mayotte Senegal 8 41 Somali Coast (?) c 41 Total French Africa 3 346 c 346 German Africa: a East Africa Togo 1 2 43 148 872 499 871 ■■-• Total German Africa 1 2 191 1,371 1,4S9 Kongo Free State « 1 Portuguese Africa — Angola h Sudan (Anglo-Egyptian) 100 »'6,517 61 *" 6, 517 6 6,517 16 15,097 *6 19, 441 Total Africa 1,326,947 1,216,353 1,356,228 1,337,447 1,276,903 OCEANIA. British — Queensland 1 1 18 1 48 56 79 French: a New Caledonia b 1 Tahiti 110 79 13 ! a 240 German — Bismarck Archi- pelago a 656 Total Oceania 110 93 312 123 1S4 15,926,048 17,331,503 16, 701, 465 20,368,003 18 124 636 , o Exports. 6 Unofficial estimate. <• Exports, 1904. * Average production as unofficially estimated. <• A ye rage exports, 1903-1904. / Census, 1902. a Less than one-half bale. ft Imports from Angola into Portugal. i Statistics for 1903. 598 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. International trade in cotton, 1901-1906.a [Bales of 503 pounds, gross weight, or 47$ pounds of lint, net.] EXPORTS. Year Country. 1 egin- ning— 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. Bales. Bales. Bales. Bales. Bales. Brazil Jan. l .-,4.3)2 .- 61,170 b 111,059 British India Apr. 1 1,347 1,42 1,1 1,334.111 1,741,096 Jan. 1 1,288, 1,37- 1.158,029 22 1,352,517 Jan. 1 127,715 117. 73S 132,127 ' Germany £ J. in. 1 216,810 319. 732 Net Jenunds Jan. 1 100,719 82,530 110,568 104. 182 Peru Jan. 1 36,948 30,826 35,289 34. 741 United States J ulv 1 7,382 i,824 1 4,134 9,078,080 ..• - 304,868 391,000 581, S00 - Total 10,704,280 11,215,803 10,593,910 12, s- 1 1 . 680, 730 IMPORTS. a See " General note," p. 540. t> Preliminary figures. e Not including the free ports. Condition of the cotton crop of Ou United Slates, monthly, 1889-1906. Year. June. July. Au- gust. Sep- tem- ber. Octo- ber. Year. June. July. Au- gust. Sep- tem- ber. Octo- ber. 1889 P. ct. 86.4 88 8 S5 9 85.6 88.3 81.0 97.2 83.5 P. ct. 91.4 89.6 82.3 92.5 86.0 P. ct. 89.3 89.5 82.3 80.4 91.8 77.9 80.1 86.9 P. ct. 85.5 70.8 64 -i 78.3 81.5 80.0 75.7 70 7 82. 7 65.1 60.7 70. 0 1898 P. ct. 89.0 BE : 82.5 96.1 74 1 83.0 77.2 84.6 P. ct. 91.2 87.8 " ■ 81.1 i 77.1 88.0 77.0 83.3 P. ct. 91.2 84.0 76. 0 77.2 81.9 79.7 91.6 74 9 82.9 P. ct. 79.8 68.5 68.2 71.4 64.0 SI. 2 S4.1 72.1 77.3 P. ct. 75.4 1899 62. 4 1900 67.0 In' 1901 61.4 1902 58. 3 1894 1903 65.1 1904 75.8 . 1905 71.2 1897 1906 71.6 STATISTICS OF COTTON. 599 Acreage, production, value, prices, and exports of cotton of the United Slates, 1899-1906. Year. 1899-1000. 1900-1901. 1901-1902. 1903-1903. 1903-J90-1. 1904-1005. 1905-1900. 1900-1907. Acreage. A cres. 624,275,101 25, 758, 139 27.220,414 27,114,103 28,010,893 30,053,739 26,117,153 c32,049,000 Production. Thousands of pounds. M Pounds. 4,407,097 4,846,471 4,550,950 5,091,041 4,710,591 0, 420, 09S 5,000,205 6, 354, 108 Bales of 500 pounds gross weight, a Bales. 9,345,391 10,123,027 9,509,745 10,630,945 9,851,129 13,438,012 10,575,017 13, 273, 809 Value, a Dollars. 370,708,740 421,(587,941 570, 499, 824 501, 100, £80 556,833,818 640,311,538 New York closing prices per pound on middling upland. December. Low. High Cents. 7' 9] 8 » 8* 11.95 0.85 11.(15 10.45 Cents. n 10ft 81 81 14 10 9.00 12. 00 11.25 May of fol- lowing year. Cents. 9 8ft 9f Hi. 75 12. 75 7.85 11.25 Cents. 91 8ft 9! 12. 15 13. 90 8 85 12.00 ■ >i vim ptio exports, fiscal year be- ginning July 1. Bales of sou lbs. 6,201,106 (i, Or, I.7S1 7, 001 ; 558 8,609,698 7,268,080 a As reported by U. S. Census Bureau. b According to Report of Twelfth Census; the acreages for subsequent years are as estimated by tho Bureau of Statistics, Department of Agriculture. c As revised in June, 1907. Prices of middling upland cotton in New Orleans, monthly, 1890-1906. [In cents per pound.] Year. 1S90 1891 1892 1S93 1894 1895 1890 1697 1S98 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1900 January. Low. High 95 8-}. 91 7ft 5 m 6] •r>r 101J h\ 7ft 91 7| t; 3 JIu 8 7 5S 51 7| 9rs 8 82 15i« 7 Ui February. Low. High io:? 8J 61 813 7ft 5 7i 5} 5J 72 9ft 7|I H 13i 7 10i9s 1011 0ft « 91 7ft 5ft 8 7ft Bti 6 9 9ft 8ft 91 10ft m 103 March. Low. High iop si 61 8ft; 7i Sft 7? 0l5 5ft •r'Si 9 7ia 8} ■v. 14 71 10 V 11 81 64 9 7ft 51 7rS 7VI 55 6ft »ft 9ft 9i 10 "I,1 111 April. Low. High, 11 8 A 6| 71 o:§ 5ft 5| 9i 8 If 13? 73 Hi "U 73 6f 7| 7J 5| 5f 9J 8ft 9f 10ft 1 ■"•.■; 7ft lift May. Low. High. lift 8ft 7 71 Brl 6ft 7| 7ft 5}J 5!i 8*g 7 " ME 9s 10ft i-S 7| 11 n: 8J. IP 71 7ft 7 7| 7ft 6ft 52 94 8 9| Hi J 132 83 lift June. Low. High. m 7ft 62 6i 6?2 71 52 54 81-2 n 81S 11 i" 103 81 io ft HI 81 7| 7| 7 7J 71 6ft 5f S!l 8ft 9ft 131 12J 9ft Hi Year. 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1890 1897 1898 1S99 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1900 July. Low. High. lift n 7_ 'Ti 6§ 64 64 5s 92 si 8f 12| 104 91 105 11J m B 'i 62 61 6*1 51 101 8x7, 9t5 131 lift H.i H| August. Low. High. 101 7| 6} 6ig 6ft 6ft m 7ft 51 51 91 8 12V 10} 102 9ft 11| 8 u n 61 m 8 7Ji dlB 5 \ I 10} 13} lift 10ft log September. October. Low. High. Low. High 9| 8 °li 5R 7ft 71 93 ?1 "SS ■= "? - — c tc ?1 ^ »i . Ci — C C J CT- cc CT » rc r- C- t - i~ ^r » t -^ : . C ^ IT. -( c h r: t^ c x c ^- H H f c. ■ ; C — t< -r x ' - r -i e © M — L-rrOC^^ — C1SCC^01'HH _, to ca o — r- oc t- o O — ' fc-ooosoOiooOtpoBt-egt oa to ga to •«< -o« co g .to l-5 ■-= i" —i w e i> e ci — i e to nt[»oi- ca ca •* ■» ^ oi> — — c^^ w^* ci cf V-«r to" to" to" -^"^ e to* - - *-T c *-Ccf cf .2 -S e ° ^ ~<* o o ^ c © e c to to © c © c o — to — :c tt to c; t~ ca to t~ ci — — -r ->r ca © -J" — i ao oc c. ~ to ca^i to to to ^ © ^ oc^ c: ci © ^ to ci © to to to ©* ci id -cicr-i:t^C(OH ^ t~ - c h. SS3fctX?SSrtS:lS£N2CI-'sct;Ocr.i.r.-.i>oni5n TO -r -X. C ~ X ~ TO »-. — y_ — TO ~. TO — r : ~ . - TO ^-:t.-.-Th c: _: © r~ Ci ■ HiON^HNcqiONa>nNon--0 ri ." TO C : Tl - TO =T ?j x" u-' ~" -' 0>J TO_ TO — " C:*-T— oC l-"c"o"— cTut"^^" ■& (4. B i c* * 5 <^. 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' _ _ i _. t. r; r - - — .- — : - _ — - — — _ _ -t r- = _— - _ c i~ -r rj x r. ^. : - . - ; .-. _-----r.r. — c — L" _ - 7 - _ _ _ _ s x - -—•:__----.— ; - ■■ . - : - - rj 1- — — = _ - r . ^~~ - --- r"-~ _-_:-_ — _ r — ■ r~ 1- 1 ; "_;__: —— ' _'_"_'_.'_."_"_' r — r— - ifofca Q Kr Vfyy . x x x r; _ ri _ rt — _ - _ _ - ---. __----_-_ _P _ - — __--rr — -: - ■ _r r: = f- c_ «_ » t_ _ y- - - — . r - - - 3 _ ~ — - — - -' — _ 2 ~ X -r . : ^: _ : . 3 - - 7 - E - = = — _ — : - _ - f ~ x !- T: r. _ _.rr— tt — 1- x _ x c _ _ r — - - .— __^-z:— -— — — _ — -_ _ r^j __ ~ r £ n ^ — — * — '■ — — — — — ."_"_."_." r ."——':' r ':" r " — - O - _ r r - ^' r: ■?■ «= _: n k * z - m " - c _ > 3; r. c - : 1 - -: - : - ?si tj r-j r o r- ? r - — r: r- ~ — -- r. .— . r. — _ L- i- <-- _r_ L- i__ »- oo __■ 00 -0 __■ ae ac _c> ac at ao ao _c ao ac _c ao ac ac cc ao _c ao-oc _o x: sc oc ae oc ao ac ao SB xe STATISTICS OF COTTON. 603 *-l IO IO 00 CI • . . r- co -*r r~ co o O O * ^ ^ C ^ ^ CC' ri O C- CO N rH y: N -^ o ci o: -^ ^ O ^ iO iO C: m C1) CJ W OO O O CO 00 N ^ «coowMO^t^vcoooovriNWMC^u5aJciccc:cc^,^rcot''():C'jNiriO"(NMTi' OO^JOrt , rtHH^tOCOt-CHHOOMH© co ©■ © — c :: NC0OO^Oi0^OHNC0nCOOC'l^^l^G^f5OWOC0O'*NOt-lWWWCOUJHTPWlOOO» cm"io"io"© cTco'iv-h" ^h eld Ncf^rd ci -^r^© i-.''© cfoo"©" i-T co" © © HV"dMdo^ON"HHri35ioHo"ood6a"w sco-HHCiciHooco/'Mc:i-7 02«oaT>-:i,a)WcooOHCoc)ic © co © o cciccoo^ci-omS 1-. 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Clots<' pound, in leading United Stales '. - jfj. : ' - Jan " ■ Feb... liar Apr Mav.. • Ang... &■•::... . " Oct... I . • Dec... :■■*> Jan ■ :• ■ Apr ? July Oct Kor... Dec 3 11 1 . . STATISTICS OF TOBACCO. 605 lntama Mississippi Louisiana Texas Arkansas United States 790,099 Acreage. Acres. 120 199 4,712 14,140 7,074 26,000 29,540 108,971 4,005 120,358 13,400 3,000 5,400 70,000 12,000 1,075 39,000 1,498 290,000 43,400 511 150 61 535 914 yield per acre. Pounds. 1,785 1,700 1,750 1,735 1,250 1,375 600 675 780 5S0 670 675 S75 1,060 915 820 1,275 730 870 785 510 440 475 550 695 857.2 Production. rounds. 224,910 338,300 8,246,000 24,532,900 8,842,500 35,750,000 17,724,000 73,555,425 3,123,900 69,807,640 8,978,000 2,025,000 4,725,000 74,200,000 10,980,000 881,500 49,725,000 1,093,540 252,300,000 34,009,000 260,610 60,000 28,975 294,250 656,080 682,42S,530 Average farm price, Dec. 1. Cents. 17.0 17.0 18.5 18.0 13.8 13.7 6.8 8.2 9.2 10 0 10 5 30.0 35.0 11.5 6.8 7.0 13.5 9.0 7.7 7.5 22.0 28.8 27.5 24 0 12.0 10.0 Farm value, Dec. 1. Dollars. 3S.235 57,511 1,525,510 4,415,922 1,220,265 4,897,750 1,205,232 6,031,545 287,399 6,9S0,764 942, 690 607,500 1,653,750 S, 533,000 740,640 61,705 6,712,875 98, 419 19,427,100 2,555,175 57,334 19,008 7,968 70,620 78,730 68,232,647 Acreage, production, and value of tobacco in tlie United States, 1900-1906. Acreage. Average yield per acre. Production. Average farm price per pound Dec. 1. Farm value Dec. 1. 1900 190 1 1902 1903 1904 1905 1900 A eres. 1,046,427 1,039, 199 1.030,734 1,037,735 806, 409 776,112 796,099 Pounds. 778.0 788.0 797.3 786.3 819.0 815.6 857.2 Pounds. S14.345.341 818, 953, 373 821,823,9(3 815,972,425 660, 460, 739 633,033,719 682, 428, 530 Cents. 6.6 7.1 7.0 6.8 8.1 8.5 10.0 Dollars. 53,661,132 5S, 283, 108 57,563,510 55, 514, 627 53, 382. 959 53,519,068 68,232,647 608 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. :tional tradi in unmanufactured tobacco. : EXPORTS. Countrv. J Year be- ginning— Algeria .-Hungary Jan. Jan. Bulgaria Jan. Patch East Indies Jan. July [lands Philippine Islands K ussia Turkey * Mar. United Stat - July Other countries Total . " 45 - - . IMP' ina Jan. lia Jan. Austria-Hungary Jan. Belgium British India Apr. Canada July Denmark Jan. Egypt Jan. Finland Jan. France Jan. Germany ' Jan. Italy. . ." Jan. Jan. ;■" Jan. Portugal Jan. Jan. E Jan. .Kingdom Jan. - July Other countries tend " H » Preliminary Ggni c Average. 1901-1904. d Exports :' ... lata. e Not including free ports. B Hop crop [Excluding Canada, for which the census o: - . .ction during the preceding year of 1.001.303 pounds. Other omitted countries are of very small production.] Country. 1902. XOETH AKEEICA. Pa 5.SO0.000 California 10, 335, 000 I g ai .ington Total United States 39.000.000 j made. 9.000.000 10. 920. 000 17.550.0011 •-■ ■ .r i .. i i i T , . 11.SSO.000 9.300.000 . - 000 14.235.000 000 22.191,000 7.410.009 9.750.000 ■ - " OO 49. 125 0 12 rno.000 05.295,000 e Estimate based upon reports to Oal .erand .American Agriculturist. STATISTICS OF HOPS. 609 Hop crop of countries named, 1902-1906 — Continued. Country. 1902. 1903. U04. 1905. 1906. EUROPE. Austria -Hungary: Pounds. 19,829,000 Pounds. 9.010.000 S08.000 Pounds. 19.598.000 631.000 Pounds. 39.305.000 b 700.000 Pounds, a 17,100,000 Hungary 631.000 al,600,000 Total Austria-Hungary... 20,460,000 Belgium 7. 360. 000 Franco 5, 251, 000 Germany 50. 185. 000 Netherlands 137. 000 Russia 11,000.000 United Kingdom: England 34.S37.000 Total Europe 129.230.000 OCEANIA. Australian Commonwealth: Victoria 252.000 T.i smania 651. 000 New Zealand 930,000 Total Oceania 1.833,000 Grand total 170, 063, 000 9,818,000 20.229.000 40.005.000 o 18,700,000 4,786,000 7.311.000 46.562.000 100.000 12,500.000 47,160.000 9.830.000 7. 753. 000 49.136,000 a 158.000 8, 700. 000 31.621.000 1lN.237.0OO 127.427.000 11.281.000 10,970.000 64.500.000 6 158.000 14,500.000 77.946.000 1.925.000 2.289.000 2.194.000 171.457.000 178.841.000 a5,000,000 a6,000,000 46,384.000 6 158,000 10.SOO.000 27,517.000 219.360.000 114,559,000 176,000 274.000 I 162.000 c 216, 000 S09.000 865,000 912.000 <" 809,000 940,000 1.150.000 | 1.120,000 d, 035,000 2,060,000 277,090,000 1S1, 914,000 o Estimate of Gutermann Sons. Saaz, Bohemia. Aug. 28, 1906. b Average, 1900-1903. = Average, 1932-1905. International trad* in hops, I901-l906.a EXPORTS. Country. Year be- gin- ning— 1901. 1902. 1903 Total Aust ria-Hunga rj Belgium France Germany b Netherlands New Zealand Russia United Kingdom . . United States Other countries 62, 452, 554 IMPORTS. Australia Jan. Austria-Hungary Jan. Belgium Jan. British India Lpr. Canada July Cape of Good Hope Jan. Denmark Jan. France Jan. Germ any 6 .'an. Netherlands Tan. Russia Jan. Sweden Jan. Switzerland Jan. United Kingdom Jan. United States I July Other countries 1,230,459 3,814,620 460. 208 789,598 d 797, 700 1.308,994 4. 779. 155 15. 390. 025 2,822,020 872, 016 1,536,240 938,949 12.447.232 2,805,293 3, 123. 698 1.140.3SS 1,025,811 4.427.816 495. 824 623.403 848, 96(1 1.300,617 4,312,256 6.004.068 2, 996. 258 945. 289 1,401.343 1.003.704 20, 593. 888 6,012,510 2. 920, 344 975. 658 4.4S1.556 6,478,233 517.328 781,822 555 . 856 1.401.037 5.045.432 2, 992. 995 2. 742. 861 807.085 1. 430. 809 1.012.142 11,876,032 2.758,163 3.247.109 913,830 2, 109. 162 4.826.301 469, 728 737,054 4^7. 424 1,359, 149 4. 428. 343 5. 346. 20S 4.020,148 1.363.547 1,298.174 1,168,891 34.437.312 4.339.379 2.453, 77S Total ( 53.724.6S3 56,112.539 47,110,118 69.758,428 1.279.362 l.ls7.1.vj 6,617,221 448, 224 1. 0LX1.265 308,112 1,378,660 3. S79, 328 9.047.989 3,368.742 1,191.722 1.662.563 1.347.6*5 11,147,584 10,113.989 c 1,755, 691 55,754,326 a See "General note," p. 546. 3 a 1906 39 b Not including free ports. e Preliminary. d Estimated. 610 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. WhoUsaU price* of hop* per pound in hading cities of the ' 190S-1906. New York. Cincinnati. Chicago. Date. January. .. Mar-'. May Aug. mber. mber. I 1 1 April May. June July Aug. ■ ry . . . March May July Aug i :aber. : Jane . iarv.. ... .. Juie July January... ;j'ry_. Marc b April May Aug- September. Octo: mber. 1904. 1905. Pacific coast. State. Ch common to choice. Low. High. Low. High. High. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. 14 16 14} m 14 • " 15 16 " 19 -\ 13 - 20 15 18 22 19J 15 20 20J 211 21! 15 20 - . 23 23 20 22 24i 28 25 22 25 26 - 261 . 25 26 - 37 - 29! 26 29 ■15 - 30 30 26 30 ' ■ 30 31 Good to choice. ' " 29 29 23 31 33 ' 29 - -" 31 30 35 29| 25 29 23 30 25 25 20 25 23 24 29 25 20 24 22| -- 24 24 22 J4 20| 23* 24 24 19 22 20* - 24 24 21 25 24i 30 -' 25 26 28 30 33 26 26 20 a 30 _ 26 26 24 26 35 27 23 24 27 u 1 :- 31 28! 34 36 38 31 34 30 35 38 30 32 32 34 33 36 30 32 30 34 33 35 - 31 30 35 32 " 29 30 30 _ 32 34 29 30 30 31 . 35 29 X 30 34 33 37 29 31 28J 31 35 41 31 36 30 35! 36 41 36 " 32 37 ■ 38 34 36 33 " - 37 33 33 30 34 30 36 . 31! . 30 23 31 26 30 23 29 29 - 26 29 a 29 29 29 26 28 26 ! 28 28 21 25 25 23 24 20 24 22 - 23 22 18 23 30 23 m 15 18 19 23 17 17 10 15 13 22 14* 14J 12 15 16 21 13J 13* 10 14 15 19 13 14! 12 14 14 17 13 14| 10 14 13 :. 14 9 14 - 15 12 17 10 17 11 15 12 15 15 11 14 12 15 14 12 " 12 17! 10 17 15 17 17 18 12 18 15 " 14 18 12 22 __ 25 17 - 14 18 23 25 171 ■ 13 18 21 24 17» 12 18 STATISTICS OF FLAXSEED. 611 FLAXSEED. Flax crop of countries named, 1903-1905. [Substantially the crop of the world.] . Country. Seed. Fiber. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1903. 1904. 1D05. XOKTU AMERICA. United States Bushels. 27,301,000 Bushels. 23,401,000 Bushels. 28, ■! round-. 1 Pounds rounds. Canada : 605, 000 295,000 8,000 479,000 171.000 5,000 337.000 411.000 9,000 1 " Saskatchewan Alberta Total Canada 908, 000 655.000 757, 000 49,000 188,000 150,000 Total North America 28, 258, 000 2-1.244.000 29.385,000 SOUTH AMERICA. Argentina Uruguay 30, 070, 000 8, 176,000 36,912,000 5, 530, 000 29,133,000 6, 000, 000 Total South America 38. 252. 000 42, 442, 000 35,133.060 EUROPE. Austria-Hungary: Austria 1,120,000 276, 000 44.000 2,000 1,162,000 188,000 27. 000 3,000 1,370.000 190,000 2'.), 000 3,000 103,848,000 30, 348, 000 13,205.000 1,896,000 105. 850. 000 19,777.000 '.'.214,000 1,727,000 Hungary proper Croatia -Slavonia . .. Bosnia-Herzegovina 123, 127,000 19,000,000 9,000,000 1,428,000 Total A u stria - Ilungarv 1,442,000 1,380,000 1,592,000 149,297,000 136,568,000 152,555,000 Belgium.. . 272,000 350. 000 544,000 300,000 36,000 008, 000 280,000 2,000 575, 000 24. 790. 000 0 20,000,000 43,587,000 19,327 000 41.917.1 'i' IS. 497.000 12.267,000 27,385,000 « 2, 000, 000 52,445,000 20,924.000 41,917.000 22,348,000 =^ = Bulgaria 25,534,000 France. . . 173,000 Ireland 45,515.000 24,353,000 41,917,000 IS, 4-10.000 Italy'- Netherlands Roumania 362,000 2, 064. 000 469.000 169,000 437, 000 335, 000 Russia: Russia proper Poland 17,269.000 728. 000 513.000 IS, 284. 000 649,000 471,000 17,000,000 600, 000 500,000 957,807,000 46, 434. 060 104.800,000 1,095,606,000 37,867,000 33, 331, 0(H) 1,000,000,000 Northern Caucasia <' 35, 000, 000 60,000,000 Total Russia (European). 18,510,000 19,404,000 18.100.000 1.108.441.600 1,106,804,000 1.005.000.000 Sweden d 39,000 37,000 37, 000 1.032.000 2.241,000 1,209.000 2,070,000 905,000 2,000,000 Total Europe 23,583,000 22. 393, 000 21,35S,000 1,441.396,000 {, 476,963,000 1.409,297,000 ASIA. British India, including native States where reporting 19, 263, 000 22.S73.000 13,896,000 Russia: Central Asia... 325,000 709,000 156.000 630. 000 200.000 600, 000 12,722,000 3S.2' '.'. 071.000 33.111.000 Siberia 9,000.000 35. 000. 000 Total Russia (Asiatic) 1,034.000 786, 000 800,000 50, 987. 000 42,182.000 44,000,000 Total Asia 20,297.000 | 23,659.000 14,696,000 50.987.000 42, 1S2.000 44.000,000 AFRICA. 65, 000 36.000 :;:, Ron ' 1 Grand total 10, 455, 000 12,774,000 00,607,000 ] ,492,383,000 ,519,145,000 1,453,297,000 a Estimated. t> Average 1892-1895. c Includes government of Chcrnomorsk. d Includes small quantity of hemp. 612 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE. . odiuiion. and . the United Stat- by States. State or Territorv. Acreage. Average yield per acre. Production. Average farm price. Dec. 1. Farm value, Dec. 1. I I • I -^. M :z:a.na Idaho Acres. 0 431.045. - - L, 465,745 ' 0 281 24 ■"' If. 421 2,048 1.042 2,50c 27 BusheU. 14.0 11.0 11.4 7.3 9.9 10.5 • " 12.0 . 12.0 12.0 n. Bush-els. 546, 000 4.741.525 --■ _ S . ■ ' " ■ 141,015 533.000 50.272 298,26 --■ » 24. 576 12. 504 Cents. 104 103 95 93 102 100 95 88 95 100 85 125 125 25.576.140 101.3 Dollars. -■ - m 4,883,774 216.600 243. 684 14.801.094 3.979.500 133,964 469.040 47.758 298.260 211,301 30,720 15, 630 25.899.165 Who'. faxseed per bushel in hading cities of tht United States, 1902-1906. Cincinnati. Chicago. Date. I - - ~ ' ' : Mr. r. M-sy - ;-: :-: ~ ~r •'.•-':: -r V : v -m ■ *; Frime- No. l. Low. Hint. High. Low. High. January Hu lb f fine I j - I N rem B ri [ - -" l ^ -:--r_ : ■: r ; •- 1.63 1.63 1.65 I '■ 1.54 1.36 1.37 1.251 1.15 1.13 H 1.14 1.12 1.06 1.06 I • • .90 .93 .94 .» .90 .902. .*a 1.09 1.07| .991 .99| 1.00" 1.02 1.151 1.09 1.07 1.08 1.11 1.15 1.15 1.23 1.23 1.25 1.25 2! LOl .92 .93 o Ko. 1 Northwestern. $1.30 $1.40 1.30 1.40 1.30 1.40 1.30 1.40 1.30 1.40 a 1.35 1.30 1.40 1.2-5 1.30 1.2-5 1.2-T 1.25 1.25 1.2-5 1.25 1.25 : 25 1.30 1.30 1.30 . 1.30 1.30 1.10 1.30 1.00 1.10 1 1 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 . 1 1.00 1.09 LOO 1.00 1.00 1.00 : i 1.00 : i 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.10 1.10 1.10 l.M 1.10 1.10 1.10 SI. 73 1.74 1.74 . a 1.79 1.76 1.74 1.55 1.46 1.23 1.25 1.24 1.22 1.17 1.12 1.171 1.14* : -. 1.05" 1.09 1.031 1.00" 1.021 1.19 1.184 1.16" 1.16 1.09 J LOB 1.24 1.26! 1.28 1.18 1.194 1.26 1.23 1.35 1.391 1.40" 1.47 1.47 1.44 1.35 1.12 1.03 1.00 1.13 Milwaukee. Low. High. ?1.61 1.66 • 1.74 1.76 1.73 1.43 1.40 1.25 1.19 ■ 1.20 1.21 1.16 1.00 1.09 1.11 1.01?. .95] .97 .99 .94" •97! 1.03?. 1.16 1.13 1.06 LOSS 1.061 1.07" ' - 1.241 1.141 1.15! I I (°) 1.21 1.22 l!35! 1.37" 1.39 1.43 1.34 1.12 • - .99 LOO 51.73 1.73 ' - 1.80 1.79 1.76 1.74 1.55 1.45 a 1.23 1.25 1.24 1.22 1.17 1.111 1.171 1.14" 1.021 1 . 05" 1.09 1.04 1 . 00 1.01! 1.19 1.18! 1.16! 1.141 1.10' • 1.24" 1.26! . 1.18* 1.191 1.26 1.23 1.23* 1.39* 1.40 1.47 1.47 1.44 1.35 1.12 1.03 1.00 1.16 Duluth. Low. High. $1.56! 1.65" 1.65 1.72 1.70 1.60 1.35 1.35 1.24! 1.15 J 1.15| 1.16 1.14! 1.11* 1.07| 1.101 .991 .95" .961 .99 .92 .93! .95" 1.01! 1.13| 1.14" 1.05! 1-051 1.071 1.09 \ 1.23 1.161 1.131 1.14" 1.15 1.23 1.241 1.35" 1.39 1.40 1.47! 1.45" 1.30 .9"! .96} .98} .9S' $1,711 1.72 1.74 1.78 n 1.761 1.66 1.50 1.47 1.27* 1.20 1.21J 1.20 1.161 1.131 1.11 1.16 1.13 l.OOi 1.011 1.09 1.02| 1.00 1.00 1.17 1.17 1.15J 1.15f 1.08 1.091 1.24 1.261 1.28 1.171 L18f 1.25| 1.24 1.381 1.401 1.42 1.48 1.50 1.4S 1.48 1.30 1.00 l.OOf 1.16 STATISTICS OF KICE. 613 Wholesale prices of flaxseed per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906 — Continued. Date. 1906. January February . . . March April May June July August September.. October November. . December. . St. Louis. Prime. Low. High. SI. 06 1.06 1.05 1.08 1.05 1.05 1.03 1.02 .98 1.03 1.0S 1.15 51.16 1.11 1.09 1.11 1.08 1.06! 1.07" 1.05 1.02! 1.07 1.17 1.19 Cincinnati. $1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.12 1.12 1.12 1.12 1.12 1.12 1.12 1.12 High. $1.12 Chicago. No. 1 North- western. Low. $1.06 1.06 1.04 j 1.06 1.06! 1.07" 1.05 1.055 1.03 1.04J 1.075 111.4 High. SI. 2.5 1.164 1.14* 1.165 1.17 1.13 1.125 1.14 1.13 1.15 1.22 1.234 Milwaukee. No. 1 North- western. Low. $1,124 1.10" 1.11 1.12 1.124 1.11 1.05 1.10 1.0S 1.09! 1.13* 1.174 High. $1.25 1.17 1.14 1.18 1.15J 1.134 1.124 1.14" 1.145 1.131 1.204 1.22 Duluth. Low. $1,115 1.103 1-10| 1.14 J 1.124 1.11? 1.11J 1.12 1.09* 1.111 1.14| 1.181 High. $1.24 1.161 1.17J 1.20 1.18 1.141 1.14* 1.171 1.175- 1.15| 1.25f 1.224. RICE. Rice crop of countries named, 1901-1905. [Mostly cleaned rice. China, which is omitted, has a roughly-estimated crop of 50,000,000,000 to 60,000,000,000 pounds. Other omitted countries are Afghanistan, Algeria, Brazil, Colombia, Feder- ated Malay States, Madagascar, Persia, Russia (Asiatic), Trinidad and Tobago, Turkey (Asiatic and European), Venezuela, and a few other countries of small production.] Country. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. NORTH AMERICA. United States: Contiguous Pounds, a 388, 0O0, 000 b 33, 400, 000 Pounds. 1319,400,000 b 33, 400, 000 Pounds. a560,800,000 6 33, 400, 000 Pounds. 586,000,000 b 33, 400, 000 Pounds. 378,000,000 b 33, 400, 000 Noncontiguous — Hawaii Total United States (except Philippine Islands) 421,400.000 352,800,000 594,200,000 019, 400, 000 411,400,000 Central America: 300,000 8, 100, 000 41, 800, 000 700,000 d 8, 100, 000 40,000,000 1,000,000 d 8, 100, 000 48, 700, 000 1,300,000 d 8, 100.000 62,000,000 c 1,300, 000 c 62, 000, 000 Total North America. 471,600,000 401,600,000 652,000,000 690, 800, 000 482,800,000 "SOUTH AMERICA. e 2, 000, 000 29,300.000 800, 000 00,000,000 e 2, 000, 000 22,800.000 800,000 60,000,000 e 2, 000, 000 •24,500,000 1,000.000 60,000,000 t 2, 000, 000 31,200,000 1,900,000 00,000,000 e 2, 000, 000 32,800,000 e 1,900, 000 CO 000 000 British Guiana Dutch Guiana Peru Total South America . 92,100,000 85,600,000 87, 500, 000 95,100,000 96, 700, 000 EUROPE. 600, 000 / 9, 900, 000 670, 300, 000 382,900,000 700,000 79,900, 000 668,400,000 359,800,000 600,000 9, 800, 000 761,400,000 417,100,000 700, 000 12. 200, 000 760,500,000 394, 000, 000 800,000 10,800,000 676,600,000 478, 600, 000 Bulgaria Italy Spain 1,063,400,000 1,038,800,000 1,188,900,000 1,168,000,000 1,166,800,000 ASIA. British India: <7 British Provinces 62, 153, 000, 000 h 711, 000, 000 72,688,000,000 h 799, 000, 000 68, 580, 000, 000 h 838, 000, 000 71,561,000,000 h 764, 000, 000 69,927,000,000 c 764, 000, 000 Total British India... 62,864,000,000 73,487,000,000 69, 418, 000, 000 72,325,000,000 70,691,000,000 a Commercial movement. 6 Census 1899. ■ « Figures for previous year used. d 1901 figures used. c Unofficial estimate. /1899 figures used. g Figures for British India refer to crop years beginning in the spring of the calendar years men- tioned in this table. h Estimated from official returns for acreage. t>14 YEAEBOOK OF THE DEFAETMEXI OF AGEICULIV Rice crop of countries named. 1901-1905. — Continue!. Country. ML 1902. 1903. N 1 ;•■:•. -oontinoed- Pound*. ■96,300,000 -. nc oa n Pound*. 7 .•J.000 c 5, 000, 000, 000 d 5. 000, 000, OOOt J ■ :-. to, 000, 000. 000 Pound*. :■■-.■•' ■ ;.;,. ., ... ?e Empire: Formosa 11. 533. 200.000' 14. 512. GOO. 000 - 296. GOO. 000 if •:>•" goi jot . — : •. ..... n,M^ooo, no ^2,598,100,000 Total Japanes - ■•,-.. 300,000; 16. 309. 200. V.O IS, 658.700,000 :-. ' .» ■"■ ■ " I Madura Korea PhiliDp.r. ' «:.ooo.ooo <*3. 400, 000. 000 <*3. COO, 000. 000 - ;:; ;,;. .. | - ., ,, i3,3oo,oo( oc * i no, no, n ...... .... ■ m .,' ■;. 95.000.000 544,0- 3.300.000.000 • 95.000.000 £95.000,000 Total Asia 97. 794,300.000 105, r~ - SOO. 000 110.2 '30.000 AFRICA. '■?ntral Africa - . 200.000> «20,000.000 '20,000,000, 2.200.000; /2,200,000 : ■■ .. . ■ ','•*..- r.i .:. ■ 1,300,000 100.000 = 3.000.000 a3.OCO.000 13.000.000 (>J> Total Oceania - '• M 3.500,000 :>•: .... 3,030.000 •--:,:•■ •• ::■ . >•: :•-. :.■■ ?;: -..> .... . 02. 191. 300. 000 106- 129. Iflft. ODD - - .res for previous yes.r: < rnoraci&i estimate. 1 from official returns of exports of this country, and from per capita consumption of rice in Japan, including food, seed and waste bet not including rice used for sake, for 1394-1903 (270 pounds per aim am 5 is. 1902. _ - :_ ." ■-. :> :--.".-. oduction. and i ;jf United Slat1 54 6| 6.J 2 - 4 '■; 5 ] 2 5| 4 « 53 54 6i 14 6 4 41 53 5J 61 6 j H If 64 4 54 54 41 '1 5J 5 J 4 4* • 4 :,.'. 6J 2.00 3.40 l| ■">; 44 51 4* 4 53 51 1.90 3.25 11 51 44. 51 41 41 53 51 2.00 3.20 11 6A 44 51 5 5 53 51 1.75 3.30 11 63 44 5! 41 5 43 •53 1.75 3.40 1; 6i 44 5| 5 5 41 5} 1.75 3.40 1J 63 4 4 6 54J 5i 41 53 1.75 3.40 11 6| ■i\ 6 53 53 41 53 U 64 44 44 51 53 51 4f 2| 23 64. 53 5| 41 53 5J 6| 64 4'. 6 53 5| 41 2i 4^ 6& 5| 5! 4f 53 2i 6 4? 6} 4* 5* 41 5J 2.00 3.60 21 5§ 41 6i 44 41 41 5* 1.75 3.60 1| 5| 41 63 43 41 41 54 1.60 3.25 1* 5J 43 5* 44 *3 41 5J 1.50 3.00 13 0 4 5 43 43 4? •5} • 1.50 3.00 14 41 31 4| 4 4 4! 53 1.50 2.75 I1, 4f 34 11 4 4 44 5 1.25 2.50 n 41 34 41 4 4 43 4i 1.25 2.25 1* 43 34. 43 »i 4 4J 41 1.25 2.00 11 4| 33 4 3jj 3? H 41 1.25 2.00 1* 4 33 4 3* 31 31 4J 1.2.3 2.00 Is 43 3 4 3$ 3? 3i 41 1.25 2.00 13 53 3 4 3* 3§ 31 4i 1.25 2.00 11 4] 3 4 ■4 31 33 43 1.10 2.00 13 0 3 31 3? 31 r4 43 1.10 2.00 11 5i 3 31 31 n H If LOO 2.00 1A 53 3 31 31 31 33 43 1.00 2.00 li. 5J 3 31 3* 31 3? 43 1.00 2.00 1 4! 3 31 3* 35 3 4 LOO 2.35 1A 4| 3 31 31 31 3 4 1.00 2.25 i^ n 3 34 31 34 44 5 LOO il 4', 3 34 31 31 4 1.00 2.50 2i 5 3 31 3| 3| 4 5 LOO 2.50 2J 41 3 4 3|| 3* 4 5 1.25 3.00 11 53 3 43 3? 4 4 5 2.00 3.25 11 58 3 43 41 4; 4 5 2.00 3.25 2 53 3 41 4; 41 4* 5i 2.00 3. 75 5| 3 5 44 41 41 53 2.00 3.S5 2 34 5 5 5} 41 53 2.-r> 3.S5 2| 51 4 51 0 53 4i o3 2.25 3.S5 2| : 5J 4 51 5 5 41 5J 2.25 3.85 2 1 51 4 51 ■H 5 41 51 n n 21 31 4! 5 4» 53 6 3^ 5 5 53 4| 51 53 31 53 53 54 43 51 2J 2 5| 31 53 53 53 41 54 2.50 3.85 6§ 31 53 ">4 53 4| 51 2.50 3.85 21 51 31 53 51 54 4? 51 2.25 3.85 24. 5| li 51 5J 5| 41 51 2.25 3.50 2 5| 1'. 51 0 53 41 54. 2.00 3.25 11 51 4 51 a Per bsrrel of 162 pounds. 616 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Initrnational trait 1901—1906.* [Mostly cleaned rice.] E :>: . ! g 1903. Belgiam Jan. 1 i Jndia ........ Formosa France Jan. 1 French Indo-China .. . Jan. 1 Jan. 1 Netherlands Jan. 1 Penacg Jan. 1 Siam Jan. 1 Singapore Jan. 1 Pound*. - -.53.573 52 72 - ■ •■ • ." H "3.252 ■ . .i ■•- . ■- ... 53 " " 44 .-• J3.333 1,534,231,467 -- - .. - J7J ,. Pounds. ■ 133 S "" 235,338 2.459.480.031 22 ' 2 23 " '. "-' _ H 742,133 521,922 Pounds. 5.054.477.904 ■• ; 1 770,569 "4. 515 223 25 ""- ■ i 22 - £0,400 57 • Pounds. 1 ri4.036 " 790, 144' 105. 792. 310: 197.154.447 52.021.579 . a 790,0441 ■ 2 ' - 154,148,4001 ■ - " . 571,733 '•• 125,000 Pounds. 764,979 4,839,327,300 • 582,964 -- 566,374 54,091,776 1.371. 222 773,526 11,808 B3, 433 ■ ~~;6,800 " 00,905 - - 15.000 Total 9,098,009,53712,034,1 -- 307, 134, 492 10, 216, 541, 441 IMPORTS. Jan. Belgiam Jan. n China :.. Jan. Cuba Jan. Dutch East Indies. . . Jan. Jan. Jan- Japar . .* Jan. Mauritius. Jan. .- ::.• :. -.'-. .i . " .: _■ Philippine Islands Jan. Russia Jan. i.r..\.; r *.-.::. -i Kingdom Jan. I ' " :::.:.•-- " "" ■ 12 . '" 197.'! • 775 302.4-- . • a •• ■■ . ■ 1 . 339. 493. 984 7,567,92 7.93 . .- 414. . 142,25 "43.370 - 852 - " i . "43. 174 1,341,867 i m ■■■ ' ' '■ ■ - 925,44: 154. 339. g ■ 445. 601. . (39. 138, 1.040. 169. 970 :. " 653.404 632, $29 482 732 420.533 841,863 " ■ 27 ; 702. 495 209 BOf __■ 572 I J 345. 333 - i 77 i 3 ' ' - 0 162. - o - 140, 440. ■ 236, 141. 495. 153, ■ 154. 1.074. ■-":- ■• 2S3 72 ! 22 ' ■ ' ■ 574. 339 099.790 159 745 359.026 . ' --- 654.000 143.562 "■• i - ' ■ i 221 772 U I 134. m 143 196, 71 104. ." ". 252. 157. n - 403, 926, 021,690 259.008 577.333. i - . 382, 754 • -• 833,603 - " " . 778 SSO. 567 232,062 "•" 0 591,664 483,515] 744.000 234. . ■ <*129. 297. el77, 661. • 414. 23 1.546. 114. 493. • d 160. e.982, 85 24 525.043 J 2 413.516 312. 992 446, 016 055,467 727. 403 979. 896 854.789 278,011 121.733 012.080 955.916 859.300 411.974 521.396 300, 900 939. 744 Total - "• \ 681 273 " — ' 935.752 10.540.049.565 9, 430 - c Average. 1901-1904. d .Preliminary figures. STATISTICS OF SUGAR. SUGAR. 617 Sugar production of countries named, 1902-3 to 1906-7. not include the production of China, Formosa, Natal, and some other less important sugar-producing countries.] Country. Cane Sugar. north america. United States: Contiguous- Louisiana Texas Noncontiguous — Hawaii Porto Rico Total United States (except Philippine Islands) Central America: Guatemala Salvador Nicaragua Costa Rica Mexico . . West Indies: British- Antigua and St. Kitts. Barbados Jamaica Trinidad .... Cuba Danish— St. Croix French — Guadeloupe Martinique Haiti and Santo Domingo.. Lesser Antilles ' Total North America . ' SOUTH AMERICA. Argentina Brazil '_.