J u *X MAMMALS OF YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK SPECIAL ISSUE YOSEMITE NATURE NOTES S0C\k^ In cooperation tith the National Park Service. From the collection of the n m o PreTinger v Uibrary t p San Francisco, California 2008 y o s e m i t e NATURE NOTES Since 1922, the monthly publication of the National Park Service and the Yosvmite Natural History Association in Yosemite National Park. VOL. XXXI NO. 6 By HARRY C. PARKER 52 YOSEMITE NATURE NOTES CONTENTS Foreword - 53 How to Tell a Bear From a Beaver - - - 54 Yosemite Mammals 57 Insect-eaters - - 57 Shrews - 57 Moles - 57 Bats 59 Rabbits and Their Allies - 61 Cony (Pika) 61 Jackrabbits - - - - 62 Brush Rabbit - 63 Rodents or Gnawing Mammals - - 64 Mountain Beaver - 64 Gray Squirrel ----- 64 Chickaree ----------- 65 Marmot - 66 Ground Squirrels ---------- 67 Chipmunk 69 Flying Squirrel - 70 Pocket Gopher - 71 Pocket Mouse 73 Golden Beaver ------- - 74 Mice and Rats ------- . 75 Porcupine 80 Flesh-eaters - - - - - - - - - - - - 81 Coyote - - - - - - - - - - - -81 Fox 81 Bear ....... ... 82 Ring-Tailed Cat - 88 Raccoon ------------ 88 Weasel 89 Mink - ----- 90 Marten 90 Fisher - - - - - - - - - - - - 91 Wolverine - - - -91 Badger - 92 Skunks ------- .... 92 Otter ------- .... 93 Mountain Lion ------- . . 94 Wildcat ------- 94 Hoofed Mammals ----- 96 Deer - 96 Bighorn or Mountain Sheep - - - - - - - -100 How to Enjoy Mammals - - 101 Checklist of Yosemite Mammals - 104 References - - - - - - - 105 Cover illustration: Sierra black bear cub. Douglas Whiteside MAMMALS OF YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK By Harry C. Parker, Cy ore word Yosemite National Park, aside from its scenic grandeur, offers a large, varied and interesting complement of plant and animal life. This is partially explained by the variety of living conditions here as, for example, the great range in elevation (2,000- 13,000 feet). Another reason is the policy of protection for all native living things in national parks. This serves to assure present-day visitors the privilege of enjoying them and it predicates that future generations may also be able to enjoy a remnant of the Sierran wilderness with its coincident wildlife. This pamphlet is for the park visitor who wants to know something about the "wild animals." Professional scientists who specialize in the study of mammals (mammalogists) are likely to find little new to them here, and the matter may well be dismissed with an invitation to inspect the technical list of species and subspecies on page 104. With 78 kinds of mammals to treat in these few pages, it is impossible to attempt anything like full coverage. I have taken the same approach that a ranger naturalist might use if he were giving an illustrated talk to the public here in the park. Because of the great popular interest, deer and bear have been dealt with at some length, but the general idea is merely to introduce the reader to the various mammals by giving a few high points of interest. Like the ranger naturalists who give the talks, I am deeply indebted to all who have gone before, both in Yosemite and elsewhere. Especially am I obligated to the authors of the monumental works Animal Life in the Yosemite and Fur-bearing Mammals of California; the countless observers who have published articles in Yosemite Nattire Notes; and those whose vision led to the establishment of the Yosemite Museum, including the fine library and study specimens there. With the systematic list of technical names, I have received invaluable aid from Dr. Seth B. Benson of the University of California, Berkeley and Dr. William H. Burt, of the University of Michigan. I am also deeply grateful to my colleagues of the National Park Service in Yosemite, especially the rangers and naturalists, who have been unstinting in their aid, whenever called upon. Mr. and Mrs. A. W. Hood made a major photographic contribution, as did Ralph H. Anderson. I wish particularly to thank the University of California Press and the California Academy of Sciences for their generosity in lending certain plates which contribute so much to this booklet. 54 YOSEMITE NATURE NOTES HOW TO TELL A BEAR FROM A BEAVER Mammals comprise those creatures with hair on their bodies and which suckle their young. These form but a small part of the animal kingdom; hence it would be inaccurate to restrict the term "wild animal" just to mammals, de- spite popular use to the contrary. After all, worms are wild animals; so are frogs; so are birds; so are millions of kinds of insects, just to name a few others! For convenience in identification, sci- entists have divided mammals into sev- eral "orders" or large groups. Six of these are represented in the Yosemite list: Insect-eaters (Insectivora) ; bats (Chirop- tcra) ; flesh eaters (Carnirora) ; rodents (Rodentia) ; rabbits and their allies (Lagomorpha) ; and even-toed, hoofed mammals (Artiodactyla) . aaolc lin3z Cony y*NH *I33 o Z 3 ^36 Rabbits, hares and conies (Lagomor- pha) outwardly resemble the rodents in many respects. The front teeth grow continually to compensate for wear, but the enamel exends to the back surface of the tooth. There is also an extra pair of incisors, lacking the cutting edges, right behind the upper, front, two chisel teeth. The jaws of lagomorphs are so fas- tened that they chew with a sidewise mo- tion, while in rodents there is consider- able longitudinal action. A good name for the hoofed mammals might be "toenail walkers," for the hoof is actually a specialized toenail. Yosemite deer and bighorns, or mountain sheep, usually walk on the two large toenails on each foot and are therefore members of the tven-toed, hoofed order of mam- mals, Artiodactyla. 56 YOSEMITE NATURE NOTES From "hltmmtlt of Lakr Ttboe" by R«lrrt T. Ore. Courtety of fubliiher, California Acodtmy of Sciencti. SHREW Deer and bighorns have no upper in- cisors, but utilize the lowers very well in obtaining food by gripping vegetation against toothless upper "plate" and lips, then wrenching it loose. The greenery then goes into the rear of the mouth where it is ground between large, broad teeth. It then moves to the rumen, a compartment of the stomach which serves as a storage chamber. There the food remains in a half-chewed state un- til the animal is through foraging and finds time in a safe place to give it fur- ther attention. It is then brought up in cuds, chewed and reswallowed for thor- ough digestion. The system of classification of mam- mals progresses downward from the or- ders through lesser groups having closer ties in structural relationship, such as families, divided in turn into genera (singular genus), species and subspecies. Such divisions are indicated in the check- list (see p. 104). A discussion of the characters delineat- ing these lesser divisions seems entirely beyond the limits of a work of this na- ture. However, it should be explained that the scientific names of the various species contain at least two parts, the first of which is the genus, the second the species, and, where applicable, a third, the subspecies. Subspecies, and in most cases, species, are based on comparatively minor differ- ences in color, size, or structure of the skull and teeth and require the dead speci- men in hand for final determination. Ob- viously such characters will not be read- ily observed in the park, where the wild- life is protected by law against moles- tation in any form. Perhaps some concept of the nature of a scientific name can be gained by con- sideration of an artificial case, a hypo- thetical man whose name is John Adam Smith. Written as a scientific -name, this would be "Smith John Adam," latinized, of course. Smith may be compared to generic name, John the specific name, and Adam the subspecific, though technically, the example is not truly analogous. There is a tendency on the part of mammalogists to use common names for species, but not for subspecies since the latter cannot usually be distinguished in the field, except sometimes on the basis of locality, correlated with its known range. Twenty years of experience in ed- ucational work have taught me that the layman wants common names for the different forms. Since well-established vernacular names for most Yosemite mammals have existed in the literature for many years, I have used them in this work wherever they were available. MAMMALS OF YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK 57 In certain instances, where the common name applied by Grinnell and other west- ern authors was preceded by a name more widely known throughout the United States, I have favored the latter in order to make the booklet more use- ful to park visitors, who come from all parts of the land. THE INSECT-EATERS — Moles and Shrews Shrews are the smallest mammals found in the park, with only the Mer- riam canyon bat as a possible rival (see page 61). Four of the five species found here are less than half the size of a house mouse, have small feet and are some shade of brown. The exception is the mountain water shrew, which will be dealt with later. All five have sharp, pointed noses and tiny eyes. Again ex- cepting the water shrew, they can be identified as to species only by the expert who has the specimen in hand. They are among the most voracious of animals, requiring approximately the equivalent of their own weight in food each twenty-four hours! To obtain such quantities of insects, carrion and other flesh (they readily attack, kill and eat mice larger than themselves), a great deal of time must be spent in foraging. They are among the most active of mammals. Food seems to be located main- ly by sense of smell. In Yosemite, shrews seem to prefer moist situations and tend to keep under cover, such as matted vegetation, logs and rocks. The runs and burrows of other mammals are often used as high- ways in the relentless search for food. They have been found at all elevations in the park and apparently are active in winter as well as summer. I remember an occasion, at Upper Lyell Base Camp, one September morning when the thin snow on the ground was marked with tiny shrew trails widely ranging through- out the area. The mountain water shrew is about the size of a house mouse; dark, slaty gray in color. It is apparently never found far fiom water. The narrow, scrub-wil- low-lined streams of the higher eleva- tions are a favorite haunt. This form is well suited to stream life. The fur does not get soaked in the water, but holds air within its surface, so that when the animal swims under water, a silvery envelope of air bubbles encloses it. The hind toes are fringed with stiff hairs. This fringe assists it in swimming, by serving much like webbing, and enables it to skitter right across the surface, lit- erally walking on the water. It is said that the mountain water shrew can also walk on the bottom of a stream or pool. The Yosemite mole is well suited for life underground The pointed nose, ta- pered head, short neck, cylindrical body and lack of protruding ears contribute to smooth passage through loose soil or open tunnel. The short, sturdy front legs with ntc*. #, ^ Pluilo by Author Mole run. Note cracks in the earth. 58 YOSEMITE NATURE NOTES From "Mam mil I of Lake Taboe" /»> Robert T. Ore. Courtesy of publisher, California Academy of Sciencei. MOLE AT WORK spade-like feet, turned sidewise and equipped with strong, thick nails, form a powerful digging apparatus. A mole can dig itself out of sight before your very eyes, seeming to melt into the earth! The fur is short, thick and reversible as to "lay" so it is not rubbed the wrong way whether the animal is traveling for- ward or backward. The mouth is placed well on the under side, which would tend to keep dirt out when the animal is dig- ging. Moles have eyes, but they are small and not well developed. Two kinds of tunnels are made and used. The low, raised ridges, just barely cracking the surface, are familiar to gar- deners and golfers. At certain seasons, usually just after a heavy snow melts in the spring, these are quite common on lawns and the floor of the forest in Yo- scmitc Valley. They may or may not be re-used ?fter construction. The second type of run is a system of subsurface tun- nels, perhaps a foot or more in the ground. Construction of the "deep" tunnels re- quires disposal of soil removed. At inter- vals a lateral passage is dug to the sur- face, dirt carried up and pushed out through the hole As the action is re- peated, tarth piles up on the surface of the ground. At no time does the mole expose itself while doing this. Rather than coming out on top, it continues to push the material up from the bottom directly out of the hole. The dirt thus falls uni- formly around the outside, with the hole plugged up, so that a mole hill is sym- metrical, like a volcanic cone. This is an important difference between a mole hill and a pocket gopher mound (see p. 73). Like that of the gopher, under natural conditions, the work of moles brings about important aeration and reworking of the soil. The chief food is insects, worms and similar animals. Little vegetable matter enters into the diet of the Yosemite mole. It forages widely for enough to eat, mainly in fairly dry meadows, the floor of open forest, or in lawns. In suitable habitats, the Yosemite mole has been found from the lower elevations of the park on the west up to 8600 feet (Tuol- umne Meadows) . The extremely subterranean life of the Yosemite mole undoubtedly contributes greatly to its safety from attack by other MAMMALS OF YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK 59 animals. Both moles and shrews possess a slightly unpleasant odor, which may afford considerable protection from pred- ators. However, both are known to be killed by certain