['■ British Guiana ! " ! ! " Dutch Guiana ... Peru ...[ Venezuela * ' " " Total South America . EUROPE. Spain i ASIA. British India c Java Philippine Isfcmds [[[.[.....< Total Asia Tons, a 329, 220 (») 391,062 85,000 S05, 288 8,000 0,000 4,500 3,000 112,679 18,000 38, 179 18, 772 42, 679 998,878 13,000 38, 498 29,035 50,000 12,000 2,198,508 130,000 187,500 121,570 13,046 123,906 3,000 579,022 28,000 1,906,784 842, 812 90,000 2, 839, 596 1903-4. Tons, a 215,000 19,800 328, 103 130,000 Tons, a 335, 000 15,000 380, 576 145.000 Tons, a 330,000 12,000 383, 225 213.000 692, 903 7,040 6,300 4,235 3,275 107.547 19,000 58,081 14,255 44,058 1,040,228 13,000 35,976 23, 930 47,000 13,000 , 130, 434 142, 895 197,000 113,282 13,000 131,957 3,000 001,134 2S,000 1,871,980 885, 561 84,000 2,841,547 875. 570 938,225 7,040 5,588 4,235 2,305 107.038 24,000 41,600 11,251 31,000 1,103,258 11,000 30,000 29,980 47,000 13,000 2, 410, 477 0,795 5,944 4,400 1,377 107, 529 24,000 49, 804 12,523 55,000 1.178.749 13,000 36,000 42, 231 55,000 13, 000 2,543,637 128,104 195,000 101,278 13,000 150, 000 3,000 590,382 18, 592 137. 308 275,000 121,693 13,000 150, 000 3,000 700,001 14,512 2,169,000 1,008,900 106, 875 3,284,775 1 , 725, 300 990, 994 145, 525 2,801,819 1906-7. Tons, a 230,000 13.000 390, 000 255,000 8SS.0OO 7,000 6,000 4,000 2,000 115,000 24,000 40,000 15,000 50, 000 1,250,000 13,000 36,000 40,000 60,000 13, 000 2,563,000 120,000 200,000 118,000 13,000 140,000 3.000 054,000 15,000 2,223,400 1,011,540 150, 500 3,385,440 1 ?T°ils °f.2>2*° Pounds, except beet sugar in Europe, which.is in metric tons of 2,204.022 pounds o .Not estimated. « Official estimates for such parts of British India as return statistics of production. 618 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Sugar production of countries named. 1902-3 to 1906-7 — Continued. Countrv. 1902-3. 1903- 1904-5. : Egypt.... Mauritius. Reunion.. Total Africa OCEANIA. Australian Commonwealth: Queensland New South Wales Fiji Total Oceania . Total cane-sugar pro- duction Beet - north america. Unite 1 Total North America. ErKOPE. Austria-Hungary . Belgium France Germany rlands Russia Other cour.: Ton.-. ■~ ■ I 150.349 39.624 Tons. 00.000 25 41.117 Tons. 60,000 142.101 30,000 Tom. 65.000 i 30. COO I 277.47: . / 232. 101 - 21.000 35.503 21.500 50,000 . 525 47.000 170.000 20.000 ... 1,000 55,725 n 6. 633. 333 . ; 216.173 ■ 279.393 11.419 201. 47S 57 - 224,090 I . 102. 411 25 -. 1.167,959 209,811 804.308 . 27 - 1.206.907 441.116 i 598,164 136.551 :-■■"■-: a - 1,089,684 2.415.136 - 1 - 415.000 Tom. 60.000 205.000 30.000 295,000 24.000 43.000 : r, 161, 446 11,367 1,335.000 755.000 2.250.000 190.000 1.4.50.000 440,000 Total Europe 561, 257 .333 | 4. 70S. 700 700, 000 Total beet-sugar pro- duction. 762, 73-5 6. HE 4.932.907 7.2:. 7. 143. 163 Total cane and beet sugar 12.1S9.017 11.' •■ 67,794 14.304.699 STATISTICS OF SUGAK. 619 Quantity and value of sugar imported into thf United States from the principal sources of supply, 1902-1906. QUANTITY. Country from which imported. Austria-Hungary. . Belgium Brazil British Guiana British West Indies Canada Chinese Empire Cuba Danish West Indies Dutch East Indies. Dutch Guiana Egypt Germany Mexico Netherlands Peru Philippine Islands. . Santo Domingo United Kingdom . . . Other countries Total Imports for year ending June 30 — 1902. Pounds. 111,818,771 479,655 349,794,400 181, 237, 759 194,909,474 2, 430, 647 2, 397, 107 984,216,925 10,037,082 636,710,315 16,861,587 59,557,384 217, 872, 627 338, 308 8,967,942 102,647,624 11,424,000 111,580,425 11,125,330 11,241,787 1903. Pounds. 40, 857, 724 74, 159, 889 172,361,345 191,924,220 6,285,045 752, 2S5 2,396,497,779 41,205,950 891,758,090 15,722,225 62, 348, 580 91, 745, 860 2, 414, 373 200,000 88,848,044 18, 773, 333 112,988.775 119,739 7,144.850 1904. Pounds. 3,525,512 14, ISO, 540 73, 295, 0S9 65,850, 114 4,034,551 4,602,045 2,819,558,402 20, S37, 461 440, 370, 139 6,994,540 22,222,552 5,480.349 1, 250, 252 48,671,777 61,670,614 95,790,189 70 12,382,811 1905. Pounds. 2, 704. 200 20,820,667 49. 90S. 032 56,015,487 80,553,082 2,153,019 8,351,757 2,057,684,109 12,851,640 899, 394, 575 11,407.700 2,590.230 205.0S4.302 24,049,489 17.7S9.55S 77,997,424 109,111,209 1,541,724 10, 798, 632 3,031,915,575 4,216, 108, 106 3.700,023,013 3,680.932,998 1906. Pounds. 1,676.257 784,000 28, S77, 781 50,930,124 37,367,355 51,246,131 785, 422 2,781,901,380 17,233,750 781,891,724 2, 427, 536 12, 480, 459 3,540,984 36,371.943 69, 373, 602 96, 845, 109 2, 880, 490 2.717.383 3,979.331,430 VALUE. Austria-Hungary. . . Belgium Brazil British Guiana British West Indies. Canada Chinese Empire Cuba Danish West Indies. Dutch East Indies.. Dutch Guiana Egypt Germany Mexico Netherlands Peru. Philippine Islands. Santo Domingo United Kingdom . . Other countries Total. Dollars. 2, 288, 547 11,097 4,908,735 3.372,104 3,226,575 123, 441 03,429 18, 205, 411 377.581 12,325,518 349, 242 1.351, OSS 3. 597.2:14 9,408 232,963 1,910,311 L88.1S9 2,001,977 192,945 204,872 55,001,097 Dollars. 077, 830 1,176.049 3,333,032 3. 136, 172 256, 894 13,640 42,714,079 705, 587 13,251,810 301,235 1,014,831 1,370,305 103, 439 4,888 1,517,514 270, 729 2,107,428 2,241 131.258 72,08S,973 Dollars. 80, 393 200, 102 1, 428, 433 1,092,663 196,633 123,900 50.547.403 390, 384 7,409,996 134,902 415, 551 117,410 35,998 S00,605 884. 160 1,750,145 4 241,071 71,915,753 Dollars. 79, 403 473, 749 1.206,275 1,460,969 1,020,078 146,644 227,260 64,366,104 382,861 15,611,568 317.s:;7 57, 190 4. 4(13. 237 933,284 1.015. 20S 1,498,399 3,490,933 41,724 243,726 97.045,440 Dollars. 44. 006 19, 672 39S, 153 988, 730 641,489 149,809 19,849 60,208,148 345,972 16,941,593 293,629 1,100,567 121,926 757. 356 1,424,167 1,871,608 62, 974 69, 840 85, 400, 088 _ YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUEE. mat trad* EM Belgium t : British Guiana L--..-L '. .-.. China Cuba "..- - ... .. Formosa Roan v - ' :•--.:. - .... .t Fi__T T ." I --iT. .5 . . Reunion Island. 7r.7_ ..." ::. : ir.-.r.es I ir. . Fan. Fan. Ian. Apr. Apr. Fan Fan. 1 in. FaiL 1 in. Fan. Fan. Jan. Jan. ' ~r .Tiir_ Fan. Povnd-e. . - ■ - . ... \ 417 • - - ■ - ■ - : - • . • " . ■ •- .' - ■ 174 . - 282 752 '.' ■ . ■■ .,- 492.073. 00 Pounds. 1,50 882,18 . ". ! 283 771 ■ • - 28 . ■ " 1 "-. ' 1,904,371,1 ■ 'J1.149 _ . 258.738.79 217 ■ '. -" _■■ ■ 7,792,00 Pov ndf. ■ . 257 . 48,2c J67 282 25,76! •- C4 ■ _ so,ooo .- - . - • - - -: • i TA.-- ',' 43B,12 ■- . . .41.034 .... ^ . ■■• ."•-"■ 540.-. . • •■ 90.4 115,2 180,000 Pound t. 5 . 2 ' . 72 574 80.432, 5; i 304,193, ■ : 9453 273 "■" 056 128 000 T " ... . 12, 072, -534,71 "'"'"-..',..".-- '113.753 IMPORTS. . : ■ Canada CiT> ■: ■ ■■'. !.-'•■ C ":...-■ I ^ r\ : •: Finland Plane Fa| in ] ■ " :. : . , -.. . - :■ ----- . ..:. y - r - : - 1 - .-- -■ . ■ - - 04,848;] 47* - z a Average. 19 . I t Average. 1903-1904. / Imports for 1899, latest available returns. STATISTICS OF SUGAR. 621 Production of sugar in tlie United States and possessions. 1854-5 to 1906-7. [Census data, as far as available, are given in italics. Beet-sugar production for 1S97-98 from Special Report of Department of Agriculture; for 1901-2 to 1906-7 from Progress of the Beet-Sugar Industry in the United States; for other vears from Willett & Gray. Production of cane sugar in Louisiana for 1904-5 to 1906-7. and of Texas "for 1903-4 to 1906-7, from Willett i Gray; earlier statistics for Louisiana and other Southern States from Bouchereau. in part taken directly from his reports and in part from the Statistical Abstract. Porto Rican production of cane sugar for 1S54-55 to 18S4-S5 from Rueb & Co.; for later vears from 'Willett & Gra v. Statistics for Hawaii, 1874-75 to 1SS0-81, represent exports, from Bureau of Statistics Bui. 30; for 1881-82 to 18S4-S5 from Rueb & Co. ; for later vears from AVillett & Gray. Statistics for Philippine Islands for 1S54-55 to 1857-58. 1859-60 to 1806-67, 1872-73 to 1894-95 represent exports as officially returned, taken from the Census of the Philippine Islands. 1903; for 1858-59, 1867-68 to 1S71-72 from Foreign Markets Bui. 14, representing commercial estimates of exports; for later vears from Willett & Gray, the statistics for 1895-96 to 1903-4 representing exports, for 1904-5 to 1906-7, pro- duction. Tons of 2,240 pounds are used throughout.] Cane sugar. Year. Beet sugar. 1863-64 1864-65 1865-66 1866-67 1867-68 1868-69 1869-70 1870-71 1871-72 1872-73 1873-74 1874-75 1875-76 1876-77 1877-78 1878-79 1879-80 1880-81 1881-82 1882-83 1883-84 1884-85 1885-86 1886-87 1S87-88 1888-89 1889-9o'( Census) . 1890-91 1891-92 1892-93 1893-94 1894-95 1895-96 1896-97 1897-98 189S-99 1898-99 ( Census) . 1899-1900 1899-1900 ( Cen- sus) 1900-1 1901-2 1902-3 1902 ( Census) 1903-4 1904-5 1901-5 {Census)... 1905-6 1906-7 Louisiana. 1854-55 Long tons. 1855-56 1856-57 1857-58 1858-59 1859-60 1860-61 1861-62 1862-63 500 700 b 100 200 1,200 500 6 500 535 953 600 800 255 1,861 2,203 3,459 5,356 12,018 19,9o0 20,092 29,^20 37,536 40,3y8 32, 471 72,944 7S,97S 76,859 164, »27 194, 782 Long tons. 171,976 113,647 36,327 137,351 185, 177 113,891 118,332 235,858 43,232 37,723 4,821 8,884 19, 152 18,482 42, 434 44,399 75,392 65,583 55,958 46,090 60,047 72,954 85; 122 65, o71 106,908 8>,s22 121,867 71,3T3 135, 297 128,443 94,376 127,9.58 so.vy.i 157,971 144, 87S 124,772 ISO. 413 215,844 lo0,937 217, o25 2o5.836 317,334 237.721 282. 009 310, 447 2*i,512 248. 658 147,164 142. 485 270,338 321,676 329,226 214,825 216, 173 226. 715 279,393 431,7% 228, 477 335,000 330,000 230,000 Other Southern States. Long tons. 13, 169 9,821 2,673 6,385 S,169 5,149 4,313 5,138 2,768 250 179 348 3,348 4,518 2,567 2,402 4,208 4.217 4,235 2,410 3, 454 4,046 3,879 5,330 5,090 3,980 5,500 5,000 7,000 6,800 6,500 7,200 4,535 9,843 9,031 8,159 4,089 6,107 4,500 5,000 6,854 \2sS 4,973 5,570 5,737 3,442 c 5,266 2.1)27 1,510 2,891 3,614 3,722 Porto Rico. Long tons. 58,377 82,000 85,000 69, 444 5S,000 57,000 67,000 68,000 63,000 61,590 63,375 64, 417 68,229 73,935 81,500 102,110 103,304 89,559 87,639 71, 755 72, 128 70,016 62,340 84,347 76,411 57,057 61,715 80,066 77,632 98,665 70,000 64,000 86,000 60.000 62,000 55,000 c 19,800 c 15,000 <• 12,000 <- 13,000 Hawaii. Philippine Islands. Long tons. 50,000 70,000 50,000 60,000 52,500 50,000 58,000 54,000 53,826 35,000 80,000 85,000 85,000 130,000 145,000 11,197 11,639 11,418 17, 157 21,884 28,386 41,870 50,972 51,705 63,948 76,496 96,500 95,000 100,000 120,000 120,000 Long tons. 35,008 47. 36; 26. 50, 49. 45, 60, 51. 44. 46, 40, 55, 74, 68, 78, 87, 95, 99 126 128 121 120 129 178 205 148 193 120 200 182 169 158 224 142 125,000 115,598 140,000 136,689 131,698 201,632 224, 218 204, 833 252, .507 136 248 257 207 336 230 202 178 93 25S,521 94S, 008 321,461 317,509 391,062 328, 103 380, 576 213,000 255,000 383,225 390,000 145 150 Lonq tons. 278,530 252, 865 160,066 240,038 301,441 225, 053 234, 961 369, 953 160, 240 144,288 114,867 114, 6S5 146,324 171,416 195, 719 227,525 270, 769 255,285 232, 197 220,725 273,015 2S7,240 283:911 292, 701 340,270 357,774 436, 960 355, 958 465,860 418,590 449, 322 478, 277 436,234 486, 514 562. 631 452, 68S 400 637 000 m 000 525 500 536, 445 605, 197 681,935 696, 648 865,988 753,546 809,333 793, 415 6S0,758 578,441 S06,949 971,263 1,093,792 i,'66.5; 205 1, 198, 624 1.363,143 i; 470, 296 a Mean annual production; quantity varied from year to year between 300 and 500 tons. b Production uncertain; not exceeding quantity stated. c Texas. 622 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Sugar-beet acreage and beet-sugar production in the United States, 1901-2 to 1906-7. [From reports of Department of Agriculture on Progress of the Beet-Sugar Industry in the United States. Full explanations of the table are given in the report for 1'j State and year. Facto- ries in opera- tion. Area har- vested. Aver age yield of beets per acre. Beets worked. Sugar manu- factured. Aver- age extrac- tion cf su^ar. beets. age length of cam- 1906-7. California Colorado Idaho Michigan Nebraska Utah Wisconsin. Nine States hav- ing oue factory each Total or aver- I 1905-6 1904-5 1903-4 1902-3 1901-2 Xo. A ores. 60,141 110,943 19,950 93,984 13, 650 24. 10S Short tons. 11.17 13.41 11.48 • "7 9.77 15.88 10.19 9. 75 Short tons. 671,571' 1,487,383 229, 023 805,309 133, 3S7 15S,600 Pounds. 185,480,000 56,798,000 177,214,000 30,754,000 80,848,000 Per cent. 13. 81 11.24 12.40 11.08 11.53 10. 56 11.10 Per cent. 16.7 14.7 16.9 14.5 13.7 14.5 13.6 82.7 80.3 83.3 SO. 6 81.8 83.0 36S, 070 06. 524, 000 Days. 115 132 95 85 136 123 83 63 376. 074 11. 26 4, 236. 112 967, 224, 000 82.2 307, 364 197,784 242. .".76 216,400 175, OSS S.67 10.17 8.56 8.76 9.63 2.665,913 2.071,539 2. 076. 491 1,685,689 iV25.841.22S 484,226,430 436,811,685 369, 211, 733 11.74 15.3 11.69 15.3 11.59 15.1 11.52 14.6 10.95 14.8 83.0 -3.1 («) 83.3 . _ a No data. CACAO. Cacao crop of countries named. 1982-1996. [This table, taken from the Gordian, Hamburg, purports to cover the entire production of the world.] Country. 1902. . 1904. 1905. 1906.O St. Thomas (Portngues i Pounds. ■15.000 55,04 41,910.000 35, 1J 1 21,851, 000 5,372,000 13, 173, 000 5, 893. 000 4,13 4.387, 000 5, 192, 000 1.962,000 3, 362, 000 2. 039, 000 1,429,400 1.731.000 Pound*. 47,291,000 51.232.000 45. 720. 000 32, 8 . 17,251,000 27,' " 5,064,000 '■58, 000 6,78 ' 787.000 4.795.000 4. 905. 000 3, 215. 000 3. 638. 000 2. 535. 000 1.764.000 1.764.000 Pounds. Pounds. -".000 46,579.000 51,059.000 | 46, 40,949,000 44.1 33. «» Pounds. "1.800,000 54,900,000 60, 4C0. 000 35. 10(1.000 Brazil Trinidad M0, 000 88, 76S, 000 12.540,000 13.7. 7.176.000 7.201,000 81.000 1,883.000 13,000 3, 638. 000 2.(378.000 2. 445, 000 1,764.000 1,070.000 510.000 1.764,000 28, 1S5, OCO 25. 795, 000 12.491.000 12, 028. OCO 7.S10.000 0.014.000 5, 160. CC0 3,553,000 3.289,000 3.273.000 2. 646. OCO 8, 613, 000 L 543, 000 1,31a 429. 000 1.764,000 24,300,000 Gold Coast (Lagos) 13,400,000 10,400,000 S. 400, 000 0,600,000 Haiti 5, 500. 000 4.400.000 3, 700, 000 Jamaica 4,900.000 French West Indies 3. 100. 000 3,500,000 1,800.000 Dominica 1,300.000 Koneo Free State 400,000 1, 643,000 1.764,000 1 300,400 Total 266, 625, 000 551,000 323,093,000 311.674.000 326,300,000 i Preliminary estimate. STATISTICS OF TEA. 623 Cacao consumption of countries named. 1902-1906. [From the Gordian, Hamburg.] Count rv. United States Germany France England Netherlands (net imports) Spain Switzerland Belgium Aust ria-Hunga ty Russia Denmark Italy Sweden Canada Australia Norway Portugal Finland Pounds. 50. 073. COO 45.419.000 42,644,000 44.943.000 20, 2-2-2. 000 20.415.000 12,582,000 5.021.000 4,013.000 4. Ojs. (XX) 1,768.000 1,028,000 1.304.000 689.000 1,223.000 904.000 248.000 104.000 Pounds. 62,850.000 47. aso. 000 45, 500. 000 38.550.000 23.657.000 13,242,000 12,911.000 6', 102. 000 4.4^" I 0 4,190.000 2,535.000 1.032.000 1,708,000 1.291.000 979.000 970.000 301.000 135.000 Pounds. 73.104.000 59,748,000 48. 000. 000 45,311.000 20.802.000 12,370,000 " 7t 6,155.000 5.534.000 4.532.000 2. I! 6,000 1.057.000 1,920,000 1.433,000 1.213.000 1.041.000 397,000 139.000 Pounds. 77.070.000 65.330.000 . 47.945.000 .XXI 23,672, 13.452.000 11,505 6,656,000 I 5.8S3,000 4,917,000 2,480,000 2.142.000 1,984,000 1,543.000 1.323.000 1.089,000 304.000 132.000 Total I 257.50S.000 ' 267.S1S.000 Pounds. 7.V4S0.O0O 75.40O.0CO 51.200,000 40.960.000 24.090,000 13.070.000 14.110.000 ■0.000 6,610,000 5.510.000 2.050.000 2.430.000 2.210,000 1,650,000 1.430.000 1.210,000 330.000 140.000 306.150.000 313,958.000 : 335.S00.000 a Preliminary estimate. TEA. International trade in tea. 1901-1906. a EXPOS - - Country. British India Ceylon China Dutch East Indies. Formosa Japan Singapore Other countries Year begin- ning- Apr. ; Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Total. 1901. 1802 1903. 1904. Pounds. 182,997,444 144.27 154.399.007 17.298.690 i 19.926.072 - 1 . 077 2.222.00; 3,891,000 568,991,625 Pounds. 183,985,406 ! 202.561.467 15,637,322 43. 334. 372 1.903, S67 4,437,000 624.5S2.OO0 Pounds. 209.599.041 149.227.236 223,670,667 21.333.166 1,955,067 4.692.000 1S05. Pounds. 215. > v 157,929,342 193,4! 2ti.0ll.407 21.735.027 47.1' • 2.752.-. 33 5.428.000 i Pounds. 229,147.998 170. 183, 572 182.573.007 - I 23.779.542 3--. 566, 526 2 . - 64,612.000 2,285,544 670.147.1S2 077.215.101 IMPORTS. Argentina Australia Austria-Hungary. . British India. ..'.... Canada Cape of Good Hope. Chile Dutch East Indies. France French Indo-China. Germany c Netherlands New Zealand Persia Russia. Singapore United Kingdom. United States Other countries. . Jan. Jan. Jan. Apr. July Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Mar. Jan. Jan. Jan. July Total . 1,648,156 27,018.196 2.257.092 3,386,557 19.530,654 3,169,031 1.924.379 4.000.900 1,899,974 2. , 85, 335 7. 275. 253 7,956,562 I ■ d 6, 353, 224 125.924.142 4,179,333 252.003.527 75. 579. 125 12.305.000 505. 425. 050 1.652.S23 24.S22.544 2,258,194 3.921.503 23. 909.371 4,512,958 1,883,307 4,218,013 2,084,587 2. 90S. 707 7.501.607 7.989,226 d0. 353. 224 135, • . " 4.201.21X1 108,574,905 17,169,000 612.654.S79 1,798.310 24. 710. 420, 2.30.4.457 4,817 31,360,014 793,311 1,977,766 4;45S 2 2 ; 2)947 6. So 7,92 5.232.721 6,922.170 132.070.193 4,243,467 27.020 112,905.541 15,884,000 2,314,238 28,353,903 2.7' 5. 520. 043 25.0 ; 3.254.29S 2,427,520 6 4,1' 2,348 152 3.034.445 6,900.908 9,090,607 5,906,653 i 6, 353, 224 8112,584,435 6 4. 30 207.U97.32S 21,750 b 14, lil, 000 633, 701. OSS 017.099.936 600,710.016 2,418,217 i 5. 135. 126 20.314.242 3. 322. 815 1,760,302 4.044.S20 2,446,200 3,436,080 1 - 794,20$ 5. 225. oos 5.7S4.277 121,648,892 4.602.533 270.514.472 11,025,000 n See " General note. " d. 546. b Average, 1901-1904. cNot including free ports. d Average, 1903-1904. « Preliminary figures. 624 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. COFFEE. International trade in coffee, 1901-1906.a EXPORTS. Country. Year begin- ning— 1901. 1902. 1903. 1905. Brazil British India Colombia * Costa Rica Dutch East Indies. Guatemala Haiti Jamaica Mexico Netherlands Nicaragua Salvador Singapore United States Venezuela Other countries Total. Jan. Apr. Jan. •-Sept. Jan. Jan. « Oct. Apr. J illy Jan. Jan. July Jan. July July rounds. 1,952.404,204 28,564,704 55,000,000 36,539,460 72.185,647 75,414,600 58,123,824 11,551,557 48,949,705 164,050,182 12,963,920 50,101,756 9,621,067 27,532,353 6108,000,000 30,107,000 2,741,109,979 2,565,188,316 rounds. 1.740.434.770 30,146,480 60,000,000 30,311,568 115,448,887 85,674,400 64,428,104 12,079,872 41,837,859 168,524,286 19,628,876 41,iil9,090 12,355,333 29,768,945 71,206,846 41,723,000 Pounds. 1,709,984,152 32.620,448 100,000,000 38,211,860 116,334,830 63,150,500 47,853.529 8,966,832 40,698,861 181.1 18,431,643 58,097,158 15,125,067 32,614,390 125,582,423 35,375,000 2,624,243,479 2,278,346,148 Pounds. 1,326,027,795 36,920,464 130,000,000 27.730,672 77.168,254 71,653,700 81,407,346 5 781,440 d 41,855.368 166,468,567 21,661,621 75,314,003 10,638,667 Id. 109,251 6 128,000,000 1. 1.1.09,000 Pounds. 1,431,328,038 40,340,384 70,000,000 39,788,002 72, 864, 649 81,081,600 45,244,232 9,046,464 d 42,456,491 148,744,186 18,171,515 61,822,223 f 11,935,034 29,184,504 94,370,090 e 42, 204, 000 2,238,581,412 IMPORTS. Argentina Austria-Hungary Belgium Cape of Good Hope. .J Cuba Denmark Egypt Finland France Germanv/ Italy Netherlands Norway Russia Singapore Spain Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom . . United States Other countries Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Julv 71 18 20 20 10 19 185 380 35 261 27 20 9 22 68 20 31 1,091 684,999 056,753 971,468 060,924 611,122 873,301 694,613 565,782 780,736 935,533 059,001 942,004 441,922 553,961 624,533 995,484 455, 09S 712,644 568,658 004.2.52 660,000 12,117, 99,434, 69,660, 25, 818 i 21,133, 23, 381 i 13,991, 22,130, 189,253, 379,945, 35,846, 291,984, 28,340. 21,483. 1.3,046, 20,419, \ 555 22,313, 62,344, 915,086, 61,248, 621 846 936 323 898 119 78S 291 397 s7.S 933 983 658 649 soo 436 1.32 200 279 380 000 18,502,868 104,200,357 51,859,425 20,979,803 17,218,114 24,369,892 13, 196, 168 25,598,739 246,122,708 403,070,820 38,934,065 259,525,128 27,996,473 21,320,455 14,958,400 21,851,660 68,349,071 23,671.026 51,017,884 995,043.284 78,221,000 Total 2,479,252,848 2,386,537,567 2,526,007,340 2.478,902,977 2.258, 14S. 110 I 16 108, 154, 19, 20, 25, 12, 23, 168, 39S, 39, 193, 23, 20, 9, 39, 1.047, 51, 931,049 701,092 387,057 448,590 716,876 552,671 7S9,537 291,871 198,472 486,529 087,728 836,257 699,731 976,264 174,666 000, 781 623,344 .H.2.322 508,156 792,984 137,000 18,516,812 107,106,048 100,032,285 21,136,170 e 19,920,002 25,348,744 13,996,858 25,743,433 200,594,621 398,491,379 d 41,285,969 206.246,193 25,298,346 d 21,559,342 11,701,100 '21,816,840 66, 417,080 20,958,680 493,275 851,6*8,933 '59,816,000 « See " General note.'- p. 546. t> Estimated. 'Year preceding. d Preliminary figures. t Average. 1901-1904. / Not including free ports TRADE IX OIL CAKE AXD OIL-CAKE MEAL. 625 OIL CAKE AND OIL-CAKE MEAL. lulu' national trade in oil cake and oil-rake meal, 1901-1906.** EXPORTS. Country. Year begin- ning- 1901. 1902. 1903. Argentina Jan. Austria-Hungary Jan. Belgium Jan. Canada July China Jan. Denmark Jan. Egypt Jan. France Ian. Germany & Jan. Italy . . ." Jan. Netherlands Jan. Russia Jan. United Kingdom '■ Jan. United States July Other countries Pounds. 20,518.417 59.327,039 132; 103, 005 20, 745, 648 89,672,067 7,522,545 107,812,630 242,983,580 299,993.939 26,508,816 154,833.546 850,865.092 53,146.240 1,048,093,619 7,298,000 Pounds. 18,984,000 64,246,433 128,843,692 28,830,032 89,672,067 4,045,586 130,544,487 325,807,127 328,769,320 24,908,481 139,814,583 850,095,204 53,146,240 1,679,394,359 11,491,000 Pounds. 19, 989. SOS 88,614. 7vl 137,086,773 29,002,1.24 89,672,067 8,682,295 156,944,836 314,693,035 375,254,222 19,627.750 136,734,208 1,028,500,994 53.146,240 1,503, 232, 6S0 14,337,000 1904. Pounds. 29.019,439 92.352.93S 145,834,669 10,115,392 83,999.467 4,417.928 160, 794; 106 351.62S.964 436,964,238 24,696,396 154,525,289 1,084,331,094 48,462,400 l.S94,577,648 26,149,000 1905. Pounds. 29,277,380 77,134,433 160,163,061 26,227.370 95,344,667 5,676,571 147,961,001 339,529,396 397,800,450 c 24, 425, 228 143,290,470- 0 977,465,158 57,830,080 1,918,171,984 '■26,149.000 Total 3,721,424,183 3,878^352,617 3,975,498,813 4,547,868,968 4,426,446,255 i \__^ I I 1 I IMPORTS. Austria-Hungary Jan. Belgium Jan. Canada July Denmark Jan. Dutch East Indies Jan. Finland Jan. France Jan. Germany 6 Jan. Italy Jan. Japan | Jan. Netherlands Jan. Sweden I Jan. United Kingdom Jan. Other countries 16,879,909 ! 322,9 7,683.200 j 524,125.732 17.963,013 10,405,942 '■ 255.172.170 11,180,863,666 12,593,462 78,582,800 I 429,765,565 : 119,861,354 , 842.437,120 18,751,000 7,656,432 353.641.510 3,521,616 054,111,347 15,691,801 12,594.155 238,507,6S1 1.074,490,055 7,909,522 55,550,267 461,479,090 142,046,653 861,678,720 21,898,000 Total 3,838,033,859 3.910,777,449 21,750,589 421. 090. 899 3,808,224 776,875,723 15,977,041 7,205,192 279,9S0,299 1,108,3"" 853 9,645.221 71,402,S00 476,967,295 163,933.913 811,798,400 25,702,000 27,340, 445,202. 3.953. 757,481, 31,004, 13,948, 292,015, 1,231,409. 6,525; 73,540, 495,92L 219,913, 823,934; 54. 076. 840 134 370 664 I 951 ! 954 079 I 255 902 I 133 130 ! 686 I 720 000 26, 44S, 2 840 ', 20, 11, 323, 1,285, c5, 101, 510, 226. 797, <*54, 469,794 216,564 308,432 119 71.5 159, 201 179,475 719,234 529,859 209,963 574,267 951,427 374,498 368,320 070, 000 4,195,099.440 4,476,267,824 4,653,256,749 0 Pee " General note" p. 546. l> Not including free ports. c Preliminary figures. •1 Figures for 1904 used. RES1X. International trade in resin. 1901-1906.a EXTORTS. Country. ginning— 190K 1902- 1903- 1904- 1905. Austria- II ungarv Germany b Netherlands United States Other coimtries Pound'. < Pounds. ' Pounds. Pounds. Jan. 1 , 3.621,312 ; 3.378.583 3,327,436 3,627,485 Jan. 1 j 42.257.533 1 33.756.511 44. .552, 705 45.017,597 Jan. 1 65.473.834 74.850.747 0,3.038.801 83.943.225 July l| 710.069,360| 671.019,440 723,830.24a 646.877,000 i 252,000 288,000, 373,000 338,000 Pounds. 3. 372. 410 46,370.255 58,544.509 682,795,1 30 c 177, 000 Total 821. 074. 039 7n3.299.2S1 S35. 122.242 780.403.507 i 791.259.854 " See 'General note," p. 540. 3 a 1906 40 i» Not including free ports. c Preliminary figures. 02G YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. International trade in resin, 1901-1906 — Continued. IMPORTS. Country. Argentina Austria-Hungary. Brazil a Chile Cuba Denmark Finland France Italy Japan Netherlands Russia Servia Spain D Switzerland United Kingdom. Uruguay Other coin:'. I Year be- ginning- Total. Jan. Jan. Jan. July Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. July 1901. 1902. Ponnd.--. - -IS, 335 56, 651 14,8 1,57 2.: 2,4 3, 019.50) 1.023. 414 235. 12.-.. 141 30.97 3. : 66. i 8>157 - 5 - - 1J4.034.400 i 3,367,000 1903. Pounds. 18.292,214 58,450,261 - " i -- - - 3,071,429 1,007,995 29,474,694 I 94,202,987 t5, 531 . 334 5,399,144 11.123.176 I 5,4! • 4.316.000 Pounds. 19,761,229 72,122,004 • 1,630,318 25,020,035 ■ 1S3.607.872 4. 390. 394 1904. K05. Pounds. 27, 19,1 2, 135. 176 3,38 463,167 I 65,4 4,887 3,98 13,44 10, 101 199,577 9. -68. COO Pounds. 20, 409, 438 27 -.1.136 - 2.0 :5. 007 - 5,1 ■5,556 7,894, MB t> 5, i 11,4 177,0 » 7, 418, 000 " • 756,990,550 780, J - . a Preliminary figures. I Average, 1901-1904. e Not in< hiding bee ports. Not including free ports. c Preliminary figures. TEADE IX FOREST PRODUCTS. 627 INDIA RUBBER. International trade in india rubber. 1901-1906.a EXPORTS. Pounds. AngoIa& Jar.. 1 5.000,000 Belgium Jar.. 1 Bot.via Jan. 1 7 Brazil Jan. 1 Dutch East Indies Jan. 1 Ecuador Jan. 1 France Jan. 1 0,000,033 French Jan. I French E Jan. 1 Germany <• Jan. 1' 11,050,068 Gold Coast Colony. .. . Jan. 1 j 1,520,009 IvorvCcasr Jan. 1: : Kanierun Jar.. 1 1,115,334 Kongo Free SI in. 1 I Netherlands Jan. 1 Pern I Jan. 1 Senegal ' Jan. 1 Singapore Jan. 1 I rn Nigeria - rate Jan. 1 Venezuela J uly 1 / : Other countries Total 150,100,054 1902. 190:. 1901. 1905. Pound*. 3,600,000 ; 13,0 i - - ,000 j 1,5- 13.743,023 -•.974 ' 2,01 920, 533 i 1 Pounds. 6,000,000 14,1 ■ 69,'.'. . 1,090,988 6,390,101 - b 13,350,000 231,008 4,64S 57 1,441,200 1,177 • J,7 " '70,000 Pounds. 6,000,000 Id,: 4,91 3,590,439 6,6 -. -7 - : 10,07 V' ■ 1,920,354 b 10,040,000 3, ' 2.. 3,026,133 2.40S,92fi - 8,921,000 Pounds. 5,200,000 14,993 10,7 28 22 ■ 7.105 3,687 •;,030 2,141,777 10,7- ~ 0,814 4,290,160 d 1,631,933 - $42,831 2,876,110 "Jo.OOO 141,909,029 15S,324,1S2 171,S06,6S3 I ISO, 636,591 IMPORTS. Jan. 1 Belgium Jan. 1 Canada July 1 France Tah. 1 Germany c ,Tan. 1 Italy Jan. 1 Netherlands Tan. 1 Russia Jan. 1 I Kingdom 1 an. 1 United States July 1 Other countries Total .294 7". - - 11,79; I 12,11 -~ 19,34 a 12,061,674 1,550,022 • 10,9G0,379 55,010,571 3,020,000 i 16,977,346 . 782 I 3,920,000 .058,661 194,091,050 , 206,293,794 - 14,011,04!) 7a i. 174,451 22,140,043 ! 8,091,000 3,02 19,69 47, : M,i- » 13,' 172 29, ( A 0,926 tOO a See ••General not:." p. 516. » Estimated. e Exoorts in 1 1901-1904. « Not including free ports. A Exports in 1902. ' 1-1905. A Prelrr;. "WOOD PULP. national trade in wood pulp. 1001-1906.a EXPORTS. - Belgium Finland Germany c Norway Sweden , Switzerland United Sta Other connl Total. . Jan. Jan. July Jan". Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. July Pounds. 176,960,000 58,016.833 136,071.573 - - a 974,000 Pounds. 98,::.. 57, 5S5,05> 309,120,000 57,000,121 ;4,254 • 1,986 12,111 12,550,693 22, i 511,000 Pounds. 105.s74.7-7 J, 478 .000 "_ 987,10". 790,80 j " 30.2' I, e 50,'». Poun l», 369. GOO, 000 130,027,777 155,086,119 981,029,727 - i " 7 Pounds. 252,529 "1,000 133,4" ■ 14,004,420 5,19ii,000 1,934, 455, 9SS 2,302,15-3,400 2,499,135,636 2,759,086,460 2,740,159,963 a See ' ' General note," p. 546. b Estimated. 'Not including free ports. 628 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. International trade ir, Ip, 1901—1906 — Continued. IMP' Country. I ginning— 1901. 1902. Arg lltiDa A f-:r. .-':. .-■ .:. Belgium Fraric*- — Japan Russia. SpiiiE Sweden .-•- .::■ -. :.': Vr..-- •: y z-i- . -... . :■ 0:;.-t : _-:.-.■ r . . . Fan. Jan. ran. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Julv Pound*. 13,4 12.' 1 33,;. 1 322 •"" 132, 4 • 3,87* 74 i 53 . -:- - -A 911 1903. 1304. 1905. Pound*. ' ' - j • 183'-:-! ■ • '■ ! ' ." . : - • 73.125,213 5,464,912 I " ■- 3 -13,440 5,99 Pound*. ! . •"■ 4,961,343 159,201 6L63t 420.541,612 91,195 " . 1 . " 29,301 S TO. 926 ' 57 72 10,344 -■ 2 ■ .4 4 12 Pounds. 35,123,171 : . ■ " - ■ - 405,941,055 S5,24 13 22 72 i . ■ 1,22 ' . 5 - ■ 0 Pound*. 886. 404 4,702,018 174,530,000 07,310,417 490.998,886 748,067 i-93.7 " 2 22,769.993 t44; 59,570,926 579,205 19,6* 352,181,760 947.000 Total 69,782,67* 26,792,920 2,5 2,786,079,125 2, 75f 335,049 - *• Preliminary figures. BILK. med, 1901—1905. [Baton Silk Manufacturers" Association of 1 - Italy Aastria^llungary . . - . Pound-t. 717,000 : Anatolia -"-_;■• -zj.:- .:.-..'-. :r.:-.r. :■: -•-... Ba_; Greece and I Crete ■eaaoa Persia and 922. 000 - T tal. . - ■ Eipoi . ... 7,00 Total - -- - Pound*. I 257 0 172.000 7,774,000 190, D00 0 I Pounds. ■ 170.000 894,000 11.793.00 5,00 13.045.0 ■ 419. 000 287 • 1.025.000 1.124.000 547,00 300.000 1.090.000 • 14:1,000 794,000 ' ■ : " I i - - ' - 9, 7 • ■ 1.393.000 172,000 761,000 4.705,000 I 650,000 _- "-■ 0 181,000 T. . 12.114.Ctt3 . ■ • 4)9.000 155.000 1,014,000 >. 841. 000 4.409.000 10,183,000 393 0 617,000 24,050,008 ' «i ' 41.513.000 a Exports fiom Bombay included for the first tune in STATISTICS OF BEANS. 629 BEANS. Wholesale prices of beans per bushel in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906. Date. 1902. January February... March.. April May June July August September. . October November. . December. . . 1903. January FebAiary... March April May June July August September. . October November. . December.. . 1904. January February March April May June July , August September. . . October November. .. December. . . 1905 January. . . February.. March April May June July August September. October... November. December. . 1906. January February March April May June July August September. .. October November... December. .. Boston. Pea. Low. $1.80 1.80 1.70 1.60 1.75 1.65 1.80 1.95 l.wO 2.15 2.35 2.30 2.40 2.35 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.35 2.30 2.20 2.30 2.25 2.15 2.10 2.00 2.00 1.95 1.95 1.85 1.80 1.75 1.75 1.85 1.80 1.72) 1.75 1.75 1.80 1.75 1.75 1.80 1.85 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.65 1.55 1.60 1.60 1.60 1.60 1.55 1.50 1.55 1.60 1.50 High. $2.05 1.85 1.80 1.75 1.90 1.70 2.15 2.10 2.00 2.55 2.45 2.40 2.45 2.40 2.30 2.30 2.35 2.35 2.35 2.30 2.40 2.40 2.20 2.15 2.10 2.20 2.20 2.00 2.00 1.95 1.80 1.90 1.90 1.95 1.85 1.80 1.75 2.00 1.97 1.80 1.80 1.90 1.90 1.85 1.75 1.75 1.85 1.85 1.80 1.75 1.60 1.65 1.70 1.72 1.62 1.60 1.55 1.65 1.65 1.55 Cincinnati. Pea. Low. | High. $2.60 2.60 2.60 2.30 2.30 2.30 2.30 2.30 2.30 2.25 2.20 2.25 $2.70 2.70 2.70 2.70 2.60 2.60 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.40 2.40 Navy. 2. 40 2. 50 2.25 2.30 2.15 2.15 2.15 2.15 2.15 2.15 2.15 2.15 2.05 2.05 2.05 2.05 2.05 2.05 2.05 2.05 2.05 2.05 2.05 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.65 1.65 1.65 1.65 1.65 1.65 1.65 1.65 1.65 1.65 1.65 1.65 1.65 1.65 1.65 2.50 2.40 2.40 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 Chicago. Detroit. Pea. Pea, Low. $1.40 1.40 1.20 .85 1.50 1.50 1.60 1.60 1.60 1.78 2.15 2.15 1.25 1.20 1.25 .90 .90 1.25 1.20 1.15 1.50 1.05 1.05 1.35 1.00 1.25 1.25 1.00 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10 .90 .90 1.10 1.20 1.25 1.00 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.25 1.20 1.25 1.25 1.40 1.40 High. Low. 1.40 1.37 1.35 1.10 1.20 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.39 1.40 1.40 1.35 $1.83 1.75 1.65 1.80 1.85 1.70 1.90 1.96 1.90 2.49 2.30 2.30 2.40 2.30 2.25 2.20 2.30 2.35 2.23 2.25 2.50 2.25 2.15 2.00 1.90 2.05 2.05 1.85 1.80 1.78 1.70 1.65 1.65 1.75 1.70 1.70 High. 1.62 1.85 1.80 1.70 1.70 1.75 1.78 1.72) 1.68 1.65 1.70 1.70 1.62 1.58 1.55 1.62 1.62 1.65 1.04 1.58 1.53 1.48 1.46 1.45 $1.60 1.53 1.28 1.28 1.56 1.48 1.60 1.63 1.75 1.70 1.66 1.74 2.24 2.10 2.10 1.88 2.07 2.20 2.10 1.91 2.10 1.90 1.90 1.82 1.75 1.74 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.60 1.60 1.61 1.65 1.58 1.58 1.56 1.52 1.70 1.66 1.62 1.65 1.66 1.55 1.50 1.49 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.45 1.40 1.44 1.48 1.48 1.50 1.41 1.30 1.37 1.34 1.27 $1.79 1.62 1.51 1.62 1.75 1.60 1.90 1.90 1.85 1.98 1.88 1.81 2.35 2.23 2.16 2.10 2.35 2.25 2.21 1.96 2.35 2.28 2.00 1.90 1.77 1.98 1.95 1.80 1.87 1.70 1.61 1.78 San Francisco. Lima (percwt.). 1.72 1.64 1.62 1.65 1.85 1.77 1.75 1.68 1.09 1.68 1.63 1.65 1.63 1.68 1.65 1.61 1.55 1.47 1.52 1.54 1.55 1.52 1.50 1.44 1.40 1.37 1.30 Low. $4.40 4.40 4.35 3.30 3.60 3.60 3.60 3.80 3.70 4,10 4.20 4.25 Small 2.90 2.90 3.00 3.00 2.90 3.00 3.00 3.00 2.85 3.00 2.75 2.40 2.75 2.80 2.85 2.90 2.95 2.90 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 3.00 3.00 2.75 2.75 High. $4.65 4.60 4.40 3.60 3.80 3.85 3.85 4.10 3.90 4.35 4.50 4.55 white. 3.40 3.35 3.30 3.30 '3.25 3.25 3.25 3.20 3.25 3.25 3.15 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.10 3.15 3.10 3.05 3.00 3.00 3.10 3. 32* 3.30 3.30 3.30 3.30 3.45 3.45 3.40 3.50 3.60 3.60 3.60 3.60 3.15 3.20 630 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE. CLOVER AND TIMOTHY SEED. Wholesale prices of clover seed (60 pounds to the bushel), 1902-1906. Cincinnati. Chicago. Toledo. Detroit. Date. Prime (per 100 pounds). Poor to choice (per 100 pounds) . Prime (per bushel;. Per bushel. Low. High. Low. High. Low. nigh. Low. High. 1902. 88.66 S.65 8.00 7.10 C.85 6.86 6. 85 7.10 7.10 7.50 7.50 8.35 Perb 5.25 G.OO 6.25 6.00 5.40 5.40 S9.ee 9.20 9.20 S.35 7.50 7.30 7.50 8.35 8.35 8.75 9.20 9.20 ushel. 6.50 6.50 7.10 6.90 7.00 6.00 S7.00 6.50 6.00 4.00 5.50 6.00 6.00 6.00 7.00 7.00 8.00 8.00 8.50 9.25 5.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.50 5.00 6.00 4.00 6.00 G.OO G.OO 6.00 7.50 6.00 6.00 7.00 S.OO 9.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 ( S.OO 9.00 9.00 S.OO 8.00 S.OO 9.00 8.50 9.00 9.50 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 9.50 7.00 6.50 7.00 7.00 7.00 8.00 8.00 8.00 8.50 810. 00 9.70 9.00 8.35 8.35 8.35 8.40 9.10 9.50 11.35 11.15 10.90 1J.90 11.90 12.50 12.25 12.50 11.75 12.50 12.50 11.00 11.50 11.00 11.25 11.50 11.25 11.05 11.00 10.75 10.75 11.25 12.75 12.50 12.25 12.25 13.00 13.00 12.50 13.75 14.40 13.50 13.00 13.00 13.00 12.25 13.25 13.25 13.25 13.25 14.15 14.00 13.50 11.50 11.25 11.25 12.50 12.75 13.00 13.40 14.00 S4.25 4.95 4.30 3.90 3.90 4.00 4.10 4.20 4.25 4.70 4.75 5.50 4.40 5.25 4.00 3.60 4.00 6.00 6.40 4.85 4.00 3.75 3.40 3.05 3.10 4.00 2.50 3.00 3.00 2.50 3.00 5.70 3.60 3.00 3.30 3.62J 3.25 4!6o 3.00 3.00 3.50 5.50 5. 75 4.00 3.00 3.00 4.00 4.00 5.00 4.00 3.30 3.25 3.00 5.00 5.25 4.50 3.50 3.60 3.50 3.00 $6.15 5.80 5.65 5.30 5.22* 5.25" 5.30 5.60 5.65 7.00 7.10 6.85 7.421 7.25" 7.42J 7.621 7.70 6.75 7.10 7.10 6.65 6.80 6. 82 J 7.05" 7.07.'. 7.024 7.15 6.621 6.35" 6.25 6. 60 7.(0 7.45 7.521 7.70" 7.95 8.00 7.60 8.20 8.85 8.00 7.40 7.50 7.50 7.45 8.22J 8.121 8.30 8.35 8.721 8.40 7.85 6.80 6.90 7.10 7.35 S.10 8.50 8.30 8.471 §5.70 5.55 5.10 4.C0 5.00 $6. 10 5.80 5.55 5.20 5.20 Not quoted. July Not quoted. Not quoted. 5.15 5.15 5.35 5.60 7.25 7.00 0.95 6.ro 7.50 5. SO 5.T0 5.65 5.(0 1903. • 7.30 7.10 7.40 7.25 7.50 Not quoted. Julv Not quoted. Not quoted. 5.00 5.25 5.25 5.25 5.75 5.75 5.75 5.50 4.80 4.80 4.80 4.80 6.00 5.50 5.50 5.50 6.40 6.40 G.40 6.40 6.25 6.25 6.25 5.70 5.70 .5.60 G.OO 6.25 6.25 6.90 6.50 5.00 5.00 5.00 6.50 G.50 6.75 6.50 7.50 7.00 7.00 7.00 7.75 7.75 6.75 6.75 Not quoted. 6.45 6.50 6.80 6.75 6.75 6.20 6.20 6.30 6.90 6.60 6.95 1904. 7.00 6.90 7.10 6.55 6.35 Julv 6.25 6.50 7.05 7.30 7.35 7.70 7.45 7.40 7.55 8.00 7.00 6. SO 7.50 7.45 7.55 7.65 7.95 1905. 7.90 7.55 8.15 April 8.75 May 8.00 5.70 5.70 6.50 6.50 6.50 6.50 6.50 G.OO G.OO 4.50 4.50 4.50 5.00 5.00 7.00 7.00 6.00 7.00 7.00 7.50 7.50 7.50 7.50 7.50 6.50 5.50 6.00 7.00 7.00 7.25 7.50 7.50 6.30 7.50 7.95 8.00 8.10 8.20 7.30 6.25 6.25 6.65 6. 65 7.00 7.30 7.95 8.00 8.20 7.40 8.25 S.10 8.15 1906. 8.30 8.70 8.35 7.80 6.75 0.75 Julv 6.95 7.50 7.90 8.30 8.25 8.40 a Poor to prime. STATISTICS OF TIMOTHY AND CLOVER SEED. 631 Wholesale prices of timothy seed {45 pounds to the bushel), 1902-1006. Date. June July August September. October. . . November. December. . January. . . February.. March April May June July August September. October. . . November. December. . January February . . March April May June July August September. October... November. December. . January. . . February.. March April May June July August September. October. . . November. December. . January. . . February.. March April May June July August September. October. . . November. December.. 1902. 1904. 1905. Cincinnati. Per 100 pounds Low. High January SO. 10 February 6.10 March I 6. 10 April | 0. 40 May. 3.90 3.80 3.30 3.40 3.40 $6. 40 6.40 0.40 G.G0 4.40 4.00 3.65 3.65 3.65 Per bushel. 1.55 1.55 1.45 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.25 1.25 1.20 1.20 1.25 1.25 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.40 1.35 1. 35 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.35 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.70 1.70 1.65 1.50 1.50 1.60 1.50 1.50 1.40 1.40 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.35 1.35 1.25 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.45 1.60 1.55 1.40 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.35 1.45 1. 80 1.80 1.80, 1.80 1.80 1.85 Chicago. Per 100 pounds. Low. Iligh. $5.00 5.00 5.00 4.50 5.00 4.50 4.50 3.25 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.50 2. .00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.75 1.75 2.50 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.25 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.75 1.75 1.75 $6.55 6.60 7.00 7.10 7.35 6.35 5.75 5.75 4.75 4.20 4.25 4.25 4.35 4 35 3. »5 3.70 3.75 4.00 3.65 3.40 3.40 3.173 3.00 3.05 3.25 3.25 3.25 3.00 3.05 3.05 3.25 3.05 3.00 2.75 2.70 2. 72i 1 2.00 2.25 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.50 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.50 1.50 2.00 2.25 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.50 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.25 Milwaukee. Per 100 pounds Low. High. (a) 2.80 2.92. 3.10 3.10 3.10 3.00 3.30 3.60 3.75 3.40 3.50 3.50 3.40 3.35 3.25 3.20 3.35 4.25 4.25 4.10 4.30 4. 25 4.40 4.50 $5.50 5.50 5.50 6.00 5.50 5.00 4.00 3.75 2.75 2.50 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 2.00 2.00 2.25 2.35 2.60 2.50 2.50 2.30 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.50 2.00 2.00 2.25 2.25 2.00 2.50 2.25 2.10 2.10 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.50 2.50 2.25 2.25 2.35 2.70 2.40 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.60 2.40 2.45 2.60 2.70 3.25 3.15 10 10 10 3. 3.10 $6.25 6.25 0.60 6.75 6.75 6.25 5.75 5.00 4.10 3.75 3.75 3.75 3.75 3.75 3.75 3.25 2.90 3.35 3.35 3.25 3.25 3.00 2.85 2.75 3.15 3.15 3.15 2.90 2.90 2.90 3.00 3.00 3.00 2.80 2.65 2.65 2.65 2.65 2.90 2.90 2.90 2.90 2.95 3.50 3.40 3.50 3.10 3.10 3.10 2.80 2.75 2.80 2. 95 4.00 4.00 3. 75 3.75 3.75 3.75 4.25 St. Louis.a Per 100 pounds. Low. High. $6.30 5.75 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 4 40 3.00 2.40 2.80 2. SO 2.90 3.00 2.75 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.40 2.75 2.50 2.48 2.20 2.25 2.25 2.50 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.40 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.40 2.40 3.00 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.60 2.60 2.50 2.50 2.40 2.40 3.00 3. CO 3.60 3.25 3. 25 3.25 " Poor to prime. 632 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FARM ANIMALS AND THEIR PRODUCTS. [Figures furnished by the Bureau of Statistics, Department of Agriculture, except where otherwise credited. All prices on gold basis.] Live stock of countries named. [Africa incompletely represented, through lack of statistics for large areas. Number of animals in China, Persia, Afghanistan, Korea, Bolivia, Ecuador, Salvador, and several less important countries unknown. For Brazil number of cattle alone estimated, but roughly. In general, statistics of cattle, horses, sheep, and swine much more complete than those of other animals, as statements for the world.] Year. Cattle. Total. Dairy cows. Horses. Mules. Sheep. 1 1 Swine. NORTH AMERICA. United States: Contiguous — On farms Not on farms . . . Noncontiguous — Alaska a Hawaii « Porto Rico 1907 1900 1900 1900 1899 1905 1905 1900 1900 1900 1900 1901 1898 1904 72,534.000 1.010,422 18 102.908 200,225 20.908.000 973,033 13 4.028 73,372 19.747.000 3.817,000 53.240,000 2,930.881 173.908 231,301 12,982 0,506 102, 09S 58,004 . 0.985 6,363 54, 794, 000 1,818,114 10 8,057 66,180 Total United States (ex- cept Philip- pine Islands) 74,513,573 , 22,018,440 22,755,532 ; 4,004,399 53,579,702 56,686,361 i ! 6 1.246 ; ' Canada: New Brunswick 230,000 2, 903, 018 521.112 472; 854 950, 632 1 ! 111,084! 02,000 183,000 55.000 1.129,047 088,147 1 • 1.304,809 1,819,778 170,143 112,618 mi ais 215.819 ' 28,975 200,509 123,916 114,623 561, S66 240.500 1 121,290 220,534 1 154,260 Other 2,123.932 1,033,295 531,249 ' 1,178,872 Total Canada . 7,262,148 j 2,057,432, 1,964,315 : 2,971,212; 2,875,692 Central America: 190, 708 509. 812 1,200.000 15G, 509 308, 100 5. 142. 457 32.707 I 50.343 i 77,593 43,107; 14,004 11,806 111,581 Honduras 1900 1905 1902 1901 1905 1905 1901 1905 1905 1005 1904 <1906 1904 (*) 30,863 j 1,500 2S.000 54,974 ! 2,987 1 250 79,730 859,217 1 334.435! 3.424.430 610.139 8,851 78,058 c 93, 155 West Indies: British — 3 d 1,437 1,908 111.703 050 [ 4.2.')2.286 92,110,024 29,210,035 3, 5S0, 740 Total Europe . 126,786,377 i 43, 589, 486 | 1,489,416 183.055,280 67,707,570 <> Cows. i Cows over 1 year old, including buffalo cows. <• Including buiTaloes. * Including mules and asses. t On December 31 cf preceding year. /including asses: data for 1S95" 9 Data for 1895. 1 Census data, December 31, 1900. » Cows, census data, December 31, 1900. i Excluding lambs. * Data for 1890. i Including asses. m Including cows kept for breeding purposes. "Data for 1905. o Including goats. P Cows and heifers in milk and with calf. 2 Used for agriculture, and also unbroken. 634 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Lire stock of countries nam-cd — Continued. Year British India <: 1905 n 1905 Cochin China Cyprus 1906 Hongkong 1905 Japanese Empire: Japan Formosa Total Ja] Java Labuan Philippine Islands. Russia: Central Asia (4 prov- inces) Siberia (4 provinces) scaucasia Other rotal Russia, Asiatic 1900 1903 1906 1906 1902 1903 Siam Straits Settlements 1904 Turkey, Asiatic Total Asia. AFRICA. Algeria 1905 I 4und 1904 British Central Africa..! 1906 British East Africa j 1905 Cape of Good Hop.' 1904 I German East Africa 1905 :. Southwest Ai- Madagascar ■ Mauritius » 1905 Mayotte (p) 1905 Orange River Colony. . . 1905 Reunion I (p) St. Helena 1901 Seychelles 1905 Sierra Leone i Southern Nigeria Col- - >s) 1902 Sudan (Anglo-Egyp- , tian)« 1905 real Tunis 91905 Total Africa fcSS,920.714 1,489,882 109^000 52,916 976 Total. Hairy cows. (-26,052,025 Horses. Milks. 1,433,458 3.549 11.243 e 59. ICO 193 1.171.074 33,154 1.372.422 1,269,602 ' 1.372.4911 2.000 i 2.343.000 418. 400 3 144.171 Sheep. 2 _ 7! ■ I 2 3 3,590 290 1.909.391 1,624,000 6, 955, 190 1,104,751 . 3,000,000 . 35,812 1,997 BOO, 000 109,017,228 ..-. 11,235,606 1.066,404 . ; 1,954.390 350,000 K I 90, 3S5 2,867,612 7.715 47.S94 525, 372 4. 721? 1.014 1.000 1.522 314,990 800.000 540, 310 c 32, 804 el, 118, 162 350,000 221.140 64,621 14 *186 80.000 73 2 " 1.074 577 21 54. 637 M 1,780 120 150 23 10S 9.314 r 52, 159 35. 596 55.077 174.234 - 18 64, 433 10,000 (■143 15 r 44. 153 15,995 A 9.113,000 24,631,258 i 43.920 45,000,000 91.324.613 9.062.036 - S 2.100.000 - 1,560,000 333, 454 124 769,601 4,194,247 200 741 1,610 1.421.721 1,200,000 1,094.761 875.902 , 316,760 i 33,766,531 1.635,139 a Including Native States, as far as officially shown. Statistics cover onlv six districts of Ben- llected between 18K) aiid 1900. b Including buffalo calves. cCows. a Of which 373,063 in Alwar include goats. i Including mules and B I less than 1 year old; 30 per cent may Ik? added for those less than 1 year old. p On December 31 of preceding vcar. h Data for 1903. < Including goats. ;' Excluding animals owned by natives. * Excluding the Province, of Jubaland. I Excluding the 'Windhuk district, in which the ca and goats al - n> Not including animals in the public service. n On su - only. o Including asses; data for 1904. p Latest ol ate furnished French emlv ted £ -.under date ..•4, 1905.' r Animals assessed foi I tax. r Data for 1904. STATISTICS OF LIVE STOCK. Live stock of countries named — Continued. 635 Argentina British Guiana Chii Colombia Dutch Guiana Paraguay Uruguay Venezuela Austria-Hungary Austria Hungary Bosnia-Herzegovina Total Austria-Hungary "On December 31 of preceding year. b Not including northern territory. c Data for 1905. d Including asses; data for 1905. 'Latest official estimate furnished by the French embassy to ths United States, under da to of May 4, 1906. / Including animals owned by Maoris. a Including asses. ''On farms. i Census for 1899. i Data for 1902. 636 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Live stock of countries named — Continued. Country. Year. Asses. Buffaloes. Camels. Goats. Reindeer. EUROPE— continued. «1905 1905 1903 1903 1904 al906 1904 1902 1904 1890 1901 1906 257,669 1.370,201 38,984 10 6,499 1,476,957 3,329,881 3,339.409 401 1,800,000 14,203 20,083 100,000 165, 497 214, 594 998,680 232, 515 124, 216 6 431,487 140, 104 365, 181 141,179 Italy 1,000,000 3,818 1904 1900 108,784 146,500 7, 186 1900 1905 1905 1905 a 1906 1905 1905 1906 .. 43, 475 Russia: 224, .500 1,000 1 . 100, 500 13,500 347,000 . ' Total Russia, European. . 225,500 1,114,000 347,000 1,271 663, 004 1,652 7,710 495, 955 2, 385, 664 66,560 359,913 1,800 2.524,186 615,672 227,300 20,563,198 595,888 1905 1904 1903 1905 1904 Q1906 "1905 ASIA. d 1,329,057 14,849,189 241,750 424,747 28,287,635 153,542 1,157 e 250, 306 164 Japanese Empire: 226, 620 72, 121 117,214 Total Japanese Empire. . . 226,620 189,335 1900 1903 1903 1903 1902 1903 2,436,031 / 640, 871 124, 334 Russia: Central Asia (4 provinces) 365,000 500 17. 122 296, 000 775, 000 230,000 745,086 802,000 Siberia (4 provinces) 38, 700 122,312 58, 500 338,042 Other 20,000 180,812 338,012 678,622 2,552,086 58. TOO 1,144,478 Turkey, Asiatic 2,500,000 9.000,000 Total Asia 4, 009, 869 19,876,981 1,104,526 40,557,402 58,700 1905 1904 1906 1905 1904 1900 1905 1903 1905 1904 AFRICA. 277, 523 i> 10 86 199, 715 4,030,208 A 1,625 30, 238 1,150,000 7, 162, 463 British Central Africa 12 British East Africa Cape of Good Hope 100, 470 120,000 8.777 899 411 Egypt 300. ooo 40.000 24 3 1,820,000 » 100,118 66,747 5,223 German Southwest Africa «On December 31 of preceding year. b Census data, December 31, 1900. c Including Native States, as far as officially shown. Statistics cover only six districts of Ben- gal, collected between 1890 and 1900. *l Of which, 62,652 in Bengal, Alwar, Gwalior, and Marwar include moles. « Not less than 1 year old; 30 percent may be added for those less than 1 year old. /Carabaos. 7.400 16,336,441 (») 5, 90S. 315 657.930 1,683,826 6,187 (»> 1,764,965 S21.000 Total I 194, 463, 457 United Kingdom. Germany a Netherlands France Belgium Switzerland A u st ria-Hunga ry . Cuba Denmark Spain Italv Russia (1995 Norway Sweden (IPC. Dollars. 37. 066, 568 970. 0S6 1,919,460 39, 956, 136 Dollars. 25.206,000 16. 236, 433 (») 4,938.229 4,264,011 (b) • 1 . 1 . 764. 965 122. 268 S2 1.000 Poultry, game, rab- bits, pig- eons, etc. Dollars. 1,400 8 (ft) (ft) 42 4,197 W (&) 153,429,026 | 1,07 Percentage from the United States. Per cent. 47.81 30.15 56.75 (*>) 37.07 4.14 12.30 47.55 (ft) Total. 6.13 25.36 20.03 Per cent 73. 74 (ft) 16.90 2S.91 (ft) c40.3S Per cent. 57. P> 57.41 50.92 17. 02 35.73 66.96 12.08 31.26 4.97 22:95 Per cent. 11.03 (ft) (*) 95.49 (ft) (ft) d4.30 2 Not including fre- "a ted. c Omitting France and Denmark. 4 Omitting t ranee, Belgium, Denmark, and Norway. TKADE IN WOOL. 639 WOOL. International trade in uool,a 1901-1906.° EXPORTS. 1 Year Country. | begin- | ning— I I 1901. 1982. 1S03. 1904. 19C5. Algeria Argentina Jan. 1 Jan. 1 Pounds. 7,042,341 503,443.071 451,500,039 Pon nds. 9,634,557 436,374,060 335,953,936 Pounds. 16,089,429 425.407,795 324,51-3,030 51,450,971 33,32 79,093,393 117.425,271 42,214,830 155,128,381 9,257,920 30,071,050 25,090.103 40,021,737 33,950,200 124,262 179,055,000 Pounds. 21,519,315 371,097,005 395,130,825 46,947,529 3S;602,768 78,411,050 130,119.445 33,032.572 126,834,850 7,952,000 35,2- 28,808,285 40,621,737 37,858,500 99,148,465 193,824,000 Pounds. 22,422,990 421,098,234 Jan. 1 Apr. 1 Jau. 1 Jan. 1 Jan. 1 Jan. 1 Jan. 1 Jan. 1 38,245,719 48,506.045 45,433,183 19,051,756 76,022,938 103,001,990 34,01-0,782 146,820,079 28,038,050 96,957,471 138,081,466 36,231,009 100,419,023 Cape of Good Hcpc... 74,311 010 116 405 477 31,8 139,912.737 9,944,007 c 31, 851,490 c25 096 103 Ppru 8,6'i 8,1 - Russia '. 23,757,528 20,459,512 40,021,737 20,205,000 101,867,309 120,423,000 29,354,903 25, 835; 16-5 40,621,737 37,204,S00 95,637,488 160,652,000 Turtevd United Kingdom Uruguay Mar. 1 Jan. 1 Jan. 1 40,621,737 35,251,500 1 97,194,381 170,398,000 Total 1,721,791.729 1.687.744.733 1,658,746,881 1,685,800,082 1,741,070,909 IMPORTS. Austria-Hungary Belgium British India Canada Fiance Germany/ Japan. ." Netherlands Russia Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom. United States Other countries . . J-m. Jan. Apr. July Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jar- Jan. Jan. July 72,179,986 118,479,050 9,784.739 10,360;738 547,508,307 370,476,806 6,652,S76 43,7: _ 58.0S7.S72 8,499,894 12,402,949 421,520,875 166,576,906 53,000,000 So, 970. 337 122,180,634 7,452,021 7,994,702 519,i52,S12 416,038,627 5,505,283 45,4S1,019 65,114,737 9,809,111 13,305,114 392,752,036 177,137,796 58,692,000 Total ' 1,899.383,416 1,926,586,229 79 ,549, SI 7 119,472,000 7,431,310 7,339,309 523.823 309 425,726,618 7,282,080 49,990,876 71,607,060 10,164,381 13,465,390 351 928,151 173.7 63,550,000 1,905,085,195 83,296.792 117,205,945 8,807 926 7,017,211 465,475,496 413,781,976 21,281.995 50,207,0S4 10,471,454 14,139,564 344,758,631 249,135,746 60,020,000 1,S8S,S18,662 79,440,467 140,786,550 13,741,761 6,311,837 479.8St-.7L4 422,380,883 14,085,397 1,946 10,349,336 12,951,713 371,364,280 201,088,668 20,150,000 1,858,438,454 a Including wool combed, carded, and dyed. b See ''General note," p. 546. « Preliminary figures. d Exports for 1899, the latest available data. 'Average, 1901-1904. /Not including free ports. 640 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OE AGRICULTURE. al — o y z. -" cS * - ?— - = y. S ■-. H = ■7: -. s ^- -_ g^a - E .— t* tQ: * - "•: i ^ - i :^ ■.: c r - - i- r: :i <-■; z c "1 :j - § =' 2 do e i •* — i —' — " to ■£ -'. r J — - i -. \ co vi c* w e " 00 — ' n z r- - -.; ■ ■1 ~ ~ 7 ~ z;;r :i- ■_- 1 3 ^ ; i 1 OB? ' ' — CO or. n -r - ij -) ^ n r-i -~: 1 s :i t - / r. /. -r c ^ y. <5§«hV r'j — ,-•;:_; = r v: t - X : ' rr - 2 r- " 5 % >g w o r- X cc *-* cc 2 « -.; K •--. — a — -1 o — -r ua BO to >* 0 ■© =' >d o ri dc c >: "0 WO><0 'J-W .-I « > § C X O <* <-~. X '>. 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O m * e A " 3 A1006 41 I2; ft rt 55 cq 642 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTET.E. -' u' c '->*■--* — ' ' - * ~~ - ' ' 3 * - ■ r - - ■ - ". ~ : " — -: r -' -t — tt-— '-' ■ — — — - f — r re — - — ■ - — ^ — ■ ■ - _ - - - T T - — - - ,_-_- _-.-■-: ■ - : ■ - - - '- - — ■: -■'—--'— T. 1Z~ '' T-' ~ — I K "' -* - — - DO oo — r " " .- - ■ - - - - r » CO — -' - — - • - y - ~ - - .■.-.-:-:: = noa x r - - : — -' i - - 1 - T. _-' — ' .'" - ' — ' — ' - — r — =: v - - :£ cf 30 - " -* r" - •* - _ - _ _ ■ - re - - '- — - r \H i: -L- - z. - ~. - . . - — ; — : r - _ c — _; ■ ^ — — r. — — - -: — CI (* t~ -' r± ■/ -~ — ' t --' '-'--/— -c — - — Z " - — * - - - -: — c ■ ': - - - - : i — s~ -- - -_ - ^ ^ 3 a i. ss £ £ |32 3 --. — '-- - © ad ea =" — . — " ~ —-T- - — "—:-_ — - :: — 1 - — — TKADE IN HIDES AND SKINS. 643 co oo «-< oo © »o §1- CO O O CO r*» QU uO "^f © r> C x ro r- i - --< i~ ^ o Oi-OWQiOaOOOV O ^ © © © "O -h O 1^- CO T O CO © © T- . - © u? :c cT oo? 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X : - K ~ - . — — ~r — I- ».- DC r- C - — IQ ae :.-:-. — -r .- ncooo t- =. — n X -r CI 2 r. — - — — ci re ci ci t^rixc c r. * r. z r L* r. ^ c U2 re rj x — — re »C N r- ^ *-~ rj- ^ BC — ~- — J~- K C — Q^CO ,2 — X ' — ■" :- r J — — * a ^ -~ — ■-£ •- CE — rf cT— r — foon ~ - -r 5cnoor- = o«c honsoonno = x — . r ; -t re — -r - — : - — c : ; — — — ^~ c x a x :~ — r , c: x x ? i -^ •: :. — -r . .-::-: r. ~. x ' ci .-■---— ci -r :; — — C : - :e x — i3 f- ■» X re -i re «C ci o'coc - — -•- ?" :~ — r - •> :" re ~ _ - - -e -e x — re — x r- o Ci ■: - 7 - C /. :~ K3 S^CO^COOO c ^ - - r. * - - - " > v: ri - ~- occ "" — - - ~" c "■ — — ic — ~ f- :jz 3 — ~. — ~ ^ 2 x" B i c ' u a -r =' — ' >o - .: C; — ■ go — — --. 7' T-. — " so rr" — x — " : i :-* — ~ — :r x r- ^ — - - e* l -~ — r- — - re c - 30! '■ ■ - >:.r. — *-e — r, — — -r ooqoo -• £ x"mc .r ~ x ; - x — ; - :so«i3vco««oxx >= . x*t — c: — xxr-r — — _-- - r ■Q ^ I"" i S£ ~ :^ Z" ' Z- '.- ~ ~~ ~~ r-- ' ' ~ x; ~ c — " - — '. ' ~. ~ - - 77 -. — ~ -■ s ; r x -: : ". K = •» «: g - — - " 7 1 r : : X ■ Vi 17. 787 878,708 880, 102 050,709 455,300 2,222 422,1135 045,600 ?, 191 722,428 820,02 • 831,901 275,333 704, 130 670,710 546, 1 18 686,012 036,946 064,634 (110, 325 11 1,070 840,308 ->. = :.-':--.- - DC X C: - — - — : - r. r- — r. -; r; ;- 3 — t- -i x - * ~ ^ ~ : 1 C — — "- : C :-"". — ■ - g ••• ,062 ,306 ,01 E ,045 77(1 , 827 ,008 .133 ,114(1 , Ifl7 , 1 5.r. ,533 ,340 ,717 ,1133 ,507 B2S ■ 77. 1-- : - ~ — — x r - — xz — c ; z : x — -r . '■ t- " " ^ — ^ ia '•- x x E — d - x -Tri t- : e - e -. V. — : - - ~" ■- - =■ - 5- X ^7 . .77 ^7 BJ „ r. t, a . ■- -7~ 77 7^ x — ~ - -U-aOoCC - - •= Z X - — '7-S.S. — TRADE LN HIDES AND SKINS. 645 i is x — L~ — h* oc S co eo "** Ci Ci CO 00 CO OC 74 Cl oc CI o n^cxmc oi / c tt '^ oi co cc oa 3a oa to — w to ) oo o oo t>» *-* ^-i ua :■- " r- re cc od'oTj-TcJ io* oo t1 r- r- o — — • ^ to »-h •^ r wowv ' 00 NOC OC -" TT -^O CC CO "cf QO--< i c "j\ o ^ ■* ^ o ■"*• C.'-O EC DQNQOC X CC CN "0 0C CO CI CO < cn cd rc * t CJO Co .-1 : .— . c-i - Ol CO O) 00 CO C — i: T-.NNM CONM005- 1 £ O O K) r-t C5 o ci **- r - t — ■ o C x re — ' : " X T r- *C O CI X CO r- ; o o (^ c h co )0>00 OC^CO^CjO cj i- **r "*!• o;jho o io oi n o a io o -- C3 co -""p oa w*a* «c ic ^ co --• cc Co O -^r oc r- oo -o co co oo ci CC C ^- O cc OJ 00 CO O C- Ol — < ' r -o rc O Ci * r- -v c ^r o « x Ol .'«CNHH rH T-t CO 01 t- Tf CO ^ •— i CI 0 ! ,-i l " ? J CI O Cl X x >.o O oo r- t-x?i x '•• t- u0 O-O lOOOl'T oo — ' ~"r-"eT'-^oo c; -** cc o — < "0 OO CO co to ee r - ocTi- co" r- co cc t- ci ^ ci oa co -o ic 'O o oa '38 II X -«r ci cc ex co r- co oi ci '-o o r- x x ~ co c ) O cc c - o r t o x hh5hCN -T -?' CC oc -f oo i— < co t~- — * CT- *? *0 — < to co ci t oo o u5 oTco^T-h cf t-- X' -r t- cj ~ o w — < t XNNWClNrtC CC "f Oi X O OC r 1 iQ ■* co ic"o"W cT— Ti-^ cj c; ;S5 O o. ~ ir.— — ■a 3 r. « -■' si JS ~ ! O fi O oa aj P ) c X 1 3 C — 0 d- OdSC ^3 oj =3^3 c q\ q; ^ '■5 h ZPh 646 YEARBOOK lRTMENT OF AGEICTTLIV _ BUTTEJ Intcrnatio exports. :.:m Denmark i untries Australia Jan. 1 - m Jan. 1 Jan. 1 f Good Hope. .. Jan. 1 Raich . ... Jan. l Jan. 1 Jan. 1 Natal tiands Jan. 1 Jan. 1 la Jan. 1 Transvaal Jan. 1 Kingdom Jan. 1 : . .. ; I i - - : - .. . , " - " -■ . - 121,121 ; 14. r. . ■" ■ " -.- .. . . 173 ■■• - . - - ! - - -- - - - ■ - -- - v. - - •:._•• j.y _.:- tP« ares. • TBADE IX CHEESE. 647 CHEESE. International track in cheese, 1901-1906.a EXPORTS. Country. Year be- ginning— 1902. Bulgaria. Canada Franco Germany & Italy Netherlands New Zealand... Russia. Switzerland United States.. Other countries. Jan. 1 July 1 Jan. 1 Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. 1 Jan. July Pounds. 6.449,020 17.7y.-i.274 3,211,683 24,104,435 104,269,090 11,680,928 1,610,414 60,075,729 27.203.184 7,924,000 Pounds. 5,651,335 229,099,925 20,545,803 3,119,981 28,841,967 104,785,152 54, 491 . 422 18,987, ITS 9,469,000 1903. 1904. 1905 Pounds. 7,064,3S5 233, 9S0. 716 23,119.970 2,813.539 33,158,617 109. 025.96S 8,375,360 1,41 12,863 23,335. 172 8,833,000 Pounds. 6,624,517 215,733,259 20,711,480 30,299,443 103,089,081 9,466,912 1,396,951 - 10. 134.-124 7,050,000 Pounds. 7,227 34,543 22, 125, 152 2.0.50,397 c 37, 694, 647 98,438,575 9,918,944 * 1,119, 497 61,383,731 16,562,451 co, 092.000 Total I : 465,279,188 485,0 504,756,147 463,772,9S3| 478.047.753 IMPORTS. Argentina Australia Austria-Hungary. . Belgium Brazil . ._ Cape of Good Hope. .. Cuba Denmark Egypt i> ranee Germany & Italy Russia Spain Switzerland United Kingdom . . . United States Other countries Total. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. 1 Jan. 1 Jan. 1 Jan. l Jan. 1 Jan. l Jan. 1 Jan. 1 Jan. 1 July 1 2,777,464 - i 3,268,640 3,256,525 2,140,688 6,702,653 42,034,436 36,750,387 10,797,577 2,852,694 4.129.100 4,248,748 17,067,714 11,092,000 467,488,204 3,614 2,318 7,263 25,776 3,062, 3,689, 3, 119, 2,085, 6.947, I . 35,067, 8,859, 4,280, 5. 710. 279,367 20,671 14,598 ,879 ,110 ,348 ,099 ,639 , 35 835 131 70s 780 820 053 871 926 853 088 384 0» I 2,489,821 1,141,300 7.. 127. 020 27,994,030 2,90 4,251,460 2,900,902 2,052,503 6,947.710 48,434,148 35,859,059 9,474,363 3, 191. 252 4,033,420 5,879,065 29*3, 012, 52S 22.707.103 14,549,000 471,625,259 498,348,220 I 375,642 26,304,868 3,043,516 3,994.730 3,333,992 2,033,764 8,495,738 40,683,327 39,750,657 9,568,500 3,302,985 1,338,306 6,567,789 280, 125. 104 23,095,705 18,7S5,000 4,234,616 384,718 9,3.58,179 28,48 c 3, 119,540 3,249,035 <* 3, 152,814 7.472,566 9,512,371 43,254,168 44,698,270 c 9, 921, S01 744,573 c 4, 033, 420 5,530,515 267,722,560 27,286,81 6 c 12, 413,000 486, 082, 3S6 480,577,969 a See " General note," p 546. 6 Not including free ports. g Preliminary figures. d Average, 1901-1904. 64S YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FARM ANIMALS AND THEIR PRODUCTS IN CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES. HORSES AND MULES. Number and farm value of horses and mil 1907. Horses. Mules. January 1 — Number. Price per head. Farm \ Number. Price per head. Farm value. 