hawks, owls, and mam- mals. BATS Bats are probably more numerous in Yosemite than an unobservant person may realize. They may be seen every eve- ning about twilight, or, in some species, earlier, in warm weather, flying back and forth over the river or the meadows in Yosemite Valley. They may be heard squeaking overhead whilst the camper en- joys his after-dinner fire. In half an hour's ride in an open car, approaching Chinqua- pin from the south, a friend and I once mice. That this has probably always been so is reflected in the German word for bat, Flcdermaus, or "flying mouse." How- ever, we already know that the skull and teeth belie this belief (see pp. 54, 55). In- deed "flying insect trap" more nearly de- scribes our Yosemite bats. There are many other folk tales about bats that have no foundation in fact. For instance, they will not normally fly into a person's hair. For years, ranger PLC MATTSOM From "Mammals of Luke Tahoe" by Ruber! T. Or. Courtesy of publisher, California Academy of Sciences. LITTLE BROWN BAT counted more than fifty bats flying over the roadway, where they were silhouetted against the gradually darkening sky. The bat's wing is formed from the bones of the hand and arm, with a leathery membrane stretched across this framework and connected to the hind legs and tail. When at rest, the wing can be folded up, much as an umbrella closes. Bats are the only mammals that truly fly. Many people consider them as flying naturalists have spoken on the platform at the summer evening programs at Camp 14, while bats swooped to and fro behind 'hem, catching insects that were attracted by the light on the picture screen. Yet never has a bat flown into the hair of a speaker. Once I stood with four other men in the bat cave of Carls- bad Caserns beneath a blanket of bats estimated at 15,000 individuals, which clung to the ceiling. In the course of our investigations, this mass was agitated into 60 YOSEMITE NATURE NOTES From Kodtchromt by Andtrson Head of Pacific pallid bat. Note the eye. flight, yet at no time did they endeavor to get into our hair. We have heard the saying, "blind as a bat." Some carry that thought further and believe that bats have no eyes. How- ever, they do have eyes, rather well-devel- oped ones, though comparatively small. Since most mammals that are active at night have rather large eyes, the question arises as to how bats can fly with such sureness through the branches of trees and avoid other obstacles in the dark. For that purpose, the eyes seem to be of little assistance to bats. Tests have been made with blindfolded bats in rooms criss- crossed with wires and the animals flew about, rarely hitting the barriers. How- ever, when the ears or mouth were plugged, blunders were quite notable. It seems that bats in flight emit sounds of a frequency too high for the human ear to detect. By listening to the variations in the echoes of these sounds, a bat is warned of obstacles in time to avoid them. These sounds should not be con- fused with the high-pitched squeakings that are often heard from bats. During the daytime, Yosemite bats hide in rock crevices, caves, buildings, and trees, where they hang upside down and sleep. This upside down posture is facilitated by the strongly curved hind toes and claws. In the winter, some of our bats hibernate, while others migrate to a more temperate clime. ^ Frinn Kodacbrome by Anderson Vf'ing of Pacific pallid bat. Count the fingers. While the babies are quite young, they cling to their mother when she is at rest, and she may even carry them with her when she flies forth to forage for food. Photo courttty Museum Vrrtebrjle Zoology, Uniiersil\ of Califnrn The spotted bat, rjrest Yosemite mammal. MAMMALS OF YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK 61 As they grow stronger, she usually leaves them clinging to a sheltered place where she returns after her trips for food. They grow very rapidly and are hunting for food themselves when but a few weeks old. Yosemite bats feed entirely on insects, which they chiefly garner while on the wing. Water is usually taken by swoop- ing low over the surface and scooping it up. All of the bats in the United States are insect eaters. Since an individual bat may consume a quarter of its own weight in one meal or half its weight in a night, we may assume they are generally bene- ficial to the interests of man. In size the Yosemite species range from the tiny Merriam canyon bat, which is less than three inches long with a total wingspread of less than eight inches, to the California mastiff bat, with a total length of 6 l/z inches and a wingspread of 19 inches. This is the largest species in the United States. One of the rarest mammals, the spot- ted bat, has been found in Yosemite Val- ley on two occasions. These are two of only ten specimens known to science. One was found in August 1931, by the cook at the Government mess hall, hang- ing under the eaves of the building. The other was found by the son of a visitor in Camp 15, August 13, 1951. Anyone finding such a bat in or near the park should immediately bring it to the atten- tion of the Yosemite Museum staff. RABBITS AND THEIR ALLIES — The Lagomorphs The Yosemite cony, or pika, is a dweller in the high-country rock slides above the fir forest belt. One of its other names, "rock rabbit," gives a clue to the nature of the little animal. However, it is only about one-third the size of our smallest rabbit; the ears and eyes are com- paratively small; and the hind legs are but little longer than the front ones. The tail is so diminutive as not even to be visible through the rabbit-like fur. The traveler on our high-country trails will have little difficulty discovering the cony, if he will remain quiet while ob- serving a suitable rock slide. Presently, the little fellows will begin their loud, squeaking calls from various parts of the slide. The observer will still need to look a while before the animals are sighted, be- cause there is a ventriloquistic quality to the call, which seemingly comes from where the animal "isn't." Patience will be rewarded by the sight of the conies clambering nimbly over the tallest and steepest of the boulders, or perched on top of one of them, "bleat- ing" away. While they are active mainly in the daytime, it is not impossible to see or hear them abroad on the brilliant moonlit nights for which the High Sierra is noted. This little animal literally "makes hay while the sun shines." Grass, sedges, and <''*'■*+* -'*M From KoJachrome by M. V. Hood Cony's haypile. 62 YOSEMITE NATURE NOTES Yosemitc Cony, or Pika. Photo by Parrott other vegetation are gathered and placed in piles among the rocks to cure in the alpine sun. Apparently this is done in anticipation of the long winter in those altitudes, when the rock slide may lie under eight to fifteen feet of snow. At that season, the cony has a store of food placed 'high and dry" to carry it over the winter. These piles seem to belong to individuals, which defend them vigorous- ly against other pikas, although evidence cited in Animal Life in the Yosemite (Grinnell and Storer) indicates that a female and her young may make a group cache. Rocks used as observation posts usually contain many droppings about }^ inch in diameter and resembling shot in ap- pearance. These signs, together with hay piles when present, will indicate whether a particular slide is occupied by conies. The sheltering rocks protect conies from most predatory enemies, except for three members of the weasel family who "use" the same territory — the Sierra pine marten, the Sierra least weasel, and the mountain weasel. They hunt for conies and are undoubtedly successful on occa- sion, for when one of these potential ene- mies appears, the pikas become quite ex- cited and "bleat" for all they are worth, indicating that an enemy is recognized. M.irmots and bushy-tailed wood rats also inhabit the same slides, but there is no evidence to indicate that they do not get along with the conies. The white-tailed jackrabbit is an- other denizen of our high country. It seems to prefer rather flat, sparsely wood- ed terrain having some bushes present for thick cover, but ranges up to old plateaus over 12,000 feet in elevation. In the Yosemite Museum is a specimen from Merced Lake, 7200 feet. Rangers report white-tails along the Glacier Point Road in winter at about the same elevation. In this region it is commonly called "snowshoe rabbit," but that name appar- ently belongs to a much smaller hare which ranges in the north, no race of MAMMALS OF YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK 63 which has been recorded closer than 17 air miles from the north boundary of the park. The white-tail is enormous as rabbits go, being about one and one-half times the size of the common black-tailed jack- rabbit that is known so well in the low- lands. I remember once starting one up from under a willow bush in Tuolumne Meadows. My first thought was that it was a fox, so large did it appear. The tail and feet are always white, no matter what the season of the year. During the winter months it has a white coat, al- though the pale brown or black markings of the summer coat may persist on cer- tain points, such as the tips of the ears or nose. The white-tailed jackrabbit is more active in the late evening or at night, usually foraging where a fairly unob- structed view is afforded. This means, of course, that approaching enemies can readily be seen while yet at some dis- tance. The droppings, flattened spheres about one-half inch in diameter, are to be found scattered about on the flat- topped areas where the animals have fre- quented the high country for many gen- erations. The black-tailed jackrabbit. or one of its races, is the commonest jack seen in the West. In recent years, it has en- tered the extreme western part of the park, near Crane Flat and Mather. It can easily be distinguished here by the black upper surface of the tail and very slen- der body. The Mariposa brush rabbit is similar in appearance to the well-known cotton- tail, but with very much less "cotton." It is about half the size of the black-tailed jackrabbit, but with ears shorter in com- parison to the body. It is common in the chaparral of the foothills along the west boundary of the park, but has been recorded only once inside the park line. all of Like Teboe" by Robert T. Off. Coarttiy of publisher, California Academy of Scienett. MOUNTAIN BEAVER 64 YOSEMITE NATURE NOTES RODENTS OR GNAWING MAMMALS — Rodentia The Sierra mountain beaver bears no close resemblance to the true beaver. It looks much like a tailless muskrat or a gigantic meadow mouse, blackish brown in color. It will seldom be seen by the park visitor, for it utilizes extensive tun- nels safely to reach food above ground and is chiefly nocturnal. The burrowings, six or seven inches in diameter, running parallel to the surface, roofless in spots, may be found on bottom land near streams in widely scattered locations at elevations ranging from less than 4,000 feet to more than 10,000 feet. The food consists of almost any "greenery," but bark is also eaten. Moun- tain beavers are known to stack and cure vegetation near the mouths of their run- ways. This is now believed to be done in order to have a supply of dry bedding, rather than in preparation for the season when green food will not be available. The California gray squirrel should be identified easilv by any visitor to Yo- semite Valley. Some two feet long, with a beautiful, bushy gray tail, it is ade- quately described by its name. The Sierra ground squirrel, which sometimes climbs California gray squirrel trees, might be confused with this spe- cies, but the ground squirrel may be distinguished by its two white or gray- ish shoulder patches and the much nar- rower tail. The upper limit of the range here seems to correspond with that of the oaks, although gray squirrels also feed freely on pine seeds. It is thought that in the higher forests, competition from the Sierra chickaree prevents the gray from flourishing. The California gray squirrel sometime builds large nests of twigs, needles, grass and similar materials, in trees, or, soft linings may be made in cavities of trees. The California black oaks in Yosemite Valley are so old that plenty of holes seem to be available, for outside nests are not too common there. I have reason to believe that some individuals make an outside nest in summer, then move to a cavity with the approach of autumn. However, this cannot be positively stated to be a universal practice. The preferred food here appears to be acorns and pine seeds. Acorns are cached individually in the ground in autumn, some oi which are dug up later, especially in winter. I have seen a gray squirrel dig down through several inches of snow and successfully locate an acorn buried in the ground beneath. Perhaps this food storing habit helps explain why gray squirrels do not hibernate, but are active all the year. dray squirrels were virtually w iped out in Yosemite by an epidemic of sca- bies in the early 1920's. They were ex- tremely rare here tor a number of years; an all-day census of the Valley in the summer of 1 9 3 S revealed but two indi- viduals. By the early 1940's the species had made its way back to such .