1867 5,401,263 2,793 8,248,800 8,702,000 0,900 q 222.470 9,333,800 9,504,200 9,735.300 10,155,400 10.329.700 10,938,700 11. 201. St 10 11,429,626 10,521,554 10,838,111 11,169,683 11,564,572 12,077 12. 49-5. 744 13.172,936 13,663,294 14,213,837 14,056,750 15,498.140 16, 2« • 16,081,139 IS 893,318 15.124.057 14.3- 4." ; 13,960,911 ".307 13,537,524 16. 744. 723 16.. 531. 224 L6, 557,373 16,7 17,057,702 18,718,578 19,7* 38 859. 05 54.27 62.57 ! 71.14 67. il 65.15 61.10 .57. 29 ■' - ! 56. 63 52. 36 54. 7.5 58. 44 •S..-3 74. 64 73.70 71.27 72.15 71.82 68 ^4 x 67.00 65.01 61.22 47.83 36. 29 33.07 31.51 34. 26 37. 40 44. 61 52 - 58.61 67. 93 70.37 93.51 S318.924.0S5 312.4: 396,222,359 556,250.529 619,038.564 606.111.449 1 12,273,159 608,072,797 580,707,854 557. : 567,016,871 584,998,503 572,712,085 613, 2%, 611 J 667,954,325 61.5.824,914 765,04].30v 833,734.400 852,282,947 S60,823.208 901.1 ^ 946,096,154 VS2.194.S27 978,516.562 941,82 . 1.007.593,636 992. 225.lv, : 576. : 500,140,186 452,1 478,3 - 511.074. 813 603.' 885,200,168 968.935,178 1.030.705.9.59 1,136,940,2! g L2iW.310.020 1,510,8* 1,846,578,412 822,386 921 . 662 1.179. .500 1 242,300 1,276.300 i,3io;ooo 1.339,350 1 393,750 1,414,500 1,637,500 1,713.100 1,729,500 1.83.5.1(9 1,871,079 1.914.126 1,972,569 2.052.593 2.117.141 2.191.727 2.2.57.574 2.331.027 2,296,532 2,314,699 2,331,128 2.352.23! . 27 a . 2,190,282 2.134.213 2 - 27 2,864,458 2 72 2,757,916 2 • • - 7 3.404,361 - (66. 64 56.04 79. 23 90.42 91.98 87.14 85.15 81.35 71.89 64. 07 62.03 56.00 61.26 09. 79 71. 35 79.49 S4. 22 82. 3S 79. CO 78.91 79.78 79. 49 78.25 77.88 70.68 62.17 47.55 45.29 41.66 43.88 44.96 53.55 63.97 67.61 72. 49 78 38 1 ■ 112. 16 Sm." - - J 1869 47. 73.026.906 1870 106. "54.015 1871 115,272.194 1S72 111,221.919 1873 1874 111.546.171 108, 1875 197,044 1876 94,000,976 1S77 92,481,931 1878 101.579.278 1879 (41,589 1880 1"".94S.319 1881 120,0 18S2 130. 18s3 148,732,390 1SS4 161,214,976 1885 162,497,097 1886 163.381,096 167.057.538 1888 174,853,563 1880 179.444.4S1 1890 . 182,394,099 1891 178,847,370 1892 174.882.070 1893 164,763,751 1S94 146,2 1895 110,927 - 4 1896 103,204.457 ISi'T 92,302,090 189^ 109.516 1S99 • 1900 111,3 1901 183,2 _ . 1902 411.704 1903 197.753.327 1904 217 ■ 1S05 251, ■ 10O; 334, i SO. 520 1907 42- D Imports and exports of horses and mules, villi average prices. 1892-1 Imports of horses. Year ended June 3iV- ! Num- ber. 1892 ... 14.074 - ... 15.451 1894 ... 6, 166 • : ... 13.09S 189G ... 9,991 1897 1898 ... 3,085 1900 ... 3.102 1901 ... 3,785 1902 ... 4,832 1903 4.999 1904 ... 4.726 1905 ... 5,180 1906 ... 6.021 $2,455,868 38,261 1.319.572 1.055.191 662. 591 464,808 414.899 551.050 590. 592 985. 73S 1.577.234 1 . 536.. 296 1 . 460. 287 1 . 591 . 083 1.716.675 Value. Average price. 5174. 50 154.57 214.01 80.56 06. 32 66. 42 134. 49 181.15 192. 32 260. 43 326. 41 307. 32 308. 99 307. 16 285.11 Exports of horses. Exports of mules. Num- ber. 3. 226 - 5, -2V, 13.984 25. 126 39.532 51.150 45. 778 64.722 82.250 103.020 34. 007 42.001 34.822 40. 0S7 Value. Average Xiim- price. ber. $611,188 7 IS. 607 1,108,995 2. 209. 29S 3.530,703 4. 769, 265 6.176. 569 5, 444. 342 7. 612. -.16 5,87 10,048,046 3.152.159 3,189,100 3.175.259 4. 365. SSI S1S9. 46 242. 20 211.40 157. 99 140.52 120.61 120. 75 118.93 117.62 107.89 97.53 92. 09 75.93 91.19 108.91 ! 1,965 1,634 2.0i.3 2.515 7.47:; 8.098 o. 7.55 43. 309 34. 40.5 27 ■' 4.294 ■ ■ 7.167 Value. 52 - ■ 2 240. 961 186.452 406. 101 545. 331 664. 789 516. 90S 3.919.47S 3.210.267 2.692.29S 521,725 412.971 645. 464 989. 6-39 Average price. 8121.42 116. SO 74.14 68. 63 72. 97 82. 09 76. 52 90. 3S 93.31 97. 60 121.47 112.90 110.79 138.08 STATISTICS OF HORSES AND MULES. 649 Number, average price, and farm value of horses and mules in the United States January 1, 1907, by States. State or Territory. Maine New Hampshire. Vermont Massachusetts . . Rhode Island Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania Delaware Maryland Virginia West Virginia North Carolina.. South Carolina.. Georgia Florida Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri North Dakota. . . South Dakota . . . Nebraska Kansas Kentucky Tennessee Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas Horses. Indian Territory . Oklahoma Arkansas Montana Wyoming Colorado New Mexico Arizona Utah Nevada Idaho Washington Oregon California United States 19, 746, 583 115, 500 GO, 600 92,721 80, 800 13, 667 60, 345 G95, 877 101, 8S6 607,010 36, 503 158, 180 307,920 186, 850 185, 846 83,026 139, 297 51,278 940, 440 79S, 102 1,575,000 696, 518 637,500 723, 141 1,390,950 948, 420 580, 880 548. 760 994,850 1,085,750 387,327 315, 435 158, 245 257,295 224,076 1,277,641 296, 400 432, 361 278. 761 291,970 119,054 261,655 119,258 99, 249 113, 827 90,541 149, 551 296, 400 282, 240 391,680 Average price per head Jan. 1. Dollars. 106. 00 93.00 101. 00 113. 00 119. 00 118. 00 111.00 115. 00 109.00 103. 00 90.00 99.00 95.00 114.00 126. 00 121. 00 100. 00 113. 00 110. 00 109. 00 111.00 107. 00 97.00 100. 00 93.00 96.00 84.00 87.00 89. 00 97.00 99. 00 87. 00 79.00 69.00 62.00 63. 00 78.00 73.00 63.00 55.00 66. 00 42.00 41.00 55.00 89.00 71.00 88.00 81.00 92. 00 Farm value 93.51 Dollars. 12,254,550 5,657, °, 380, ,105, ,624, ,105, ,541, ,763, ,127, , 70S, , 24S, ,481, ,704, ,182, ,437, ,827, ,138. ,893, ,735, , 990, , 369, , 340, , 260, ,178, ,937, ,689, ,909, , 362, ,848, , 679, ,338, ,767, ,418, ,550, ,456. ,720, . 598. ,304, ,379, , 528, ,210. ,0o8, ,02-*, ,310, , 622, , 594, , 195, ,827, ,120, 9, 1, 7 77 11 66 3 14 30 17 21 10 16 5 105 87 171 77 68 70 139 87 55 45 86 96 37 31 13 20 15 79 18 33 20 18 6 17 5 4 6 8: io; 26, 22 36! 1,846,578,412 Mules. Average ! Jan. 1. Dollars. 4,208 116.00 487,140 5,223 127. 00 661,862 40, 864 123.00 5,024,210 5,824 120. 00 699,909 20, 120 116.00 2,331,945 50, 733 137. 00 6,972,232 10, 986 101.00 1,111,569 174,714 136. 00 23, 740, 137 134, 690 153. 00 20,598,121 229, 691 153.00 35,039,340 18,005 152. 00 2,732,275 19,728 114. 00 2,250,150 84,800 118. 00 10,017,424 141,909 117.00 16,668,630 3,076 115.00 422,579 4,985 106. 00 527,358 8, 657 94.00 816, 090 43, 655 108. 00 4,702,541 315,250 104. 00 32, 893, 203 8,457 103. 00 869, 324 7,970 86.00 685, 574 69, 300 102. 00 7,063,749 140, 390 103. 00 14, 468, 598 198, 850 109. 00 21,628,928 275,730 112.00 30,776,994 231,750 121.00 28,139,0X5 274, 437 114.00 31, 409, 335 165, 791 115.00 19,055,981 631,050 93. 00 58,763,376 70,200 93. 00 6,549,660 91,742 101.00 9,242,067 206, 944 93. 00 19,270,625 3,917 80.00 314,939 1,526 S2.00 124, 717 10,231 92.00 942, 176 5,719 69. 00 393, 537 4,001 77.00 309, 849 3,560 62. 00 219, 057 3,057 88.00 268, 758 2,397 89.00 212, 155 4,128 101.00 418, 500 7,077 90.00 639, 379 80,750 106. 00 8,599,875 3,816,692 ! 112.16 Farm value. Dollars. 42S,063,613 650 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Range of prices for horses in Omaha, monthly. 1902-1906. Date. Drafts. pos Southern. rtera- Drivers. Carriage teams. Low. High, i Low. High. Low. High. Low. High . | Low. ■ Higl . 1902. January 1 " i $55 $85 $35 « $10 $50 " " ' --' $200 $350 February 5 1S5 60 100 35 80 10 50 " 225 200 100 100 100 90 90 90 200 225 250 200 75 175 60 60 ■ 60 40 40 100 110 105 90 SO 80 35 30 25 20 15 15 80 65 60 45 45 10 10 .- 12 10 10 50 50 60 60 " 80 95 100 90 225 250 325 325 200 220 200 300 300 200 210 350 500 Mav 500 450 July m August 420 Sep ten:* October 90 100 175 175 40 40 80 80 20 ■ 45 10 10 100 100 - 90 215 215 175 360 435 Novem 90 160 40 80 20 65 10 SO 90 325 230 370 December 100 :< ' 85 - 70 12 60 90 300 200 "• 1903. JiT.uarv 90 175 50 80 ■ - 10 50 ' 225 200 350 Februar y 95 185 60 100 35 10 50 95. 225 200 350 100 100 110 90 90 90 200 250 250 200 175 175 60 60 65 65 50 45 110 110 105 100 SO 80 35 30 20 15 15 15 - 40 45 45 10 10 12 .- 10 ■50 60 i 65 90 100 100 100 100 " 75 230 250 350 75 275 220 200 200 250 300 200 40C 500 May 550 450 July 400 Angmct 420 September 90 175 40 80 15 45 10 100 - 200 215 360 October 100 180 40 80 20 45 10 100 90 215 200 435 November 90 160 IS i 20 60 10 80 100 325 225 370 December 100 185 " 20 60 -- 60 100 300 200 375 1904. January 120 175 65 90 45 90 10 50 150 300 4a Februar v 120 175 70 90 40 80 10 50 150 300 4« 120 125 175 200 75 95 100 35 30 70 65 10 10 50 50 75 90 150 75 300 300 ■ax Ma"h::::::::: m 140 135 125 120 120 -"- 250 200 175 175 SO 75 65 50 60 125 110 100 90 100 30 30 30 30 30 65 60 60 60 GO 15 15 15 15 35 40 65 90 110 125 125 120 100 100 300 300 175 175 175 300 300 300 300 300 75< 700 July : «; 400 September 400 October 125 200 65 100 40 75 IS 100 125 200 300 4S( November 130 235 70 100 40 90 10 35 125 200 300 45( December 130 225 70 100 45 12 60 125 200 300 400 1905. January 150 200 75 110 40 90 10 50 75 150 300 Ml February 150 200 85 125 40 90 10 50 150 300 40t March 150 200 90 135 35 90 10 50 1-50 300 4a April May 150 225 .0 120 35 80 10 50 90 175 300 4a 150 295 60 90 30 80 15 40 " 90 300 300 79 June 135 .-.: 60 90 30 75 15 50 90 300 300 791 July 125 200 60 100 30 70 15 .0 100 150 300 4a 130 60 100 30 70 15 117 100 150 300 4a September 130 ax 65 100 35 75 15 110 100 150 300 in October 140 200 70 110 45 85 15 95 IflO 175- 300 «a November 150 250 80 125 30 100 15 70 125 200 300 & December 150 250 80 120 x 50 95 10 65 125 200 300 400 I 06. January 140 225 85 135 40 90 10 50 100 175 300 4a February 140 225 85 135 35 90 10 50 100 175 300 45( 140 140 140 135 125 130 250 275 335 275 225 225 ■" BO 75 75 75 75 135 130 110 150 150 150 35 30 30 30 40 40 80 75 85 75 90 90 10 10 15 15 15 15 50 50 50 115 120 120 100 100 100 100 100 100 175 175 350 300 150 200 300 300 300 300 300 300 iU 500 Mav 750 7-50 July 400 August 400 September 130 225 75 150 40 90 15 122 100 ..' 300 sa October 140 250 75 150 40 90 15 80 100 200 300 iu November 150 250 -■ 150 35 90 15 75 125 _■'.' 300 45( December 1.50 250 i 150 35 90 10 65 125 --.■: 300 400 STATISTICS OF CATTLE. 651 CATTLE. Number and value of milch cows and other cattle, 1S67-1007. January 1- 1867.. 1868.. 1869. 1870.. 1871.. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 18S0. 1881. 18S2. 18S3. 1884. 1885. 1886. ISS7. 18S8. 1889. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1930. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1900. 1907. Milch cows. Number. | P^dper Far S, 348,773 8,691,568 9,247,714 10,095,600 10,023,000 10,303,500 10,575,900 10,705,300 10,906,800 11,035,400 11,260,800 11,300,100 11,826,400 12,027,000 12, 368, 653 12,611,632 13,125,685 13,501,206 13,904,722 14, 235,388 14,522,083 14,S56,414 15, 293, 625 15,952,883 16,019,591 16,416,351 16,424,0S7 16, 487, 400 16, 504, 629 16, 137, 586 15,941,727 15, 840, 886 15,990,115 16,292,360 10, 833, 657 10, 696, 802 17,105,227 17,419,817 17,572,464 19,793,806 20,968,205 ?2S.74 26.56 29.15 32.70 33. £9 29.45 26. 72 25.63 25.74 25.61 25.47 25. 74 21.71 23.27 23.95 25. 89 30.21 31.37 29.70 27.40 26.08 24.05 23.94 22.14 21. 62 21.40 21.75 21.77 21.97 22.55 23.16 27.45 29.06 31.60 30.00 29.23 30.21 29.21 27.44 29.44 31.00 Other cattle. 8239, 946, 612 230,816,717 269,610,021 330,175,234 339, 700, 528 303, 43S, 398 282,559,051 274, 325, 680 280,700,645 283,878,809 283,778,030 290,S97,809 230,720,779 279, 899, 420 296,277,000 326,489,310 390,575,405 423, 4S6, (K9 412,903,093 3S9,985,5:3 378,789,589 366,252,1:3 366,226,376 353, 152, 133 3-16,397,900 351,378,132 357,299,785 353,998,601 362,601,729 363,955,545 369, 239, 993 434, 813, 826 474, 233, 925 514, 812, 106 505,093,077 488, 130, 324 510,711,914 508,841,489 482,272,203 582, 788, 592 645, 490, 9S0 Number. r™f£el" Farm value. 11,730,952 11,942,4S4 12, 1S5,3£5 15,338,500 16,212,200 16,389,800 16,413,800 16,218, ICO 10,313,400 16,785,X0 17,956,100 19,223,300 21, 408, ICO 21, 231, CC0 20,933,710 23, 280, 138 28,046,077 29,046,101 29, 866, 573 31,275,242 33,511,750 34,378,363 35,032,417 36,840,024 36, 875, C4S 37,051,239 35,954,196 33, 608, 168 34,304,216 32,085,409 30, 508, 408 29, 264, 197 27, 994, 225 27,610,054 45,500,213 44, 727, 797 44, 659, 206 43, 629, 498 43, 669, 443 47,067,656 51,565,731 S15. 79 15.06 13.73 18.87 20.73 18.12 18.06 17. ,'5 16.91 17.00 15.99 16.72 15.33 16.10 17.33 19. 89 21.81 23.52 23.25 21.17 19.79 17.79 17.05 15.21 14.76 15.16 15.24 14.66 14.06 15.86 16.65 20. 92 22.79 24.97 19.93 18.76 18.45 16. 32 15.15 15.85 17.10 $185,253,850 179,887,797 228,183,001 290, 400, 588 336, 859, 61 7 296,931,664 296,448,030 284,705,983 275,871,664 285,387,123 287,155,528 321,345,091 329,253,031 341,761,15! 362, S61, 509 463,009,50! 611,549,109 083,229,05-i 094,382,913 061,950,274 6f>3,137,920 611,750,520 597,236,812 560, 625, 137 544,127,903 570, 749, 155 547,882,204 535,789,747 482, 999, 129 508,928, 41<; 507,929,421 612, 296, 634 637,931,135 689, 486, 260 906,644,003 839,126,073 824,054,902 712, 178, 134 661,571,308 746, 171, 709 881,557,398 Imports and exvorts of live cattle, xoith average prices, 1892-1906. Imports. Exports. "iear ended June 30 — Number. Value I Avera£e value. price_ N amber. Value. Average price. 1892 2,168 3, 293 1,592 140,781 217,826 328, 977 291,589 199, 752 181,000 146, 022 96,027 06, 175 16,050 27,855 29,019 $47, 406 45,682 18, 704 765, 853 1, 509, 850 2, 589, 857 2,913,223 2,320,362 2,257,694 1,931,433 1,608,722 1,161,548 310,737 458, 572 548, 430 $21.89 13.87 11.75 5.11 0.93 7.87 9.99 11.02 12.47 13.23 16.75 17.55 19.35 16.46 18.90 394, 007 287,094 359, 278 331,722 372, 401 392, 190 439, 255 389, 490 397, 286 459, 218 392, 884 402, 178 593, 409 567, 800 584,239 $35,099,095 26,032,428 33,461,922 30, 603, 796 34, 560, 672 36,357,451 37,827,500 30,516,833 30, 635, 153 37, 566, 980 29, 902, 212 29, 848, 936 42,256,291 40, 598, 048 42,081,170 $88.95 1893 90. OS 1894 93.14 1895 92.26 1896 92.79 1897 92.70 1893 86.12 1S99 78.35 1900 77.11 1901 81.81 1902 76.11 1903 74.22 1904 71.21 1905 71.50 1900 72 03 652 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Number, average price, and farm- value of cattle in the United States on January 1, 1907. STAT" or. TERRITORY. New Ham] Vermont Massachusetts Rhode Island Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania Delaware Maryland Virginia West Virginia North Carolina... South Carolina.. . Georgia Florida Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri North Daki .... South Dakota Nebraska Kansas Kentucky Tennessee Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas Indian Territory. Oklahoma Arkansas Montana Wyoming Colorado New Mexico Arizona Utah Nevada Idaho AVashington Oregon Caluoraia Milch cows. Other cattle. Average Average Number. price per Farm value. Number. price per Farm value. Jan. 1. Jan. 1. 185,286 $31. CO 55,743,866 156,005 $16.00 $2,511,677 132, 498 33.09 4,372,431 106, 35C 17. CO 1,772,860 293,931 2S.C0 8,230,068 225, 870 15. CO 3,370,751 200.273 42.00 S, 411, 466 93,371 18.00 1,076.937 25, 721 42.00 1,080,282 10, 443 20.00 210, 433 137, 485 37.00 5,086,915 84,028 20.00 1,695,680 1,826,211 36.00 65, 743, 590 944,734 18.00 17,307,520 190, 193 41.00 8,363,492 82,003 20.00 1,658,107 1, 111, 494 36.00 41,093,784 984,750 18. CO 17,479,308 36, 905 35.00 1,291/675 22, 455 19.00 436.075 153,364 31.00 4, 754, 28 1 140, 732 13.00 2, 570, SOS 290,700 28.00 8, 139. 600 566, 5C0 IS. 00 10,253,650 244. SCO 31.00 7.588,800 559, 980 21.00 11,703,574 282,600 24.00 6, 7S2, 400 445,954 12.00 5, 199, 820 136,911 28.00 3,833,503 218,502 12.00 2,619,840 305, 469 30.00 9,164,0.0 679,911 11.00 7,451,822 89,638 30.00 2. 6S9, 140 656,600 11.00 7,C45,318 919, 100 34.00 31,249,400 1,105,380 22.00 23,737,7S0 052, 610 33.00 21,536,103 1,141,778 21.00 24,080,090 1,161,500 35. GO 40,652,500 2,231,000 22.00 49,238,170 832,000 34.00 28,2S8,0C0 1,045,000 17.00 17,320,100 1,365,000 31.00 42,315,000 1, 148, 124 15.00 16. 7S5. 580 1,019,700 29.00 29,571,300 1,305,000 13.00 17,400,900 1, .555, 300 32.00 49, 769, COO 3,9C0,;JOO 23.00 90,288,000 075, 100 27.00 26, 32 2,397,000 19.00 45,950,490 220, 178 27.00 5,944,806 682,880 13.00 12,300,128 605, 768 28-{ ) 10,961,504 1,485,000 19.00 28,823,850 870, 135 29.00 25, 233, 915 3,360,000 19. CO 65,307,720 729,274 2S.00 20, 419, 672 3, 704, 700 20.00 73,844,591 402,000 28.00 11,250,000 736,250 18.00 12,972,710 328, 250 23.00 7, 549, 750 601, 0C0 12.00 7,212,000 282,800 21.00 5,938,800 561,000 9.00 4,908,750 329, 669 21.00 6,923,049 600,950 9.00 5,408,644 188, 141 24.00 4,515,384 479, 750 10.00 4,905,414 993,122 24.75 24,579,770 8,236,549 12.00 100,S56,544 111,547 24.00 2, 077, 128 503,000 13.00 6,782,955 198. 102 24.00 4,754. 44s 1,387,151 16.00 22.807,179 400,000 17.50 7,000,000 739,000 7.00 5,512,940 65,948 35.00 2,308,180 916, 350 20.00 18,134,570 21,813 40.00 872,520 S55.000 22.00 19,023,750 136,712 30.00 4,921,032 1,425,000 20.00 28, 172, 250 21,820 37.00 807,340 948,240 17.00 15,7SS, 194 21,791 40.00 871,640 597, 07S 17.00 10, 405, 872 75, 919 30.00 2,277,570 300,000 18.00 5,661,000 16,988 36.00 611,568 386,120 18.00 0, 92.;, 451 66, 345 32.00 2, 123, 010 351,086 17.00 5,850, 118 173, 724 34.00 5,906,616 409,050 17.00 0,850,508 148, S14 32.00 4,762,048 750,000 15.00 11,428,125 405, 610 35.00 14,196,500 1,167,107 IS. 00 21, 474, 767 20, 90S, 2(35 31.00 045, 493, 9S0 "».731 17.10 881, 557.39S STATISTICS OF CATTLE. Wholesale prices of cattle per 100 pounds, 1002-1906. 653 Chicago. Cincinnati. Date. Inferior to ' Fair to me- primc. diuni. January. . . February . . March. .". .. April May Juno July August September. October. . . November. December. January. . . February.. March .'.... April May June July August September. October November. December. . January. . February . . March April May June July August September. October. . . November. December. January. .-. February. . March. . . .. April May June July August September. October. . . November. December. January. . . February. . March. .". .. April May June July August September. October. . . November. December. 1904. 1005. Low. High. Low. $2. 20 S7.75 S3. 75 2.25 7.35 3.65 2.35 7.35 3.75 2. 35 7.50 4.25 2.50 7.70 4.10 2. 35 8.50 3.25 2.25 8.85 3.15 2.40 9.00 3.25 2.25 8.85 3.00 1.S0 8.75 2.90 2.00 7.40 3.00 2.00 14.50 3.00 2.00 0.85 3.15 2.35 6.15 3.10 2.50 5.75 3.35 2.50 5.80 3.75 2.50 5.65 3.25 2.25 5.65 3.00 2.25 5.65 2.85 2.15 6.10 2.50 2.00 6.15 2.25 1.G5 6.00 2.50 1.50 5.85 2.35 1.50 8.35 2.35 2.10 5. 90 3. 00 2.25 6.00 3.00 2.15 6.00 3.00 2.25 5.80 3.15 2.35 5.85 3.10 2.35 6.70 3.00 2.20 6.65 3.00 2.20 6.40 2.65 2.15 6.40 2.50 1.70 7.00 2.50 1.70 7.15 2.50 1.80 7. 65 2.25 1.85 6.30 2.65 1.90 6.45 2.65 2. 20 6.25 2.50 2.40 7.00 3.50 2. 35 6.85 3.15 2.30 6. 35 3.00 2.00 6.25 3.00 2.10 6.30 2.85 2.00 6.50 2.75 2.10 6.40 2.50 2.15 6.60 2.35 2.15 7.00 2.65 2.00 6.50 2.85 2.10 6.40 3.25 2.25 6.35 3.25 2.35 6.35 3.00 2.50 6.20 3.00 1.75 6.10 2.75 2.00 6.50 2.60 2.00 6.85 2.50 2.05 6.95 2.50 2.00 6.95 2.40 1.75 7.40 2.35 1.75 7.90 2.75 High. $4. 65 4.75 5.25 5.40 5.35 5.25 5.25 5.25 4.40 4.25 4.15 4.25 4.35 4.25 4.40 4.40 4.40 4.40 4.10 4.00 3.75 3.65 3.40 3.75 4.00 3.75 4.00 4.00 4.25 4.25 4.25 4.00 3.75 3. 75 3.50 3.60 3.85 4.00 4.40 4.75 4.65 4.25 4.40 4.10 4.00 3.85 3.75 4.00 4.00 4.35 4.50 4.40 4.35 4.00 4.40 4.25 4.40 4.35 4.50 4.50 St. Louis. Omaha. Good to choice native steers. Low. i High. $6. 10 6.35 6.40 6. 95 i 6.90 7.50 7.50 7.40 6.60 6. 35 5. 15 5. 25 5.10 5.10 5.10 5.10 5.00 5.10 5.15 5.25 5.60 5.40 5.15 5.10 5.15 4.90 5.00 5.25 5.05 5.75 5.90 5.60 5.75 6.05 5.15 5. 75 5.15 5.15 5.50 5.90 5.85 5.25 5.25 5.50 5.50 6.00 5.40 5.50 5.45 5.65 5.75 5.50 5.45 5.50 5.85 5.85 6.25 6.15 5.85 6.00 S7.00 6.50 6.75 7.10 7.50 8.00 8.35 8.75 S.00 7.10 7.25 6.00 5.75 5.25 5.40 5.60 5.50 5.25 5.35 5.55 5.70 5. 55 5.40 6.00 5. 35 5.35 5.35 5.40 5.35 6.40 6.25 6.00 0.00 6.60 6.60 6.00 5.50 6.00 5.65 6. 75 6.50 6.50 5.85 5.70 6.35 6.15 6.15 7.10 6.00 0.00 6.00 5.75 5.80 6.00 6.10 6.30 0.40 6.75 7.00 7.00 Native beeves. Low. $3.40 3.50 4.00 4.50 4.35 4.25 5.00 5.00 4.15 4.50 3.20 3.00 3. 35 3.15 3.45 3.20 3.85 3.75 3.65 3.85 3.60 3.90 3.00 2.05 3.20 3.00 2.75 3.00 3.00 3.50 3.40 3.25 4.00 4.25 3.10 3.10 3.05 3.15 3.20 3.25 3.75 3.70 3.50 3.25 3.40 3.10 3.50 3.05 3.10 3.00 3.10 3.35 3.50 3.35 3.10 3.05 2.90 3.75 3.25 3.00 654 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUTTER. Wholesale prices of butter per pound in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906. New York. Cincinnati. Chicago. Elgin. Date. Creamery extra. Creamery. Creamery Creamery firsts. extra. Low. High. Low. High. Low. J High. Low. High. 1902. Cents. 23 26 27 22 22J 214 20l 19 194 224 25" 28 284. 26" 27 224 22 204. 19 19 19J 20 224. 23" 22 23 24 22 18 17f 174 174 19" 20 23 26 28 29} 25 27 201 194 204 20} 201 20 174 24' 25 26 27 21 19} 19i 204. 21 24 25} 27" 304 Cents. 26 30 30 33 25 224 21* 204 23" 25 28} 30" 28} 28 294 294 23" 22} 204 191 211 221 25} 25} 24} 264 26} 24} 24} 181 18 19i 21 23', 26} 28" 304 35} 31} 32" 27 214 21 J 22 211 22 24} 26 274 27} 274 2.V 22 21 21} 24; 2.V 27 304 33" Cents. 22 22 23 23 19 19 IS 17 17 204 21} 25" 22 22 244 194 174 18" 15} 16} 18" 194 214 194 214 22 20} 174 174 17" 17 19 20 23 26} 28 30 24 26 204 19" 19} 20 20 204 22 234 25} 26} 27 23 19 t$ 20' 214 24" 241 20 30 Cents. 23 26 24 27 20 20 21 19 21} 22} 25 27 25 26 26 20} 21 20 18} 20 20 22} 23} 22} 24 24 23 21} 19 19 19 204 22' 25} 28 30} 34 30 32 25 21 204 214 214 23" 214 25' 27 294 28" 27 22 21 229 24" 254 27" 31 324 Cents. 20 20 22 18 19 18} 184 16" 17 19 214 23 20 20 24 21 17 18 17 16 17 17 18 19 17 18 19 19 15 15 15 15 16} 17 19 20 22 25 22 22 18 18 18 184 18" 19 20 19 20 22 21 17 164 16} 18 18 204 22" 22 25 Cents. 24 29 28 31 23 22 214 20" 22} 24} 27 28} 28 27} 284 28} 22" 22 20 19 21} 21} 24} 25 234 26" 26 24} 23 18 18 18} 194 22 24} Cents. 24 254 26" 22 22 21 20 19 19 224 24} 28 25 25 274 224 20" 20 18} 18} 19} 204 22" 24 22 23 24} 23 17} 17} 17 17 19 20 23 Cents. 24} 29 28 30 22 22 July 21 20 224 244 27 29 1903. 29 27 28} April 28* 22} 22 July 20 19} 21} 21} 24 25 1904. 24 26 26 24} 23 17} July 17} 19 20 23 25 28 j 25 30 | 28 34 1 29 28 1905. 294 34 32 31 24 204 20} 21" 21 22 23 24} 27 27> 274 26} 20" 21 20 23 24 25} 28} 31 25 27 21 194 20 20 20} 21" 22} 24 26 27 27 21 19 19' 20" 214 24" 24} 26" 30 33 31} 25 20} July 20 21 21 22} 24 25 1900. 27 284 28} 20 21 20 July.. . 21} 23 24} 26 30 31} STxVTISTICS OF DAIRY PRODUCTS. 655 CHEESE. Wholesale prices of cheese per pound in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906. Date. 1902. January February March April May June July August September October November December 1903. January February March April May June July August September October November December 1904. January February March April May June July August September October November December 1905. January February March April May June July August September October November December 1906. January February Mareh.." April May Juno July August September Oetobei November December New York. September, colored. Low. Cents. n\ m 12} 13 10J 9~h 9j 94 10f 12 12'. 13 High. 11 14 it 141 9', 9', 11 111 124 13| 133 14 Cents. 11| 12V 13* 13J 13 9| 10} tog 12 12'. 13 13', Cincinnati. Factory. Low. High Cents. 10 10'. 11 11 11 J 10l 10T m 10J. n 12 12 12 i;v, 137 is7 11" 11 n 12 13 13 13j 13J Chicago. Young Americas. Low. Cents. 11 11 n| m 12 12 ioi 10 m 12 12i 13^ 134 nigh. Cents. 10* 10* HJ 13 12 * 10J m 10i ]oi| nil • in ill 13 m i-'i 12i 10\ 101 to 9 9i to 10 10 Cents. «S 12'. 12.', 13 131 12J 10J 11 11} Hi 12 13} St. Louis. Full cream. Low. High Cents. 105 12'. 13" 13? 12; 11 111. 1H 11} ll! 12| 13! YEARBOOK OF THE DEPAETMEXT OF AGBICULTUEE. SHEEP AND WOOL. Xumber and farm ralue of s/h -_•■- : . ~-:~7 . u r - . - :> . Farm Talae. ... - •-: .. " ?24 27 is:: -.. 1S73. I re. 33,002 ■<: -.:. :-'.«.:••:•: :.:."■ -.:.: ;o. ; :.? .•:• • <-; _■:»: » 35; 740, 300 ISTv 38,123,800 is.-: i:.T' r Si iss: - " - ISM " . . " '■• lSV "39.314 5_ '." . ■- hi.A L95 2.14 261 2 43 - 213 221 207 i - . 5 - S - M L&l . . .^. ... 71,032 -:.:■:•: ::: 99C 110 606 :■--: ' 57a :.>.;; »: : " • -_- ■_ : - ::« : • S5.1M.646 76,361. CSS :• va ::: s-:: 106,595.954 :i4 :.■:.- s :: ::; ?:■: - :;- ... -,- N unl -: r. Price -- • : . ' :>s? :-■ ISA lflH 1892 uos 1894 :>:-: ■ 1887 1898 1900 1901 iac 190S 1904 1905 1901 1901 ... <_ ■- ■■ ::.- 44,336,1172 -: ".-: : ::•: 44,93s, 363 - -• ■-.: ■ 4: •• ■ - ■ . _ . 5: : 2.13 250 - :•• 266 : :. L5S 1.70 . ■- 2.45 293 . - - ' 259 . S3 ,_ ... ... ; i : ; 116.1. 125. 509,264 *.- .:■• ::■:> : - 2 . n - - ' ■■ ~ - :-.- 127 17 Number, crtragt price, end far^i re' s on January 1,1 State or Territorv. Xamber. r- - -'.■ Z. ' i - " - ■ Rhode Island ?•" Delaware V- .r . - : V.-rizv Virginia if ::h C-r:. z Georgia F.:-/i. Ohk : ■ -. : . ■ r 1... v Dakota - : •"• '• : :. ■ 44,198 ::.■:■- : i ■- ' . . -- •■ .: ■ ■ .". ■ -: :: • - 101.255 3.140,720 :< -.- 777 .- 2.10S. 795 436.593 703.502 ■ ' 674, 4B& - IS - 2 44 _ - ■ 223 ■ 5- S3 545 550. -" " : - :; £59 : i : . 731 71 .574 "- 1 :."- : -::: I .v--; ; ..-" Xr:7^.. " Ki-s.ii . .... ::••:. :>:•: Tennessee Alabama Mississippi 183,280 : :•:-. '.-— 1.665,963 Indian Territorv -I 30. 977 •: ^_i:-- >.:•'. .•:i.-:..; y.-z --:': V :_-__:. " ":: WTOming. 4,986,796 Colorado XewMeiieo. -: Arizona 859,397 Utah - Nevada ;| 1,599,977 : : :.- ;- .-^ ::v V-_;-^.-;: -.- :.' Oregon. . ■ . . -. . . .... - ■ . - - - . . .. STATISTICS OF SHEEP AND WOOL. 657 Imports and exports of sheep, with average prices, 1892-1906. Imports. Exports. Year ended June 30— Number. Value. Average price. Number. Value. Average price. 1892 380, 814 459, 484 242,568 291, 461 322, (192 405, 633 392, 314 345, 911 381, 792 331, 488 266, 953 301, 623 238, 094 186. 942 240, 747 81, 440, 530 1,682,977 788, 181 682, 618 853,530 1,019,668 1, 100. ^ 1,200,081 1,365,026 1, 236, 277 956, 711 1,036,934 815, 289 704, 721 1, 020, 859 83.78 3.06 3.25 2.34 2.65 2.51 2.82 3.47 3 58 3.73 3.58 3.44 3.42 3.77 4.24 46, 960 37, 260 132, 370 405, 748 491, 565 244, 120 199, 690 143, 280 125, 772 297, 925 358, 720 176, 961 301,313 268, 365 142,690 $161, 105 126, 394 832, 763 2, 630, 686 3,076,384 1,531,645 1, 213, 886 853, 555 733, 477 1,933,000 1,940,060 1,067,860 1,954,604 1,687,321 804, 090 $3 43 1893 3 39 1894 6 29 1895 6 43 1896 1897 6 27 1898 6.08 1899 5 96 1900 5 83 1901 6.49 1902 5.41 1903 6 03 1904 6.49 1905 6.29 1906 5.64 Prices of sheep per 100 pounds in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906. Date. Chicago. Cincinnati. St. Louis. Omaha. Inferior to choice. Goo .t 3 extra. Good to choice natives. Native. Low. High. Low. High. Low. High. Low. High. . $2.00 $4.75 $3.00 $4.25 $4.25 $5.00 $4.00 $5.15 2.00 5.50 3.50 5.50 4.75 5.60 4.20 5.85 3.00 5.75 4.25 5.50 5.50 5.75 4.40 5.90 2.50 6.50 3.75 5.50 5.50 6.25 4.75 6.25 2.25 6.50 4.35 5.75 6.00 6.35 5.40 6.00 1.50 6.25 3.50 4.60 3.70 5.60 4.50 6.00 1.75 5.00 3.10 4.00 4.00 4.60 3.80 4.50 1.59 4.25 4.50 2.25 2.00 4.00 3.40 3.85 3.65 4.35 4.00 1.50 2.00 3.40 1.50 4.25 2.65 3.40 3.90 4.00 3.00 4.10 1.50 4.25 2.50 3.35 3.75 4.00 3.40 4.25 1.25 4.75 2.75 4.00 3.80 4.50 3.50 4.75 1.50 5.25 3.25 4.50 4.50 5.00 3.60 5.40 2.00 5.75 3.75 5.00 5.25 5.25 4.50 5. SO 2.00 7.00 4.25 6.00 5.50 6.15 4.60 6.75 2.25 7.00 4.10 6.25 6.00 6.25 4.50 6.75 -1.60 6.25 3.60 4.75 4.50 5.25 4.00 5.50 2.00 6.00 3.00 4.50 4.50 4.75 3.80 5.50 1.50 5.25 2.90 4.00 3.75 4.75 3.00 4.50 1.50 4.25 2.75 3.35 3.50 3.85 3.00 4.00 1.50 4.25 2.60 3.40 3.65 4.00 3.50 3.50 1.50 4.25 2.75 3.50 3.65 4.00 3.55 3.55 1.25 4.35 2.60 3.35 3.60 3. 65 3.25 4.00 1.50 4.25 2.60 3.75 3.65 3.85 3.25 4.40 2.00 4.75 3.25 4.00 3.75 4.75 2.25 5.10 2.00 4.75 3.40 4.60 4.75 4.75 2.60 5.25 2.00 5.50 3.65 4.50 4.75 4.90 2.53 5.25 2.50 6.00 4.00 4.50 5.40 5.60 3.25 5.65 2.00 6.00 3.75 4.55 5.50 5.65 4.00 5.90 1.75 5.50 3.00 4.40 4.60 5.50 4.00 5.25 1.50 5.50 2.75 4.00 4.00 4.25 3.75 5.00 2.00 4.25 2.75 4.00 3.75 4.00 3.40 4.35 1.75 4.50 4.75 5.00 2.75 2.75 2.75 3.50 3.50 4.00 3.75 4.10 4.25 4.00 4.50 4.75 1.50 1.75 3.75 4.50 2.50 5.65 3.50 4.50 4.75 4.90 4.00 5.50 4.50 5.85 4.10 5.25 5.15 6. 35 3.25 6.25 4.50 6.25 4.50 5.50 5.50 6.15 3.00 6.90 4.75 6.25 4.75 5.50 5.85 6.25 3.00 6.75 4.50 6.30 4.50 5.25 5.25 5.90 2.75 6.75 4.00 5.50 3.85 5.00 5.00 5.40 2.50 6.00 4.00 5.25 3.60 4.35 4.80 5. 00 2.50 5.70 4.00 5.90 3.60 4.75 5.00 5.50 4.75 6.00 4.00 5.65 3.75 4.50 4.60 5.20 4.00 5.30 3.80 5.40 4.00 4.75 5.00 5.00 3.75 5.25 4.00 5.70 4.00 5.25 5.25 5.60 4.00 6.00 4.25 6.10 4.10 5.00 5.25 5.75 4.25 6.00 4.25 6.25 4.10 5.15 5.50 6.00 4.50 6.25 1902. January February March April May June July August September October November December 1903. January February March April May June July August September October November December 1904. January February March April May June July August ; , September October November December 1905. Janua ry February March April May June July August September October November December 3 A1906 42 658 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Prices of sheep per 100 pounds in leading cities of the United States. 1902-1906 — Cont'd. Chicago. Cincinnati. St. Louis. Omaha. Date. Inferior to choice. Good to extra. Good to choice natives. Native. Low. High. Low. High. Low. High. Low. High. 1906. January $3. 70 - -' S4.50 $5.50 So. 75 - - 54.00 $4.60 February 3.50 0.25 4. 35 5.50 5.50 _ 3.50 - 3.50 3.50 6.50 6. 50 5.00 4.00 5.75 5.75 5.50 5.50 6. 45 6.00 2. 75 3.25 6.00 April Mav 6.15 3.75 6.50 4.10 4.75 6.00 _ 4. 50 6.40 June 3.50 25 4.40 5. 25 6.00 0.10 3.80 6.50 Julv 3.00 6.25 4.10 4.75 5.25 5. 