\n extent that a considerable number were killed by motor cars. They are now abundant throughout their proper range in the park. MAMMALS OF YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK 65 From Kodachromt by Parralt Sierra chickaree The Sierra chickaree is the favorite mammal of many rangers. I think they like the little fellow because he is so ac- tive and vociferous, contributing a touch of life to the still reaches of our conifer- ous forests. When an intruder comes quietly into the chickaree's territory, he will hear the bird-like note of interroga- tion, variously described as quer-u, quir-o or whee-o. If the intruder is noisy, or startles the chickaree, the animal's exten- sive vocabulary is brought into play and one is readily convinced that this ani- mal can swear! Visitors from the Northeast will rec- ognize our chickaree as a species of red squirrel; those from the Northwest will realize that it is a race of their Douglas squirrel; those from the Rockies will call it a pine squirrel. About one-third the size of the gray squirrel, dark, red- dish brown above with white eye-ring, whitish beneath, it is, indeed, closely related to all of those. While the lower limits of its range are at the elevation of Yosemite Valley, its chief bailiwick is the higher coniferous forests, extending up to the limit of trees. The home of the chickaree is usually in an old rotten stub or other tree cavity. This is lined with shredded bark, pine twigs and similar materials. Chickarees are not sociable animals and have a strong sense of territory, defending it against invasion by another of their kind, in fact resisting, if only vocally, intru- sion by any other creature. Seeds in cones provide the chief source of food, although the tender buds of pine, mushrooms, nuts and even meat are not scorned. Cones are cut down while yet green. The seeds are either eaten imme- diately, or the cones are stored along old logs or similar crannies near the squirrel's home. These shaded, often moist spots, provide conditions that tend to inhibit the cones from opening up so the seeds are retained until needed in the winter. Winter food is a matter of concern to the chickaree, for it is active the year around, even when snow covers the ground. The harvest by one individual can reach prodigious proportions. The chick- aree usually works in the tree, cutting off a number of cones, then going down to the ground and caring for them. Tn the Mariposa Grove of Giant Sequoias, a single chickaree is known to have har- vested and stored in hollow logs, in 12 days, enough sequoia cones to fill 3 8 bar- ley sacks. When it is realized that a se- Sierra chickaree's kitchen midden 66 YOSEMITE NATURE NOTES noK ih of Lake Tahoe" by Robert T. Ore. Courtesy of publisher, California Academy of Sciences. MARMOT quoia cone is about the size of a hen's egg, the magnitude of this feat is even more impressive. Since the seeds are what interest the squirrel, obviously the scales and stems of cones make quite a pile of debris after its meals. A spot is usually chosen for the shucking process which provides a good lookout, such as a rock, log or old stump. Consequently the waste from many meals adds up to quite a pile of scales and stems. These piles are known as "kitchen middens" and are readily found throughout the forested country From cast by M. V. HooJ Marmot tracks. Hind foot on left, front on right. Six-inch pencil. above the rim. Gray squirrels may make similar middens, but with a greater va- riety of food available, such workings are not found so commonly in Yosemite. Daytime travelers on the Tioga Road are very likely to make the acquaintance of the southern Sierra marmot. Near or within the patches of meadowland, marmots are fond of lying flattened out on the tops of large rocks, basking in the sunshine. About the size of a cat, with its glossy, grizzled, light-brown up- perparts and contrasting orange-yellow chest and feet, they make a strikingly pretty sight in this position. Easterners will note a strong resemblance to a wood- chuck, for the two are closely related. It must have plenty of green plants to eat and rocks or trees or logs under which to burrow. Tunneling under such a place means that a predator is not able to dig them out. At the first real threat of danger, it is toward the burrow that the marmot gallops. Some of them take up residence in barren rock slides so that in case of alarm, all they have to do is MAMMALS OF YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK 67 tumble down into the intricate rock maze to be safe. The basking points have a great many droppings on them — elon- gate, dark and about one-half inch in diameter. Heavy as it is, this gigantic ground squirrel can sit up straight on its hind legs if that is necessary to obtain a better field of vision against the possible ap- proach of enemies. The call is a short whistle, though not as man-like as that of the hoary marmot in Olympic, Mt. Rainier and Glacier National Parks. Our marmots tend to live in groups, but not large colonies. Like a true wood- chuck, they are not active at night and they hibernate in the winter. The Belding ground squirrel can scarcely escape notice by the summer vis- itor to Tuolumne Meadows. Their piping, whistle-like calls resound on every hand and they are quite in evidence as they sit up very straight, like a stake driven into the ground, in the effort to maintain From Kodacbrome by Anderson Belding ground squirrel ■ (a^^iH'■''*'—*, | r^M ?< From cast by M. V. Hood Belding ground squirrel tracks. Six-inch pencil. a more effective lookout for danger. This last habit has earned for them the popu- lar name, "picket-pin gopher." They are about the size of a house rat, but have a short, hairy tail. The upper parts are yel- lowish gray with a wide, reddish-brown streak down the back. Belding ground squirrels are most common in our higher meadows, though meadow land is not absolutely necessary for them, so long as a good supply of grasses, herbs and their seeds is available for food. Home and shelter are in the ground. Since wnters are very long in the high country, and these animals hibernate, it can be seen that a great proportion of their lives must be spent underground. Badgers are very assiduous in digging them out. Besides predatory birds, other enemies are known to include weasels and the mountain coyote. The antics of Beldings are interesting to watch, for they are very active. When the young first appear above ground, they remain in the vicinity of the hole, while the mother mounts guard to give the alarm in case of danger. As the season progresses, the youngsters go forth on their own and dig individual burrows for themselves. 68 YOSEMITE NATURE NOTES Pboto by AnJmon Sierra ground squirrel. Albino in rear. Most Californians coming into the park will have no difficulty in recognizing the Sierra ground squirrel. More than likely they will have some race of Citcllus beechcyi near their homes, for the species is widely represented in the State. The Yosemite form has been set apart from the California ground squirrel of the coastal region because of the more gray- ish appearance of the former and for other technical differences. The whitish shoulder patches, upper parts speckled with grayish white and the fairly bushy tail serve to separate the Sierra ground squirrel from any other Yosemite digger. The distinctions between it and the Cali- fornia gray squirrel have been mentioned (P- 64). This animal dwells in a system of un- derground tunnels made in open situa- tions. When alarmed fully, the ground squirrel will literally fall into the near- est entrance it can reach. It sometimes sits very erect, presumably to widen the field of vision. It is active only in the daytime. The food consists of seeds, grasses, fruits, plants, roots, bulbs, acorns, and some meat. It has internal cheek pouches which are filled when it is gathering and carrying food. It may climb into cer- tain trees and low shrubs in connection with the search for food. The Sierra ground squirrel is a hiber- nating animal. However, the hibernation must not be too profound, for I have often seen them abroad in Yosemite Val- ley during prolonged warm spells in Jan- uary. After the weather again became severe, they were never seen about until the next warm spell. The Sierra golden-mantled ground squirrel is the most beautiful of the Yosemite ground squirrels. The head, neck and shoulders are a reddish or cop- pery yellow, forming the "mantle," while two white stripes run along the sides of the blue-gray back. These stripes lead some people to confuse them with the chipmunks. However, the golden-mantle is larger than any chipmunk, about two- thirds the size of the Belding, and does not have stripes running through the face. Golden-mantled ground squirrels are common in the open forests of the mid- dle elevations, such as are found along the Tioga and Glacier Point Roads and the trails along the rims of the Valley. They make short burrows under ground, with the entrance near a log, stump or rock which provides a lookout point. The food consists of nuts, fruits, and other vegetable matter, varied with meat. There is some evidence of food storage, tbolo by R. G. triJItmsn Young golden-mantled ground squirrel. Note absence of facial stripes. MAMMALS OF YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK 69 though this must be for early spring use, since the Sierra golden-mantled ground squirrel hibernates. Visitors to Glacier Point once came to know this species well. The golden-man- tles there were unafraid of humans and permitted close approach, especially when food was offered. Sometimes they even crawled over a person's clothing and searched the pockets for food to stuff in their capacious check pouches. However, a few cases of relapsing fever were traced to Glacier Point several years ago, and since golden-mantled ground squirrels are hosts to the tick that car- ries the fever, it has been necessary to reduce the population at that place and proscribe the sale of peanuts and other delicacies relished by ground squirrels. It should be remembered that it is never advisable to come in close contact with any ground squirrel in the West, because some of them do have certain parasites which may carry diseases to which humans are susceptible. This does not mean that every ground squirrel needs to be exterminated. Public health authorities are well equipped to deter- mine when a territory is dangerous and to prescribe measures to be taken in such an area. We have been assured by them that there is no cause for alarm at Gla- cier Point under the present precaution- ary program. Chipmunks are captivating mammals to watch. Their bright pattern, lively habits, and bird-like calls can afford hours of pleasure to the visitor who re- mains very still while in their haunts. There should be no trouble recognizing them as chipmunks by the fact that the stripes include the face and there is a narrow, dark stripe down the center of the back. The sharp, pointed nose and dainty configuration are not to be noted in any ground squirrel or chickaree. To distinguish, in the field, the dif- ferences between the five kinds recorded Photo by R. G. B.iJUmjn Long-cared chipmunk. Note the prominent eye- stripes found in true chipmunks in the West. for the park is quite another matter. This requires some study and an appreciation for finer distinctions. Their ranges in- clude the territory from the western boundary to the highest peaks, but, with one exception, they do not overlap. The Tahoe chipmunk is found in the areas occupied by three other kinds. This is probably because it has a much greater tendency to take refuge in trees and hunt food in bushes. Consequently, it does not seriously compete with the others, which are largely ground dwellers. For some reason, all chipmunks are scarce in Yosemite Valley, but they may easily be seen in the Mariposa Grove of Giant Sequoias, or near Glacier Point, as well as in the high country. There is one species in Yosemite Na- tional Park that may be rather easily identified. The alpine chipmunk is very small, less than eight inches over-all, and quite pale in coloration. It extends its range into the rocky shoulders of our highest mountains. I have seen it at least 13,000 feet in elevation, very near the summit of Mt. Lyell, scampering among the polemoniums. Our chipmunks are mainly seed eaters, utilizing the membranous cheek pouches for transporting their harvest. Their 70 YOSEMITE NATURE NOTES Photo by foe Grate* Captive Sierra flying squirrel, eating apple. area as they leaped from the tall trees along the side of the rink. In summer. Valley campers find that their bacon and butter have been nibbled during the night by "some creature larger than a mouse." Probably the most adept of the squir- rels at traveling through the branches from tree to tree, it has the added ability to volplane across openings between trees where the branches are not close enough to be spanned by a simple jump. These glides are as near flying as the squirrel ever achieves. It leaps from a height, ex- tends the web of furred skin that con- nects wrists and ankles, straightens out the flat tail and glides downward at an angle, sometimes covering as much as 1 50 feet at a single glide and usually land- ing near the base of the trunk of another tree. It has the power to change course while in flight, and can check its speed for landing by manipulation of the web and tail. Always it must have a height slender forefeet are better suited for han- dling and shelling small seeds than for digging, so extensive burrows in the ground are seldom made. They prefer shelter obtained by tun- neling in soft, decayed wood, or seek it among crevices in the rock. Apparently some of our chipmunks hibernate and others do not, but available information regarding their winter habits is very in- complete. The Siena flying squirrel, while quite common, is not likely to be seen by many Yosemite visitors. It is abroad only at night, spending the daylight hours curled up, with its tail over its face, in an old woodpecker hole or rotten snag. In winter, while skating at Camp Curry rink, I have seen these little gliders, zip- ping like tiny shadows across the lighted \ An J, riot Ik-aver dam on Rig Creek. Height of dam ranges from 5-7 feet. MAMMALS OF YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK 75 mal is in full flight on land. However, there is no evidence to indicate that it is ever used as a trowel, despite traditional accounts to the contrary. So far as the records show, this was never a species native to the park. At any rate, we know that our present colonies are the result of introductions made by the California Division of Fish and Game at sites very near our southern boundary. Properly, golden beavers are denizens of the lower drainages of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys, at elevations of not more than 1,000 feet. In 1944, the above-mentioned agency made two "plants" of golden beaver in Big Creek, near Fish Camp. Dams and other signs of activity may be seen from the road just below South Entrance, and have been noted well inside the park boundary. Another site of activity is in the stream by the golf course along the Wawona Road.* The long-tcriled, or California harvest mouse has been recorded in Yosemite but once, in 1936, near Cascades. It is very common at lower elevations outside the park, in grassy or shrubby situations. This form is easily mistaken for the common house mouse, but the tail is not nearly so scaly and the dark color of the upper surface of the tail is clearly differ- entiated from the dull white of the under surface. Further, the upper incisors of harvest mice have deep longitudinal grooves which are absent in the house mouse. White-footed mice are probably the commonest type of mammal to be found in Yosemite National Park. They live in all suitable habitats from the lowest ele- vations on the western boundary up to at least 10,800 feet. The adults are quite striking, with brownish-tan upperparts, bright fawn flanks, white feet and un- derpays and large lustrous eyes. The fact that they keep themselves well-groomed *Sce Yosemite Nature Notes (27) 4:69-74, April accounts of beavers. tboto by Anderson Beaver tree on Big Creek. enhances their clean and attractive ap- pearance. They do not warrant the tra- ditional aversion generated by the term "mice." The young are marked much like the from cast by M. \ . Ho -i Hind footprint of golden beaver. Six-inch pencil. 948 -nd (30) 1 $-9, January 1951. for interesting 76 YOSEMITE NATURE NOTES adults, but the upperparts are a bluish gray. In "adolescence" the color resem- bles that of adults, but is paler in tone. These variations, due to differences in age, often confuse the uninitiated into believing that they represent different species. Actually, three kinds of white-footed mice are known from Yosemite, but identification of a single individual would be extremely difficult without technical knowledge or the comparative material available in a museum study collection, having the specimen in hand. A possible exception is the Gilbert white-footed mouse. It is found only at the lower ele- vations of the park and has comparative- ly huge ears, three-fourths of an inch long. Records are rare in the park for iliis bubspecies. Rather than the well-known house mouse, it is usually some form of this group that enters the haunts of man in Yosemite. Sometimes it is in search of food that whitefoots come into the house. However, many times they seem not to bother the larder, but rather seek to find shelter and to store food brought in from the outside. In the autumn of a "good acorn year" in Yosemite Valley, residents may hear these mice drop acorns while in the space above the ceiling. The rolling nut re- sounds, comparatively, as though it were a billiard ball. These seem tiny creatures to lug acorns so far above the ground level, but they accomplish it, oftentimes making the cache in a spot such as the toe of a boot hanging upside down, where it would appear impossible for them to climb while carrying such a load. In addition to acorns, their natural food consists mainly of dried seeds, fruits, nuts and insects. The chief period of activity is at night. Nesting places near the caches in buildings are not spurned. Overshoes, hats, dresser drawers, upholstery (even in cars) and, of course, the spaces between walls or under rafters are among spots chosen for a cozy home made of shred- ded paper, cotton, kapok or similar ma- terials, fluffed up by the teeth and nails. Aside from these artificial situations, the nest may be made in brush, hollow stumps, under the ground, beneath rocks, in fact almost any sheltered spot, depend- ing on the habitat of the species. The softest of materials available, such as grass and milkweed silk, will be used. Photo by Inglei White-footed mouse. MAMMALS OF YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK 77 Photo by R. G. BtiJIeman Young white-footed mouse. Probably Gambel. The winter nest must be especially warm, for they do not hibernate. Certain studies in the Sierra indicate that there may be from five to ten white- foots per acre. They are undeniably pro- lific, breeding when from five to eight weeks old, and having up to four litters a year. In such numbers, being mainly seed eaters, vhey must have an important impact on the plant life of the area. Nat- ural checks, such as disease and seasons of poor food supply, have prevented them from becoming a plague here. As food for other interesting animals, from shrews to mountain lion, they make a significant contribution to the wildlife picture in the park. The patient observer of white-footed mice in his camp or home may encounter two interesting types of behavior — "drumming" and "singing." The drum- ming is done by the rapid vibration of the forefoot or forefeet. It can easily be heard if the mouse is among dry leaves, or on a piece of paper, so that the sound is amplified. The singing is so high- pitched that not all ears may catch the sound. I have never heard it, but it has been described as being something like the trill of a bird, though much weaker; or, again, as a shrill buzzing. Certain!}' the white-footed mice will bear acquaint- ance, beautiful, attractive little animals that they are. Two kinds of wood rcrts are in our area, both of which are found at one time or another in Yosemite Valley. Westerners may be accustomed to refer- ring to these animals as pack rats, trade rats or miner's rats, varying with the locality. It is true that wood rats seem interested in collecting strange ob- jects, and adding them to their nests. Sometimes other things may be brought back in place of those taken, but there is no evidence that this was done to replace them on an exchange basis. Nev- ertheless, many an interesting experience has arisen through the collecting habits of wood rats, especially the bushy-tail of the higher elevations. Superficially, wood rats resemble the species of Cld World rats which infest the haunts of man in "civilized" areas. Our native rats, however, keep them- selves cleaner and present a more attrac- tive appearance — soft fur, white feet and underparts, large, lucent eyes, and tail fully clothed with hair. The Streator wood rat is grizzled brown above, with the short, brown hairs on the top of the tail contrasting with its white under surface. It ranges from the lowest elevations on the western boundary up to the level of Yosemite Valley, where it meets the range of the bushy-tailed wood rat. In the lower country this form makes conspicuous nests, on the ground or in trees. It may assemble nesting material in the crevices between the boulders of the talus slopes. These nests are constructed of almost anything that is available, but sticks play a large part in their makeup. The bushy-tailed wood rat ranges Bushy-tailed wood rat. 78 YOSEMITE NATURE NOTES From "Mammals of Lake Taboe" by Robert T. Orr. Courtesy of publiiber, California Academy of Sciences. MEADOW MOUSE from the Valley up to our highest moun- tain. It is larger than the other form, sandy tan above, with a flat, brush-like tail. The latter character is not so pro- nounced in the young. Rock slides at or above timberline are one locale for this species, where it nests back among the stones. It is reputed that the bushy-tail has a more highly developed "collecting instinct" than does the Streator. Yosemite wood rats are chiefly noc- turnal. Usually one is not aware of their presence unless attention is forcibly brought to them, as in a building or when they are the cause of some untoward event in the trailside camp. Their food consists mainly of vegetation — leaves, fruits, seeds, nuts, roots, bark, fungi and the like. The Sierra lemming mouse is quite similar in appearance to the meadow mice (see illustration of latter), but has much softer fur, a shorter tail, and is sandy gray in color. It is sparsely distributed in the Sierra and not too much is known about its habits. It is known generally as an inhabitant of the high meadows near patches of heather. However, a companion and I once captured one for the Yosemite Mu- seum on a nearly barren ledge, two-thirds the way up Ragged Peak. On two occa- sions in the fall of 1949, I was present when Naturalist Robert N. Mclntyre saw what must have been this species on the shouldus of Mt. Lyell, well above any meadows or heather. These were startled where weathered cracks in the granite supported a limited growth of grass and sedge in otherwise barren coun- try. On both occasions the animal sought shelter under some rocks near at hand. Among the commonest of wild mam- mals in North America are the mead- ow mice, often called "held mice" by the farmer. The species in our area are chunky, short-tailed, with ears nearly hidden in the dark brown, dense, flurry fur. The ey?s are placed to afford a wide range of vision, particularly overhead. This must be very useful, since vigilance is the price of life. No predator scorns the meadow mouse as an item of food. Tough little animals, they can endure severe extremes in living conditions. The fur is water resistant and they can even MAMMALS OF YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK 79 live where the runways are more than half submerged. They are found from the lowest level of the park nearly up to timberline. These are the path-cutters. Part the lush grass in the drier portions of the meadows, and a maze of runways will usually be revealed. The covered passage- ways reduce detection of the mice from above by predators. A system of under- ground tunnels may also be employed and, if the site is dry, the nesting cham- ber placed below ground. Often, the nest is made in a clump of grass or sedge, above the water level. Many other crea- tures, such as shrews and weasels, find the runs convenient highways and use them frequently. Activity is carried on through all sea- sons. In winter, tunnels are made in the snow and nests are often built beneath the surface, which insulates them from the colder giound below. In 1942, an in- dividual was seen traveling on the sur- face of the snow, then 3 2 x/z inches deep, near the Rangers' Club. Meadow mice are among the most fe- cund of mammals. They start breeding when less than two months old and pro- duce several broods, of half a dozen each, a year. Green food, grass in the main, is pre- ferred. Vegetable matter may provide 99 per cent of the diet. These prolific little creatures are part of the common currency which provides the carnivores with energy — energy which the grass gets from the sun, which the mouse gets from the grass, and which flesh-eaters cannot get in sufficient quantities directly from the plants because they are flesh eaters. Three kinds have been recorded in the park, but they will be undistinguishable to the layman. Two are found in mead- ows and grasslands, not far from water. The Sierra meadow mouse is freer run- ning, often using the ground under Pboto by Author Mouse runs in parted grass, Yosemite Valley. bushes and in thickets. Generally, it makes no runways, though poorly de- fined paths may be found. Unlike the others, which are active any time, this form is not abroad so much in the day- time. At the time of the Grinnell and Storer survey (1914-20), the house mouse was found about barns and dwellings in Yosemite Valley. The Yosemite Museum has a specimen of the Alexandrine or roof rat, taken in the valley in 1936. At this writing, I am unable to determine that Old World rats and mice, such as infest more "civilized" areas, are present in the park to a conspicuous degree. Men- tion has already been made of the dif- ferences between certain native forms and these species that were introduced from the Old World (see pp. 75-77). An Allen jumping mouse is a pretty From Kodachrome by M. V. Hood Allen jumping mouse. YOSEMITE NATURE NOTES thung. The bright tan sides and pure white underparts, contrasting strongly with the reddish dark brown area on the head and back, give a clean, attractive appearance. The long hind legs indicate the source of the bounding gait responsi- ble for the name. The exceptionally long tail serves as a "balance rod" to the ani- mal when it makts leaps. Jumping mice inhabit the cool, wet meadows and stream banks in the mid- dle elevations of the park. They swim readily. Being generally nocturnal, they are seen usually only by accident. Unlike most mice, they hibernate. The food consists of seeds, mainly those of grasses, though stems and leaves enter into their diet also. Tracks of yellow -haired porcupine. Mmd foot on left, front on right. Six-incli pencil. Yellow-haired porcupine. There is a fair chance of seeing the yellow-haired porcupine anywhere in Yosemite from the lowest reaches up to timberline. If you find one, there is no need for apprehension, provided you keep out of reach. The "porky" is not aggres- sive. Porcupines cannot shoot