75 4.00 6.25 Aug ast 3.00 5.60 4.10 4.75 5.00 5.50 4.:" 5.85 September 3.50 5.75 4.10 4.75 5.35 i n 5.85 October 3.50 o. 15 3.85 4.75 5. 35 5.50 4.75 5. 65 November 3.25 O. 10 4.00 4.C0 5.50 5.60 4. 90 6.10 December 3.00 7.00 4.00 4.75 5.50 6.00 4.75 6.35 Wool product of the United States for 1906. by States. [Estimate of National Association of Wool Manufacturers.] State or Tenit nry. Number of AJ£j**ffe Percent Wool, ~V « ™^ of shrink- -washed and 100? aSe>1£06- unwashed. sheep Apr 1, KOO, Wool, scoured. Maine New Hampshire . Vermont Massachusetts. . Rhode Island . . . Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania. . . Delaware Maryland Virginia West Virginia. .. North Carolina . . South Carolina. . Georgia Florida Ohio Indiana Hlinois Michigan Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa . Missouri North Dakota South Dakota . . . Nebraska Kansas Kentucky Tennessee Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas Indian Territory- Oklahoma Arkansas Montana Wyoming Colorado New Mexico Arizona Utah. Nevada Idaho Washington. Oregon California... 200,000 63,000 HO, 000 26,000 6,500 26,000 725.000 32,000 850,000 6,500 100,000 350,000 480,000 205,000 50,000 250,000 105.534 1,S50,000 800,000 550.000 1,500,000 SOO.OOO 350,000 500,000 714,264 375,000 575,000 250.000 170,000 575,000 275,1300 175.000 165,000 155.000 1,440,000 60,000 200,000 4,940,000 4,531,000 1,400,000 2,900,000 680,000 1,900,000 650,000 2,300,000 575,000 1,800,000 1,750,000 rounds. 6 6.2 6 5.S 5.5 5.5 6 5. 5 6 6 5.5 4.25 4 3.8 3 6.25 6. 25 6.5 6.3 6. 75 7 6.5 6.45 6.5 6.5 7.5 7. 5 4. 75 4. 25 3.25 4 3.7 6.5 4.5 7. 25 5.5 6. 5 6.5 8 7. 35 8.5 8.5 7.5 Per cent 40 50 51 42 42 42 50 50 50 50 45 38 48 42 42 40 40 50 45 48 50 48 52 50 48 61 60 67 '.7 40 40 42 42 66 67 41 65 68 67 62 66 65 69 67 70 70 67 6. 66 100,010,942 29,400,000 Total product, 1900 1 ' 298,915,130 | 129,410,942 United States ' 38,540,7? Fulled wool , 61.08 30 Pounds. 1,200,000 390,600 960,000 150,800 35,750 143,000 4,350,000 176,000 5,100,000 39,000 560,000 1,750,000 2 J01.25::i 200,000 950,000 316,602 1 ; _ : 5.000.000 3,. "75, POO 9,450,000 5,400,000 2,450,000 • J 2.437.5IM 3,737,500 1,275,800 1,116,875 680,000 573,500 9,360,000 360,000 900,000 35,815,000 32,849,750 9,450,000 15,950,000 4,420,000 12,350,000 5,200,000 10,905,000 4,887,500 15,300,000 13,125.000 Pounds. 720,000 195.300 87,464 20,735 52 2,175,000 88,000 2,550,000 19,500 275.000 1,085,000 n .505.325 116,000 570,000 189,961 5,781,250 2,750,000 .- 1,170,000 -■ 2,395,6/52 950,625 1,495,000 ■ "" 1,693,375 070. 125 341.250 382,800 ■- 118,800 531,000 52,535.250 10. 51!. 920 3.11-. 500 6,061,000 1,502,800 4,322.500 1,612,000 . .. 1,466,250 4,5PO,000 4.331.250 256,915,130 42,000,000 STATISTICS OF SHEEP AND WOOL. 659 Wholesale prices of wool per pound in leading cities of the United States. 1902-1906. Boston. New York. Philadelphia. St. Louis. D:ite. XX Ohio, washed. XX Ohio. XX Ohio, washed. Best tub- washed. Low. nigh. Low. High. Low. High. Low. High. . 1002. Penis. 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 28 29 30 29 32 32 31 31 31 30 31 33 33 34 34 34 34 33'; 33 33 32 32 32 34 34 34 34 35 34 34 - 34 34 34 84 36 35 36 36 30 35 :;-, 34 ! 34 34 34 34 34 34 334 34 Cents. 27 27 27 27 27 27', 2S" 28 29 30 31 32 32', 33" 32 32 32 34 34 35 35 35 35 35 34 34 34 34 33 34 35 35 35 35 36 30 35 35 35 35 36 37 37 37 37 37 36 36 36 :,!'. 34$ 344 34*. :;-47 :."■ 35 34 j 34 m Cents. 20 26 26 26J 2-T 264. 264. 2!ii; Cents. 27 27 27* 2Vi 27: 27.'. 27 1 27* CattS. 20 28 26 20 26 20 26 j 27 j 27 27 31 31 31 31 31 31 30 32 32 32 33 33 33 33 33 33 325 31| 31 J 33 33 33 33 334. 34 34 34 34 34 34 35 35 35 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 334. :;:;.'. 33| 33| 33 33 Cents. 27 27 27 27 27 27 27'. 29 30 32 32 32 32 32 32 31 33 33 33 34 34 34 33 33 33 33 324. 314 33 33 33 33 334 36 35 35 35 36 36 30 36 36 35 35 35 " 35 35 35 35 35 34 J 34 34 34 34 34 34 Cents. 24 2-1'. Cents. 244. 244 24 24 April 24 24 May 24 25 J uue 24 25 July 24 25'. 25* 204. 26* 274 2t4 28 ' 27 28 30 31 31 31 31 30 30 30 31 28 28 28 28 2S 28 28 28 28 28 28 32 34 32 32 32 32 32 31 31 32 32 35 35 34 35 XX w 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 20 32 32 32 32 32 33 31 31 33 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 35 35 35 35 35 35 3.5 34 36 36 36 30 39 38 38 38 38 ashed. 38 38 38 38 3S 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 27'. 28 4 28 29 1S03. 29 29 29 ( 29 28 29 Apnl . 27 ! 28J. May 27 23 29 July 29 294 29 30 SO 29! 30 304 31 December 30 i 30 4. 1&04. 30' 304 30! 31 March 304 31 304 31 30 J 32 33 July 33 344 35 35 35 36 October 34', 30i 37 40 40 41 1905. 40 41 39 i 41 37 38 37 394 30 41 41 414 42 42 41 41 33 31 30 30 38 38 38 37 37 37 37 38 43 424. 42 July «4 42 424 42 414 1900. 35 38 38 40 39 384, 384. 38 38 37 '. 38 660 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Range of prices per pound of ivool in Boston, monthly, 1902-1906.a Date 1902. January February March April May June July August September October November December 1903. January February March April May June July August September October November December 1904. January February March April May June July August September October November December 1905. January February March April May June July August September October November December 1900. January February March April May June July August September October November December Ohio fine, unwashed. Low. High as. 19i 20" 191 19J 19 19 20 20 21J 211 2l| 23 23 as. 20 20 191 191 19V 20 20 21 211 21» 22 23 Indiana quarter- blood, unwashed. Low. High, as. 22 22 211 211 201 204 21" 22 22 23 23 24 231 24 22 22 22 22 23 24 24 24 24 24 24 24.'* 241 25 24 L>4 27 28 28 28 30 31 a.«. 22 22 22 21i 20* 21" 22 23 23 23 23 24 25 251 2'..', 251 25 27 30 30 29 30 32 33 34 34 32J 32! 321 32} 34 34 34 34 311 32 Ohio XX, washed. Low. High as. 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 28 29 30 29 32 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 331 331 34 as. 27 27 27 27 27 27?, 28 28 29 30 31 32 321 33 32 32 32 34 34 35 35 35 35 35 36 341 341 34> 341 341 35 35 ;:r. ■Ml 34 341 Ohio, No. 1, washed. Low. High as. 27 27 261 26i 26" 26 26 28 29 30 30 31 as. 27 27 27 261 26" 26 27 29 30 30 31 31 Ohio Delaine, washed. Low. High as. 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 30 311 311 311 33 34 34 331 331 331 34 36 36 36 36 35 35 35 35 35 34 34 34 35 351 351 35! 35.'. 37 37 36 36 36 36 39 38 39 39 37 3i;'. 36" 361 361 3l>! 361 361 36 361 36 36 351 351 36j as. 29 29 29 281 281 29 31 33 32 32 33 35 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 3t,l 371 Michigan X. washed. 6 Low. High a Furnished by Commercial Bulletin, Boston. b Since June 12, 1903, the standard quotation has been Michigan fine unwashed. STATISTICS OF SHEEP AND WOOL. 661 Range of prices per pound of wool in Boston, monthly, 1902-1906 — Continued. Date. Fine select- Fine medi- ed Terri- | um Terri- tory, staple tory, eloth- scoured. ! ing scoured. 1902. January February March April May June July August September October November December 1903. January February March April May June July August September October November December 1904. January February March April May June July August September October November December 1905. January February March April May June July August September October November December 1906. January February March April May June July August September October November December High. Low. 55 44 55 46 55 45 52 44 52 42 52 42 55 45 57 47 57 49 57 49 58 49 59 50 GO 54 58 52 56 52 55 52 55 50 55 50 55 52 •56 52 56 52 56 52 56 51 55 51 52 50 55 50 55 50 55 50 53 50 58 50 62 53 63 58 65 58 65 60 70 60 70 65 70 62 70 60 68 60 70 60 74 62 76 65 78 67 78 67 78 68 78 68 78 66 78 66 78 65 76 66 73 66 73 66 73 66 73 66 75 68 75 68 75 68 75 65 72 65 73 66 Texas, 12 months, scoured. Low. High Fine free fall, Texas or Califor- nia scoured Low. High 46 Pulled, A super, scoured. Low. High Pulled, B super, scoured. Low. High. 2 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGBICULTUEE. SWINE. ■:t and far t d farms January . Y -: : Nino] Be. per head. . 1 ISB9 IS B - 62,20 - . . " . • 34 1881 a 247 1832 ... 18S3 . ' iSv i 92,04 1888 UBB 1,592 189' U91 25,10 1892 am UBf . . 1897 1899 an - - • fan ■. . 19J: ._ 2 MM 1906 17,320,511 1906 . . " $4.03 4.01 • 4.80 6.00 5.66 5.57 " . 4.9v n 4 is ■ ■ i 4.35 4.39 4.40 ■ I . 6.15 " - 2 ! ! --- 127,45 22 - IS - 251,110 i - S •"" .. ' : ' 71 " i SI ! .. ! 220,8] 7 1 - 193,923 •1,415 295,43 ■ . 27 ■ . 272 77 174. 35 i ' 72 _ 342. 1 2 364. " ! 417,791 . »73 1,399 $40,092 i - ■ ! • 77 61.390 7.00 n ". - ■ 1,625 10.25 - 2 " - " 11.38 " 9.85 " . 74 9.13 75,12 ' . 2 9.32 S3, 434 . 5.05 "" "". • 7.39 ■ : 14.01 . 272 " 16.90 - 23 ■ i 55 ' " " ' 2 2 " 9.09 75 J 5 75 7.49 . "■- 193.017 8.13 - 356. 764 7.91 91,148 2 " 1.146.630 11.99 11.39 23 75 397. 162 75 9.50 ! - 10.16 - 227 . " 10.80 .- 751 . " 10.30 14,411 2 7.67 : 6.88 7.71 -. . ■ 10.68 - 10.56 . 10.15 6.345 - ; - " 630. 998 10.66 13. 19 lue of " ■Slates on Janu Vermont Rhode Island setic .: Fork I rrS-rT Pennsylvania. . . . Delaware and . oia... ina.. . Carolina.. Georgia Florida Obi Indiana M. . ...r ." Wist oai K.-_: • ■ iri . Dakota... :. i 61, 707 1 . • " •-, 9.00 10.00 - 9.90 1 . 25 .- 156,952 ::. • 989 G85 9.40 46,491 - • 296.130 2 ' • -s i 25 "■ -• 6.60 L,2 784 5.30 ; . 5.60 1,582,7 6.00 - 3.30 2. 436. 797 • .' 2.924.87 VI '.•? : -■:-. r-4» ■ E 1.87 20 ' . 77.00 9.00 9.50 3.454.950 ' . 1 285 ■ 75 »17 2 - 711 "" - ■- 2 ; 72 -- . 9,303,039 71 -■ . _•• ■ : 2 " • '•- 75 . . 744 h Dakota . . . saa ma issi] pi Louiaiaii Texas I Oklahc:: _ la Idaho ington. Ore? i - ! 1.213.380 I 25 25 2,86 " Tt . 1,174,20 16.777 124.54-5 23.291 55 22 172 " ■ 2 • - 5.50 i 4. 75 7.40 4.15 9.20 8.30 ■ ■ 7.00 7.50 - I • I I 6.90 I $8,831,025 ■ - 75 252 . " 2 I _ ■ 72 576 " : 139,249 163,037 I 25 5.54,; 7.62 STATISTICS OF HOGS. 663 Wholesale prices of live hogs per 100 pounds in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906. Date January . . . February.. Mm rch April May June July August September. October... November. December. . January . . . February.. March April May June July August September. October. . . November. December. . January . . . February.. March April May June July August September. October November. December . . January. .. February.. March April May Juiie July August September. October. .. November. December. . January.. . February.. March April May June ...... July August September. October.. . November. December. . 1002. wo:; 1905. 1900. Cincinnati. Packing, fair to good. $0.00 6. 05 6.20 6.75 6.65 0.70 7.25 6.40 6.90 0. 50 5.85 6.05 6.25 6.70 7.05 ft 70 5.75 5.70 5.15 5.40 5.80 5.10 4 15 4.25 4. 75 4.85 5.35 4.90 4.50 4.55 5.25 5.20 5.55 5.00 4.45 4.35 4.00 4.80 5.00 5.25 5.30 5.30 5.45 5.90 5.15 4.95 480 4 80 5.30 5. 65 6.30 6.35 6.25 6.30 6. 65 6.00 6.10 6.10 0.10 0. 10 $6. 50 6.50 6.95 7.30 7.25 7.70 8.00 7.70 7.80 7.70 6.60 6.65 6.95 7.30 7.75 7.45 6.85 6.25 5.90 6.05 6.35 6.20 5.35 4 95 5.25 5.85 6. 00 5.50 5.00 5.55 5.95 5.85 6.25 6.10 5.20 4 90 4.95 5.35 5.65 5.80 5.60 5.55 6.20 6.35 6.25 5.70 5.15 5.45 5.80 5.45 6.75 6.75 6.62 6.85 6.95 6.72 6.80 6.80 6.50 6.55 St. Louis. Mixed packers. Low. High. SO. 10 5.85 5.80 6.80 6.70 6.95 7.50 6.70 7.30 6.40 6.05 5.95 6.15 6.60 6.95 6.50 5.80 5.50 5.30 5.20 5.55 5.30 4 50 4 20 4. 65 4 70 5.20 4.75 4 55 4 57 5.10 5.10 5.30 4 90 4.50 4.25 4 75 4.97 5.25 5.60 5.40 5.42 5.75 6.30 5.00 5.15 4 95 5.00 5.10 5.35 6.10 6.25 6.22 6.20 6.55 6.05 6.12 6.15 6.07 5.95 S6. 90 6.50 6.924 7.50" 7.50 7.95 8.15 8.12J 8.20 7.90 6.90 6.70 6.95 7.30 7.60 7.40 7.05 6.20 5.95 5.90 6.20 6.25 5.50 4 85 5.25 5.80 5.75 5.671 4 90 5.50 5.75 5.721 6.25 0.30 5. 17* 4 85" Chicago. Low. High. 84 40 4 40 4 75 5.40 5.40 5.65 5.70 5.30 5.50 4 50 4 60 4 60 5.00 5.30 6.00 6.30 5.10 5.25 4 60 4 50 4 85 4 00 3.75 3.80 3.85 3.90 4 00 3.75 3.70 4 00 4 70 4.60 4 70 4 40 3.65 3.60 5.02 3.90 5. 20 4 10 5.57 4 15 5.70 4 50 5. 57 4 60 5. 65 4 50 6.20 4 80 6. 35 5.25 6. 00 4.40 5. 55 4 40 5. 12$ 4 20 5.30 4 50 5.45 4.60 6.20 5.10 6.45 a 50 0. 65 5.15 6.57 5.10 6.75 5.25 6.97 5.60 6.67 5.10 6.67 5.25 6.70 5. 16 6. 42 5.20 6.45 5.30 SO. S5 6. S3 7.00 7.50 7.50 7.95 8.75 7.95 8.20 7.90 6.95 6.85 7.00 7.55 7.85 7.65 7.15 6.35 6.20 6.15 6.45 6. .50 5.50 4 90 5.20 5.80 5. 821 5.30 4 95 5. 47 5.90 5.80 6. 37* 6. 27| 5.25 4 87i 5.00 5.15 5.55 5. 7 J.1 5.65 5.65 6.15 6.45 6.20 5. SO 5.25 5.35 5.70 6.40 6.55 6.821 0. 671 6. 85' 7.00 6.80 6.80 6.85 6. 50 6.55 Omaha. Low. $5. 40 5.25 5.50 6.20 6.50 6.70 6.85 6.50 7.05 6.40 5.95 5. 75 6.00 6.35 6.75 6.60 5.50 5.50 4 90 492; 5.05' 4 80 410 4 15 4 20 4 50 4.60 4 50 4 20 4 27 4 50 4.65 5.00 4.92: 4 45 4 25 4 30 4.40 450 5.10 5.00 4.90 5.05 5.50 4 85 4 75 4 50 4 65 4.85 5.25 5.85 6.10 6.10 6.10 6.15 5.45 5.40 5. 92i 5.80" 5.90 664 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. EGGS. Wholesale prices of eggs per dozen in leading cities of the United States, 1902-1906. New York. Cincinnati. Chicago. St. Louis. Date. Average best i fresh. Fresh. Average best fresh. Low. High. Low. High. Low. High. Low. High. 1902. Cents. 26 27 Cents. 34 37 Cents. 22 21 134 14" 14 14 14 14 Hi'. 18 19 21 20 12 12 12 134 134 12" 124 18 19 20 20 23 19 144 154 15" 154 154 15" 16 18 21 22 22 24 144 15 15 14* 14" 14 17 184 23 24 16 13 13 14 14 14 14 144 19 22 28 25 Cents. 30 32 23 15 15 144 144 16 184 21 23 23 26 20 164 14 14 14 14 18 19 22 28 26 32 29 20 17 17 16 16 18 19 20 26 27 27 30 23 16 16 15 144 17 19 23 28 27 24 17 134 164 144 144 154 18' 21 24 29 29 Cents. 18 234 13J 14 144 14} 17 16 17 20 2 1 j 20 21 14 124 124 13 124 11 10 16 17 18 22 22 18 14f 154 14 13 11 11 13 13 17 16 18 20 144 144 14" 12 12 124 13 15 16 18 16 11 12 14 12 12 12 12 12 15 20 20 Cents. 28 334 264 16 154 17" 18 18 204 22 24 25 264 20" 20 154 15" 154 16 19 20 23 28 30 344 334 20 184 18 174 20 204 22 234 28 30 31 36 31 19 184 174 204 22 224 25" 30 31 27 214 17 194 18* 19" 184 204 244 27 32 36 Cents. 22 21 134 134 134 13 11| 13 15 17 194 2DJ 17J 124 11 11 12J 124 11 14 184 19 214 24 28 173 13i 144 13 14', 13" 16 174 19 214 24 22 28 14 144 124 14" 104 14 164 164 19 224 14 114 12 13J 13 15 12* 13" 15 18 20 21 Cents. 26 32 154 30 264 154 16 17 18 18 20 21 22 24 24 16 144 15 16 174 184 154 19" 21 90 28 27 20 16 17 17 174 174 19" 20 20 21 20 22 24 17 174 174 164 164 18 20 21 25 26 174 154 144 17 16 17 17 18 21 20 20 22 18 174 20 20', 21 24 25 26 29 2S 25 21 174 19 194 23 26 28 33 45 45 47 40 25 21 21 21 24 26 30 30 38 40 40 40 40 21 21 22 25 28 30 35 40 40 34 27 22 22 21 23 25 28 33 35 42 45 154 May 15 15J July 144 16 20 184 224 224 1903. 224 18 164 14i 14 15 July 124 19 19 21* 26 28J 1904. 29 29 16 154 154 154 July 174 19* 204 204 27 27 1905. 29 34 224 154 164 154 July 14 161 164 19 24 24 190C. 22 17 15 16 14 17 July 13 15 174 22 26 26 TRANSPORTATION RATES. 665 TRANSPORTATION RATES. Quotations of oc can freight rates on corn, wheat, cotton, and lard from United States ports to Liverpool diiring 1906. Article and port. Corn and wheat (per CO lbs.) : Boston New York Baltimore New Orleans Galveston Cotton(perl001bs.): Boston New York Baltimore New Orleans Galveston Lard, small pack- ages (per 100 lbs.): Boston New York Baltimore New Orleans Galveston Mean for month. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Cents. 5.25 4.72 5.51 7.75 G.75 17.00 19.00 25.00 35.50 35.65 19.69 18.98 21.09 27.00 20.00 Cents. 4.07 4.07 3.94 6.82 6.38 14.75 18.00 21.50 33.00 30.58 16.88 16.88 19.69 27.00 18.00 Cents 3.36 3.26 3.68 6.30 6.00 12. 18.00 15.20 32.00 30.00 16.88 16.88 19.69 25.67 IS. 00 Cents 3.15 2.89 3.41 6.30 6.00 11.00 16.00 15.00 30.00 29.1 16.88 16.88 19. 69 23.00 18.00 Cents 3.15 2.76 3.41 6.30 6.00 11.00 15.00 12.00 29.20 28.25 16.88 16.88 18.28 23.00 18.00 Cents. 3.15 2.20 2.10 6.30 6.00 10.25 14.60 12.00 28.00 27.00 16.88 16.88 18.28 23.00 17.00 Cents. 3.15 2.43 3.68 6.30 6.00 10.25 13.50 12.00 26.00 25.9: 16.88 16.88 18. 28 23.00 17.00 Cents. 3.15 3.15 4.33 6.51 6.00 13.60 16.00 16. 00 30.00 29. 07 16.88 16.88 18.28 23.40 17.00 Cents. 3.15 3.04 6.17 7.22 7.50 15.00 18.40 21.00 34. 33 35.00 16.88 16.88 18.28 25. 00 19.00 Cents. 3.15 3.28 3.41 7.35 7.62 14.00 22.50 22.00 39.40 38.04 16.88 16.88 18.28 25.00 21.50 Cents. 3.15 2.63 3.94 7.74 7.62 12.80 18.00 22.00 40.00 40.69 16.88 16.88 18.28 25. 00 21.50 Cents. 3.15 2.84 4.73 7.48 7.31 12.00 17.80 22.00 37.50 38.71 16.88 16.88 18.28 2S.00 20.00 Mean for year. Cents. 3.42 3.11 4.03 6.86 6.60 12.87 17.23 17.98 32.91 32.44 17.11 17.06 18.87 24.59 18.75 Live stock and dressed meats, Chicago to New York by rail: Mean rates, in cents, per 100 pounds. . Dressed Dressed 3 a hogs. 3 S hogs. u ■a o ■3 SB o B Year. cj ,9 o3 . o Year. .3 O "3 S.E es ■3 !n "> ss°, cS o O H ft 0) cj XI 02 o W Mc3 CJ ss o o CJ C o K p. CJ CJ .3 m O w 2 P 60 sj CJ a * K cj o o 1882 36 40 31 31 29 32 28 26 53 50 44 43 CO 60 60 60 57 64 51 54 1895 28 28 28 28 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 CO CO 60 CO 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 1883 1896 . 45 1884 1897 1898 45 1885 45 1886 33 30 49 CO 61 53 48 1899" *"i *>5 ?"i CO 40 40 45 40 45 1887 33 32 40 CO 62 59 54 1900 ?8 30 30 CO 45 1888 oo ">0 31 CO 46 46 44 1901 *>8 30 30 60 42 9 42 9 1889 25 B3 30 °8 30 30 CO CO 47 39 47 39 45 39 1902 . 28 98 30 30 30 30 60 60 41.2 45 41.2 45 41.2 1890 1903 45 1891 27 28 30 28 30 30 CO CO 45 45 45 45 45 45 1904 . 28 30 30 30 30 60 60 45 45 45 45 45 1892 1905 45 1893 28 28 20 30 30 30 60 60 45 45 45 45 45 45 1906 28 30 30 60 45 45 45 1894 o Rates did not go into effect until February 1, 1899. Until that time the 1898 rates governed. 666 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. York by rail: Mean rates, in cents, per 100 pounds. Yea r. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. The vear. 39 39 39 34.5 30.5 30.5 30.5 30.5 30.5 30.5 31.5 35 33.41 1881 3o 35 35 30.5 " _' " 21.5 21.5 21 5 21.5 21.5 21.5 26. 73 21.5 24.3 26 2>; 26 26 26 26 26 26 30.5 1S83 30.5 30.5 30.5 29.2 26 20 26 26 26 26 2 " 30.5 27.83 30.5 30. 5 23. 3 17.5 17. 5 18. 4 23 26 26 26 - 26 24. 22 188S 20 20.6 • " 17.5 17.5 21.5 21.5 21.5 22. S 26 21. 10 1886 2 - 26 - 26 _ - 26 26 27.7 26.14 1887 30.5 30.5 30.5 26 . - . 26 26 . iss* - 26. 3 . 26 19.9 17.3 15.5 18.8 21. 5 23.6 23.11 . - - 26 26 26 26 _ . 2 26 26 1890 26 . 26 26 26 26 26 24. 8 20 20 20 20 23.89 1891 20 - 21.5 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 - - 26 . ; _ 26 26 26 26 _ _ - 26 26 26 _ _ 26 2b - 26 26 26 26 26 26. 26 2-3 26 - 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 . 26 26 26 26 - 26 26 26 26 26 - 26 26 26 26 26 - 1 - 26 - 26 26 26 26 -• 20 26 . 26 26 26 21.5 26 26 26 26 26 . 26 26 _ 26 - 26 26 21. 5 26 2 26 26 26 _ 26 _ . 26 26 21.5 26 - 26 26 26 26 _ 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 21.5 26 - 26 26 26 26 21.5 2 26 26 26 26 23 26 26 21.5 26 26 26 26 21.5 26 - 26 26 26 21.5 _ 26 21.5 20 26 26 I 26 26 21.5 26 - 26 26 21.5 25. 36 1890 23.70 1S93 25.43 1894 26 iS95 1896 26 1S97 - _ 24. S3 1900 26 1901 26 1901 26 19< '3 26 1904 26 1905 ... 25 1906... 26 Compressed cotton, by rail: Mean rates, in cents, per 100 pounds. From Xew Orleans a From Mem- From New Orleans a From Mem- to phis to — Year. to — phis to— Year. J g - - g -i — z > -- — a I z > a z a z o > — _= w Y, c i - - z C :. - =: - X - - z - m fc - - z pq 1883 60 ■ 52 72 77 1S95 53 48 4^ -> 50.5 55.5 1884 60 • 53 52 54 .59 1896 55 50 50 50 50.5 55.5 1S85 60 U .53 52 ■ 58 1S97 55 50 50 50 50 55 1n80 2 47 45 44 53 58 55 50 50 50 47 52 1887 50 45 43 42 53 58 1S99 '- 47 47 47 48 53 1888 50 45 43 42 47 52 1900 55 50 50 50 50. 5 55. 5 1889 52 47 45 44 50. 5 55 1901 55 50 50 50 50. 5 55. 5 1890 55 50 50 50. 5 55 1902 55 50 50 50 50. 5 55. 5 1S91 55 50 50 50 50.5 55 1903 55 50 50 50 50. 5 55. 5 1S92 55 50 50 50 50. 5 55 1904 55 50 50 50 50. 5 50. 5 1893 55 50 50 50 47 52 1905 55 50 50 50 40. 5 45. 5 1S94 51 50 50 50 50. 5 55. 5 1900 50 50 50 50 40. 5 45. 5 a These rates are mainly used for basing purposes. TRANSPORTATION RATES. 667 Corn and wheat: Mean proportional export freight rates per 100 pounds from Kansas City and Omaha to leading Calf and Atlantic ports during the calendar years 1905 and 1906. Destination and article. From Kansas City. From Omaha. 1905. 1906. 1905. ; 1906. New Orleans: Corn Cents. 14. S 6 16.1 14.8 6 16.1 22.2 d 2.3. 0 22. 2 d 25. 0 21.2 '24.0 20.7 <*23.5 Cents, a 16. 5 »17.1 16.5 17.1 23.4 t 21. 5 23.4 ■ 21. 5 22.4 «20.5 21.9 «20.0 Cents. 15.8 6 17.4 15.8 6 17.4 22. 2 <*2o.O 22.2 <*25.0 21.2 <*24.0 20.7 d23.b Cents. - - Wheat Galveston: Corn Wheat 1S.1 23 4 Boston: c Corn Wheat New York: c Cora 23.4 t 21 5 Wheat Philadelphia: c Corn 22 4 "Wheat «20 5 Baltimore: c Corn 21.9 *20.0 "Wheat a From April 25 to August 10, 1906, inclusive, rates used in computing this average include delivery on board ship. 6 For July 25 to December 31, 1905, inclusive. c Rates include delivery on board ship. d For second half of 1905 only. e Average based upon rates in force for two periods, amounting together to about 30 days. Corn and Wheat: Mean rates, in cents, per bushel, Chicago to Xeic York. Year. Corn. By lake By lake and canal." and rail. By all rail. By lake and canal.'* By lake and rail. By all rail. 1S75. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. 1881. 1882. 1883. 1884. iss.-,. 1886. 1887. 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. 189'4. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. 8 75 9.59 &83 10.49 13.41 7.77 0. 72 8.03 6.55 0.3 S. 45 8.5 6.71 6.32 5.93 6.32 5.95 7.18 4.93 4.50 5.75 153 6 3.81 6 5.08 6 4.07 6 4.61 6 4.83 6 4.85 6 3.63 6 4. 76 6 5. 51 11.34 9.68 13.42 10.45 12.2 14.43 9.42 10.28 11 8.5 8.01 11.2 11.2 10.26 8.19 7. 32 7.53 7.21 7.97 6.5 6.4 6.15 6. 92 4.41 5.83 4.72 5.16 5.51 5.78 4.82 5.19 5.72 19.5 14.12 18.03 16.39 14.56 17.48 13.4 13.5 15.12 12.32 12. 32 14 14.7 13.54 12. 6 11. 36 14 12.96 13.65 12. 32 10.29 10.5 11.43 9.8 10.08 9.19 9.21 9.94 10.54 10.38 9.40 9.52 9.82 11.09 9.96 11.87 13. 13 8.67 7.23 9.01 7 6.54 9.10 9.5 7.05 6.92 6,76 6.95 G. 45 7.66 5.11 4.86 6.19 5. 22 6 4.45 6 5.81 6 4.49 6 5.11 6 5. 26 6 5.4 t 4. 73 6 5. 53 6 6.03 12.09 10.19 14.75 11.99 13.13 15.8 10.49 10.91 11.63 10 9.02 12 12 11.14 8.97 8.52 v. 57 7.59 8.48 7 6.96 6.61 7.42 4.91 6.63 5.1 5.54 5.89 6.37 5.50 6.40 6.35 20.89 15.12 19.56 17. 56 17.74 19.8 14.4 14.47 16.2 13.2 13.2 15 15.75 14.5 15 14.3 15 13.8 14.63 13.2 11.89 12 12.5 12 11.6 9.96 10.62 11.29 11.12 9.90 10.20 a Including Buffalo charges and tolls. 6 Excluding Buffalo charges. 66S YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGPJCT'LlTTiE. is, per ton . - i - > p K |l - « — £ z 5 - - Y> ..:. • H a a . _ z s M r _ ^ - > 13 _ / - .. -- . - - - = -" r i = - 5 ? - x f» - - — X > = „ « 3 5 s A — - - -= - > X >. - - - u — : — 5 - — - = 5 t M = > "3 ~ pq 1 ' - — =- - = c = ° = - "- 1875. 24 1. 340 1.119 1.061 383 • - 1.299 1.091 - S3 1.833 - 1 1 1 •" 1.421 183 2.218 1.139 _ 972 .722 •- S3 . 583 " - - - ' 1.217 1.955 l. I3':i .954 • : .813 .954 1. 024 1.035 1.719 1.949 1.361 2.135 32 : ;>■ 1878. . . . 1. 5S2 1.113 .919 .960 .724 .914 .985 1.53V 1.354 . . ' 1.296 183 299 1.100 i n . 041 S3 754 1.523 . 1.054 "-■ 1.153 1880.... L207 S3 • 73 .918 1.543 1 74 - 1.564 1.232 1. 038 n .805 ! 357 .745 • . 1.522 L22 1.241 . 78 ! 38 - 1.17 1.064 - - .749 28 " .752 .753 1.417 -- ■ 1.253 . - 1.349 - m 1.19 1.197 . 915 78 728 881 787 - 1.433 i 1.391 . 128 1. 325 1.205 1884.... 1.093 . 719 .652 .804 ~~~ - 1.097 . 1.008 1. 5o« 1.344 1.136 1. 00 .944 •- i . 553 ' .577 - .550 " 1.043 1 278 1.009 1.420 1.159 1.011 1.07 1.101 ! ' " .639 . 755 .541 1.157 1.071 ■ - " .999 • 1.13 1.107 i . 33 " .730 717 .537 S3 1.012 1.089 - 1.213 1.075 .984 1888... 1.116 1.099 .753 .716 • .723 • .541 • 1.020 .973 1.170 1.049 1.001 1889 1.015 1.030 i - .632 .685 .69 ' • • .971 . • " '-' • .922 1S90 " 1. 105 .730 ■ .044 .501 .942 i .995 - • 1.138 75 .941 .991' 1.0S9 .74:i .630 . 656 .70 . 525 .934 1.039 1.003 .980 1.131 ■ • ' 1892.... .925 1.057 .614 .602 . 047 ~ ".- .90> 1. 055 .973 1.080 - - 1893.... .92;: .701 .031 .599 - .511 --" 1.039 .949 1.033 " S78 1894. . . . . 895 . 944 .733 - S3 - m - • 1.037 .974 .970 87 • 1895.... 87* ". .004 " .565 .04 .425 ■ . 34 .994 i .831 - 1896.... .864 • . 551 ' .425 .745 1.017 1.003 " '" - 1897..-. .918 " .610 ' - .501 .60 .419 -- * 1.008 .891 . " 1 • 1898.... .S44 . 0/5 .530 .511 .57 ' .972 • .950 ! 3 .753 1899.... .771 " .539 .481 - .50 . -■ .996 .937 90 1.016 724 1900.... ■ i SSE ••- .504 • .343 9 . 987 . 930 .794 1.050 !752 .729 1901.... .831 . 575 . 015 -• i - .56 •• 1. 00; 72 . -- ■'■ 1902.... ' .632 . 503 .590 .61 .4Cr2 .- L034 n .979 '-'-- 1903.... • - .037 .519 5 - - .475 .591 L013 • ' " J 1904 .052 2 .60 .470 " .944 .S91 " 83 - 1 78 1905 (c) .638 .645 .524 .604 ■" 13 '■" .93: • ■ - ■ .766 •ntioned end en J ... lor different railways. * Leased by the Boston and Maine Rafln Bed by the New York Central and Hudson Rivtr Railroad. TRANSPORTATION EATES. Average rates, in cents, per passenger per mile. 669 Year.a P3 to u - o 0, 1 fit < 1 O OS - ~ > S = o C 3 — — o w c u § n >. --.-- p OJ '£ > C c M -•0 3 P m &c SIS a =3 o >> .*£ c &.2 cJJ= «o o .d a a O "c pa - = > em/: «_ ■2 5 a o OS £ u >> « '3 rt o '£ £ ■ ~- '5 o fi c o — i *j > o '3 '3 "P * ° Z w J h Si a M o o ~ O p 3 1S75 1.910 2. ISO 1.885 1.955 2.088 2.259 2.407 3.231 2.882 2.6S7 2.690 2.755 2.878 3.219 2.378 1876 1.864 2.099 1.693 1.859 1.846 1.819 1.830 3.322 2.804 2.626 2.805 2.614 2.974 3.018 2.183 1877 1.947 2. 174 1.953 1.772 2.182 2.185 2.192 3.786 2.942 2.772 2.994 2.798 3.140 3.167 2.458 1878.... 1.969 2.217 1.978 2.158 2.255 2.277 2.258 3.738 3.122 2.933 3.029 2.795 3.226 3.345 2.573 1879 1.888 2. 137 2.044 2.090 2.221 2.253 2.22S 3.630 3.066 2.971 2.908 2.417 3.444 2.484 18S0 1.885 2.096 1.999 2.041 2.135 2.222 2.156 2.959 2.514 2.806 2.868 2.076 3.476 2.442 1881 1.820 1.97C 1.862 2.016 1.988 2.152 1.895 2.989 2.164 2.666 2.856 1.828 3.341 3.168 2.446 1882 .... 1.715 1.993 1.S0S 1.948 2.156 2.249 2.024 2.605 2.388 2.505 2.579 1.951 3.300 2.706 2.391 1883 1.790 2.088 1.986 1.673 2.196 2.297 2.193 2.373 2.424 2.504 2.516 2.141 3.128 2.614 2.402 1884 1.651 1.908 1.942 2. 1S9 2.170 2.258 2.222 2.379 2.225 2.. 5 72 2.553 1.900 2.342 3.323 1885 1.833 1.838 1.419 1.756 2.058 1.950, 1.569 2.27C 2.211 2.466 2.563 2.026 2.749 2.103 2.216 1886 1.756 1.S53 1.845 1.89C 2.098 2.114 2.13C 2.131 2.208 2.420 2.415 2.023 2.135 2.436 2.142 1887 1.89 1.880 1.989 2.039 2.260 2.125 2.25.5 2.074 2.268 2.328 2.538 2.062 2.301 2.394 2.245 isv>.... 1.978 1.976 1.967 1.851 2.280 2.111 2.10 2.025 2.197 2.312 2.445 2.123 2.248 2.429 2.349 1889 1.957 1.869 1.932 1.722 2.286 2.076 2.18 1.709 1.927 2.285 2.415 2.12S 2.135 2.370 2.165 1890.... 1.915 1.S69 1.858 1.910 1.584 2.254 2.094 2.25 2.0-56 2 022 2.149 2.359 2.004 2.045 2.403 2.167 1891.... 1.818 1.905 1.601 2.105 2.070 2.23 2.155 2.073 2.322 2.408 2.205 2.059 2.4S3 2.142 1892 1.916 1.828 1.887 1.5SS 2.183 2.028 2.00 2.181 2.101 2.308 2.464 2.043 2.104 2.44,> 2.126 1S93 1.869 1.835 1.832 1.551 2.195 1.968 1.98 1.989 1.999 2.095 2.414 1.981 1.987 2.432 2.108 1894 1.851 1.794 1.857 1.509 2.069 1.993 2.00 1.905 1.925 1.891 2.191 1.776 1.758 2.365 1.986 1895 1.819 1.770 1.837 1.560 2.215 1.971 2.06 1.980 1.995 2.146 2.411 2.119 1.962 2.318 2.040 1896 1.769 1.752 1.838 1.641 2.148 1.950 1.88 1.952 1.979 2.108 2.375 2.117 2.075 2.187 2.019 1897 1.811 1.754 1.S42 1.545 2.108 1.958 2.02 1.980 1.979 2.153 2.289 2.116 2.101 2.254 2.022 1898 1.826 1.750 1.806 1.548 2.032 1.953 2.02 1.943 1.938 2.092 2.362 2.058 1.945 2.152 1.973 1899 1.800 1.744 1 . 766 1.536 2.074 1.937 2.02 1.860 2.014 2.036 2.337 2.055 1.941 2.243 1.925 1900 1.805 1.754 1,793 1.54C 2.223 1.952 2.05 1.973 2.021 2.064 2.346 1.908 1.968 2.318 2.003 1901 (*) 1.742 1.799 1.541 1.993 1.992 2.09 1.9S4 1.960 2.095 2.324 1.936 2.085 2.355 2.013 1902 (O (<*) 1.72I' 1.531 1.828 1.999 2.04 2.023 1.999 2.135 2.317 1.860 2.007 2.319 1.986 1903 (<•) (*) 1.773 1.50C 2.066 2.015 2.05 2.044 1.971 2.157 2.309 1.981 1.941 2.369 2.006 KOI (*) w 1.761 1.452 2.067 2.020 2.03 2.072 1.970 2.203 2.305 1.948 1.907 2.387 2.006 1905.... M w 1.719 1.464 2.055 2.000 2.05 2.019 1.839 2.135 2.373 1.730 2.231 2.292 1.962 a Beginning with 1888, the years mentioned end on June 30; prior to 1888 they cover different periods for different railways. b Excludes ferry earnings at Jersey City, N. J., at least since 1891. c Leased by the Boston and Maine Railroad, d Leased by the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad. Mean rates on grain, flour, and provisions, in cents per 100 pounds, through from Chicago to European ports, by all rail to seaboard arid thence by steamers, from 1S97 to 1906. Shipped to — Articles. 1S9S. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. 1903. 1904. 1905. 1906. Liverpool Do Do Glasgow Do Do London Do Do Antwerp Hamburg Amsterdam.. Rotterdam... Copenhagen.. Stockholm. .. Stettin Bordeaux Grain Sacked flour. Provisions. . . Grain Sacked flour. Provisions... Grain Sacked flour. Provisions... ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do 33.6 36.81 44.4 35.23 39.06 52.5 34.00 36.12 48.14 51.09 51.00 52.00 52.00 57.28 68.53 57.28 64.13 34.35 37.66 47.15 36.00 39.06 52.5 35.00 37.25 49.69 52.5 52.00 52.5 52.5 58.13 69.25 58.13 65.75 29.72 3o!l2 40.5 32.35 31.25 44.69 30.6 33.5 44.14 47.5 46.00 47.00 47.00 51.72 62.97 51.72 59.12 29. 4S 27.9 48.84 30.98 31.56 55.31 31.1 35.01 55.87 51.09 50.00 51.00 51.00 55.31 64.5 55.31 64.12 21.47 23.00 36.00 24.1 24.38 45.16 23.23 25.5 44.75 46.25 44.00 45.00 45.00 47.7.5 53.25 47.75 54.25 20.85 23.5 36.25 21.75 22.75 41.88 21.75 24.00 39.06 41.5 39.00 40.00 40.00 42.00 45.00 42.00 51.25 22.68 25.19 41.9 24.43 25.38 46.88 23.56 25.19 44.06 49.69 47.1X1 42.00 42.00 49.69 52.5 49.69 56.25 20.19 21.00 36.56 22.38 23.20 44.06 21.50 22.2.5 44.06 48.28 46.00 42.00 42.00 46.88 49.69 46.88 56.25 19.16 22.40 38.49 20 00 22.50 43.23 20.23 23.64 40.88 43.70 45. 75 45.42 44.53 48.66 51.47 48.18 51.45 18.75 20.50 41.00 19.25 23.60 45.63 19.25 22,50 46.26 47.61 49.00 46.00 46.00 51.00 53.50 50.00 53.00 " YEABBOOK OF THE DF.F -RICULTY — .- a • -. -r : a X - --■ = - - - — ~ - — X - - .- - r. - - _ - - - — - — . r- — n. — — r. _ - : _ - r - > ~ " *~ - - -- - - ■ -. 3 - - - — - - - - : ". r< x - "- a :■ 3 s = - ~ - ; - — — — i- -*x zz -- - - - - - — r: 3 "- z V — — - — X =: : _- 3 - : _ r - - " — " — ' — ' ss ■z e = x s c : .' — - t: - — - — — — — _ z. r a = -■ - ■ ~ r; ; = = (~ r -z a- x z — z — — . - - — — " - - a: — r: »= - ' a - =. 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X C- c -r- CM 00 X ~ BC CO t- ?j CO CO — ' 71 r-^ r- C-l l~ I— — c? CC CO — _ S a "° = ° r X CO CMW CB CB X -- ^j« 8 T - cm — 77 r : eb x — . . ;- 7 1-- o 7 • -. — X x — X « 00 CO uC a© r CM x" r CB c - c re - r; O •-T. r-. g 7-i CM — BC — ■* :: E O X ao - X >> *° ^ t- CO o - r r~ 71 n LI f- CB ■c — C 77 c r~ OB t^ t^ O X X t^ -J" l-3 ri a 7 i- c CC ca C? ■*r M — < CO ie '-7 CM t^ l~ t^ r. 1 r. r~ c _ .- — ~ .. .. j. X — f- CI - CB •W S - -T S M X u-7 00 cs c :: 5 -r to p x \ SO I- T1 T X O CM t^ o *a - X TT t~ 3 OS s gg'Sfeg X ■^ **r O CM C-J C: 7 1C E — i t^ X '" o»o t> L r t-^ 00 CM c 71 > s» r 7 CM t~ X a CB — • - ■a 1 ^ t^ r^ CO iH -^ tc s — ■rf CC r-i o >o CB — 7 s X >> ^r X i-O K c-i r^ c: X :7 +a to ■fl ^h -o t X C N ■^« CB CO BC c CC c3 = o ?r CO <- 1 bt; -i £ '7 0? 1 ! || CB — 1£ - 1 c; x x r^r" :- r X CO — TT —I « -c i-7 OB "-- x x c T r 00 Oi-O L.O C" CN CO s ■7 c I- r- r.. 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OOMOl'N^OlNO 1-1 .-I W3 M N — — i * c >, K Ph A1906- -43 LOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. - - ■ - J- T " S ~ - ZZ r" y' ■-. — B r. — — S - 3) V o c * 3i ' — :/: — J _ - = 3 — - — i - r- ~ =; - ~ ■ — -r :-. ..-. 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CM I 17» «C Tf" OS :- >- rt 77 T~ -r r- r-^ X ) oa 77 > t- re x . . . . ; o -y r^ r~ X - x t~- re ;tj o te o rVoV-r'r cc - x n x 'r * i.~ t- 00 S3 — — ,r x o — i r: r t o . . . - i- N 7i r- ?: - r n tj. n j) — ©O I> L~ to c — 3a — X CO -T — 7-1 - :5« = . -: •_ ^-^ a E ■ga B S S3 5 i& S o o. Sffl 5 H 5 tH c • o o = — . o "5 &• -' -I "2 c 6 6 6 6 6 ~ — — — — -r-c §«S»BS 8 iSiSI Sail 676 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. • ~ll~ CI r - - -r 711- a — \z s_ ~ -' T. X : = - ; ■ 82 DG DC — S. - ■G r. :/: X* r* C J - a - | - I > § 9 : x =: — - 5 = - - - = — -- y = —--.- --. — 6 /. ~ -. / x — — . r | x - ~ ~ Y- — •--. - — s. - X c -. » x — -XiCfC — - X - - — T - C : ' — '. r i : 5 X — — : - K — r. x i- r- t» -I- O ^"- i- X c c - " --' r M ~ - - : '- ,- : r ■- C b C g - ■ 2c.I » >> . 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W3 CM COCO oa T ^ 0 CO >o 0 3 cic-i oo 25 CO CM COO 031 C i »o 0 •£ C) CI CO c 1 ' - : 3 i-> ro t- CO 1 3 l>- (N C li y-* r- U3 t_ c 1 c 3 T - CD cr. co ■0 c 1 ^: : cj cor r> c* 3 I C 3 M" o 00 S I 3 — cr- : n iooo _r a~o- 7 [ T 5 ■ K2, 0 CO 0 ■l 00 GO t- ; 1- oh 3 -r co ro r co cr. i— oS 3 en z 3 — CO t HC 3 f : cc 3 ^i-H O Ci O COrt r 0 lO o Oi £* ci"c: CO ? a ! c r c " rH* ~ ci co" C> :' -^h* rt »>•" N j : - g O z. •0 : as ■h f,g CO CCCO 00 X CO U3 5 10 «Q *» co" ; ■*" «T uo" :i • CO" tt" co"*o" C i "-^> *"-CI <2 o / 03 • C33 ^H ~- a cS 3 o^cn »o co" — co" CO" CM i~- a ic iO CO IN D c •«*< >^ 5 0 CO H t~ X ICIDO < CO 0 »o 0 3 CI c cot- > CN - i c T-H CO CO s — c 0 CM ^3 > CMC a e 1 0 cj*oc BC a IC cs" -r co" « r-J -C r- " 06' oCcjT tsl 3 c c 0 eo O r OOf / 00 as CI > c W oo 0 a MC 5 tt 1 CI O T 0O t- f c T-1 •-* rt CO c c c't ~ co" o o <- ^ ta IN 0 O CO CD CI >-l >» 3 o »o CD »- CM O COO CO H 00 =2 >o .t2 co" CO" co" 00" __' co" 00" 10" *o" oT t^ CI a CI 03 t— 1 H^ 8s 3 3 ^rt »o IO CO CO CN T)<" CM ■«C« ON t-T con ■0 n" l^ ift CO 00 c\ C ' O 00 0 CO ■^ w 0 CO 1— 1 00 CI g o CO c" CI ^c r* TT- C) T-~ £ en C) CN •* c ©c c O CM I- s 3 •g-o~c X c- gs eg -" ^r- a •^"r-- ■*" cd"o" "3 > -t ?l co Sc ? ■^ C33C33 "* CM>0 CO *h ti ^o CO - E »-HCC oc :c «e C7 , e 1- ^ '", rt CO c. 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CO 03 (N 0 O Oh ■* CO t~ Z CO C33 kO CI H CM CO »o CM O CO 0 ec 3 >~ CO :■: 0 CO 0O-* 0 c3 3 CO 03 cm" i-Tcm" CO I- C33 CC lOO c; o ^^C) io -.: 10 t^ »c - CO t-S CM CI 2 , HO 6% o CM CO rt rt M :i C) CO ri n o> eo 00 -f l>- ■H. 03-H >* 30 C33 ^3 H t^CO t^ >> r* 00 O H" CO OH h" o">o" CO CO '- CO ; : : ■a CD o » "d CO a 3 1 3 ' CO -go T3 § 3 6 ~3> m CD" 3 a -3 n 3 u 0) O fl O 0 0 5 ft j ; 9 R* ■3 ft f\ '■ ft ft a L^ ■d o cS a cj c cd u o ft o 1 K w ll o 3 'o ■3 X ! 0 — C 6 o o •3 £ 3 0 . - 5 (4 *o CJ 3 H" t- , fto 5 •a '. a • "3 ' a M a) QJ •a B o ta 3 C3 cp 0 0 S : O • 03 ' Ik s 3 3 M -< ►4 « H W S'go oo 3 o EH o .sf o CD CJ 03 1 3 0 — I O 0 03 0 O ft ■:- O 1 M -1 J« CD f-« C ■3 e cu 3 •„ 3 3 a.3 0 ? 3 ?P.:5 ■el O t-i E5 W ^3 t-l a p" j; So fi ,.&$ Eh n 0 5 K* 03 > 5 3 s. -S o s « 6 CO CD CD CO O CDpJ ft CO IMPORTS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 679 o ^ C> CO cTtT •- CI W 1-- I- ~H TP Cvi NO CO -^ Oca 1 - w - uaVf — I CO S_ _ CI O O O CC CO X CO ~< 30 sc co — -o ct> ~ CO CO oocfexT o r- ^ • -!j>"cf p. ,23 ^3 "3 -3 63 , &s( c ca ajK s- O ~ a3 * ' CO COM CO L-3 a; g 53»'o c3 sj E-ig-i •• ftt, s O Ctj CB g O hf]

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X c 09 > c a t- 0 Cv 3 a a i c 1 6 1 O IT c y ~ c D ' 1 3 0 | t. fiB|3 a 0 c g O 4 3 3 1 K m ■< s g B C 0 '3 c 1 < 1 C C. c - z t c = § - i oJ Pi"3 C >- c > c _ c_ p ■S -' OS c — — — t- .S; £ .S; ° ' K c K c -- txuilci -< ■-) CD - .i - CS_C C8 c e •< || ] c "r ic"3 b — ■c — -5 c = r = 3 3 ^^ -^ c — 0 w 2 f c — 0 - o^co 0 3 E • r- '— a — ce > S"3£ > - > EXPOKTS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 681 1 O CC — C: cr r X — re a a re a t^ o a X LO I- a X re a a ^ : hpicj ri x a a — ce ce ~ a a 3 o 3 ■ - X a .; -^ ri 3 oc re l~ c XI 1 i^a uero coo Ol r — Q i- a ■* r- o - ei a ~. oott ce re a CM x — M X -"3« CO oc re 3 x 3 --C o & re a ao o rr q 3 ^h CM *3« a — 2S Ol '- a a x i^ o ei CM — CM CM > , eor* cocooa n re io • i ■ 3 O0 ce • O) cm — o — 3 t~- in -^ . re -^r X 00 • 00 C s ~ a 3 r- ei OCN • CM • «CM ce t-~ • CM X *C -r -^r . 3 •-T — • '-. t^a IO • IC ce >n • ~ CM r^ 3 : SiS : 1 CO ■ i o OC CM 3 T — r^ — -^ — i t -j; ^ -3 t^3 !O00 -a> • r- CO t^ t->-" ^ •w a «-e 3 cm a 7" ^ 3t»- ■f A — •-. 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"O B ; © r^ * : - . o . ■ J3 • r a <: : c. '- o ft X i 3 : 0 '• ; ° ! ® ; O ; • s • O < i J ii : "1® ■ u »z2 * ',J4 '• 3 Em < = 5^ : 1 5 ■ 3 - "3 5 o 5 _3 p c r*-r2 ■3 c 3 - r i > t 1 )l 3 ! Si : "3f .3 c - r; 1 C i : c o -tr : §^ = o _ J ° is a* 2 4s : ^5 I S"ft - i ii 50 P i|i i2 ft <; V- a u. - C 5 Pi 682 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT ICULTURE. - ; 3b ■ * •_■ — — J t; c r -=- -7 t- : r - ■ ^ - - ~ — - - - - - ' - - r- -r — •-- — 2 1 :. : — -'. S5* = — — — S. X S ■ i o I -" !> - — ;; - -- ~ :- r- - - ---- - = :- ' z -. z z z z — — — — — — : - - 3 a = EXPORTS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 683 tc cr: DO Cl" — BO re r- — re C: *-e t^ O — cf "*ci • Tl X M '- t- rr t- re — 5 k: X X* 30 rr. *-C re ci -j: r: — zrc ci h- co — "T l- -^ t~-cs 30 - 5 -.; — — — ei CO CO C OS ~- :: r. oa =: — r. x -.r; « x -: o r- o — o -^ t— "T* ^ ro •— < ■^ ~ — i- — CI : - : ■ ■* sa 'C — .c re t- c. uc t^-r — T Cl irr S3 oe ci rl NTN3 — i-e t -cr ~ — Cl Cl — DO — ^ ■-T." C K O - M N X X Ci ^r -^ ■o ce ie o> — — «3 s> <2 otf c c; j: :/ — CM * =C O -ci.- CJ ■ • — — re re ■ I ri I r~ ce ce t "^ rr. ci x ■--.— c i so" J 30 ■-I ^ Cl cjovj - - = :t > o o 2— - 2 I 2 1 -- a 3 3 "3 al - < "3 SI ta » « ,£ * 8 g ° »§ 1 3 8 = a • 0 a3 w -r •" - fs& o-? - « = _r_ - - — :jj Sort h rj 2 w o g c3 C 684 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. *- 2 t* r- — . II l> C t> ueoo W C ^ O -x 1 ce -its 00 o o © r^ oo - ©' r. > ■^ 00 o c OCOC !£ 1 ^ so 15 our ■« © o 3 co o >r OO > co o Cl re »e -r — © — t^ ■r 0 ie«MM ©IT -^ — C) CN CO ' +2 a CO X © T — r~cs "T © © C£ s t^ co« — ix — ■- - t ce o ~ -r OlOOH 0C -J — re Cl ?« CI wC © © 3 7 re -~ © Q •** CI © S I- © C «•« OC ce -v © OX -r X CO cr c '- ci e 3 -V — c •^ x © © CN t- C "3 .- ^~ ' o o C C5C tN "^ r~ xc — ^ © > €f t- 00 EC CO t> ■^ tN CO CN LO ! 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I- - t^ — "f 3 ' o3 g»rfg X X © © X j ^2~'1 c © o. x - c ri »o CI [- ■- B > ^* ^ M t^ re t^ ^c X 00 i-e ei a c-i z OC CM — ~ x ©i-e r»a IT re o X X ^H c o t^C-l 3 CN 00 — Mri^p r^ t) C o3 l> o oo re ce t~o - c CO© Cl t^.c C co S 3 « a '-. - s b- O — "^ a c= t^e o i-e t^ co ©c rr ■<»< o e e e ^HMSCOiH O t^» T o © T X t^c c CO Ti "3 - c ^ OO o r r^ © CO t~a CC i-l t^ > ■>3< OC ^n [^ c o •^ CJ re 3 oce^e-i t^ a a — ^_ L- 3 >> O CI N X t. •; 1^© — 3 ■^ rs c; t^ t~X CI C O s n e" ■■£ CC ie or — s LO © X CC © c««s © TCO -.z ce re NIT © w X o3 3 C ■c re re t^ © ce -*• 3 > K 1 ■«■ ,- ^ c^"-e- — « tt re c c X CI © Sg OC ce o .3 X e COfK 5 r^r~x a ci re cS c ^ cs * ■«» — X > ■h< t^ COrHUq 3 CO CO a 1 ** >> ^ re t- y. is ^r in "^* — ic4 o -r IN c; c-i re r~ tt r- X X o o ' C 03 »rr re oo r~- x'i ci r-co x X 2 re «^f~ l' CO CO X 1 o « ro-^ © t- 3 C4 o i-O tc -r 1 J J : :m: K 1^ V- H fc£3 f o d g ~ 0 ^i « © •o C 3 ffi . 0 3 ^ 3 a ■3 3 33 <7 5 ■3 — ■ 03 : to ■5" C 03 v~ =: cc "3 S : tb : E f 1 be S 3 a < 1 < a O T 1* o o e 03 m C — .5 -: c : 03 • o • i u c c .= CO "3 B n 03 CD •^ tj ■C 3 5^ a i P ) J 3 ■< a w -) pa ■< 03 *? O O = c3 03 03 e c c I S o c ^ c u r ■5.S S3 c c cc 3 3 "3 c 9 — s a "3 o 3 3 co 03 Q> ^■§) K 3 i-sCQ M off o m © — c 02 « ? SWtn 03 CO 63 C.iCS g 03 S H & O^1 ^ O ♦a 03 03 o £a £ o EXPORTS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 685 r- X ■— - "l "T- rr. r- •-. ■^ M X — ~r e> rr. 2 x x r~ r> — rr. : = MCfiC O 10 n — X 1C — ";rr:" x — . CN -g M Ifl VT -; £ x -i iz £ x~— ^e~ — = = c re ei cf x" r^ X — X t— t~ » »-e ~r x rr. MC--C- -; = — t ri x DO N _ x r -.r -c -; — X — - L- — f. ? l" — " ut* — — X — a ei ri :n II ■ m M — = re x ^ l> -r i-i iS ^x-t= X C: t 1 ti r. x --1C to 12 ? — -. N x t-- -.z o M — l- ■T 7»> C - -r — r CO oc e-i goto - M raef re r^ r^ X — ri O — ■ r - re — n i~ r~- •*: yz — ■ t-e ~ "^ X t-- x r~ c: — •c — 0<0 ^* — X iri r» * rc m c; t OS -^ — r^ -^ t^ r~ — r; ~ x ~ c - t£ 8- - ^ • c, - "3 c •c-c c c c c — BJ •_ - ■ x x c '.2.2 a g^2 - «s - §■2 O c a oo I = c c = ■- „ I CS = C =3 >.c c - 6S6 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. C X i- IG - ■ ■^ =c r. r- r- § p - - ce -e — K ^ X r^ X 30 — '" ~ si - ^ :- zz ZZ s o X re > - x *-e r- — O d ' cscc r-- X - X E c t~ — E •" re x — »e r^ EC 3C »o ce ei — S 7t-r :■ ~ i; ■« c - - ce = -• ee *o -^ —. : — X :: — i- ' - TT ^- ei ?t — ■x- — 3 ^ -e - PC 30 . x re : r — - - : x r. — i-e *-e ri -HtS. --. >• x ei r. c /. t - = _: -- : : - ■* '-r *-" :- Da W c — 9 c: - CT -,Z IG - - - ' ~ H - e s -^■•e t>- DC Z BC - —. S oc x c □a — x i-- - - c 1 M = t^-" K ; a - r- n — . ~, _ , - - e- II w — x e - <«< t^r^ te ■- U | x ~. r- 1- ic S -c X : - - — * -r ~ ~ noc _: — --. — c !>J c" - 1 r- -r — r~ * l^ - - t^ a -i ce £ If r;?:r. » e 9 « — X X ce x' ir. ■3 - -co" CI — X T _-] l~ :- t^ -r ce * = r- t- •«"•?: — -^r ih X y C 5^ C> r- ■ •^T > " CS rt 1 1-lH C - s X f-C^ •W - T = 1 r: r. ~- ~ x L- t l- •- ! r*r-T* — r- ■V >. 3a -r c- IC — l> t- -'- ce D ~ -e cc ! cc"ce ZZ J — s !-*r. — ' ep — v; 2 - ' ■r— "— ' — ccTa no - t- X r~ t^ b — c; - X c-»»- eo r ei y. -o □r i-~. J i2" g£ s s g s e - — T? | = 5 — rj N r- r: -^ _: c M BE x ■ - r- c i - [ — ct r — rt — *t 5 r e - 2 ce x e . ■ -^ (T>T,«5"^r - - CDC — — :r: y: o r* gl^S 5 ? ■ e - -re; -- — > ©^ -. " N T-1 — X •-: r -^Cv EC :- ' o - i — re 15 *r r^ c: c --. 1 a ■: ■- o*c «a : _"-;• r^ t^cr: r; fat — -- ■t*» O iC t^^- — - cc ^e — . i- -r r. :- re e ^ *a r-. -- ■ - — re re ^ S3 O X ^ GR — re n - t- *I* '"• v — - - - ~ r* R ~*r s. [~ r- — r cs t- 0 i> 5- — — l- — • ^r — •:xr:r z £ ■e a — ei r- r:rr CO • g s 5 * -r ~ ~ :^ s : .— a :* cs = e i >.- ^-i- c — r ci — fc-« ^ t- X — -r r 5 x c r — 5 t- c z. e X C CO ^ c ■- c - E ri re e ^ * x — 9 c: C .; :e •^ _ ■^J Uiif C-l ^ "i B CR ri — X — c N^- - I- ei _ 5 g CO u- II ,-~, x t x --; *«• >. re — g = X ■' 5'£i — — e; — /: :- TT - oc ^e — X K s ?. r K IE t- -r- iC — .- E> - S— L" »-* — SCTg ^<« -.r ^ r : — 1- E!i- tr- = a '- C c- i-e — H ! • ^ • • _: m e E c ||l llf a 1 7t 1 |iJc d c z = 5 •- * -- s T '= c i 3 — — ~ ■a ■J ( 3 3 o 1 cs 1 o — a = - v ]__ •- B C ■0 o 1 - |] - CO 2 2. 1 » > E- < 5 1. 1 — "r = - ; e -- _C © b S ) Lo — — - il y- *™ a ~ > 5 £ .i — — "3 o c- < s — = C — C i - rr • 2 < ~ ~ er ".= < nix o a > Bo QJ 5 > 7 z a - — - £ * '— er £5 §5 o O — J H^ EXPORTS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 687 O II to C^Tl < CC wir < 1 c i D c 1 ^ (33 CC co 000 tji || !OOION oc 22 3 l- nn iu W '- CM if > TJI O ^H O II ON CO -o CO 00 II 3 t- CO c 1 IT c c 03 OS 0C CO i-H W ir CM COCO C^ C 1 1 II 00 i- a 3 c£ co if 3 ^> 1 - e •no co •n co co CI O0 O TJ o 00 II in ii 3 i- Cl c i r~ t*- TJI r- Ol- -T c 3 NNIO^T c 1 r- CO n tx e CMl-T TJ o O CO o 3 I-H CO 1-1 0 Cl ,_*■ "■ ,- e ' coo c " r^C""" >o 5 1 m fflr 1 i-H i— ( C I c co cr. 3 CO CM 00 TJI Tl HO)!C ■J 3 i as l-c I CSC 1 CO t t^ CO c oco a ) IO.HCD c 5 1 -V in t> in if 3 a 1 WlOts c 5 Til oh a? if 3 o OtJio CO CO CM 1 TJI m mc CM t- 00 Cr- oo CM CO i-H THG0CJ3 ooooo tji ^t in c/ 5 CO D3.-I < oon« co'co TJI 3 a ) i- oc > oc ! >; ~_ « K OXr» scifl'a Cl c o CO fi ~ — ITI • c- 9 CI r^O coo o — c > i> m tv -, CM t l t: e c •n .-I oi 9 1 C3 00 CO c CO • 00 oo C o~a " ?j ir - ^~-s~* ! 00r-^O~ CC oifii-oc c o wc — IOC- 1 of c£ c l-cco CM COO Cf. 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(See sprouts. (Se ducts.) "5 p "5 c Eh ^4 o : a 7> o CO 03 i-> .. ft ? t-c •a 03 A'O 03 M « "3 ■*-> o tH c C «3 o O +^ a. 3=-; 3 CI c c E-> gppq e o f>i z 4- o 0 -2 o ^5 0 c Eh S « t- OhO i:ss2 C «PhO gooh \.S cj OS cS P a s^a z K o o 688 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. n : : - 1 r — c-- - - — "rf SG IC — ~ t' — — a x -. rac* I C= I— re l~ = « — ■-- x ■«■ «o X X — u- X l- * r* us G5 — .; x — x ~ O S — o r- zz I lrt 8"» — « — •-: c. x £ S3 5 ■ - ~ © S§ h T - -- - a u - - T d o - -: r !*=■§& EXPORTS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 689 ti- w 00 _4 1 f CM lO i> oo CO CO OSIO ■fli II ^ to OS 8*! CM o OS OS Ct t- --C i-H tO OS to CO CI to to OS CM OS t- ci c OS c ■V OS r^ t- oc. r- r- to CO CM O OS T c •o t-co CO CI >o -X' OCJ CO tc 00 H o •^ to CO OS TT 00 cm CO O0 oo o to 00 *^ 00 lOCM t- to i-H CI r- o 00 o co oo t- to C-1 X.. OS— i c- oc too t£ <■-. CM CO o c-i C3 CO 00 DC II — CO to lO CM X) o t-i t— t- OS to o to ION CI •*CM to CM 1 t- lO OS ~r r- cm c NOW o Cl »o CN 00 O-* C^l T(l— H CO OS o to os lO CO T r~ r- lo o (N CM t- OS t- CO OS ■o OS C-l 00 CO 00 ~i vcio to IN cfoT oT IN n o CO CO o os OC t- OS 1 t- os to c-> 00 o o O0CM o lis S 2 OS H lO t- to CO 5 8 •* E CM CO w r- OS CI 00 c: t- OS X! - >OCM 00 OS OS CI o ot- c- 00 i-l CI CO OS t- lO to to ■* to c; ooso oc OS e r- ^ CO CO T ■n* T lO g coo m OS 00 CM o ■ — •H CI o o O o t- t- ^r- tOrH X t— C) t- to Bos U3 i-M OS OS CO Os" CM OS* CI -1" *-< i :'~ to" cm" to o O OS to" c "3 c to "3i-i' os" CM CM """■ c to" to" to to o- IN a o" ■a 00 t-o t- COCO _, W5 -^ CM rt j o t- to CO CMO rc >o OS lij «o HN 00 oo r-o to ^J« CO T X c>toS oo**'* **r ci" rtO oocc r- tr"r oc c- CO i-iro T COU0 OS CM--H-* oc lO >e icTto p4 o CO CO 1 lO t- CM be COO CO IC* CO CJ Osr- to 1 CM >C CO OS t- ■* CO X rr CO to 3 r- CI CO CO »o a- t- t- r- T 0C U0 >o>o o c C- -w C- CM CO CO CS It? t- i-H IO I- to tc CO o- 00 t- oo -h m to Ol CM -^i ^jS -r rHCSli; w ^ o»o '■-. X TO 1- 5 r-lC cor- o oomc ■* os"-< c to"t-" ^~ cfo CO CO ^^ OS oo X CO--J-T C) HOC CI o c C 1 LO ^ CO i Os>0 -r « 1-H "0 •c IOOC -* CM-— c t> TP o to CI t- CO 00 -h C K ■ Jc ^r uo S VrtiC --H GC t- X uo e> -5 8 § CO or- OC OC »- on c. coo": 5- to t- ec , c t- -» SO -a« CM to DC HN CO tot--* r- ot- to to oc 5 OS OC to ti- d CO Hff s >> cn HON c CO ~* to d cs OS cm CO fi- 1 00 C) ^ tOHlC « io to c-s ir CM CM c IM to CM I- CM CS lO o" •o o to c |>T "3 to to o 00 oc CM OiO lO •-H -H T to »o co '- o to to 00 CO oc o- TO ■*T t- 5 CO ■"TIOT •«■ to oTco CM Os"t-" t-' •* CO OC to Iff HO.— r- to CO C CJHC OS CO(N IC CO to o COrH IC 73 as 3 *M o o '""I'*-. 0 botuO to 3 C o'» d 3 h Cos o^ "SSa +i a o " C v 03 .5 E- EH "3 BO«-cJt c ft5c EH f- S d bo "3 bo c-J ^ cS 3 ©d 6 o -^ c +j a +ss — 0.-6.B o c oo 03p-5cQ E-i eg * m EH Eh tH EH to •£fn £ bo£-s ^2 00 E- o as > > ?> a 1906- -44 690 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. LEGAL WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL. [From Bureau of Standards, Department of Commerce and Labor.] Legal weights {in pounds) per bushel. Apples. - * Beans. 3 ft -f z. a ■ X X = — - - ft 9 - ft . -r B c X £ z ■- B r c - ft - ■- & - - ft X "5 - — _ ■a - a — - > 3 Com. '-- B a — a _ 5 — ■ B o i State or Terr.tory. * r. - - ft < 00 - ft - - •3 9 * m % ■~ ft i . E — — - -_ = "x ■ T. O = O 4 ft a -_ i s : ■- •:- a c ft ■- I 50 — -i -■ £ - — - Z ft = - c U.S 650 24 « i 4.5 i55 48 "60 50 42 80 48 Ala 70 96 .54 52 56 4fi 48 Ariz Ark 14 20 .... 50 60 80 .... 70 '*" Cal 50 40 Colo 60 14 20 Conn ..... c60 80 i ' -56 56 56 56 56 (56 56 56 56 '56 56 56 56 56 50 56 ' 56 56 56 56 ' 56 56 " 5 . .. 44 4^ .... 4> .... 50 .... 50 .... 50 .... SO .... .50 .... .50 .... .50 .... SO.. Del Fla 648 44 4S 18 650 45 24 24 2.5 24 24 34 25 22 - - 24 24 48 <*60 47 «60 48 20 /20 :::::::::: 70 70 Ga 14 .... 52 60 80 .... 48 4- 48 48 48 48 1 48 48 52 50 52 50 56 60 60 GO 60 60 Ill Ind '60 60 60 60 «60 46 46 *45 14 14 14 14 " SO .... so .... 90 38 SO .... 70 ■ 70 70 ;70 Iowa Kans Ky La 20 20 20 30 Me 60 60 48 48 48 50 48 52 a 50 50 45 50 Mass 48 *60 48 CO 20 60 60 60 CO 60 60 60 SO ... SO .... 70 SO .... 72 SO .... 70 76 .... 70 SO .... 70 Mich 46 46 46 46 .50 i 14 14 14 14 14 Minn Miss Mo Mont 48 48 48 48 60 «60 n»60 60 «60 62 60 60 20 20 20 20 57 N.II N.J 50 48 25 48 48 48 46 47 48 20 50 ... . 4- •- SO" 'so' 04 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 80 .... 70 »S0 4 SO .... 70 i 80 40 70 N. Y so x. «■ 50 42 50 48 48 N. Dak.... 50 50 24 60 60 60 i ..... - 30 Ohio Okla " 30 Oreg 40 -■ Pa.. SO 48 R. I 48 25 60 B. C S. Dak.... 6.50 45 46 21 28 28 28 25 25 48 - 60 P60 «60 -: .- 14 20 20 20 30 42 - - "so" so' "so" 60 v60 60 60 60 CO 60 60 SO ... SO 40 70 80 .... 70 80 .... SO 56 56 56 - 56 56 Term Tex .... 50 48 Vt - Ya 48 48 48 «60 50 Wash 645 .... - '- 50 W.Ya 60 60 20 Wis .50 SO .... * Not defined. a Small white beans, 60 pounds. 6 Green apples. c Sugar beets and mangel-wurzel s. <* Shelled beans, 60 pounds; velvet beans, 78 pounds. « White beans. / Wheat bran. 9 Corn in ear. 70 pounds until Dec. 1 next after growth; 68 pounds thereafter. A English blue-grass seed, 22 pounds; native blue-grass seed, 14 pounds. ' Rice corn. /Corn in ear from Nov. 1 to May 1 following, 70 pounds; 68 pounds from Mav 1 to Nov. 1. * Soy beans, 58 pounds. ' Cracked corn. 50 pounds. "» Green unshelled beans, 30 pounds. " Cannel coal, 70 pounds. o Standard weight in borough of Greensburg. 75 pounds. p Dried beans; green unshelled beans, 30 pounds. ? Red and white. LEGAL WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL. Legal weights («w pounds) per bushel — Continued. 691 seed. x - jj = - - J — - X = - x - - — i - X : : - 1 i — _ — ' - 1 Z m X — •— — - - m T. - M I J z 32 32 - - 32 - - 36 2 32 ;: .2 3-2 . 32 32 - 32 32 - - - 30 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 n X r- — - t 1 ■_ = X 0 - a - d — Peaches. X z — o - ■d - o •-- a : I a * X - 1 - i = -= I r. s„. - " Ala 3S 33 Ark 33i 56 SO 57 52 57 33 33 44 .... . 30 32 30 44 -:■: .... ho 45 45 33 33 Fla 50 33 Go. 56 .... 8 44 T<1sthr> .. ■:•■ :■ _• Ill 8 44 44 57 33 Ind 33 50 14 .33 - 00 33 .V. 40 68 8 11 44 .... 50 50 44 .... 50 50 44 .... 50 50 .... 43 57 - 33 33 57 •- Kv 56 14 39 Ma 52 45 Ml '46' 55 56 45 50 50 54 33 -■ 28 33 33 44 14 14 36 .... .... 06 56 56 56 • 50 W -:■ .52 32 33 .... 44 44 44 .... 50 50 .... 148 50 50 57 57 Mo d->S 14 36 44 .... 50 a 57 57 25 N .... > 44 .... 50 50 - S:3 X. H X.J 30 44 55 .... 55 •55 56 ....56 33 33 X. Y 1 X. C X. Dak.... 50 .50 52 55 \ 44 50 48 33 Okla 50 50 R. I 30 44 -A .... 50 50 33 8.C S. Dak .56 - - 32 32 30 32 32 32 52 56 Tc.nn -- 32 56 56 8 .... 4S 50 .... i 45 18 50 «28 14 33 50 ;'50 50 -- Tex 57 .52 •37 Yt Va 32 56 S : .... B 44 . 14 34 28 33 33 W.Va .... Wis 30 44 8 44 a 50 44 * Xot denned. a Green. b Unwashed plastering hair, S pounds; washed plastering hair, 4 pounds. <• Bottom onion sets. <*Top onion sets. « Button onion sets, 32 pounds. ; iiatured. 692 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Legal weights (in pounds) per bushel — Continued. 3 a ca Pn # w n o3 3 Ph Pease. o 03 O Pi a> o 03 O ft 03 is CO •6 ft o •a a ■s. o 03 bo 03 S3 3 "3 1 a c GO •6 5 a> 6 I o CO O E o En •6 Q >> XI o e Eh ft B s Eh State or Territory. o3 * si 0 Pi o3 U. S. GO 60 56 60 Ala 60 60 55 56 56 56 54 56 56 55 60 60 Ark 60 60 50 14 50 60 57 60 Cal 60 Colo 60 60 60 45 50 60 60 54 45 60 50 20 60 D C Del 60 Fla. . . 60 60 60 55 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 50 56 54 55 60 Ga .. (50 43 45 60 22 60 a 45 i 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 Ill 50 55 46 50 55 45 45 45 45 45 55 55 55 60 60 Ind.... 60 i>30 56 60 60 Kv... 60 60 La.;; i . 60 Me 1 60 60 56 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 50 50 60 Md . 60 60 60 60 60 <-60 60 60 00 60 60 60 60 60 60 54 56 55 60 56 14 14 45 50 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 20 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 58 55 42 50 55 60 Mich 60 Minn 52 57 42 42 45 60 60 Mo 48 45 56 14 50 60 60 50 30 60 N. H . . .50 60 N. J... i 54 54 60 N. Y 45 44 50 20 45 60 N. C. 22 60 N. Dak... 60 60 60 60 56 60 60 60 60 60 56 60 60 60 46 50 46 45 45 42 60 60 60 60 Ohio 56 60 Okla... .. 60 45 60 Pa... 60 R. I i c60 60 60 54 46 50 55 50 20 56 45 42 45 45 45 45 50 60 50 55 60 55 60 S. Dak . 60 Tenn 23 d 56 30 1 14 50 56 55 60 Tex 60 Vt i 60 60 «60 Va. 22 56 12 60 Wash [a 45 60 W. Va... . 45 45 42 60 Wis I ! 60 54 45 56 50 20 60 1 1 *Not defined. a Green. b Sorghum saccharatum seed. « Including split peas. <* Dried pears, 26 pounds. « India wheat, 46 pounds. LEGAL WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL. 693 Commodities for which legal weights per bushel have been fixed in but one or two States. [From Bureau of Standards, Department of Commerce and Labor.] States. Apple seeds Beggar-weed seed Blackberries Blueberries Bromus inermis Cabbage Canary seed Cantaloupe melon Cement Cherries Chestnuts Chufa Cotton seed, staple Cucumbers Currants Feed G rapes Goavas Hickory nuts Hominy Horse-radish Italian rye-grass seed. . . . Johnson grass Kafir corn Kale Land plaster Middlings, fine Millet, Japanese barnyard Mustard Plums Plums, dried Pop corn Prunes, dried Quinces Rape seed Raspberries Rhubarb Sage Salads Sand Spelt or spiltz Spinach Strawberries Sugar-cane seed Velvet-grass seed Walnuts Pounds. 40 62 32 42 14 50 60 50 80 40 50 54 42 48 40 50 40 54 .50 60 50 20 28 56 30 100 40 35 30 40 28 70 28 48 50 32 50 4 30 130 40 30 32 57 7 50 Rhode Island and Tennessee. Florida. Iowa. Tennessee, 48 pounds; dried, 28 pounds. Minnesota. North Dakota. Tennessee. Do. Do. Do. Iowa. Tennessee, with steins, 56 pounds; with- out stems, 64 pounds. Tennessee. Virginia, 57 pounds. Florida. South Carolina. Missouri and Tennessee. Wisconsin, 50 pounds. Iowa and Minnesota. Massachusetts. Iowa. Tennessee, with stems, 48 pounds; with- out stems, 60 pounds. Florida. Tennessee. Ohio. Tennessee, 62 pounds. Tennessee. Do. Arkansas. Kansas. Tennessee. Do. Indiana; coarse, 30 pounds. Massachusetts. Tennessee. Florida. Tennessee, 64 pounds. Michigan. Indiana and Tennessee. Ohio, in the ear, 42 pounds. Idaho; -green, 45 pounds. Florida, Iowa, and Tennessee. Wisconsin. Kansas. Tennessee, 48 pounds. Tennessee. Do. Do. Iowa. North Dakota. South Dakota, 45 pounds. Tennessee. Iowa. Tennessee, 48 pounds. New Jersey. Tennessee. Do. INDEX. Page. Accounts Division, organization and work 45i3 Acorn , food use, note 306 Arrr'brfa caudata, usefulness against scale insects 191 Adams Act, aid of experiment stations, remarks 102 Henry Cullen. importance of work for agriculture 102, 103 Agricultural associations, officers 4t>4_46S, 470-472 colleges and schools, discussion 104-105 list with presidents, etc 4.39-460, 464 education, consideration by Massachusetts commission 153-154 experiment stations, directors, work, etc 461-463, 464 products, statistics, imports and exports, 1902-1906... 671 school-, organization 160-161 Agriculture, Assistant Secretary, duties 453 Department, appropriations, 1905, 1906, an< I 1907 43S cooperation with Post-Office Department in road building 117 expenditures and employees US grounds, note 57 new building 119-120 organization 453-4.37 education, legislation, and formulation of courses 155-158 elementary, consideration by National Educational Association. 155 introduction into schools, article by A. 0. True... 151-164 production, review 10-23 Secretary, duties 453 recommendations 34. 93, 94, 96, 98, V9, 104, 105, 106, 107, 110, 120 report 9-120 State officials, list 465 teaching, State conferences 154-155 . reseeding on range 231 Alabama, alfalfa growing, note 55 dairy industry 4P3 objeetdesson road 149 tobacco investigations 7-. Alaska, experiment stations, remarks 106 game protection 94 Alcohol, denatured, investigation, remarks 69 Alfalfa, diseases. 1906 ".._" 506 growing in Alabama and Mississippi 55 use on ranges 234 Alfalfas, new. remarks of Secretary 39 Alkali lands, drainage, remarks 112 reclamation, discussion 75-78 resistant crops Alley pecan, origin, description, etc 366 Almonds, green, use as food Ampelis cedrorum, usefulness against scale insects 197 Andrews, Frank, article on ••Freight costs and market values" 371-386 Animal breeding and feeding experiments, 1906 497 Industry Bureau, distribution of tuberculin and mallein, article by M. Dorset 347-354 organization and work 454 work, review bv Secretary 25-38 matter, imports, 1902-1906 ." '. 670-672 nutrition, experiments 35 parasites, damages, 1906 516 products, farm, statistics, prices, etc 637-647, 654-664 Animal-, diseases, spread by insects, etc 87. 496 domestic, pedigree registration 497 See also Farm animals. 695 696 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Page. Anthonomus grand**. See Boll weevil, cotton 508 Ants, use against boll weevil 84, 318-322 Aphides, eggs, destruction by lime-sulphur wash 446 Apple, bitter rot, Ozark Mountain region 41 diseases, 1906 499 insect injuries, 1906 512 juice, unfermented, carbonation and sterilization 242-243 clarification 239-242 packages for keeping 244-246 preparation, article by H. C. Gore 239-246 new varieties, descriptions, nomenclature, etc 355-360 Apples, statistics, export*, 1902-1906 685 Appointment clerk, duties 453 Appropriations, Agriculture Department, 1905, 1906, and 1907 458 Apricot, diseases, 1906 500 scale, destruction by grosbeak 192 Arid regions, cloud-bursts 327 Arizona, alkali lands, reclamation 77 Arkansas, dairy industry 420 Arlington Experimental Farm, remarks 58 Army worm, damage, 1906 „ 510 Asparagus, diseases. 1906 502 Asp idiotus forbesii, control, note 446 pernicioms. See San Jose scale. rapax, destruction by birds 194 zonatus, destruction by birds 192 A sses, statistics, numbers 635-637 Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, duties 453 Asterolecaniuiii Dariolosum, destruction by birds 191 Atmosphere, upper, study 121-123 Austria-Hungary, restriction of American meat imports 251 Avocado, diseases, 1906 502 new variety, origin, description, etc 363-365 resistance of cold 364 A zotobacter, relation to nitrogen fixation 131 Bacillus, spp. , relation to soil nitrification 128, 129, 130 Bacon, exports, 1 902-1906 682 prohibitions, foreign, against imports 249-251 Bacteria, nitrogen-fixing, distribution 54 two classes 130 relation to nitrogen supply for soil 126 root-nodule, nitrogen fixation 132-135 varieties and efficiency » 133 soil, chemical functions 128 conditions for growth 127 fixation of atmospheric nitrogen 130-132 B.rolophus, spp. , u.-efulness against scale insects 194, 197 Balloon, rubber, use in atmosphere study 122 Bananas, imports, 1902-1906 " 675 Banner grape, origin, description, etc 361-362 Bark-louse, oyster-shell, destruction by birds 196 Barley, beardless, forage use ." 234 diseases, 1906 505 exports, 1902-1906 685 production, note 12 statistics, acreage, production, prices, supplies, etc 56S-575 winter, introduction and growing 43 Bean, diseases, 1906 502 Beans, insect injuries, 1906 510 statistics, prices 629 Bee culture, study 88 Keepers, National Association, officers 470 Beef, exports, 1902-1906 682 growth 248 prohibitions, foreign, against imports 251 index. 