their quills. The black, barbed outer tips of the yel- low quills fasten themselves very easilv into an "enemy" on contact or may be driven in firmly by the action of the thick, muscular tail. "Stickers" are not the only body cov- ering. They replace part of the underfur, but may be kept so flat as not to show through the overhairs, except on the tail, unless the animal is excited or on the defensive. The fur is brownish black, with a coat cf yellow-tipped guard hairs. The underparts lack quills. Some predators take advantage of this last fact and manage to kill porcupines by flipping them over and attacking the under side. There are, however, plentv of cases on record where coyotes, wild- cats and others have been seen with a "faceful." The young possess hair and some spines at birth. While the yellow-haired porcupine is particularly fond of the inner bark of trees, it feeds on other tyoes of vegeta- tion, including fruits. In winter, an in- MAMMALS OF YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK 81 dividual may climb up a tree and remain there for days without coming down, dining on bark or buds when necessary. Much has been made of the damage to trees by porcupines, but, here in Yo- FLESH-EATERS From KoJachromt by G. GalUson Young mountain coyote near Badger Pass. Large, for a coyote, and "tame," the first impression given by a mountain coyote is that a German shepherd dog is at large in the park. The grizzled, gray- ish buff color also suggests a timber wolf. True wolves are much larger, of more powerful build, and have not been re- corded in our area. Coyotes are common here, ranging up to the very high country. In winter, they are more numerous in Yosemite Valley, presumably because deep snow reduces semite, they do not seriously affect the scenic values of the forest. They do, how- ever, give the Park Engineer a headache with their gnawing of the boards in cer- tain structures, such as pit privies! — Carnivores the availability of food up high. How- ever, some are at Tuolumne Meadows all winter. It is interesting to see coyotes hunting mice in the snow covered mead- ows of the valley. They seem to follow the mice by listening to them as they travel under the snow, then pouncing on them in cat-like fashion. In heavy snow years, coyotes take toll of the fawns or yearling deer, which cannot escape readily in the heavy going. Ordinarily, a healthy, adult deer is a match for a coyote, and has been seen successfully to ward off an attack from two or more, given open ground and good footing. The deer population main- tains itself successfully, notwithstanding the fact that the National Park Service gives equal protection to all predators. The usual food of the coyote consists of lesser game, such as rodents, various fruits, and carrion. The Sierra red fox is a rarity in the park, and few records come to our at- tention. One was seen at Tuolumne Mead- From castt by M. V. Hood Tracks of gray fox, left, and coyote, right. Six-inch pencils. 82 YOSEMITE NATURE NOTES .." " Gray f<>\. Note black-tipped tail. ows early in 1952. The gray fox is often mistaken for this species because of cer- tain reddish portions of the coat. The upperparts of the red fox are a yellowish red and it has a large, bushy tail with a white tip. This species produces the "cross," "sil- ver" and "black." phases associated with red foxes elsewhere. It is a denizen of the higher elevations and is found more com- monly east of the crest, outside the park. It is more numerous in Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Parks. In the middle and lower elevations of the park, the Townsend gray fox is quite likely to be seen. At night, the car headlights will often pick one up as it scurries away. The first impression may be that it is a cat, for the gray fox is slender and quick. Visitors seem prone to mistake the gray for a red fox, doubtlessly misled by the reddish color along the sides and base of the neck, together with the reddish flanks. In reality, the larger part of the animal is iron gray, thereby justifying the name. The black stripe along the top of the tail, ending in a black tip, gives con- clusive identification for the gray fox. At times, the hoarse, single bark will be clearly heard coming from a rocky hillside. It sounds like a sharp "rawk," and if one is not close enough to detect the hoarse qualitv, it may be mistakenly attributed to a "frog" or "night bird." Often, a fox will emit one bark, then move a short distance and give another. Like other grays, our form has been known to climb trees, especially if the trunk is sloping. They are not animals of the deep forest, however, preferring areas with shrubbery, where they hunt for the small rodents and vegetable mat- ter, particularly berries, which comprise their food. Garbage will not be spurned by them when available. All the bears now in Yosemite are the Sierra black bear, a subspecies of the American black bear. Several color phases are found, ranging from coal black to light brown or cinnamon. Black phase females often produce brown cubs, or one black and one brown cub, and brown females do likewise. Population estimates for the 1,189 square miles embracing Yosemite Na- tional Park vary between 300 and 400 bears. In summer, there are from 4 to 12 bears living on the valley floor. Under primitive conditions, the area would not be large enough to support over three or four individuals. The higher concentra- tion now present is probably due to the presence of thousands of people, who furnish considerable food through gar- bage and the larders of unwary campers. Little is known about the length of Stquoia Nal!. Isrk Pi'oto Gray fox pup. MAMMALS OF YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK 83 I ■ -'.i.- rr* SIERRA BLACK BEAR Museum of Vertebrate Zoology life of black bears in the wild. In cap- bage fed" bear was found to weigh 680 tivity, bears often live 2> years or more. pounds, which, according to all available According to old-time rangers, individ- data, is a record for California, ual bears in Yosemite are known to have In late summer and fall bears eat un- appeared for 15 consecutive years. Most usually heavily in order to build up females have their first young when heavy layers of fat necessary to carry three or four years old. Full growth is them through their winter "sleep." With not attained, however, until the sixth the first heavy storm of winter most or seventh year. bears go into hibernation. The den is usu- Live trapping of park bears is some- ally a sheltered cave among the rocks, times practiced in areas where bears are or a hollow tree. They remain until late prone to raid food supplies. This is ac- March or early April, depending on the complished in a humane manner through severity of the winter. They hibernate the use of a large, iron cylinder, mounted alone, except where cubs of the year oc- <>n trailer wheels. There is a trap door cupy the den with the mother, in one end, and the bear is enticed into As a rule, bears do not eat or drink the trap by bait. The trailer can then be during the hibernation period. The break- coupled to a car and transported to a ing down of the fatty tissues built up more remote spot in the park where the during the previous fall sustains life, bear is released/1' However, they have been observed out- In 193 8, a very large male bear was side their dens during mild winters. Sev- captured in the above manner. This "gar- eral observations recorded by Yosemite * The material on bears is largely an abridgement of "Bears of Yosemite" by M. E. Beatty, Yosemite Nature Notes 22 (I). January 1945. Mr. Beatty is now (June 1952) Chief Naturalist in Glacier National Park. 84 YOSEMITE NATURE NOTES Photo by Algerian The bear trap. naturalists have indicated that, at this latitude, bears sleep rather lightly during hibernation. * It has been generally supposed that hi- bernation was to enable the bears to escape the cold weather of the winter months. Observations in Yosemite indi- cate, however, that the availability of food during this period is the chief con- trolling factor. It is believed that late June is the time when most Yosemite bears mate. Cubs are, for the most part, born around the latter part of January, or early Feb- ruary, while the mother is in hiberna- tion. Cubs are generally born in pairs, although triplets or even solitary cubs .ire not uncommon. Rarely there are quadruplets. At birth, they are extremely tiny, weighing less than a pound. Their growth and development are at first very slow. In one case, it was 3 1> days before the cub opened its eyes. The nursing period lasts tor about six months, but the cubs will be with the mother their first year, usually hibernating in the same den with her, or in a den nearby. In Yosemite, new-born cubs seldom emerge with their mothers until late *The term "hibernation" is used loosely here. The temperature remains normal and rate of breathing April, and are rarely observed on the Valley floor before May or June. They are then about 14 inches long, a foot high, and weigh 10 or 12 pounds. They soon supplement their milk diet with other food and put on weight rapidlv. The mother bear is usually quite so- licitous of her cubs, fondling and plav- ing with them, and protecting them when in danger. They soon learn to scramble up a tree at the first warning sound from the mother. A mother has been observed cuffing her cubs because they did not go up a tree quickly enough after she had given them a warning of danger. Despite maternal care, however, as the cubs grow in size, they usually dwindle in number. Sickness and accidents take their toll. The male bear may try to kill or injure any cub that might come within his reach, including his own off- spring. The adult, female normally produces young every other year. Cubs hibernating with the mother the winter after their birth will generally be put "on their own" during the second summer when the mother again prepares to mate. January 28, 1950, a small cub was discovered by the rangers in the area be- hind Park Headquarters in Yosemite Valley. About 17 inches in length and 1 1 inches high at the shoulder, weighing between 8 and 10 pounds, it could not possibly have been born in the current winter. Yet the presence of small, sharp "milk teeth" characteristic of an animal less than a year old, precludes the idea that it was born in January 1949, the time of the previous cub crop. The logi- cal conclusion based on these facts is that it was born not earlier than August 1949, though the writer (H. C. P.) is unable to find any records of late births for the species in the literature. Although classed as carnivores (flesh- black bear is not a true hibernator since the body slows but little, among other factors. MAMMALS OF YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK 85 eaters), vegetable matter forms a large portion of the diet of bears. After first emerging from hibernation, adult bears eat sparingly, seemingly preferring grass and other herbage for a two or three weeks' period. As the season progresses, their appetites increase, and the diet changes. In Yosemite the food includes "almost anything": Insects, berries, ap- ples, pine nuts, acorns, grass, roots, fish, rodents, carrion, and garbage. In addition to the above, they show a decided liking for most types of food used by humans, as is attested by their raids on campers' food supplies. Several cases are known in Yosemite of bears stumbling onto fawns hidden in the tall grass of our meadows, which then, due to their inability to run, fall ready victims. Such instances are rare. New-born fawns are the largest animals killed and eaten by bears in Yosemite. Although essentially nocturnal by na- ture, some of the bears in Yosemite are active throughout the day. During the warmer parts of the day, the majority from cast by AI. V. HouJ Sierra black bear tracks. Front foot, left, hind foot, right. Six-inch pencil will bed down in some secluded spot from which they can quietly slip away if dis- turbed. They are good tree climbers, and climb both large and small trees apparently with equal ease, the main requirement being a tree of sufficient size to support the bear's weight, even though it "tee- ters." Bears habitually follow a given route, stepping each time in the footsteps pre- viously made. Trails have been found in Bear den in oak tree. Museum of Vertebrate Zoology 86 YOSEMITE NATURE NOTES Yosemite where they have stepped in the same tracks as their predecessors, until a series of alternating depressions nearly six inches in depth have developed. Other signs left by bears, besides foot- prints, consist of bear wallows, rotten logs and stumps ripped apart in the search for insects, turned-over rocks, droppings, and bear trees. These bear trees are of interest, par- ticularly when the trees happen to be quaking aspen, for they permanently re- cord the marks left by bears. Arriving at such a tree, the bear usually stops, and, standing erect on its hind legs, reaches up as high as possible, biting and scratching the tree. The reason for this action is not definitely known, although writers have suggested that it may be some type of "social register." The black bear, being the largest mam- mal in the park, has practically no nat- ural enemies. The largest bear is generally the boss of his domain until a still larger one comes along to displace him. A fe- male with cubs will sometimes stand against a larger bear, but, as a rule, the smaller bear gives ground without en- gaging in any serious battle. Bens have the greatest respect for skunks. On many occasions, our natural- ists have observed skunks repeatedly re- fuse to be outbluffed by a bear. Gener- ally, the bear gives way after a few half- hearted attempts to