697 Page. Beet, harvesting and harvesters 277 insect injuries, 1906 510, 511, 512 seed, single-germ, production 275 sugar, hoeing and thinning 266, 275 improvement 266-268 transportation 277 weeding 277 work, review by Secretary 47—48 Beet-sugar. See Sugar, beet. Beetle, pine bark, study - - 86 Beetles, damage to forests, 1906 515 Beets, growing, cost 268-278 siloing 278 sugar, labor in production 269-274 rotation with other crops, notes 269 topping, method of Belgians 273 yield per acre, means of increase 266 Belgium, imports of meat animals, regulation 252 Berry insects, investigation 88 James, review of weather conditions, crop season, 1906 473^191 Big game refuges, remarks 94 Biological Survey, Bureau, organization and work 456 work, review by Secretary 88-95 Bird reservations, remarks 93 Birds, African, imports and prices 178 Australian, imports and prices 178 boll- weevil destruction 91 cage, traffic in United States, article by Henry Oldys 165-180 captive, breeding 1 79 methods of procuring and shipping 169-171 domestic, for cage use, traffic 166-168 European, imports and prices 176 foreign, traffic 168 importation, notes , 92 number imported 168 Xorth American, destruction of scale insects 192-198 oriental, imports and prices 176-177 protection, 1906 533-540 protection societies, officials 472 raising for market, American opportunity 180 retail trade, remarks 171 scale eating, summary of facts 198 shore, distribution and migration 89 song, breeding 179 protective laws, remarks 167 South America, Mexico, and Cuba, imports and prices 179 species imported 171-179 usefulness against scale insects, article by W. L. McAfee 189-198 Biscayne pineapple, origin, description, etc 345-346 Bitter rot, apple, Ozark Mountain region 41 Blackberry, diseases, 1906 501 Blackleg vaccine, distribution, notes 33, 496 Blixsus leucopterus, damage, 1906 509 Bluebird, Western, usefulness against scale insects 194 Boll weevil, climatic conditions as factor in control 317-322 cotton, control 56-57, 324 effect of late planting of cotton 323 Entomology Bureau work 81-83 destruction by birds 91 hibernation, details of observations 316 parasites, remarks 82 recent studies, article by W. D. Hunter 313-324 status in 1906 313-315 damage, 1906, record 508 Boll worm, cotton, study 83 Bonsteel, J. A., article on "The use of soil surveys " 181-188 Books, text, agricultural, preparation 158 693 YEAEBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Page. Brazil nut, "butter nut," description 298 Bread, nutrition studies 107 Breeders' Association, American, officials 472 Breeders, stock, associations and officers 466-468 Breeding, animal, experiments, 1906 497 corn, changes in composition of kernel 285-288 work at experiment stations, article by J. I. Schulte 279-294 development of new crops 50-52 experiments, necessity 397-399 horse, investigations 34 live stock, pedigree associations, etc 34 plat, development 288-289 poultry, remarks — 35 tobacco, methods 399-401 necessity of experiments 397-399 production of new tobacco varieties 387-404 remarks 52 success, illustration 398 Brewer Hybrid tobacco, origin, description, etc 393-395 Bright tobacco, Virginia, experiments 80 Broadleaf tobacco, use in breeding 388, 393, 400 Brome grass, use on western ranges 232-234 Brom us biennis, use on western ranges 232-L'34 Brown-tail moth. (See Moth.) Buckeye, food use, note 306 Buckwheat, statistics, acreage, production, prices, supplies, etc 582-584 exports, 1902-1906 685 Buffaloes, statistics, numbers 635-637 Bulbul, remarks 177 Bureau, Animal Industry, etc. (See Animal Industry, Biological Survey, Chemistry, Entomology, Plant Industry, Soils, Statistics, Weather.) Bushel, legal weights, table by States and commodities 690-693 Bush-tit, remarks 195 Butter, farm dairv, remarks 407 industry, North Central States 414-416 investigate ins, remarks of Secretary 36, 38 New England, industry 410 nut, manufacture 305 preservation from mold, use of paraffin 498 prices, remarks and statistics 416, 654 production at Los Angeles, Gal., note 427 statistics, exports and imports of world, etc 646, 654, 670, 681 Butters, nut, discussion 304 Cabbage, diseases, 1906 502 insect injuries, 1906 511 Cacao, production and consumption 622-623 Cactus, feeding experiments 56 California, agricultural education, consideration 154 investigations 44, 76, 91 dairying 426-428 forestry..... 529 fruit marketing, remarks 48 nutrition experiments 107, 108 ranges, reseeding in Sierra Nevadas 232 Camels, statistics, numbers. 635-637 Camphor, growing of trees and production of drug in Florida 54 Canaries, breeding 166,173 kinds, singing, prices, historic notes, etc 172-174 shipment 170 test of singing 173 traffic in United States 165 Canarium sp. nut, use 297 Candies, nut, discussion 307 Cantaloupe, diseases, 1906 503 Cardinal birds, captive, traffic 166, 167 redbird, usefulness against scale insects 192 INDEX. 699 Cashew nut, remarks 298 Cattle, Alaska experiment 106 breeders" associations 466 diseases, seientihe investigation 32 exports, growth 248 feed, chemical study 71 foreign, contagion, protective law 466 mange, control 28 open market in Great Britain prohibitions, foreign, against imports 251 raising on western plains, problems 228 range, improvement of grade a necessity 235-237 ranges. "Western United State*, overcrowded condition 225 statistics, imports, exports, 1902-1906 670, 681 numbers and prices 632-635, 651-653 tick, eradication 495 relation to dairy industry, notes 418 Texas, study 87 trade, increase in prices 492 tuberculosis certificates. State laws, note 352 diagnosis with tuberculin 343 investigation, 1906 496 Cauliflower, diseases. 1906 503 Caustic-soda wash, self-boiled 445 Celery, diseases, 1906 503 Cereal foods, nutrition studies 107, 108 investigations, chemical 69 Cereals, diseases, 1906 505-506 influences affecting quality and quantity insects injurious, 19U6 509-510 production, note 1 1-13 Certhia famHiark amerioana, usefulness against i-eale insects 197 Chamxa fasciata, usefulness against scale inseete 194 Chappelow avocado, origin, description, etc 363-365 Cheese, farm-made, remarks 407 industry, Xorth Central States 416-417 investigations, remarks of Secretary 36 nutrition studies 108 statistics, exports and imports of world 647, 670, 681 prices, wholesale 655 Chemistry Bureau, organization and work 455 work, review by Secretary _ 69-72 considerations in lime-sulphur wash 437-438 Cherry, diseases, 1906 500 Che.-ter. F. D. , soil bacteria study, table 128 Chestnut, water, description 297 Chestnuts, cooked, digestibility 302 Chickadee, usefulness against scale insects 194, 197 Chief clerk. Agriculture Department, duties 453 Chinch bug. damage, 1906 509 ispin furfura, control, note 446 Cholera, hog, investigation, 1906 496 Chufa, nut, description 297 Cider, swee t, prevention of fermentation 239-246 See also Apple juice. Citrange, new varieties, discussion 50, 329-336 propagation, suggestions 330 Citrus fruit, experiments 49, 50 diseases, 1906 insects injurious 513 productions, new, Department of Agriculture, article by Herbert J. Webber * 329-346 Civil-service system, application fa i game-warden service 219 Climate, effect on composition of durum wheat, article by J. A. Le Clere. . . 199-212 Climatic conditions, relation to cotton boll weevil control 317-322 Cloud-bursts, so-called, article bv Edward L. Wells 325-328 Clover, diseases, 1906 506 7 yEABBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTTBE. Page. Clover, nitrogen fixation, remarks 133 seed, statistics, prices 630-631 Coal tar, use on roads 114 Cockateels. remarks 17*5 Cocoa. " sti s, imports. 1902-1906 Coffee, Porto Rico experiments, not«r statistics, exports and impor:- 624, nse of nuts, note 308 Cold waves, 1906, remarks Colleges, agricultural, discussion I 4-106 list, with presiden> el 459-460, 464 Colman citrange, origin, description, ns-r. el 331-333 Columbia University, nutrition studies 109 Concrete, uses, remarks 116 Confections, use of nuts Congressional publications, printing regulation changes Connecticut, forestry and forest reservations 529. 530 nutrition studies 1 07, 108 tobacco, shade grown, experiment- Valley tobacco, use in producing new tobacco varieti-r- 287 wrapper tobaccos, improvement Contagious diseases, control - - COS Cookery, use of nuts 304 Cooley Hybrid tobacco, origin, description, etc >- 7 Copper sulphate, use in water purification 55 Coquina pineapple, origin, description, eta 341-342 Corn belt, drought, 1906 breeders, associations, remarks 293 breeding at experiment - - .rticle by J. I. Schulte 27 204 changes in composition of kernel 285-288 meal, exports, 10^1006 686 mixing, observations new varieties, remarks 52 results of crossing, detail- 21 .-4 review of work 282-288 selection as factor 280-202 diseases, 1906 505 forage usr _ - insect injuries. 1906 r- nutrition studies 107 production, note seed, better grades 47 statistics, acreage, production, prices, supplies, etc "42-549 - Kansas Citv and Omaha, to seaboard 667 j orts, 1902-1906 freight rates, Chicago-Xew York ocean 665 - igar content, study 69 Cotton belt, diversified farming heavy rains, 1906 479 boll weeviL Set Boll weevil, cotton. compressed, rail rates, Cincinnati-New York 666 diseases, 1906 506 exports, remarks 14 freight costs, relation to wheat freights 71 rates '. insects injurious, 1906 508—510 other than boll weevil and boll worm, remar -:- 83 5., article on " Range management " 225-238 late planting, relation to boll-weevil control new early variety, remarks 51 prices at four parte 374 action, note 12 stalks, fall destruction, importance in boll-weevil control "istics, acreage, production, prices, supplies, etc exports; 1902-1906 freight rates, ocean r»65 INDEX. 701 Page. Cotton values in England 375 volunteer plants, relation to boll-weevil control 324 wilt-resistant varieties 42 Cotton-seed products, feed for hogs 35 Cottonwood lumber, prices, rise, 1894-1906 526, 527 Cottony maple scale, destruction by birds 195 Cowpea, diseases, 1906 506 Cows, dairv, North Central States 413 statistics, numbers, etc 632-637, 651-653 Craft, Qiincy E., review of progress in forestry, 1906 525-533 Cranberry, diseases, 1906 501 Cream nut, South African, note , 298 separator, use in clarification of apple juice 240-242 Creeper, tree, usefulness against scale insects 191, 197 Crop reporting, Statistics Bureau work 99 season, 1906, weather conditions, article by James Berry 473-491 zones, study, remarks 88 Crops, adaptation to soils 184-185 alkali and drought resistant 52 damage by scale insects 189 principal, statistics 542-631 Cross-fertilization, tobacco, relation to preservation of type 403, 404 Cross-pollination, use in corn breeding 282-285 Cuban tobacco, Hazlewood, new variety, origin, description, etc 392-393 use in producing new tobacco varieties 287 Cucumbers, diseases, 1906 503 Curculio, plum, study 86 Currant, diseases, 1906 501 Currants, statistics, imports, 1902-1906 675 Curtis pecan, origin, description, etc 368 Cutworm, damage, 1906 510,511,512 Cyanic acid, flavor in nuts 298 Cyanocitta cristatu, usefulness against scale insects 197 Dade pineapple, origin, description, etc 340-341 Dairy associations, national, list 465 cattle, improvement 406 cows, North Central States 413 industry, discussion 36-38 extent on Pacific coast 422-423 New England, importance 410 review, 1906 498 southern conditions 420-422 products, chemical examination 69 imports and exports, 1902-1906 670, 681 improvement 406-407 Pacific coast movements 423 statistics, cows, products, etc 632-635, 646-647, 651-652, 654-655, 670, 681 Dairying, New England, advantages and disadvantages 408-409 opportunities, articles by Win. Hart Dexter, George M. Whitaker, B. D. White, B. H. Rawl, and E. A. McDonald 405-428 Pacific coast 422-428 profits \ 407 southern, difficulties, etc 417-422 Dairymen, New England, needs 410-411 Dakotas, winter forage, note 234 Date culture, California-Arizona 40 Davis, William Morris, remarks on cloud-bursts in arid regions 327 Deer, killing, 1906 537 Delaware, forestry 529 Deliciosa pineapple, origin, description, etc 338-340 Delmas pecan, origin, description, etc 369-370 Dendroir/i spp. , usefulness against scale insects 1 94 Dendrology, studies 68 Department of Agriculture. See Agriculture, Department. Dexter, Wji. Hart, article on "Opportunities in dairying — general" 405-408 Diaspis pentagona, control, note 446 702 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Diet, nuts 303-304 Dipping, sheep, increase in value of wool 495 Disbursements. See Accounts. Disease, spread by insects, remarks 87 Division, Accounts; Publications. See Accounts; Publications. Documents, Superintendent, sale of Department publications 97 Dorset, M., article on "Distribution of tuberculin and mallein by the Bureau of Animal Industry " 347-354 Drainage investigations, experiment station 111-112 Dressed meats. See Meats. Drought, danger in irrigated sections Ill resistant crops .• 52 seasons, 1906 481, 482, 483, 484, 485, 487 Drug inspection, 1906, review by H. W. Wiley - 520-521 plant investigations, remarks 54 Drugs, examination, for purity, remarks 70 Dry-land farming, remarks 46 Dryobaies, spp., usefulness against scale insects 194 Ducks, distribution and migration 89 wild, 1906 538 Durum wheat. See Wheat. Dust less roads, experiments, remarks 114 Early Wheeler peach, origin, description, etc 360 Eden pineapple, remarks 337, 338 Education, agricultural. See Agricultural and Agriculture. Educational institutions, demand for Department publications 98 Eggplant, diseases, 1906 503 Eggs, statistics, prices, imports and exports 664, 671, 681 Eldridge, M. O. , review of road laws passed in 1906 521-523 Electric methods, nitrogen fixation 136 ESeocharis tuberosa, nut, use 297 Elymus condensaius, reseeding on ranges 231 Engineers, road, demand, note 115 England, wheat supply, remote sources 385 Entomology Bureau, lime-sulphur wash, recommendation 437 organization and work 456 review of injurious insects, 1906 508-517 work, review by Secretary 81-88 EriopJu/es pyri, control, use of lime-sulphur wash 446 Euc dypts, planting, plan 528 Eulecanium spp. See Scale. Exhibitions, live stock, 1906 493 Experiment stations, agricultural, directors, work, etc 461-463, 464 classes of work 103 Federal, in Hawaii, Alaska, and Porto Pico 106-107 Office, organization and work 457 work, review 1 >y Secretary 102-] 12 Export animals, inspection, remarks 28 tobacco, experiments 80 Exports, agricultural, statistics, 1902-1906 681-689 American meat, growth 247-249 animal products 492 fruit, shipments 50 wheat, relation to farm values 382 Farm animal products, statistics, prices, etc 687-647, 864-684 animals, statistics, numbers, prices, etc 632-637, 848-653 January 1, 1907 492 hauling to market, cost 371,372, .".77 labor, sugar beet, cost and sources 269-274 management investigations, remarks 55-56 progress in 1906, review by W. J. Spillnian 524-525 production, future, discussion 18-21 products, exports and imports 13-15 values, wheat, relation to exports 382-384 Farmer, advance of welfare 21-23 INDEX. 7 OS Page. Farmers' Bulletins, distribution. 95 institute.-, officiate, list 464 statistics 541 work of Department 1 06 methods for aid to schools 102-164 organizations, interest in education 152 Farming, advantage of new forest-reserve management 60 capital, increase 15-16 dry-land, investigations 46 manuals of instruction 158 Farms, experim. ntal, use against boll weevil 81 object-lesson, remarks 56. 110 . 0. L.. Willis L. Moore, and W. J. Humphreys, article on "New problems of the weather" 121-124 Feed, hogs, use of cotton-seed products 35 winter, supply for range live stock 2:; Feeding, animal, experiments, 1906 497 stuffs, chemical investigations. 1906 521 Hawaiian, deficiency of lime 106 Fence posts, use of concrete, remarks 116 wire, deterioration, study 116 Fences, range, on western plains, remarks 22 Fermentation, tobacco, Ohio experiments 79 Fertilizer, potash, use of ground rock, note 116 Fertilizers, influence on composition of wheat 205 Fescue, fall, usefulness in reseeding western ranges 232 Fever, Texas, study of cattle tick 87, 495 Fiber plant, diseases, 1906 Field crop insects, study crops, diseases, 1 906 southern, insects injurious. 1906 508-509 Fires, forest, control, remarks 63, 527 danger and protection 451. 452 Flax, diseases, 1906 506 Flaxseed, production, note 13 statistics, acreage, production, prices, etc 611-61 Florida, dairy industry 418 object-lesson roads 148 Flour, baking tests 44 exports and imports 551-552, 576, 686 freight rates, Chicago to European ports 669 nut 306 Flower gardens, insects injurious, 1906 S16 Flowers, diseases, 1906 507 Fly, Hessian. See Hessian. house, spread of typhoid fever Food, ash constituents, studies 109 inspection and studies, Chemistry Bureau, discussion 71 . 72 progress in 1906. review by H. W. Wiley 520-521 use of nuts, article by ML E. Jaffa 295-312 Forage crops, diseases, 1906 506 insects injurious, 1906 1 09-5 1 0 green, use in New England dairying 4ns use of rye, wheat, barley, spelt, etc 234 Forbes. B. A., adoption of lime-sulphur washes 430 Forbush. E. X.. statement regarding nuthatch 197 Foreign markets, compilation of information 100 Forest extension, discussion 66-67 fires. See Fires. insects, damages - 85, 515 management, timber cutting on reserves 63-65 planting on reserves and elsewhere 8 products, exports and imports, 1902-1906 673-674, 684 foreign trade - __ 1 * insects injurious, 1906 SIS 704 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OE AGRICULTURE. Page. 1 rest products, utilization of wood t>8-69 range, improvement under fence 229 reservations, State, table with map 530 - . National, discussion 59-63 Service, organization and work 455 some plans 528-529 work, review by Secretary 59-69 studies, cooperative, note 65 tree-. - - 3,1906 507 Fore-try, associations and schools 469-470 progress, 1906, review by Quincy K. ( raft 525-533 State work, discussion 529 sts, National, and the Lumber supply, article by Thomas H. Sherrard.. 447-452 management .* 451-452. 525-526 sales of timber, effect on prices, etc 446, 449-451 Formulas, lime-sulphur wash, variations 434-437 France, imports of meat and meat animals, restrictions 252 - ' sts and market values, article by Frank Andrews 371-386 future changes 386 rates, comparison of ships with wagons 380 d 372, 384, 665 per ton per mile, 1875-1905 seaport from interior 373. 667 effect on boll weevil 322 Fr sts, spring, 1906 477 Fruit, marketing, transportation and storage, investigations 4 - new subtropical 40 nutrition studies, remarks 107, 108 orchards, California, bird injuries 91 s, insects injurious 86 Fruits, citrus, new. development 50 diseases, 1906 499-502 imports and exports 50. 675, 685 insect injuries. 1906 512-513 new, promising, article by William A. Taylor 355-370 nomenclature, with synonyms, remarks . * 355-357. 35S, 361, 362, 363, 364 Fungi, relation to nitrogen supply for soil 126 T ing 'us diseases, plant. 1906, notes 499-508 - - ach injuries, remarks 42 Gale pineapple, remarks 337 Galveston, freight rates on cotton 373 Game, census, Illinois 217 conditions, 19C G 537-538 interstate commerce 93 laws, administration and enforcement 218, 535-536 pre- r - - State and private 539-540 propagation 538 protection and introduction 92-94 officials, lists 471-472 organizations 536 1906, review by T. S. Palmer 53:>-540 reserves, parks, and refuges, national 94, 540 wardens, associations 220-222 early appointments and pay 214. 223 duties, powers, and dangers 21-5-219. 222 instructions in Michigan 218 of to-day. article by R. W. Williams, jr 213-224 requirements for fitness 220 special equipment in several States 219 Gardens, flower, insects injurious, 1906 516 1 field laboratories, remarks 58-59 vegetable, diseases of plants, 1906 502 insects injurious, 1906 510 Geologists, State, cooperation with Roads office, note 115 INDEX. 705' Page. Georgia, agricultural high schools 15fr dairy industry 418 pecan, origin, description, etc 369 Geoihlypis t. artzeia, usefulness against scale insects 194- Germany, imports of meat and meat animals, restrictions 253 Gingko nut, description 297 Ginseng, diseases. 1906 503 Gipsy, moth. See Moth. Glanders, diagnosis by use of mallein 350- Gnatcatcher, black-tailed, usefulness against scale insects 194 Goats, statistics, numbers 635-637 Gooseberry, diseases, 1906 501- Goke, H. 0., article on "The preparation of unfermented apple juice" 239-246 Grain, chemical analyses for feeding 44 grading, standardization 45 of corn. See Kernel. qualit v, factors of influence 200 statistics, exports and imports. 1902-1906 676, 6S5 freight rates, Chicago to European ports 669- Grains, overinigated, illustrations 211 Grange, National, officers 472 Grape. Banner, new variety, origin, description, etc 361-362 diseases, 1906 * 501 insect injuries, 1906 512, 513 Grass, Johnson, control 56- orchard, usefulness on western ranges 232 Para, usefulness, remarks 39- Grasses. management for improvement of public ranges 229-232 Grazing, advantages of new forest-reserve management 60-61 National Forest, remarks 525. 526 western plains, overgrazing 228 Great Britain, imports of meat and meat products, regulation 256 Greely, Gen. A. YV., remarks on cloud-bursts 326. 327 Greenhouses, insects injurious, 1906 516- Grosbeak, usefulness against scale insects 192, 194, 195 Grouse, condition, 1906 537 Guava, diseases, 1906 502: Gumming fungus, peach 12 Gums, imports, 1902-1906 674 Hsemanch us contortus, study 496 Hams, prohibitions, foreign, against imports 249-251 statistics, exports, 1902-1906 682 Harvest, sugar beet 276 time and manner, effect on composition of grain 208 Hauling, farm, to market 371, 372, 377, 382 Hawaii, experiment station, remarks 106- forestry and forest reservations 529, 530, 531 nutrition experiments 109 Hawthorne scale, destruction by sparrow 191 Hay, production, note 12 statistics, acreage, production, prices, supplies, etc 591-595 exports, 1902-1906 Hazelnuts, green, use as food 308 Hazlewood Cuban tobacco, origin, description, etc 392-393 Health certificates, live stock, presentation public, protection from tuberculosis, note 352 Heleodytes bru.nneicapiO.us, usefulness against scale insects 194 Heliothis obsaieta, study 83 HeJminthophUa c hiiescens, usefulness against scale insects 194 Hessian flv, damage, 1906 509 study 86 Hickory scale, destruction by grosbeak _ 192 Hides, statistics, exports and imports of world 640-645, 671. 681 Highway officials, State, list „ 471 3 A1906 15 706 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Page. Hog, breeding experiments, 1901 497 cholera, investigations 33, 496 product-, American, Swedish prohibition of imports 255 Hogs, breeders' associations 468 feed, use of cotton-seed products 35 prohibitions, foreign, against imports 249-255 statistics, numbers, etc 632-637, 662-663 tuberculosis 32 Hops, production, note 13 statistics, production, prices, etc 608-610 Horse-chestnut, food use, note 307 Horses, breeders' associations - 467 breeding investigations 34, 497 range, improvement of grade a necessitv 237 statistics, exports. 1902-1906 *. 681 imports, 1902-1906 670 numbers, prices, etc 632-635, 64S-650 Horticultural societies, national, officers 470-471 House fly, spread of typhoid fever ^7 portable, kind in use in sugar-beet work 273 Human disease spread by insects 87 nutrition, investigation 107-109 Humphreys, W. J., Willis L. Moore, and O. L. Fassig, article on "Ifew problems of the weather " 121-124 Hlxter, W. P., article on "Some recent studies of the Mexican cotton boll weevil " 313-324 Hunting, accidents 536 licenses, notes 216, 217 origin of system, fees 223 Hybrid, pomelo-tangerine, development as Thornton orange 336-337 Hybridization, tobacco 399 Hybrids, orange, trifoliate with sweet, development 329-336 tobacco, new varieties, origin, description, etc 387, 393-397 Hydrogen, use in atmosphere study 122 Ict&'us spp., usefulness against scale insect.- 194. 197 Illinois, agriculture course in schools 158 lime-sulphur wash, early use 430 nutrition studies 10S station, corn breeding 286, 288 Imported animals, inspection and quarantine 28 Imports, agricultural, statistics, 1902-1906 670-680 British, relation of ocean freight rates India rubber, statistics, exports and imports 627 Indiana, forestry and forest reservation 530. 531 Infectious diseases, importance of early diagnosis 347 Inoculation, soil, for introduction of nitrogen-fixing bacteria 134-136 Insecticides, scale insect work - 7 study 70 Insects, beneficial, introduction, etc berry, investigation 88 cotton, study. 81-83 disease-carrying, remarks 87 field crop, study 86. 515 forest, damage x-~-> fruit, tree, damage 86 injurious, iy06, review by Bureau of Entomology 608-517 scale, destruction by birds, article by W. L. McAtee 189-196 insecticide work 87 natural enemies 190-192 stored products --7 usefulness against boll weevil vegetable crop, remarks s7 Inspection, food, Chemistry Bureau, discussion 71 drug, etc", 1906, review by 11. \Y. Wiley 530-521 foreign, of meat animals, fees, etc 259 INDEX. 707 Page. Inspection, meat, 1906 493-495 Texas fever, 1906, results 31 Iowa, butter making, remarks 415 forestry 529, 532 road laws, 1906 521 station corn breeding 283 Irrigation, effect on durum wheat 203 wheat in dry regions 204 experiments, effect on wheat 211 investigations, experiment station 109-111 relation of precipitation 385-328 Italy, imports of meat and meat animals, restrictions 254 Jaffa. Iff. E., article on "Nuts and their uses as food " 295-312 Jay, 1 ilue, usefulness, note 197 California, usefulness against scale insects 194 Jensen pineapple, origin, description, etc 343-344 J ohnson grass, eradication, remarks 524 Joint worm, study 86 wheat, damage, 1906 509 Josephine persimmon, origin, description, etc 362-353 Juice, apple. See Apple juice. Jupiter pineapple, origin, description, etc 342-343 Kansas City, wheat rates and prices 378 forestry 531 station, corn breeding 282 wheat, exporting cost 383 Kelep, boll weevil enemy, uselessness in Texas 84 Kentucky, agricultural education, consideration 155 road laws, 1906 521 Kernel, corn, changes in composition by breeding 285-288 parts " 2sri Kinglet, usefulness against scale insects 197 Kite, use in atmosphere study 122 Labor, cost, reduction in sugar-beet growing 274-278 sources, etc. , in sugar-beet production 269-274 farm, 1906, remarks 525 sugar beet, sources of supply 270-274 Laboratories, plant industry, and testing gardens 58-59 Laboratory tests, tobacco 402 Ladybirds, new, importation from Europe s4 use in destruction of scale insects " 191 Land laws, relation to lumber industry 448 sugar beet, values 268 United States, proportion under cultivation 181 Lard, freight rates, ocean 665 statistics, exports, 1902-1906 6S2 growth 248 Law, transportation, for live stock, changes 493 Laws, agricultural education 155-157 forestry 532-533 game, legislation and court decisions, etc 533-536 new, Department work 9 road, 1906, review by M. O. Eldridge 521-523 State, tubercul< isis requirements, note Le Clekc. J. A., article on " The effect of climatic conditions on the com- position of durum wheat" 190-212 Lecanium scales, control, use of lime-sulphur wash 446 Legislation, agricultural education 155-157 game protection, 1906 533 meat inspection, discaesion 27-28 public range, attitude of stockmen 227 Legumes, nitrogen fixation, remarks 133 use in New England dairying 411 708 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tage. Lemons, statistic?, imports, 1002-1906 675 Lepidosaphes uhn i, control, note 446 Lettuce, diseases, 1906 503 Library, Department, work, review by Secretary 101-102 organization and work 457 Liehi nut, description 297 Licorice root, imports, 1902-1906 676 Life zones, study 88 Lime, composition, variations and their relation to lime-sulphur wash 431-432 Lime-grass, reseeding on ranges 231 Lime-sulphur wash, boiling, effect of different periods 43S chemical considerations 437-438 cooking, and cooking outfits 440-443 formulae, variations, and recommendation? 434-437 ingredients 431-434 preparation 438-443 time and outfit, for use on San Jose scale 443-445 usefulness 446 washes, field experiments and conclusions 435-437 San Jose scale, article by A. L. Quaintance 429-446 Liquid air, use in atmosphere study 123 Liquors, alcoholic, statistics, exports and imports, 1902-1906 677, 686 Little peach, control 41 Live stock associations, officers, etc 466-468 industry, 1906, review 492-498 interests, sanitary officers 468-469 pedigree associations 34-466 raising, area of range land necessary for success 235 range, improving grade, discussion 235-237 industry, future 238 ranges, overcrowded condition „■ 225 restrictions on imports by various countries 251-257 statistics, imports, 1902-1906 670 numbers and prices 632-637, 648-653 rail rates, Chicago-New York 665 transportation law, change 493 See also Stock. Locust, Rocky Mountain, damage, 1906 517 Louisiana crop pest commission, cooperation of Department S2 dairy industry 419 Lowe, V. H., statement regarding scale-eating birds 197 Lumber industry, advantage of new forest-reserve management 61 movement westward and southward 447, 526 relation of land laws 448 price, effect of government sales 451 prices, rise, 1S94-1906 526, 527 sales, government, extent and growth 450—151 statistics, imports, exports, 1902-1906 675, 684 supply and national forests, article by Thomas H. Sherrard 447-452 private forest lauds, remarks 526-527 Macaws, notes 176 Magnate apple, origin, description, etc 355-357 Magnetism, terrestrial, relation of sun 123 Mail routes, rural, improvement 149-150 Maine, forestry 531 nutrition experiments 107, 108 Maladie du coit, horse disease, eradication 29 Mallein, distribution by Bureau of Animal Industry, article by M. Dorset .. 347-354 manner 350-352 preparation, use, etc 349-350 Mammalogy, economic, study S9-92 Mango, diseases, 1906 502 fiberless, Florida ripening 40 Market, hauling from farm, cost 371, 372, 377 values, relation of freight costs, article by Frank Andrews 371-386 Marketing, fruit, remarks 48-50 nuts 311-312 INDEX. 709 Ta=-e. Markets, dairy, in New England 408-409 Maryland, forestry and forest reservations 530, 531. 532 smoking tobaccos, improvement 53 Massachusetts, agricultural education, commission study 153 forestry 531 Matthams pineapple, remarks 337, 338 Matting industry, encouragement 40 Maye&oUa destructor. ' See Hessian fly. McAtee. W. L., article on " Birds that eat scale insects" 189-198 McDonald, E. A., article on "Opportunities in Dairvine. on the Pacific coast " 422-428 Meal, nut 306 oil-cake, remarks 309 Meat. American, foreign restrictions, article by Frank R. Rutter 247-264 growth of exports 247-249 res trictions on imports by various countries 251-257 trade growth, prospects 264 animals, immediate slaughter requirements 258 imports, prohibitions and regulations 2^7-261 open market in Great Britain 256 inspection, 1906 493-195 discussion of changes, etc 25 increase of inspectors 9 supply, discussion by Secretary 16-18 Meats, dressed, rail rates. Chicago-New York 665 imports, regulations 260 treatv limitations 261-262 statistics, imports and exports 637-638, 672, 682 rail rates. Cincinnati-Xew York 666 Melanerpes f. bairdi, usefulness against scale insects 194 Melanoplus spretus, damage, 1906 517 Melon diseases, 1 906 504, 505 Melons, wilt-resistant, study 42 Melvix. A. D., review of live-stock industry 492 Meteorologic observations, upper atmosphere, recent developments 121-123 Mexican cotton boll weevil. See Boll weevil. Miami pineapple, remarks 337 Michigan, agricultural education, consideration 154 forestry and forest reservation 530. 531 game warden's instructions 218 Microscopic work, remarks 72 Migration, duck and shore birds, remarks 89 Milk, market, business outlook 411 industry, Xorth Central States 414 New England, industry 410 production and handling, remarks of Secretary 37 skim, value to farm in North Central States 414 Milking machines, use 498 Mill, Dr. Hugh Robert, remarks on cloud-bursts 326 Miller, Judge Samuel, discovers of new fruits 361, 362 Millet, diseases, 1906 ". 505 Mina. India, note 177 Mining, advantages of new forest-reserve management 60. 528 Minnesota, agriculture in schools 156. 1 -IS butter making, remarks 415 forestry and forest reservations 530, 531 nutrition experiments 107, 108 station, corn breeding 285, 290 Mississippi, alfalfa growing 55 dairy industry 419 River, freight route, factor in prices, note 379 Valley laboratory, remarks 58 Missouri, agricultural education, consideration 154 agriculture course in schools 157 Mocking birds, breeding in captivity 167 Mold, prevention in butter 498 710 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Page. Montana, alkali lands, reclamation 77 winter forage, note 234 Moore, "Willis L., W. J. Humphreys, and O. L. Fassig, article on "New problems of the weather" 121-124 Moose, killing, 1906 537 Morgan horse, preservation of breed, remarks 34 Morton citran^e, remarks , 330 Mosquito, yellow fever, study 87 Moth, brown-tail, parasites 83-84 gipsy, parasites 83-84 Moths, gipsy and brown-tail, damage, 1906 514 Mount Wt-ather research observaO >ry 121 Mountain areas, ranges, reseeding 231-232 Mules, exports, 1902-1906 681 statistics, numbers, etc 632-635,648-650 Mytilaspis jiuinorum, destruction by birds 191, 196, 197 Nebraska, forestry 529. 531 object-lesson road 149 Negro, education, proposed agricultural instruction 105 Nevada, springs as water supply 2 13 New England, dairying opportunities, article by George M. Whitaker 408-412 Hampshire, forestry 531 Jersey, forestry and forest reservations 52m. 530, 532 road laws, 1906 521 Orlean-, freight rate- on cotton, remarks 373 York, agricultural education, consideration 154 city, freight routes and rates for cotton 373 forestry and forest reservations 529, 530 State reserves and legislation 530, 531. 533 road laws, 1906 522 Newstead, E., observations on scale insect destruction by birds 191-192 Nighthawk, eating of boll weevil 91 Nightingale, notes 176, 177 Nitrate, production by use of electricity 136 relation to soil fertility, notes 127 Nitrogen, atmospheric, fixation by soil bacteria 130-132 content of corn kernels, changes by breeding 285-288 determination, durum wheat, remarks 200 fixation, electrical methods, discussion 136 pn 'blein. present status, article by A. F. Wt ods 125-1)36 See also Protein. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, distribution 54 N&romonca earopse, note 127 North Carolina, dairy industry 420 Dakota, alfalfa experiments ..., 235 Nurseries, national forest, remarks 524s Nut butters, discussion '. 304-305 candies, discussion 307 coffees, remarks 308 flours and meals 306-307 milk, infant feeding, note 297 oils, remarks 309 pastes, discussion 31 S pistache, investigation, description 40, 297 preserves, discussion 305 trees, diseases, 1906 507 insects injurious, 1906 513 Nuthatch, usefulness against scale insects 194. 197 Nutrition, animal, experiments 35 investigation-, progress 107-109 value of nuts 298-303 Nats, bleaching, remarks 311 composition 298-301 descriptions 296-298 digestibility 301-303 economy of use 309-311 I>'DEX. 711 rase. Nuts, flavor, remarks _ 298 food use. article by M. E. Jaffa 295-312 green, food use 30S marketing and handling 311-312 mastication, necessity 302 methods of use in diet 303. 304 nomenclature, synonyms : ■ nutrition studies 107. 108 shelling, machines 311 statistics, imports, 1902-1906 Oak scale, destruction by birds 195 Oat, Sixty-day, introduction 44 Oatmeal, exports, 1902-1906 686 Oats, diseases, 1906 605 improvement S3 production, note 12 statistics, acreage, production, prices, supplies, etc 561-5- Ocean freight rates, relation to British imports; statistics 384. 665 value of goods 372 two classes 374 Office, Experiment Stations; Eoads. See Experiment Stations: Roads. Ohio, forestry 531 , 533 road laws, 1906 tobacco fermentation and selection Oil cake and oil-cake meal, statistic*, exports and imports cotton seed, exports, 1902-1906 nut, meals, remarks 309 corn, content in kernel, changes by breeding 285-287 cotton-seed statistics, exports and imports ' use against dust on roads 114 Oils, nut, remarks 309 Olpys, Henry, article on '"Cage-bird traffic of the United States'' 165-180 Olive nut. use 29 7 scale, destruction by birds 193 list of bird enemies 194 Oliver Red apple, origin, description, etc 357-358 Orange hybrids, trifoliate with sweet, development 329-336 new loose-skinned, Thornton, production 336-337 Oranges, transportation investigations 49 Orchard grass, usefulness in reseeding western range* _ _ Orchards, protection from rabbits 91 Oregon, dairying 425—426 Oriole, eating of boll weevil 91 species, usefulness against scale insects 194. 1 97 Orlando pineapple, origin, description, etc 344-345 Ornamental plants, diseases. I'Kid 507 trees, insects injurious, 1906 514 Ortox. W. A., review of plant diseases in 1908 49! Ozark mountain region, apple bitter rot 41 Pacific coast, dairying opportunities, article by E. A. McDonald 423-428 freight rates on wheat Packing-house inspection, Chicago products, exports, imports, etc 14. 67 Page, Logan Waller, article on ''Object-lesson roads" 137-150 Palmer. T. S. . review of game protection, 1906 533-540 Paper, chemical study 71 Para grass, usefulness, remarks Paradise nut. note Paraffin, use in coating butter to prevent mold Parasites, boll weevil insect, remarks moth, of gipsy and brown-tail moths sheep, remarks - 33 study of stomach worm 498 usefulness in control of cotton boll weevil 318-322 712 YEAEBOOK 0* THE DEPAETMENI OF AGEICULTUEE. raze. Parrakeets, kind?, qualities, etc ] 74, 175 Parrot.-, capture and supply 169 kinds, pri J 74-1 76 - ... usefulness again.-- - - 191.192,194,197 Passenger rates, railway 669 Pasture. New England, remarks. I Eange 408, 411 Pathol _ _ a 'ions 41 503 Tangier. usefulness, remarks 39 Peach, early Wheeler, new variety, origin, etc 360 enemies, control, use of lime-sulphur wash 446 insect injurie- 512,513 curl, control, use of lime-sulphur wash 446 yell - - - 41 Peaches, transportation, remark- 48 Pear blight, control metb - 41 diseases, 1906 500 sect injuries I 512 Peaty- - 127 Pecans, new varieties - ription, etc 365-370 Pedigree, K iti ..- 34 1906 497 -ylvania. forestry and f< : - 529, 530, 531 ties, relation to nitrogen supply in soil 126 jmon, new variety, origin, description, etc 362-363 PhyUocopU* . control, use of lime-sulphur wash 446 Physics, experimental, Mount Weather, Ya 124 solar, problems for study 1 23 Pickles, nut, - r - 303 i usefulness against scale ine - 197 Pine, prices, rise. 1894-1906 526, 527 Pineapple, diseases, 1900 _ 502 hybrids, discussion 337-346 new varieties, remarks 51 productions, new, Department of Agriculture, article by Herbert J. Webber - - Pine-bark beetle, study Pinenut, description 296 I - - . lines against scale insects - 194 Pistache nut, investigation; c - Plant dises - - W. A. Orion 499-508 Industry. Bureau, organization and work 454 work, review by Secretary 38-59 introduction garden, Chico, Cal. , remarks 59 Plum curculio. stud v 86 diseases, 1906". 501 scale, damage 1 90 Plums, transportation, remarks 48 Poisonous plant investigations, remarks 54 Pole sweat, tobacco, prevention 81 Polioptila caKforniea, usefulness against scale insects 194 Pollination, cr i corn breeding 281,282—285 Pomefru:- - 499-500 Poplar lumber, prio - - '4-1906 526,527 Pork, • - growth 248 imports Russian prohibition 255 prohibit: gn, i gainst imports 249-255 statistics, expo: be 2-1906 682 Porto Rico, experiment station, remarks 107 rhVe Department, cooperation in road building 1 - ads, improver. -rative work 117 ] • lis ---. : 504 Potatoes, disease-resistant 42 production, note _ ^12 stat!- a production, prices, supplies, etc 584-591 Poultry-breeding experiments - 497 remarks - 35 INDEX. 713 Page. Precipitation, departures from normal, 1906 491 January, February, March, and April, 1906 473, 477, 478, 479 relation to cotton "boll weevil damage 317-318 irrigation 325-326 nim us, usefulness against scale insects 194 Psvlla. pear tree, use of lime-sulphur wash 446 Public Roads, Office, work and organization 112-118, 45 , Publications, advisory committee 96 demand, increase 96 Department, educational demand 98 Division, organization and work 456 work, review by Secretary 95-99 first editions and reprints 97 Pulvineiria mnumerabUis, destruction by birds 195 Pure-culture inoculation, soil improvement 135 Quail, care of game wardens 217 condition and propagation, 1906 537, 538 Quaixtanxe. A. L., article on "Lime-sulphur washes for San Jose scale'' .. 429—446 Quarantine, imported animals, remarks 2S restrictions, foreign meat animals. 258 Texas fever, State laws, etc 29-30 Quince, diseases, 1906 500 Babbit pest, investigations 90 Rabun apple, origin, description, etc 359-360 Railroads, use of forestry 528 Railway, freight rates on wheat to interior points 377 rates, freight 665-668 costs, discussion 371-386 passenger 669 Rainfall, concentration, relation of topography 327 western, relation to ranges for live stock 226 See also Precipitation. Rains, heavy, Atlantic coast, 1906 4m' Gulf States, 1906 4^4 in cotton belt, 1906 479 Montana, Utah, and >*e\v Mexico, 1906 486 Pacific coast and Florida, 1906 481 Range cattle, improvement of grade a necessity 235-237 horses, improvement of grade a necessity 237 improvement, discussion 227-233 lands, cultivation, new movement 237-238 management, article by J. S. Cotton 225-238 stock industry, future, remarks 238 worn-out, reseeding 230. 232 Ranges, injury by premature grazing 233 western, carrying capacity, remarks 226 winter feed, necessity of raising 233-235 Raspberrv, diseases, 1906 - 501 Bawl, B.'H., article on "Opportunities in dairvint:— the South" 417-422 Recommendations, Secretary 34. 93. 94. 96, 98, 99, 104. 105, 106, 107, 110. 120 Redbird, usefulness against scale insects 192 Redtop, usefulness in reseeding western ranges 232 Redwood, planting plan 528 Regulus calendula, usefulness against scale insects _ 197 Reindeer, statistics, numbers - 635-637 714 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Page. Renovated butter, inspection 38 Resin, statistic!?, exports and imports 625-626 Rhode Island, forestry and forest legislation 533 road laws, 1906 522 station, corn breeding 285, 292 Rick, A. G., statement of soil areas surveyed to December 31, 1906 517-520 diseases, 1906 505 growing in Porto Rico 107 investigations, remarks 45 . production, note 13 statistics, acreage, production, prices, etc 613-616 Road construction, expert advice, etc., remarks 113-115,117 laws, 1906, review by M. O. Eldridge 521-523 making outfit, articles 141 materials, investigation of properties 115-118 kinds and cost, tables 146. 147 tests 140-141 work, object-lesson, purpose 142 Roads, country, improvement as post routes, remarks 117 making, cost, remarks 143, 146 objectdesson. article 1 >y Logan Waller Page 137-150 construction, remarks 114 extent of construction 144-145 lectures 150 reports 139-140 post, improvement 149-150 Public, Office, organization and work 457 work, review by Secretary 112-118 Robins, Japanese, description and prices 177 Rock, fertilizer use, note 116 Rocks, binding power, study 116 Root-nodule bacteria, relation t< i nitrogen fixation 132-135 varieties and efficiency 133 Rot. bitter, apple in Ozark mountain region 41 plant disease, 1906, notes 499-508 Rotch, A. L. , study of upper atmosphere 122 Bobber, India, statistics, exports and imports 627 Rush, matting, introduction, remarks _ 40 Rusk citrange, remarks 329 Russia, imports of hogs and hog products, restrictions 255 Rust, plant disease, 1906, notes. 499-508 Rustic citrange, origin, description, use, etc 334-336 Rutter, Frank R. , article on "Foreign restrictions on American meat"... 247-2';4 Rve, diseases. 1 906 , 505 exports, 1902-1906 f. trace use on ranges 284 production, note 13 statistics, acreage, production, prices, supplies, etc 575-581 Rye-grass, reseeding on ranges 231 Salsify, disease, 1906 504 Salt, value in lime-sulphur wash, discussion 4o4. 4:;s San Jose scale, control, time of application of wash 443 lime-sulphur washes, article by A. L. Ouaintance 42'.'-44»i Sanitary dairying, notes .' officers," live-stock, list 40S-469 Santa Rita Forest Reserve, range improvement 229 Savage citrange, origin, description, use, etc 333-834 Savannah, freight rates on cotton 373 Scab, plant disease. See Plant diseases. sheep, control . .' 28 Scale, cottony maple, destruction by birds 195 greedy, destruction by birds '. 194 hawthorn, destruction by sparrow 191 insects, control, birds beneficial 91 use of lime-sulphur wash 446 INDEX. 715 Page. Scale, insects, destruction by birds, article by W. L. McAtee 189-198 North American birds 192 insecticide work 87 natural enemies 190-192 plum, injuries to fruits 190 San Jose. See San Jose scale. School officers, attitude toward elementary agriculture 152-155 Schools, agricultural, discussion 104-105 organization 160 agriculture as study, introduction, article by A. C. True 151-164 farmers' help, methods 162-164 forestry 469 relation to labor supply for sugar-beet growing 271 Schulte, J. I., article on " Corn breeding at the experiment stations " 279-294 Seaboard, wheat routes, rail and water 379 Seaports, freight rates from interior 373, 667 Seasoning, wood, studies, note 68 Secretary of Agriculture. See Agriculture, Secretary. Seed, beet, relation to sugar content of beets 208 single-germ, production 48, 275 clover, statistics, prices 630-631 distribution, Congressional, remarks 58 good, for farmer, remarks 47 influence on composition of grain 208 timothy, statistics, prices 630-631 tobacco, effect of changes 400 relation to preservation of type 403-404 Selection, seed, use in corn breeding 289-292 tobacco breeding 400-401 Seminole pineapple, remarks 337 Shade trees, diseases, 1906 507 insects injurious, 1906 514 Shamel, A. D., article on "New tobacco varieties" 3S7-404 Sheep, breeders' associations 467 dipping, increase of value of wool 495 internal parasites, 1906 496 parasites, remarks 33 range, breeding experiments 497 scab, control 28 statistics, exports, 1902-1906 681 numbers, imports, etc 632-635, 656-658, 670 Sherrard, Thomas H. , article on "National forests and the luml >er supply ' ' . 447—452 Ships, freight rates, comparison with wagon rates 380 Shot-hole fungus, peach , 42 Slulia ni. oeeidentaHs, usefulness against scale insects 194 Silage, storage methods 55 Silk culture, investigations 88 statistics, exports and imports 628 imports, 1902-1906 671 Silo, use with sugar beets 278 Silos, need in dairy sections of the South 41S, 419 Silt'i c. arvlcatii. usefulness against scale insects 194 Skins, statistics, exports and imports of world 640-645, 671, 681 Smut. See Plant diseases, 1906. Simw, crop season, 1906 473 heavy, Colorado and Wyoming, 1906 489 Soil, acidity, relation to 1 >acteria, remarks 1 27 bacteria, chemical functions fixation of atmospheric nitrogen 130-132 conditions, dairy districts. North Central States, remarks 413 fertility, relation of dairy farming 405 inoculation, distribution of inoculated soil 134-135 use of pure cultures 135-1 36 reports, present uses 186-187 resources, United States, possibility of increase 181-1 82 remarks 74 716 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Page. Soil, survey, areas surveyed, 1906, statement by A. G. Rice 517-520 surveys, use, article by J. A. Bonsteel . . . . 181-188 types, series, and province 183-184 Soils, adaptation of crops 184-185 Bureau, organization and work 455 work, review 1 >y Secretary 72-81 influence on composition of wheat 205 nitrogen content, availability 125 uses, reports 185 Soleno i > ■ geminata, usefulness against boll weevil 321 Solicitor, Agriculture Department 453 South Carolina, dairy industry 417 dairy improvement, remarks of Secretary 37 dairying, extension, appropriation 498 opportunities, article by B. H. Bawl '. 417-422 S< »W8, fecundity 34 Spain, imports of meat and meat animals, restrictions 255 Sparrow, species, usefulness against scale insects 194, 196 Sparrows, Java, description and prices 177 Spelt, forage use 234 Sphyrapicus varius, usefulness against scale insects 197 Spillmax, W. J. , review of farm-management study, 1906 524—525 Spizi Ua s. arizome, usefulness against scale insects 104 Spraying, equipment fur lime-sulphur wash 444 Springs, use as water supply on western ranges 233 Squash, disease, 1906 1 504 Stars, meteorological relations, note 1 24 Statistics, Bureau, organization and work 457 work, review by Secretary '.. 99-101 crop, 1906 ." 1 542-631 farmers' institute 541 Stayman, Dr. J., apple propagation 355-356 Stock, live. See Live stock. Stockmen, attitude on public-range legislation 227 Stomach worm, sheep, study, 1906 496 Stone fruits, diseases, 1906 501 Storage, fruit, studies 48, 50 insects injurious to agricultural products 87 Stored products, insects injurious, 1906 516 Storm, damaging, Gulf districts, 1906 488 St. .rms, 1906, notes 478 Strawberry, diseases, 1 906 502 insects injurious, 1906 517 Streptoihri.c spp., relation to soil nitrification 128, 129, 130 Students, Roads Office, notes 115, 117 Subtropical laboratory, remarks 59 Sugar, beet, content in beet, relation of climate and soil 268 cost of production, methods of reducing, article bv C. O. Town- send i>r,r,-L'7s increase of content in beet 267 lab< »r colonies 272 production, historical notes 265 note 12 statistics, production, acreage, prices, etc 617-622, 679 Sulphur, grades, effect of variation on lime-sulphur wash 438 occurrence, preparation, and use in lime-sulphur wash 433-434 Sumatra tobacco, use in producing new tobacco varieties 287 Sun, relations of weather 123 Sunflower seed, use 298 Supplies, Government, chemical, examination 70 Supply Division, Chief, duties 454 Surveys, soil , extent, problems, and demands (see aUo Soil-) 73-75 Swamp lands, drainage, remarks 112 Sweden, imports of American swine products, prohibition 255 Sweet potatoes, diseases, 1906 503 Swine. See Hogs. Switzerland, imports of meat animals, regulation 255 INDEX. 717 rage. Tabebuia, nut, use 298 Tangier pea, usefulness, remarks 39 Tanning materials, study 71 Tar, use on roads * 114. Tariffs, discrimination against American meats and meat animals 262-263 Taylor, William A., article on "Promising new fruits" 355-370 Tea growing, American, progress 54 statistics, exports and imports 623, 679 Teachers, attitude toward elementary agriculture in schools 152-155 training, provision 159-160 Teche pecan, origin, description, etc 367 Telfairia pedata, nut, use 298 Temperature influence on composition of plants 206 Temperatures, crop season, 1906 473-491 departures from normal, 1906, table 489-490 Tennessee, dairy industry 420 nutrition experiments 107, 108 object-lesson roads 148 Texas, dairy industry 419 fever, eradication 29-32, 495 tick, damage, 1906 516 forestry 529 f reigbt rates on cotton 373 range improvement, alternation of pasture 230 tobacco experiments 78 Thielavia basicola, tobacco disease, note 398 Thornton orange, origin, description, use, etc 336-337 Thrush, varied, usefulness against scale insects 197 Thryomanes b. spilurus, usefulness against scale insects 194 Tick, cattle, eradication 29-32, 495 relation to dairy industry, notes 418 Ticks, damage, 1906 516 Timber, National Forest, disposal 525, 526 purchase 449 public, disposal under land laws 448 purchase, advantages in dealing with Government 451 sales, forest reserve, extent and character 64 supply, conservation by Government effort 447-452 forest reserve, management 61 syndicates, acquisition of public lands 449 tests, remarks 529 Timothy, insect injuries, 1906 509 seed, statistics, prices 630-631 usefulness in reseeding western ranges 231 Tit, species, usefulness against scale insects 191, 192, 194 Titmouse, species, usefulness against scale insects 194,197 Tobacco breeding, necessity and methods 399-401 diseases, remarks 398, 504 hybrid varieties and hybridization. 52, 53, 399 insects injurious, 1906 509 investigations, Soils Bureau 78-81 pole-sweat, prevention 81 preservation of type 403-404 production, note 12 statistics, acreage, production, prices, supplies, etc 605-608 exports and imports, 1902-1906 679,689 study and breeding, progress 52-54 Sumatra, Uncle Sam variety, origin, description, etc 389-392 testing new varieties 401—103 varieties, new, article by A. D. Shamel 387-404 Tomato, diseases, 1906 505 Toumeyella, destruction by cardinal „ 192 Townsend, C. O., article on "Methods of reducing the cost of producing beet sugar" 265-278 Tramp steamer, freight traffic 375 Transportation, citrus fruit, experiments 49 718 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tage. Transportation, freight cost, relation to market values, article- bv Frank Andrew- '. 371-386 fruit, remarks 48 game 93 rate.-?, statistics 665-669 sugar-beet 277 Trapn KsptaMO, nut, use 297 Treaty limitations, relation to meat importation 261-262 Tree planting, forest-reserve and cooperative 66-67 damage by scale insects ' 189 Trifoliate orange, hybrids with sweet, development 329-336 Trlti'v.n spp. Set Wheat. Tropical food products, studies 509 fruits, diseases, 1906 BOB insects injurious, 1906 513 Tkve, A. C, article on ' "Introduction of elementary agriculture into schools'" . 151-164 Tuberculin, distribution by Bureau of Animal Industry, article by ML Dorset . 347-354 manner 350, 352 results 35 2-354 preparation, use, etc 34S-349 test, accuracy 348-349 Tuberculosis, bovine, i (anger to man. remarks 362-353 _ a, remark- 32 investigation, 1906 496 Tulip scale, destruction by grosbeak 192 Turnip, diseases, 1906 505 Turpentine, composition, study 71 spirits, statistics, exports and imports 626,684 Typhoid fever, spread by house fly 87 Uncle Sam Sumatra tobacco, origin, description, etc 389-392 Utah, alkali lands, experiments 75 i ne, blackleg, distribution 33, 496 Vegetable crops, damage, 1906 510 insects 87 matter, imports 1902-1906 672-680 Vegetables, 1906 502 Vermont, forestry 531 Vireo species, usefulness against scale insects 194, 195 Virginia, agricultural education, consideration ' 155 high school-, note 157 road laws, 190*3 522 tobacco, experiments with export and bright kinds 79 University, rueteorologic study 124 "Wagons, freight rates, comparison with ship rates 380 Wain:- : 1 308 "Warbler s\ - .ainst scale insects 194.195 "Warden, game, of to-day, article by K. W. Williams, jr 213-224 Wash, lime-sulphur, cooking and cooking outfits 440-443 formulas, variations 434-437 I lamtion 438-443 time and outfit for u-e on San Jose scale 443—445 usefulness 446 Washes, lime-sulphur, for San Jose scale, article by A. L. Quamtance 42! , 445 Washington, alkali lands, reclamation 76 dairying 423-425 forestry range-, improvement under fence 229 seeding 231 Water, analysis, remarks 79 notion --rvation on western ranges contamination, study 55 Watermelons, diseases, 1906 505 INDEX. 719 Page. Wax wing, usefulness against scale insects 197 Weather Bureau, organization and work 454 work, review by Secretary 23-25 crop seasons, 1906, conditions 473—491 new problems, article bv Willis L. Moore, W. J. Humphreys, and O. L. Fassig " ". 121-124 relations of sun 123 service, increase, remarks 24 Weaver birds, remarks 178 WTebb, George, originator of White Burley tobacco 400 Webber, Herbert J., article on " New citrus and pineapple productions of the Department of Agriculture " 329-346 Webworms, damage, 1906 510 Weeds, destruction in sugar-beet growing — 277 Weevil, boll. See Boll weevil. Weights, legal, per bushel, table by States and commodities 690-693 Wells, Edward L., article on '"Cloud-bursts, so called" 325-328 Wheat, California, decline in yield in Sacramento Valley 428 composition, effect of time and manner of harvest 208-210 influence of length of growing season 206 seed and previous crop 208 deterioration, study 45 diseases, 1906 506 durum, chemical determinations 200 composition, effect of climate, article by J. A. Le Clerc 199-212 description and importance 199 effect of excessive moisture - 202 forage use 234 improvement and production 43 quality, factors 200 exports, relation of farm values 382-384 famine, prophecy reiterated 126 freight costs, relation to cotton freights 371 rates, direct shipments 380 discussion 377-384 Pacific coast 381 grades and values, relation to freight rates 378 insect injuries, 1906 509 irrigation effect in dry regions 204 nitrogen content, investigation 521 Oregon, decline in Willamette Valley 425 Pacific coast, prices and freights, discrepancies explained 381 prices at Liverpool 380 production, note 12 statistics, acreage, production, supplies, etc 549-561 export rates, Kansas Citv and Omaha to seaboard 665 exports, 1902-1906 685 freight rates, Chicago- New York 667 ocean 665 supply, British, remote sources 385 Wheat-grass, reseeding on ranges 231 Wheats, comparison for arid and humid regions 202 durum, Mexico, comparison 203 high-protein, necessity of producing 212 Whisky, exports, 1902-1906 686 Whitaker, George M., article on " Opportunities in dairying — Newr Eng- land" 408-412 White, B. D., article on "Opportunities in dairying — North Central States" . 412^117 White Burley tobacco, origin 400 White-eye, usefulness against scale insects 192 Wiley, H. W., review of food and drug inspection, etc., 1906 520-521 Willamette Valley, dairying prospects 425 Williams, B. W., Jr., article on "The game warden of to-day" 213-224 Willits citrange, remarks 329 Wilson, James, report as Secretary of Agriculture 9-120 WUaoniap. pileolata, usefulness against scale insects 194 720 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OE AGRICULTURE. Page. Wilt diseases, 1906, notes 506 Wilt-resistant cottons and melons, remarks 42 Winds, damage, 1906 487 Wines, imports, 1902-1906 677 Wire, fence, study 116 Wisconsin, agriculture course in schools 158 butter making, remarks 415 cheese industry 416-417 forestry and forest reserves 529, 530, 532 station, corn breeding 285, 291 Wolves, depredations, investigations. « 90 Wood pulp, statistics, exports and imports 627 utilization, note „ 68 Woodcock, condition, 1907 537 Woodland, management by private owners, assistance by Forest Service... 65 Woodpeckers, species, usefulness against scale insects 193, 194, 197 Woods, A. F., article on "The present status of the nitrogen problem" 125-136 Wool statistics, exports and imports; production and prices 639,658-661 Wren, species, usefulness against scale insects 194 Wren-tit, usefulness against scale insects 195 Yellow-fever mosquito, study 87 Yellowthroat, Pacific, usefulness against scale insects 194 Za melodea spp. , usefulness against scale insects 194 Zonotrichia spp., usefulness against insects 194 Zosterops capensis, usefulness against scale insects 192 o