frighten away the skunk, and allows it to take over the remains of its unfinished meal. The name "Yoscmite" was derived from the Mi wok Indian word for grizzly bear. One of the earliest accounts of grizzlies in Yosemite is by "Grizzly Adams," who captured and trained griz- zly cubs for his traveling animal show. Adams visited here in the spring of 18 54, and, according to his diary, discovered a grizzly bear on the "headwaters of the Merced Rivet." The last grizzly known to have been killed in Yosemite was shot "about 1895" at Crescent Lake. The skin of this bear is now in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology at the University of California. InJiscri intm>; exterminated the Krt7.7l) in ( ilifornia. MAMMALS OF YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK 87 The last authentic record of the killing of a grizzly in the State of California was in August 1922, in Tulare County. The grizzly differs fom the black bear both in structure and habits. In general, grizzlies are larger than black bears. It is believed that the Yosemite subspecies, henshawi, was one of the smaller of the California grizzlies. The external outlines of the mature grizzly differ from the adult black bear in being higher in the shoulder region, giving the appearance of a hump behind the neck. The most reliable field distin- guishing character of the grizzly, how- ever, is the length of the front claws, averaging three or more inches, as com- pared with two inches for a large black bear. The claws of the grizzly are less curved, making it difficult for the adult to climb trees. It is unfortunate that they are no longer a part of our living wildlife. For them conservation came too late. THE PRESENT BEAR POLICY AND ITS PROBLEMS Some thirty years ago visitors to Yosemite Valley considered themselves fortunate to get even a fleeting glimpse of a bear. With the gradual increase in human visitors came a corresponding increase in the number of bears, attracted by the campers' foodstuffs and by enlarged garbage pits. Soon bears started raiding camps for food, and, after many visitor complaints, the National Park Service began a bear feeding program, the food consisting mainly of garbage scraps. The result was that the bears would remain throughout the day in the vicinity of the feeding pits which, due to the geography of the valley area, could not be located any great distance away from the main highways. The bears soon turned into beggars, stopping cars, and lining the roadside in hopes of receiving some tid-bits. To the visitor, the situation seemed ideal. Here was a chance to see bears and to feed them. Few appreciated that these were actually wild animals, with the ability to inflict serious damage to those coming too close to them. Accidents became more frequent until more than sixty hospital cases were recorded during one season. The service, in an attempt to reduce the num- ber of accidents and to restore normal conditions, then issued a new regulation prohibiting the visitor from feeding, teasing, or molesting the bears. Even this failed to solve entirely the problem. Nature was badly out of balance. The bears were no longer accustomed to shifting for them- selves. The valley was far too small to supply sufficient natural food for such a large popula- tion, and so the animals continued to raid camps and garbage cans and to hold up cars. Accidents from bear injuries were still too high. The policy under which our parks operate in respect to wildlife is to keep conditions as nearly natural as possible. The artificial feeding of bears was therefore not the solution to the problem. "Bear show" feeding in Yosemite Valley was discontinued in September 1 941). A total of 4 5 bears were trapped during the fall, and moved to outlying areas above the valley rim. This still left too many bears for such a small area. Since then, additional bears have been moved; particu- larly, those individuals that insisted on begging food along highways or were confirmed raiders of camps. No bears were released outside the park boundaries. Results in general are most encouraging, and accidents from bears have dropped to only a few cases a season. It is hoped that, through this policy, the bear situation will continue to show a steady improvement. Visitors common! v ask, "Where are the bears? And where can we go to see them?" It is diffi- cult to answer, as bears seldom remain at one fixed spot fur any great length of time. They are often encountered along the roads and trails, in the old apple orchards, or in the campgrounds, liears on trails faithfully follow every zig and zag, jnd the hiker had best step off the trail, giving up the right-of-way. Campers usually have no difficulty seeing bears, particularly, il they have such odorous foods as ham or bacon in their larders. Foodstuffs should be protected by caching in a box or sack and suspending with a rope between two trees, or from a horizontal limb. Make sure the food supply is high enough above the ground so that a bear will be unable to reach it, and far enough away from the tree trunk that the bear can't reach it by (limbing. Bears may break into cars in search of food they can smell there. Raiding bears can usually be frightened away by loud noises and flashlight beams. It should be remembered, however, that a bear can both out- run and outclimb a human, and that loss of food is preferable to risking serious injuries through too persistent defense of property. At times, it is possible for the rangers and naturalists to advise visitors as to locations where bears have been recently observed. It is believed that the visitor will get a far greater thrill out of seeing a bear in natuiai surroundings than in seeing dozens of bears feeding on garbage. It is dangerous and unlawful to feed, tease, or molest bears in a national pork. 88 YOSEMITE NATURE NOTES California ring-tailed cat Small wonder that the naturalists are often asked to identify the California ring-tailed cat. Seen at night in the headlight beam, the long, bushy, ringed tail and the short legs preclude its being a cat; the squirrel-sized body rules out the raccoon; the head is fox-like. In the dark, the body seems gray, but it is really a light brown. Despite the name, it is not closely related to a cat. It is com- monly found at the lower elevations. Ringtails are entirely nocturnal, seek- ing their food, rats and mice, at night. They enter buildings, including the attics Drawing by C. P. of Yosemite homes, in this search. Nuts, fruits, and other sweets are also accept- able to these lovely creatures, according to hotel guests who sometimes feed them. Though uncommon, save in the lower country, the Coliiornia coon (or "rac- coon," to be affected) is occasionally ob- served in Yosemite Valley. It is seen more frequently at Wawona and South Entrance (5,130 ft.). Nocturnal, like the ring-tailed cat, coons are often confused with them. The tail of the coon is much shorter, propor- tionately, round rather than flattened, From cttt by M. V. Hood from est! by M. V H» i Tracks of ring-tailed cat. Six-inch pencil. Tracks of coon. Front foot, left, hind foot, right. Six-inch pencil. MAMMALS OF YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK 89 From "Mammals of Lake Tahoe" by Robert T. Orr. Courtesy of publisher, California Academy of Sciences. CALIFORNIA COON and the rings go entirely around it. The ringtail lacks the black mask, and is a much smaller animal. Contrary to a popular idea, it is not necessary for coons to wash their food before they eat it. While never without some water near by, it is surprising how seeps, or even dribbles, are sufficient for them during the summer drouth. Favor- ite foods are fish, birds, small mammals, carrion, insects, vegetables, fruits, and acorns. In fact, they will eat "almost anything." The Sierra least weasel is but 8 or 9 inches in length, including the short tail. It can go down a mouse burrow, and undoubtedly does, for mice are one of the chief foods. Related to the ermine of the Old World, in Yosemite, its upperparts change from brown in summer to white in win- ter. The range is from the red fir forest above the rim of the Valley on up to the rock slides it timberline. Chickaree-sized, the mountain wea- sel has a tail that comprises about half the total length of the animal. In sum- mer, the upper parts are brown, the un- derparts yellowish or orange. In Yosem- ite, the winter coat is white overall except for the blackish tip of the tail. Tough, lithe and wiry, weasels can get around into all sorts of places. Found throughout the middle eleva- tions of the park, mountain weasels are active the year around, day or night. They have been seen between the Yo- semite Museum and the Administration Building a number of times. The mead- ows near Swinging Bridge and Sentinel Bridge are also well-known localities. The double-distilled essence of cour- age, mountain weasels will kill anything that they can overcome. Their predomi- nant food is small mammals. Thoto by Hood Weasel in winter coat. 90 YOSEMITE NATURE NOTES «5S» 'Mtmnull of I tike Tabor" by Robert I . Orr. Courtesy of publisher, California Academy of Scieneei. MINK The Pacific mink is considered a rare furbearer in Yosemice. It is sometimes found, in suitable territory, at the lower elevations. It is a very dark brown, wea- sel-like animal, but larger than our wea- sels and lacking the light uhderparts displayed by the latter in summer. In winter, our weasels are white. The mar- ten, often mistaken for a mink, has a fox-like face, prominent ears, and an orangy or yellowish throat. Minks are generally found in or near water. They are good swimmers, so it is not surprising that they feed on fish and frogs. Mice, rabbits and birds are also taken. 133 From ejit by M. V. Huol Tracks of mink, superimposed. Six-inch pencil. The Sierra pine marten ranges from the red fir belt up to timberline. The light brown body is about the size of that of a half-grown cat. The fox-like face and the throat patch will separate it from others of the weasel family. Martens are active day or night, sum- mer and winter. Though forest animals, they are found in Yosemite around high country rockslides and rocky meadows in summer. They eat small rodents and such birds as they can catch. In winter, when small rodents are un- der deep snow, martens revert to the for- ests. There rhey can travel through the trees with squirrel-like facility. Other tree-dwellers, such as the chickaree, are then caught and eaten. Like others of the weasel family, mar- tens have scent glands, though the odor is more musky. Only skunks can throw theirs. I believe that the introduction of such scents around the premises of man causes the mouse population to decline noticeably. Nowhere common, the fisher is rare in Yosemite. About 3 to 3 ' \ feet long, it is a blackish brown with a grizzled effect on the back of the head, shoulders. MAMMALS OF YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK 91 Photo by Anderson SIERRA PINE MARTEN and along the sides. Often, there is an irregular white spot on the chest. It ranges from the red fir belt on up to the higher country. Active day or night, summer and win- ter, the fisher is well adapted for getting prey in trees. It catches squirrels and even pine martens. It successfully kills porcupines. Other rodents, and, probably, some birds are also taken for food, along with occasional vegetable matter. There are few sight records of the southern wolverine, but, occasionally, tracks are reported in the Yosemite high country. It is terrier-sized, dark brown, with a light band across the forehead, along the sides and across the rump. The back is notably arched, the tail short and From "Mammals of Lake Tahoe" by Robert T. Orr. Courtesy of publisher, California Academy of Sciences. FISHER 92 YOSEMITE NATURE NOTES StqnoU Ntll. Park Photo California badger the feet well-clawed. It can emit a vile stench. The footprint is about 5 x/2 inches long, often showing all five toes. The hind portion is divided, rather than a single triangle, unlike any other Yosemite car- nivore track that size. The wolverine has been known to drive away the mountain lion, coyote and bear from their kills. Their food in- cludes carrion, rodents and larger prey. Limited now to a few spots in the Rock- ies and the Sierra, it is hoped that this interesting member of the native fauna will survive with the protection afforded by the national parks. Watch for the California badger in the open country of the higher elevations. There it finds a supply of ground squir- rels and other rodents available for food, where the digging is easy. This grizzled tan animal is admirably adapted for go- ing underground, with very strong claws and powerful muscles. When waddling along, it looks more like a turtle, but the white streak along the center of the head and neck are quite striking. The scent emitted by a badger is not especially virulent. A badger digging out a ground squir- rel's nest is interesting to watch. It is not advisable to take liberties with one, for they can inflict severe wounds with their powerful jaws. Hood California striped skunk. From cut by M. V. HooJ Badger tracks. Front foot, left, hind, right. Skunks are commoner in lower coun- try, but do live in the park. Despite the fame of their "chemical warfare," there is no need for fear if you encounter one. The musk is not thrown unless the ani- mal has been startled, or after great prov- ocation. Let him go his way and he'll do you no harm. Warning of defense usually comes in this sequence: First, elevation of the tail; next, stamping the front feet on the ground; followed by standing up on the "hands" (in the case of the spotted skunk). The scent can be thrown ac- curately for about a dozen feet. MAMMALS OF YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK 93 From "Miwmtli of Lake Taboe" by Robert T. Orr. Courtesy of publisher, California Academy of Sciences. SPOTTED SKUNK Two sorts are in Yosemite, the north- ern California striped skunk and the California spotted skunk (see illustra- tions). The former is about the size of a cat, the latter half that or less. The spotted skunk is also known as "civet cat," but, like "polecat," that name belongs to an Old World mammal. There is no special tendency toward hy- drophobia in this species. Both species are mainly nocturnal and eat "anything." Insects, mammals, car- rion and fruit ar^ largely the diet. It is doubtful that they go into profound hi- bernation in this climate. Despite their chemical defense, skunks are caught and eaten by some predators. Fishers and Pacific horned owls, among others, often take them. The California river otter is dark brown in color and runs from }l/2 to 4 feet in length. Otters are well suited to life in the water, with all four feet webbed and the body streamlined. They swim well enough to catch fish and frogs for food. On land, they have a "loping" gait, arching the body greatly. Uncommon, otters may appear at lakes in the northwest part of the park. They are usually quite shy. They often make slides in mud or snow, leading to the From cast by M. V. Hood fTOm ca,t yy m. v. Hood Tracks of Cottontail Rabbit (above) are Tracks of striped ikunk. Hind foot on left, frequently mistaken for spotted skunk. front, right. Six-inch pencil. 94 YOSEMITE NATURE NOTES From "Mamm.ils of lake 7 \ihnr" /■> Robert T. Orr. CoHTltly of publisher, California Academy of Sciences. CALIFORNIA RIVER OTTER water, and seem to enjoy themselves thor- oughly on these "chutes." There are possibly 12 California mountain lions in Yosemite National Park. This need give little alarm to the visitor. Never in park history has one molested a human. Only by good fortune are you likely to see one, because they habitually avoid people. They have been seen along the Wawona Road, in Yo- semite Valley, and near Mather. Some- times tracks are found near Mirror Lake. A mountain lion is 6 to 8 feet long, tawny, or grayish brown, with a long, rope-like tail. Kittens are spotted and may retain some evidence of this until six months old. The tail is longer than that of young wildcats. The range in the park is mainly that of the deer. Since deer drop into the country outside the park in winter, lions are often killed there. Therefore, the number in the park is not likely to increase. Besides deer, mountain lions feed on lesser animals. California wildcats are far from un- common in Yosemite. They are from 2 l/z PIC MATTJON From "Mammals of Lake Taboe" by Robert T. Orr. Courtesy of publisher, Cal.fornia Academy of Sciemes. CALIFORNIA MOUNTAIN LION MAMMALS OF YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK 95 From Kodacbrome by Anderson California wildcat kitten to 3 feet in total length, including the very short tail which gives rise to an- other name, "bobcat." In summer, the general color is tannish brown, but in winter it is much more grayish. They can easily climb trees, but rocky situations seem to be preferred for dens. However, wildcats have been seen in the open meadows of Yosemite Valley hunt- a fifu^oit aflT ■ -^ jU * ^ m v*-7 " -TV \ c^ ^HBB^s^T^' ^fl From Kodacbrome b\ Anderson California wildcat ing rodents. They often hunt in the day- time, relatively unafraid of man. The chief food seems to be medium- sized to small mammals and birds, but they also have been known to attack deer, especially when the snow is deep. On at least one occasion, a deer put to flight an attacking wildcat in Yosemite Valley. Fawns are taken very readily, when found. From casts by M. V. Hood Tracks of California wildcat, left, and California mountain lion, right. Six-inch pencils. 96 YOSEMITE NATURE NOTES Museum of Vertebrate Zoology DOE WITH NEWBORN TWIN FAWNS EVEN-TOED, HOOFED MAMMALS — Artiodactyls A delight to the visitor in Yosemite are the "tame" deer. These animals are not domesticated; they are merely unafraid of man. This concentration of deer in the val- ley is attributed to "handouts" provided by the increasing number of visitors in the past 3 5 years. This has probably led the animals to give up the habit of leav- ing the Valley for the regular wintering grounds each year. Association of humans with food, together with no hunting, accounts for the misleading appearance of tameness. Until about 1915, deer did not winter in the Valley, but moved out to the west- ern feeding grounds below the park line just as deer from the "wilder" parts of the park now do. Yosemite National Park is a meeting ground for three subspecies — the Rocky Mountain mule, California mule, and Columbian Black-tailed Deer J Rocky Mountain Deer California Mule Deer Tails of Yosemite forms of deer. MAMMALS OF YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK 97 Columbian black-tailed deer. It is possible to find animals that display some characteristics of each or mixtures of any two. In sections lying near the nor- mal range of black-tailed and Rocky Mountain mule deer, individuals appear clearly recognizable as to subspecies. For instance, the so-called "granite bucks" of the very high country may usually be identified as of the Rocky Mountain va- riety. In Yosemite, it is not always pos- sible to rely on field identification of deer. Joseph S. Dixon, after over thirty years of observation, felt certain that black-tailed deer always elevate the tail vertically when frightened, while mule deer always hold it below the horizontal under those conditions. He further based identifications on the length of the meta- tarsal gland, which is located on the hind foot above the toes and below the hock or heel. It is at least 5 inches long on mule deer and but slightly over 3 inches on blacktails. This determination can not always be used on certain hybrids. Because of characteristics which pre- dominate in most of them, we usually refer to the deer of Yosemite Valley as California mule deer, although certain individuals may show some features of the other two forms. Since these are so easily approached, much information about the habits of the California mule Photo by R. G. Beidlem, Buck with growing antlers "in the velvet." From Koiachrome by Beatly Buck with one antler shed. Note the scar. deer is available, thanks to patient studies by Dixon, Russell and others. Most of what appears here is drawn from their work. I have known men to come to the Yosemite Museum and ask us to settle a bet as to whether deer actually shed their antlers! They do shed them, nor- mally once a year. Deer do not have horns in the true sense of the word. Horns, in most ani- mals that have them, are permanent, not shed seasonally, and are hollow with a bony core. The antlers of deer are solid, bony structures grown anew each year. They should never be referred to as "horns." A common misbelief is that the age of bucks (normal does never have antlers) can be told from the number of "points" on one antler. Four points, exclusive of any "eyeguards" is the regular number for a buck in the height of physical de- velopment. This is ordinarily attained at the age of four years, but will also continue for several seasons, perhaps un- til the age of eight. After the years of greatest vigor, the number of points is reduced from year to year until there may be three, two, or one. Thus it is pos- sible for a twelve-year-old buck to carry antlers consisting of only one large spike each! 98 YOSEMITE NATURE NOTES Hopelessly locked antlers brings lingering death to bucks. As worked out by Dixon, the follow- ing sequence of development ordinarily takes place in the antlers of Yoscmite deer: Yearling single spike or "forked horn." Two year old- forked or rarely, three point. Three year old three pointer, rarely "forked horn." Four to eight year old four pointer. Females with antlers have been known and certain bucks never lose the velvet from their antlers (called "stags" by hunters). When Droperly examined, such specimens have proven to be sexually ab- normal. It is believed that the male sex hormone governs the production of ant- lers, but the whole story is not yet known, "Old Horny" was a buck famous in Yosemite Valley in the 1920's. He pos- sessed a third short antler growing mid- way between his eyes and his nostrils. The extra antler was 2 ' 4 inches high, had a basal diameter of one inch, and de- veloped tw, prongs. Later, another "forked horn" buck with a third antler was discovered in Yosemite Valley. He was promptly dubbed "Unicorn Junior"! The antlers may be shed as early as January and from two to four weeks later, new ones start to grow. The aver- age season for dropping falls in March with new growth started in May. The new, growing antlers are cov- ered with velvety skin, very rich in nerve and blood supply. Until growth is nearly complete, this "velvet" is quite sensitive. It is not safe to touch it, for the buck might strike out with sharp hoofs, with serious injury to the person taking that liberty. By Jul\, the first forking of the new antlers has been achieved. Mid-Septem- ber usually finds the growth completed. The bucks then "horn" brush and small trees to remove the dead velvet, now mainly dead tissue. In October or November, the rutting, or mating season begins. The necks of the bucks become quite swollen and they are inclined to try out their armament against rivals. Once they have made contact, the fight is usually a "shoving bout," and when one has been forced to his knees a few times he goes away. Cases are known where the antlers of the adversaries became permanently in- terlocked, which ended in death for both. Serious casualties are quite rare, the match seeming merely to determine which buck can drive the other away. The dominant buck will follow a doe for several days, much of the time with his head thrust stiffly out before him. This behavior culminates in the actual mating, whereupon he selects another doe and repeats the "running" process. Mating season lasts well into Januan and may extend into February. Rutting season over, the bigger bucks lose their antagonism toward each other. From cut />> M Deer tracks. Left, fawn; center, very soft mud; right, adult. Young fawn hidden in meadow. Museum of Vertebrate Zoology Among younger bucks, antagonism may be displayed at any season. In Yosemite, most fawns are born in July, but they may arrive as early as June or as late as August. About a quar- ter of them are twins; very rarely trip- lets, or even quadruplets, may be born. For the first week of life, the fawn lies hidden in the tall grass where its spotted pattern blends well, and the mother returns to it for nursing. The young will not follow its mother in daytime during the first month, but evidence from tracks shows that it may accompany her to water at night after it is six days old. These habits work for protection. When a lone fawn is found curled up, this does not mean that it has been orphaned; the mother is merely away feeding. Please help us to pass this infor- mation on. Each summer, several fawns are brought in to the rangers and the naturalists by misguided visitors who believe they have found an orphan. The thing to do is to return the ani- mal to where it was found so the doe can reclaim it. Unfortunately, the find- ers can seldom identify the spot, and we are then faced with a problem. Rear- ing a baby deer requires two cases of canned milk a month, for which the National Park Service has no funds. The responsibility then devolves upon the em- ployee and constitutes a real financial burden, unfairly imposed. No one who has seen an innocent looking little fawn can bring himself to let it starve. Even though the fawn may be reared there is another problem. We then have a half-domesticated animal scarcely suit- able in a wilderness area such as a na- tional park. Furthermore, when it reaches maturity, especially if a male, it becomes dangerous to little children, often charg- ing them. If z fawn is found in its resting place, // should be left strictly alone. During the first week it apparently has no odor, which means that the predators are un- likely to discover and destroy it. If a human touches the fawn, of course it is no longer scentless. Even the trail left by persons walking too close to the spot might also lead a curious coyote, moun- tain lion, wildcat, or bear to the fawn. Some does are very zealous in the pro- tection of their young and have inflicted severe injuries upon people by charging them unexpectedly. The spotted coat of fawns begins to disappear in August. By the end of September, they are clothed in gray, simi- lar to the color of the adults, which are predominantly blue-gray in winter and reddish in summer. The Yosemite Valley herd of listless, unafraid deer which do not leave in the winter represent probably less than one per cent of those in the entire park (1189 square miles). In the autumn, migration of deer from higher to lower country begins. The first big snow storm may initiate this movement, or it may anticipate bad weather. If there is a considerable mod- eration in weather, some of the deer move back into the park until forced 100 YOSEMITE NATURE NOTES Pbolo by Hsrwell Mummified bighorn on the Mt. Lyell Glacier. to leave because of the deep snow cov- ering food and making defense against predators difficult or impossible. The chief enemy of deer is the moun- tain lion. A lion is said to average a kill of 5 0 deer a year. Since we probably have not more than a dozen lions, the annual loss from this source would not be more than 600 deer out of the thou- sands that are in the park. The animals taken are usually those most susceptible to attack, the old, the crippled, and the less alert. The predators thus help keep the deer herds "thrifty," except in Yo- semite Vallev where lions seldom come. Coyotes, wildcats, and bears also prey on deer, though we have little evidence to prove that they are serious enemies. Coyotes and wildcats will do the most damage when there is extremely heavy or crusted snow, making escape difficult for the deer. Bears may kill a weak or sickly deer, but, as noted above, a spot- ted fawn is the largest native animal they normally kill for food. All three will clean up the remains of a deer killed by other predators when they can find such a "banquet." Golden eagles attack spotted fawns when they can find them away from cover. If the doc is present, she may succeed in protecting her young by standing directly over them. At the close approach of the bird, the mother may attempt to strike at it with the forefeet. According to Russell, in 1924 and 192 J, some 22,000 deer were slaughtered because of the foot and mouth disease epidemic which had affected certain Sier- ran deer. Those thus removed normally had resorted to the northern part of the park in summer, so for some years after- ward dter were scarce in that region. For several seasons a certain number of surplus animals in the valley were cap- tured and released in the sparsely popu- lated area. Whether due to this experi- ment or to natural influx, the northern deer herd is now considered to contain normal numbers. Ordinarily, California mule deer eat parts of woody plants, such as leaves, twigs and fruits. However, at certain seasons green grass may form 90 per cent of the food. More than 200 kinds of food have been taken by the different races of mule deer in California. They range in variety from pine needles to acorns. Nowhere in the natural diet of deer is anything akin to the food offered to them by park visitors. Feeding deer bread, candy and other human foods causes stomach disease which makes the ani- mals sick and may cause their death. Pampering deer which are regularly fed by hand is dangerous. Several people, including rhildren, have been seriously hurt in national parks by the sharp hoovec of does or the antlers of bucks. It is dangerous and unlawful to feed the deer. Sierra bighorns once lived in the higher parts of what is now Yosemite National P.uk. However, the park was created too late (1890) to save enough of the "mountain sheep" from the lar- MAMMALS OF YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK 101 ders of the hunter, sheepherder and miner. They are now all gone. Grinnell and Storer give the 1870's as the latest period when bighorns were here, except for stragglers. A few scat- tered records exist as late as the turn of the century. Mountaineers still find horn cases and skulls on the ridges and peaks of the crest. Such locality records are carefully kept at the Yosemite Museum, for they will help to reconstruct the former range of the bighorn. Accordingly, persons finding skull or horns in the park are requested to bring them to the Yosem- ite Museum. Careful note should be made as to the exact location. Mark it on a topographic map if possible. Even with- out the specimen, an accurate record of the locality will be of service. The Yosemite Museum has on display the mummified body of a bighorn found on the surface of the east lobe of the Mt. Lyell glacier in 193 3. Evidence in- dicates that it fell into the bergschrund at the head of the glacier and was car- ried in the ice for several centuries until it melted out, 1,936 feet away. Bighorns still live in the high coun- try of Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Parks. It is to be hoped that protection there will continue to be successful so that they will always be a living part of the Sierran fauna. HOW TO ENJOY THE MAMMALS OF THE PARK Any reader who has come this far in our account must be interested in ob- serving the mammals described. A num- ber of them can be seen and enjoyed by the visitor who seeks them in a proper fashion. Animals that have never known trap or gun are relatively un- afraid of humans. For the bighorn, pro- tection came too late. Some forms are quite rare. Many are difficult to identify in the field. Others are abroad mainly at night. Still others are rarely surprised above ground. However, cultivating the "seeing eye," being alert as you travel the roads and trails, will prove reward- ing. A little, furry ball scurries across the road in front of the car. Is it a meadow mouse, or a whitefoot? Perhaps a shrew? By process of elimination, often a de- termination can be made. At night, a larger mammal may dash across the road, then stop and look back. At such times a spotlight or flashlight will be of great value, if the car can safely be stopped (no close following car, a clear road, not on a curve) and backed up in time. Certain mammals, notably coyotes, may get off the road before the car comes along, and uatch from along the shoul- der. Whether travelling by car or on the trail, school yourself to note the slight- est sign of movement in the country about you. Travel on the trails as quietly as possible. For a rest, or lunch, select an inconspicuous spot and be quiet. If a mammal is running away, oft- times it can be stopped or slowed by a sharp whistle or loud smacking of the lips. You may often have a better look at an animal that you have discovered at work, if you continue casually on your course right past it, as though you have no intentions of stopping or mo- lesting it. If you intend to take a photograph, get your camera set when well away from the spot, then, as you walk past, take the picture, almost without inter- rupting your course. There is also the obvious pleasure in simply watching with stony patience a den or burrow that you know is occupied until the owner comes forth. To see the most mammals, get away from people. For example, in Yosemite % 102 YOSEMITE NATURE NOTES Valley, chances are better if you travel the 34 miles of trail than if you stick to the roads. At night, the roads at the extreme upper and lower ends of the Valley are richer "hunting" than the pop- ulous central portion, except perhaps in winter. The sounds made by mammals can add to the pleasure of your visit. The calls of the chickaree, the squeaking of bats overhead, the primeval howls of coyotes will give a thrill to those who have come to the park for a change from an urban environment. Great satisfaction can also be gained from tracks and other signs, even if their makers are never observed. Part the grass in the meadows and look for runways of small mammals. To find the most signs, go on the trails and keep an eye to the ground. To interpret every sign found requires years of experience and profound knowledge, but certain ele- mentary points will help to understand a few things about mammalian signatures: 1. Know what species belong to the region, what the possibilities are. 2. Learn some basic track patterns. Mr. Anderson's photo in the margin demonstrates fundamental squirrel pat- tern: large hind feet. Hind feet show direction of travel. This squirrel went from the bottom to the top. When the animal hurries, it swings hind feet past the front, plants them, then takes off with the front ones, and so on. Rabbit resembles squirrel, except that the lat- ter, being a tree climber, travels with front feet nearly parallel, while the bunny, mainly terrestrial, a "runner," staggers the front paws. Some mammals "register," nearly or exactly superimposing hind foot marks on those of front, as in the case of coy- ote, wildcat, or fox: These are also "singlefooters," making of in pairs alongside each other, as do the an almost straight line of tracks instead bounding weasels, by and large: cut by M. V. Hood Rabbit tracks. Direction of travel, to the right. Six-inch pencil. White-footed mice do this. Usually they leave a tail mark, as the weasels sometimes do in snow. Short tail of mead- ow mouse does not usually show, likewise the shrews, unless snow is proportionately deep. Detailed knowledge must come later, with study and practice. 3. Detail revealed in a track depends on condition of ground or snow. Do not expect always to find every hair and toenail in tracks as pictured in books. Mrs. Hood's excellent casts represent MAMMALS OF YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK 103 Vhoto by Anderson White-footed mouse tracks. Note center track where it dragged one foot. many hours of searching during a num- ber of seasons. 4. Always examine a muddy place for tracks, but if mud is soft, tracks larger than average, maybe huge. Wet, sandy beach good tracking too. If track in snow is old, it will melt out to a larger size; wildcat's print becoming the size of that of mountain lion. In many of our pic- tures of casts, a six-inch lead pencil has been added to aid in judging the size of tracks. 5. Remember to practice when you go back home. The dog provides a primer for trailing a coyote; the house cat for a wildcat. Mrs. Hood's hobby of making plaster casts is intriguing; consult the public library, practice on domestic animal tracks. 6. Scats, or droppings, tell much about mammals. Tdea not revolting, if you take a common sense approach, particu- larly in the Sierra, where normally dry climate causes scats soon to become des- sicated and innocuous. Many times you can tell at a glance something interest- ing about an animal's food habits. Iden- tification cannot be discussed here. Con- sult the old master, Seton. 7. Watch for tracks, scats and other signs at likely natural shelters, such as under rocks, holes in the earth or trees. Sometimes a few hairs attached where rubbed off the owner, as it used entrance. 8. Kitchen middens, or piles of refuse left after mammal has dined, will give clue to presence of certain species and their food habits, as will food stores, such as cones laid up alongside log by chick- arees. 9. If you are a camper, smooth out a dusty spot near your camp before you go to bed; sprinkle it, if you wish. Then look the next morning to see "who" has been around. If it looks as though a man had walked past barefooted, Lady, that was a bear! t I From "Mammals of Lake Tahoe" by Robert T. Orr. Courtesy of publisher, California Academy of Sciences. 104 YOSEMITE NATURE NOTES CHECKLIST OF THE MAMMALS OF YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK Note: The arrangement and nomenclature of orders, families, and genera arc according to Simpson's classification of I'M 5 (B ull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. (N. Y.), Vol. 8$). Order INSECTIVORA— M [oles and Shrews Family ( .onus Species Subspecies Common Name SORICIDAE Sorcx lyelll Mount Lyell Shrew Snl.X Irmrbridgei rnaripo806 Yosemite Shrew S.ili'X i ograru amoenus Sierra Wandering Shrew Sorcx iiIim urns obii urus Dusky Shrew Norrv palustris navigator Mountain Water Shrew TALPIDAE Si apanm latimanus sericatus Yosemite Mole Order CHIROPTERA— Bats VESPERTILIONIDAE Myotis furi/ngus i hi issima Yellowstone Little Brown Bat Myotis ximuiiiensis lot iiioi/is Tejon Bat ^Unll- evotis (Tolls Little Long-eared Bat Myotis tnysanodes Fringed Bat Myotis volana langicrut Long-legged Bat Myotis californicus californicus Little California Bat Myotis suoulatus melanorhinus Black-nosed Bat Piptstrelius nesperus merriaml Merriam Canyon Bat / 'ptesicus fuscus Iii-i nardinus San Bernardino Brown Bat Lasiurus i inereu s i inereus Hoary Bat JEttderma niiiriiliiliim Spotted Bat . \ntrOZOIIS pattiaus ;m/i ilicus Pacific Pallid Bat MOLOSSIDAE 1 unto/is pnoliv californicus California Mastiff Bat / aaarida mexioana niexii ana Mexican Free-tailed Bat OCHOTONIDAE LEPORIDAE Order LAGOMORPHA— Rabbits and their allies Ochotona princeps muiri Yosemite Cony or Pika Lepus loii-risencli toumsendi White-tailed Jackrabbit Lepus ca/i/ornicus californicus Black-tailed Jackrabbit Sylfilagus baenmani mariposae Mariposa Brush Rabbit Order RODENTIA — Rodents or gnawing mammals Sierra Mountain Beaver California Gray Squirrel Sierra Chickaree Southern Sierra Marmot Belding Ground Squirrel Sierra Ground Squirrel Sierra Golden-mantled Ground Squirrel Alpine Chipmunk Tahoe Chipmunk Allen Chipmunk Long-eared Chipmunk Merriam Chipmunk Sierra Flying Squirrel Sierra Pocket Gopher Digger Pine Pocket Gopher Yosemite Pocket Gopher Allen Pocket Mouse Golden Beaver Long-tailed Harvest Mouse Gambel White-iooted Mouse Boyle White-footed Mouse Gilbert White-footed Mouse Streator Wood Rat Bushy-tailed Wood Rat Sierra Lemming Mouse Yosemite Meadow Mouse Mariposa Meadow Mouse Sierra Meadow Mouse Roof or Alexandrine Rat House Mouse Allen Jumping Mouse Yellow-haired Porcupine APLODONTIDAE Aplodonlia rufa californica SCIURIDAE Sciurus griseus griseus Tamiasciurus aougtasi albolimbatus Mannota flaviventer sierrae Citellus heldingi betatngi Cilellus heecneyi sierrae ( 'iteltus lateralis cbrysodeirus /'.ulcinu'as aipinus / 'utamias speciosus I rater Eutamias townsendi senex 1 utamias (puulrimaculatus Eutamias merriami merriami ( riaucomys saorinus liiMiriis GEOMYIDAE / nomomys morificola mi in lie old / /icmiomys hottae llll'U'Cl / /iiiiimmys bottae (iii'd/ince HETEROMYIDAE Perognatnus californicus a is par CASTORIDAE Castor canadensis suoauratus CRICETIDAE Reitnroaontomys megatotis longicaudus Peromyscus maniculatus gambeli Peromyscus Doytei boylel Peromyscus truei ailberli Neotama fuscipes streatori Sintoma cinerea acraia Pheruu omyi Intermedius • eisus Microtus montanus yosemite Mi( rotus culi/ornicus rmiriposae M« rotus longicouaus sierrae MURIDAE Rattua rattus alexandrinus Mus muscutus ZAPODIDAE Zapus piu ificus aileni F.RETHIZONTIDAE Erctnizon dorsalum eptxanthum MAMMALS OF YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK 105 CANIDAE (